### 1973 USDAForestServiceGeneralTechnicalReportPNW-10



# ANANNOTATEDBIBLIOGRAPHY OFTHEEFFECT

SOFLOGGING ONFISHOFTHEWESTERN UNITEDSTATESANDCANADA

DaveR
.Gibbons ErnestO
.Salo

Fores tService Portland,Oregon PacificNorthwestForestandRangeExperimentStation U.S

.DepartmentofAgriculture 

### This file was created by scanning the printed publication.Text errorsidentified by the software have been corrected; however, some errors may remain.

### Compilers of 

### this bibliography: Dave R. Gibbons, Predoctoral Research Associate, and Ernest 0. 

### Salo, Professor, Fisheries Research Institute, College 

### of Fisheries, University 

### of Washington, Seattle.

Publicationmade possible by 

### a grant from the Forest Service, U.S. 

### Department of Agriculture, to the Fisheries Research Institute, University of Washington, Seattle.



### ABSTRACT This bibliography is an annotation of the scientific and nonscientific literature published on the effects 

### of logging on fish and aquatic habitat of the Western United States and Canada. 

### It includes 278 

### annotations 

### and 317 total references. Subject areas include erosion and sedimentation, water quality, related influences upon salmonids,multiple logging effects, alteration of streamflow, stream protection, multiple

-use management, streamside vegetation, stream improvement, and descriptions 

### of studies 

### on effects 

### of logging. A 

### review 

### of the literature, a narrative on the state of the art, and 

### a list 

### of research needs determined 

### by questionnaires 

### are includedb

This bibliography includes reports involving pesticides published by inany agencies. Recornendation for use of these pesticides is not implied, 

### I nor that the uses discussed have been registered. must be registered by appropriate State and/or Federal agencies before they can be recommended. All uses of pesticides

### CONTENTS A REVIEW OF 

### THE LITERATURE ON LOGGIIIG AIlD 

### FISHERIES

-- A STATE;MENT ON TIE STATE OF THE 

### ART * * * * * * * * * *

# - * * * * 1 Introduction 

# . . . . . 1 Review of the Literature 

# . . . 1
Sources of Literature 

# . 

# . . 

# .. . 

# . 2 Analysis of Literature 

# . ..

# . 

# . 4 LiteratureSummary, 

# .. 

# . . 5 I

Sedimentation 

# . 

# . . 

# . 5 WaterQuality 

# . ,, 

# ....

# .. 8 Streamflow 

# .. 

# . 11 Environmental Requirements of Salnonids Related to Logging 

# . 11 Ecological Effects 

# . 

# . 12 Streamside Vegetation 

# . 

# . b 

# . 12 Watershed Management and Stream Protection 

# . 13 Stream Improvement 

# . 14 Summary of Research Needs as Uetermined from the Literature Survey 

# . . 

# . 14 Analysis 

### of the Workshop of November 1972 16 Summary of the Horkshop 

# . 

# .. . 20 Summary 

# . . . .

# .. . . 21 ANNOTATED 

### BIBLIOGRAPHY w w 22 Introduction. b .) 22 Erosion and Sedimentation 

# . . e 23 Streamside Vegetation 

# . . . . 

# . 47 

### Water Quality
I 

# . . . 51 Alteration of Streamflow 

# . 

# . .

# . . 68 Descriptions of Effects of Logging Studies 

# . 79 Related Salmonid Information 

# . . . 

# . 

# . . e 84 Multiple Logging Effects 

# . . . b 

# . 101 Stream Protection 

# . . . 

# . 116 Stream Improvement 

# .. . 

# . 122 Multiple

-use Xanagement 

# ...

# - . . . 127 Additional References iJot Annotated 

# . 

# . . 

# . . 133 SUBJECTINDEX 

# . .. . I 

# . . . .

# - *137 AUTHORINDEX. 

# ..... *. 

# . . . 

# . -133

### A REVIEW 

### OFTHE LfTERATURE ON 

### LOGGING AND FISHERIES-- A STATEMENT

## ON THE STATE 

### OFTHE 

### ART
This narrative 

### on the 

### "state of the 

### art" of the 

### effects of logging on fish of the Western United States and Canada consists of two parts; the first is 

### a review of the literature; the second, an analysis of a workshop on logging and fisheries held at the University of Washington, November 20

-21, 1972. The numbers 

### inparentheses indicate 

### references inthe annotated bibliography developed from the literature.


### INTRODUCTlON There 

### is no question that, historically, certain logging and 

### associated land

-use practices have had deleterious effects upon fresh

### water and anadromous fish populations. these detrimental practices are continuing, although many others have been discontinued. Man's activities, coupled with naturally occurring events such 

### as forest fires, floods, and slides, generate complexities that 

### are difficult not only to assess but to control. Obviously, continuous assessment of potential environmental impacts is the concern of the land

-user as well 

### as of the resource manager. On the other hand, the ability of the management biologist sometimes is limited by ignorance of the requirements and status of fish stocks inhabiting the waters in question. This ignorance may range from the lack of knowledge of the peculiarities of the life histories of the endemic fishes in the 

### streams and of the basic productivity of 

### streams tothe role of nonlogging factors such as fishing. In the absence of precise information, the biologist is inclined to recommend conservative regulations as a safety factortoprotect the fish resources. 

### as by fisheries and forest harvesters have, in the past, been conflicting; however, recently, the two groups have attempted toenter into coordinated research and management. It is evident that some of A tremendous amount of progress has been made.

Multiple uses of resources such



### REVIEW OF

### THE LITERATURE Sporadic research 

### was conducted on the effects of logging and related 

### use on the ecology of 

### streams 

### from 1900 tothe 1950's. Since that time, extensive research has been conducted by many agencies. As productive 

### as the research has been, it is still not possible to generalize on the effects of logging because of the varied land and aquatic habitats found in the Western United States and Canada. The hazards of logging 

### to fish and 

### water 

### resources of the Pacific coast have seldom been quantitatively defined; in most 

### cases, the potential harm was 

### only inferred. Definite problems have been recognized in the literature. Theharmful effects on fish which can result from logging and poor silvicultural methods used on the Pacific coast include: 

### 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

' 6. 

### 7. 8. Introduction 

### of sediments
a

# . Bedload sediments (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) reduced dissolved oxygen caused by reduced interand intragravel waterflow physical barrier to the emergence of alevins lowered production of aquatic plants and invertebrates damage toeggs by adhesion to the chorion reduced catchability of sport fish b. Suspended sediments (1) erosion of gillmembranes (2) degradation of rearing habitat (3) lowered production of aquatic plants and invertebrates Altered streamflow regimes Introduction of logging debris a. Barriers to movement by juveniles and spawning adults b. Degradation of rearing habitat through streambank erosion Altered temperature regimes


### a. Increased summer temperatures 

### b. Decreased 

### winter temperatures Alterations in 

### stream energy resources Indiscriminate use of pesticides and herbicides Altered chemical water quality regimes by the exposure of mineral 

### soils and indiscriminate use of fertilizers. Reduced dissolved oxygen 

### as a result of high biological oxygen demand

The sources and effects of erosion and sedimentation have received the greatest research emphasis (fig. 

### 1); however, the general topics of 

### water quality, 

### alteration of streamflow, stream protection and improvement, and the environmental requirements of salmonids have alsoreceived considerable discussion and documentation within North America. The research conducted before and after 1960 has shown 

### similar emphases but with increased emphasis on 

### water quality after 1960 

### (fig. 1).

Sources of Literature The majority of the research results have been published in 

### symposia orby academic institutions;however, considerable quantities can alsobe found inbiological and forestry journals and in publications by the 

### U.S. Forest Service and State agencies (table 1).

2ErosionandsedimentationWaterqualityRelatedsalmonidinformationMultipleloggingeffectsAlterationofstreamflowStreamprotectionMultipleusemanagementStreamsidevegetationStreamimprovementDescriptionsofeffectsofloggingstudiesSUBJECTAREASFigure1.—ResearchconductedontheeffectsofloggingintheWesternUnitedStatesandCanada.

NUMBE R O F ARTICLE S

3PRIORTO19601960TOPRESENTTable 1.

--Literature concerning the effects' of logging on fish, 1928

-73

- Categories Number

~Symposia and academ5.c institutions 83 Biological journals 60 Forestry journals 60 U.S. Forest Service publications 59 State agencies 49

Analysis of Literature An analysis of the literature shows that although some critical analyses of the detrimental 

### effects of logging are in the scientific literature, most blanket condemnations of logging are found in the popular, nonscientific journals. detrimental effects of logging on fish populations is limited to seven 

### articles (56, 61, 

### 252, 

### 153, 

### 275, 277, 222). Actual quantitative, documented evidence on

Many unpublished data 

### are present in the files of fisheries manageThe results of many research summaries can be'classified ment agencies. only as inconclusive. sions of 

### articles which appraise logging and silvicultural practices; 118 

### articles 

### were not included 

### as they do not fit the classifications chosen. Recent publications on the effects of logging have been less 

### critical than in the past, perhaps as the complexity of the problem has become better understood. There seems tobe a recent change in attitude favoring prevention instead of rehabilitation and an increase in collection of data for integration into watershed models. Table 2 is an attempt to categorize the concluTable 2.--Categorization of 

### articles which appraise logging practices as described in the literature

Rank Category Number of 

### articles Percentage


### 1 

### Data collection on the effects of logging leading to inconclusive results 63 33 2 Description of adverse logging practices 58 30 3 Prevention of adverse logging practices 37 19

4Table 2.--Categorization of 

### articles which appraise logging practices as described in the 

### literaturecontinued

Rank Category Number of articles Percentage

4 Undetermined as tothe effects of logging 10 5 5 Reviews of literature 8 4
6 Quantitativeevidence of the detrimental 

### effects 7 4 7 Condemnation of logging 5 2.5 8 Beneficial results of logging 5 2.5 

# - TOTAL 193 100


### LITERATURE SUMMARY
Sedimentation 

### Most 

### articles on sedimentation 

### of 

### streams have been purely descriptive, and sometimes dramatic, in their portrayal of an adverse effect on the environment. effects of sedimentation. Quantitative studies of sedimentation, although few innumber, have provided the real basis for present knowledge and can be divided into two categories: stream environments. A 

### lesser number of articles have reported qualitative



### its sources and its effects 

### on

Sources 

### of Sediment Erosion, landslides, and the occurrence of sediments in 

### our waters are natural phenomena and vary with the inherent erodibility of soils, geology, 

### climate, and vegetation. do, 

### accelerate these natural processes. 25 

### articles documenting the effects of logging and logging roads on sediment production indicates: source 

### of man-caused 

### stream sediments; (b) sediments from clearcuts occur infrequently and are primarily a result of bared mineral soils and reduced surface

-soil permeability due tocompaction; and (c) severe burning of logging slash 

### is often followed by increased rates of surface 

### soil erosion, due primarily 

### to the 

### removal of stabilizing vegetation and 

### litter. Man's activities can, and usually The summation of approximately (a) logging roads 

### are the 

### greatest

5The diverse characteristics of watersheds prevent extrapolation of 

### results over wide geographical areas.
"because of the striking differences in watershed characteristics, most 

### of the published research results on the effects 

### of logging on 

### streams from other 

### areas cannot be extrapolated directly toSoutheast Alaska." Recently, however, some researchers through quantitative measurements of soilcharacteristics, meteorology, topography, and land

-use conditions, have provided 

### a basis forpredicting differences in sediment production (2, 

### 5, Sz). Stephens 

### (50) stated that

Continuous research needs tobe conducted on the development of new 

### or redesigned logging methods that require 

### fewer roads and produce 

### less soildisturbance.

Effeots 

### of Sediment 

### on Aquatic Environments Fluctuations in the characteristics of aquatic environments, including the numbers and diversity of organisms, 

### are natural phenomena. Through time, organisms have become selectively adapted tolife within a set of environmental parameters. Changes which exceed the natural tolerance 

### of these organisms 

### willdrastically change the population. The severity of stresses imposed by man upon the adaptability of these organisms willdetermine the degree of change. Suspended sedhent--The summation of six available articles dealing with the direct effects of suspended sediment or turbidity on fish, mostly salmonids, demonstrates several mechanisms of damage, including: 

### (a) the adhesion of 

### silt particles tothe chorion 

### of salmonid ova 

### (29) and (b) the abrasion, thickening, and fusion of gills 

### as 

### a result of increased silt concentration 

### (295). In addition todirect mortality of fish, suspended sediment alsoblocks or decreases light penetration and thereby limitsthe production of phytoplankton and other aquatic plants. It may also cause alterations in 

### stream temperature

-change 

### rates and precipitation of organic particles which produce high 

### stream BOD (Biological Oxygen Demands). Another concern 

### is the loss of sport fishing 

### time as 

### a result of increased turbidities. It has been stated that fishing success declines with increasing turbidity above 25 ppm (43). The literature demonstrates a large variation in results, making it impossible todefine precisely what levels 

### are lethal. longed exposures to concentrations from 200 to 300 ppm are lethal to fish. Shorter exposure times to concentrations of 90 to 810 ppm may reduce survival through synergistic effects with other stresses (Le., increased temperature and decreased dissolved oxygen) in the environment (18, 

### 295). This research on the direct effects of suspended sediment on fish has been conducted in the laboratory and bears questionable applicability tofield situations

# . Generally, pro6Future research should emphasize: 

### (a)more detailed laboratory studies of the mechanisms of damage tofish from suspended sediments, (b) quantitatively documented studies in actual field situations, and (c) studies of the adaptability of salmonids in glaciated 

### streams vs. natural 

### streams subjected to increased suspended sediment concentrations.


### BedZoad sedkents--Of allthe factors affecting aquatic life, bedThe smothering effect and insta- load sediments cause the most damage. bility 

### of sediment reduce 56, 298, 299), reduce duce early survival of fish (284, 295, ZZZ). invertebrate diversity and populations 

### (55, available living space for fish (29, 431, and 

### reA summation of the findings from 50 articles dealing with bedload sediments shows: (a) sediment fills gravel interstices, thereby reducing inter- and intragravel waterflow, reducing dissolved oxygen to incubating salmonid ova; (b) deposited sediment can physically prevent emergence of fry (fig. 2); and (c) sediment reduces food resources by filling gravel interstices and promoting unstable substrates for aquatic invertebrates and periphyton communities. Research has indicated that the lethal effects of sediment are most pronounced during the developmental stages of fish while in the gravel, and that once hatching occurs, physical environmental factors become less important and food availability becomes more important. Research on the effects of sediment has been quite extensive, 

### as shown by the literaturereviews of Cordone and Kelley 

### (251, Gebhardt (289), Hollis et 

### al. (291, and Koski 

### (32). pleted, there stillexist serious gaps in data documenting the quanti

### ties of sediment altering 

### stream productivity related to 

### fry quality and survival In spite of the fine work that has been com

### Organic sedhents--Organic fines introduced by logging are important in 

### stream environments where they decrease dissolved oxygen concentrations and intergravel flows and increase salmonid ova and alevin mortalities through the promotion of the growth of 

### SphaerotiZis (bacteria which attack fish gills, resulting in suffocation). Suspended conifer fibers have been shown to 

### lower the survival of rainbow and 

### brown trout 

### fry by inhibiting gillfunctions (95).

7WaterQuality ThewatershedsoftheWesternUnitedStatesandCanadaharborsome ofthemostproductivesalmonidpopulationsintheworld
.Inthepast, forestmanagementhasfocusedprimarilyupontheproductionoftimber withlittleregardformaintainingstreamquality;andconsequently, waterqualityinmanystreamshasbeendegraded
.Loggingandsilvicul

turalpracticeshaveresultedinchangesinthephysicalandchemical characteristicsofwater,e.g. ,increasedwatertemperaturesandthead

ditionofsilviculturalchemicals

.



### PERCENTAGEOFFINESEDIMENTS

(1-3mmindiameter) Figure2.—Therelationbetween amountoffine particlesin anartificialgravelbedandthe ability

ofcohosalmon andsteelheadtroutfry toemergethroughthegravel(211)
.PERCENTSURVIVAL STEELHEAD COHO

8

### Water Temperature Water temperature 

### is a parameter that has received considerable 

### attention recently in reference toland

-use studies. 

### Water temperature has been proven tobe 

### a major determinant in the suitability for salmonid production, with small forested streams being the most susceptible to 

### a temperature change (78, 80, 90). As well

### as inducing direct mortality of organisms, adverse water temperature influences the level of dissolved oxygen and nutrients; controls algal blooms which may impart taste, odor, color, and ecological changes; and affects growth, condition, and behavior of fish. Warm water is also conducive to the growth of bacterial species which may constitute health problems to humans and fish. Finally, prolonged alteration in the temperature regime may eventually alter the species composition of streams. A summation 

### of 22 

### articles concerned with the effects of logging on 

### stream temperature indicates: increases maximum 

### water temperatures by exposing 

### streams to increased direct solar radiation; (b) stream temperature 

### (Atin OF) is directly proportional to surface 

### area exposure (A in

### ft2l9 the solar energy input 

### (HinB.t.u./ft2/minute) and inversely proportional tothe flow 

### (D in c.f.s.): (a)removal of streamside vegetation



### AxH 

### D At = 

# - 0.000267 (77); (c) warmed 

### water reaching shade does not normally cool unless there is an inflow 

### of cool 

### water; and (d) winter minimum 

### water temperatures can be lowered through removal of streamside vegetation (84). Any change in the temperature regime 

### of small 

### streams may be deemed detrimental by some, but moderate increases in temperatures have been suggested by others 

### as a means of improving salmonid habitat. 

### care must be taken toprevent eutrophication and the destruction of salmonid habitats. However,

Future research should determine: (a)the effects of streamside vegetation removal on winter stream temperatures in the Western United States, and (b) the different effects of various cutting practices on 

### water temperature.


### ChemicaZ 

### and PhysScaZ Properties

The 

### chemical 

### and physical properties of stream 

### water under natural conditions vary with the geology of the watershed through which it flows. Degradation of water quality can occur naturally due toleaching of min

### eral elements and humic acid compounds but often 

### is induced by man's activities. leaching of nutrients from soil and wood and through the introduction of silvicultural chemicals. 

### Water quality can be affected 

### by 

### logging through accelerated

9Nutz6ents--Aquatic organisms require organic and inorganic nutriIt ents which originate primarily from the 

### terrestrial forest system. has been shown that there is relatively little elemental 

### loss from undisturbed forest 

### soils in the temperate regions. silviculture can, however, increase the leaching rates. A summary of 15 relevant articles discloses: (a) increased 

### loss of chemical nutrients 

### from the 

### soilfollows logging and slash burning; however, these nutrient additions to the 

### streams 

### are only temporary and dissipate with stream dilution, flushing, and removal by aquatic organisms; 

### (b) leaching 

### rates of nutrients can be affected by topographic and meteorological features of the watersheds, by 

### soil textures, and by the degree of clearcutting; (c) leachates 

### from stored logs vary with the volume and flushing

### rate of the storage 

### site, number, species, and age of logs stored, and can produce fish 

### mortalities; and 

### (d) the levels 

### of nutrients observed in 

### streams 

### after timber is harvested appear tobe below the toxic thresholds 

### for aquatic organisms. Timber harvesting and

Some researchers have advanced the idea that the addition of nutrients to 

### a stream may be beneficial, especially torelatively sterile streams 

### by supporting additional plant and animal life, but such results 

### are difficult topredict and may result in eutrophication. Research needs include: (a) the acute and chronic effects of nutrient leaching on aquatic organisms, (b) the absorption or adhesion of nutrients to stream sediments, and (c)the quantification effects of documented nutrient addition.
Forest chemicals

--Intensified forest management practices may include the utilization 

### of 

### a large number of chemicals including fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides. with the use of chemicals indicates: surface 

### waters is the major source of forest chemical pollution; (b) un

### less application is made directly to the water, the major potential for contamination is heavy rain resulting in overland flow and sedimentation; (c) insecticides 

### are the 

### most dangerous and have adversely affected aquatic communities; and (d) herbicides and fertilizers generally can be used safely if not applied adjacent to or in 

### streams or lakes. A summary of 16 

### articles dealing

(a) direct aerial application to

Further research should include: (a) the acute and chronic effects of specific 

### forest chemicals on aquatic organisms and (b) the.reactions on aquatic organisms of solvents, 

### carriers, 

### or other additives intro- duced with the 

### forest chemicals.



### 10Streamf

### low Streamflows in coastal 

### areas of the Western United States and Canada 

### are primarily affected by precipitation patterns and somewhat 

### less by evapotranspiration losses 

### (238). The removal of vegetation by timber harvesting increases streamflows, since the reduction in evapotranspiration losses 

### is much 

### greater than the possible evaporation from increased 

### soil exposure. A summary 

### of 26 

### articles relating to streamflow shows: (a) 

### streamflows increase 

### after clearcut logging, especially if followed by slashburning; (b) for every 1percent of watershed cut, an average increase of 0.2 inch in

### water runoff can be expected the 

### first year 

### after cutting ($26); (c) minimum flows 

### are increased, although major flood flows 

### are not significantly increased; and (d) changes in streamflow resulting from vegetation removal 

### are, in most 

### cases, less than natural 

### climaticcaused variations (238). The 

### effects of altered streamflows may be either detrimental or beneficial toaquatic 

### stream organisms. Increased flows cause egg and alevin displacement and mortality 

### as a result of gravel shift and reduce benthic algae and insects by gravel grinding actions and displacement. Increased flows 

### willexpand the available living space for fish and insects and thus increase the carrying capacity. Increased summer flows 

### will also lessen the adverse effects of increased solar radiation on stream temperatures due tovegetation removal.

Environmental Requirements of Salmonids Related toLogging Pacific salmon and trout comprise the major constituents of the upper trophic levels in 

### stream systems of the Western United States and Canada

# . Due tothe breadthof theinformation on the environmental factors affecting these salmonids, no attempt 

### willbe made to summarize this information. There are, however, excellent reviews including articles by 

### McNeil (ISZ), Neave and Wickett (2871, and Wickett (295). Early studies attempted toevaluate the effects of logging on 

### stream environments 

### by comparing the numbers of adult salmon returning to logged watersheds. These studies were not capable of discerning causes and 

### effects because they were masked by 

### a fluctuating 

### saltwater survival, and freshwater mortality caused by sedimentation, floods, droughts, and temperature changes. For example, it has been reported that changes in an adult salmonid population of less than 50 percent due to

### any one cause would be difficult todetect within the large natural variations 

### (262). be considered as an indicator 

### small changes (personal communication, Richard L. Lantz), Recently, 

### it 

### has been suggested that cutthroat trout species, due totheir sensitivity to



### 11There is still a lack of information and understanding of population dynamics and inventories of fish stocks. but must be made tangible and applicable totimber harvesting and silvicultural practices. The problem is immense

Future research should include: (a) case-history

-type studies that contribute to

### more general models 

### of land use, (b) 

### in situ studies of tolerances and effects of water temperature on salmonids ,and resident fishes, and (c) accumulation 

### of basic data on the inventories and carrying capacities of streams.Ecological Effects Trophic relationships of 

### stream systems 

### are complex but, 

### as in all ecosystems, depend primarily on sunlight. Light energy reaching the 

### stream and 

### its borders is fixed by 

### terrestrial vegetation and algae. 

### The algae and 

### terrestrial plant detritus dropping into the 

### stream are eaten by aquatic organisms, primarily insects;and in turn, the latter are eaten by fish. system. Timber harvesting has been shown to disrupt this

A summary 

### of 11 articles dealing with general ecological effects indicates:. (a) removal of streamside vegetation 'can shift the populations of insects from detrital feeders to algal feeders; (b) the bene

### ficial effects of increased solar radiation upon algal production may be offset by the 

### loss of 

### terrestrial plant detritus; (c) 

### terrestrial in

### sects as 

### a food resource can increase as a result of clearcut logging; and (d) shifts in 

### stream algal 

### flora can occur 

### as a result of clearcut logging

# . Future research should examine how biotic and abiotic changes affect stream communities. This implies longer and more detailed biological monitoring.

Streamside Vegetation Research has 

### shown that clearcut logging can significantly affect salmonid 

### streams, particularly the 

### small ones. These effects can, in some 

### cases, be prevented if a protective strip of vegetation (buffer strip) is left along the stream. A summation of 16 articles dealing with buffer strips indicates that they: fluctuations; (b) prevent logging

-debris from entering streams; (c) provide streambank stability; (d) maintain natural water quality; and (e) provide food resources [organic detritus and insects] tothe stream organisms. The role of 

### tree canopy becomes 

### less important with increasing volume of 

### water and with channel width. (a) provide shade, preventing adverse 

### water temperature

12Most recent Federal and State timber 

### sales require buffer strips along 

### streams where fish and 

### water quality 

### are considerations. Buffer stripdesigns vary with specific situations according totimber species, soiltype, terrain, rainfall, and strength and direction of prevailing winds. It is not necessarily essential for commercial timber tobe left in

### a buffer strip if adequate shade can be provided by shrubs and other species of trees, and if the commercial timber can be removed without destroying the needed shade and streambank stability. The width of the buffer striprequired willdepend upon the shading ability of the streamside vegetation, A method for determining the optimal width for buffer stripshas been developed utilizing an angular canopy densiometer tomeasure maximum shading ability (canopy density) 

### (62). This method considers only width 

### as ameans of temperature control; protection from other disrupting factors may require modifications in the buffer strip boundaries. Needs forfuture research include: 

### (a) evaluation of factors involving windthrow in buffer strips and development 

### of preventive designs, (b) comparison of deciduous vs. coniferous 

### trees inbuffer strips, and (c)

### rate of deposition and role of coniferous needle decomposition in 

### stream ecosystems.

Watershed Management and Stream Protection Soil and 

### water are the 

### two most important resources of the United States and can be beneficially or detrimentally affected by watershed management. currently possess 

### are more the result 

### of chance than proper watershed management, occupation with "forest managementn 

### is being transformed into 

### "watershed management. t1 The soilconditions and productivity that logged'watersheds However, this situation 

### is changing since 

### earlier preA summary 

### of 36 articles dealing with watershed management and 

### stream protection indicates that logging and related activities can be compatible with fertile, stable soils and salmon

-producing 

### streams if adequate consideration is given d,uringboth planning and operational stages. ommended by Federal and State agencies for resource protection. most important management requirements 

### are: the best methods of harvesting, considering allresources; (b) coordination with 

### all other resource users; 

### (c)budgeting manpower and money wisely, since the best management methods may not be the cheap

### est; and (d) surveillance and supervision of the timber harvesting and silvicultural operation as it progresses

# . There have been many management guidelines recThe (a) 

### a detailed plan of

Biologists and other interested groups must help to determine the 

### type of protection required, and managers 

### must plan 

### the harvesting procedure 

### so that 

### allnecessary protection is afforded if effective watershed management can be attained.



### 13Stream Improvement Stream rehabilitation and improvement must be considered in the 

### same light 

### as most of the other factors discussed; 

### Le., each 

### stream should be treated 

### as an individual 

### case, based on its specific char

### acteristics. sently conducted 

### is in conjunction with, 

### or 

### a result of, timber harvesting and 

### is concerned with the removal 

### of natural or man-caused log jams and logging debris. Most of the 

### stream rehabilitation 

### or improvement preA summary of 16 articles concerning 

### stream improvement discloses 

### (a) fish passage, that logging debris and jams can adversely 

### affect: (b) 

### stream gravel stability, (c) intergravel and intragravel dissolved oxygen and 

### waterflow, (d) chemical water quality [tannins and lignins], and (e) 

### stream productivity. The first concern should be tokeep logging debris out 

### of streams; however, this problem is not 

### as great as it used tobe. management should now be concerned with the removal of logs in

### relation to fish spawning and rearing, chemical and physical water quality, 

### stream productivity, and recreational and esthetic values. 

### Research is needed to determine the best ways toconduct stream improvement in conjunction with logging operations. Watershed

Summary of Research Needs as Determined 

### from the Literature Survey I. Sedimentation A. Sources 1. Development of new or redesigned logging roads 

### B. Effects on aquatic environments 1



# . Suspended sediment


### a. b

# . Quantitativelydocumented studies in actual field

c. More detailed laboratory studies of the mechanisms of damage to fish situations Studies of the adaptability of salmonids in glaciated streams vs. natural streams subjected toincreased suspended sediment 2

# . Bedload sediments


### a. More studies filling the gaps in the data documenting the quantities of sediment altering stream productivity related tofry quality and survival



### 14

### 11. Water Quality A. Temperature 

### 1. 2. The 

### effects of streamside vegetation removal on winter temperatures The different effects of various cutting practices on 

### water temperature B. Chemical and physical properties 

### 1. Nutrients


### a. Further studies on the acute and chronic effects of b. nutrient leaching 

### on aquatic organisms Absorption 

### or adhesion 

### of introduced nutrients to 

### stream sediments 2. Forest chemicals


### a. b. The acute and chronic 

### effects 

### of specific chemicals on aquatic organisms Reactions 

### of solvents, 

### carriers, 

### or other additives introduced with forest chemicals on aquatic organ

### isms Environmental Requirements of Salmonids Related to Logging


### a. 

### b. cb
Ecological
a.

Streamside


### a. b.

C. Case

-history

-type studies that contribute to

### more general land

-use models 

### In situ studies of tolerances and effects of 

### water temperature on salmonids Accumulation of basic data on the inventories and carrying capacity of streams Effects

A more thorough and detailed analysis of the biotic and abiotic changes 

### of 

### streams 

### as 

### a result 

### of 

### logging Vegetation

Evaluation of factors involving windthrow inbuffer strips and development 

### of preventive designs Comparison of deciduous vs. coniferous trees in buf

### fer strips Studies on the 

### rate of deposition and rate of coniferous needle decomposition in 

### stream systems Stream Improvement a. The determination 

### of the extent of stream clearance inrelation 

### to the stream and the aquatic organisms 

### b. The development of methods toconduct stream improvement in conjunction with harvesting procedures

15

### ANALYSIS 

### OFTHE WORKSHOP 

### OF NOVEMBER 

### 1972
A workshop of interested scientists and resource managers was assembled 

### to attempt to define the 

### major .problem 

### areas and research deficiencies in the analysis of the effects of logging. ther the discussion nor 

### a written survey disclosed either 

### a unanimity of opinion 

### or any definite mandates, several needs became evident, although their priorities did not. Although nei

### Abstracts 

### of Presentations 

### and 

### Discussim Presented in Order 

### of Appearance Quentin Stober (Fisheries Research Institute, University of Washington) Dr. Stober discussed the work of the International Biological Program (IBP) 

### in watershed and ecosystem modeling and management. 

### Mi20 

### Bel2 (College of Fisheries, University of Washington) 

### Professor Bell's book, entitled "Fisheries Handbook of Engineering Requirements and Biological Criteria

## ," and written for peop,le involved in

### river management and 

### structural factors, 

### was discussed. The book was published by the U.S. 

### Army Corps of Engineers inPortland, Oregon, inFebruary 1973but 

### is very difficult toobtain. 

### Bmh 

### Azke (Quinault Resource Development Program, Taholah, Washington) An outline of the work 

### on the effects of logging 

### on the Quinault Indian Reservation and some aspects of a preliminary lowresolution land

-use model 

### were presented. (a) elucidate the interactionary areas of forest harvesting and fisheries re

### sources, (b) depict short-term vs. long

-term strategies 

### in land planning, and (c) estimate the recovery rates of aquatic populations as 

### functions of land 

### use, The model 

### is intended 

### to:



### James -8 (California Department of Fish and Game) The Department of Fish and Game has conducted little logging research 

### in California since 1969. However, they 

### are presently working on legislative acts which are a result of.anappeals court ruling on September 16, 1971, which declared the forest practices acts unconstitutional. field monitoring methods and 

### a stream classification system 

### are necessary 

### in California 

### for proper stream protection. In the 'areas of research, Mr. Burns feels that quick



### Gene Deschampa (Washington State Department of Fisheries) 

### Mr. Deschamps provided 

### a review of the State of Washington's hydraulic code which gives the Fisheries Department power tocontrol activities in or 

### near streams. A hydraulic permit is required for all



### 16activities involving 

### streams which must, in turn, be reviewed and approved by the Departments of Fisheries and Game. Mr. Deschamps also stated that littlebasic or applied research 

### is presently being conducted. However, some inventory work on the 

### streams in the State is in progress. 

### DonLee Fraser (Washington State Department of Natural Resources) Mr. Fraser presented the idea that there must be a balance between 

### stream protection and log production in the State of Washington. The State should apply 

### a cost/benefit analysis toobtain the maximum benefit from our resources, In addition, legislation 

### is needed to define and standardize rules and procedures for the timber harvester. He emphasized the need for more "basic" research to determine 

### the 

### actual impacts of present

-day logging methods. 

### Richard Lantz (Oregon State Game Commission)
Mr. Lantz reviewed the work conducted on the 

### Alsea watershed and a broader monitoring program for 12coastal 

### streams. completion 

### of these studies in October 1973, the Oregon State 

### Game Commission 

### willanalyze the results and incorporate them into

### a new Forest Practices Act. With the



### Gene 

### Hay& (Weyerhaeuser Company, Longview, Washington) Dr. Haydu presented 

### a quick overview of his present and past research including 

### a literature survey on the effects of logging on 

### water quality. In conducting the survey, he encountered few studies which dealtwith the impact of timber harvesting and land management on 

### water quality and as 

### a result such research is presently underway. 

### Dr. Haydu's summary of research needs emphasized the meaningfulness of present 

### water quality 

### criteria. 

### for more factual data toestablish a "realistic" set of water quality 

### criteria

# . In essence, he felt there 

### is 

### a need


### Joseph Krmes (U.S. Forest Service, Arcata, California) Mr. Krammes reviewed the present work being conducted by the U.S. Forest Service 

### on fish habitat inprovement in California, This work primarily deals with the installationof culverts torehabili

### tate stream.sections lost 

### as a result of past road construction. Life history studies on anadromous fish present 

### are also being conducted with results indicating the importance of ephemeral streams tofish production. Mr. Krammes also suggested 

### a need for research to quantify the effects of timber harvesting, such as the conditions 

### under which sediment 

### or increased water temperature 

### is a pollutant.

17

### WiZZiam Meek (US, Forest Service, Juneau, Alaska) Dr. Meehan summarized the research previously conducted, in(a) the 

### effects of logging on 

### stream temperature, (b) cluding: methods by which sediment reaches streams, (c) effects of forest chemicals on aquatic organisms. 

### Leon Murphy (US, Forest Service, Portland, Oregon) 

### Mr. Murphy 

### is concerned with the management of forest resources and their values as being directly proportional to its applicability to improve methods 

### of communication and transfer of data among researchers, managers, and technicians (loggers). application of existing data and 

### a pooling of professional knowledge to establish management directions. problems 

### willnot be provided by researchers 

### or managers separately; there must be cooperation before optimum management of our resources can be achieved. . on-the

-ground management objectives. He suggested that we examine and He also felt there should be an The solutions to effects of logging



### %mas Chamberkin (Canadian Fisheries Service, Department 

### of Environment) Dr. Chamberlain discussed the probable use of 

### a modeling system to integrate past research conducted in other 

### areas with present re- search findings from the Carnation Creek study (located on Vancouver Island) toprovide a management scheme suitable for the forest resources of British Columbia. 

### David Namer (Canadian Fisheries Service, Pacific Biological Station) Dr. Narver reviewed the research presently in progress in British Columbia 

### at Carnation Creek on Vancouver Island. The research.was initiated to: Columbia: (b) attempt tounderstand 

### a west coast overmature rain 

### forestsalmon

-trout ecosystem and how this system can be affected by logging and silvicultural practices; and (c) recommend forest management practices to optimize the watershed resources of fish, timber, and water. The study 

### is designed 

### as 

### a long

-term project with road construction scheduled 

### for winter 1974

-75 and timber harvesting tocommence in 1975 and continue for the next five years (a) evaluate the guidelines presently in use in British



### Jack 

### Rothacher (US. Forest Service, Corvallis, Oregon) 

### Mr. Rothacher presented 

### a brief summary of his work 

### in Oregon on effects of logging on streamflow and water quality; chemical changes in 

### water quality after burning, logging, slash treatment, and forest chemical applications ; and the development of new logging techniques. He alsomentioned his present work with IBP and Dr. George Brown's study on the effects of finely divided logging debris on small coastal 

### streams, including some work on its toxicity to fish.

18ViZzim

### Sheridan (U.S. Forest Service, Juneau, Alaska) 

### Mr. Sheridan discussed three major problem areas confronting managers: tion, and dissemination of information. 

### for studies inAlaska on the effects of logging on wildlife, especially 

### rare and endangered species. 

### Mr. Sheridan also discussed the use of interdisciplinary 

### teams to achieve optimum 

### land use and management, an idea he 

### feels is 

### a major breakthrough inland planning. need for 

### more research, application of existing informaHe 

### also considered the need



### Bmce 

### Pease (Fisheries Research Institute

## ,University of Washington) 

### Mr. Pease described his research on the effects of log dumping and rafting in Southeast Alaska, including examination of present and past log dumping and rafting 

### sites. parative analysis of the leaching 

### rates of the four 

### major species of timber 

### of Southeast Alaska and his present work with the acute toxicity analysis of these leachates topink salmon were also discussed. The 

### results of these studies 

### are now available. His laboratory work with the comK V

. Koski (Fisheries Research Institute, University of Washington; presently with US. Forest Service, Juneau, Alaska) Mr. Koski described and discussed the work conducted at the Big Beef Creek chum salmon spawning channel located on Hood Canal at Seabeck, Washington. the effects 

### of gravel composition on mortality and condition of emerging fry. Generally, there 

### is a decreasing percentage 

### of survival of chum salmon frywith an increasing percentage of fines of less than 3.0 

### mm. He believes the results from these studies can be used as a predicting tool for the effects of sediment depositions innatural 

### streams

# . The channel provides for controlled experiments concerning



### Richard Tyler (Fisheries Research Institute, University of Washington) 

### Mr. Tyler reviewed the preliminary results of 

### a summer field study conducted in Southeast Alaska in 1972 on small logged and unlogged salmon

-producing 

### streams. Results showed that 

### water temperatures increased 

### more rapidly in logged than in unlogged 

### streams; tem- peratures reached as high 

### as 24.2OC 

### for short periods of time; juvenile coho salmon and Dolly Varden char populations 

### were apparently unharmed by the temperature peaks; a 50

-percent reduction in streamflow due to drought resulted in a fourfold increase in time of net water transport; and aquatic insect diversity appeared tobe unaffected by logging.

19Summary of the 

### Workshop A preliminary questionnaire distributed tothose attending 

### was Under research, basic 

### stream ecology (including fish census used to rank needs 

### for research, general considerations, and management. data and data for classifying streams) received highest priority. From the resulting discussions 

### as well

### as the questionnaire, one can assume 

### we just don't know enough about 

### our fish populations, especially those in logged watersheds. The most frequent question was: 

### "How can changes in populations be measured if the 

### effects 

### are subtle and our knowledge of dynamics is deficient?" Life history research which 

### is directly applicable toland

-use problems 

### is definitely needed. Under general considerations, the need for more short

-term studies (less than fiveyears) 

### was emphasized, rather than several isolated long

-term studies, The need for 

### a long

-term plan (regional rather than by watershed) 

### was brought out, possibly with 

### a readily modifiable model which would be supplied by 

### "case history studies"

### to answer specific questions. The 

### last 

### area of consideration 

### was management. A need 

### for i mproved communications between management agencies and timber harvesters received the highest rating. evident, the first being the application of existing data. cludes two major aspects: and 

### all agencies 

### or researchers and (b) preserving the availability 

### of the data. It 

### was suggested that perhaps 

### a small system 

### or model 

### for the exchange of information and continuity of research be developed. Several other priorities 

### were 

### also quite This in- (a) making existing data available toany

Another priority 

### was the need for a stream classification system to enable resource planners and managers tomake the proper decisions regarding 

### stream management. Possible classifications include: (a) 

### stream productivity, 

### (b) sensitivity to disturbance, (c) watershed geology and composition, 

### or (d) fish producing capabilities and present standing stock, A second questionnaire sent after the workshop tothose who had attended produced 

### similar results. The exceptions in the similarities between the two questionnaires 

### were inthe category of research, with an increased emphasis on buffer strips and the effects of sediment on aquatic organisms. A combination of priority and feasibility values was used todetermine needs, with feasibility implying 

### a combination of available knowledge and realistic cost values, and priority implying a need for research. receiving 

### a high priority but a low feasibility rating indicate a research need but perhaps a lack of funds orknowledge to fulfill the need. Categories

Prevention of logging mishaps instead of rehabilitation was a comThe needs listed are allnecesmon concern throughout the workshop. sary considerations for the establishment of guidelines for "optimum

20watershed management," The ultimate goal 

### of watershed management and protection should be tomaximize socialbenefit 

### from our watershed resources; and without adequate information, land planners and managers cannot accomplish this goal

# . SUMMARY Increasing emphasis 

### is being placed on meeting the requirements 

### of Forest 

### Practices Acts (California, Oregon, and Washington, inparticu

### lar), and in the future, more environmental impact statements of the Environmental Protection Agency

-type 

### willbe required. Judging from published research, adequate impact statements obviously willbe difficult toformulate. conservative, with an increasing amount of field supervision required tomonitor whatever environmental impacts 

### are predicted. Consequently, regulations 

### willcontinue to

### be

Research is 

### at 

### a point of requiring precise information on population dynamics 

### of fishes and continued research 

### on physical 

### measurements of the environment. which 

### willultimately lead tomore precise and meaningful guidelines for management, This 

### willlead tomore 

### case history research

Meanwhile, general survey-type research such as that of Calhoun (202) 

## ,Calhoun and Seeley (202), and Fisk et al. (208) of California streams, has had its day; and the logger, the researcher, and the management agencies must realize that there are no finite answers, no finite guidelines, and perhaps never willbe. This, however, should intensify research and concern rather than relax it, for the formulation and application of theory or scientific laws that are open-ended are sometimes difficult but necessary. This isparticularly difficult for the land user to accept, but it is a fact of life and a state

-of

-the

-art for some time to come. On the other hand, the fisheries resource manager has difficulty accepting that which is becoming obvious--i.e., logging (even clearcutting) can be performed without radical damage, in fact, the changes can be so subtle as to defy measurement and at times may, indeed, be beneficial. An obvious area of needed research isthe degree to which a stream should be cleared, manipulated, or even altered for improvement. In conclusion, there willnever by a "once-and-for-all" answer to land use-fisheries problems, but we must continue answering questions toprovide for optimal watershed management.

21

## ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTR

## 0DU

## CTlON

The following annotated bibliography documents publications on effects of logging on fish of the Western United States and Canada, with 

### a few other selected references also included. sible, the abstract or summary written by the author was used 

### for the annotation. Whenever posThe 

### titles 

### are arranged alphabetically by authors and chronologically under each author's name. cluded. Author and 

### subject indexes 

### are in22

## EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION

(1) Aitken, W. 

### CJ. 1936. The relation of ,soilerosion to

### stream improvement and fish life. 

### J. For. 34(12):1059-1061. The author notes that gradual changes in 

### stream environment caused by erosion can bring about corresponding changes in fish fauna. Without eroslon control, 

### stream improvement devices 

### are of littlevalue since they cannot eliminate turbidity, siltation, and other conditions resulting from erosion that 

### are deleterious tofish life. (2) Anderson, 

### H. 

### W. 1957. Relating sediment yield towatershed variables. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 38(6):921-924. "The yield of sediment from watersheds depends upon three 

### sets of variables: 

### (1)inherent watershed characteristics such 

### as geology and topography; (2) land use, condition 

### of vegetation, and management and protective measures; and (3) 

### nature of storms and streamflow which produce and transport sediment. sediment measuring device and on which fraction 

### of total sediment yield 

### is measured. watersheds can be evaluated by study of theyield from many watersheds which have wide differences invariables affecting sediment yields. Such studies 

### are useful to determine and evaluate the principal sources of sediment, toevaluate the probable 

### effects of conservation programs on yield, and toprovide 

### criteria for design of reservoirs and channels, 

### summarizes some recent studiesinwhich multiple regression analysis 

### was used in relating sediment yield towatershed variables. The studies 

### are discussed inthe light 

### of methods of selectingwatersheds, data, variables, and functions; and the effects 

### of neglected variables, errors in variables, and exclusion of nonsignificant variables." Measured quantities of yield also depend on the The sources of variation in sediment yield between and within

This paper

(3) Anderson, Henry W. 1954. Suspended sediment discharge as related to streamflow, topography, soiland land use. Trans. 

### Am. Geophys. Union 35(2):268

-281

# .

"The results of suspended

-sediment sampling were used toobtain average annual suspended sediment discharge from 29 watersheds of western Oregon by relating sediment

-sampling results to streanflow and by using streamflow frequencies

# . tained were related by regression analysis to average watershed values of two streamflow varidles

## ,two topographic variables, two soilvari-ables

## , and one channel bank variable. The soilvariables were functions of par

### ticle 

### size and aggregation determined 

### by analyzing samples of the surface 

### soiltaken 

### at standardized locations in the 

### major geologic 

### types. other variables were functions of data published in maps and other secondary sources. The regression results were used 

### (1) toconstruct a rnap of The values of average suspended sediment thus obThe

23the sediment producing potential 

### of lands in western Oregon under average land use conditions; (2) to estimate how the actual production of sediment would differ from the potential with deviation of land use from average; and (3) to distribute present sediment production tothe three major source 

### areas: forest land, 

### agricultural land, and channel banks of the 

### main river. It (4) Anderson, Henry W. 1962. Current research on sedimentation and erosion 

### in California wildlands. Rep. Publ., Assoc. 

### Int. 

### Hydrol. Sci., Gentbrugge 59:173-182. The 

### effects of fire and logging on erosion and sedimentation 

### were studied 

### in the Sierra Nevada 

### Coast Range and San Gabriel Mountains. No study of buffer zones 

### was made, nor 

### was theirrelation 

### tologging discussed

# . (5) Anderson, Henry W. 1971. Relative contributions of sediment from source 

### areas, and transport processes. Irt James Morris [ed.], Proceedings of 

### a symposium--Forest land 

### uses and 

### stream environment, p. 55

-63. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. "The paper reports new findings, offers 

### a reanalysis of older studies, and 

### summarizes pertinent 

### results 

### in the 

### literature. Past land use, forest 

### fires, road building, 'poor logging,' and conversion of steep lands to 

### grass have increased sediment discharge by 

### factors ranging from 1.24 tomore than 4. Projected future use is expected to 

### increase sediment production by 

### a factor of 4, with 80 percent associated with roads and 20 percent with logging.' Major floods have increased subsequent 

### turbidity of streamflow by a factor of 2. logged 

### areas of watersheds where roads 

### were next to 

### streams and landings were in draws than in undisturbed watersheds. Most landslides 

### were associated with road development, next most with logged 

### areas, and least with undisturbed forest 

### area. The number of turbid days in streamflow varied by a factor 

### of 2.34 with differences in 

### silt plus clay content of soils, by 8.55 with differences in erodibility, and by 4.3 with the percent 

### of gravel. Further, these soil characteristics were predictable from geologic rock types. In 

### a sample calculation, 89 percent of channel bedload became suspended load enroute downstream. total sediment discharge from watersheds; channel bank erosion contributed 54 to 55 percent." The increases 

### were greater 

### in

Soil creep contributed 15percent to

(6) Anderson, Henry W., and 

### James R. Wallis 1963. Some interpretations of sediment sources and 

### causes, Pacific coast basins in Oregon and California. 

### U.S. Dep. Agric. 

### Misc. Publ. 970:22-30. Sediment discharges associated with specific 

### measures of 

### meteorological potential, topographic potential, soilerodibility, and land use and condition from studies of sedimentation in coast basins of western Oregon and California were compared. Results obtained by combining the
24

### effects of 

### all the various sediment potentials can be used todelineate 

### areas where caution inmanagement may be needed and to

### measure the 

### effectiveness 

### of certain types of land management. (7) Bachman, Roger Werner 1958. 

### The ecology 

### of four northern Idaho trout 

### streams with reference tothe influence of forest road construction. M.S. thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 97 p. Physicochemical and biological measurements of four trout 

### streams, one of which 

### was being logged,were studied. toincrease during rapid runoff from storms 

### or snowmelt. increased inboth riffles and pools. and 

### water chemistry showed no change from the previous year. tion of 

### stream channels away fromroad fills appeared toreduce the amount of eroded 

### material entering the 

### stream. Turbidity 

### was found 

### Water temperatures, volume of flow, The relocaSedimentation

(8) Bishop, Daniel M., and Mervin E. Stevens 1964. Landslides on logged 

### areas in southeastern Alaska. USDA 

### For. Serv. Res. Pap. NOR

-1, 18p. North. For. Exp. Stn., Juneau, Alaska. ''Recent large

-scale clearcut logging 

### of timber in southeast Alaska 

### has accelerated debris avalanches and flows on steep slopes during heavy rainfall. Characteristics and possible mechanisms for these disturbances include: 

### trl. Flows are more frequent within the V

-notch side

-drainages than on the smoother glacial valley 

### walls. V

-notch channel downcutting producing oversteepened slopes. This may be attributed to

"2. 

### Flows or avalanches usually slideon relatively smooth, 

### wet planes oriented parallel tothe slope when thisplane is composed of such 

### materials 

### as glacial till, iron-organic layered material, metamorphosed sediments, 

### or diorite. Such planes 

### are resistant todownward 

### water passage; hence, moisture builds up immediately above this layer. 'l3. Limited evidence leads tothe assumption that southeast Alaskan flow

-prone soils 

### are usually cohesionless. 

### soil pore pressure phenomena may not reasonably be expected. If this 

### is true, then

"4. A 

### greater addition of water weight tothe soilmantle through rainfall 

### is not 

### a likely stimulus 

### for increased flows 

### after logging. Research in other areas indicates that

### water infiltration rate into the soil 

### is reduced by clear

-cut logging, and that 

### loss of 

### soil 

### organic matter 

### as a result 

### of logging reduces water

-holding capacity. 

### these findings 

### are applicable 

### to southeast 

### Alaska, then less weight from 

### soil

### water might be expected. 

### If

25"5. Weight lossby timber removal probably has no direct net 

### effect on the likelihood of shearing since decrease 

### of shear 

### stress with unloading is equal to shear strength reduction.

"6. 

### Loss of timber weight may reduce shear strength in soil This action might result from immediately under the 

### tree root systems. 'decompaction' of zones of soil 

### earlier compacted by the weight of the 

### tree

# . "7. 

### Loss of root systems 

### as 

### a strength builder

-maintainer in the soilmantle may be an important factor in accelerating 

### flows 

### after logging. 

### tems by high

-lead skid

-roads. deterioration 

### of root systems 

### after clear cutting. activity 

### after logging supports this view. This may 

### reflect the destruction of inter

-connected root sysIt may also

### reflect death and gradual The 

### time lag in slide

"8. Debris in the bottoms of steep ravines aggravates 

### stability conditions. instabilityby rolling or sliding into the channel. The process follows a pattern

--debris accumulates in the ravine bottoms and this is followed periodically by sweeping torrent

-flows. 

### Logs and stumps on side slopes contribute 

### to such

"9. Slopes 

### of 34O (67 percent) 

### or more 

### are highly susceptible to 

### failure when conventional downhill high

-lead logging 

### is used." (9) 

### Brown, George W., and 

### James T. Krygier 1971. Clear

-cut logging and sediment production in the Oregon 

### Coast Range. 

### Water Resour. Res. 7(5):1189-1198.

"The impact of road construction, two patterns 

### of clear

-cut logging, and controlled slash burning on the suspended sediment yield and concentration 

### from three 

### small watersheds in the Oregon Coast Range 

### was studied for 11years. structionbut before logging in one watershed and 

### was tripled 

### after burning and clear

-cutting 

### of another watershed. produce statistically significant changes in sediment concentration. Variation in the relation between sediment concentration and 

### water discharge on 

### small undisturbed 

### streams 

### was large. significance 

### of 

### allbut very large changes in sediment concentration 

### are limited because of annual variation for 

### a given watershed, variation between watersheds, and variation with stage 

### at 

### a given point." Sediment production 

### was doubled 

### after road conFelling and yarding did not

Conclusions about the

(10) Bullard, W. E., 

### Jr. 1965. Role of watershed management in the maintenance 

### of suitable environments for aquatic life. 

### In Clarence 

### M. Tarzwell [ed.], Transactions 3rd seminar on biological problems in 

### water pollution. U.S. Public Health Serv. Publ. 999

-WP

-25, p. 265

-269. Robert A. Taft Sanit,. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio.

"Increased sedimentation of 

### streams seems tobe themost obvious The addition of finer effect of land use practices on the aquatic habitat.

26particles on the bottom gravels reduces the niches where many benthic organ

### isms live. Perhaps the direct 

### effects on eggs 

### are among the most important. 

### There 

### is 

### a smothering effect from 

### silt coatings and 

### a decreased permeability of the bottom gravels reducing the flow 

### of 

### water over the eggs. bidity resulting from the increase in suspended particles also reduces the light penetration and photosynthetic 

### rate. The 

### tur-

"Not 

### all sedimentation 

### is a 

### result of obvious operations such Perhaps the trampling of 

### stream as mining and cultivation. 

### of ducks has reduced fish egg survival. banks by 

### cattle may be 

### far more important than 

### is commonly recognized. Changes in the 

### stream bank brought about by 

### cattle or man-made channel changes may produce 

### a cycle 

### of changes which may be carried 

### clear tothe mouth of the 

### stream. Instances 

### are on record inwhich the activity

Usually, these changes 

### are not desirable. "The feeling among the discussants seemed tobe that, ideally for fish production, 

### partial 

### tree cover of the banks, something 

### less than complete bank stabilization, and an increase 

### in rainfall infiltration 

### of the soil

### are 

### all desirable goals along with reduction in siltationand turbidity. However, the attainment of such goals may 

### affect the 

### stream flow patterns and reduce the total amount 

### of 

### water reaching the 

### stream. In more arid 

### areas, 

### grasses 

### are more desirable than 

### trees because they achieve stabilization of soilbut do not lose 

### as much 

### water through transpiration. "In any 

### case, the optimum conditions 

### for fish production 

### will have tobe sacrificed in many instances 

### for multiple uses 

### of the 

### surface 

### waters. However, the general feeling 

### was that many improvements could be made that would improve the 

### waters for fish production and 

### still incorpo

### rate multiple 

### use." (11) Bullard, 

### William 1959. Watershed management

-grazing, deforestation and road building. Proceedings 5th symposium

-Pacific Northwest on siltation

- -its source and 

### effects on aquatic environment, p. 

### 27-31. U.S. Dep. Health, Educ. G 

### Welfare, Portland, Oreg. 

### In E. 

### F. Eldridge and 

### J. N. Wilson [eds.],



### Sources of siltation and methods to control and correct 

### it 

### are

An outline of factors to consider inwatershed management for discussed. the control of erosion and subsequent siltation of 

### streams is presented. 

### (12) 

### Burns, James W. 1970. Spawning bed sedimentation studies in northern California 

### streams. Calif. Fish & 

### Game 56(4):253-270.

"Changes in the size composition 

### of spawning bed 

### materials in 

### six coastal 

### streams were monitored 

### for 3 years todetermine the 

### effects of logging on the habitat of silver salmon 

### (Oncorhynchuskisutch) and

27trout 

### (Satmo

### gairdnerYii 

### gairdnefii and S. 

### cZarkii 

### ctarkii). streams were sampled before, during and 

### after logging. unlogged watersheds and the undisturbed upstream section of one 

### test stream served 

### as controls. and old

-growth 

### forests 

### was selected for observation. 

### Four 

### test Two 

### streams in
A variety of 

### stream types in second

-growth
''Spawning bed composition in the four 

### test 

### streams changed The heaviest sedimentation occurred when bulldozers operated in 

### after logging, roughly in proportion tothe amount of streambank disturbance. narrow 

### stream channels having pebble bottoms. In 

### a larger 

### stream with 

### a cobble and boulder bottom, bulldozer operations inthe channel did not increase sedimentation greatly. Sustained logging and road construction kept sediment levels high in one 

### stream for several years. Sedimentation 

### was greatest during periods 

### of road construction near 

### streams and removal 

### of debris from

### streams, confirming the need for special 

### measures tominimize erosion during such operations. 

### little in spawning bed composition during the 3 years." Control 

### streams changed



### (13) California 

### Resource Agency 

### 1970. Task 

### force findings and recommendations on sediment problems in the Trinity River near Lewiston and 

### a 

### summary of the watershed investigation. Resources, 32 p. Sacramento, Calif. A Report 

### tothe Secretary for

Estimated amounts of sediment and transport capacities show that before logging and dam construction the Trinity River 

### was capable of transporting bedload sediment. capacity and sediment discharge 

### were approximately equal; hence, the river 

### was still 

### able 

### to flush the added sediment 

### fromlogging operations. After dam construction, the sediment transport capacity 

### of the river

### was reduced to such 

### an extent that sediment in the channel quickly built up. The result has been the deterioration 

### of adequate spawning grounds. After logging, theriver's transport

(14) Cooper, A. C. 

### 1965. The 

### effect of transported 

### stream sediments on the survival 

### of sockeye and pink salmon eggs and alevin. Salmon Fish. 

### Comm. Bull. 18, 71p. Int. Pac.

"Results 

### are presented of studies made to

### assess quantitatively the 

### effectsof sediment deposition upon and within salmon spawning beds on the survival of salmon eggs and alevin. of bed load 

### materials that may be expected on 

### a given portion 

### of 

### a stream bed 

### are presented. particle size grading, particle shape and gravel porosity. The velocity of fluid flow through the gravel 

### is quantitatively related tothe gravel permeability and the hydraulic gradient. on the gravel 

### surface or within the gravel 

### is shown toreduce gravel permeability with consequent reduction in fluid flow and reduction in 

### rate of survival 

### of salmon eggs and alevin deposited in the gravel. Methods of determining the size Spawning gravel permeability 

### is defined in 

### terms of
Deposition of sediment either

28Formulae 

### are developed which 

### relate time and 

### silt 

### size and concentration tothe effect on gravel permeability, and examples of the consequent 

### effect on survival of salmon eggs and alevin 

### are presented. The results of the studies show the importance 

### of preventing deposition of sediments on 

### or within 

### a salmon spawning bed." (15) Cordone, Almo J., and 

### Don W. Kelley 1961. The influences 

### of inorganic sediment on the aquatic 

### life of 

### streams. Calif. Fish & 

### Game 

### 47(2):189-228. The 

### effects of inorganic sediment on aquatic 

### life in 

### streams were discussed. The report covered the following 

### subjects: direct 

### effect of sediment upon fishes; influence 

### of sediment upon eggs,alevins, bottom organisms,aquatic plants, chemical and physical characteristics 

### of aquatic 

### life, and fish habitat and population; and sediment standards and research. (16) Cordone, Almo 

### J., and Steve Pennoyer 1960. Notes on 

### silt pollution 

### in the Truckee River drainage, Nevada and 

### Placer Counties. Calif. Fish & 

### Game, Reg. 2, Inland Fish. Admin. Rep. 60

-14, 25 p. [Processed.] Silt from 

### a gravel washing plant drastically reduced the populations of bottom organisms immediately below the outfall and as far as 10

### miles downstream 

### at Cold Creek and Truckee River, California. (17) Dellberg, Robert A., and John 

### N. Taylor 1962. Erosion control on timberland 

### at harvest. J. Soil &



### Water Conserv. 17(4):177-178. Methods 

### of erosion control 

### were studied in 

### a limited logging operation in Mendocino County, California. 

### (18) 

### mess, C. T. 1966. Erodibility 

### and erosion potential of forest watersheds. 

### In WilliamE. Sopper and Howard 

### W. Lull [eds.], Forest hyr~logy, p. 599-611. 

### Proc. Natl. Sci. Found. Adv. Sci. New 

### York: Pergamon 

### Press.

"This paper reviews 

### a portion of the literature dealing with forest soil erosion and erodibility. erodibility 

### are generally stressed

--resistance 

### of soilparticles to detachment and transport, and soil infiltration

### rate. tachment and transport 

### is controlled to

### a large extent by 

### amounts of water

-stable aggregation. ferent measurements 

### of 

### surface soil aggregation, have been developed. Factors strongly influencing these erodibility indices include soil 

### parent material, organic 

### matter content, 

### climatic conditions, and 

### soil Two main aspects to forest soil Resistance to deSeveral erodibility indices, utilizing dif29chemical properties. Many studies have shown that infiltration

### rate decreases considerably when plant and 

### litter cover 

### is removed, thus exposing the mineral soil

### surface tothe destructive action of rain.

"Some accelerated erosion 

### is generally 

### a necessary consequence of road construction and logging in 

### forest watersheds. causes 

### are reported 

### tobe exposure 

### of bare mineral soiland surface soil compaction. Both controlled burning and wildfires in forested 

### areas are often followed by increased 

### rates of 

### surface erosion. A lthough severe burning may cause increased erodibility, light burning apparently has 

### little effect on 

### soilproperties. importance caused by 

### fire 

### is removal 

### of protective vegetation and 

### litter. Primary

A change 

### of primary

"Research needs inthis field include development of methods for quantitatively estimating forest soil erosion potential and 

### establishment of erosion tolerances for individual forest watersheds." (19) mness, 

### C. 

### T. 1967. 

### Mass soilmovements in the H. 

### J. Andrews Experimental 

### Forest. USDA For. 

### Serv. Res. Pap. 

### PNW-42, 12p. 

## ,illus. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg.

"Analyzes 47 

### mass movement events resulting 

### from severe 

### storms Earthflow and channel scouring events 

### were About 72 percent of the

### mass movements occurred in conduring the winter of 1964-65. the most common. nection with roads and 17 percent in logged 

### areas. the events occurred in 

### areas of tuff and/or breccia bedrock which occupy only 37 percent of the 

### total area." Over 94 percent of

(20) Dyrness, 

### C. 

### T. 1967. Soil 

### surface conditions following skyline logging. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note 

### PNW-55, 8 p. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. 

### Stn., Portland, Oreg. There 

### was very 

### little difference 

### in yarding

-caused disturbance when skyline and high

-lead logging 

### were compared. fore concluded that the main advantage of skyline logging 

### is that 

### it requires 

### less road construction. by V. W. Binkley torequire one-third as many road requirements 

### as highlead logging. source sediments which 

### are 

### a proven major 

### source of sediment in 

### streams. Thus, the 

### use of skyline logging in steep, mountainous 

### areas toreduce 

### stream sedimentation deserves serious consideration. It 

### was thereSkyline logging 

### was previously proven This reduction 

### is extremely important in reducing 

### stream

30(21) 

### mess, C. 

### T. 1970. Stabilization of newly constructed road backslopes by mulch and grass-legume treatments. 

### USDA For. Serv. 

### Res. Note PW

-123, 5 p. Pac. Northwest 

### For. E Range Exp. Stn.', Portland, Oreg. "Amounts 

### of soil 

### loss from 

### an unprotected newly constructed Of sixroadside treatments studied, backslope 

### were two to 

### four 

### times greater than 

### loss from 

### a slope 5 years 

### after construction. the 

### two showing consistently large amounts 

### of soilloss during the 

### first 

### critical rainy period 

### were the only ones without 

### a 

### straw mulch covering." comparable



### (22) Dyrness, C. 

### T., C. T. Youngberg, and Robert H. Ruth 

### 1957. Some 

### effects of logging and slash burning on physical soilproperties in the Corvallis watershed. USDA 

### For. Serv. 

### Pac. Northwest 

### For. G Range Exp. Stn. Res. Pap. 19, 15 p. Portland, Oreg

"Physical soilproperties measured in this study did not differ significantly 

### among 4 

### of the 5 

### surface conditions sampled. severely burned condition 

### was there found 

### a consistent and significant departure, indicating that intense heat altered the character of the 

### surface 

### soil. and lightlyburned portions of the clearcuts remained closely 

### similar to those under adjacent timber stands. Only in the
Physical properties of soil in undisturbed, disturbed

-unburned,

"This study can be considered only 

### a partial evaluation of the 

### effects of logging and slash burning on 

### soils in the Douglas

-fir region. Soil 

### tests 

### were not intended tobe 

### a complete investigation of the soil changes which 

### occur. ined. These are 

### known to 

### occur throughout the Coast and Cascade Ranges in Oregon and Washington, so, while limited in scope, results of this study are applicable over a substantialpart of the Douglas-fir region. Still, 

### to assess 

### fully the 

### effect of logging and slashburning, other soils associated with the Douglas

-fir type willneed tobe sampled and subjected 

### to comprehensive 

### tests." Furthermore, only three types 

### of soil

### were exam-

.

(23) 

### Ellis, 

### M. 

### M. 1936. Erosion 

### silt 

### as 

### a factor in aquatic environments. EcolO~Y 17:29-42. Effects 

### of 

### silt on the aquatic environment 

### are discussed. Erosion 

### silt 

### alters the environment by 

### (1)screening out light, (2) changing heat radiation, (3) covering the 

### stream bottom, and (4) retaining organic 

### material.

31(24) Fredricksen [Fredriksen], R. L. 1965. Sedimentation after logging road construction in 

### a small western Oregon watershed. U.S. Dep. 

### Agric. Misc. Publ. 970: 56

-59, illus.

"During the 

### summer of 1959, 1.65 

### miles 

### of logging road 

### were constructed in 

### a 250

-acre forested watershed that 

### rises 2,000 

### feet in

### a distance of 1mile. This study evaluates the change in sedimentation subsequent toroad construction. Runoff from undisturbed watersheds in this 

### area remains 

### clear during the summer low

-flow months and reaches concentrations 

### of 100 parts per million during winter 

### storm peaks. off from the 

### first rainstorms 

### after road construction carried 250 

### times the concentration carried in an adjacent undisturbed watershed. months 

### after construction, sediment had diminished to levels slightly above those measured before construction. Sediment concentrations for the subsequent 2

-year period 

### were significantly different 

### from preroad levels. 

### were 

### far in excess of predicted values, indicating 

### a streambank 

### failure 

### or mass soilmovement. Annual bedload volume the 

### first year 

### after constructionwas significantly greater than the expected yield, but the actual increase 

### was small. A trend toward normalcy 

### was evident the second year

# ." Run

### Two

In about 10 percent of the samples, sediment concentrations

(25) Fredriksen, R. L. 1970. Erosion and sedimentation following road construction and timber harvest on unstable 

### soils in three 

### small western Oregon watersheds. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW

-104, 15p., illus. Pac. Northwest For. 

### G Range Exp. 

### Stn., Portland, beg. "In 

### two steep headwater drainages, landslides 

### were the predominant 

### source of increased sedimentation of 

### streams following timber harvest. Patchcut logging with forest roads increased sedimentation compared with 

### a controlby more than 100 

### times over 

### a 9

-year period. Landslide erosion 

### was 

### greatest where roads crossed high gradient 

### stream channels. tion increased three times that 

### of the control." In an adjacent clearcut watershed with no roads, sedimenta-
(26) 

### Gangmark, Harold A., and Richard G. Bakkala 1960. A comparative study of unstable and stable 

### (artificial channel) spawning 

### streams for incubating king salmon at Mill Creek. Calif. Fish 

### G Game 46:151-164. "With the knowledge that 

### fast stream run-off 

### was significant in the mortality of spawn, effort 

### was directed toward finding exactly how severe runoff caused these losses. 

### It 

### was determined that mortalities were caked by both direct and indirect factors. Direct losses of spawn 

### was due primarily toerosion 

### of the streambed by high veloci

### ties of 

### water. Information as to the fate of spawn washed out is not available, but 

### it 

### is reasonable to assume that once the eggs 

### are washed

32

### from the protecting gravel bed out into the 

### stream of violent 

### water flow and shifting gravel, their chance of survival 

### is low. Indirect losses of spawn occurred 

### from

### a series of events 

### of diverse and complex nature involving loss of spawning gravel and erosion of soil. Another 

### series of events causing indirect loss of salmon spawn 

### starts with 

### soil erosion that clogs the redd. adequate oxygen and poor delivery 

### of oxygen tothe eggs and poor cleansing of metabolic 

### waste products

# ." This blockage leads 

### to: 

### in-

(27) Hansen, Edward A. 1971. Sediment in 

### a Michigan trout 

### stream, its source, movement, and some 

### effects on fish habitat. USDA 

### For. Serv. Res. Pap. NC-59, 14p. North Cent. For. Exp. 

### Stn., St. Paul, Minn. "A sediment budget 

### was constructed from 3

-years of 

### measurements on 

### a pool and riffle 

### stream. Total sediment load increased five 

### times along a 26

-mile length of 

### stream; most sediment 

### came from 204 eroding banks. Three

-fourths of the total sediment load was sand size. The 

### area of streambed covered with sand decreased downstream, indicating that the transporting capacity of the 

### stream exceeded sediment supply. Complete streambank stabilizationwould reduce the sediment load by about half and probably result in streambed composition changes benef

### icial to trout. " 

### (28) Haupt, Harold F., and W. Joe Kidd, 

### Jr. 1965. Good logging practices reduce sedimentation in central Idaho. J. 

### For. 63(9):664-670. 

### '%om the inception 

### of a study 

### of cutting ponderosa pine on 16 

### small watersheds in the 

### Boise 

### Basin Experimental. Forest, sedimentation was checked reasonably 

### wellbecause of careful advance planning, close supervision of logging, and application of intensive measures for controlling erosion promptly 

### after harvest. stream channels originated primarily on haul roads. road 

### to 

### a stream affected the frequency with which sediment flows reached that 

### stream. Sediment reached channel bottoms through undisturbed buffer strips averaging 8 

### feet wide, but did not reach them if the strips

### were more than 30 feet wide. After 3 years, movement of sediment 'en route' had 

### almost halted

# . )' Sediment that reached the Proximity of a

(29) Hollis,Edgar H., Joseph G. Boone, Charles R. 

### De Rose, and George J. Murphy. 1964. A 

### literature review of the effects of 

### turbidity and siltation on aquatic life. 26 p. Staff Rep., Dep. Chesapeake Bay Aff. Annapolis, Md. The detrimental effects of turbidity and siltationupon aqua

### tic 

### life are reviewed. raphy

# . The report contains 

### a fairly extensive bibliog33(30) Hornbeck, 

### J. W., and K. G. Reinhart 1964. Water quality and soil erosion 

### as affectedby logging in steep terrain. J. Soil & 

### Water Conserv. 19(1):23-27. "The influence 

### of different forestry practices on streamflow has been investigated since 1951on 5 forested watersheds, 38 to 96 

### acres in 

### area, on the Fernow Experimental Forest in the mountains of 

### West Vir- ginia. The effects of cutting and logging practices on 

### water quality 

### are reported in this 

### article.

"Practicesranged from 

### a commercial clearcutting without 

### regard to

### water values 

### or the future value of the property toan intensive selection cutting with useful planning and careful logging. The experiment demonstrated that excessive damage to

### water quality can be avoided even when logging on steep terrain. 

### streams 

### were 56,000 ppm on the commercial clearcut 

### area and only 25 ppm on the intensive selection cut watershed. quality occurred during and immediately 

### after logging. Measured maximum turbidities 

### of Most of the damage 

### towater

"Recommended forestry practices discussed include: planning 

### of the logging operation; proper lccation, drainage, and grade 

### of skidroads; and timely completion of the operation in any specific 

### area. In most respects, practices recommended for watershed protection also contribute tothe overall efficiency of the logging operation." (31) Kelley, Don 1962. Sedimentation helps destroy trout 

### streams. Outdoor Calif. 23(3):4, 5, 10

-11. The 

### effects of sediment on the basic needs of 

### a trout population

--its food, shelter, and 

### a place toreproduce

--are discussed. (32) Koski, K V. 1972. 

### Effects of sediment on fish resources. Presentation

--Wash. State Dep. Nat. Resour. Manage. Semin. 

## , April 18

-20, 1972, 36 p. [Mimeogr.] The 

### effects of sediment on aquatic organisms 

### are discussed. Specific 

### areas of discussion 

### are: (1)freshwater requirements of 

### salmonids, (2) general 

### effects of sediment on fish, (3) 

### effects of sediment on the reproduction of salmonids, (4) the harmful threshold of sediment, (5) effects of sediment on natural populations of fish, and (6) 

### effects of logging on sediment production. An extensive bibliography 

### is included.

34(33) 

### Larse, Robert W. 1971. Prevention and control of erosion and 

### stream sedimenta

### tion from forest roads. 

### In James Morris red.], Proceedings of 

### a symposium

--Forest land uses and 

### stream environment, p. 76

-83. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis.


### "To minimize erosion and resultant 

### stream sedimentation, prevention and control 

### measures 

### must be given consideration in every aspect of road planning, design, construction and maintenance. mountainous terrain the 

### forest land manager must establish specific objectives and prescriptions toguide road network construction and utilize the combined professional skills of the 

### forester, engineer, geologist, biologist, and others to 

### set standards for the protection of watershed values, identify alternatives, and offer solutions to specific problems

# . In

"The decision toroad an 

### area should only be made 

### after the resource-serving benefits have been carefully weighed against the cost and 

### effect of roading on the watershed. The decision not

-to

-road and to accept other alternatives for land

-use management 

### must be strongly considered when the probability 

### of lasting damage 

### to soil, 

### water, and other ecological values 

### is recognized

# . (34) Lull, Howard 

### W., and K. G. Reinhart 

### 1965. Logging and erosion on rough terrain in the 

### east. U.S. Dep. Agric. 

### Misc. Publ. 970:43-47. "Most 

### of the erosion 

### from logging roads occurred during the logging operation. This suggests: 

### "1. That the operation in any one 

### area should not be prolonged, but should be completed 

### as soon 

### as possible. "2. sion during the operation. 

### measures to after

-logging

### care. to cut and maintain broad

-based outsloped drainage dips 

### across skidroads. 

### This 

### is not always easy, and the idea 

### willoften

### be resisted by loggers. That 

### more attention should 

### be paid to preventing 

### eroIt is not enough tolimiterosion control Perhaps themost practical 

### measure is

"This study points up again the fact that erosion 

### from only 

### a fraction 

### of the logging 

### area can pollute 

### a lot of water. Hoover... has pointed out that a short stretch of logging road can produce much more sediment than occasional patches 

### of steep land 

### in cultivated crops. The foresterwho might not permit clearing a piece of forested municipal watershed for 

### a 

### row crop because 

### of the erosion hazard should feel just 

### as much concern over the location of logging roads.

35"Finally, observations in many 

### areas indicate that continuously used permanent road systems 

### in the forest can 

### create serious 

### waterquality problems. should be even higher than for logging roads that 

### are used for only short periods of 

### time

# . '' Standards for constructing and maintaining such roads

(35) McCrimmon, H. R. 1954. Stream studies on planted Atlantic salmon. J. Fish. 

### Res. Board Can. 11(4):362-403. [Taken from Cordone (248).1

"This 

### is an evaluation of the survival and distribution of Atlantic salmon fry planted in 

### a small 

### stream tributary toLake Ontaio. Included 

### is an examination of 

### some of the factors affecting the survival of these fry. The influence of sedimentation on survival

### was studied in detail.

" When the correlation of salmon survival with brook trout predation 

### was analyzed further, it 

### was found that the amount of available shelter which the 

### stream offered the fry 

### was most important in determining the survival or death of the planted fish. "It has been shown in a previous section that the shelter offered by shallow gravelly 

### riffle 

### area was the only satisfactory habitat for the survival of planted fry in 

### all 

### streams. In the general description of the relative extent of sedimentation over the 

### stream system, the criterion employed 

### was the degree towhich these gravelly 

### riffle areas had become sedimented. 

### Areas typed 

### as 'unsedimented' 

### were those inwhich the spaces around the gravel and rubble 

### were not filled inby sediment and hence offered the shelter required by the planted fry. degree 

### of bottom sedimentation played an important part in influencing the survival 

### and distribution 

### of the planted salmon. The

"It 

### was 

### shown that the survival 

### of the 

### small 

### fry in the 

### pools was low, largely because the absence of suitable shelter for the young salmon resulted in predation by certain species of fish. This lack 

### of shelterwas directly caused by the deposition of sediment inthe pools sufficiently 

### great to cover generally the gravel and rubble, and fill the spaces around stones, boulders, logs and the like, to an extent that they could not be utilized by the fry. "Survival studies showed an average percentage survival for underyearling salmon. 

# . .of 23.4 percent in comparison to

### a survival of only 2.2 percent in an 

### area inwhich riffle sedimentation 

### was the heavi

### est observed in the part of the 

### stream system planted with salmon."

36(36) McRorey, R. 

### P., N. 

### F. Meadowcroft, and C. 

### J. Kraebel 1954. A guide toerosion reduction 

### on National Forest timber 

### sale areas. USDA For, Serv. Calif. Reg. For. & Range 

### Exp. Stn., 78 p. Berkeley, Calif, Over one-half themanual concerns the construction and 

### maintenance 

### of logging roads. Leaving 

### an uncut, protective stripalong 

### streams is recommended; however, 

### no minimum width 

### is mentioned. (37) Marcuson, Pat 1968, Stream sediment investigation, 

### Mont. Dep. Fish 

### G Game, South Cent. 

### Mont. Fish. Study. Job Completion Rep. 

### Pro$ F

-20

-R

-13, 10p.

"This report.,.compares 

### current data with data collectedbe

### fore completion 

### of three 

### stream habitat improvement projects on Bluewater Creek. 

### Maximum and minimum 

### water temperatures, mean monthly discharge and mean sediment data 

### are tabled and discussed for the report period. "Mean monthly sediment concentrations and loads were lowest 

### at Station 

### 1and progressively increased downstream. Average suspended sediment load'hasbeen reduced by 1.9 tonslday 

### or 32%

### at Station 2, 14.0 tons/day 

### or 52%

### at Station 3 and 10.5 tons/day 

### or 44%

### at Station 4 following the three streambank improvement projects located near Station 2.

"Trout composition 

### at all stations on Bluewater Creek represented 37%of the fish sampled in 1968 compared to 13%in 1963prior to habitat improvement. altered following 

### a 32%reduction in sediment load 

### at Station 2. responding with 

### a 52%reduction 

### in sediment load 

### at Station 3, there has been a change inweight ratios of trout:rough fish from 39:61 in 1963 

### to 63:37 

### in 1967 and 78:22 in 1968. fish weight ratiohas changed 

### from 12:88 in 1963 to 34:66 in 1967 to 51:49 

### in 1968." Trout:rough fish 

### ratios 

### were 

### not appreciably CorAt Station 4 the trout:rough

(38) Megahan, W. F., and W. 

### J. Kidd 1972. Effects of logging and logging roads on erosion and sediment deposition from steep terrain. 

### J. For. 70(3): 136

-141

# .

"Erosion plots and sediment dams 

### were used toevaluate the 

### effects of 

### jammer and skyline logging systems on erosion and sedimentation 

### in steep, ephemeral drainages inthe Idaho Batholith of 

### central Idaho. resulted from the two skidding systems 

### as applied in the study. Sedi

### ment dam data obtained concurrently showed that the logging operations Five

-year plot data indicated that no difference in erosion

37alone (excluding roads) increased sediment production by 

### a 

### factor of about 0.6 over the natural sedimentation 

### rate. Roads associated with the

### jammer logging system increased sediment production an average 

### of about 750 times over the natural 

### rate for the six

-year period 

### following construction. " (39) Miner, Norman H. 1968. 

### Natural filtering 

### of suspended 

### soilby 

### a stream 

### at low flow. USDA 

### For. Serv. Res. Note PNW

-88, 4 p. illus. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, beg.

"During road construction, soilthat 

### is added 

### to 

### a stream by 

### tractors crossing during 

### low flow 

### is temporarily 'filtered' out before 

### it travels 

### far. Five

-gallon samples 

### were taken 

### at 150, 300, 600, and 1,200 

### feet downstream 

### fr0m.aroad cmssing, with sodium fluorescein dye used as 

### a tracer. Suspended particle concentration 

### was reduced 

### from 1,055 p.p.m. 

### at 150 

### feet below the road 

### to 108 p.p.m. 

### at 1,200 

### feet. The 'filtering' action is 

### a combination 

### of settling of larger particles and dilution 

### of sediment

-laden 

### water. deposi'ted 

### soil 

### will tend to be flushed downstream during high flows and may cause channel erosion 

### or other damage." 

### (40) The This filtration 

### is temporary, and

Packer,Paul E., and George F. Christensen Cn.d.1 Guides for controlling sediment from secondary logging roads. USDA For. Serv. 

### Intermt. 

### For. & Range Exp. Stn. 

### and North. Reg., 42 p. Missoula, Mont. - "Measurements and observations indicate that 

### as much 

### as 90 percent of the sediment produced by erosion on timber 

### sale!

### areas is from roads. can be largely prevented by conscientious application 

### of specific guides 

### for design, location, construction, and maintenance 

### of forest roads. Research and experience show that damage 

### to soil and 

### water

"This handbook contains guides tohelp in location and design 

### of secondary logging roads and installation of 

### water control structures that 

### willreduce mosion and prevent sediment 

### from entering 

### streams." (41) Patric, J. H., and D. N. Swanston 1968. Hydrology of 

### a slide

-prone glacial till 

### soil in south

### east Alaska. J. 

### For. 66(1):62-66.

"Heavy irrigation caused no 

### surface runoff, erosion, ordebris avalanches on well

-drained 

### Karta soil, 

### a tentative 

### series producing much of the 

### commercial timber in southeast Alaska. rainfall, streamflow, and piezometric head in 

### terms of Darcy's equation showed how this slide

-prone soil accommodates large amounts 

### of 

### water. About 2/3 of the 

### water applied drained laterally through permeable sur

### face layers to 

### a stream adjacent to the study 

### area. presumably drained deeply into highly fractured bedrock. Interpreting measured

The remaining 1/3 Less permeable

38soil, 

### less fractured bedrock, 

### or longer irrigated slopes probably would have caused saturated soilunder heavy watering. 

### It appears that 

### Karta soilmust be saturated tocause debris avalanches, 

### a condition which 

### may occur naturally when much larger 

### areas 

### are wetted 

### by much 

### smaller rain

### fall." (42) Peters, John C. 

### 1965. The 

### effects of 

### stream sedimentation on trout embryo 

### sur- vival. 

### In Clarence M. Tarzwell [ed.], Transactions 3rd 

### seminar on biological problems in

### water pollution. U.S. Public Health Serv. 

### Publ. 999

-WP

-25, p. 275

-279. Robert A. Taft Sanit

# .Eng

# . Cent

# .,Cincinnati, Ohio

# .

"Bluewater Creek, during the study period, 

### was characterized There 

### was a progres

### as 

### a 

### stream with 

### little fluctuation 

### in discharge. sive downstream increase in sediment concentrations 

### at the five sampling 

### areas 

### in the 

### stream. Man

- made redds filled with 3/8-inch gravel chips 

### were placed in the vicinity 

### of each sediment

-sampling station. Each redd, 

### at the 

### start of the study, had almost identically large intragravel dissolved

-oxygen concentrations and intragravel apparent velocities. The intragravel dissolved

-oxygen concentration 

### rate and apparent velocity decreased progressively downstream inrelation tothe progressive downstream increase 

### in sediment concentration. Accompanying the progressive downstream decrease in intragravel dissolved

-oxygen concentrations and intragravel apparent velocities 

### was 

### a progressive increase in trout embryo mortality.

"Sediment passing 

### a given 

### area of 

### a 

### stream can greatly 

### afSmall sediment concentrations with 

### small fect trout embryo survival. fluctuations in discharge in 

### a stable streambed environment indicate 

### a 

### stream area with 

### a potential 

### for good trout embryo survival." (43) Phillips, Robert 

### W. 1971. 

### Effects of sediment 

### on the gravel environment and fish 

### In James 

### Morris [ed.], Proceedings 

### of 

### a production. symposium

--Forest land uses and 

### stream environment, p. 64

-74. (beg. State Univ. 

## ,Corvallis.

"Research in the field 

### is summarized. Sediment influences In suspension, 

### (1)it blocks the transmission of 

### fish in several ways. light, reducing algae production, and (2) 

### it damages the gillmembranes, causing death where concentrations 

### are high and exposure 

### is prolonged. When sediment 

### settles on the gravel beds, 

### it is harmful in the following ways: 

### surface waters and 

### waters within the gravel bed. ply of dissolved oxygen to the egg, and interferes with theremoval of metabolites (carbon dioxide and ammonia). 

### (2) Sediment also forms a barrier to fry emergence by blocking the route 

### of egress. solved oxygen and the physical barrier effect of sediment appear tobe 

### (1)It fills the interstices reducing interchange between This reduces the 

### sup- (3) 

### Low dis39additive inreducing survival. impaired because of 

### a 

### loss of escape cover and 

### a reduction of aquatic organisms that are food 

### for fish. pink and chum salmon survival 

### is inversely related tothe amount of sediment in gravel beds." (4)Sumrival 

### after fry emergence 

### is Examples 

### are cited showing that

(44) Platts, 

### William

### S. 1970. The 

### effects of logging and road construction on the aquatic habitat 

### of the South Fork Salmon River, Idaho. [Abstract.] USDA 

### For. Serv., Zone Fish. Biol., 4 p. The harvest and resulting road construction of 325 million board 

### feet of timber removed 

### from 

### 7 percent 

### of the South 

### Fork Salmon River caused aquatic habitat degradation. To determine the aquatic habitat conditions, data 

### were collected *om 325 randomly located 

### stream transects, 670 streambank points, 90 additional 

### stream tran

### sects in spawning 

### areas, 155 streambed 

### core samples, and 80 additional streambed core samples in major spawning 

### areas. Results showed the South Fork Salmon River tobe 

### a heavily sedimented 

### stream, especially 

### in the salmonid spawning areas. The studies showed that both streambed 

### surface and depth sediment content

-were very high. contained slightly 

### less fine materials than the overall spawning 

### areas but 

### were not capable of eliminating required amounts 

### of sediment from egg incubation,

### areas which would result in good permeability. The salmon redds

A debris basin 

### was effective in improving the aquatic habi

### tat inthe 

### stream immediately below thebasin during low and normal waterflows, but 

### it 

### was detrimental todownstream habitat during 

### its initial construction and early existence. (45) 

### Rice, R. M., and 

### J. R. 

### Wallis 1962. How 

### a logging operation can affect 

### streamflow. 

### For. Ind. 89

### (11):38

-40

# . Effects 

### of logging on 

### streamflow and sedimentation in 

### Castle The 

### res,ultspinpoint the Creek, 

### a high 

### Sierra watershed,, 

### were studied. 

### fact that even though the 

### total disturbance 

### of the 

### Castle Creek watershed 

### was not great, roads and landings created a large 

### source of sediment. (46) Saunders, 

### J. W., and M. W. Smith 1965. Changes in 

### a stream population of trout associated with increased 

### silt. 

### J. Fish. Res. Board. Can. 22(2):395-404.


### "Low standing crops 

### of brook trout

## ,SaZveZinus

### fonthzzis, were closely associated with silting in 

### Ellerslie 

### Brook, Prince Edward Island, and appeared to

### result from the destruction 

### of hiding places. Spawning 

### was also curtailed by silting. soon increased. habitat with favourable flow and 

### water temperature, 

### was illustrated." Following scouring, trout stocks The remarkable adaptability 

### of trout to silting, in a

40(47) Shapley, S. Philip, and Daniel 

### M. Bishop 1965. Sedimentation in 

### a salmon 

### stream. J. Fish, 

### Res, Board Can. 22(4):919-928.

"Sediment 

### was artificially added toa 

### small southeastern Alaskan salmon 

### stream. Observations in sediment and control

### riffles indicate that the amount 

### of sediment settling 

### tothe 

### stream bottom decreases exponentially with distance downstream. content of intragravel 

### stream water remained high in sedimented 

### riffles. The added sediment 

### was removed from streambed gravels by 

### fallfreshets and floods

# . " 

### The dissolved oxygen

(48) Sheridan, 

### William 

### L. 1968. Land use and sediment. 

### In Richard T. Myren 

### [ea.], Logging and salmon, p. 62

-79. Proc. Forum Am. Inst. Fish. 

### Res. Biol., Alaska 

### Dist., Juneau, Alaska.

" Ofthe characteristics that logging and road construction could influence, sediment levels in spawning gravels may be one 

### of the most important. ability of spawning gravels, interferes with interchange of 

### water between the gravels and the 

### surface stream, decreases the velocity 

### of 

### water bathing salmon embryos, and when abundant, prevents alevins 

### from emerging. It has been established that sediment decreases perme-

"Although there 

### is little doubt that logging and road construction contribute some sediment to salmon 

### streams, there 

### is no evidence toshow that these activities, when conducted according 

### toprotective clauses included in 

### alltimber 

### sale contracts, have damaged the salmon 

### resource in southeastern Alaska.


### "We know something of 

### the mechanics and dynamics of sedimentation, but regarding some phases 

### we stillhave much to learn. for example, that some sediment 

### is carried into 

### streams in 

### almost every instance where roads 

### are built inthe watersheds. Through watershed studies, 

### we are attaining 

### a better understanding 

### of theway inwhich sediment reaches the mainstream as 

### a result 

### of 

### road construction and logging activities (chiefly

### by way 

### of the,

### lateral tributaries)

# ." We know,

(49) Sheridan, 

### WilliamL., and 

### WilliamJ. 

### McNeil 1968. Some 

### effects of logging 

### on two salmon 

### streams in Alaska. J. For. 66(2):128-133.

"Sedimentation 

### of spawning beds and density 

### of pink salmon (0. 

### gorbuscha) were observed before and 

### after logg'ing in 

### two 

### streams in south

### eastern Alaska. The study lasted seven years (1958-1964). Although the 

### amount of 

### fine particles 

### in spawning beds increased temporarily, the 

### amount in 1964 (fiveyears 

### after logging began) 

### was not significantly 

### greater than

41in 1959. 

### areas during the period 

### of this study. The increases 

### were probably due tothe abolition 

### in 1959 of salmon traps (formerly the primary means of catching salmon)

# . '' Densities of salmon spawners and fry increased in the sampling

(50) Stephens, 

### F.'R. 1966. Soil and watershed characteristics of southeast Alaska and some western Oregon drainages. USDA 

### For. Sew. Alaska Reg., 16 p. Juneau, Alaska. Stephens 

### states that the 

### results of any study on the 

### effects of land management on streams cannot be universally applied 

### to allstreams 

### unless the land characteristics 

### of each 

### area are 

### known and 

### are comparable. To 

### illustrate the variability of land characteristics which influence the hazards of sedimentation, 

### four areas 

### are compared: the South Umpqua, 

### Alsea, and 

### Bull Run drainages in 

### Oregon, and southeast Alaska. (51) Swanston, 

### D. N. 1971. Principal 

### mass movement processes influenced by logging, road building, and 

### fire. 

### of 

### a symposium

--Forest land 

### uses and 

### stream environment, 

### p. 29

-40. Oreg. 

### State Univ., Corvallis. 

### In James 

### Morris [ed.], Proceedings

"Dominant 

### natural soil

### mass movement processes active on 

### watersheds 

### of the western United States include 1)debris avalanches, debris flows and debris torrents; 2) slumps and earth flows; 3) deep

-seated 

### soil creep; and 4) 

### dry creep and sliding. A dominant characteristic of each 

### is steep slope occurrence, frequently in excess of the angle 

### of stability 

### of the 

### soil. Allbut dry creep and sliding occur under high.soi1moisture conditions and usually develop 

### or 

### are accelerated during periods of abnormally high rainfall. truction of natural mechanical support on the slopes. ing, and 

### fire play an important part in initiation and acceleration 

### of these soil

### mass movements. Road building stands out 

### at the present 

### time 

### as the 

### most damaging activity, with soil

### failures resulting largely from slope loading, back

-slope cutting, and inadequate slope drainage. Logging and 

### fire 

### affect stabilityprimarily through destruction 

### of natural mechan

### ical support 

### for the soils, removal 

### of 

### surface cover, and obstruction 

### of main drainage channels by debris." Further, 

### all

### are encouraged 

### or accelerated by desLogging, road build-



### (52) Swanston, Douglas 

### N. 1967. Debris avalanching 

### in thin soils derived 

### from bedrock. USDA 

### For. Sew. 

### Res. Note PNW

-

64, 7 p., illus. 

### Pac. Northwest 

### For. E Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg.

"On slopes steeper than the internal angle 

### of friction and in the absence of 

### a well

-developed, cohesive soil, landslides must be considered 

### a natural erosion process responding to thebasic 

### laws of physics.

42They 

### are an inevitable result 

### of any occurrence which tends toreduce the resistance 

### of 

### a slope to sliding.

"Many 

### of these slopes remain stable 

### for years despite the action 

### of external forces tending to reduce theirresistance 

### to sliding. The slope 

### soils, therefore, must 

### possess a slideresistance which 

### is not directly related to the physical properties of the soil. indications 

### are that this force 

### is produced by 

### tree rooting through the 

### soil and into cracks in the underlying bedrock. rooting system would greatly increase susceptibility 

### of the slope soil to slides." Present Destruction of this

(53) Swanston, Douglas N. 1969. 

### Mass wasting 

### in coastal Alaska. USDA 

### For. Serv. 

### Res. Pap. 

### PNW-83, 15p., 

### illus. Pac. Northwest 

### For. & Range Exp. 

### Stn., Inst. North. 

### For., Juneau, Alaska.

"This paper summarizes and interprets the accumulated data and knowledge 

### about slope erosion 

### in southeast 

### Alaska, particularly in relation torecently logged 

### areas, with general suggestions and guidelines 

### for prediction and control." 

### (54) Swanston, Douglas 

### N. 1970. Mechanics 

### of debris avalanching 

### in shallow till soils of southeast Alaska. USDA 

### For. Serv. 

### Res. Pap. PNW-103, 17 

### p., illus. 

### Pac. Northwest 

### For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, beg.

"Studies in the Maybeso valley show that themajority of debris avalanches and 

### flows develop 

### on slopes 

### greater than 

### 34-Oand 

### are especially frequent around 

### a critical angle of 

### 37O. tour map 

### of Maybeso valley

# ... this angle 

### is represented by the 

### critical contour 0.6, the sine 

### of 37O. Above this 

### critical contour, sliding 

### is imminent with the destruction 

### or disruption of any 

### cohesive forces acting 

### tohold the soil

### in place. Below the 

### critical contour 

### is 

### a zone 

### of decreasing instability. principally in the deeper 

### stream notches and in 

### a narrow band near the 1,200

-foot contour. The narrow band in the vicinity 

### of maximum slide activity corresponds tothe steep 

### face of 

### a till shoulder marking the upper 

### limitof younger 

### till. On an isosinal conThe zone of instability thus defined 

### is located



### "By construction 

### of an isosine 

### map, or more simply mapping 

### of slope angles, 

### areas of general slope instability within 

### a watershed can be located and the feasibility 

### of applying preventive 

### or control measures determined. If the 

### area of instability 

### is a bedrock 

### cliff, no additional consideration need be given. 

### timber stands, serious thought should be given toharvesting techniques and road construction in the 

### critical area." If the 

### area lies within some of the best

43

### (55) Tebo, L. B., Jr. 1955. Effects 

### of siltation, resulting from improper logging on thebottom fauna of 

### a small trout 

### stream 

### in the southern Appalachians. 

### Progr. Fish

-Cult. 17(2):64-70. Logging influenced the bottom fauna 

### of 

### a small trout 

### stream in the Coweeta Experimental Forest. the 

### effects of siltation on 

### a stream community. those used commonly in the southeastern States. poorly planned road systems and skid 

### trails result in 

### a high 

### rate of 

### erosion and siltation in stream channels. benefit the logger by reducing road maintenance. Bottom fauna 

### were selected tomeasure Logging practices 

### were Results indicated that Properly constructed roads 

### will
(56) 

### Tebo, L. B., 

### Jr. 1957. Effects 

### of siltation on trout 

### streams. SocoAm. 

### For. PFOC. 1956:198-202. A study 

### of the Coweeta Experimental 

### Forest inwestern North Carolina showed that soilerosion and siltationreduced and, in severe 

### cases, even destroyed the trout fishery by 

### (1)inhibiting spawning success, (2) reducing the available food supply, and (3) changing thephys

### ical characteristics of the habitat 

### so as tomake 

### it unsuitable fortrout. (57) 

### Ursic, S. J. 1965. Sediment yields from 

### small watersheds under various land uses and 

### forest covers. U.S. Dep. Agric. 

### Misc. 

### Publ. 970: 47-32.



### "Data 

### from 

### small watersheds in the hilly uplands of northern Mississippi show large variations in annual runoff and sediment production attributable

### to land use and cover types. Runoff decreased inthe order: corn and pasture 

### > abandoned fields and depleted hardwoods 

### > pine plantations. Annual sediment yields and average concentrations 

### of sediment per unit of runoff decreased in the order: 

### corn 

### > pasture 

### > abandoned fields and depleted hardwoods 

### > pine plantations and 

### mature pine

-hardwoods. These progressions represent discrete populations of erosion potential. "Runoff 

### was greater from watersheds with 

### loessial soils than 

### from those with both loess and Coastal Plain soils, but the effect of 

### soil on sediment yields 

### was not consistent 

### for 

### allcovers.



### "Extremes in annual sediment production ranged 

### from 43 tons per 

### acre from

### a cultivated watershed to

### a fewpounds per 

### acre from pine plantations. Sediment yields from abandoned fields with 

### a dense cover of native 

### grass and from forest covers did not exceed 0.5 ton per 

### acre annually. been reported 

### as 84 to400 tons per 

### acre. By contrast, yields 

### from gullies in the same locality have



### 44"The studies 

### are yielding data that should eventually 

### allow prediction of sediment production and permanent covers. opportunities for reducing runoff and sediment by changing land 

### use and cover types. They suggest

"Establishing pine on actively eroding abandoned fields has 

### in two decades reduced sedimentation toamounts probably not in excess 

### of the geologic norm 

### for undisturbed 

### climax forests in this 

### area." (58) 

### Wallis, 

### James R. 1963. Logging 

### for water quality innorthern California. USDA For. Serv. 

### Res. Note PSW

-

N23, 7 p. 

### Pac. Southwest 

### For. G Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, 

### Calif.

"Eleven 

### 'do's1 and 'don'ts' of logging for preserving 

### water quality 

### are listed and tips for recognizing themore erodible 

### sites 

### are given

# . I' (59) Wickett, W. P. 1959. 

### Effects of siltation on success 

### of fish spawning. 

### In E. 

### F. Eldridge and John N. Wilson reds.], Proceedings 5th symposium

--Pacific Northwest on siltation

- -its 

### source and 

### effects on aquatic environment, p. 16

-17. U.S. Dep. Health, Educ. & 

### Welfare, Portland, Oreg. 

### Effects of siltation on salmon 

### are discussed. (60) Wilson, John N. 1960. Effects 

### of turbidity and 

### silt on aquatic 

### life. In Clarence 

### M. Tarzwell [ed.], Transactions 195.9 seminar on biological problems in

### water pollution. U.S. Public Health Serv. Tech. Rep. W60-3:235-239. Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., Columbus, Ohio. Effects 

### of turbidity and silt on aquatic life and a consideration 

### of the establishment 

### of 

### water quality 

### criteria for silt and turbidity innatural 

### waters 

### are discussed. (61) Wustenberg, Donald 

### W. 1954. 

### A preliminary survey of the influences 

### of controlled logging on a trout 

### stream inthe H. 

### J. Andrews Experimental 

### Forest, Oregon. 51p. 

### M.S. thesis, Oreg. State Coll., Corvallis. The staggered

-setting system of logging in

### mature Douglas

-fir stands 

### affects trout environments. 'Findings included: 

### (1)an increase in localized sediment entering the 

### stream associated with maintenance and use 

### of logging centrations as sediments, (4) parts of 

### small roads, (2) 

### a lack of pronounced increases in sediment con

### a result of logging, (3) 

### a fine 

### silt consistency 

### for most 

### a preponderance of sediment concentrations in the upper tributaries, 

### (5) 

### a greater disruption 

### of streambeds from

45tractor logging than 

### fromhigh

-lead logging, (6) severe scouring in logged 

### streams during 

### high flows in comparison with relatively undisturbed conditions in dogged sections of the 

### same 

### streams, (7)the elimination of cutthroat trout populations 

### in logged 

### streams and adverse 

### effects on aquatic insects 

### for at least one year, 

### and (8) the possibility 

### of reduction in

### water temperatures through the use 

### of streamside buffer strips.

46

## STREAMSIDEVEGETATION

47(62) Brazier, Jon R., and George 

### W. Brown 1972. Buffer strips for 

### stream temperature control. beg. State Univ. 

### Res. Pap. 

### No. 15, 12p. "The purposes 

### of this research bulletin 

### are to show which buffer strip

### characteristics 

### are important in regulating the temperature 

### of 

### small streams and 

### to describe a method 

### of designingbuffer strips that 

### willinsure no temperature change and 

### at the 

### same 

### time minimize the amount 

### of commercial timber 

### left inthe strip

### to provide thenecessary shade." (63) 

### Burns, 

### J. 

### E. 1970. The importance of streamside vegetation 

### to trout and salmon 

### in British Columbia. Dep. Recreation & Conserv., Vancouver Island Reg., Fish & Wildl. Branch, Fish. Tech. Circ. 1, 10 p. Nanaimo, B.C., Can.

"Salmonids 

### are adapted to cool, welloxygenated 

### streams that have traditionally been relatively 

### free 

### of sediment and have been provided with energy 

### sources and cover 

### fromstreamside vegetation. Environmental disturbances such 

### as the removal of the streamside canopy, erosion, sedimentation, debris deposition and spraying 

### of toxins have resulted in the loss of much productive stream habitat for trout and salmon inNorthwestern 

### North America. The magnitude of this loss could have been reduced significantlyby treating the 

### stream 

### as an integral part 

### of the total forest environment and leaving streamside vegetation, 

### a small part of the environment

## ,relatively undisturbed

# . (64) Cormack, R. G. H. 1949. A study 

### of trout streamside cover in logged

-over and undisturbed virgin spruce woods. Can. J. 

### Res. 27(3):78-95. [Taken 

### from Cordone (1481.1

"The purpose 

### of the survey 

### was to obtain information concerning the vegetation of undisturbed and disturbed forest 

### areas, toanalyze the information and to

### relate it tothe problems of 

### soil erosion, 

### water conservation, and trout 

### stream management.



### "From evidence obtained in the present survey one 

### measure of 

### stream protection that 

### seems most desirable would be the prohibition of 

### all cutting along wide strips on both sides of the 

### stream. siderable precedent for advising 

### a policy of this kind, 

### as multiple 

### we forestry 

### admits non-cutting in certain 

### areas, if it 

### is genuinely needed. The width of the strips 

### to be 

### left uncut willundoubtedly vary with the individual 

### stream and with the type 

### of forest cover. Taking conditions in the 

### Carbondale River Valley 

### as more 

### or less general 

### for this part 

### of the watershed the 

### writer suggests 

### as a beginning point 

### a strip

### of 

### at 

### least 60 feet on each side of the 

### stream. wide enough to provide the maximum of shade and protection toboth 

### stream There 

### is conCertainly the uncut 

### areas should be

48

\

### and streamside cover and topreserve the natural attractiveness of 

### the stream. source, springs, and 

### small feeder tributaries." Also 

### they should be extensive enough toinclude the stream's
(65) DeWitt, John W. 1968. 

### Streamside vegetation and 

### small 

### coastal salmon 

### streams. Proc. 

### Forum Am. 

### Inst. Fish. Res. 

### In Richard T. 

### Myren Led.], 

### Forum on therelationbetween logging and salmon, p. 38

-47. 

### Biol., Alaska Dist., 

### Juneau, Alaska.

"The 

### main purpose of this

### talk 

### is toreview some 

### general considerations 

### of the influence 

### of streamside vegetation, especially 

### its stream and ecoloG 

### of 

### small 

### coastal salmon 

### streams. Some of 

### the direct 

### effects that I 

### shall ascribe 

### to changes in streamside vegetation can alsobe the 

### result of 

### changes invegetation on slopes and ridges

### well away 

### from the 

### stream. The 

### streams I 

### am referring toare those of 

### minimum flow of 

### only 

### a few 

### cubic feet per second. these 

### streams tend tohave well-vegetated banks and tobe well 

### shaded." canopy aspects as 

### affected by canopy removal, on the conditions

In 

### areas of virgin and recovered forest,
(66) 

### Green, Geoffrey 

### E. 1950. 

### Land use 

### and trout streams. J. Soil & 

### Water Conserv. 5( 3): 

### 125-126

# . A 

### study in the 

### Coweeta Experimental Forest of North 

### Carolina compared 

### stream temperatures of 

### two streams

--an agricultural 

### stream and an undisturbed forest 

### stream. control of 

### stream temperatures. shade ranged 

### from 9O-2Oo 

### F higher than the forest stream. As 

### was expected, shading 

### was thekey to The 

### agricultural stream with 

### little

(67) 

### Johnson, Fred W. 

### 1953. Forests and trout. J. 

### For. 51(8):551-554. The author 

### states that:

"...Stream

-bank vegetation helps tomaintain such [deep-water] areas through the reduction of 

### lateral 

### erosion. along stream banks...provide this needed protection against 

### lateral erosion. skid 

### trails and logging roads. During 

### summer rainstorms, the writer has 

### observed that 

### silt 

### flows fan 

### out within 20 

### or 30 

### feet after entering the undisturbed mat of pine needles and other forest litter." 

### Strips of 

### timber left 

### Moreover, they also serve as buffers that arrest silt flows 

### from

The article 

### discusses trout

-forest relationships in general but 

### probably refers 

### tothe Rocky Mountain area.

49(68) McMynn, R. G. 1970. 

### "Green belts" 

### or "leave.strips"toprotect fish! 

### Why? Dep. 

### Recreation & 

### Conserv., Comer, Fish. Branch, 36 p. 

### Victoria, B.C., 

### Can. Papers concerning logging practices inrelation to

### water manage

### ment and fish production 

### are reviewed; 

### first, 

### to outline 

### how logging prac

### tices can 

### affect 

### a watershed, and second, 

### to explain how "leave strips" or "green belts" 

### can be important in offsetting some of the detrimental 

### effects of logging. (69) McMynn, Robert 1970. Strips of 

### trees could protect fish 

### from loggers. 

### West. Fish. 80(6):20-24. 

### Benefits of 

### "leave strips" or 

### "green belts" along 

### streams 

### are Author 

### states that such strips 

### or belts would provide the

### most discussed. valuable 

### means of protecting 

### streams from harmful 

### effects 

### of logging on fish

# . (70) Sadler, Ronald R. 1970. Buffer strips

--apossible application of decision theory. Bur, Land Manage. Tech. Note, 11p. U.S. Dep. Inter. Portland, Oreg

# . The economic values of leaving buffer strips 

### for 

### stream protection 

### are discussed. The 

### article includes various formulas 

### to determine economic value of the fishery 

### as compared with the value of the timber in the buffer strips. 

### (71) Streeby, 

### Larry 1971. Buffer strips

--some considerations in the decision to leave. 

### In James 

### Morris [ed.], Proceedings 

### of 

### a symposium

--Forest land 

### uses and 

### stream environment, 

### p, 194

-198. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis

# . "Buffer strips have been receiving 

### a great deal of attention 

### as 

### a method 

### of protecting 

### streams and the 

### stream environment. 

### are not equally 

### useful in all places. strips 

### is dependent on three 

### classes of factors

--physical

-biotic 

### factors, outside 

### cultural factors, and management objectives. and benefits associated with buffer strips 

### are identified, but 

### all these costs'and benefits should 

### not be expressed in dollar 

### terms. Rather, 

### all costs and benefits associated with each management objective should be explicitly recognized 

### in their 

### own natural 

### measure of contribution togoals, and decisions should be made on the basis of this information."

### But they The desirability of applying buffer Some potential costs

50

## WATER QUALITY

51

### (72) Allen, E. J. 

### 1960. Water 

### supply watershed problems 

# - Seattlewatershed. 

### In E. 

### F. Eldridge 

### [ea.], Proceedings 7th symposium

### water pollution research, p. 

### 15

-17. U.S. Public Health Serv., Reg. IX, 

### Portland, Oreg. Watershed activities which have a deleterious effect 

### upon the quality or 

### quantity of 

### water are discussed. solution is multiple use management. The author suggests that the
(73) Atkinson, Sheridan William 1971. BOD 

### and toxicity of log leachates. 96 p. M.S. 

### thesis, Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. "A 

### series of log storage experiments 

### was conducted todetermine whether leachates derived from water 

### storage of 

### logs are acutely 

### toxic to 

### fish. Log segments approximately 18 inches long and 16

### inches in diameter were 

### stored intanks and held submerged 

### for a period 

### of 7 days. mercury to retard 

### biological decomposition of 

### the leached 

### substances. Mercury 

### was selectivelyremoved from leachate samples by chelation 

### prior tobiochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 

### and bioassay tes3ing. The holding water 

### containing leached 

### materials was made toxicwith

"Trout and salmon fry were 

### subjected tothe leachate water 

### in short 

### term acute bioassay tests. 

### ance limit, 

### (TLm), i.e., 

### the concentration of leachate at 

### which 50 percent of 

### the test 

### fish died for 

### any given exposure time. tested 

### for BODS, BOD k

-rate, 

### chemical oxygen demand (COD), wood sugar and Pearl 

### Benson Index (PBI). Results 

### are reported 

### as a median toler

### Leachates were 

### also

"Test

### results show that leachates from 

### Douglas fir 

### stored in fresh water 

### exert a slight acute toxicity tofish. A TLmg6 

### of 20 percent leachate by volume, for 

### a 50 

### year old 

### Douglas fir 

### log, was themost 

### toxic leachate observed. Leachates from ponderosa pine, hemlock and older fir log 

### stored under identical conditions produced 

### no measurable acute toxicity. substances. The highest BOD5, 

### (1.36 g/ft2 

### of submerged surface area) 

### was exertedby leachate from a ponderosa pine log segment storedwith bark removed. from a 

### young Douglas fir 

### log segment. ranged widely 

### for the various leachates, but were relatively low which indicated a significant fraction of 

### non-biodegradable substances. Hoffbuhr

# ... also observed 

### a high non-biodegradable fraction in samples 

### taken from log 

### storage ponds. Wood sugars were 

### found to account for a 

### large part of the degradable portion of 

### leachates. derosa pine log 

### with bark intact exerted a high BOD 

### and also contained the highest concentration of 

### wood sugar observed, 0.84 

### g/ft2." Leachates contained a significant quantity of BOD 

### and PBI 

### exerting

The highest PBI 

### value (12.5 g/ft2), was observed 

### for leachate B0D:COD ratios and BOD 

### k

-rate

Leachates from 

### pon52

### (74) Bormann, F. 

### H., G. E. 

### Likens, D. W. 

### Fisher, and R. S. 

### Pierce 

### 1968. Nutrient loss accelerated by 

### clear cutting of 

### a forest ecosystem. Science 159:882-884. "The forest of 

### a small watershed

-ecosystem 

### was cut in order todetermine the effects 

### of removal of vegetation on nutrient cycles. Relative toundisturbed ecosystems, the cut ecosystem exhibited 

### accelerated 

### loss of nutrients: nitrogen lost during the first year 

### after cutting

### was equivalent to the 

### amount annually turned over in an undisturbed system, and losses of cations 

### were 3 

### to 20 

### times 

### greater than from comparable undisturbed systems. nutrient loss 

### fromthe cut ecosystem 

### are discussed." Possible causes of the pattern of
(75) Bridges, W. R. 

### 1965. Some 

### effects on fish of 

### chemical control of 

### forest insects. SOC. Am. 

### For. Proc. 

### 1964:192-194.

"This paper deals primarily with 

### some of 

### the effects 

### on fish caused by DDT 

### aerial sprays conducted 

### for forest insect control. Some aspects associated with the 

### use of other less toxic chemicals 

### are also considered. It 

### (76) 

### Brown, George 

### W. 1969. Predicting temperatures of small 

### streams. Water Resour. Res. 

### 5( 1): 

### 68

-75

# . "Hourly temperatures of small 

### streams can be accurately predicted using 

### an energy balance. required to assess the 

### environment of the small stream accurately. The temperature

-prediction technique 

### was tested on three 

### streams 'in Oregon. On unshaded stretches, net all

-wave radiation is the predominant energy source during the day; evaporation and convection account for 

### less than 10% of the 

### total energy 

### exchange. bottom 

### is 

### an important energy balance component on shallow 

### streams having a 

### bedrock bottom. be transferred into the bed. predicted towithin 

### lo F 

### more than 90%

### of the time. 

### mitsforesters to control 

### water temperature through manipulation of stream

-side vegetation

# . l1 

### Micrometeorological measurements 

### are

Conduction of heat 

### into the 

### stream 

### Up to 25%of the energy absorbed by such 

### a stream may Hourly temperature changes of 0-16O F 

### were This technique per-

(77) 

### Brown, George 

### W. 1970. 

### Predicting the effect 

### of clearcutting on stream temperature. J. 

### Soil & 

### Water Conserv. 

### 25(1):ll-13. "The temperature change that occurs between two points on a stream 

### is directly proportional tothe surface 

### area of 

### the 

### stream and the heat 

### load applied between these 

### points. It is 

### inversely propor- tional to 

### the 

### flow. Good estimates 

### of the heat load 

### can be 

### made with 

### solar radiation data if the 

### stream is 

### uniformly exposed to sunlight. Foresters 

### can use 

### this technique topredict the effect of 

### clearcutting on stream 

### temperature."

53

### (78) 

### Brown, George 

### W. 1971. Water 

### temperature in small streams 

### as influenced by environmental factors and logging. Proceedings of a symposium

--Forest land uses 

### and stream environment, p

# . 175

-181. Oreg

# . State 

### Univ. 

## ,Corvallis

# . In James 

### Morris [ed.],

"Clearcut logging can produce large changes in the temperature Shade removal may increase radiation loads by of 

### small 

### streams. is direct solar radiation. sixto seven 

### times. ing shade between theboundary of the clearcut and the 

### stream. shade 

### may be provided by brush species if 

### streams are very 

### small. impact, both 

### at the site and downstream, of exposing given amounts of 

### stream surface to direct solar radiation is predictable." The principal source of heat affected by clearcutting Temperature control can best be achieved by provid- Adequate The

(79) Brown, 

### George W. 

### 1972. An improved temperature prediction model 

### for small streams. Water 

### Resour. Res. 

### Inst., Rep. WRRI-16, 20 

### p. Oreg. State 

### Univ., Corvallis

# . "A 

### model 

### for predicting the 

### maximum change intemperature 

### from completely exposing a reach of stream to

### solar 

### radiation was 

### developed during earlier research. This model, which assumes that net solar

### radiation is the sole source of energy tothe stream, 

### worked well

### on most 

### streams. either a large proportion 

### of pools 

### or bed rock inthe 

### stream bottom. found that 

### only the flowing portion of the pools should be included in the heat exchange process. toms can conduct about 20%of 

### the incident solar radiation away from the 

### stream. Reducing 

### our 

### estimates of 

### stream surface 

### area and 

### net heat load according topool configuration and bed condition provided good estimates of temperature change using the original model." In 

### a few 

### cases it 

### worked very poorly. These streams 

### contained 

### We We also found that 

### thebed rock 

### stream bot-

(80) Brown, 

### George W., 

### and James T. 

### Krygier 

### 1967. Changing 

### water temperatures 

### in 

### small mountain streams. J. Soil & Water Conserv. 22(6):242-244. 

### The results 

### fromtwo studies show that clearcutting influThe 

### inteences 

### summer temperatures in small

### Oregon coastal 

### streams. grated effect 

### of numerous clearcuttings on small tributary streams may be 

### a significant source of 

### thermal pollution. (81) 

### Brown, George W., 

### and James T. 

### Krygier Resour. Res. 6(4):1133-1139. 

### 1970. Effects 

### of clear

-cutting on stream 

### temperature. Water



### "The principal source of energy for warming streams 

### is the 

### Average monthly maximum temperatures increased by 

### sun. clear

-cut logging. The 

### amount of sunlight reaching the 

### stream may be increased after

54

### 14O F and annual maximum temperatures increased 

### from 57O to 85O 

### F one year 

### after clear

-cut logging on 

### a small watershed in Oregon's coast range. 

### a nearby watershed where strips 

### of brush and 

### trees separated logging units from the 

### stream, no changes in temperature 

### were observed that could be 

### attributed to clear

-cutt ing

# . " In

(82) 

### Brown, George 

### W., Gerald W. Swank, and Jack Rothacher 1971. 

### Water temperature inthe Steamboat drainage. USDA 

### For. Sew. Res. Pap. PNW

-119, 17p. 

### Pac. Northwest 

### For. E Range 

### Exp. 

### Stn., Portland, Oreg.

"Stream temperatures 

### were studied in 

### a drainage in which logging operations 

### were typical 

### of much of the commercial forests on the 

### west slopes 

### of the Cascade Range. 

### streams influenced by various degrees of exposure 

### from logging 

### were measured, and 

### a simplified prediction equation 

### was tested." Changes in

### water temperature of tributary

(83) Bullard, 

### William 1963. 

### Water quality problems originating on wild lands. 

### In Symposium on forest watershed management, 

### p. 313

-319. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. The 

### water quality problems originating on wild lands and some possible solutions to these problems are discussed. (84) Eschner, Arthur R., and Jack Larmoyeux 1963. Logging and trout: 

### four experimental forest practices 

### and their 

### effect 

### on water quality. Progr. Fish

-Cult. 25(2):59-67. 

### Results of studies conducted in

### West Virginia 

### are discussed: "Experimental logging of watersheds caused significant changes in quantity and quality 

### of streamflow.

"Poorly located and constructed skidroads resulted in continuous, very high 

### stream turbidities during logging. ished with 

### time after logging disturbance ended. constructed skidroads contributed negligible amounts 

### of turbidity. This 

### effect diminCarefully planned and
"Clearcutting resulted in significantly higher maximum 

### stream Maximum 

### stream temperatures above those generally tole- temperatures in the growing season, lower minimum temperatures inthe dormant season. rated by brook trout 

### were noted often in the 

### summer of 1959. Moderate cutting did not produce water

-quality changes that might be harmful to trout

# . "Increases 

### inpH, alkalinity, and specific conductance were noted in the 

### stream flowing from the clearcut watershed.

55"Streamflow 

### was increased by the treatments in proportion 

### to the amount of timber cut and killed. Most of the increases 

### came 

### late in 

### summer and early 

### in 

### fall, the periods 

### of high evapotranspiration and soilmoisture recharge, when flow inmany trout 

### streams is dangerously 

### low

# .

"Changes in 

### stream pH, alkalinity, and temperature 

### are persisting; but treatment effects on quantity of flowand turbidity 

### are diminishing 

### as 

### time passes

# . I' (85) Fredriksen, R. L. 1971. Comparative chemical 

### water quality 

## - natural and disturbed streams following logging and slash burning. 

### James Morris [ed.], Proceedings of a symposium

--Forest land uses and 

### stream environment, 

### p. 125-137. Corvallis

# . In Oreg. State Univ.,

"The 

### loss of nutrients 

### froman old

-growth Douglas

-fir 

### forest was measured in the 

### streams of experimental watersheds. Following timber harvest and slash burning, 

### loss 

### of nutrients cations increased 1.6 to 3.0 

### times the 

### loss fromthe undisturbed watershed. A surge 

### of nutrients that followed broadcast burning contained concentrations of ammonia and manganese that exceeded Federal 

### water quality standards for 

### a period 

### of 12 days. 

### acre; 53 percent of this 

### was organic nitrogen contained in sediment. Inorganic nitrogen, dissolved inthe 

### stream, made up the remaining part. Annual 

### loss of nitrogen 

### from the undisturbed 

### forest 

### was very small--.16 pound per 

### acre

# . Annual nitrogen 

### loss following burning averaged 4.6 pounds per



### (86) Gibson, H. R., and D. W. Chapman 1972. 

### Effects of Zectran insecticide on aquatic organisms in Bear Valley Creek, Idaho

# . Trans

# .Am. Fish. SOC 

# . 101(2): 330-344.



### " We assessed 

### effects of the experimental insecticide Zectran

# @

on aquatic organisms in 

### Bear Valley Creek, Idaho in 1966. drainage, nearby and not sprayed, served 

### as a control. nificant fish mortality, and no 

### effect on growth 

### rate and condition of age Ot, 1+, 2t, and 3+ dolly Varden 

### (SaZveZinus

### ma~rn). applications did not increase emigration and intrastream movement 

### of fish. We noted no 

### effects on benthic aquatic insect numbers, but observed that more insects drifted downstream 

### for several hours beginning about 3 hours 

### after spraying on July 7, 1966. Adult 

### terrestrial insects, 

### immature Heptageneidae and Rhyacophilidae, adult Chloroperlidae, and 

### immature and adult Phryganeidae, Limnephilidae, and Blephariceridae increased in drift samples 

### after spraying. aquatic organisms very 

### little." Hayden Creek 

### We found no sigInsecticide

We concluded that the Zectran insecticide damaged

56

### (87) Goldman, Charles R. 1967. Effects of pesticides in California watersheds. 

### In Man's effect on California watersheds, p. 211-217. Part 111, 1965- 1967. Sacramento, California. The 

### effects of pesticides on both the aquatic and 

### terrestrial habitats 

### are discussed. California is also included. A list 

### of needed research and legislation in



### (88) Gordon, Robert, and Dennis Martens Fish., Sept., p. 41

-43. 1969. Sockeye eggs killed by bark on spawning gravel. 

### West
"Dangers of log

-driving on salmon spawning 

### streams are being studied by the Salmon Commission. which conclude that concentrations of bark over 

### four percent 

### of the gravel 

### surface 

### are detrimental. would be 

## 'ill

-advised.

## '" 

### Two biologists outline their findings, Resumption 

### of the Stellako log drive, they say,
(89) Graham, John LeRoy 

### 1970. Pollutants leached from selected species 

### of wood 

### in log storage 

### waters. 46 p. M.S. thesis, Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis.

"A study

### was conducted to determine the quantity and character of substances leached from 

### logs floating in

### water, and the 

### rate of leaching of these substances. and ponderosa pine. The 

### research was carried out in 

### a controlled laboratory environment with log sections 14

-inches in diameter by 20

-inches long. 

### The study included log sections submerged inboth tap 

### water and saline 

### water. degradation 

### of the leached 

### materials. The species of wood studied

### were Douglas 

### fir

The holding 

### water was chemically poisoned toprevent biological

"The analyses performed on samples of the holding water taken 

### at specified intervals during 40 day leaching periods included 

### chemical oxygen demand (COD), Pearl

-Benson Index (PBI), total solids 

### (TS), total volatile solids 

### (TVS) and total organic carbon 

### (TOC). 'The data showed that ponderosa pine logs contributed 

### measurably 

### greater quantities of soluble organic 

### materials and color

-producing substances than Douglas 

### fir logs. 

### The following COD and 

### PBI values 

### were measured 

### after 

### a leaching period of 20 days: ponderosa pine 

## - 4.3 g COD/ft 

## , 15g PBI/ft2; Douglas 

### fir 

## - 3.2 g COD/ft2, 11 g PBI/ft2. "Leaching 

### rate appeared tobe affected by the concentration of soluble organic 

### materials in the stagnant holding water; however, experiments showed that, in flowing 

### water, the leaching 

### rate was nearly constant.

"Extrapolation 

### of the 

### laboratory test data tofield conditions resulted in an 

### estimate of nearly 800 pounds 

### of COD per day contributed by approximately 8 million 

### board feet 

### of floating 

### logs 

### to 

### a typical log storage 

### water

# . I'

57

### (90) 

### Gray, J. R. A., and J. M. Edington 1969. Effect 

### of woodland clearance on 

### stream temperature. 

### J. Fish. 

### Res. Board 

### Can. 26:399-403. "A study 

### was made 

### of the temperature characteristics of 

### a stream which flowed 

### first through open fields and then through woodland. When the woodland 

### was felled, that 

### section of the 

### stream showed 

### a marked 

### rise in summer temperature. 

### of 

### tree shading 

### can be the decisive 

### factor 

### in determining the temperature of 

### small streams

# . '' It 

### is argued that the presence 

### or absence

(91) 

### Griffin, L. E. 1938. Experiments on tolerance 

### of young trout and 

### salmon for Oreg. State Dep. 

### Geol. 

### Miner. suspended sediment 

### in water. Ind. Bull. No. 10, Append. B., p. 28

-31. Portland, Oreg. The preliminary examination of data 

### fkom 

### a study 

### on the tol

### erance of young trout and salmon to suspended sediment indicated that young 

### trout and salmon 

### are not directly injured by heavily silted

### water. (92) Grondal, 

### Bror L. 1945. Relation of runoff and 

### water quality to land and forest 

### use 

### in Cedar River watershed. J. Am. 

### Water Works 

### Assoc. 37(1): 15

-20

# . A study 

### commission formed with the primary objective 

### of deciding the 

### future policies 

### in the Cedar River watershed with respect tologging recommended 

### a continuation 

### of logging 

### in the watershed on 

### a controlled sustained

-yield basis. (93) Klock, G. 0. 1971. Streamflow nitrogen 

### loss following forest erosion control fertilization. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW

-169, 9 p. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg.

"Three gaged watersheds, approximately 500 hectares in size, 

### innorth 

### central Washington 

### were severely burned 

### in 1970 by wildfire. In an experimental erosion control seeding program, two watersheds were fertilized, one with 

### urea and the other with ammonium 

### sulfate. watershed 

### was retained as 

### an unrehabilitated control. during and following fertilization, 1.37 kilograms of 

### urea-N and 2.90 kilo

### grams of 

### nitrate

-N were estimated tohave been carried by streamflow from the watershed fertilized with 27.5 

### metric 

### tons of 

### elemental nitrogen 

### as urea. 

### On the watershed fertilized with 33.16 

### metric tons of elemental nitrogen 

### as ammonium sulfate, 1.45 kilograms 

### of nitrate

-N was estimated tohave been transported fromthe watershed by streamflow." The third For 

### a 60

-day period



### 58(94) Kopperdahl, Fredric R., 

### James W. 

### Burns, and Gary

### E. Smith 1971. 

### Water quality of some logged and unlogged 

### California streams. Calif. Fish & Game, Inland 

### Admin. Rep. 71

-12, 19p.



### "Water quality

### was monitored 

### in 1968 and 1969 

### in sixcoastal streams in northern California, 

### four of which 

### were subjected tologging and/or road building (Bummer Lake Creek, South Fork Yager Creek, Little North Fork Noyo River, and South Fork Caspar Creek), while the others remained undisturbed (Godwood Creek and North Fork Caspar Creek). The purposes of this study 

### were 

### to characterize the 

### water quality 

### of the 

### streams, to deternine if the logging and road construction drastically altered 

### water quality, and 

### to 

### collect 

### water quality data which could be tested 

### for predicting 

### stream carrying capacities 

### for salmonids.

"Conditions 

### were generally suitable for salmonids during and 

### after the logging. 

### No abnormal concentrations of dissolved oxygen, 

### alkalinity, hardness, dissolved solids, phosphate, chloride, 

### sulfate, 

### ni

### trate, 

### tannin and 

### lignin, or pH 

### were detected. 

### inmost 

### streams, except in South Fork Caspar Creek when it reached 8 pprn during decomposition 

### of logging debris 

### in the 

### summer of 1968. Turbidity was highest in 

### areas where bulldozers 

### were working 

### in the 

### streams. Temperatures of 

### most 

### streams increased 

### after the logging, but seldom 

### exceeded 70° F because of the 

### cool 

### climate 

### in the coastal fog belt. 

### Alternating 

### cut and 

### uncut blocks on 

### one stream, and retaining 

### a buffer strip along another, kept temperatures 

### low in two 

### streams." Carbon dioxide was low

(95) 

### Kramer, Robert H. 

## ,and Lloyd L. Smith, Jr. 1965. Effects of suspended wood fiber on brown and rainbow trout eggs and 

### alevins. Trans. 

### Am. Fish. SOC. 94:252-258.



### "Brown and rainbow 

### trout 

### (Sazmo trutta and 

### S. 

### gairdned) eggs 

### were held 

### in continuous

-flow suspensions of 0

-, 60

-, 125

-, and 250

-ppm 

### conifer groundwood fiber 6 to 8 days before hatching. Resulting alevins 

### were held 

### in the 

### same fiber 

### concentrations until swimup (14 

### to 16 days), then removed and maintained 

### in clean 

### water 

### for up to91days. Suspended 

### fiber had no 

### effect upon egg 

### survival, respiration 

### rate of embryos, 

### or growth 

### rates of alevins and juveniles 

### from eggs incubated 

### in fiberbut hatched and grown 

### in clean water. suspensions, survival

### was reduced 

### from 98 to 100 per 

### cent in controls to 0 

### to 72 per 

### cent 

### in 250

-ppm 

### fiber; respiration 

### rate from 336.6 

### mm3/g per hour 

### in controls to 146.3 

### in 125

-ppm fiber; breathing 

### rate from 1.39 

### to 1.92 respiratory movements per second 

### in controls to 0.52 to 0.97 

### in 250

-ppm 

### fiber; heart 

### rate from 1.50 to 1.60 beats per second 

### in controls to 0.67 to 1.33 

### in 250

-ppm fiber; and instantaneous 

### growth rate (g)from .0213 

### to .0345 

### in controls to .0061 to -0062 in 250

-ppm fiber. Growth 

### rate of rainbow 

### trout juveniles in clean 

### water 

### after exposure to fiber during the alevin stage 

### was significantly reduced 

### only in the 250

-ppmfiber 

### group. due 

### to the fiber and not toresidues of 

### a mercuric slimicide added to the fiber 

### at the paper mill. " When alevins 

### were held 

### inwood

-fiber



### Concurrent 

### tests indicated 

### that observed 

### effects 

### were

59

### (96) Lantz, Richard L. 1971. Influence of 

### water temperature on fish survival, growth and behavior. symposium--Forest land 

### uses and 

### stream environment, 

### p. 182-193. Oreg. State 

### Univ., Corvallis. 

### In James Morris Led.], Proceedings of a

"Water temperature can control the functions and activities of 

### freshwater fishes since their body temperature is 

### similartothe temperature of their environment. The removal of streamside vegetation during logging operations 

### can increase water temperatures. Such temperature in

### creases would be most significant on small

### streams, which 

### are essential tothe production 

### of 

### salmon and 

### trout inthe Pacific Northwest. A 

### general technical review of 

### the effects of 

### temperature on fish survival, growth, and behavior 

### is presented. Concepts regarding the thermal requirements 

### of fishes 

### are summarized. 

### Buffer strips of vegetation along 

### streams are suggested 

### as 

### an important land management tool. minimizing 

### water temperature increases, buffer strips serve other purposes and provide 

### for true multiple

-use of 

### the resources of 

### our watersheds.'' 

### In addition to eliminating 

### or

(97) Levno, Al, 

### and Jack 

### Rothacher 1967. Increases 

### in maximum 

### stream temperatures 

### after logging in old

-growth Douglas

-fir watersheds. 

### USDA For. Serv. Res. 

### Note PNW-65, 12

### p. Pac. 

### Northwest 

### For. & 

### Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg

# .

It. a

### .In this study, mean monthly temperature increases of 7O 

### to 12O Fa

### persisted from April through August, following direct exposure of the stream 

### channel by scouring during the 1964 flood... "Under the pattern of 

### patch clearcuts commonly used inthe Douglas

-fir region, little 

### or no increase 

### inmaximum 

### stream temperatures would be 

### expected unless 

### a large proportion of 

### the streambed 

### was directly exposed to solar radiation. provides some shade to the 

### stream willapparently help prevent excessive increases in

### maximum water temperatures." Protection 

### of any streamside vegetation which

(98) Levno, Al, 

### and Jack Rothacher 1969. Increases inmaximum stream 

### temperatures after slash

burning in 

### a small experimental watershed. USDA 

### For. 

### Serv. Res. 

### Note 

### PW-110, 7 p. Pac. 

### Northwest 

### For. & 

### Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg rn



### "The 

### first year 

### after slash 

### was burned 

### on 

### a 237

-acre clearcut A 

### maximum watershed in the 

### Cascade Range of 

### Oregon, average maximum 

### water temperatures increased 13O, 

### 14O, and 12O F. 

### during June, July, and August. 

### stream temperature of 

### 75O Fa

### persisted 

### for 3 

### hours 

### on a day in July."

60(99) Likens, Gene 

### E., F. Herbert Bormann, Noye 

### M. Johnson, and others 1970. Effects of forest cutting and herbicide treatment on nutrient budgets in the Hubbard Brook watershed

-ecosystem. Ecol. Monogr. 40(1):23-47.

" Allvegetation on Watershed 2 

### of the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest 

### was cut during November and December of 1968, and vegetation regrowth 

### was inhibited 

### for two years by periodic application 

### of herbicides. and 27 

### crn or 28%the second year above the values expected if the 

### watershed 

### were not deforested. Annual stream

-flow 

### was increased 33 

### cm 

### or 39%the 

### first year

"Large 

### increases in 

### streamwater concentrations 

### were observed 

### for allmajor ions, except NH4+, SO4= 

### and HC03-, approximately five months 

### after the deforestation. the undisturbed condition the 

### first year and 56

-fold higher the second.... Sulfate

### was the only

### major ion 

### in stream 

### water that decreased 

### in concentration 

### after deforestation.., 

# . Average 

### streamwater concentrations increased by 417%for Ca++,408%for Mg++, 1558%

### for K+ and 

### 177%

### for Nat during the 

### two years subsequent to deforestation. 2 in kg/ha-yr 

### were about 142 for 

### NO3-N, 90 

### for Ca++, 36 for

### K+, 32 for SiOySi, 24 

### for Al+t+, 18for Mg+++, 17for Na+, 4 

### for C1-, and 0 

### for Sob-S during 1967-68; whereas 

### for an adjacent

## ,undisturbed watershed (W6) net 

### losses were 9.2 for Ca++, 1.6 for 

### K+, 17 

### for Si02-Si, 3.1 for Al+++, 2.6 

### for Pig++, 7.0 for Na+, 0.1 

### for C1-, and 3.3 

### for SO4-S. nitrate

-nitrogen 

### in precipitation normally exceeds the output in drainage 

### water 

### in the undisturbed ecosystems, and ammonium

-nitrogen 

### likewise accumulates in both the undisturbed and deforested ecosystems, Total gross export 

### of dissolved solids, exclusive of organic 

### matter, 

### was about 75 

### metric tons/km2 in 1966

-67, and 97 

### metric tons/km2 in 1967

-68, 

### or about 6 to 8 

### times 

### greater than would be expected 

### for an undisturbed watershed. 

### Nitrate concentrations 

### were 41

-fold higher than

Budgetary 

### net losses from Watershed

Input 

### of

'The greatly increased export of dissolved nutrients from the deforested ecosystem 

### was due 

### to an alteration of the nitrogen cycle within the ecosystem.

"The drainage 

### streams tributary toHubbard 

### Brook are normally acid, and 

### as a 

### result of deforestation the hydrogen ion content increased by Sfold 

### (from pH 

### 5.1 to 4.3). 

### "Streamwater temperatures 

### after deforestation 

### were higher than the undisturbed condition during both 

### summer and winter, Also in contrast to the relatively constant temperature in the undisturbed 

### streams, stream

### water temperature 

### after deforestation fluctuated 3-4OC during the day in 

### summer.

"Electrical conductivity increased about 6

-fold in the 

### stream 

### water 

### after deforestation and was 

### much more variable.

61"Increased 

### streamwater turbidity 

### as a result of the deforesta

### tion was negligible, however the 

### particulate 

### matter output 

### was increased about 4

-fold. 

### materials, after deforestation 

### preliminary 

### estimates indicate that the proportion of inorganic 

### materials increased to 

### 76% 

### of the total particulates.

### '' Whereas the

### particulate 

### m-tteris. normally 50%inorganic

(100) 

### McCall, Merley 1970. The 

### effects of 

### aerial forest fertilizationon 

### water quality 

### for two 

### streams inthe Capitol 

### forest. Wash. State Dep. Ecol., 14

### p. Olympia. The studies 

### of 

### two streams 

### in the 

### fall and winter of 1969/1970 indicated that 

### aerial application of 

### a 

### urea fertilizer to the forested 

### areas 

### in the watersheds resulted 

### ina rapid 

### increase 

### inurea concentration 

### in the water. 

### This was likely due tothe direct application 

### to feeder 

### streams. ground levels within one month. parently 

### in the form of nitrate only. quality 

### was to significantly change the nitrogen levels, although the change was 

### of short duration.

## '' Further sampling shows the 

### urea concentration to

### falltoback

### After 

### a mnth the nitrogen lost 

### is apThe overall 

### effect 

### on the 

### water

(101) 

### McNeil, William

### J. 1962. Variations in the dissolved oxygen content 

### of intragravel 

### water 

### in four spawning 

### streams 

### in southeastern Alaska. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 402, 15p. 

### U.S.

"Inexpensive equipment for sampling intragravel

### water for dissolved oxygen 

### is described. standpipes driven into the streambed. tative 

### of points sampled 

### were obtained 

### from 30-ml. samples 

### of 

### water taken about 24 

### hours after standpipes 

### were placed. 

### Water samples 

### were withdrawn 

### fromplastic Dissolved oxygen values represen-

"Fourfold seasonal and yearly changes 

### in dissolved oxygen levels

### were observed. 

### were 

### greatest when discharge 

### was 

### low 

### and temperature 

### was high. Spatial differences in dissolved oxygen levels

"For routine measurement of dissolved oxygen level random sampling 

### was tried and found tobe satisfactory." (102) Meehan, 

### William R. 1968. Relationship 

### of shade cover to 

### stream temperature in 

### In Richard T. Myren Eed.1, Logging and southeast Alaska. salmon, p. 115-131. 

### Proc. Forum Am. 

### Inst. Fish. 

### Res. Biol., Alaska 

### Dist., Juneau, Alaska.

"Temperature measurements in several 

### streams in upper southeastern Alaska indicate that shade

-producing streamside cover is important in maintaining 

### cool 

### water. Stream temperatures increase rapidly in

62

### unshaded reaches on 

### clear, warm days and 

### likewise cool quite quickly when the 

### water passes 

### through shaded reaches. 

### ture increases 

### as the 

### water flows downstream, but to 

### a much 

### lesser extent than on 

### clear days in open 

### areas. Average temperature differences per 20 

### yards of 

### stream channel exposed to

### solar radiation on 

### warm, clear days 

### were significantly different between 

### streams 

### in the Juneau

-Haines 

### area and in the Petersburg

-Wrangell 

### area. reaches and on overcast days." On 

### overcast days, the temperaSuch 

### was not the 

### case in shaded
(103) Meehan, 

### WilliamR. 1970. 

### Some 

### effects of shade cover on 

### stream temperature in southeast Alaska. USDA 

### For. Sew. 

### Res. Note PNW

-113, 9 

### p. Pac. 

### Northwest For. 

### f Range 

### Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg.



### "Water temperatures 

### were recorded in several southeast Alaska 

### streams with 

### a portable thermometer 

### accurate to O.0lo C. 

### were made 

### at 20

-yard intervals 

### in shaded and unshaded reaches and on cloudy and 

### clear days. side cover on stream 

### temperatures can be evaluated by this technique, 

### and (2) 

### shade

-producing 

### streamside cover 

### is important 

### in maintaining 

### cool 

### water

# . Measurements Results indicate that (1)

### the 

### effects of 

### stream-

(104) 

### Morris, Logan A. 

### 1968. 

### Stream contamination by 

### herbicides 

### after fallrains on 

### forest land. 

### West. SOC. 

### Weed Sci. 

### Res. Prog. Rep., p. 33

-34. Based 

### on previous studies and on a study of two Oregon 

### streams, it 

### was concluded that 

### fall rains 

### willnot result in appreciable contamination of 

### streams flowing through forest 

### areas treated 

### with phenoxy 

### or amitrole herbicides. 

### Unless heavy application 

### is made directly 

### into the stream, the

### major contribution 

### of herbicides 

### is overland movement of 

### water and soil. (105) 

### Morris, Logan A., 

### and 

### Duane G. 

### Moore 

### The entry and 

### fate of 

### forest chemicals in streams. 

### In James Morris [ed.], Proceedings 

### of 

### a spposium--Forest land 

### uses and 

### stream environment, p. 

### 138

-158. Oreg. State 

### Univ., Corvallis

# . 1971.

"Initial distribution of aerially applied forest chemicals, 

### mechanisms of their entry into, and their 

### fate in the aquatic environment 

### are considered. established that 

### most forest chemicals offer minimum potential for pollution of the aquatic environment when they 

### are used 

### properly." 

### Research findings and long history of use 

### have

63

### (106) Pacific Northwest Pollution Control Council 1971. 

### Log storage and rafting in public 

### waters. Task Force Rep. 56 p. "Available research findings show that 

### log debris

## ,barks and wood leachates resulting 

### from 

### log handling 

### in public 

### waters can adversely 

### affect 

### water quality. The range 

### of effects varies 

### from mild 

### to

### gross depending upon the specific characteristics 

### of both the involved 

### water body and log handling practices. 

### In most instances where logs depreciate 

### water quality, there 

### are 

### a number of practicable changes that can be made 

### to i mprove conditions.

"Thisreport 

### sets forth 

### a number 

### of recommendations 

### for implementing improved log handling practices that 

### willbenefit 

### water quality: 

### "1. Log storage and handling should be restricted in

### or elim- inated 

### from public 

### waters where 

### water quality standards cannot be 

### met at all

### times orwhere these activities 

### are 

### a hindrance toother beneficial 

### water uses such 

### as small craft navigation. "2. be prohibited since this is the 

### major cause and point source of loose bark and other log debris. 

### The free

-fall, violent dumping 

### of 

### logs into

### water should

"3. Easy let

-down devices should be employed 

### for placing 

### logs inthe

### water, thereby reducing bark separation and the generation 

### of 

### other wood debris. 

### "4. Positive 

### bark and wood debris controls, collection, and disposal methods should be employed 

### at log dumps, 

### raft building 

### areas, and millside handling zones. This would be required 

### for both floating and sinking particles.


### "5. 

### Log dumps should not be located inrapidly flowing 

### waters orother 

### water zones where positive bark and debris 

### controls cannot be made effective.
"6. Accumulations of 

### bark and other debris 

### on the land and docks around dump 

### sites 

### should be kept out 

### of the 

### water. "7. Whenever possible, logs should not be dumped, stored, 

### or rafted where grounding 

### will

### occur. "8. 

### Where 

### water depths 

### willpermit the floating 

### of bundled logs, they should be secured 

### in bundles on land before being placed 

### in the 

### water. millside

# . Bundles should not be broken again except on land 

### or at

"9. The inventory 

### of 

### logs in public 

### waters 

### for any purpose should be kept 

### tothe 

### lowest possible number for the shortest possible 

### time.

64

### "10. Industry should provide and periodically update an 

### accurate quantification of 

### its use 

### of public 

### waters 

### for log handling 

### ac

### tivities

# . " (107) 

### Packer, Paul 

### E. 1967. Forest treatment 

### effects on 

### water quality, 

### In William E. Sopper and Howard 

### W. Lull [eds.], Forest hydrology, p. 687-699. Oxford: Pergamon Press. A review of information todetermine the 

### effects of forest treatments associated with timber harvesting has shown that: turbed forests produce 

### small amounts 

### of sediment; (2) timber cutting does not adversely 

### affect water quality except 

### for increases in 

### streamflow peaks, streamflow temperatures, and streambank erosion caused by increased discharge; (3) skidding of logs and logging can increase sedimentation considerably; and (4) roads that 

### are inadequately drained 

### or located too 

### close to

### streams are the 

### main cause of deterioration of 

### water quality in forests. 

### (1)undis-

(108) Packer, 

### Paul E

# .,and Harold 

### F. Haupt 1966. 

### The influence of roads on 

### water quality characteristics. SOC. Am. For. 

### Proc. 1965:112-115. This paper discusses the impact of 

### timber harvest 

### roads and (2) What 

### are the harmful 

### effects attempts to answer three questions: forest roads and logging operations? on 

### stream biology? and drainage that 

### will

### assure better

### water quality? 

### (1)How much sediment comes from And, (3) What 

### are some 

### criteria for road location
(109) Schaumburg, Frank D. 1970. Influence of log handling practices 

### on water quality. 

### In Water studies 

### in Oregon, p. 1

-9. Res. Inst., beg. State Univ. Corvallis. Semin. 

### Water Resour.



### The influence of log handling practices on 

### water quality 

### was evaluated in

### a study initiated 

### in 1968. that logging 

### and log handling practices do contribute measurably tothe pollution of natural 

### waters. evaluated 

### at each location todetermine their

### real significance. The results 

### todate indicate 

### The effects of logging practices must be
(110) Schaumburg, 

### Frank D. 1970. The influence of log rafting 

### on water quality. Annu. Rep. 

### Res. 

### Proj. W-01320-01, 68 

### p. beg. 

### State Univ., 

### Corvallis

# . Research activities on the influence 

### of log rafting on 

### water The 

### major portion 

### of the report describes varquality 

### are summarized. 

### ious projects including methods and apparatus used, experimental results,

65and 

### a discussion of the pertinent findings. 

### are also included: in log storage

### waters, (2) The quantity and distribution of bark debris resulting from 

### water storage of logs, (3) Pollution associated withthe 

### water storage of 

### logs 

# - Part 

### I: Four technical publications (1)Pollutants leached from 

### selected species of wood

Bark debris; Part 11: 

### Leachates. 

### (111) Sears, Howard S., and 

### William R. Meehan 

### 1969. Short

-term 

### effects of 2,4-D on aquatic organisms in the Nakwasina River watershed, southeastern Alaska. 

### Pestic. Monit. J

# . 5(2): 213

-217 Preliminary 

### results and analysis of data on the 

### effects of 

### Results aerial spraying of 2,4-D 

### on aquatic organisms 

### are presented. showed that 2,4-D caused 

### no apparent significant 

### immediate mortality on aquatic organisms. (112) Semizi, J. A,, D. 

### W. Martens, 

### and R. 

### W. Gordon 1970. 

### Effects of decaying bark on incubating salmon eggs. Int. 

### Pac. Salmon Fish. 

### Corn., Prop. Rep. 24, 28 p.

"The 

### effect of bark contamination on salmon spawning grounds 

### was assessed in laboratory 

### tests 

### on sockeye salmon 

### (Oncorhynchus

### nerka) eggs and alevins. Bioassays showed that chemical toxicity of 

### materials leached 

### from bark of Douglas 

### fir, Lodgepole pine, Englemann spruce and Alpine fir

### was not 

### a factor influencing survival under the conditions tested. during initial stages 

### of decay, causing severe mortalities among sockeye eggs and alevins owing tosuffocation. boxes, contamination 

### of gravel with bark caused significant reductions in survival fromegg to fry 

### at bark concentrations of 

### 10% by'volume, but 

### 1% bark concentrations did not influence survival. attributed toblockage of intragravel 

### water flow by bark 

### particles. oxygen demand 

### of decaying bark 

### was found tobe relatively constant with 

### time during the 683

-day study. bark indicated the amount of oxygen which would remain for egg incubation in natural redds 

### at various temperatures and levels of 

### bark contamination. Possible 

### effects of various oxygen concentrations on size and emergence timing of fry 

### were discussed and limiting amounts of bark recommended." However, abundant growths of 

### SphaemtiZus occurred on bark
In gravel

-filled incubation

Mortalities 

### were The Calculations based on oxygen demand of



### (113) Swift, Lloyd W., 

### Jr., and 

### James B. 

### Messer 1971. Forest cuttings 

### raise temperatures 

### of small streams in the southern Appalachians. 

### J. Soil E 

### Water Conserv. 26(3): 

### 111-116

# .

"Stream temperatures 

### were measured during six forest

-cutting treatments on 

### small (23- to 70-acre) watershed 

### in the southern Appalachian Mountains. completely cut, 

### maximum stream temperatures in 

### summer increased 

### from the normal 66O F to 

### 73O 

### or more. Where forest 

### trees and 

### allunderstory vegetation 

### were Some extreme treatments raised 

### temperatures

66

### more than 12O above normal. Where streambank vegetation 

### was uncut 

### or had regrown, 

### summer maximums remained unchanged 

### or declined 

### from temperatures measured under uncut 

### mature hardwood forest. 

### Increases 

### in stream temper

### ature were judged todegrade 

### water quality and constitute thermal 

### pollution because, 

### after each clearcut, 

### water temperatures exceeded optimum levels 

### for trout habitat." (114) Tarrant, Robert F. 

### 1967. Pesticides inforest waters

-symptom of 

### a growing problem. SOC.Am. 

### For. Proc. 1966:159-163. 

### The water pollution problems associated with the application of forest chemicals 

### are discussed. (115) Thut, Rudolph N., 

### and Eugene 

### P, Haydu 1971. Effects 

### of forest chemicals on aquatic 

### life, 

### In James Morris Led.), Proceedings of 

### a symposium--Forest land 

### uses and 

### stream environment, p. 159-171. 

### Oreg. StateUniv., Corvallis

# .

"Results of pesticide bioassays are not readily applicable tothe conditions found 

### after forest spray operations. They 

### do have some value in 

### determining the relative toxicities of the more widely used pesticides. bons, 

### are more toxic than most herbicides to aquatic life. 

### been instances where insecticides applied to forests, particularly DDT, 

### were directly toxic tostream life; 

### such has not been demonstrated with herbicides applied toforests. that the concentrations of 

### urea fertilizer and 

### its breakdown 

### are well below toxic thresholds for aquatic life. eutrophication 

### of some lakes remains 

### a possibility." 

### The insecticides, particularly chlorinated hydrocarThere have

Field studies conducted to date indicate An increase in the 

### rate of

(116) 

### Titcomb, John W. 

### 1926. Forests in relation to fresh 

### water fishes. Trans. Am. 

### Fish. SOC. 56:122-129. Titcomb 

### states that where streamside vegetation 

### is elimi- 

### nated, 

### water temperatures 

### rise and that deforestation may 

### cause silt to be carried into 

### streams. (117) USDA 

### Forest Service Cn.d.3 Guides for protecting water quality. Pac. 

### Northwest Reg. 27 p. Portland, Oreg. The purpose of this publication 

### is "(1) to familiarize the 

### user with some of the factors and influences that 

### should be considered in making an on-the

-ground decision on 

### a case-by

-case basis and (2) 

### to provide 

### a means for 

### predicting temperature 

### changes."

67

## ALTERATION 

## OF STREAMFLOW

68

### (118) Anderson, Henry W, 

## ,and C. H, Gleason 1960. Effects of logging and brush removal on snow 

### water runoff. Hannoversch-Miinden, Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. 51:478-489. The 

### effects of snow accumulation, snowmelt, summer soilmoisture losses, interception, and estimated 

### water yields are documented. Snow 

### melt 

### was affected by logging slash disposal. The 

### area in which the slash

### was piled and burned had 3-1/2 inches more runoff 

### water in the 

### late spring than did the 

### area of untreated slash. Duration and quantity of water yield from snow zone runoff may be influenced by methods of logging and brush removal. (119) Anderson, Henry 

### W., and Robert L, Hobba 1959. Forests and floods in the Northwestern United States. Hannoversch-Miinden, Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. 48:30-39. A regression model 

### was used to isolate meteorologic, topographic, and geologic causes of floods; covariance analysis 

### was used 

### to determine forest 

### effects, variation in forest effects with respect 

### to watershed 

### size, storm size, and geology. cutting and forest 

### fires have increased floods from watersheds in the Northwestern United States. Results showed that clear-

(120) Berndt, H. W. 1971. Early effects of forest fire on streamflow characteristics. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-148, 9 

### p. Pac. North

### west 

### For. & Range Exp. 

### Stn., Portland, Oreg. "A comparison of streamflow records from three 

### small mountain 

### streams in north

-central Washington before, during, and 

### after a severe forest fire showed three immediate effects of destructive burning. These 

### were: "Flow rate 

### was greatly reduced while the fire was actively burning. "Destruction of vegetation in the riparian zone reduced d iurnal oscillation of flow 

### rates. "Flow 

### rates quickly increased topoints above protracted normal depletion 

### rates but tovarying degrees.

" No drastic immediate change in 

### stream temperatures 

### was noted

# . '' (121) Berndt, H. 

### W., and G. 

### W, Swank 1970. Forest land use and streamflow in central Oregon. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-93, 15

### p. Pac. Northwest For. & Range 

### Exp. Stn., Portland, 

### Oreg.

69

### "In this 

### case study, the hydrologic performance 

### of a 295

-squaremiledrainage in central Oregon was compared with the land use history for the period 1921

-65. 

### Two distinct changes 

### in streamflow regimen 

### were identified. 2.21 inches 

### in 

### average annual yield. The timing 

### of this 

### increase is approximately coincident with 

### the onset of timber harvesting activity 

### in the basin. 

### water yield beginning about 1958. This change could possibly be related 

### to the 

### full stocking of 

### cutover lands by dense, second

-growth stands and 

### a general reduction of timber harvest activity. The first, beginning about water year 1942, was an increase of

The second change 

### was a decrease 

### of 1.18 inches 

### in average

"Though 

### more sensitive, refined tests of the influence of timber harvest on 

### water yield 

### are needed for stands 

### east of the Cascade Range, the analyses 

### in this report show that accepted management practices 

### for vegetative types found on Ochoco Creek have favored 

### water yields

# . '' (122) Dunford, Earl G. 1960. Logging methods 

### in

### relation to 

### streamflow and erosion. 5th World For, Congr. Proc. Vol. 3, Sec. VII, p. 1703-1708. Seattle, Wash, 

### Various steps 

### in logging operations and their 

### effects 

### on streams and soil are discussed, 

### a stream and parallel logging roads 

### is recommended. An "undisturbed" strip of land between
(123) Ferrell, W. 

### K. 1960. The control of 

### stream flow and 

### water quality through timber harvesting. of the Pacific Northwest. 7th Symp. 

### Water Pollut. Res. Proc., p. 45

-47. U.S. Public Health Serv., Reg. IX, Portland, Oreg. 

### In E, F. Eldridge [ed.], Water problems

The effects 

### of timber harvesting on stream flow and water quality 

### are discussed. The author also discusses the idea that forest harvesting practices of various kinds can be compatible with watershed management if these practices are carefully planned and controlled. (124) Gangmark, Harold A., and Richard G. Bakkala 1958. Plastic standpipe 

### for sampling streambed environment of salmon spawn. 

### U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 261, 21 p.

"Knowledge 

### of prevailing conditions 

### of 

### streams for spawning salmon 

### can lead to improved management of these 

### streams and improved production of salmon. All

-important to the salmon is the condition 

### of the streambed, based both as the characteristics of seepage rate and on the availability of oxygen 

### at spawn depth. most feasible method for procuring this information is by using the standpipe system. standpipe and 

### its method of operation, discusses the mechanics of seepage, and compares the data obtained with data on survival of king salmon spawn." AtHill Creek, California, the This paper describes the design of the 

### Hill Creek



### 70

### (125) Harper, Warren Charles 1969, Changes in 

### storm hydrographs due to clearcut logging 

### of coastal watersheds, 116 p. M,S, thesis, Oreg, State Univ,, Corvallis. "The purpose 

### of this study 

### was todetermine the effect of clearcut logging on stormflow by analysis of characteristic parameters 

### of individual 

### storm hydrographs. of

-rise, peak discharge, volume and time

-to

-peak. The hydrologic data 

### were derived 

### from experimental watersheds of the 

### Alsea Study located in the Oregon Coast Range

# . Parameters considered included height-

"Three clearcut watersheds 

### were selected for study; 

### Deer Creek IV (39 acres) 

### was clearcut, and Needle Branch 

### (1?5 acres) 

### was clearcut and burned. acres), and untreated control, before and after treatment. Both watersheds 

### were compared 

### to Flynn Creek (502

"Change in hydrologic parameters was determined from differences between pre- and post

-logging linear 

### regressions. Statistical techniques were utilized 

### to test for difference in slope or vertical position. "Significant increases 

### were found in peak discharge from both Needle Branch and Deer Creek IV following clearcut logging. increases 

### were noted during the 

### fall period than during the winter period. 

### Volume parameters of quick flow, delayed flow, and total flow 

### were increased 

### for Needle Branch. Volume of flow 

### was not shown 

### to in

### crease from Deer Creek IV, This may have been due to

### a lack of usable 

### storm events 

### for analysis 

### from this watershed. altered inNeedle Branch but 

### was decreased for low flows and increased forhigh 

### flows on 

### Deer Creek IV, The height

-of

-rise parameter did not prove tobe of value for detecting change in this study. the burned watershed (Needle Branch) to the unburned watershed (Deer Creek IV) did not produce a noticeable difference in any of the param

### eters

# . Larger

Time

-to

-peak 

### was not Comparison of

"The observed changes in stormflow 

### were related toclearcut logging and the effect of vegetative removal on watershed response." (126) Hibbert, Alden R. 1967. Forest treatment effects on 

### water yield. In William E. 

### Sopper 

### and Howard W. Lull [eds.], Forest hydrology, p. 527-543. Oxford: Pergamon Press,

"Results are reported for thirty

-nine studies 0x1 the effects of alteringforest cover on water yield. reduction increases water yield, and that reforestation decreases water yield, 4.5 mm/year for each percent reduction in forest cover, but most treatments produce less than half this amount. The studies reveal that forest A practical upper 

### limitof yield increase appears 

### tobe about There is strong evidence that

71inwell

-watered regions, streamflow response is proportional toreduction 

### in forest cover. response in streamflow may be almost immediate or considerably delayed, depending upon 

### climate, soils, topography, and other factors." Streamflow response totreatment 

### is variable;

(127) Hoover, Marvin D

# . 1952. Water and timber management. 

### J. Soil & 

### Water Conserv. 7(2):75-78. Research on the relationship between forest cover and streamflow reveals that streamflow is significantly increased by removing 

### trees growing along 

### streams

# . (128) IIoyt, 

### W. G., and H. C. Troxell 1932. Forests and streamflow. Am. SOC. Civ. Eng. Proc. 56:1039-1066. 

### Two adjacent 

### tracts 

### inthe Wagon Wheel Gap area, Colorado, were studied for eight years inthe forested state and seven years following the deforestation of one 

### tract. Some of the results are: 

### "1. The 

### total runoff increased 

### an average of 15%in the deforested 

### area. "2. About 52%

### of this increase occurred in nonflood periods. "3. The maximum daily discharges increased an average of 48%

### in the deforested 

### tract.

"4. The 

### summer runoff showed an average annual increase of 12%

### in the deforested 

### area. The average minimum flow increased 12%.

"5. Deforestation produced no appreciable change inminimum winter flows "6. Erosion increased about eightfold in the deforested 

### area, although always remained slight. "7. The mean annual temperature of the deforested area increased 1.3O 

### F." (129) Hsieh, Frederic Shu

-Kong 1970. Storm runoff response from roadbuilding and logging on 

### small watersheds in the Oregon Coast Range. 149 p. M.S. thesis, Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis.

"The effects of roadbuilding, logging and burning upon stream runoff responses to individual storms are evaluated for the Alsea experimental watersheds, located in the Oregon Coast Range. The parameters analyzed are peak discharge, induced peak discharge, time

-to

-peak, and storm

-runoff volume. The 

### volume parameter is further sub-divided into total, quick, delayed, rising limb and falling limb flows. The control

-watershed approach and linear regression method are utilized in this study. 72"Calibration 

### of the 

### main stations 

### at Flynn Creek (502 acres) and Deer Creek (750 acres) started in 1958. That for subwatershed DC I1 (138 acres) and DC 

### I11 (100 acres) started in 1962. Watershed treatments included differing amounts of roadbuilding in the summer of 1965 and logging in 1966. building and to logging, respectively, were: 3.7%and 26%

### of 

### area 

### inroads and logging, respectively, DC 11, 3.1% and 20%, and DC 111, 12.1% and 72%. One small portion on the main watershed alsoreceived burning 

### treatment 

### in 1967. 

### its natural 

### state as a control. Data were analyzed through 1968. The percentages of each watershed 

### area subject toroadDeer Creek main station,
Flynn Creek 

### was preserved in

"The storm

-runoff responses of the treated watershed were found to

### relate 

### to the type of treatment applied and percent of 

### area treated. duced peak discharges on DC 111, which was subjected tothe most intensive treatment. on 

### runoff than did roadbuilding, since more vegetation 

### was removed. though highly significant augmentations inpeak and ,induced peak discharges were detected after logging on subwatershed 111, only minor changes were observed 

### at the main Deer Creek outlet. Roadbuilding resulted in significant increases inpeak and inLogging generally demonstrated a more pronounced effect A l-

"The time

-to

-peak parameter was generally not affected by the land manipulations in this study. %eparation of the annual data intothe assumed recharging and recharged periods, based on antecedent soilmoisture conditions, 

### was selected for seasonal comparison over the use of an arbitrary cutoff date.

"Changes in flow volume parameters due toroadbuilding were insignificant. main 

### station 

### was moderately increased after logging. crease in delayed flow and a decrease in quick flow occurred at the main 

### station, these 

### are considered tobe compensating 

### errors. Rising limb flow on DC 

### I11 as well

### as at the Deer Creek Although an 

### in-

"Effects on design floods 

### after treatments 

### were indicated by the sharp increases inpeak discharges, based upon flood frequency and 

### statistical analyses." (130) Jeffrey, W. W. 1968. Forest harvesting and water management. For. Chron. 44(6):5-12.

"Forest harvesting affects water management. Total water yield, flow regime and water quality are affected. Canada, these effects 

# -- whether for good or ill

# -- are accidental and are not taken into consideration inmanagement. This 

### is 

### at least partly due toresource management people being resource oriented (technocentric) rather than society oriented (democentric) in their attitudes. Forest harvesting

-water management interactions represent 

### a technical problem of ultimate social importance. To cope with this problem requires coordination of resource uses, improved communication and administrative Usually, inWestern

73organization, 

### more democentricity, expanded research into socio

-economic factors, more attention tolong

-term environmental goals, examination 

### of land tenure systems, more land use planning, re-orientation of resource management education, 

### a broadening of social conceptual awareness, and increased professional staffing." (131) Kovner, Jacob L. 1957. Evapotranspiration and water yields following forest cutting and natural regrowth. SOC.Am. For. Proc. 1956: 106-110 "The experiment has shown that in the high

-rainfallbelt 

### of the southern Appalachians cutting down allvegetation on a wellforested watershed produced very large increases in streamflow. These increases accompanying regrowth of the forest stand following 

### clearcuttingwere remarkably well defined and showed dynamic relationship between vegetation and streamflow, which could be expressed as a linear function of the logarithm of the timevariable. Practically all the 

### increase in streamflow 

### came from the base flow or groundwater. "The 

### results obtained using paired watersheds 

### were verified by use of the water

-balance equation for the treated watershed. The 

### increase in streamflow each year 

### was due to 

### a corresponding 

### real decrease in the amount of evapotranspiration. Annual losses tothe atmosphere are quite constant for the Coweeta watersheds because of the high rainfall. This accounts for the fact that the increases in streamflow were statisticallyindependent of the annual precipitation for the range experienced

--from 56 to 89 inches. connection that the rainfall was not low for a series of years. It should be noted inthis

"Heavy sprout and herbaceous growth sprang up and re-covered the 

### area with surprising speed. Tests show that in the 13th year total annual foliage production, by oven-dry weight 

### was not significantly different from that of the control watershed. At the end of the 12thyear the basal 

### area per 

### acre 

### was 51.6 square feet, or approximately 50 percent of the projected normal stand. stand was replaced by 

### an even-aged stand with essentially 

### a 6

-inch diameter limit.

### '' The original relatively all

-aged

(132) McGuinness, J. 

### Le,and L. L. Harrold Water Resour. Res. 7(4):845-852. 1971. Reforestation influences on small watershed streamflow.

"Analysis of flow duration curves showed that reforestation of 

### a 44

-acre watershed near Coshocton, Ohio, reduced flow in the low flow tailof the curve but did not significantly reduce flows above 0.25 inch per day. in the maximum annual flow volumes for all periods of flow durations of 1day 

### or longer. delayed.I1 Other analyses showed thatreductions also occurred The onset of dormant season flow was significantly

74(133) Martin, Iury 

### L., and E. Roy Tinney 1962, Logging inwest coast watershed shows no effect on area's 

### water yield. Timberman 63(5):46-48. The data from the study of the Nasselle River watershed show that logging has had a negligible influence on the area's water yield and base flow, (134) Pollard, R, A. 1955. Measuring seepage through salmon spawning gravel. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 12(5):706-741. "The 

### rate of oxygen supply to salmon eggs incubating 

### in a streambed depends on the oxygen concentration in the ground water Lintragravel 

### water] and the rate of seepage through the redd. devised a simple field method of both sampling the ground water for the determination of 

### its dissolved oxygen content and measuring the seepage rate, using one tool, a standpipe. The theory of seepage 

### is outlined to show the factors governing the velocity of flow through a redd. 

### Alternative ways of measuring this velocity were examined; the best one is a modification of Wickett's procedure using a similar standpipe. A new field procedure formeasuring the oxygen concentration and ground water seepage rate in a streambed is recommended." Wickett...

(135) Reinhart, K. G., and A. R. Eschner 1962, Effect on streamflow of four different forest practices 

### in the Allegheny Mountains. 

### J. Geophys. 

### Res. 67(6):2433-2445. "After 

### a 6

-year calibration, four watersheds in the Fernow experimental forest in West Virginia 

### were logged during 1957-,1958. 

### tices ranged from a commercial clearcutting with "logger's choice'' skid roads to

### a light 

### selection cutting with planned skid roads on moderate grades. For the most part, the treatments did not seriously disturb the forest floor. Annual flow increased up to 5 area-inches on the clearcut watershed the year 

### after 

### treatment. Increases fell into a logical pat

### tern with 

### volume cut, Most 

### of the 

### increase came 

### inthe growing 

### season; from May to October 1959, increases were 3.0, 1.8, 1.4, and 0.3 areainches 

### for per-acre 

### cuts of 8.5, 4.2, 3.7, and 1.7 thousand board 

### feet, respectively. Low flows were augmented, especially 

### for the two heavily 

### cut watersheds. Effect on high flows was variable; 

### on the clearcut watershed some storm

-period flows in the growing season were more than doubled, whereas 

### some snow-melt flows 

### were less than expected. Care 

### in the logging operation 

### was clearly reflected inwater quality; maximum turbidities ranged from 56,000 ppm on the watershed having unplanned skid roads and no provision 

### for drainage 

### to 25 ppm on the watershed having carefully planned skidroads. PracEffects of treatment are diminishing with passage of time."

75(136) Rothacher

## ,Jack 1965. Streamflow from 

### small watersheds on the western slope of the Cascade Range of Oregon. Water Resour. Res. 

### 1( 1):125-134

# .

"Streamflow from 

### small watersheds on the western slopes of the Oregon Cascade Range is strongly influenced by a maritime climate (wet winters and dry summers). Although annual precipitation is high (94 inches inthe study area), overland flow is almost unknown. Peak flows result largely from subsurface flow and under conditions in which both retention and detention reservoirs are 

### almost filled during extended periods of low

-intensity rainfall. vegetation appears toexert 

### a minimum influence on high streamflow. Lowest streamflow occurs from late August tomid

-November and may 

### follow a 60- to 100

-day period with little 

### or no rain. tation of this part of the Douglas

-fir region appears to exert its major influence 

### at such times. of a 250

-acre watershed has caused 

### a 12

-28%increase inminimum 

### streamflow. On a 237

-acre watershed on which 80%of the trees were cut, the increase in low flow 

### was 85%." Under these conditions,

The dense vegeRemoval of vegetation from only 30%

(

### 137) Rothacher

# ,Jack 1970. Increases in water yield following clear

-cut logging in the Pacific Northwest. 

### Water Resour. Res. 6(2):653-658.

"Increases in

### water yield following timber harvest roughly In high precipitation conform tothe proportion of the 

### area cleared. 

### areas of the Oregon Cascades, clear

-cut logging can increase annual water yield 18 inches. the October to March season." Approximately 80%of the increase occurs during
(138) Rothacher, Jack 1971. Regimes of streamflow and their modification by logging. 

### In James Morris Led.], Proceedings of a Symposium

--Forest land uses and 

### stream environment, p. 40-54. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis.

"Streamflow in the Pacific Northwest is most strongly influenced by the precipitation pattern, somewhat less by evapotranspiration losses. Evaporation and transpiration 

### are strongly influenced by logging. Logging and burning old

-growth Douglas

-fir forests on an experimental watershed increased annual yields of streamwater by 18 inches or more. Most of the increase occurred in fall and winter months. We can't positively attribute any great increase inmajor 'wet mantle' flood flows tologging inwest slope forests. vegetation increases lowest summer streamflow. short lived 

### as vegetation rapidly invades the cutover areas." Logging which removes transpiring Such increases may be

76(139) Rowe, P, B. 1963. Streamflow increases after removing woodland

-riparian vegetation from 

### a southern California watershed. J. For. 61(5): 365

-370

# . "A test of applied watershed management on the San 

### Dimas Experimental Forest in southern California'has shown that streamflow yields can be appreciably increased. rooted woodland

-riparian vegetation from selected canyon bottom reaches of Monroe Canyon, 

### a typical southern California mountain watershed. increases in flow 

### were especially important because they occurred primarily 

### in summer and in the 

### initial period 

### of 

### soil wetting during succeeding rainy seasons, when streamflow 

### was lowest and water most needed. During the one rainy season of heavy precipitation and continuously wet soils the removal of the woodland

-riparian vegetation had no appreciable effect on streamflow, peak discharge, or erosion 

### rates. However, during wetting periods and during the one rainy season of light precipitation, streamflow yields, particularly during storms, were considerably increased, Streamflow 

### was inadequate toproduce sediment movement in either the treated 

### or control watersheds during these wetting periods. of 

### the tree

-brush cover shading the 

### stream course resulted in an 

### increase in the algae content of the late spring and summer flows but had no other detectable 

### effect on 

### water quality. These first results show that, while streamflow can be increased by removal of the canyon bottom vegetation, this kind of treatment, tobe most successful, should be limited to

### carefully selected 

### areas with conditions of 

### climate, vegetation, soil, and 

### water capable of yielding the desired increases. That is, toareas in which (1)the 

### water supply 

### is adequate toexceed evapo-transpiration losses 

### after treatment, (2) the 

### water table 

### or zone of saturation 

### is within reach of the heavy 

### water using woodland

-riparian vegetation, and (3) the canyon bottom soils overlaying the 

### water table are of'sufficient 

### extent and depth topermit reduction in evapo-transpiration if the deeprooted vegetation is eliminated

# . '' This 

### was accomplished by clearing the deepThe

Removal

(140) Sartz, Richard S. 1951, An objective look 

### at the vegetation

-stream flow relation- ship

# . J ,For

# .49(12):871-875

# . The important factors involved in the precipitation-vegetation

### soils streamflow relationships 

### are discussed. (141) Terhune, 

### L. D. B, 1958. The MARK VI groundwater standpipe for measuring seepage through salmon spawning gravel. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 15(5):1027-1063, Procedures of the MARK VI standpipe method for measuring gravel permeabilities 

### and velocities 

### are described. This method incorporates 

### new procedures tothe Pollard (134)method of measuring permeabilities and in

### creases the range of permeability measurements from 100 to 100,000 cm/hr and velocity measurements from 5 to 200 cm/hr with less than 10 percent error. Complete details of design, construction, and procedure for use in salmon spawning gravels are given. 77(142) Vaux, 

### Walter G. 1962. Interchange of 

### stream and intragravel 

### water in

### a salmon spawning 

### riffle. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 405, 11p. "Dissolved oxygen 

### is supplied to intragravel 

### water in 

### a salmon spawning riffle through (1) interchange 

### of 

### water from the 

### stream into streambed gravel, and (2) ground

-water flow. control interchange are gradient inthe stream profile, permeability of the 

### gravel bed, and dimensions of thebed. The primary variables that

"The delivery 

### of dissolved 

### oxygen to intragravel 

### water and the way inwhich 

### rate 

### of delivery 

### is affected by 

### stream profile, permeability, and dimensions of the bed 

### are explained. "The dissolution 

### of oxygen through the 

### air

-water interface in turbulent 

### stream water 

### is rapid. oxygen level in surface water of unpolluted streams." This is shown by thenear-saturation

(143) Zach, 

### L. W. 1950. 

### Effect 

### of 

### rainfall on 

### stream 

### flow 

### in southeast Alaska. USDA For. Serv. Tech Note 4, 3 p. Alaska 

### For. Res. Cent., Juneau, Alaska

# . The study has shown that southeastern Alaska salmon 

### streams are characterized by marked fluctuations in flow and recurring fall floods. In the fallrainy season, violent floods move log

### jams and gravel bars and produce minor changes in the 

### stream channels.

78

## DESCRIPTIONS 

## OF EFFECTS OF LOGGING STUDIES

79(144) 

### Bureau of Commercial Fisheries 1963. Review 

### of research on 

### effects 

### of logging 

### on pink salmon 

### streams 

### in Alaska. Fish 4 Wildl. Serv., 18p. U.S. Dep. 

### Inter. Bur. Comm. Fish. Biol. 

### Lab., Auke Bay, Alaska. The long

-term study of the 

### effects of logging on Alaskan pink 

### salmon spawning 

### streams is reviewed. The research objectives, methods 

### of research, and achievements of the study and the specific problems which should be investigated 

### in future studies 

### are covered. (145) Calhoun, 

### Alex 1962. A long 

### look at logging. 

### Outdoor Calif., 

### Nov. p. 7

-10. Poor logging practices 

### in California and 

### some of the 

### efforts The 

### article states that there 

### (1)log jams, which block migrating salmonids, 

### to correct these problems 

### are discussed. 

### are two major problems: and (2) sedimentation, which smothers 

### stream 

### gravels, thus producing 

### less food and 

### fewer young fish by hatching 

### fewer eggs and producing 

### fewer places for 

### small fish tohide. (146) Campbell, 

### Homer 

### J. 1970. Fish, forests and 

### water. Oreg. 

### Game Comm. Bull., 

### July, p. 3

-6. The problems of 

### resource managers and the 

### results of improper logging 

### are discussed. State of Oregon has conducted and some of the 

### results. Briefly described 

### are some 

### of the studies the
(147) Chapman, D. W. 1962. 

### Effects of logging upon fishresources of the

### west coast. J. 

### For. 60(8):533-537. The author reviews the 

### effects 

### of logging on fish. 

### It 

### was found that 

### after logging: 

### "1) 

### stream runoff 

### was increased 

### and as 

### a result of heavy 

### runoff gravel shifting occurred; "2) 

### summer temperatures increased and 

### winter temperatures decreased; "3) chemical quality of 

### water deteriorated;
"4 sediment increased; 

### "5) stream energy source 

### was disrupted; 

### and "6) barriers to fish migration were left." A good bibliography is included.

80(148) Cordone, 

### Almo J. 1956. 

### Effects 

### of logging on fish production. Calif. Fish 

### G Game, Inland Fish. Adm. Rep. 56

-7, 98 p. [Mimeogr.] "The 

### material examined consisted of published and mimeographed No attempt 

### was 

### literature, regulations and policies, and correspondence. made to compile 

### a complete bibliography. However, 

### it 

### is believed that themore important published and mimeographed 

### literature was reviewed. The subject of pollution from sawdust and sulfite liquor 

### wastes was not covered. stressed, 

### Le., soil erosion, turbidity, sedimentation, fluctuating 

### stream flows, 

### etc. 

### Material on direct 

### effects of logging on fish life 

### was rare, but papers concerning the foregoing factors

### were common. these 

### factors are interrelated with fish production 

### is universally 

### accepted

# . The physical influences of logging on the environment 

### were

That

"The report 

### is divided into three parts: (1)review 

### of 

### literature, (2) review 

### of regulations and policies, and (3) 

### list of 

### literature not examined. bibliography. The 

### first part is presented inthe 

### form of an annotated 

### Direct quotes 

### are employed as annotations whenever 

### feas- iblea of the (149) 

### This eliminates some subjective interpretations. surveyed 

### material 

### is presented 

### at the end of the

### report." A brief summary

Fisheries Research Institute Univ. Wash., Seattle. 1959. Logging and salmon. Fish. Res. 

### Inst. Circ. 105, 12p.,

A booklet to acquaint the reader with some of the techniques and results of studies by the Fisheries Research Institute 

### at Hollis, southeast Alaska. 

### (150) Hall, James D. 1967. Alsea watershed study. Oreg. State Univ., Dep. Fish. & Wildl. 

### Pam., 11

### p. Corvallis. The pamphlet 

### is 

### a guide to the 

### Alsea study 

### area and an outline of the research underway todetermine the 

### effects of logging on aquatic resources. 

### Areas of research include: (1)hydrologic studies; (2 

### ature; (4) chemical and bacteriological 

### water quality; and 

### (5) fishery studies. soil

-vegetation survey; (3) streamflow, sediment

## ,and 

### water temperThe pamphlet presents some initial 

### results from the study. 

### (151) 

### Harris, A. S. 1961. The physical effect of logging 

### on salmon 

### streams in southeast Alaska. [Abstract.] 11thAlaskan Sci. Conf. Proc. 1960~143-144. 

### The physical 

### effects 

### of logging 

### on salmon 

### streams are discussed. Results show that more basic research is needed on the physiological requirements of salmon eggs and alevins before 

### man can evaluate the physical effects 

### or changes 

### of logging 

### on salmon.

81(152) Lantz, Richard L. 1967. An ecological study 

### of the 

### effects 

### of logging on 

### salmonids. 47th Annu. Conf. 

### West. Assoc. State Game Fish 

### Corn. Proc. 1967: 323

-335. The 

### Alsea watershed study and 

### some of 

### its findings concerning the effects of logging on fish populations 

### are outlined. The objective of the study 

### was to evaluate and compare the 

### effects of 

### two patterns of timber harvesting. The study included 

### an examination of fish population, 

### stream environment, intragravel environment 

### on salmonid survival to 

### emergence, streamflow, 

### stream temperature, and suspended sediment. (153) 

### Lantz, Richard L. 1970. Effects of logging on aquatic resources. 

### In H. 

### J. Raper, H. 

### J. Campbell, and W. C. Lightfoot reds.], 

### Progress in game and sport fishery research

# ...1963

-1970, p. 13

-16. Rep. Res.

, Div. Corvallis: Oreg. State Univ. The work carried out by Oregon State University on the Alsea watershed 

### in Oregon 

### is summarized. aquatic environment due tologging 

### were (1) an increase in stream tempera

### ture, (2) 

### a decrease 

### in dissolved oxygen levels in 

### surface waters during 

### summer when logging debris 

### was present, (3) 

### a decrease in intragravel dissolved oxygen levels and in the permeability of the intragravel environment when salmon embryos 

### were present in the stream, (4) an increase in suspended sediments, and 

### (5) 

### a decrease in the cutthroat trout populations. Primary changes observed on the

(154) Narver, David W. 1971. Carnation Creek watershed study. Fish. 

### Res. Board Can. Biol. 

### Stn., 7 p. Nanaimo, B. C., Can. [Mimeogr.]

"There 

### is little scientific information about the impact of current laggimgand reforestation methods on the productive capacity of salmon and trout 

### streams in British Columbia. Long

-term watershed studies, including years before, during and 

### after logging, are required. An unknown but presumably large portion of the coho salmon production in British Columbia 

### is from 

### small streams. The 

### rate of deforestation (usuallymeaning clear

-cutting and burning tothe 

### stream margin) 

### is accelerating, and probably the small

### streams are most susceptible to damage. Small salmon nursery streams without lakes in the watershed toprovide some flow control, are common along the British Columbia coast. Thus the study being implemented on Carnation Creek should have rather broad application on much of Vancouver Island and the coastal mainland.

"The purpose of this document is toprovide information togovernment, university and industry personnel about the Carnation Creek watershed study that is being conducted cooperatively by certain agencies of the new Federal Department of the Environment and 

### MacMillan Bloedel Ltd. The possibility of participation by other organizations is emphasized."

82(155) Phillips, Robert 

### W. 1963. Effect of logging on aquatic resources. Oreg. State Game 

### Corn., 

### Res. Div. Rep., 

### p. 105-122. Portland. The study conducted 

### in the 

### Alsea watershed 

### was primarily 

### concerned with measuring the effect of logging on the production and yield 

### of 

### silver salmon and steelhead. determine 

### (1)the 

### effect of 

### a grave1 environment on survival and (2) the effect of logging on the environment. This preliminary report covers the effect of the environment 

### on survival and includes 

### a discussion of 

### (1)dissolved oxygen and apparent velocity 

### versus emergence, (2) dissolved oxygen versus emergence, (3) gravel 

### size versus emergence, (4) dissolved oxygen content of intragravel 

### water, and 

### (5) gravel permeability. The 

### aim of the investigation

### was 

### to

(156) Phillips, Robert W., Homer 

### J. Campbell, 

### Wayne L. Hug, and 

### Errol W. Claire 1966. A study of the 

### effects of logging 

### on aquatic resources, 1960

-1966. Oreg. State Game Corn., Res. Div. Prog. Memo. Fish. 3, 28 p. Corvallis: Oreg. State Univ. The scope, methods, and techniques of a logging study are outlined; and some 

### of the 

### initial effects and specific problem 

### areas encountered are presented. (157) Sheridan, William L., and William

### J. McNeil 1960. Effects of logging on the productivity of pink salmon 

### streams in Alaska. 

### In Ted S. Y. Koo [ed.], Research in Fisheries, 1959. Coll. Fish. Contrib. 77:16-17. Univ. Wash., Seattle. The broad plan of the work carried out 

### at Hollis, southeast Alaska, was to define normal patterns before logging 

### so that the changes might be measured 

### as logging progressed. year escapements 

### of adult spawners, the abundance 

### of downstream 

### migrants, survival rates of eggs and alevins in gravel, distribution and intensity of spawning, and the quality of the environment. Changes studied were year-to83

## RELATED SALMONID INFORMATION

### (158) Au, David Wah 

### Kwai 1972. Population dynamics of coho salmon and 

### its response to logging in three coastal 

### streams. 258 

### p. Ph.D. thesis, Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis.

"This study examines the ecology and dynamics 

### of coho salmon 

### (Oncorhynchuskisuteh) in environments experimentally alteredby logging

# . The objective 

### was to evaluate processes that stabilize 

### or regulate the populations

# . "Two 

### small watersheds 

### in Oregon's Coast Range 

### were logged in 1966, one clear

-cut, the other patch

-cut. 

### was left uncut 

### as a control. The influence of these treatments on the biology 

### of the coho 

### was assessed. tions of the sixyear 

### classes 1963

### to 1968.A third adjacent watershed Attention was concentrated on popula-
"The natural variability of streamflow

-related conditions influencing both the magnitude and pattern 

### of coho recruitment each year 

### was increased in the logged watersheds. Peak flow during storms increased; intragravel dissolved oxygen levels decreased 

### in the 

### stream draining the clear

-cut watershed. ently within the range 

### of variation that 

### the coho naturally experience. Increased 

### stream temperatures and mortalities, due tothe logging 

### ef

### fects, altered the post

-recruitment 

### life conditions 

### of the coho in that stream but did not significantly 

### affect the final smolt yield. These changes, however, 

### were appar-



# . . . . . .

"Adjustments in coho population size

### were largely accomplished by 

### fall, resulting in stable and characteristic population levels in each 

### stream. These adjustments 

### are accomplished through high mortality during 

### themonths 

### of the 

### first spring and 

### summer. This mortality 

### is likely density dependent and 

### re- lated tothe territorial and agonisticbehavior of the fish. A 

### stable smolt yield 

### was a further result.

"Growth, biomass

## ,and net production varied greatly during each year. Seasonal changes 

### in growth 

### rate resulted in seasonal variations inbiomass that 

### were in contrast to the stabilized trends 

### of population number. The pattern 

### of net production 

### rate 

### was also largely determined by the seasonal growth pattern, and likebiomass, did not show 

### a tendency to 

### stabilizewith 

### time. streams 

### for the period 

### June 1

### to April 15. 

### It averaged 5 g/m2 among the three



# . . 

# . . .

"This study has shown 

### that coho 

### streams normally produce char

### acteristic levels of smolt yield in spite of large natural variations in fry input and conditions for growth. 

### tion forwhich 

### this result holds 

### may include 

### short-term changes due to The range 

### of environmental varia85logging, However 

### a normal population response tosuch 

### a severe 

### altera tion 

### as occurred on Needle Branch 

### is very likely conditional upon 

### a pro

### gram that 

### at 

### least includes vigorous 

### stream clearance, the restriction 

### of additionalmortality 

### to early 

### summer, when population adjustments 

### are 

### far 

### from complete, and the encouragement 

### of streamside revegetation. streamside buffer strip

### of 

### trees is 

### an effective way 

### of protecting aquatic 

### resources

# . l1 A

(159) Bakkala, Richard 1964. Abernathy spawning channel proves effective 

### for reproduction of chum salmon. 

### Comm. Fish. Rev. 26(12):20-21. 'lWith one exception, the environment created 

### in the Abernathy channel has beewadequate 

### for the successful incubation 

### of chum salmon eggs. the channel has made 

### it difficult 

### tomaintain the original permeable condition 

### of the streambed gravel. Removing and screening the pave1

### in the channel provided 

### a temporary solution tothisproblem. solution

### willbe attained with 

### a settling basin which 

### willremove 

### silt and sand 

### from the 

### water supply 

### before it enters the channel." Deposition 

### of sediment 

### fromthe

### water supply 

### as it moved through

A more permanent

(160) Bjormn, T. C. 1968. Survival and emergence 

### of trout and salmon fry 

### invarious gravel

-sand mixtures. salmon, p. 80

-88. 

### Proc. Forum Am. Inst. Fish. 

### Res. 

### Biol., Alaska 

### Dist., Juneau, Alaska. 

### In Richard T. Myren red.], Logging and

"The survival and emergence of steelhead trout and chinook salmon 

### were tested 

### in various mixtures 

### of gravel and sand in troughs with flow and gradient control. The emergence 

### of swim

-up steelhead trout fry placed in the troughs 

### was reduced by large percentages 

### of sand. Swim

-up chinook salmon fry appeared tobe more impeded 

### by sand than 

### were steelhead trout, but these 

### results need tobe verified because 

### some sick fish 

### were unknowingly included in the 

### test samples. The survival from green egg toemergence 

### of chinook 

### salmon was relatively high (70-77 percent) 

### in gravelwith 

### little

### or no sand but much reduced ingravel with 18percent 

### or more 

### sand." (161) Burgner, Robert L. 1960. Spawning and growth 

### of fish. 

### In E. F. Eldridge [ed.], Proceedings of 7th symposium on 

### water pollution research, p. 33

-39. U,S. Dep. Health, Educ. 

### G Welfare, Reg. IX, Portland, Oreg. The aquatic environment and 

### its effect on the development and survival of eggs and larvae 

### of pink and chum salmon 

### are discussed with respect tothe logging studies conducted 

### by the Fisheries Research Insti-, tute in southeast Alaska.

86(162) 

### Burns, James 

### W. 1971. The carrying capacity 

### for juvenile salmonids in some northern 

### California streams. Calif. Fish & 

### Game 57(1):44-57.

"Standing crops 

### of juvenile coho (silver) salmon 

### (Oncorhynehus khutch)

## ,steelhead rainbow trout 

### (Saho

### gairdnes)

# ,and'coast cutthroat trout 

### (SaZmo 

### ctarki)were examined 

### in seven coastal 

### streams to define the natural carrying capacity 

### of these 

### streams, and todevelop methods 

### of population comparison and prediction which could be used to determine the 

### effects of road construction and logging on salmon and trout production.



### "Biomass per unit 

### of 

### surface area was the best method 

### of expressing carrying capacity, because biomass 

### was better correlatedwith 

### stream surface 

### area than with other parameters tested. ments, total dissolved solids, alkalinity, and 

### total phosphate in 

### six streams were not satisfactory predictors 

### of carrying capacity. living

-space variables correlated significantlywith biomass. 

### streams reached carrying capacity inthe 

### summer and salmonid biomass 

### was highly variable. ficult to attribute 

### a change in carrying capacity under 50%to anything but natural variation

# . '' Volume of streambed sediOnly 

### Not 

### all Even with 3 years 

### of prelogging study, 

### it would be dif-

(163) Chapman, 

### D. 

### W. 1965. 

### Net production of juvenile coho salmon inthree Oregon 

### streams. Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. 94(1):40-52.



### "Net production 

### of juvenile coho salmon 

### was estimated in three 

### small 

### streams in Oregon 

### for 4 consecutive years. 

### of coho 

### was greatly different 

### in the 4 years, but production per unit area 

### was 

### similaramong 

### streams, averaging about 9 g/m2 per year. 

### ,Nosignificant differences 

### were found among 

### streams inproduction per unit 

### area for 14months 

### from emergence of fry one spring through seaward migration the next spring. 

### For 4 years biomass averaged 5

-12 g/m2 shortly after emergence of 

### fry, declining 

### to 2

-3 g/m2 by 

### July 

### and remaining 

### at about 2

-4 g/m2 until emigration 

### of smolts in the following spring. In 

### allyears, mean production declined 

### from 1.9

-2.8 g/m2 per month 

### after 

### emer ence to month prior 

### to emigration. Monthly instantaneous growth 

### rates were high

### est shortly 

### after emergence 

### of fry, declining until 

### late winter, then increasing just before smolt emigration. The mean monthly instantaneous growth 

### rate 

### was about 0.19 for 

### all streams and

-years. Yield of smolts 

### as seaward emigrants ranged from 18 to 67 per 100

### m2. 

### Net production 

### was 1.5 

### to 3.0 

### times 

### greater than yield 

### as biomass 

### of smolts. 

### Net pro- duction of 

### all fish in one 

### stream containing 

### coho, steelhead and cutthroat trout, and cottids 

### was estimated tobe 16g/m2 per year and compared with data 

### from other 

### waters. Annual net production

0.2

-0.3 g/m2 per month inwinter, then increased to 0.5

-0.6 g/m

# 5 per

Relatively large freshets appeared

87to cause large downstream movements of juvenile coho. of postemergence fry and emzgration of yearlings tended tobias 

### estimates of growth and net production in the residual populations." Downstream drift



### (164) Coble, Daniel 

### W. 1960. The influence of environmental conditions inredds on the survival 

### of salmonid embryos. 37 p. M.S. thesis, 

### Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. Movement of gravel 10 inches below the 

### surface of 

### a streambed 

### was indicated in 

### areas where no logging disturbance 

### was apparent. The survival of salmonid embryos 

### in the gravel 

### was related tothe apparent velocity and dissolved oxygen content of subsurface 

### water. (165) Cooper, A. C. 1959. Discussion of the 

### effects of 

### silt on survival 

### of salmon 

### In E. 

### F. Eldridge and 

### J. N. Wilson Ceds.1, eggs and larvae. Proceedings 5th symposium

--Pacific Northwest on siltation--its source and 

### effects on aquatic environment, p. 

### 18-22. 

### U.S. Dep. Health, Educ. & Welfare, Portland, Oreg. Surface flow over 

### a smooth bed with a constant gradient showed intragravel flow lines nearly parallel with some interchange 

### near the surface. addition of large 

### rocks, and downward interchange occurred when 

### a pile 

### of gravel 

### was formed by 

### a female salmon digging 

### a redd. Interchange in the top 1foot of 

### stratum 

### was increased with the

(166) Dill, L. M., and T. G. Northcote 1970. 

### Effects of gravel size, egg depth, and egg density on intragravel movement and emergence of coho salmon 

### (Oncorhynchus kisutch) alevins. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27(7):1191-1199. "In experimental aquaria with large gravel (3.2

-6.3 

### cm), verti

### cal and 

### lateral movements of coho salmon 

### (0ncorhgnchuskisutch) alevins 

### were more extensive and 

### area utilized per alevin 

### was greater than in 

### small gravel (1.9

-3.2 

### cm). Atlow density (50 per aquarium) the alevins moved farther towards the inlet, but the mean 

### area occupied per alevin 

### was the 

### same 

### as that 

### at high density (100 per aquarium). (20 and 30 

### cm) had no significant 

### effect on vertical 

### or lateral movements or on 

### area utilized 

### per alevin. Alevin orientation in the gravel, 

### survival to emergence, and timing of emergence 

### were not affected 

### by any 

### of the environmental variables examined." 

### Burial depths tested

(167) Dill, Lawrence M. 1969. The sub

-gravel behaviour of Pacific salmon larvae. 

### In T. G. Northcote [ed.], Proceedings of symposium

--Salmon and trout in 

### streams, p. 89

-99. Univ. B. C. 

## ,Vancouver, B.C. 

## ,Can.

"Results of a study of the sub

-gravel behaviour of the coho 

### salmon 

### (Oncorhynchus kisutch) are compared with studies of other salmonid

88

### larvae. The present 

### results were obtained through observation of the 

### larvae 

### or alevins in specially designed aquaria. within the gravel prior toemergence, apparently 

### as a result 

### of phototaxes and rheotaxes, the directions 

### of which varied with the age 

### of the fish. 

### For example, theresponse 

### to light 

### was initially negative, but changed to positive 

### as the 

### time of emergence approached. similarly influenced by the current direction. The alevins moved about



### Lateral movements 

### were

''There was evidence that the alevins 

### were spacing themselves out within the gravel, and that some interaction 

### was taking place between them. The 

### effects upon behaviour 

### of changes inburial density, burial depth, and gravel 

### sizewere also explored. Several studies 

### are suggested 

### as logical and productive continuations 

### of the present work, and their implications 

### are discussed 

### *om both practical and theoretical standpoints." (168) Fisheries Research Institute 1960. Observations 

### in Hollis 

### area study 

### streams, fall 1959. Fish. Res. Inst. Circ. 117, 6 p. Univ. Wash., Seattle. "Our evidence indicates that inthe 

### fall 

### of 1959 suspended sediment increased in tributaries tothe 

### HarrisRiver and that during 

### the same period streambed sediment increased inthe upstream sampling 

### area. of, 

### nor death to, salmon eggs 

### in the intertidal study 

### area as 

### a result 

### of a number 

### of large 

### trees sweeping downriver on high 

### water 

### was not detected." 

### Loss

(169) Gangmark, Harold A

# . 1963. A view 

### of the present status 

### of spawning channels. to 2d Governors' Conference on 

### Pacific Salmon, Convened by Governor Albert D. Rosellini 

### at Washington Hyatt House, Seattle. Report

"Advantages 

### of improved production (salmon) 

### areas usually include: stabilized 

### stream 

### flow, reduced 

### silt loads, clean gravel, gravel sizes that preclude washout of eggs, and predetermined hydraulic gradients. They can also include temperature regulation of the 

### stream 

### flow below impoundments

# . "Disadvantages may include construction and maintenance costs and confinement that might 

### limitthe carrying capacity and, in one way, favor predators

# . "On 

### a management scale the 

### cost benefit of controlled flow may make such 

### areas of controlled flow 

### for salmon alone prohibitive. When tied in with other benefits, however, it can become feasible. 

### For example, the 

### water conservation and flood control programs that involve practically every 

### stream in California can provide many 

### acres of such control flow 

### for the benefit of salmon."

89(170) Gangmark, Harold A. 1962. The 

### millcreek channel study. Presented West. Div. Am. Fish. 

### Soc., Seattle, Washington. 

### "To learn how 

### we might achieve the conditions desired in 

### our spawning channel, 

### we studied, among other places, the Sacramento River near Red Bluff. In 

### test plants 

### similartothe ones made in MillCreek, (salmon) egg samples 

### were eroded out 

### of the streambed and lost in 

### four out 

### of five seasons. In the one successfulyear, inwhich 

### wewere able 

### to

### measure ow

### results

## ,only 1.7%fry 

### were produced. "In the 

### fall 

### of 1961, 

### we moved the location 

### of our river studies 40 

### miles upstream 

### to 

### a rifflenear Redding where the tributaries entering the river, do so, below the Redding 

### area.

"Actual survival

### was 53.6% of the eggs planted 

### or 74.4% of eggs that survived the initialhandling and planting operation. As 

### a result 

### of comparing the differences between the Redding and Red Bluff 

### stream sections 

### we found the 

### former had only 1/3 the fines. The 

### streamflow 

### at Redding 

### was stabilized and heat storage in Shasta Reservoir was responsible 

### for moderating 

### and tempering 

### water temperatures.'' (171) Gangmark, Harold A., and Robert D. Broad 1955. Experimental hatching of king salmon in 

### Mill Creek, 

### a tributary of the Sacramento River. Calif. Fish. & 

### Game 41:233

-242. 

### 'The upper Sacramento River system continued 

### to flood during the 

### last stage 

### of the experiment. State Division of 

### Water Resources 

### was torn 

### from its positiomby the flood. Records received 

### from the 

### Water Resources Branch 

### of the United States Geological Survey show the MillCreek rose 

### to 5,240 

### c.f.s. 

### or approximately 100

### times the 

### flow recorded 

### at the 

### timethe eggs 

### were planted. result 

### was that 

### allbut six sacks of eggs (salmon) disappeared from the 

### stream bed. Examination 

### of the 

### sacks that could be found revealed that' none of the 

### embryos had survived the 

### floods. and the eroding and smothering action 

### of silt and sand apparently caused 

### a complete killof the developing young salmon.'' The 

### water gauge used by the California

The

The shifting 

### of the channel

(172) Gangmark, Harold A. 

## ,and Robert D. Broad 1956. An experiment with 

### Vibert boxes. bog. Fish. Cult. 18( 3):143-144.

"Stream erosion and siltingwere mentioned 

### as products 

### of flooding which caused damage to (salmon) eggs in nature. In 1954, to explore this subject further, 

### Vibert boxes...were used along with the usual plastic mesh sacks, for incubating eggs. 

### as 

### a research tool rather than toprove 

### or disprove the Vibert system. The boxes 

### were to serve

90As Vibert boxes are made 

### from extremely rigid plastic, the

### writers felt that damage to eggs by 

### stream erosion could be eliminated.

"It had been supposed that use 

### of the rigid boxes, rather than plastic sacks, would eliminate the grinding, wearing factor of 

### stream erosion; but except for three samples washed downstream, 

### results favored the sacks

# . l1 (173) Gangmark, Harold A. 

## ,and Robert D. Broad 

### 1956. Further observations 

### on stream survival 

### of king salmon spawn. Calif. Fish 

### G Game 42:37-49. The authors present evidence of 

### a relationship between the occurrence of floods and the reduced survival 

### of salmon eggs. 

### (174) Gangmark, Harold A., and F. Bruce Sanford 1963. Theory on development 

### of mounds near Red Bluff, California. 

### U.S. Fish G Wildl. Serv., Fish 

### Bull. 63(1):213-220. "Although the subject of mounds 

### is not directly 

### a part of fish

### ery studies, the agents that 

### we think lead 

### to the formation 

### of mounds 

# - namely, flooding of the 

### stream and erosion 

### of soil

### materials 

## - also kill salmon by scouring the 

### stream gravel 

### or depositing 

### silt inthe streambed. This action destroys incubating spawn by removing gravel and washing out eggs and by depositing 

### silt and subsequently smothering the eggs. ilarly, larvae and other aquatic forms that the salmon fry 

### eat 

### are either washed out 

### or the habitat 

### of these forms 

### is destroyed by deposition of 

### silt, and the 

### food supply for the young salmon 

### is greatly diminished." 

### Sim-

(175) 

### Graves, David S., and 

### James W. 

### Burns 1970. Comparison of the yields of downstream migrant salmonids before and 

### after logging road construction on the South 

### Fork Caspar Creek, Mendocino County. Calif. Fish E Game, Inland Fish. Adm. Rep. 70

-3, 

### 11p. "Yields 

### of juvenile steelhead rainbow trout 

### (Sazmogak&zezdi gairdnerii) and silver salmon 

### (Oncorhynchus

### kisutch) emigrants 

### were compared 

### in South Fork Caspar Creek, 

### a 

### small coastal stream inMendocino County, California, before and 

### after construction 

### of 

### a logging road along the 

### stream inthe 

### summer 

### of 1967. Numbers, lengths, and age 

### class struc

### tures were compared.

"There 

### were 138% more steelhead smolts and 41%

### fewer silver salmon smolts in 1968 

### (first spring following road construction) than there had been in 1964 (preroad construction). Increased emigration of steelhead 

### smolts in 1968

### was probably caused by 

### a decrease in favorable living space. The decrease in salmon smolts accompanied high mortalities



### 91during road construction. Eighty

-three percent 

### of the 

### total salmon population and 86%of the 

### total steelhead population died 

### or emigrated 

### from the affected 

### area during the road construction 

### from 

### June toOctober 1967. The combined populations of steelhead and salmon smolts decreased 20%. This combined decrease 

### is within the range 

### of natural fluctuation 

### reported 

### from other California 

### streams; however, there 

### is no doubt that road construction contributed tothe decrease in Caspar Creek.

"Steelhead and salmon fry 

### were 

### more numerous in 1968 than in 

### No steelhead fry 

### were trapped in 1964, while 72%

### of the

### migrants 1964. trapped in 1968 

### were fry. markedly 

### from 1964; fry comprised 5%

### of the 

### total 

### in 1964

### and 81%in 1968. This increase innumbers 

### of emigrating fry in 1968 could have resulted from 

### poor environmental conditions. The age composition 

### of the salmon 

### also shifted

"Steelhead 

### smolts 

### were smaller in 1968 than in 1964, while salmon smolts 

### were larger. Steelhead fry cannot be compared 

### as none 

### was trapped in 1964. length 

### of the salmon 

### smolts 

### may have resulted from 

### a decrease in competition due tohigher mortality 

### in 1967. due tounfavorable intragravel conditions during incubation. of steelhead smolts 

### is difficultbecause of the emigration of more than one year 

### class. hypothesis 

### of premature emigration due tounfavorable habitat

# ." Salmon fry 

### were smaller in 1968. 

### The increase in 

### The fry

### may have been smaller Comparison The decrease 

### in average length, however, supports the



### (176) Hanzel, Delano A. 1961. Inventory 

### of the 

### waters of the project 

### area. Northwest Mont. Fish. Stud. Mont. Fish E Game, Fish. Div. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Job Completion Rep., 

### Proj. F

-7

-R

-10, 9 p. Helena, Mont. "Seven lakes and four 

### of the principal tributaries inthe Stillwater River Drainage 

### were surveyed. Netting 

### series 

### on the lakes indicated 

### a predominance 

### of pumpkinseeds, largescale suckers, northern squawfish, and redside shiners. 

### show a predominance 

### of cutthroat trout, brook trout and Dolly Varden. Physical barriers block fishmovement up the major tributaries. 

### Electrical censusing 

### of the 

### tributaries

"Surveys 

### of five lakes inthe South Fork of the Flathead River Drainage 

### were conducted during the report period. 

### Data 

### is presented 

### as a record 

### of present fish populations and composition in 

### a remote wilderness 

### area. 

### from the South Fork River and tributaries 

### were in the 

### I11 and IVage groups (ave. 9.4 

### inches). Fish measured on the Middle Fork River and tributaries averaged 1.3 inches 

### smaller than those taken 

### in the South Fork Drainage. (including both South 

### and Middle Fork Drainages), 

### west of the Continental The majority of cutthroat trout collected and checked in creels

Estimated 1960 use 

### of the Bob Marshall Wilderness 

### Area

92Divide, 

### was 3,990 people (Summer 

## - 2,190; Fall

# - 1,800). of 80 established camp 

### sites 

### in the wilderness 

### area. marily (64 percent) non-guided parties. There 

### is a total Summer 

### use is pri-

"A survey 

### of the fish populations and physical 

### stream charac

### teristics were continued on Pinkham Creek in order toestablish the 

### effects of logging on 

### a fish population. Timber has now been cut on 30 percent of the 39,300 

### acres within the drainage. Three of the eight sections previously censused 

### were electrically fished, A total 

### of 250 brook trout weighing 9.55 pounds and 

### 170 rainbow trout weighing 10.63 pounds 

### were collected. The number and weight of 

### all fish in 1960 

### was greater than taken from these three sections 

### in any previous year (1951-56)." (177) International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission 1966. 

### Effects of log driving on the salmon and trout populations in the Stellako River. Int

# . Pac. Salmon Fish. 

### Corn. Prog. Rep. 14, 88 p.

"Field and laboratory investigation of effects 

### of log driving on the fish populations of Stellako River were carried out during 1965. Field studies showed that log

### jams caused damage to approximately eight per cent of sockeye spawning grounds by erosion of gravel and bark deposition, That the damage 

### was real was verified through analysis 

### of subsequent spawning distribution which showed that spawners tended toavoid the damaged areas. disturbance due to erosion and gouging by individual logs could also have killed incubating trout eggs 

### in Stellako River, but that vertical impact on the gravel 

### surface would have caused only occasional mortality." Laboratory results indicated that moderate gravel

(178) Johnson, B. 

### W,, E. 

### M. Miller, and C. H. Ellis 

### 1952. A report 

### on steelhead egg and fry survival eAperiments on the North Fork of Stillaguamish River with relation tothe 

### North Fork earth slide. Unpubl'. rep. 

## ,Wash

# . State Fish, Dep. Olympia

# . "The siltingof the slide in the Stillaguamish River has a very definite 

### effect on development of eggs and 

### fry for 

### a limited distance of 

### less than one milebelow the slide and inthat 

### area causes 50% to 100%

### loss of eggs and fry. 

### 'Tram one miletofive

### miles below the slide no significant difference could be observed in 

### loss of eggs and fry from silting effects 

### [a 33.5%survivall.

"Comparing survivals fkom 

### a distance of one 

### mile ormore below the slide and survivals above the slide 

### a very maximum of 10%

### loss toeggs and fry could be assessed to siltingof the river. buried steelhead eggs in plastic sacks 

### in gravel.

## 1" [Authors

93(179) Kabel, C. S., and E. R. German 1967. Caspar Creek study completion report. Calif. Fish & Game Mar. Res. Admin. Rep. 67

-4, 27 p. This study included the effects 

### of logging on Caspar Creek and 

### its population of silver salmon 

### (mcorhynchuskistrtch) and steelhead trout 

### (Saho

### gairdnerii). havior of adults and young population, counts, length frequencies, and length

-weight and length

-fecundity relationships. that 

### similar experiments be made on two tributary 

### streams entering the ocean rather than on two forks of 

### a single 

### stream. these tributaries be larger than the individual forks 

### of Caspar Creek. The information on both species includes beThe report recommends

It also suggests that
(180) McKernan, Donald L., Donald R. Johnson, and John I. Hodges 

### 1950. Some factors influencing the trends of salmon populations in Oregon. Trans. North Am. Wildl. Conf. 15:427-449.

"Three factors 

### were found tobe significantly correlated with the fluctuations and trends 

### in silver salmon production in Oregon.

4 

### "(1)Logging 

### was found 

### to adversely 

### affect the 

### runs 

### of salmon in 

### later years. trend of logging in one coastal watershed studied and the abundance of silver salmon 

### (as measured by the catch) in the river two cycles 

### or six years later. A significant negative correlation was found between the

"(2) Exceptional winter floods and low summer 

### water flows 

### seem toproduce poor runs.

"(3) The intensity of fishing 

### was also found to affect the subsequent productivity 

### of the fisheries

# .

"Other factors studied did not bear on significant relationship tothe fluctuations or trends of productivity of silver salmon." (181) McNeil, WilliamJ. 1964. Environmental factors affecting survival of young salmon in spawning beds and their possible relation 

### tologging. Fish & Wildl. 

### Sem., Bur. Corn. Fish. Planuscr. Rep. 64

-1, 25 p. Auke Bay Biol. Lab., Auke Bay, Alaska.

"In this report, an attempt has been made toreview some of U.S.

the factors influencing survival of salmon embryos and alevins which 

### conceivably may be influenced by logging. The review has not been exhaus- tive, but an attempt has been made to include the more pertinent recent work which has come to the author's attention. some conclusions on the basis of this review. It 

### is possible tomake

"Results of field studies have revealed that extrinsic environmental factors have 

### an important bearing on the survival of young

94salmon in spawning beds. The data indicate that increased mortality may occur during periods of minimum and maximum flow of 

### streams, when debris shifts position in 

### stream channels and when permeability of spawning beds 

### is reduced by the presence of fine particulate 

### matter. It 

### is conceivable that logging could exert both harmful and beneficial influence on young salmon in spawning beds. Harmful 

### effects might include increased maximum flows of 

### streams, more debris in 

### stream channels, and more settleable solids transported into spawning 

### streams. A beneficial 

### effect might 

### result should logging cause the minimum 

### flows of 

### streams in Southeastern Alaska to increase. It 

### is apparent that the addition 

### of 

### silt and debris to

### streams should be avoided and the stability of 

### stream banks should be preserved whenever 

### possible. r'Solution of the salmon

-logging problem lies ultimately inthe economic development of watersheds and 

### streams for the benefit of both 

### resources. ment 

### of natural spawning beds 

### inAlaska...and more 

### work 

### is planned 

### or underway. 

### great need 

### to obtain 

### a more detailed understanding 

### of the biological and physical 

### factors that control fry production from spawning beds. Hence, the natural processes that control fry production from salmon spawning beds must be 

### wellunderstood before 

### a satisfactory evaluation or solution of the salmon

-logging problem can be achieved." In this regard, some initial effortshave been made on improveBut even in the 

### area of spawning bed improvement there 

### is 

### a

(182) McNeil, 

### William 

### J. 1966. Effect of the spawning bed environment on reproduction 

### of pink and chum salmon. U.S. Fish E Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 65(2) :495-523

# .

"Mortality of 5 brood years of pink salmon, 

### Oncorhynehus 

### gorbuscha, and chum salmon, 0. 

### keta, in spawning 

### beds of three Southeastern Alaska 

### streams was studied. odically, and mortality was associated with certain environmental factors: The supply 

### of dissolved oxygen, the stability 

### of spawning beds, and 

### freezing

# . Eggs and larvae 

### were sampled peri-

"Total mortality between spawning and fry emergence typically High mortality ocvaried between 75 and 99 percent 

### in the study areas. curred during low and high 

### stream discharge and freezing 

### air temperatures. Mortalities ranging 

### from 60 to 90 percent 

### of deposited eggs occurred in association with 

### low dissolved oxygen levels during and after the spawning period. Movement of gravel in certain instances 

### was associated with the removal of 50 to 90 percent 

### of eggs and larvae present in spawning beds. Freezing caused up to 65 percent mortality of eggs and larvae in 

### one stream

# .

" Low dissolved oxygen levels occurred once in 5 years. This occurrence 

### was associatedwith 

### unusually low water during spawning in

95late 

### summer. variable. debris 

### was deposited within the high 

### water channel. over spawning beds 

### was not damaging toeggs and larvae. 

### eral instances where mortality estimated 

### at almost 50 percent 

### occurred with no evidence that deposited wood debris shiftedposition. tality from freezing occurred only in the 

### stream having the 

### lowest min

### imum dischargee Mortality during periods of heavy precipitation 

### was highly In one instance, 

### a 90

-percent mortality occurred where wood Wood debris floating There 

### were sevHigh 

### mor -

(183) 

### McNeil, WilliamJ. 1968. 

### Effect of 

### streamflow 

### on survival 

### of pink and chum salmon in spawning beds. salmon, 

### p. 96

-114. 

### Prac. 

### Forum Am. Inst. Fish. 

### Res. Biol., Alaska Dist., Juneau, Alaska. 

### In Richard 

### T, Myren 

## [ea.], Logging and

Studies conducted in southeast Alaska revealed the following: "1. Low streamflow in 

### summer causes low levels 

### of dissolved oxygen in intragravel 

### water and high mortality of pink and chum salmon spawn

# . "2. F'reezing can cause high mortality 

### of pink and chum salmon spawn where 

### streamflow fluctuates drastically. atively stable streamflow which varied 

### less than 100

-foldbetween average daily minimum and 

### maximum discharge experienced 

### lowmortality in cold winters

# . Spawn in 

### streams with 

### rel-

"3. 

### Eggs and alevins of pink and chum salmon 

### are highly 

### vulnerable to dislodgment fbom spawning beds during high streamflow. stranding of debris 

### on spawning beds increases gravel movement and 

### mortality

# . The

ff4. Increased high streamflow and addition 

### of debris to 

### stream Increased channels from logging would be harmful to pink and chum salmon. 

### low streamflow would be beneficial

# . 'I 

### (184) McNeil, 

### William J., and W. 

### H. Ahnell 1964, Success of pink salmon spawning relative to size

### of spawning bed 

### materials. 

### US. Fish & Wildl. Serv, Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 469, 15p.

"The potential 

### of 

### a salmon spawning bed toproduce fry is directly related to 

### its permeability. The relationship between the coefficient 

### of permeability and the fraction 

### of bottom 

### materials consisting of fineparticles is inverse,

"Field methods formeasuring sizecomposition of bottom 

### materials in salmon spawning beds are described, and an empirical relationship between the fraction (by volume) of solids less than 0.833 mm. mini

### mum dimension and coefficient of permeability of stream bottom materials

96

### is given. pink salmon 

### (@zcorhynchusgorbtlscha) mried considerably

# . ductive spawning 

### streams had the more permeable spawning beds. pink salmon caused the removal 

### of 

### finer particles from bottom 

### materials during spawning. 

### consist largely 

### of organic 

### matter. Logging caused 

### fine sands and 

### silts to 

### accrue to spawning beds. Flooding caused the removal of fine parti

### cles from spawning beds." Size of bottom 

### materials in streams utilized for spawning by The more proAdult The evidence indicates that the fine particles removed

(185) 

### McNeil, 

### William J., Philip Shapley, and Donald E. Bevan 1962. Effects 

### of logging on pink salmon and spawning

-bed 

### i mprovement. Coll. Fish. Contrib. 139:lS-18. Univ. Wash., Seattle. 

### In Ted S. Y. 

### Koo [ed.], Research 

### in Fisheries.

A 

### 6

-year study on factors causing egg and 

### larval mortality 

### in three southeastern coastal salmon streams was conducted. cludes 

### a discussion on the interrelationships among spawners, quality of intragravel

### water, quality of spawning bed, and the effect 

### of these factors on egg and 

### larval mortality. 

### two of the salmon 

### streams were 

### alsc conducted. The summary inSpawning bed improvement studies on
(186) Neave, Ferris, and R. F. Foerster 1955. Problems of 

### Pacific salmon management. 

### Trans. North Am. Wildl. Conf. 20:426-439. Past and present Pacific salmon management problems 

### are discussed. ward increasing salmon production 

### by decreasing freshwater mortality. Deforestation 

### looms 

### as the major problem of fkeshwater mortality. The authors 

### state that present research efforts 

### are aimed to-

(187) 

### Neave, Ferris, and W. P. Wickett 1949

# . Factors affecting the freshwater development of Pacific salmon in British Columbia. 7th Pac. Sci. Congr. Proc. 4:548-556. The ecology 

### of the freshwater phases of Pacific salmon 

### is discussed including the chemical, physical, and biological factors causing mortality in freshwater. 

### The importance 

### of freshwater factors 

### as 

### measured by adult populations 

### is reviewed. populations with streamflow. The report also correlates adult
(188) Phillips, Robert W., and Homer 

### J. Campbell The embryonic survival of coho salmon and steelhead trout 

### as influenced by some environmental conditions 

### in gravel beds. Pac. 

### Mar. Fish. Comm. Annu. Rep. 14:60-73. 1962.

, The results of two studies designed to determine the effect of three environmental 

### factors on embryonic 

### survival of steelhead trout and

97coho salmon 

### are reported. 

### are: (1) dissolved oxygen concentration of the intragravel 

### water, (2) seepage 

### rate of intragravel

### water, and (3)permeability of the gravel. Also included in the report 

### is 

### a literaturereview of the 

### effect of dissolved oxygen on embryonic survival. The three environmental 

### factors considered

(189) Phillips, Robert W., and 

### K V. Koski 1969. A fry trap method 

### for estimating salmonid survival from egg deposition 

### to fry emergence. J. Fish 

### Res. Board Can. 26:133-141. "The method involves 

### a trap of nylon netting placed over an individual redd with the trap's edges buried 15

-20 

### cm inthe gravel

### just outside the periphery of the redd. than 70 coho salmon 

### (Oncorhynchuskisutch)redds over the past 5 years, with 

### as many as 2061 frybeing captured from 

### a single redd. The trap is relatively 

### stable because 

### it is flexible and conforms tothe 

### surface of the streambed, causing debris to float 

### or rollover the 

### surface. It can be used 

### on individual redds; thus, emergent survival for separate paren

### tal combinations can be estimated. Field 

### tests showed the efficiency of the trap approached 100%. significant 

### effect on intragravel dissolved oxygen and gravel permeability. removed 

### at least three 

### times 

### a week. 

### a more 

### accurate 

### estimate of survival from egg deposition through fry 

### emergence than four other methods

# . '' It has been used successfully on 

### more

Installation and presence 

### of the traphad no Mortality 

### of fry in the traps averaged 

### less than 1.5%when fry 

### were We concluded that the trap provides

(190) Shapovalov, 

### Leo, and Alan C. Taft 1954. The 

### lifehistories of the steelhead rainbow trout 

### (Sazmo

gairdneri 

### gairheri) and silver salmon 

### (Oncorhynchus kisutch), with special reference toWaddell Creek, California, and 

### recommendations regarding their management. Calif. Fish & 

### Game, Fish Bull. 98, 375 p. The report describes the lifehistory of the steelhead rainbow trout and the silver salmon. The authors discuss: 

### (1)the correlation between number of eggs and size of fish, (2) the relationshipbetween hatching 

### time and temperature, (3) the 

### effects of silting on the duration of survival, (4) factors influencing 

### growth, timing and 

### size of migration, and (5) the improvement of the biological and physical habitat. (191) Sheridan, W. L., and S. T. Olson 1970. Timber harvest and the salmon and trout fisheries of southeast Alaska. Presented toWest. Div. Am. Fish. SOC., 10 p. Victoria, B.C., Can.

"The purpose of this paper is to 

### (1) summarize the progress of timber harvest on National Forest 

### lands 

### in Alaska; (2) outline the status

98of some 

### of the fisheries that could be affected; (3) discuss past 

### and present studies aimed 

### at evaluating the effects 

### of logging; (4) review progress of the opportunities for habitat improvement; and 

### (5) point out the 

### most pertinent problems needing attention. (192) Sheridan, 

### William L. 1962. 

### Waterflow through 

### a salmon spawning 

### riffle in southeastern Alaska. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 407, 20 p. "The following characteristics

### were studied 

### in a small salmon 

### stream in Southeastern Alaska from 1956 through 1959: (1) dissolved oxygen content 

### of ground 

### water, (2) variation of dissolved oxygen with depth in streambed, (3) temperature of ground 

### water, (4) extent of ground

-water seepage, (5) interchange 

### of flowing 

### stream water and 

### water of streambed gravels, and (6) flow of 

### water in the gravel 

### of streambank and gravel bar. "Ground 

### water was generally low in dissolved oxygen content, 

### Because and dissolved oxygen levels decreased with depth in streambed. 

### of these and other points discussed inthispaper, I conclude that the main source of intragravel 

### water of high oxygen content is the flowing 

### stream.lr 

### (193) 

### Wells, Ralph A., and 

### William

### J. McNeil 1970. Effect of quality 

### of the spawning bed on growth and development 

### of pink salmon embryos and alevins. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Sew. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 616, 6 p. "Among three segments 

### of the spawning ground in Sashin Creek, southeastern Alaska, the largest and 

### fastest developing 

### embryos and 

### alevins 

### of pink 

### salmon, 

### Oncorhynehusgorbuscha, came from spawning gravels characterized 

### by high levels of dissolved oxygen 

### in intragravel

### water. The 

### high oxygen levels occurred in a stream segment which has a relatively steep grade and coarse 

### materials in the bed. 

### No differences in

### water tem- perature 

### were observed among the three segments." (194) Wendler, Henry 0

# .,and Gene Deschamps 1955. Logging dams 

### on coastal Washington 

### streams. Flash. Dep. Fish., Fish. Res. Pap. 1(3):27-38. The types and operations of log dams, their 

### effects on fish 

### life, early fisheriesrehabilitation efforts, and rehabilitation efforts 

### are discussed. (195) Wickett, 

### W. P. 1958. Review of certain environmental factors affecting the production of pink and chum salmon. J. Fish. Res. Board 

### Can. 

### 15( 5): 

### 1103-1126

# .

"The relation between stock and numbers of 

### spawners is obscured by annual environmental changes. Stream discharge 

### at the time the spawners

99

### are migrating upstream, 

### at the 

### time when the eggs 

### are in the early stages of incubation, and extreme discharge during the period eggs and alevins 

### are inthe 

### gravel can impose an eightfold variation in the stock 

### resulting 

### from

### a given number of spawners in one 

### area. Ocean conditions soon 

### after the fry enter the 

### sea have been observed to increase or decrease survivalby 

### a factor of 3. The density of spawners that produces the 

### greatest numbers of fry 

### is related to the average permeability of the 

### stream bottom. Preliminary data indicate that more spawners could be used toadvantage in 

### most 

### areas of the coast." (196) 

### Wolf, P. 

### H. 1950. American problems and practice, I. Salmon which disappeared. Salmon Trout Mag. 

### 130:201-212. 

### The author 

### states that among themany factors contributing to the elimination of salmon runs around Lake Ontario, siltings 

### from erosion 

### after extensive land cultivation and deforestation 

### are the major contributors. Salmon fry disappear *om silted areas of 

### a river, whereas a good yield is found from 

### less spoiled regions. 

### (197) Ziebell, Charles D. 1960. Problems associated with spawning and growth of salmonids 

### In E. F. Eldridge [ed.], Proceedings in Northwest watersheds. of 7th symposium on water pollution research, p. 28

-32. U.S. Dep. Health, Educ. E Welfare, Reg. IX, Portland, Oreg. Ourwatershed problems fall into two basic categories, natural and manmade, which the author discusses with respect to spawning, incubation, and affiliatedproblems, 

### as well as to fish growth problems emphasizing the need 

### for more research and better control over logging operations.

100

## MULTIPLE LOGGING EFFECTS

101(198) Brode, John M., 

### James W. 

### Burns, and 

### Gary E. Smith 1973. Effects 

### of logging road construction on invertebrates in 

### a 

### small coastal 

### stream. Calif. Fish E Game, Inland Fish. Adm. Rep. 73

-1, 47 p. "Benthos density, invertebrate drift 

### rates, and salmonid diets 

### were compared on 

### two forks of Caspar Creek, Mendocino County, California, before and 

### after the construction of a logging road on the South Fork. Road construction 

### was immediately detrimental tomost aquatic invertebrates in the South Fork, although conditions created favored Diptera and Plecoptera. The increases in these two insect orders offset losses of other invertebrates, causing the South Fork's benthos 

### to increase about 122%, from 286.02 to 634.41 mg/rn2, immediately after the road construction. scured by the fertilization of the South Fork's disturbed 

### areas with 817 kg 

### urea immediately 

### after the road 

### was completed. enriched the 

### stream's food base for insects. In addition, 

### a comparable increase inbenthos density occurred simultaneously inthe undisturbed North Fork, indicating that the South Fork's immediate increase

### was not necessarily caused by the road construction and fertilization. Recolonization of the South Fork by other invertebrates 

### was rapid and, within 2 years, the benthos was 1,347.54 mg/m2, 371%greater than it had been prior 

### to the road construction. 65%during the same period. 

### streams, ranging 

### from 0.43 to 3.57 mg/hr/net in the North Fork and 

### from 1.07 to 3.89 in the South Fork. 

### low sampling effort and precluded any 

### statistical comparisons 

### of drift 

### rates before and 

### after the road construction. In both 

### streams, Trichop

### tera and Coleoptera made up the 

### greatest biomass of insect orders inthe drift. availability of food items, with juvenile steelhead trout 

### (Sabo

### gairdne2.i) and coho (silver) salmon 

### (Oncorhynchus kisutch) consuming relatively more Diptera inthe South Fork after the road construction." The 

### impact of the road construction, however, 

### was partially obThe 

### urea probably

The North Fork's benthos increased only Driftrates were highly variable inboth This variability 

### was probably due tothe

Salmonid diets generally changed inresponse tochanges inthe

(199) Burns, 

### James 

### W. 1972. Some 

### effects of logging and associated road construction on northern California 

### streams

# . Trans. 

### Am. Fish. SOC. 101(1):1

-17.

"The 

### effects of logging and associated road construction on four California trout and salmon 

### streams were investigated from 1966 through 1969. quality, fish food abundance, and stream nursery capacity. Logging was found tobe compatible with anadromous fish production when adequate attention 

### was given to 

### stream protection and channel clearance. ing capacities forjuvenile salmonids of some 

### stream sections 

### were increased when high temperatures, low dissolved oxygen concentrations, and adverse sedimentation did not accompany the logging. Extensive use of bulldozers on steep slopes for road building and in stream channels during This study included measurements 

### of streambed sedimentation, water

The carry102

### debris removal caused excessive streambed sedimentation innarrow 

### streams. Sustained logging prolonged adverse conditions in one 

### stream and delayed 

### stream recovery

# . Other aspects of logging on anadromous 

### Eish production 

### on the Pacific Coast are discussed." (200) Calhoun, Alex 1966. Bulldozer delinquents. Outdoor Calif. 

### 27(8):10, 11, 19. Watershed and 

### stream damage in California and regulations needed to control logging damage 

### are discussed. 

### (201) Calhoun, Alex 1967. Stream damage. 

### I?z

### Man's effect on California watersheds, p. 363

-380. Part 111, 1965-1967. State Calif., Sacramento. 

### Stream damage on California watersheds by logging operations, dam construction, earth

-moving activities, overgrazing, and placer mining 

### is discussed. The main emphasis 

### is concern with logging operations; and the author recommends that loggers should leave buffer strips, practice more effective erosion control on roads and skid 

### trails, and stop using streambeds 

### as working areas, roads, and skid 

### trails. (202) Calhoun, Alex, and Charles Seeley 1963. Logging damage to California 

### streams in 1962. Calif. Fish & 

### Game, Inland Fish. Admin. Rep. 63

-2, 15p. 

### Vareless logging operations continue to damage priceless Destructive practices include use 

### of streambeds 

### as roadways, 

### operaAccelerated erosion compounds the damOrganic logging debris may also watersheds and to degrade important salmon and trout streams in California. tion of heavy equipment in streams, tractor logging on steep slopes, and removal 

### of streamside vegetation. age. Valuable forest soils erode off the slopes and deposit'in 

### streams, smothering eggs, fish, and fish food. pollute the 

### streams.

"During 1962, 33 

### streams were damaged 

### by logging operations, mostly in north coast counties. 

### All are on private land. "Careful timber harvesting on some private lands and in National Forests, has 

### shown that such damage can be largely prevented.

"Model timber 

### sales contracts requiring good practices to protect 

### soils, streams, and timber would help inexperienced owners of timberlands tominimize damage by contract loggers.

"The increasingly serious problem of erosion control involves many agencies. It is beyond the power 

### of the Department of Fish and 

### Game

103to solve alone. calling attention toresulting 

### stream damage. to define this problem." Nevertheless, 

### wehope tohasten corrective action by More research 

### is needed
(203) Campbell, C. J. 1963. Fish management problems associated with timber harvesting. 

### In Symposium

--Forest watershed management, 

### p, 331-337. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. The 

### article 

### is a general discussion of fishery problems associated with timber management and harvesting. (204) Chapman, D. W. 1963. Physical and biological 

### effects of forest practices upon stream ecology. p. 321

-330. Oreg. State Univ,, Corvallis. 

### In Symposium

--Forest watershed management,
Changes induced 

### by land treatments on the aquatic ecosystem and their effects 

### on stream ecology 

### are reviewed and discussed. (205) DeWitt, 

### John W. 1964. The fish and fish habitats of the coast redwood region in Mendocino, Humboldt, and Del Norte Counties in California, Final Rep., Coast Redwood Study. U.S. Natl. Park Serv., 

### Proj. NPS

- WASO

-11

- 64-(4) 31 p

# . [Mimeogr

## .I

"The purpose of this report partly 

### is to identify the common fishes and todescribe their distributions, general abundance, and importance, and ecological status in the redwood forest region in Mendocino, Humboldt, and Del Norte Counties. It 

### is also for the purpose of describing the general 

### nature, extent, and condition of fish producing 

### waters in this region. "A discussion of the main fish and 

### stream protection problems of the present and the future 

### is presented. tothe problem of protecting fish species peculiar tothe redwood region and their habitats

# ." Special emphasis 

### is given

(206) Edgington, John R. 1969. The impact of logging on the ecology of 

### two trout 

### streams 

### in north Idaho. 73 p. 

### M.S. thesis, Univ. Idaho, 

### Moscow.

"The effects of logging on two study locations, with 

### a test and control 

### stream, were studied 

### for 11years in northern Idaho. Clear and selective logging was carried out in varied percentages on the two locations. An impact on the 

### stream ecology 

### was noted early in the study due mainly toroad construction. A decline then 

### a gradual increase to previous levels was noted 

### for 

### four orders of stream insects with the exception of the order Plecoptera which showed 

### a decline in abundance due

104tosiltation. timing and methods 

### of timber harvesting 

### are credited for the moderate 

### effects 

### tothe 

### stream ecology." There 

### was no apparent 

### effect on trout populations. The



### (207) Ellis, Robert J., and 

### William A. Smoker Report on 

### a study of effects of log rafting and dumping 1970. on marine fauna 

### in southeast Alaska, June 6

-9, 1970. US. Fish & Wildl. Sew. Interdep. Rep., 11p. Auke Bay Biol. 

### Lab., Auke 

### Bay, Alaska. A reconnaissance survey 

### was made 

### of log dumping 

### sites and their 

### effects upon the marine fauna in-thevicinity. The results showed a 

### localized accumulation of bark and wood debris which eliminated plants and many animals 

### in the immediate 

### area. (208) Fisk, Leonard, 

### Eric Gerstung, Richard Hansen, and John Thomas 1966. Stream damage surveys--1966. Calif. Fish & Game, Inland Fish Adm. Rep. 66

-10, 9 p.



### "Four stream drainages 

### were surveyed during July 1966 todetermine the extent of damage from past logging and other activities. 

### streams 

### are the 

### Garcia River, Mendocino County; Redwood Creek, Humboldt County; 

### North Fork 

### of Battle Creek, Shasta County; and Middle Fork 

### of Mokelumne River, Calaveras County. The

"A total 

### of 328 

### miles 

### was surveyed. Of this, 108

### miles (33%) 

### were severely damaged, 27 

### miles (8%)more moderately damaged, 127.5 

### miles (39%)

### were lightly damaged, and 65.5 

### miles (20%)

### were undamaged. "The most severe damage occurred inRedwood Creek and the 

### Garcia River, both inthe redwood forests 

### of the Coast Range,.
"In the North Fork of Battle Creek and in Forest Creek, tribu

### tary tothe Middle 

### Fork of Mokelumne River, there 

### was five 

### times the poundage of trout per unit area in undamaged control sections as in severely damaged 

### areas

# .

"In Forest Creek, 

### water temperatures increased about 0.5OF. per 

### mile inwell

-shaded 

### areas, compared to 1.5 to 2.0° F. per mile 

### in unshaded 

### areas

# . I' (209) Froehlich, 

### Henry A. 1971. Logging debris 

## - managing 

### a problem. 

### In James Morris 

### [ed.], Proceedings of 

### a symposium

--Forest land uses and 

### stream environment, p. 112-117. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. ''Floatable debris in forestedwatersheds 

### is produced 

### by both 

### natural and human action. 

### its subsequent flushing by periodic flood events are discussed. quency of major flood events since 1861

### was examined and 

### found tooccur 

### The natural accumulation 

### of organic debris and The fre105

### at 

### an average 

### of only eight

-year 

### intervals. that one of the

### major contributors to storm damage is nonmanufactured debris. Studies 

### were reviewed which show that logging debris adds significantly tothe natural debris and often aggravates the flood damage. The impact of this debris movement on the forest road system 

### was examined and a number of management techniques 

### were discussed. ing road and culvert damages 

### is recommended."Flood damage studies show

A plan forreduc- (210) Fullerton, 

### E. C. 1972. Fish, wildlife, and logging practices in the Sierra. Presented to

### Assem. Comm. Nat. Resour. & Conserv. 7 p. Sugar Pine Point State Park, Lake Tahoe, Nev. 

### This article presents a discussion of some of the effects which logging has on wildlife and 

### its habitat 

### in the Sierra. The discussion includes: 

### (1)streamside vegetation, (2) logging debris disposal problems, (3) landslides, and (4) siltation and logging benefits towildlife. (211) Hall, James D., and Richard L. Lantz 1969. Effects of logging on the habitat of coho salmon and 

### cutthroat trout 

### in coastal 

### streams. 

### In T. G. Northcote Led.], Proceedings of a symposium

--Salmon and trout in 

### streams, p. 355-375. Univ. B. C., Vancouver, B. C., Can.

"The effects 

### of two patterns of Douglas

-fir logging on 

### water quality and fish populations have been studied 

### in three coastal headwater 

### streams. Clearcut logging of 

### an entirewatershed 

### of 71hectares (175 acres) 

### is being compared toclearcutting 

### inpatches on 

### a larger watershed of 304 hectares (750 acres), where about 30 percent of the 

### area has been harvested and 

### a stripof timber 

### left along the 

### stream. The third 

### watershed of logging logging

tent of 203 hectares (500 acres) 

### will

### remain unlogged 

### as a control. Pre- studies began 

### in 1958, 

### access roads 

### were constructed in 1965, and took place 

### in 1966.

"Substantial changes 

### in temperature and dissolved oxygen con

### stream water followed logging in the entirely clearcut watershed. A maximum temperature of 3OoC and 

### a maximum diurnal fluctuation of 16O 

### were recorded. Comparable pre-logging maximums were 16O and 1.5O, respectively. dropped below 2 mg/l during logging operations. and cutthroat trout in the 

### clearcut watershed has been affected by logging, but the 

### significance of the effect cannot yet be fully evaluated. Dissolved oxygen levels of surface and intragravel 

### water Survival of coho salmon

"NO significant changes 

### in the fish population 

### or its habitat have been noted in the patch

-cut watershed. severalyears to evaluate long

-term effects of logging on the stream and to determine the period of recovery." Studies willcontinue for



### 106(212) 

### Hess, Lloyd 

### J. 1969. The effects of logging road construction on insect drop into 

### a smallcoastal 

### stream. 58 

### p. M.S. thesis, Humboldt State Coll., Arcata, Calif. "Because 

### stream fisheries are 

### so closely associated with forested watersheds, 

### it is necessary that the 

### streams and forestsbe managed jointly under 

### a system of multiple use. This requires a knowledge of the interrelationships between these resources toyield maximum returns from both. management by ascertaining the 

### effect of logging

-road construction on the drop 

### of insects into 

### a stream. It 

### is the purpose of this paper to

### relate logging practices tofish

"On the South 

### Fork of Caspar Creek the insects falling into the 

### stream were greatly increased 

### after 

### a logging road 

### was built. A twofold increase innumber and weight of insects occurred over the entire 

### stream. In 'Disturbed' 

### areas, where the road paralleled the 

### stream, drop insects increased three and one half 

### times by number and one and one half 

### times by weight over the 'Insect-Control' 

### area. In the 'Highly Disturbed' 

### areas, where the road crossed the 

### stream, insect numbers increased by five and one half 

### times and 

### a threefold increase by weight over the 'Insect-Control' area 

### was noted.

"A more than proportionate amount 

### of the increase occurred in those adult insects having aquatic 

### immature stages. Chironomidae, had a 

### greater occurrence afterroad construction than 

### all insects combined before construction. icant change 

### of the 

### families studied." One such family, This family showed themost signif- (213) 

### James, G. A. 1956. The physical effect of logging on salmon 

### strdeamsof south

### east Alaska. 

### USDA For. Serv. Stn. Pap. No. 5, 49 p. Alaska For. Res. Cent., Juneau, Alaska. A 5

-year study made on three streams concerning logging effects on streamflow, temperature, channel change, and sedimentation 

### is 

### summarized. 

### (214) James, G. A. 1957. The effect of logging 

### on discharge, temperature and sedimentation of a salmon 

### stream. 

### USDA For. Serv. Tech. Note 39, 2 p. Alaska 

### For. Res. Cent.

## ,Juneau, Alaska. The effect of logging on streamflow, 

### stream temperature, and sedimentation 

### is analyzed. however, 

### it occurred during the dry weather months and may prove tobe beneficial to coho salmon fry and late migrating pink and chum fry. may 

### also help early spawning escapement upstream. 

### stream temperature and sedimentation in the logged stream. Increase 

### in streamflow 

### was found tobe 

### small; It Logging did not change



### 107(215) Larkin, P. A., and graduate students 1959. The effects on fresh 

### water fisheries of man-made activi

### ties in British Columbia. Can. Fish

-Cult. 25:l-33.

"There can be no question that historically, extensive 

### clear cut logging has had deleterious 

### effects on populations 

### of freshwater and anadromous fish, particularly in 

### coastal 

### areas. However, therecent trend tosustained yield management of forest resources together with the inclusion of practices in logging which 

### are designed toprotect fisheries

### resources, 

### willno doubt greatly mitigate these 

### effects in the future.

" Atthe 

### same time, other trends in modern forestry practices 

### are causing substantial concern tofisheries agencies. spraying of large 

### areas of forest for insect control 

### is known 

### tohave disastrous effects on fish in 

### streams. on inthe future 

### on 

### a large scale

--and there 

### are indications that it may be

--fisheriesagencies 

### willrequire 

### a greatly increased knowledge in this field upon which tobase sound conservation 

### measures." The indiscriminate If forest spraying is tobe carried

(216) Lehman, Carl 1970. Effects of log storage on the Dungeness crab fishery in southeastern Alaska. Alaska Fish 

### G Game. 

### Corn. Fish. 

### Res. 

### G Dev. Act, 

### Job Completion Rep., Proj. 5

-10

-R and 

### 5-21-R, p. 39

-43. Juneau, Alaska.

"The scanty observations made during this preliminary study have shown that the physical presence 

### of bark and associated debris on the substrate mechanically reduces the suitability of the habitat for Dungeness crab. rafting area, and in the absence of strong current. 

### are present log

-rafting debris 

### is swept away and therefore has little effect upon the crab population in the immediate vicinity. in the 

### area where such debris 

### is eventually deposited, or to themarine animals in such 

### an 

### area, is not within the scope of this study." This mechanical 

### effect is 

### greatest in the immediate logWhen strong currents What happens

(217) Meehan, W. R., W. A. Farr, D. M. Bishop, and J. H. Patric 1969. Some effects of clearcutting on salmon habitat of two southeast Alaska 

### streams. 

### USDA For. Serv. 

### Res. Pap. PNW-82, 45 p. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. The 

### effects of clearcutting on streamflow, suspended sediment, 

### stream temperature, log

-debris jams, and indirectly 

### on salmon populations 

### of two watersheds were evaluated and compared with an uncut watershed in southeast Alaska. Although some 

### effects were observed, the timber harvesting habitat orpopulations. 

### as practiced on these watersheds did not appear harmful 

### to salmon



### 108(218) Narver, David W. 1971. Effects of logging debris on fishproduction. 

### In James Morris Led.], Proceedings 

### of 

### a Symposium

--Forest land uses and stream environment, p. 100-111. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis.

"Stream salmonids (8 species of Pacific salmon, trout, and char) are discussed 

### inrelation to their environmental requirements and the possible impact of logging debris on their production. 

### is on 

### small streams because 

### of their 

### great importance 

### as nursery and spawning 

### areas for certain species and because they may be more susceptible todamage than larger 

### streams 

### or rivers. of pertinent 

### literature. It 

### is concluded that accumulations of logging debris in 

### small streams can have serious consequences on the production of salmonid fishes

# . The emphasis

Extensive use 

### is made

(219) Narver, David W. 1972. A survey of some possible effects of logging on two 

### eastern Vancouver Island 

### streams. Fish. 

### Res. Board Can., Tech. Rep. 323, 55 p.

"The lack of British Columbia studies relating logging prac

### tices tosalmon and trout production 

### was the basic reason 

### for 

### a 1970 survey of sections of 

### two streams on the 

### east coast of Vancouver Island. 

### The objective 

### was to compare fish populations, invertebrate drift, 

### stream temperatures and 

### stream channel widths in recently clearcut and burned 

### stream sections and adjacent upstream sections 

### in standing timber. 

### "Late 

### summer standing stock estimates of the trout population in Jump Creek 

### was considerably 

### greater inthe timbered (2226 fish/acre and 38.8 lbs/acre) than the logged section (1420 fish/acre and 3.9 

### Us/ acre). Wolf Creek ranged 

### from 6722 fish/acre (27.9 lbs/acre) to 10,206 fish/acre (49.8 lbs/acre) with the highest density (mainly steelhead) in the logged sections. higher in comparison toother stream salmonid populations reported in the literature. The standing stock of juvenile coho salmon and steelhead in

Stock 

### estimates for these 

### two streams 

### are similar or

"Other possible 

### effects of logging revealed in this survey 

### was fish size, 

### stream temperature and 

### stream channel width. A larger average size of each age group of trout in the logged section 

### of Jump Creek compared tothe timbered section may have been related tohigher 

### stream temperatures in June and July leading to faster development of pre-emergent fry and 

### earlier emergence. higher than in upstream timbered sections. 

### ture 

### was 21.1O C (70.0° 

### F) in the logged section and 15.1O C (59.2O 

### F) in the timbered section; temperatures over 20° C (68O 

### F) lasted only a few hours each day. The channel of both streams in the logged sections appeared badly eroded with cutbanks and wide gravel bars, but only in 

### Wolf Creek was the channel significantlywider in the logged than the timbered sections

# ." Stream temperature in the logged sections 

### were In Jump Creek maximum tempera

### 109(220) Reinhart, Kenneth G. 1972. Effects of clearcutting upon soil/water relations. 

### 172 R. D. Nyland [ed

# .1, A perspective on clearcutting in 

### a changing world. Appl. For. 

### Res. Inst. 

### Misc. Rep. 4, p. 67

-74. Syracuse, M.Y. The 

### effects of timber harvesting 

### are discussed, including 

### tree cutting and removal of products on (1)streamflow, (2) 

### water yield, (3) storm 

### flows, (4) sediment, (5) nutrients, and (6) aquatic plants and animals. soiland 

### water standpoint 

### are: and scattering their location; and, (2) following the highest standards 

### of road location, construction, and maintenance." The author 

### states that the cornerstones of 

### a good job from

### a "(1) restricting the size of clearcuts

(221) Rich, Lowell R., H. G. Reynolds, and 

### J. A. 

### West 1961. The Workman Creek Serv. Rocky Mt. For. E Fort Collins, Colo. A study of the 

### effects tity 

### is discussed. It 

### was also found that experimental watersheds. 

### USDA For. Range Exp. Stn., Stn. Pap. 65, 18p.

of logging on 

### water quality and quanselective cutting in a central Arizona watershed did not greatly 

### affect the 

### rate of sedimentation'inadjacent streams if made under carefully controlled conditions. (222) Ringler, 

### Neil Harrison 1969. Effects of logging on the spawning bed environment in



### .two Oregon 

### coastal streams. Corvallis. 

### M.S. thesis, Oreg. State Univ.,

"The effects of 

### two patterns 

### of logging on the intragravel environment 

### were studied in three Oregon coastal 

### streams between June 1968 and 

### June 1969. been clearcut, and that of 

### a second stream 

### (Deer Creek) cut in staggered settings 

### in 1966. ged control. and temperature of the intragravel

### water were determined, 

### as well as the sizecomposition and organic content 

### of the gravel. Changes 

### were evaluated in

### terms of their 

### effects on the survival 

### of salmonid eggs and 

### alevins. 

### The watershed of one 

### stream (Needle Branch) had A third watershed (Flynn Creek) served 

### as an unlogThe dissolved oxygen content, biochemical oxygen demand,



# . . . 

# . .

"Dissolved oxygen inredds of Needle Branch averaged 7.15 mg/l, whereas that in 

### Deer Creek averaged 8.91 mg/l during 1969. inNeedle Branch redds in 1969

### were 37.4 percent lower than those reported in 1964. riod. Dissolved oxygen 

### at permanent standpipe locations 

### was significantly Oxygen levels Oxygen in Deer Creek redds dropped 12.7 percent in the same@e

### 110

### lower than that in redds and showed 

### greater variability. 

### were positively correlated with streamflow and negatively correlated with temperature. Oxygen levels

"Organic content 

### of the 

### gravel ranged from 0.33 to 7.52 percent by weight: 

### less than 3 percent of the organic material 

### was larger than 6.35 

### mm. The quantity 

### of organic 

### material was directlyrelated 

### to the amount of fine sediment 

### inthe sample. Recent redds inNeedle Branch contained significantly 

### less organic debris than did former redds. the organic content of redds inNeedle Branch did not differ statistically from that in 

### Deer and 

### Flynn Creeks. intragravel 

### water averaged 1.95 mg/l for the three 

### streams; differences among 

### streams 

### were not statistically significant. However, The biochemical oxygen demand of the

"Stratification

### of 

### fine sediment 

### was evident 

### inmany redds, but 

### a definitepattern of stratification could not be detected. composition inNeedle Branch did not differ statistically from other 

### streams. Recent redds 

### in Needle Branch contained significantly 

### less sediment than did former redds. Gravel size that of the

"Intragravel

### water temperature lagged from 2 to 6 

### hours behind surface temperature in attaining the diurnalmaximum. decreased with depth in the gravel in Needle Branch and 

### Deer Creek on 

### clear days, but the intragravel

### water was almost isothermal in Flynn Creek. Fluctuation in intragravel 

### water temperature occurred 

### as early 

### as March, and maxima 

### as great as 19.7OC 

### were recorded prior to complete emergence of coho 

### salmon. Surface and intragravel temperatures reflected the amount 

### of shade over the 

### stream 

### surface. peared tobe 

### little affected by the observed changes in the intragravel environment

# . 1? 

### Water temperature

Survival 

### to emergence of coho salmon ap-

(223) 

### Salo, Ernest 0. 1967. Study of the effects of logging on pink salmon in Alaska. SOC.Am. 

### For. Proc. 1966:59-62. The 

### effects of logging 

### on the pink salmon 

### of the 

### Harris River and Twelvemile Creek 

### are discussed. 

### ments 

### in the the salmon spawning gravels was found. 

### of qgsand fry.decreased during the study period (1959-641, but the actubl number of fry produced increased due toan 

### increase in numbers 

### of eggs deposited. A temporary increase in fine sediThe survival

### rate

(224) Sheridan, W. L. 1949. Effects 

### of deforestation and logging operations on 

### watersheds with special reference 

### to the effects on fish life in the 

### streams. Fish. Res. Inst., Circ. 2, 15p. Univ. Wash., Seattle

# . "1. There 

### is a direct relation of forest and streamflow 

### according tomost 

### writers in the field. 

### ing on the extent towhich 

### it 

### is carried on, may have the following ef

### fects on 

### streams: Denudation 

### of timberland, depend111!'a. Fluctuations in 

### streamflow may be altered to such an extent that 

### a deleterious 

### effect on young fish and spawn would ensue. "b. Temperatures of the 

### water might be increased above the optimum level necessary 

### for fish

-lifein the 

### streams. 

### "c. The occurrence of erosion 

### and silting

### may be 

### so aggravated by removal of 

### forest cover that an adverse 

### effect on aquatic organisms and spawning beds would result. 

### "2. Accentuated runoff due to deforestation 

### may 

### scour stream bottoms, deposit sand bars and destroy aquatic organisms. 113. Logging practices, depending on which methods of logging 

### are used, may 

### create 

### a harmful environmental change 

### for fish inthe following manner : 

### "a. The unwise construction of dams might possibly block 

### Artificial regulasalmon migration and fishways 

### would have tobe built. tion of this type may also prove detrimental toboth spawning adults and eggs and young in the gravel. 

### "b. The use 

### of 

### streams as roadbeds down which logs would be dragged totidewater could change the physical characteristics of the 

### stream with 

### a possible harmful effect on spawning fish, spawn, and 

### also exert 

### a diminishing 

### effect on spawning 

### areas. "c. The accumulation of chips, sawdust, 

### etc., in 

### streams could 

### create a biochemical oxygen demand possibly high enough to lower the dissolved oxygen level of the 

### water to an extent that fish could not live. I'd. The construction 

### of logging roads through forests might possibly increase erosion with 

### a consequent heavier silting of the 

### streams

# . "5. The conclusions 

### in any study 

### of the influences 

### of deforestation or logging in 

### a new region due to the institution of pulp 

### or paper 

### mills in that region must be based on assumptions and data drawn 

### fromother 

### areas inwhich 

### similar work has been 

### done." (225) Sheridan, 

### W. L., J. 

### F. Weisgerber, and C. N. Wilson 1965. The effect of logging on twelve salmon 

### streams 

### in south

### east Alaska. USDA 

### For. Serv., 59 p. Alaska Reg., Juneau, Alaska

# . [Mimeogr

# .1 "The authors 

### were accompanied 

### at each 

### of the 

### streams by 

### a representative of the local Forest Service office and, on- eight streams, by

112

### a 

### member of the Alaska Department 

### of Fish and 

### Game. For each 

### stream observations ormeasurements of the following 

### items were recorded: present vegetation in the cutting 

### area; (2) evidence 

### of any erosion; (3) 

### stream characteristics, including configuration, gradient, particle 

### size, evidence 

### of bedload 

### movement, pool

-riffle relationship, 

### water quality, approximate discharge and 

### water stage, bank stability, and apparent spawning potential; (4) number 

### of salmon 

### inthe 

### stream; (5) log jams 

### in the 

### stream; and (6) overall changes since the 1950 examination. 

### In addition, 

### areas photographed 

### in 1950 

### were relocated (where possible) 

### and comparison photos taken." 

### (1)

(226) Stefanich, Frank 1956. The effects 

### of logging 

### on Pinkham Creek's fish popula

### tion. Mont. Fish & Game. Fed. Aid 

### in Fish Restoration, Job Completion Rep., 

### Proj. F

-7

-R

-6, 10p.

"Eight randomly selected stations 

### were sampled and 

### a total of 401 

### eastern brook trout and 218 rainbow trout taken. 

### The 

### total weight and average condition factor C for the 

### brook trout 

### was 17.42 pounds and 36.1, respectively. 13.29 pounds and 25.3 

### were obtained for the 

### total weight and average condition factor C. 

### The totalnumber 

### of fish caught 

### was higher than 

### in 1955. 

### For the rainbow trout, figures 

### of

"Approximately 1,350 

### acres of timber 

### were logged on Forest Service land, producing 13,587.26 

### MBM and 181,090 linear 

### feet of poles. An estimated 1,000 MBM 

### of timber 

### was cut on private lands. total 

### of 61,087 

### MBM of timber has been removed from the Pinkham Creek drainage.

## '' To date, 

### a

(227) Stefanich, 

### Frank 1957. The 

### effects of logging 

### on Pinkham Creek's fish population. Mont. Fish & Game. Fed. Aid in 

### Fish Restoration, Job Completion Rep., 

### Proj. F

-7

-R

-6, 10

### p.

"Eight 

### randomly selected 

### statims, each 300 

### feet long 

### were sampled and 345 eastern 

### brook trout and 226 rainbow trout were captured. The condition factor 

### (C) of the eastern

### brook trout averaged 26.4 and the rainbow trout 32.2. 

### acres of land 

### were cut 

### from a 5 increase of both totalnumber and 

### total weight of 

### alltrout captured." Logging operations have continued and 1,180 to 95 percent cut. There was 

### a slight
(228) Stefanich, Frank A. 1955. The effects 

### of logging on Pinkham Creek's fish population. Mont. State Dep. Fish E Game. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Job Completion Rep., Pmj. F

-7

-R

-4, 5 

### p. 

### "Nine randomly selected sections, each 300 

### feet 

### long were sampled and 388 eastern 

### brook trout and 200 rainbow trout were captured.

113The eastern 

### brook 

### trout comprised 66 percent 

### of the population. condition factor of the brook trout averaged 37.4 and the rainbow trout 38.9. timber removed during the current year. 

### was selective cut pine, 

### fir and larch and the remainder 

### was clear cut spruce. sections than inthe upper. There 

### was a decrease inboth numbers and weights of fish fromthat 

### of the previous years. fered the 

### greatest reduction. Some new erosion 

### of the 

### stream banks 

### was observed in the portion 

### of the 

### stream in which the 

### lower three stations 

### are located

# . The Logging operations have continued and 1,250 

### acres have had some Ninety percent 

### of the logging The rainbow trout 

### were found tobe more numerous in the lower The rainbow trout 

### suf-

(229) Steinbrenner, E. C. 1966. Logging on watersheds: what 

### type, where, what.disturbance? watershed management, p. 109-115. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis

# . In Proceedings of 

### a Symposium

--Practical aspects of

"It appears that although we do have the 

### scars on the landscape from past logging, once the problem 

### was brought 

### to light, improvements began to take shape. The development 

### of new and better logging equipment has been encouraged and this equipment utilized tomhimize disturbances to the watershed, thus maintaining the productivity of the forest lands

# .

"The forest industry moved into tree farming 25 years ago and 

### is moving toward more intensive forestry. tance of maintaining the productivity of the land 

### is recognized. tenance 

### of improvement 

### of site quality 

### is 

### a worthy objective in managing land for timber 

### or water, 

### or both." Among other things, the imporMain-

(230) Wooldridge, David 

### D. 1960. Watershed disturbance from tractor and skyline crane logging. J. For. 58(5):369-372.

"In 

### a comparative study 

### of logging methods, soildisturbance caused by a Wyssen Skyline Crane 

### was only 

### a quarter of that caused by a standard 

### crawler tractor operation. Crane area 

### was found on 

### fewer transects, less damage 

### was evident in the residual stand, and 

### less road construction 

### was needed. These advantages suggest the possibility of using skyline logging systems 

### for harvesting timber in municipal watersheds and other 

### areas previously closed to logging because of erosive soil conditions or steep, broken terrain." Soil disturbance 

### on the Skyline

114(231) Zach, 

### L. W. 1951. Past logging 

### affects little of watersheds. USDA For. Serv. Tech. Notes 8, 

### p. 

### 1. Alaska 

### For. Res. Cent., Juneau, Alaska

# . "Past logging near salmon 

### streams in Southeast Alaska has disA compilation of watershed 

### areas comturbed the watersheds very little. pared 

### to areas cut on 24 Forest Service timber 

### sales adjoining 

### streams 

### showed the 

### following:

"1

# .
"2

# .

"3

# .

"4.

"5. Southeast Alaska watersheds 

### are small. On the 24 

### sales they 

### ranged from 342 

### acres to 20,000 

### acres. Areas logged 

### are small. 178 

### acres. They ranged from 18

### acres 

### to
Average proportion 

### of watershed cut over 

### was only 

### 1.3 percent. 15.5 percent. Individual 

### sales ranged 

### *om 0.28 percent 

### to
Cutting 

### is nearly always confined tothe lower part 

### of the watershed. 

### two miles up 

### a drainage. In no 

### case did cutting proceed more than

Southeast Alaska 

### forest stands 

### are so broken up and intermingled with nonmerchantable types that no 

### great 

### unbroken clear

-cuttings or denuded watersheds can be expected.

## ''

115

## STREAM PROTECTION

116

### (232) Burwell, Dave 1971. Prevention of debris accumulation in 

### streams by uphill 

### In James 

### Morris [ed.], Proceedings 

### of 

### a symposium felling.

--Forest land 

### uses and 

### stream environment, p. 118-120. Oreg. State Univ. 

## ,Corvallis

# . "Felling 

### trees uphill using 

### a truck

-mounted donkey and climber to attach the line, prevents breakage and distributes limbs and tops on slopes instead 

### of in 

### stream bottoms. of comparable conventional cutting. increased safety, lessened breakage, reduction of slash to eliminate burning 

### and enable quicker regeneration, and reduction of expensive creek cleaning. These may more than offset additional costs." Costs 

### are two tothree 

### times those Savings include the intangible of

(233) Evans, 

### W. A., and F. B. Johnston 

### 1973. Fish migration and fishpassage--a practical guide 

### to solving fish passage problems. USDA 

### For. Serv., Reg. 5, 41p.

"This report 

### is prepared 

### as a working guide 

### for forest biologists and engineers who 

### are confronted with the practical problems of providing fishpassage through 

### or over both natural and 

### artificial struc

### tures in 

### streams. Useful 

### material has been selected from the various reference sources and combined 

### to form 

### a simplified source 

### of information for the California Region. 'I (234) Federal 

### Water Pollution Control Administration 1970. Industrial 

### waste guide on logging practices. U.S. Dep. Inter., 40 p. Portland, Oreg. Some 

### of the problems involved in improper 

### or poorly planned logging operations 

### are described, and guidelines 

### are prescrtbed which should be used toprevent such operations. 

### (235) Jones and Stokes 

### Associates, Inc. and J. B. Gilbert Associates 1972. A study todevelop administrative and regulatory practices 

### to prevent 

### water quality degradation resulting from logging 

### and construction operations in the north coast of California. Rep., Stand. Agreement 

### No. 1

-5

-018, 72 p'. Control 

### Board, Sacramento, Calif. Prog. State

### Water Resour.

This progress report 

### is 

### a summary of the studies conducted to date along with a prospectus of future 

### work. tions contains 

### a summary review 

### of literature regarding the adverse 

### ef

### fects of logging operations on 

### water quality. The second section deals with 

### a format for evaluating the potential impact of 

### a proposed logging operation. The final section surveys the administrative 

### and regulatory practices of other States, the Federal Government, and other State agen

### cies 

### in California. The first of three sec117(236) Lantz, Richard 

### L. 1971. Guidelines for 

### stream protection in logging operations. Oreg. State 

### Game 

### Corn., Rep. Res. Div., 29 p. Portland, Oreg.



### Practical guidelines for the management 

### of 

### a coastal watershed The aims of management 

### are tomaintain producin Oregon 

### are presented. tion 

### of timber, fish, and high

-quality 

### water. vegetation and minimizing 

### somces of sedimentation, 

### a watershed can be managed tobenefit 

### man. fishery management need not conflict but rather should 

### work together for optimum success. By protecting streamside The report's main premise 

### is that forestry and

(237) 

### Lawler, Thornas A. 1971. Resource protection possibilities and alternatives in logging. Forest land 

### uses and stream environment,p. 84

-85. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

### In James Morris red.], Proceedings of 

### a symposium--

"Forest land resources may be protected during logging through the 

### use of many logging alternatives. are discussed relative to using various alternatives including equipment now available and available in the future. by using 

### a logging method other than the most economical must be balanced by 

### a benefit 

### of 

### at least equal value. toried 

### to determine specific future logging standards 

### or requirements which 

### willbe compatible with anticipated resource protection needs. This 

### willgive direction toequipment development and acquisition. The public ultimately pays for and benefits from resource protection. Work must be done to determine how much protection the public 

### is willing topay for and how the costs should be borne." Three forest management concepts 1)Any extra 

### costs incurred 2) Forest lands should be inven3)

(238) Oregon State 

### Game Commission 1963. Precautions for 

### stream and fish protection inroad construction and logging operations. shed management, p. 338

-340. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

### In Symposium

--Forest 

### waterRecomended,practices for fish and 

### stream protection 

### are listed. 

### The report 

### states that the most common causes of fish problems in forest lands 

### are removal of bank cover, improperly laid culverts, siltation, and logging debris. (239) Reid, Kenneth A. 1955. 

### For better 

### trout fishing. Pa. Angler 24(10):4, 5, 23. In 

### a study of trout production made in streams in the Adirondacks, more careful and well

-planned logging practices 

### are said tobe needed toprotect trout environments.



### 118(240) Rothacher

# ,Jack 1960. How much debris down the drainage? 

### In Proceedings, Cooperative watershed management short course, p. 13

-1to 13

-4. beg. State Coll.

## ,Corvallis. The author points out problems associated 

### with the question of where logging debris should be removed from 

### streams. that 

### if 

### a stream is fed by 

### a watershed larger than 40 

### acres, logs and chunks should be withheld 

### fromthe 

### stream 

### or removed before the

### winter 

### flows

# . He suggests



### (241) Rothwell, R. 

### L. 1971. Watershed management guidelines for logging and road construction. Can. 

### For. Serv, Inform. Rep. A

-X

-42, 78 p. 

### For. Res. Lab., Edmonton, Alberta, 

### Can.

"This report presents 

### a 

### set of guidelines for logging and road construction 

### to

### minimize erosion, sedimentation, and detericration of 

### water quality. 

### In the absence 

### of localresearch and information, the guidelines 

### are based on an extensive 

### literature survey of research 

### re

### sults and 

### practices in North 

### America and on 

### a broad reconnaissance of forest conditions in Alberta.

## '' (242) Schneider, P. 

### W. 1956. The 

### effects of logging old

-growth timber on fish manage

### ment. SOC. Am. 

### For. Proc. 1955:121-123. 

### Effects of logging virgin timber and the best way toavoid excessive damage to fishery resources 

### are discussed, Two approaches suggested 

### are research on the responses 

### of 

### stream tovarious timber harvest practices and the integration 

### of fishery considerations with timber harvest operations. (243) Sheridan

# ,William

## ,Theodore Hoffman

## ,and Sigurd Olson 1965. A technique 

### for monitoring effects of land 

### use on salmon 

### streams 

### in Alaska, 45th Annu. 

### Conf. West. Assoc. Fish E Game COTIXII. 

### PPOC. 1965:155-159.

"Because of possible 

### effects on salmon 

### spawning environment 

### in Alaska, 

### a monitoring technique has been developed'by the Forest Service in cooperation with the Alaska Department 

### of Fish and Game. general objective of 

### the monitoring system 

### is to detect changes 

### inthe spawning environment that adversely 

### affect salmon production. Charac

### teristics being monitored in one 

### stream (soon tobe followed by two others) are 

### as follows: The



### "1. Composition 

### of streambed spawning 

### areas "2. Streamflow and 

### water temperature

119"3. Stream channel configuration and 

### amount and kind of debris in stream channel "4. 

### Soil types 

### in the watershed


### "5. Production 

### of salmon fry "6. Adult salmon escapement 

### "If changes 

### in the salmon spawning environment, thought to be harmful, do occur, remedial 

### measures 

### can be undertaken. other hand, practices which may enhance the habitat can be expanded." 

### On the
(244) Smedley, Stephen C. 

### 1968. 

### Progress report 

### of 

### joint stream monitoring by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game and 

### U.S. Forest Service. 

### In Richard T. 

### Myren red.], Logging and salmon, p. 48

-61. 

### Proc. Forum Am. Inst. Fish. Res. Biol., Alaska Dist., Juneau, Alaska. The monitoring system of three salmon streams in southeastern Alaska 

### is discussed. 

### The 

### six characteristics monitored 

### were: streambed gravel composition, yearly spawning escapement, preemergent pink salmon fry, streamflow, temperature, and incidence and movement 

### of logs or de- bris in stream channels. (245) Society of 

### American Foresters, Columbia River Section, Water Management Committee 1959. Recommended logging practices forwatershed protection in 

### western Oregon. 

### J. For. 57(6):460-465. Recommended practices forwatershed protection 

### are.outlined in the order 

### in which problems occur 

### in logging operations. (246) Society 

### of American Foresters, Columbia River Section, 

### Water Management 

### Committee 1961. Watershed protection. A manual 

### for forest landowners. 

### Oreg. State

### Coll., 16

### p. Corvallis, 

### Oreg.; Coll. 

### Press. The 

### manual serves 

### as 

### a nontechnical guide 

### for logging and multiple

-use management by private landowners and the general public. The report 

### states that toprovide' shade and protection from erosion the streambank should be protected from thewind whenever possible. (247) USDA Forest Service, Alaska Department of Fish and 

### Game, and Alaska Department of 

### Natural Resources [nod,] Logging and fish habitat. 22 p. Juneau, Alaska.

"This pamphlet, directed mainly to timber sale administrators and loggers, describes some 

### of the major habitat requirements of trout and salmon and 

### lists some basic practices that willhelp toprotect the habitat.

### ''

120(248) Wilson, Robert 

### L. 1960. Reducing erosion 

### in the construction 

### of logging 

### roads, 

### In Proceedings,Cooperative 

### watershed management short course, 

### p. 17

-1

### to 

### 17-4. Oreg. 

### State 

### Coll., 

### Corvallis.



### "Erosion on logging roads can be minimized by increasing 

### the angle 

### to 

### the back slope, hence reducing 

### the 

### area of slope subject 

### to erosion, and by proper construction 

### methods 

### such as keying in 

### all 

### fill 

### material 

### and by compacting the subgrade."



### 121

## STREAM IMPROVEMENT

122(249) Bishop, Daniel M., and S, Philip Shapley 1963. 

### Effects of log

-debris 

### jams on southeast Alaska salmon 

### streams. [Abstract.] 13th Alaskan Sci. Conf. Proc. 1962:90. "Log debris jams which were constructed on Maybeso Creek, Prince 

### of 

### Wales Island, induced streambed scouring under and around the

### jams and downstream migration and deposition of bedload. Fall floods which washed out the 

### jams, removed fine

### material inthe 

### gravel which 

### was accompanied by significant increase 

### in dissolved oxygen in one 

### of thejam 

### areas. 

### "Log jams created unstable streambeds by maintaining readily changeable conditions and concentrating high flows inthe vicinity of the construction

"Salmon eggs deposited near the log 

### jams may be washed out 

### or buried thus gravel movement above a certain degree may offset the advantages of improved quality 

### of inter

-gravel water." (250) BOUSSU, Marvin F. 1954. Relationship between trout populations and cover on a 

### small stream. J. Wildl. Manage. 18(2):229-239. "The study showed that trout populations in Trout Creek, Gal

### latin County, Montana, can be directly correlated with 

### natural cover, application of 

### artificial cover, and removal of natural cover on the 

### stream

# . 'I 

### (251) Broad, Robert D., and Harold A. Gangmark 1956, Establishment of a controlled flow 

### area and construction 

### of king salmon spawning pens at MillCreek, California. bog. Fish

-Cult

# . 18( 3):131

-134, "An isolated channel that leads independently from MillCreek tothe Sacramento River 

### was selected for conducting experimental spawning and incubation studies. Spawning pens and 

### a water

-control dam 

### were built 

### as essential counterparts of the experimental 

### area. Brush, 

### silt, sand, and gravel 

### were bulldozed from

### its entrance 

### toreestablish flow into the channel. A length 

### of corrugated 

### metal pipe 

### was laid in the channel and covered with earth to create a dam extending 8 feet above the pipe. A headgate (Calco 

### Model 101) 

### was mounted 

### at the upstream end 

### of the pipe for flow regulation.

"Stream improvement 

### work was done in the old channel for approximately 1,000 

### feet below the dam. loosening gravel, and freeing 

### it of 

### silt and sand. a uniform width, and the slopes of each riffle were made constant. additional settling ponds 

### were excavated below the dam." This involved removing large rocks, The channel 

### was made 

### Two

123(252) 

### Helmers, A. E. 1966. Some effects of 

### log jams and flooding in a salmon spawning 

### stream. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note NOR

-14, 4 p. North. For. Exp. Stn., Juneau, Alaska.

"Streambed scouring and deposition occurred 

### in the 

### areas of 

### Gravel shif*ing associated with 

### jams 

### two constructed log

-debris jams. and flood flows reduced the 

### fine material content of the streambed gravel and may have been responsible forthe increased dissolved oxygen concentration

# .

"Log

-debrisjams intensify streambed instability, especially during floods. They may reduce salmon production 

### in otherwise favorable areas. Gravel movement presumably reduces egg and larvae survival. On the other hand, 

### loss of 

### fine

### material because 

### of gravel movement should benefit the salmon development environment by improving intragravel 

### water

### flow, thus increasing dissolved oxygen availability and making possible more effectiveremoval 

### of metabolic 

### wastes. 

### jams on 

### salmon production 

### remains undetermined. point, however, temporary or unstable jams are judged tobe detrimental." The effect of log

-debris 

### From a conservative view- (253) Holman, Gerald, and WillisA. Evans 1964. Stream 

### clearance project

-completion report Noyo River, Mendocino County. Calif. Fish & Game, Inland Fish. Adm. Rep. 64

-10, 13p.

"This report covers one of the first major stream clearance projects tobe conducted 

### inthe State. the initial surveys topost project inspections. Activities 

### are described from

"A total of 36 miles 

### of spawning and nursery areasof the Noyo River drainage were improved 

### at a cost of slightly over $19,000. Clearance work 

### was conducted by 

### use of Conservation Camp personnel.

"The project 

### was deemed beneficial

## ,although 

### no satisfactory method 

### was devised toevaluate 

### results. principal benefit 

### of log 

### jam removal 

### is not removal of impassable barriers. to remove 

### silt and gravel deposited behind logjams. that both spawning conditions and food production 

### are thus removed for anadromous fishes. Contrary topopular belief, the It is improvement of habitat by permitting scouring winter flows It is believed

(254) Meehan, 

### William R. 1971. Effects 

### of gravel cleaning 

### on bottom organisms 

### in three southeast Alaska streams. Prog. Fish

-Cult. 33(2):107-111.

"The cleaning of gravel in three streams by the gravel shifter initially reduced the bottom fauna populations in each of these streams,

124but within 1year these populations apparently returned to the pretreatment levels in each of the 

### streams." (255) Merrell, T. R. 

### 1951. Stream improvement 

### as conducted 

### in Oregon on the Clatskanie River and tributaries. Fish, Corn. Oreg., Res. Briefs 3:41-47.

" Allevidence 

### seems topoint to the fact that drastic clearance Although the 

### stream bottom was greatly dis

### of 

### logs and debris 

### fromsalmon 

### streams increases accessibility and 

### at least does not damage productivity. turbed, in 

### less than a year natural conditions had largely restored themselves. About 15additional

### miles of stream 

### were made readily available to spawning salmonoids.

"It is believed that due to improvements made the Clatskanie and 

### its tributaries 

### are at present capable 

### of providing spawning and 

### rearing facilities for large numbers of silver salmon and steelhead trout." (256) Nobel, E. L., and L. 

### J, Lundeen 

### 1971. Analysis of rehabilitation 

### treatment alternatives for sediment control. 

### In James Morris [ed.], Proceedings of 

### a symposium

--Forest land uses and stream environment, p. 86

-96. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. "The aquatic environment 

### of the South Fork Salmon River has A special study 

### was conducted to determine the source and exbeen severely damaged in recent years 

### by excessive 

### rates of sediment production. tent of the damage, and 

### measures required toreduce future sediment 

### production to

### a 'tolerable' level. Linear programming 

### was used 

### as an aid to 

### select from 190 possible treatment alternatives and minimize 

### treatment 

### costs 

### at various levels 

### of sediment reduction, The desired level 

### of sediment could be reached 

### at a cost of $5 million. Debris basins 

### to trap sediment moving in the channel proved tobe the most effective and economical type 

### of 

### treatment while control 

### of sediment production from roads and timber harvest on steep, fragile lands would have a very high 

### cost

# ." 

### (257) Richard, 

### James A. 1963, Log 

### stream improvement devices and their effects upon the fish population, south fork Mokelumne River, Calaveras County. 

### Calif. Fish E 

### Game, Inland Fish. Admin. Rep. 63

-7, 12p. Richard states that due to severe bank erosion atthe ends 

### of the dams the construction 

### of log dams proved ineffective for increas

### ing fish populations or improving trout stream habitat. provement devices are recommended only for controlled streamflows. Log stream 

### i m-

125(258) Sheridan, W. L. 1969. Benefit/cost aspects of salmon habitat improvement 

### in the Alaska Region. USDA 

### For. Serv., 47 p. Branch Wildl. Manage., Reg. 10, Juneau, Alaska. "...the purpose 

### of this report is to:



### "1

# .

"2

# .

"3

# . Present 

### a method of benefit/cost analysis of habitat improvement projects whereby funds 

### can be allotted to obtain the highest dollar return 

### on the investment. Using a completed project, demonstrate how themethod works 

### in terms of project costs, benefits actually 

### realized todate, and 

### futurereturns. 

### Present benefit/cost analyses for 

### a series of proposed representative fishhabitat improvements projects not yet funded." (259) Sheridan, W. L. 1969. 

### Effects of log debris

### jams on salmon spawning 

### riffles in Saginaw Creek.... USDA For. Serv., 12p. Juneau, Alaska. "A preliminary study of the effect of log debris jams on salmon spawning habitat 

### was made in Saginaw Creek 

### on Kuiu Island 

### in June, 1968. This study showed that about 27 percent of the 

### area in one 

### lineal mile of this 

### stream had been eliminated 

### as spawning 

### area by log

### jams. tions 

### are made forjudicial removal 

### of 

### jams and leaning 

### trees, especially while 

### a logging operator is in the watershed. ratio is 34:l for removal of a log 

### jam and 342:l for removal of leaning 

### trees

# . I' RecommendaDiscounted benefit cost

(260) Sheridan, 

### W. L., Richard W. Wilke, and S. T. Olson 1968. The gravel cleaner ("Riffle Sifter"). USDA For. Serv. Prog. Rep., 1967, 8 p. Alaska Reg., Juneau, Alaska.

"Research 

### in fisheries and engineering has shown that egg to fry survival of salmon embryos is higher in sediment free gravels. For this reason, the Forest Service 

### is developing equipment toremove sediment from spawning gravels. Service engineers 

### in 1964, and a working model 

### was developed by the Clark Equipment Company in 1966. in 1966 and 1967. Although mechanical failures precluded thorough testing 

### in Alaska, it was demonstrated that the equipment would remove large quan

### tities of sediment fromstreambed gravels and that the principle of jetting the fines to the surface where they can be sucked up and disposed of is sound. The history of development and the 

### results of testing of the "Riffle Sifter" are given in this progress report. ipated that 

### a production (working) model willbe available for use 

### in Alaska prior to 1969." A prototype model was developed by Forest The equipment 

### was tested 

### inAlaska

It is not antic-

126

## MULTIPLE-USE MANAGEMENT

127(261) Andersen, Harold E., and George A. James 1957. Watershed management and research on salmon 

### streams of southeast Alaska. 

### J. For. 55(1):14-17. 

### General problems associated with logging 

### on salmon 

### streams are discussed; i.e., sedimentation, temperature 

### increases, and log 

### jams. Restrictions 

### in timber 

### sale contracts 

### are 

### also reviewed. (262) Borovicka, Robert L. 1968. Consideration of aquatic resources with forest practices in

### western Oregon. Presented to Oreg. State For. Dep., For.- Fish. 

### Habitat Semin. 

## ,9 p. 'Tillamook, Oreg. The Multiple-Use Act 

### is discussed; defining 

### its multiple uses tofisheries and forestry. fected by forestry practices in Oregon 

### is pointed 

### out, as wellas forest practices which have helped fisheries. The importance of the fishery resource 

### af-

(263) Bullard, W. E. 1950. Some references on watershed management. 

### USDA 

### For. Serv. 

### Pac. Northwest 

### For. & Range Exp. Stn., Res. Note 63, 26 p. Portland, Oreg. The relationship of forest vegetation toclimate, soil, erosion, 

### runoff, and streamflow and the effects of logging on each 

### are 

### summarized. (264) Bureau of Land Management 1970. 

### An allowable cut plan for western Oregon. 90 p. 

### U.S. Dep. Inter., Portland, Oreg.

"The purpose of this report is topresent the 

### results of the application of the BLM proposed allowable cut policies and procedures tothe recent re-inventory of 

### BLM's western Oregon forest lands. identifies the highest 

### level 

### of sustained 

### timber production that 

### can be economically achieved under environmentally sound management. objective is to develop 

### a program indicating the manpower, funding and the size and timing 

### of investments needed to implement timber production, multiple 

### use, and environmental protection." It A further

(265) Cosens, Richard D. 1958. Reducing logging damage. 

### USDA For. Serv. Calif. For. & Range Exp. Stn. Res. Note 82, 9 p. Berkeley. Preventing logging damage willbe made 

### easier by


### "1. Preparing and carrying out a detailed logging plan aimed 

### at reduction of damage.

128112. Properly training and supervising logging 

### crews; and "3. Focusing engineering and logging ingenuity on designing equipment that 

### willlessen damage tothe advance growth as well

### as increase efficiency of yarding 

### logs." (266) Croft, 

### A. 

### R., and 

### Marvin 

### D. Hoover 1951. The relation of forests to

### our water supply. J. 

### For. 49(4):245-249. Several practices toreduce the deleterious 

### effects of 

### logging in thenorthern Rocky Mountains 

### are suggested including selective cutting 

### in a 200

-400

-ft stripalong 

### streams. related towater quality is 

### briefly discussed.The problem of erosion as
(267) Gleason, 

### Clark 

### H. 1958. Watershed management

--An annotated bibliography of erosion, streamflow, and 

### water yield publications by the 

### California Forest and Range Experiment Station. USDA For. Serv. 

### Calif. For. & Range Exp. 

### Stn. Tech. Pap. 23, 79 p. Berkeley. "Bibliography has two purposes 

### (1)to

### list and describe publications of the California Forest and Range Expt. Station and (2) to

### cite 

### a few important early 

### articles by other workers that helped 

### set the stage for the station's work. Subjects covered include: 

### (1)analytical methods, (2) 

### climate, (3) floods and flood control, (4) geology, (5) instrumentation, (6) watershed management, 

### (7)plant relations, (8) research programs and (9) soilrelations and water relations." (268) Greene, 

### A. F. C. 1967, 

### The relationship of aquatic wildlife habitats toforest management. SOC. Am. 

### For. Proc. 1966:62-65. Need formultiple

-use management toprotect and preserve OUT aquatic wildlife habitat 

### is discussed. (269) Hagenstein, 

### W. D 

# . 1953. The 

### tree 

### farm program--an 

### asset to 

### fish

### and game management. J. 

### For. 51(9):620-623. Hagenstein 

### states that the controlled logging programs in Douglas

### fir forests benefit the hunter and fisherman because ground cover is seldom lacking more than 6 months during the year due tonatural plant 

### selection. Water courses can be protected through the use of streamside strips and forest rotation.

129(270) 

### Neale, Alfred T. 1953. Watershed problems and their

### relation to

### water quality. Wash. Pollut. Control 

### Corn., Tech. 

### Bull. 15, 16p. Olympia. Several methods of operations 

### are suggested foruse in com

### mercial and 

### recreational activities 

### in forested watersheds with 

### streams which support anadromous fish runs. Author suggests leaving 

### a buffer stripat 

### least 30 

### feet wide, except 

### "in special 

### cases where 

### stream banks 

### are subject toundercutting." (271) Needham, Paul 

### R., and Fred W. Johnson 1949. Forests and fish. 

### In A. Stefferud [ed.], Trees, the yearbook 

### of agriculture, p. 581

-585. Washington, 

### D.C.: U.S. Gov. Print. Off. Importance 

### of multiple

-use management inrelation to

### factors affecting fishpopulations 

### is discussed. (272) Packer, Paul E. 1957. Management of 

### forest watersheds and improvement of fish

habitat. Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. 87:392-397.

"Management of forest watersheds in the western United States 

### for protection against floods and sediment and to improve 

### water yields 

### can 

### also be 

### very beneficial 

### in fishery management. hydrologic processes that operate on watersheds 

### are discussed. cipal kinds 

### of watershed protection and 

### water yield improvement problems are outlined and discussed 

### inrelation to

### maintenance of desirable fish habitat. tionships 

### on watersheds and develop methods 

### of forest management for better regulated and higher quality streamflow 

### is emphasized." Some of the important The prinNeed forresearch todetermine quantitative hydrologic 

### rela-

(273) Schlapfer, T. A. 1972. Title 2100

-multiple use management. 

### USDA 

### For. Serv., For. Serv. 

### Man., Reg. 6, Suppl. 11, Code 2121.33, 

### p. 27

-34. Portland, 

### Oreg. The 

### Manual: "...Provides new policy and guidelines 

### for protecting 

### water quality through establishment of 'streamside management 

### units

## ' (SMU)

# . Stream classification 

### is determined by use made of water and each class 

### has certain 

### water quality objectives and 

### criteria tobe 

### met 

### in the conduct of land management activities."



### 130

### (274) Smith, Allen C. 1963. Tractor roads and 

### trails planning, use and post treatment.

Iiz Symposium

--Forest watershed management, 

### p. 283

-289. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis.

"In logging 

### a watershed with tractors it should always be 

### remembered that 

### a tractor 

### is very versatile; and 

### weather, soil, slope, and other conditions should regulate plans and policies rather than pre-set 

### rules. costs to a minimum so that a maximum return from the timber can be realized. the 

### timber thewatershed may be ruined. controlwith skid 

### trails distributed throughout. It should be possible toprotect the watershed and stillkeep Fire protection 

### is of high importance because when 

### fire destroys 

### Most 

### areas are safer for fire

"Protection 

### of watershed 

### areas should be easy with tractor 

### logging if the logger 

### realizes that this protection 

### is part of hisjob." 

### (275) Tanner, Howard A. 1954. Place 

### of game and fish in multiple use of watersheds. Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. 87:386-391.

"Fish and wildlife inthe near futwe

### willoftenhave tobe fitted intomultiple 

### use programs forwatersheds. 

### This involves compro

### mise between various desired uses of land and 

### water; uses which may be compatible, conflicting 

### or independent. If fish and wildlife 

### are to receive proper consideration in the multiple use program, it is essential that there be more factual information on relationships of wildlife to habitat and on wildlife values. use 

### of these 

### facts." Public support must be won through the
(276) Toney, Robert D. 1961. Multiple

-use management and 

### its effect on logging practices. llthAlaskan Sci. Conf. Proc. 1961:156-161.

"This paper 

### has attempted to point out some of the ways in which other uses 

### of the national forests 

### affect timber harvesting 

### and logging practices. ging 

### criteria are good forestry practices, but 

### as the population in

### creases and more and 

### more people move into an area other uses for the land gain in importance and cannot be, and 

### are not, ignored. Fisheries, 

### water, and recreation 

### are 

### allgaining in importance, and 

### it may be that someday the other uses 

### for the 

### national forests willbecome so important and widespread that standard logging practices 

### willbe 

### obsolete." There are, however, still areas where the only log-

(277) University ofWashington 1971. Clear

-cutting, impacts 

## - options 

## - trade

-offs. Inst. 

### For. Prod. Proc., Coll. For. Contemp. For. Ser. No. 1, 44 p. 

### Seattle. Discussions about the natural resources, including plants, soils, and water, the economics and politics of clearcutting, and land

131use decisions 

### are included. answers but to

### raise questions, to attempt to

### sort these questions 

### as totheir relevancy, and toprovide information that might help those making policy decisions to arrive at useful answers. The conference 

### was not designed toprovide

(278) Willington, R. P. 

### 1971. Forests, fish, and 

### water. Symp. Cent. Contin. Educ. & Fac. 

### For. 4 p. Univ. B. C., Vancouver, B.C., 

### Can. The purpose of the symposium 

### was to identify some 

### of the major problems in forest

-fish

-water resources, with the objective of reaching 

### a consensus of opinion. chieved, 

### some valuable generalizations 

### were developed, including: 

### (1)a need formore advanced planning in forestry operations, (2) operator supervision 

### of operational plans, (3) research aimed 

### at the operational level rather than 

### at the academic 

### or basic level, and (4) retraining 

### or refresher education courses 

### for alllevels of research personnel. Although conclusive unity 

### of opinion 

### was not 

### a132

## ADDITIONAL REFERENCES NOT ANNOTATED
(279) 

### Allen, K. Radway 1960. Effect of land development on 

### stream bottom faunas. N. 

### Z. Ecol. SOC. PPOC. 7~20-21. (280) Barney, Charles W

# .,and Robert E. Dils 1972. Bibliography of clearcutting 

### inwestern forests. 

### Coll. For. & Nat. Resour. 65 p. Colo. StateUniv., Fort Collins. (281) Bethlahmy, Nedavia 1960. Surface runoff and erosion

--related problems of timber harvesting. J. Soil & 

### Water Conserv. 15(4):158-161. (282) 

### Bureau of Land Management 1968. 6760

-Stream preservation and improvement. U.S. Dep. 

### Inter. BLM 

### Man. (283) 

### Bureau of Land Management 1969. 5110

-Stream protection. U.S. Dep. 

### Inter. 

### BLM Man. Suppl. Oreg. State Off., Portland. (284) 

### Bureau of Land Management 1969. 6512-Wildlife--forest management. U.S. Dep. Inter. BLM Man

# . (285) Chutter, F. M. 1969. The 

### effects of 

### silt and sand on the invertebrate 

### fauna of 

### streams and rivers. Hydrobiologia 34(1):57-76. (286) Copeland, OtisL., 

### Jr. 1965. Land 

### use and ecological factors 

### in relation to sediment yields. U.S. Dep. Agric. Misc. Publ. 970:72-84. (287) Dymess, C. T. 1967. Grass

-legume mixtures for roadside soil stabilization. 

### USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-71, 19 p. Pac. Northwest 

### For. & Range Exp. 

### Stn., Portland, Oreg. (288) Evans, Willis A. 1960. The 

### effect of current 

### west coast logging practices upon fisheries resources. SOC.Am. 

### For. Proc. 1959:106-108. (289) Everts, Curtiss M., Jr. 1957. Water quality depends on good forest management. 

### SOC. Am. 

### For. Proc. 1956:199-201.



### 133(293)

(299 Gebhardt, Gary A. 1970. The influence 

### of 

### stream disturbance activity on aquatic organisms

--a review. U.S. Dep. Inter. Bur. Land Manage., 43 

### p., Salem, Oreg. Hall, 

### James D. 1968, Effects 

### of logging on 

### fish resources. .Loggers Handb. 28(Sect

# . 11):24

-28. Hall, 

### James D., and 

### James T. Krygier 1967. Studies on effects of watershed practices on fish. 'Fed. 

### Water Pollut. Control Admin. Res. 

### Grant WP 423, Prog. Rep., 95 p. beg. State Univ., Corvallis. Hall, 

### James D., and 

### Thomas G. Scott 1969. Recreational and esthetic values of wildlife inrelation to forest management. 

### In Hugh 

### C. Black [ed.], Proceedings 

### of a Symposium, wildlife and reforestation 

### in the Pacific North

### west, p. 22

-25. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

### Hansmann, Eugene W. 1973. Effects of logging on periphyton in coastal streams of Oregon. Ecology 54(1):194-199. Herbert, D. W. M., and J. C. Merkens 1961. 

### The effect 

### of suspended mineral solids on the survival 

### of trout. Int. 

### J. Air & 

### Water Pollut. 5(1):46-55. Hewlett, John D., and Alden R. Hibbert 1961. Increases in

### water yield 

### after several types of forest cutting. Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. 

### Bull. 6:5-17. Jeffrey, W. W., and B. C. Goodell 

### Works Assoc. 62:380-385. 1970. Land management in municipal watersheds. J. Am. Water
Juntunen, Erland T., and Logan A. Norris 1972. Field application of herbicides

--avoiding danger to 

### fish. Agric. Exp. Stn. Spec. Rep. 353, 26 p. beg. State Univ., Corvallis

# . Kelley, Don W. 1959. Effects of siltation 

### on production of fish food organisms. 

### In E. F. Eldridge and John 

### N. Wilson [eds.], Proceedings of 5th symposium

--Pacific Northwest on siltation

- -itssource and effects on aquatic environment, p. 13

-15. 

### U.S. Dep. Health, Educ. E Welfare, Portland, Oreg.

134(300) 

### Kunigk, W. A. 1945. Relation of runoff and 

### water quality toland and forest 

### use in the 

### Green River watershed. J. Am. 

### Water Works Assoc. 37:21-31. (301) Liebeman, J. A., and M. D. Hoover 1948. 

### The effect of uncontrolled logging 

### on stream turbidity. 

### Water Sewage 

### Works 95(7):255-258. (302) Megahan, 

### Walter F. 1972. Logging, erosion, sedimentation

--are they dirtywords? J. For. 70(7):403-407. (303) Mersereau, R. C., and C. T. Dyrness 

### 1972. Accelerated 

### mass wasting 

### after logging and slash

### burning in

### western Oregon. 

### J. Soil & Water Conserv. 27(3): 112

-114

# . (304) Metsker, Howard 

### E. 1970. Fish versus 

### culverts. USDA For. Serv. Eng. Tech. Rep. 

### ETR-7700-5, 19p. Washington, D.C. (305) Narver David W

# . 1973. 

### Are hatcheries and spawning channels 

### alternatives to 

### stream protection? Fish. Res. Board 

### Can. Circ. 93, 11p. 

### Pac. 

### Biol. Stn., Nanaimo, 

### B.C. (306) Reed, Richard D., and Steven T. Elliott 

### [nod.] Effects 

### of logging on dolly 

### Varden. Alaska Dep. Fish 

### G



### Game, Fed. Aid 

### in Fish Restoration, Div. 

### Sport Fish, Annu. 

### Prog. Rep., Proj. F

-9

-4, Job R

-IV

-B, 62 

### p. Juneau, Alaska. (307) Reinhart, Kenneth G. and Howard W. Lull 1969. Forests and floods: 

### a reconsideration. Presented to Watershed 

### Manage. Sect., SOC. Am. For., 6 p. (308) 

### Ross, Richard 1966. Forest 

### influences on streamflow 

### hydrology. 

### In Proceedings 

### of a symposium

--Practicalaspects of watershed management, 

### p. 28

-37. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis (309) Rothacher, Jack, C. T. Djrmess, and Richard L. Fredriksen 1967. Hydrologic and related characteristics of three 

### small watersheds in the Oregon Cascades. USDA For. Serv., 54 p. 

### Pac. Northwest For. E Range Exp. Stn., Portland, 

### Oreg. (310) Shields, Herbert 

### J. 1968. Riffle 

### sifter for Alaska 

### salmon gold. 

### In 1968 

### yearbook of 

### agriculture, p. 204-208. Washington, 

### DOC.: 

### U.S. Gov. Print. 

### Off.

135(311) Skeesick, Delbert G. 1970. The fall immigration of juvenile coho salmon 

### into a small tributary. Fish. Corn. Oreg. Res. Rep. 2(1):1-6. (312) Smoker, William A. 1953. Stream 

### flow and 

### silver salmon production in

### western Washington. Wash

# . Dep

# .,Fish

# .,Fish

# . Res

# .Pap

# . l(1) : 5

-12

# . (313) Tyler, Richard W. 1970. Stream surveys of the Juneau 

### unit sale area of southwest Admiralty Island, 1970. Univ. Wash., Fish. 

### Res. 

### Inst., 105p. Seattle. [Mimeogr. 

### 1 (314) Tyler, Richard W., and Dave R. Gibbons tributaries 

### of the Staney Creek watershed and the Thorne River watershed and of logging inthe Sitka district. Univ. Wash., Fish. Res. 

### Inst. Final Rep., Part I, F'RI-UW-7307, 58 p. Seattle. 1973. ObservatJions

### of the effects 

### of 1ogging.onsalmon

-producing

(315) USDA Forest Service and USDA Soil Conservation Service 1940. Influences of vegetation and watershed treatments 

### on runoff, silting, and streamflow. U.S. Dep. Agric. 

### Misc. 

### Publ. 397, 80 p. (316) Wilm, H. G., and E. G. Dunford 1948. Effect of timber cutting on water available for stream flow from lodgepole

-pine forest. U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. Bull. 968, 43 p. (317) Worthington, R. E. 1960. Erosion control 

### measures for logged 

### areas. Coop. Watershed Manage. Short Course Proc., p. 1 9

- 1to 19

-6. 0re.g. State 

### Coll., Corvallis.



### 136

### SUBJECT INDEX'

Erosion and Sedimentation 

# . . . .

# .. .

# . . . . .

# . . .

# . . . . . .

# .. . 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 

### 10, 12, 12, 23, 24, 15, 26, 27, 28, 29, 20, 22, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67, 84, 107, 108, 116, 135, 174, 177, 196, 199, 200, 210, 213, 214, 215, 217, 220, 221, 222, 223, 248, 256, 260. Streamside Vegetation 

# . . .

# . .. .

# .. .. . 

# . . .

# .

# . .

# .. 

# ... . 28, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 

### 72, 94, 96, 97, 102, 103, 113, 116, 117, 122, 220, 266, 270 WaterQuality.. 

# .

# . . . .

# .. .

# . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 7, 30, 35, 42, 47, 58, 62, 66, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, ZOO, 

### 102, 202, 203, 204, 205, 106, 207, 208, 109, 220, 

### 222, 222, 223, 214, 225, 226, 227, 123, 130, 211, 217, 219, 221, 222 Alteration 

### of 

### Streamflow 

# . . . . . . .. . . .

# . .

# ...

# .. . .

# .. 35, 45, 84, 

### 118, 129, 120, 

### 121, 222, 223, 224, 125, 226, 227, 228, 229, 130, Z32, 232, 133, 234, 235, 136, 137, 238, 239, 240, 242, 242, 243, 214, 217, 220 Descriptions 

### of Effects of Logging Studies 

# . .

# .

# .. .

# . . . .

# ..

# . . 244, 245, 146, 247, 248, 249, 250, 152, 152, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 161, 191 Related Salmonid Information 

# . .. .

# . ..

# . . . . .. .. . . . .

# . . . 14, 26, 35, 36, 43, 59, 258, 259, 260, 

### 162, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, $70, 272, 272, 273, 274, 275, 27&, 177, 278, 279, 280, 181, 282, 283, 284, 185, 186, 287, 188, 289, 190, 292, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 247 Multiple LoggingEffects 

# .

# .. . .. . . . .

# .

# .. . .

# . . . 55, 68, 86, 298, 299, 200, 202, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 220, 222, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 261 208, 209, 210, 261, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229,

StreamProtection 

# . .

# . . . . . . . 

# . . .

# .

# . . .

# .. . .

# .. . . . . . . 10, 28, 30, 33, 34, 37, 40, 44, 50, 87, 205, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248

'Italics identify entries for

### which index subject 

### is the

### major interest.



### 137Stream Improvement 

# . .

# . . . . 

# . . . . 

# .. . . .

# . . .

# . . .

# . . . 145, 191, 

### 194, 240, 249, 250, 252, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260 Multiple

-Use Management 

# . 

# . . . .

# . . .. .. . . . . . . .

# . . . 

# . 11, 72, 123, 229, 262, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 272, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278



### 138

### AUTHOR INDEX Ahnel1,W.H. 

# ................... Aitken.W.W

# .................... Alaska Department of Fish and 

### Game Alaska Department 

### of 

### Natural Resources Al1en.E

# . J

# .................... Allen. K

# . Radway 

# ................. Andersen. Harold E

# ................. Anderson. H

# .W

# ................... Atkinson. Sheridan 

### William 

# ............ 

# ........



# ......

Anderson. Henry W

# ................. Au. David Wah 

### Kwai 

# ................ Bachman. Roger 

### Werner 

# ............... Bakkala. Richard 

# ................. Bakkala. Richard G

# ................. Barney. Charles W

# ................. Berndt,H.W. 

# ................... Bethlahmy. Nedavia 

# ................ Bevan. Donald E

# .................. Bish0p.D.M

# .................... Bishop. Daniel M

# .................. Bjo~n,T.C 

# .................... Boone. Joseph G

# .................. Bormann,F.H. 

# .................. Bormann. F

# . Herbert 

# ................ Borovicka. Robert L

# ................. BOUSSU
. Marvin F

# .................. Brazier. Jon R

# ................... Broad. Robert D

# .................. Brode.JohnM

# ................... Brown. George 

### W

# .................. Bridges. 

### W

# . R

# ...................

Bullard,W.E. 

# .................. Bullard. W

# .E., 

### Jr

# ................. Bullard. 

### William' 

# ................. Bureau 

### of Commercial Fisheries 

# .......... Bureau of Land Management 

# ............. Burgner. Robert L

# ................. Burns,J.E. 

# ................... Burns. JamesW

# ................... Burwell.Dave 

# ................... 184 1 247 247 72 279 261 2 3. 4. 5. 6. 118. 119 73 158 7 

### 159 26. 124 280 120. 121 281 185 217 8. 47. 249 160 29 71c 99 262 250 62 75 171. 172. 173. 251 198 80. 81. 82 263 10 11. 83 144 264. 282. 283. 284 161 63 12. 94. 162. 175. 198 199 232 I

9. 62. 76. 77. 78. 79.



### 139Calhoun. Alex 

# ................... California Resource Agency 

# ............ Campbell. C

# . J

# ................... Campbell. Homer J

# ................. Chapman,D.W. 

# .................. Christensen. George F

# ............... Chutter,F.M. 

# .................. Claire.EmlW

# .................. Coble. 

### Daniel W

# .................. Co0per.A.C

# .................... Copeland. OtisL., Jr

# ............... Cordone. Almo 

### J

# .................. Cormack,R.G.H. 

# ................. Cosens. Richard D

# ................. Croft,A.R. 

# ................... Dellberg. Robert A

# ................. De Rose. Charles R

# ................. Deschamps. 

### Gene 

# .................. DeWitt. JohnbJ

# ................... Dill. 

### Lawrence 

### M

# .................. Dils.RobertE

# ................... Dill. L

# . M

# ..................... Dunford,E.G. 

# .................. Dyrness,C.T. 

# .................. Edgington. John R

# ................. Elliott. Steven T

# ................. Edington. 

### J

# . 14

# ................... Ellis,C.H. 

# ................... Ellis,F.I.M. 

# ................... Eschner,A.R. 

# .................. Ellis. Robert 

### J

# .................. Eschner. Arthur R

# ................. Evans,W.A. 

# ................... Evans. WillisA

# .................. Everts. 

### Curtiss M., Jr

# ............... Farr,W.A

# ..................... Federal 

### Water Pollution Control Administration 

# . . Fisher,D.W. 

# ................... Fisheries Research 

### Institute 

# ........... Fisk. Leonard 

# ................... Foerster. R

# . F

# ................... Fredricksen [Fredriksen]. R

# . L

# ........... Fredriksen. R

# . L

# .................. Fredriksen. Richard L

# ............... Froehlich. Henry A

# ................. Gangmark. Harold A

# ................. Ferrel1,W.K. 

# ..................

Fullerton. E

# . C

# .................. 145. 200. 201. 202 13 203 146. 156. 188 86. 147. 163. 204 40 285 156 164 14. 165 286 15. 16. 148 64 265 266 17 29 194 65. 205 166 167 280 122. 316 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 287. 303. 309 206 90 306 178 23 207 135 84 233 253. 208 

### 289 217 234 123 74 149. 168 208 186 24 25. 85 309 209 210 26. 124. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 251

140Gebhardt. Gary A

# .................. Gerstung. Eric 

# .................. Gibbons. Dave R

# .................. Gibs0n.H.R

# .................... Gleason,C.H. 

# .................. Gleason. Clark H

# .................. Goldman. 

### Charles R

# ................. Goodel1,B.C. 

# .................. Gordon,R.W. 

# ................... Gordon. Robert 

# .................. Graham. John 

### LeRoy 

# ................ Graves. David S

# .................. Gray,J.R.A. 

# .................. Green. 

### Geoffrey E

# ................. Greene,A.F.C. 

# ................. Griffin,L.E. 

# .................. Grondal. Bror L

# .................. Hagenstein. W

# . D

# .................. Hall.JamesD

# ................... Hansen. Edward A

# .................. Hansen. Richard 

# .................. Hansmann. 

### Eugene W

# ................. Hanzel. Delano A

# .................. Harper. 

### Warren Charles 

# .............. Harris,A.S. 

# ................... Harrold,L.L. 

# .................. Ilaupt. 

### Harold F

# .................. Haydu. Eugene P

# .................. Helmers,A.E. 

# .................. Herbert. D

# . W

# .M

# .................. Hess.LloydJ

# ................... German,E.R

# ....................

Hewlett. John 

### D

# .................. Hibbert. Alden R

# .................. Kobba. 

### Robert I;

# .................. Hodges.John1

# ................... Hoffman. Theodore 

# ................. Hollis. Edgar H

# .................. Holman. Gerald 

# ................... Hoover,M.D. 

# ................... Hoover. Marvin D

# .................. Hormbeck,J.W. 

# .................. Hoyt,W.G. 

# .................... Hsieh. Frederic 

### Shu-Kong 

# ............. Hug.WayneL

# .................... International Pacific 

### Salmon Fisheries 

### Commission 

# .............. 290 179 208 

### 314 86 118 267 87 297 112 88 89 175 90 66 268 91 92 269 150. 211. 291. 292. 293 27 208 294 176 125 151 132 28. 108 115 252 295 212 296 126. 296 119 180 243 29 253 301 127. 266 30 128 129 156 

### 177

141J

# . B

# . Gilbert Associates 

# ............. 235 James. G

# . A

# .................... 213. 214 James. George A

# .................. 261 Jeffrey. 

### W

# .W

# ................... 130. 297 Johnson. B

# .W

# ................... 178

. Johnson. Donald R

# ................. 180 Johnson. Fred 

### W

# .................. 67. 271 Johnson. 

### Noye 

### M

# .................. 99 Johnston. 

### F

# . €3

# ................... 233 Jones and Stokes Associates. Inc

# .......... 235 Juntunen. 

### Erland T

# ................. 298 Kabe1,C.S. 

# ................... 179 Kelley.Don 

# .................... 31 Kelley. Don 

### W

# ................... Kidd.W

# . J

# ..................... 38 Kidd. 

### W

# . Joe. 

### Jr

# .................. 28 Klock,G.O. 

# ................... 93 Kopperdahl. Fredric 

### R

# ............... 94 Koski.KV

# ..................... 32. 189 Kovner. Jacob L

# .................. 131 Kraebe1,C.J. 

# .................. 36 KTamer. Robert H

# .................. 95 Krygier. 

### James T

# .................. Kunigk.W.A 

# .................... 300 Lantz. Richard L

# .................. Larkin.P.A

# .................... 215 Lamnoyeux. Jack 

# .................. 84 

### Lawler. Thomas A

# .................. 237 Lehman. 

### Carl 

# ................... 216 Levno.Al 

# ..................... 97. 98 Lieberman. J

# . A

# .................. 301

Lull. 

### Howard W

# ................... 34. 307 Lundeen. L

# . J

# ................... 256 McCall. Merley 

# .................. 100 McGuinness. J

# . L

# .................. 132 McKernan. Donald 

### L

# ................. 180 McMynn,R.G. 

# ................... 68 McNynn. Robert 

# .................. 69 15. 299



### 9. 80. 81. 292
96. 152. 153. 211. 

### 236

Larse.RobertW

# .................. 33

Likens.G.E

# .................... 74 Likens. Gene E

# ................... 99

McCrimmon. H

# . R

# .................. 35

McNeil. WilliamJ

# ................. 49. 101. 157. 181. 182. McRorey. R

# . p

# ................... 36 Marcuson. Pat 

# ................... 37 

### Martens. 

### D

# . W

# ................... 112 Martens. Dennis 

# .................. 88 

### Martin. 

### Iury L

# ................... 133 183. 184. 185. 193

142Meadowcroft. N

# . F

# ................. Meehan.W.R 

# .................... Meehan. 

### WilliamR

# ................. Megahan,W.F. 

# .................. Megaan. 

### Walter F

# ................. Merkens. J

# . C

# ................... Merrel1,T.R. 

# .................. Messer. James B

# .................. Metsker. Howard E

# ................. Miller,E.M. 

# ................... Miner. Norman H

# .................. Murphy. George J

# .................. Narver. David W

# .................. Neave. Ferris 

# .................... Needham. Paul R

# .................. Nobe1,E.L. 

# ................... Norris. Logan A

# .................. Northcote. T

# . G

# .................. Olson,S.T. 

# ................... Olson. Sigurd 

# .................... Oregon State 

### Game Cormnission 

# ........... Pacific Northwest Pollution 

### Control Council 

# ................. Packer.PaulE

# ................... Patric,J.H. 

# ................... Pennoyer. Steve 

# .................. Peters. 

### John C

# ................... Phillips. Robert W

# ................. Pierce,R.S. 

# ................... Platts. William S

# ................. Mersereau. R

# . C

# ..................

Moore. 

### Duane G

# ...................
Neale.AlfredT

# ..................

Pollard,R.A. 

# .................. Reed. Richard D

# .................. Reid. Kenneth A

# .................. Reinhart. Kenneth G

# ................ Reynolds,H.G. 

# .................. Rich.LowellR

# ................... Richard. 

### James A

# ................... Ringler. 

### Neil Harrison 

# .............. ROSS
. Richard 

### N

# .................. Rothacher. Jack 

# .................. Rothwell. R

# . L

# ................... Rowe,P.B* 

# .................... Reinhart. 

### K

# .G

# ...................
Rice. R

# . M

# ..................... 36 

### 217 102. 103. 

### 111. 254 38 302 295 255 303 

### 113 304 178 39 105 29 154. 218. 219. 305 270 186. 

### 187 271 256 104. 

### 105. 298 166 191. 260 243 238
106 40. 107. 108. 272 41. 217 

### 16 42 43. 155. 156. 188. 189 74 44 134 306 239 30. 34. 135 220. 307 221 45 221 257 222 308 82. 97. 98. 136. 137. 138. 240. 309 241 139

143Ruth. Robert H

# ................... 22 Sadler. Ronald R

# .................. 70 Salo. Ernest 0

# ................... 223 Sanford. F

# . Bruce 

# ................. 174 Sartz. Richard S

# .................. 140 Saunders. J

# .W

# ................... Schaumberg. Frank D

# ................ Schlapfer. T

# . A

# .................. Schneider. P

# . W

# .................. Scott. Thomas 

### G

# .................. 293 Sears. Howard S

# ................... 111 Seeley. Charles 

# .................. 202 Servizi. 

### J

# . A

# ................... Shapley. Philip 

# .................. 185 Shapley. S

# . Philip 

# ................ 47. 249 Shapovalov. Leo 

# .................. 190 Sheridan. W

# . L

# ................... Sheridan. William 

# ................. 243 Sheridan. WilliamL

# ................ 48. 49. 157. 192 Shields. Herbert 

### J

# .................. 310 Skeesick. Delbert G

# ................ 311 Smedley. Stephen C

# ................. 244 Smith.Allen C

# ................... 274 Smith. Gary E

# ................... Smith. Lloyd L., Jr

# ................ Smith,M.W. 

# ................... 46 Smoker. William A

# .................. 207. 312



### Water Management Committee 

# ........... 245. 246 Stefanich. Frank 

# ................. 226. 227 Stefanich. Frank A

# ................. 228 Steinbrenner. E

# . C

# ................. 229 StephensF.R. 

# .................. 50 Stevens. Mervin E

# ................. 8 Streeby. 

### Larry 

# .................. 71 Swank,G.W. 

# ................... 121 Swank. Gerald W

# .................. 82 Swanston. D

# .N

# ................... 41. 51 Swanston. Douglas N

# ................ 52. 53. 54 Swift. Lloyd W., Jr

# ................ Taft.AlanC

# .................... 190 Tanner. Howard A

# .................. 275 Tarrant. Robert F

# .................. 114 Taylor. John 1L

# .................. 17 Tebo. L

# . B., Jr

# .................. 55. 56 Terhune. L

# . D

# . B

# .................. 141 Thomas. John 

# .................... 208 46 109. 110 273

. 242

112

191. 224. 225. 258. 259. 260

94. 198 95
Society of American Foresters. Columbia River Section.

113

144

### Thut, Rudolph 

### N 

# . 0 Tinney,E.Roy 

# .................. Titcomb. John W

# .................. Toney. 

### Robert D

# .................. Troxel1,H.C. 

# .................. Tyler. Richard 

### F7

# .................. USDA Forest Service 

# ................ I.JST)A Soil Conservation 

### Service 

# .......... University of Washington 

# ............. Ursic.S

# . J. 

# ...................
Wallis. James R

# .................. Weisgerber. 

### J

# . F

# .................. Vaux. 

### Walter G

# ................... Wallis,J.R

# ....................
Wells. Ralph A

# ................... Wendler. 

### Henry 0

# .................. West,J.A. 

# .................... Wickett,W.P. 

# .................. Wilke. Richard 

### W

# .................. Willington. R

# . P

# .................. Wilm,I?.G. 

# .................... Wilson. C

# .N

# .................... Wilson. John fd

# ................... Wilson. 

### Robert L

# .................. ..Olf.P.E 

# ..................... Wooldridge. David 

### D

# ................ Worthington. R

# . E. 

# ................ Wustenberg. Donald 

### W

# ................
Ziebell. Charles 

### D

# ................. Youngberg. 

### c

# . T

# .................. Zach.L.131

# ..................... 115 133 

### 116 276 128 313. 314 117. 247. 

### 315 315 277 57 142 45 6. 58 225 193 194 221 59. 187. 195 260 278 316 225 60 248 196 230 317 61 

### 22 143. 231 

### 197

fr U.S
.GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE- 1974-79E-349 I69 REGION IO 145The mission of the PACIFIC NORTHWEST FOREST AND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATION is to provide the knowledge, technology, and alternatives for present and future protection, management, and useof forest, range, and related environments. Within this overall mission, the Station conducts and stimulates research to facilitate and to accelerate progress towardthefollowinggoals: 1. Providingsafe andefficienttechnology for inventory, protection, anduseof resources. 2. Development and evaluation of alternative methods andlevelsof resource management. 3. Achievement of optimum sustained resource productivity consistentwithmaintainingahigh qualityforest environment


### . The area of research encompasses Oregon, Washington, Alaska, and, in some cases, California, Hawaii, theWestern States, andthe Nation. Resultsof the researchwill bemade availablepromptly. Projectheadquarters are at: Fairbanks, Alaska Portland, Oregon Juneau, Alaska Olympia,Washington Bend,Oregon Seattle, Washington Corvallis, Oregon Wenatchee, Washington LaGrande, Oregon Mailingaddress: PacificNorthwest Forestand Range ExperimentStation P.O. Box3141 Portland,Oregon97208The FOREST SERVICE of the U. S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of multiple use management of the Nation's forest resources for sustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National Grasslands, it strives — as directed by Congress -- to provide increasingly greater service to a growing Nation.