1973

USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-10

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

OF THE EFFECTS OF LOGGING

ON FISH OF THE WESTERN

UNITED STATES AND CANADA

Dave R. Gibbons

Ernest O. Salo

Forest Service

Portland, Oregon

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station

U.S. Department of Agriculture

This file was created by scanning the printed 

publication. Text errors identified by the software have 

been corrected; however, some errors may remain.

 
Compilers of this bibliography: 

Dave R. Gibbons, Predoctoral Research Associate, and 

Ernest 0. Salo, Professor, Fisheries Research Institute, 

College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle. 

Publication made possible by a grant from the Forest Service, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, to the Fisheries Research Institute, 

University of Washington, Seattle. 

ABSTRACT 

This bibliography is an annotation of the scientific and nonscientific literature published on the 

effects of logging on fish and aquatic habitat of 

the Western United States and Canada. It includes 

278 annotations and 317 total references. Subject 

areas include erosion and sedimentation, water quality, related influences upon salmonids, multiple 

logging effects, alteration of streamflow, stream 

protection, multiple-use management, streamside vegetation, stream improvement, and descriptions of 

studies on effects of logging. A review of the literature, a narrative on the state of the art, and 

a list of research needs determined by questionnaires 

are included b 

This bibliography includes reports involving pesticides published 

by inany agencies. Recornendation for use of these pesticides is not implied, I nor that the uses discussed have been registered. 

must be registered by appropriate State and/or Federal agencies before they 

can be recommended. 

All uses of pesticides 
CONTENTS 

A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON LOGGIIIG AIlD FISHERIES-- 

A STATE;MENT ON TIE STATE OF THE ART * * * * * * * * * * - * * * * 1 

Introduction . . . . . 1 

Review of the Literature . . . 1 

Sources of Literature . . . . . . . 2 

Analysis of Literature . . . . . 4 

LiteratureSummary, . . . . 5 

I 

Sedimentation . . . . 5 

WaterQuality . ,, . . . . . . 8 

Streamflow .. . 11 

Environmental Requirements of Salnonids 

Related to Logging . 11 

Ecological Effects . . 12 

Streamside Vegetation . . b . 12 

Watershed Management and Stream Protection . 13 

Stream Improvement . 14 

Summary of Research Needs as Uetermined from 

the Literature Survey . . . 14 

Analysis of the Workshop of November 1972 16 

Summary of the Horkshop . . . . 20 

Summary . . . . . . . . 21 

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY w w 22 

Introduction. b .) 22 

Erosion and Sedimentation . . e 23 

Streamside Vegetation . . . . . 47 

Water Quality I . . . 51 

Alteration of Streamflow . . . . . 68 

Descriptions of Effects of Logging Studies . 79 

Related Salmonid Information . . . . . . e 84 

Multiple Logging Effects . . . b . 101 

Stream Protection . . . . 116 

Stream Improvement . . . . 122 

Multiple-use Xanagement . . . - . . . 127 

Additional References iJot Annotated . . . . . 133 

SUBJECTINDEX . . . . I . . . . - *137 

AUTHORINDEX. .... . *. . . . . -133 
A REVIEW OF THE LfTERATURE ON LOGGING AND FISHERIES-- 

A STATEMENT ON THE STATE OF THE ART 

This narrative on the "state of the art" of the effects of logging 

on fish of the Western United States and Canada consists of two parts; 

the first is a review of the literature; the second, an analysis of a 

workshop on logging and fisheries held at the University of Washington, 

November 20-21, 1972. The numbers in parentheses indicate references 

in the annotated bibliography developed from the literature. 

INTRO DU CTlO N 

There is no question that, historically, certain logging and associated land-use practices have had deleterious effects upon freshwater and anadromous fish populations. 

these detrimental practices are continuing, although many others have 

been discontinued. 

Man's activities, coupled with naturally occurring events such as 

forest fires, floods, and slides, generate complexities that are difficult not only to assess but to control. Obviously, continuous 

assessment of potential environmental impacts is the concern of the 

land-user as well as of the resource manager. On the other hand, the 

ability of the management biologist sometimes is limited by ignorance 

of the requirements and status of fish stocks inhabiting the waters in 

question. This ignorance may range from the lack of knowledge of the 

peculiarities of the life histories of the endemic fishes in the streams 

and of the basic productivity of streams to the role of nonlogging factors such as fishing. In the absence of precise information, the biologist is inclined to recommend conservative regulations as a safety 

factor to protect the fish resources. 

as by fisheries and forest harvesters have, in the past, been conflicting; however, recently, the two groups have attempted to enter into 

coordinated research and management. 

It is evident that some of 

A tremendous amount of progress has been made. 

Multiple uses of resources such 

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 

Sporadic research was conducted on the effects of logging and related use on the ecology of streams from 1900 to the 1950's. Since that 

time, extensive research has been conducted by many agencies. As productive as the research has been, it is still not possible to generalize 

on the effects of logging because of the varied land and aquatic habitats found in the Western United States and Canada. The hazards of logging to fish and water resources of the Pacific coast have seldom been 

quantitatively defined; in most cases, the potential harm was only inferred. Definite problems have been recognized in the literature. The 
harmful effects on fish which can result from logging and poor silvicultural methods used on the Pacific coast include: 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

' 6. 

7. 

8. 

Introduction of sediments 

a . Bedload sediments 

(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

reduced dissolved oxygen caused by reduced interand intragravel waterflow 

physical barrier to the emergence of alevins 

lowered production of aquatic plants and invertebrates 

damage to eggs by adhesion to the chorion 

reduced catchability of sport fish 

b. Suspended sediments 

(1) erosion of gill membranes 

(2) degradation of rearing habitat 

(3) lowered production of aquatic plants and invertebrates 

Altered streamflow regimes 

Introduction of logging debris 

a. Barriers to movement by juveniles and spawning adults 

b. 

Degradation of rearing habitat through streambank erosion 

Altered temperature regimes 

a. Increased summer temperatures 

b. Decreased winter temperatures 

Alterations in stream energy resources 

Indiscriminate use of pesticides and herbicides 

Altered chemical water quality regimes by the exposure of 

mineral soils and indiscriminate use of fertilizers. 

Reduced dissolved oxygen as a result of high biological 

oxygen demand 

The sources and effects of erosion and sedimentation have received 

the greatest research emphasis (fig. 1); however, the general topics of 

water quality, alteration of streamflow, stream protection and improvement, and the environmental requirements of salmonids have also received 

considerable discussion and documentation within North America. The research conducted before and after 1960 has shown similar emphases but 

with increased emphasis on water quality after 1960 (fig. 1). 

Sources of Literature 

The majority of the research results have been published in symposia or by academic institutions ; however, considerable quantities can 

also be found in biological and forestry journals and in publications by 

the U.S. Forest Service and State agencies (table 1). 

2 
Erosion and

sedimentation

Water

quality

Related

salmonid

information

Multiple

logging

effects

Alteration

of

streamflow

Stream

protection

Multiple

use

management

Streamside

vegetation

Stream

improvement

Descriptions of

effects of

logging studies

SUBJECT AREAS

Figure 1.—Research conducted on the effects of logging in the Western United States and Canada.

S ARTICLEF OR NUMBE

3

PRIOR TO 1960

1960 TO PRESENT
Table 1.--Literature concerning the effects' of 

logging on fish, 1928-73 

- 

Categories Number 

~ 

Symposia and academ5.c institutions 83 

Biological journals 60 

Forestry journals 60 

U.S. Forest Service publications 59 

State agencies 49 

Analysis of Literature 

An analysis of the literature shows that although some critical 

analyses of the detrimental effects of logging are in the scientific literature, most blanket condemnations of logging are found in the popular, 

nonscientific journals. 

detrimental effects of logging on fish populations is limited to seven 

articles (56, 61, 252, 153, 275, 277, 222). 

Actual quantitative, documented evidence on 

Many unpublished data are present in the files of fisheries management agencies. The results of many research summaries can be'classified 

only as inconclusive. 

sions of articles which appraise logging and silvicultural practices; 

118 articles were not included as they do not fit the classifications 

chosen. Recent publications on the effects of logging have been less 

critical than in the past, perhaps as the complexity of the problem has 

become better understood. There seems to be a recent change in attitude 

favoring prevention instead of rehabilitation and an increase in collection of data for integration into watershed models. 

Table 2 is an attempt to categorize the concluTable 2.--Categorization of articles which appraise logging 

practices as described in the literature 

Rank Category 

Number 

of articles Percentage 

1 Data collection on the effects of logging 

leading to inconclusive results 63 33 

2 Description of adverse logging practices 58 30 

3 Prevention of adverse logging practices 37 19 

4 
Table 2.--Categorization of articles which appraise logging 

practices as described in the literaturecontinued 

Rank Category 

Number 

of articles Percentage 

4 Undetermined as to the effects of logging 10 5 

5 Reviews of literature 8 4 

6 Quantitative evidence of the detrimental 

effects 7 4 

7 Condemnation of logging 5 2.5 

8 Beneficial results of logging 5 2.5 

- 

TOTAL 19 3 100 

LITERATURE SUMMARY 

Sedimentation 

Most articles on sedimentation of streams have been purely descriptive, and sometimes dramatic, in their portrayal of an adverse effect on 

the environment. 

effects of sedimentation. Quantitative studies of sedimentation, although few in number, have provided the real basis for present knowledge 

and can be divided into two categories: 

stream environments. 

A lesser number of articles have reported qualitative 

its sources and its effects on 

Sources of Sediment 

Erosion, landslides, and the occurrence of sediments in our waters 

are natural phenomena and vary with the inherent erodibility of soils, 

geology, climate, and vegetation. 

do, accelerate these natural processes. 

25 articles documenting the effects of logging and logging roads on 

sediment production indicates: 

source of man-caused stream sediments; (b) sediments from clearcuts 

occur infrequently and are primarily a result of bared mineral soils and 

reduced surface-soil permeability due to compaction; and (c) severe 

burning of logging slash is often followed by increased rates of surface 

soil erosion, due primarily to the removal of stabilizing vegetation and 

litter. 

Man's activities can, and usually 

The summation of approximately 

(a) logging roads are the greatest 

5 
The diverse characteristics of watersheds prevent extrapolation of 

results over wide geographical areas. 

"because of the striking differences in watershed characteristics, most 

of the published research results on the effects of logging on streams 

from other areas cannot be extrapolated directly to Southeast Alaska." 

Recently, however, some researchers through quantitative measurements 

of soil characteristics, meteorology, topography, and land-use conditions, have provided a basis for predicting differences in sediment production (2, 5, Sz). 

Stephens (50) stated that 

Continuous research needs to be conducted on the development of new 

or redesigned logging methods that require fewer roads and produce less 

soil disturbance. 

Effeots of Sediment on Aquatic Environments 

Fluctuations in the characteristics of aquatic environments, including the numbers and diversity of organisms, are natural phenomena. 

Through time, organisms have become selectively adapted to life within 

a set of environmental parameters. Changes which exceed the natural 

tolerance of these organisms will drastically change the population. 

The severity of stresses imposed by man upon the adaptability of these 

organisms will determine the degree of change. 

Suspended sedhent--The summation of six available articles dealing 

with the direct effects of suspended sediment or turbidity on fish, 

mostly salmonids, demonstrates several mechanisms of damage, including: 

(a) the adhesion of silt particles to the chorion of salmonid ova (29) 

and (b) the abrasion, thickening, and fusion of gills as a result of 

increased silt concentration (295). In addition to direct mortality of 

fish, suspended sediment also blocks or decreases light penetration and 

thereby limits the production of phytoplankton and other aquatic plants. 

It may also cause alterations in stream temperature-change rates and 

precipitation of organic particles which produce high stream BOD (Biological Oxygen Demands). Another concern is the loss of sport fishing 

time as a result of increased turbidities. It has been stated that 

fishing success declines with increasing turbidity above 25 ppm (43). 

The literature demonstrates a large variation in results, making it 

impossible to define precisely what levels are lethal. 

longed exposures to concentrations from 200 to 300 ppm are lethal to 

fish. Shorter exposure times to concentrations of 90 to 810 ppm may reduce survival through synergistic effects with other stresses (Le., increased temperature and decreased dissolved oxygen) in the environment 

(18, 295). This research on the direct effects of suspended sediment on 

fish has been conducted in the laboratory and bears questionable applicability to field situations . 

Generally, pro6 
Future research should emphasize: (a) more detailed laboratory 

studies of the mechanisms of damage to fish from suspended sediments, 

(b) quantitatively documented studies in actual field situations, and 

(c) studies of the adaptability of salmonids in glaciated streams vs. 

natural streams subjected to increased suspended sediment concentrations. 

BedZoad sedkents--Of all the factors affecting aquatic life, bedload sediments cause the most damage. The smothering effect and insta - 

bility of sediment reduce 

56, 298, 299), reduce 

duce early survival of fish (284, 295, ZZZ). 

invertebrate diversity and populations (55, 

available living space for fish (29, 431, and reA summation of the findings from 50 articles dealing with bedload 

sediments shows: (a) sediment fills gravel interstices, thereby reducing 

inter- and intragravel waterflow, reducing dissolved oxygen to incubating 

salmonid ova; (b) deposited sediment can physically prevent emergence of 

fry (fig. 2); and (c) sediment reduces food resources by filling gravel 

interstices and promoting unstable substrates for aquatic invertebrates 

and periphyton communities. 

Research has indicated that the lethal effects of sediment are most 

pronounced during the developmental stages of fish while in the gravel, 

and that once hatching occurs, physical environmental factors become 

less important and food availability becomes more important. Research 

on the effects of sediment has been quite extensive, as shown by the 

literature reviews of Cordone and Kelley (251, Gebhardt (289), Hollis et 

al. (291, and Koski (32). 

pleted, there still exist serious gaps in data documenting the quantities of sediment altering stream productivity related to fry quality and 

survival 

In spite of the fine work that has been comOrganic sedhents--Organic fines introduced by logging are important in stream environments where they decrease dissolved oxygen concentrations and intergravel flows and increase salmonid ova and alevin mortalities through the promotion of the growth of SphaerotiZis (bacteria 

which attack fish gills, resulting in suffocation). Suspended conifer 

fibers have been shown to lower the survival of rainbow and brown trout 

fry by inhibiting gill functions (95). 

7 
Water Quality

The watersheds of the Western United States and Canada harbor some

of the most productive salmonid populations in the world. In the past,

forest management has focused primarily upon the production of timber

with little regard for maintaining stream quality; and consequently,

water quality in many streams has been degraded. Logging and silvicultural practices have resulted in changes in the physical and chemical

characteristics of water, e.g., increased water temperatures and the addition of silvicultural chemicals.

PERCENTAGE OF FINE SEDIMENTS

(1-3 mm in diameter)

Figure 2.—The relation between amount of fine

particles in an artificial gravel bed and the

ability of coho salmon and steelhead trout fry

to emerge through the gravel (211).

PERCEN

T SURVIVA

L

STEELHEAD

COHO

8
Water Temperature 

Water temperature is a parameter that has received considerable attention recently in reference to land-use studies. Water temperature 

has been proven to be a major determinant in the suitability for salmonid production, with small forested streams being the most susceptible 

to a temperature change (78, 80, 90). As well as inducing direct mortality of organisms, adverse water temperature influences the level of 

dissolved oxygen and nutrients; controls algal blooms which may impart 

taste, odor, color, and ecological changes; and affects growth, condition, 

and behavior of fish. Warm water is also conducive to the growth of 

bacterial species which may constitute health problems to humans and fish. 

Finally, prolonged alteration in the temperature regime may eventually 

alter the species composition of streams. 

A summation of 22 articles concerned with the effects of logging 

on stream temperature indicates: 

increases maximum water temperatures by exposing streams to increased 

direct solar radiation; (b) stream temperature (At in OF) is directly 

proportional to surface area exposure (A in ft2l9 the solar energy input (H in B.t.u./ft2/minute) and inversely proportional to the flow 

(D in c.f.s.): 

(a) removal of streamside vegetation 

AxH 

D At = - 0.000267 (77); 

(c) warmed water reaching shade does not normally cool unless there is 

an inflow of cool water; and (d) winter minimum water temperatures can 

be lowered through removal of streamside vegetation (84). 

Any change in the temperature regime of small streams may be deemed 

detrimental by some, but moderate increases in temperatures have been 

suggested by others as a means of improving salmonid habitat. 

care must be taken to prevent eutrophication and the destruction of 

salmonid habitats. 

However, 

Future research should determine: (a) the effects of streamside 

vegetation removal on winter stream temperatures in the Western United 

States, and (b) the different effects of various cutting practices on 

water temperature. 

ChemicaZ and PhysScaZ Properties 

The chemical and physical properties of stream water under natural 

conditions vary with the geology of the watershed through which it flows. 

Degradation of water quality can occur naturally due to leaching of mineral elements and humic acid compounds but often is induced by man's activities. 

leaching of nutrients from soil and wood and through the introduction of 

silvicultural chemicals. 

Water quality can be affected by logging through accelerated 

9 
Nutz6ents--Aquatic organisms require organic and inorganic nutrients which originate primarily from the terrestrial forest system. It 

has been shown that there is relatively little elemental loss from undisturbed forest soils in the temperate regions. 

silviculture can, however, increase the leaching rates. A summary of 15 

relevant articles discloses: (a) increased loss of chemical nutrients 

from the soil follows logging and slash burning; however, these nutrient 

additions to the streams are only temporary and dissipate with stream 

dilution, flushing, and removal by aquatic organisms; (b) leaching rates 

of nutrients can be affected by topographic and meteorological features 

of the watersheds, by soil textures, and by the degree of clearcutting; 

(c) leachates from stored logs vary with the volume and flushing rate of 

the storage site, number, species, and age of logs stored, and can produce fish mortalities; and (d) the levels of nutrients observed in 

streams after timber is harvested appear to be below the toxic thresholds for aquatic organisms. 

Timber harvesting and 

Some researchers have advanced the idea that the addition of nutrients to a stream may be beneficial, especially to relatively sterile 

streams by supporting additional plant and animal life, but such results 

are difficult to predict and may result in eutrophication. 

Research needs include: (a) the acute and chronic effects of 

nutrient leaching on aquatic organisms, (b) the absorption or adhesion 

of nutrients to stream sediments, and (c) the quantification effects of 

documented nutrient addition. 

Forest chemicals--Intensified forest management practices may include the utilization of a large number of chemicals including fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides. 

with the use of chemicals indicates: 

surface waters is the major source of forest chemical pollution; (b) unless application is made directly to the water, the major potential for 

contamination is heavy rain resulting in overland flow and sedimentation; 

(c) insecticides are the most dangerous and have adversely affected 

aquatic communities; and (d) herbicides and fertilizers generally can 

be used safely if not applied adjacent to or in streams or lakes. 

A summary of 16 articles dealing 

(a) direct aerial application to 

Further research should include: (a) the acute and chronic effects 

of specific forest chemicals on aquatic organisms and (b) the. reactions 

on aquatic organisms of solvents, carriers, or other additives intro - 

duced with the forest chemicals. 

10 
Streamf low 

Streamflows in coastal areas of the Western United States and 

Canada are primarily affected by precipitation patterns and somewhat 

less by evapotranspiration losses (238). The removal of vegetation by 

timber harvesting increases streamflows, since the reduction in evapotranspiration losses is much greater than the possible evaporation from 

increased soil exposure. 

A summary of 26 articles relating to streamflow shows: (a) streamflows increase after clearcut logging, especially if followed by slashburning; (b) for every 1 percent of watershed cut, an average increase 

of 0.2 inch in water runoff can be expected the first year after cutting 

($26); (c) minimum flows are increased, although major flood flows are 

not significantly increased; and (d) changes in streamflow resulting 

from vegetation removal are, in most cases, less than natural climaticcaused variations (238). 

The effects of altered streamflows may be either detrimental or 

beneficial to aquatic stream organisms. Increased flows cause egg and 

alevin displacement and mortality as a result of gravel shift and reduce 

benthic algae and insects by gravel grinding actions and displacement. 

Increased flows will expand the available living space for fish and insects and thus increase the carrying capacity. Increased summer flows 

will also lessen the adverse effects of increased solar radiation on 

stream temperatures due to vegetation removal. 

Environmental Requirements of Salmonids Related to Logging 

Pacific salmon and trout comprise the major constituents of the upper trophic levels in stream systems of the Western United States and 

Canada . 

Due to the breadthof theinformation on the environmental factors 

affecting these salmonids, no attempt will be made to summarize this information. There are, however, excellent reviews including articles by 

McNeil (ISZ), Neave and Wickett (2871, and Wickett (295). 

Early studies attempted to evaluate the effects of logging on 

stream environments by comparing the numbers of adult salmon returning 

to logged watersheds. These studies were not capable of discerning 

causes and effects because they were masked by a fluctuating saltwater 

survival, and freshwater mortality caused by sedimentation, floods, 

droughts, and temperature changes. For example, it has been reported 

that changes in an adult salmonid population of less than 50 percent due 

to any one cause would be difficult to detect within the large natural 

variations (262). 

be considered as an indicator 

small changes (personal communication, Richard L. Lantz), 

Recently, it has been suggested that cutthroat trout 

species, due to their sensitivity to 

11 
There is still a lack of information and understanding of population dynamics and inventories of fish stocks. 

but must be made tangible and applicable to timber harvesting and silvicultural practices. 

The problem is immense 

Future research should include: (a) case-history-type studies that 

contribute to more general models of land use, (b) in situ studies of 

tolerances and effects of water temperature on salmonids ,and resident 

fishes, and (c) accumulation of basic data on the inventories and carrying capacities of streams. 

Ecological Effects 

Trophic relationships of stream systems are complex but, as in all 

ecosystems, depend primarily on sunlight. Light energy reaching the 

stream and its borders is fixed by terrestrial vegetation and algae. 

The algae and terrestrial plant detritus dropping into the stream are 

eaten by aquatic organisms, primarily insects ; and in turn, the latter 

are eaten by fish. 

system. 

Timber harvesting has been shown to disrupt this 

A summary of 11 articles dealing with general ecological effects 

indicates:. (a) removal of streamside vegetation 'can shift the populations of insects from detrital feeders to algal feeders; (b) the beneficial effects of increased solar radiation upon algal production may 

be offset by the loss of terrestrial plant detritus; (c) terrestrial insects as a food resource can increase as a result of clearcut logging; 

and (d) shifts in stream algal flora can occur as a result of clearcut 

logging . 

Future research should examine how biotic and abiotic changes affect stream communities. This implies longer and more detailed biological monitoring. 

Streamside Vegetation 

Research has shown that clearcut logging can significantly affect 

salmonid streams, particularly the small ones. These effects can, in 

some cases, be prevented if a protective strip of vegetation (buffer 

strip) is left along the stream. 

A summation of 16 articles dealing with buffer strips indicates 

that they: 

fluctuations; (b) prevent logging-debris from entering streams; (c) provide streambank stability; (d) maintain natural water quality; and (e) 

provide food resources [organic detritus and insects] to the stream organisms. The role of tree canopy becomes less important with increasing volume of water and with channel width. 

(a) provide shade, preventing adverse water temperature 

12 
Most recent Federal and State timber sales require buffer strips 

along streams where fish and water quality are considerations. Buffer 

strip designs vary with specific situations according to timber species, 

soil type, terrain, rainfall, and strength and direction of prevailing 

winds. It is not necessarily essential for commercial timber to be 

left in a buffer strip if adequate shade can be provided by shrubs and 

other species of trees, and if the commercial timber can be removed 

without destroying the needed shade and streambank stability. The width 

of the buffer strip required will depend upon the shading ability of the 

streamside vegetation, A method for determining the optimal width for 

buffer strips has been developed utilizing an angular canopy densiometer 

to measure maximum shading ability (canopy density) (62). This method 

considers only width as a means of temperature control; protection from 

other disrupting factors may require modifications in the buffer strip 

boundaries. 

Needs for future research include: (a) evaluation of factors involving windthrow in buffer strips and development of preventive designs, 

(b) comparison of deciduous vs. coniferous trees in buffer strips, and 

(c) rate of deposition and role of coniferous needle decomposition in 

stream ecosystems. 

Watershed Management and Stream Protection 

Soil and water are the two most important resources of the United 

States and can be beneficially or detrimentally affected by watershed 

management. 

currently possess are more the result of chance than proper watershed 

management, 

occupation with "forest managementn is being transformed into "watershed management. t1 

The soil conditions and productivity that logged'watersheds 

However, this situation is changing since earlier preA summary of 36 articles dealing with watershed management and 

stream protection indicates that logging and related activities can 

be compatible with fertile, stable soils and salmon-producing 

streams if adequate consideration is given d,uring both planning and 

operational stages. 

ommended by Federal and State agencies for resource protection. 

most important management requirements are: 

the best methods of harvesting, considering all resources; (b) coordination with all other resource users; (c) budgeting manpower and 

money wisely, since the best management methods may not be the cheapest; and (d) surveillance and supervision of the timber harvesting 

and silvicultural operation as it progresses . 

There have been many management guidelines recThe 

(a) a detailed plan of 

Biologists and other interested groups must help to determine 

the type of protection required, and managers must plan the harvesting procedure so that all necessary protection is afforded if effective watershed management can be attained. 

13 
Stream Improvement 

Stream rehabilitation and improvement must be considered in the 

same light as most of the other factors discussed; Le., each stream 

should be treated as an individual case, based on its specific characteristics. 

sently conducted is in conjunction with, or a result of, timber harvesting and is concerned with the removal of natural or man-caused 

log jams and logging debris. 

Most of the stream rehabilitation or improvement preA summary of 16 articles concerning stream improvement discloses 

that logging debris and jams can adversely affect: (a) fish passage, 

(b) stream gravel stability, (c) intergravel and intragravel dissolved oxygen and waterflow, (d) chemical water quality [tannins and 

lignins], and (e) stream productivity. 

The first concern should be to keep logging debris out of streams; 

however, this problem is not as great as it used to be. 

management should now be concerned with the removal of logs in relation to fish spawning and rearing, chemical and physical water quality, stream productivity, and recreational and esthetic values. Research is needed to determine the best ways to conduct stream improvement in conjunction with logging operations. 

Watershed 

Summary of Research Needs as Determined from the Literature Survey 

I. Sedimentation 

A. Sources 

1. Development of new or redesigned logging roads 

B. Effects on aquatic environments 

1 . Suspended sediment 

a. 

b . Quantitatively documented studies in actual field 

c. 

More detailed laboratory studies of the mechanisms 

of damage to fish 

situations 

Studies of the adaptability of salmonids in glaciated streams vs. natural streams subjected to increased suspended sediment 

2 . Bedload sediments 

a. More studies filling the gaps in the data documenting the quantities of sediment altering stream productivity related to fry quality and survival 

14 
11. Water Quality 

A. Temperature 

1. 

2. 

The effects of streamside vegetation removal on winter 

temperatures 

The different effects of various cutting practices on 

water temperature 

B. Chemical and physical properties 

1. Nutrients 

a. Further studies on the acute and chronic effects of 

b. 

nutrient leaching on aquatic organisms 

Absorption or adhesion of introduced nutrients to 

stream sediments 

2. Forest chemicals 

a. 

b. 

The acute and chronic effects of specific chemicals 

on aquatic organisms 

Reactions of solvents, carriers, or other additives 

introduced with forest chemicals on aquatic organisms 

Environmental Requirements of Salmonids Related to Logging 

a. 

b. 

cb 

Ecological 

a. 

Streamside 

a. 

b. 

C. 

Case-history-type studies that contribute to more 

general land-use models 

In situ studies of tolerances and effects of water 

temperature on salmonids 

Accumulation of basic data on the inventories and 

carrying capacity of streams 

Effects 

A more thorough and detailed analysis of the biotic 

and abiotic changes of streams as a result of logging 

Vegetation 

Evaluation of factors involving windthrow in buffer 

strips and development of preventive designs 

Comparison of deciduous vs. coniferous trees in buffer strips 

Studies on the rate of deposition and rate of coniferous needle decomposition in stream systems 

Stream Improvement 

a. The determination of the extent of stream clearance 

in relation to the stream and the aquatic organisms 

b. The development of methods to conduct stream improvement in conjunction with harvesting procedures 

15 
ANALYSIS OF THE WORKSHOP OF NOVEMBER 1972 

A workshop of interested scientists and resource managers was assembled to attempt to define the major .problem areas and research deficiencies in the analysis of the effects of logging. 

ther the discussion nor a written survey disclosed either a unanimity 

of opinion or any definite mandates, several needs became evident, 

although their priorities did not. 

Although neiAbstracts of Presentations and Discussim Presented in 

Order of Appearance 

Quentin Stober (Fisheries Research Institute, University of Washington) 

Dr. Stober discussed the work of the International Biological Program (IBP) in watershed and ecosystem modeling and management. 

Mi20 Bel2 (College of Fisheries, University of Washington) 

Professor Bell's book, entitled "Fisheries Handbook of Engineering Requirements and Biological Criteria ," and written for peop,le involved in river management and structural factors, was discussed. 

The book was published by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in Portland, Oregon, in February 1973 but is very difficult to obtain. 

Bmh Azke (Quinault Resource Development Program, Taholah, Washington) 

An outline of the work on the effects of logging on the Quinault 

Indian Reservation and some aspects of a preliminary low resolution 

land-use model were presented. (a) elucidate the interactionary areas of forest harvesting and fisheries resources, (b) depict short-term vs. long-term strategies in land planning, and (c) estimate the recovery rates of aquatic populations as 

functions of land use, 

The model is intended to: 

James -8 (California Department of Fish and Game) 

The Department of Fish and Game has conducted little logging 

research in California since 1969. However, they are presently working on legislative acts which are a result of.an appeals court ruling 

on September 16, 1971, which declared the forest practices acts unconstitutional. 

field monitoring methods and a stream classification system are necessary in California for proper stream protection. 

In the 'areas of research, Mr. Burns feels that quick 

Gene Deschampa (Washington State Department of Fisheries) 

Mr. Deschamps provided a review of the State of Washington's 

hydraulic code which gives the Fisheries Department power to control 

activities in or near streams. A hydraulic permit is required for all 

16 
activities involving streams which must, in turn, be reviewed and approved by the Departments of Fisheries and Game. Mr. Deschamps also 

stated that little basic or applied research is presently being conducted. However, some inventory work on the streams in the State is 

in progress. 

Don Lee Fraser (Washington State Department of Natural Resources) 

Mr. Fraser presented the idea that there must be a balance between stream protection and log production in the State of Washington. 

The State should apply a cost/benefit analysis to obtain the maximum 

benefit from our resources, In addition, legislation is needed to 

define and standardize rules and procedures for the timber harvester. 

He emphasized the need for more "basic" research to determine the 

actual impacts of present-day logging methods. 

Richard Lantz (Oregon State Game Commission) 

Mr. Lantz reviewed the work conducted on the Alsea watershed 

and a broader monitoring program for 12 coastal streams. 

completion of these studies in October 1973, the Oregon State Game Commission will analyze the results and incorporate them into a new Forest 

Practices Act. 

With the 

Gene Hay& (Weyerhaeuser Company, Longview, Washington) 

Dr. Haydu presented a quick overview of his present and past research including a literature survey on the effects of logging on 

water quality. In conducting the survey, he encountered few studies 

which dealt with the impact of timber harvesting and land management 

on water quality and as a result such research is presently underway. 

Dr. Haydu's summary of research needs emphasized the meaningfulness of 

present water quality criteria. 

for more factual data to establish a "realistic" set of water quality 

criteria . 

In essence, he felt there is a need 

Joseph Krmes (U.S. Forest Service, Arcata, California) 

Mr. Krammes reviewed the present work being conducted by the 

U.S. Forest Service on fish habitat inprovement in California, This 

work primarily deals with the installation of culverts to rehabilitate stream.sections lost as a result of past road construction. 

Life history studies on anadromous fish present are also being conducted with results indicating the importance of ephemeral streams 

to fish production. Mr. Krammes also suggested a need for research 

to quantify the effects of timber harvesting, such as the conditions 

under which sediment or increased water temperature is a pollutant. 

17 
WiZZiam Meek (US, Forest Service, Juneau, Alaska) 

Dr. Meehan summarized the research previously conducted, including: (a) the effects of logging on stream temperature, (b) 

methods by which sediment reaches streams, (c) effects of forest 

chemicals on aquatic organisms. 

Leon Murphy (US, Forest Service, Portland, Oregon) 

Mr. Murphy is concerned with the management of forest resources 

and their values as being directly proportional to its applicability to 

improve methods of communication and transfer of data among researchers, 

managers, and technicians (loggers). 

application of existing data and a pooling of professional knowledge to 

establish management directions. 

problems will not be provided by researchers or managers separately; 

there must be cooperation before optimum management of our resources 

can be achieved. 

. on-the-ground management objectives. He suggested that we examine and 

He also felt there should be an 

The solutions to effects of logging 

%mas Chamberkin (Canadian Fisheries Service, Department of Environment) 

Dr. Chamberlain discussed the probable use of a modeling system 

to integrate past research conducted in other areas with present re - 

search findings from the Carnation Creek study (located on Vancouver 

Island) to provide a management scheme suitable for the forest resources 

of British Columbia. 

David Namer (Canadian Fisheries Service, Pacific Biological Station) 

Dr. Narver reviewed the research presently in progress in British 

Columbia at Carnation Creek on Vancouver Island. The research.was initiated to: 

Columbia: (b) attempt to understand a west coast overmature rain forestsalmon-trout ecosystem and how this system can be affected by logging 

and silvicultural practices; and (c) recommend forest management practices to optimize the watershed resources of fish, timber, and water. 

The study is designed as a long-term project with road construction 

scheduled for winter 1974-75 and timber harvesting to commence in 1975 

and continue for the next five years 

(a) evaluate the guidelines presently in use in British 

Jack Rothacher (US. Forest Service, Corvallis, Oregon) 

Mr. Rothacher presented a brief summary of his work in Oregon 

on effects of logging on streamflow and water quality; chemical changes 

in water quality after burning, logging, slash treatment, and forest 

chemical applications ; and the development of new logging techniques. 

He also mentioned his present work with IBP and Dr. George Brown's 

study on the effects of finely divided logging debris on small coastal 

streams, including some work on its toxicity to fish. 

18 
ViZzim Sheridan (U.S. Forest Service, Juneau, Alaska) 

Mr. Sheridan discussed three major problem areas confronting 

managers: 

tion, and dissemination of information. 

for studies in Alaska on the effects of logging on wildlife, especially rare and endangered species. Mr. Sheridan also discussed 

the use of interdisciplinary teams to achieve optimum land use and 

management, an idea he feels is a major breakthrough in land planning. 

need for more research, application of existing informaHe also considered the need 

Bmce Pease (Fisheries Research Institute , University of Washington) 

Mr. Pease described his research on the effects of log dumping 

and rafting in Southeast Alaska, including examination of present and 

past log dumping and rafting sites. 

parative analysis of the leaching rates of the four major species of 

timber of Southeast Alaska and his present work with the acute toxicity analysis of these leachates to pink salmon were also discussed. 

The results of these studies are now available. 

His laboratory work with the comK V. Koski (Fisheries Research Institute, University of Washington; 

presently with US. Forest Service, Juneau, Alaska) 

Mr. Koski described and discussed the work conducted at the Big 

Beef Creek chum salmon spawning channel located on Hood Canal at Seabeck, 

Washington. 

the effects of gravel composition on mortality and condition of emerging fry. Generally, there is a decreasing percentage of survival of 

chum salmon fry with an increasing percentage of fines of less than 

3.0 mm. He believes the results from these studies can be used as a 

predicting tool for the effects of sediment depositions in natural 

streams . 

The channel provides for controlled experiments concerning 

Richard Tyler (Fisheries Research Institute, University of Washington) 

Mr. Tyler reviewed the preliminary results of a summer field 

study conducted in Southeast Alaska in 1972 on small logged and unlogged salmon-producing streams. Results showed that water temperatures increased more rapidly in logged than in unlogged streams; tem - 

peratures reached as high as 24.2OC for short periods of time; juvenile coho salmon and Dolly Varden char populations were apparently unharmed by the temperature peaks; a 50-percent reduction in streamflow 

due to drought resulted in a fourfold increase in time of net water 

transport; and aquatic insect diversity appeared to be unaffected by 

logging. 

19 
Summary of the Workshop 

A preliminary questionnaire distributed to those attending was 

Under research, basic stream ecology (including fish census 

used to rank needs for research, general considerations, and management. 

data and data for classifying streams) received highest priority. 

From the resulting discussions as well as the questionnaire, one can 

assume we just don't know enough about our fish populations, especially those in logged watersheds. The most frequent question was: 

"How can changes in populations be measured if the effects are subtle 

and our knowledge of dynamics is deficient? " Life history research 

which is directly applicable to land-use problems is definitely needed. 

Under general considerations, the need for more short-term studies 

(less than five years) was emphasized, rather than several isolated 

long-term studies, The need for a long-term plan (regional rather than 

by watershed) was brought out, possibly with a readily modifiable model 

which would be supplied by "case history studies" to answer specific 

questions. 

The last area of consideration was management. A need for i mproved communications between management agencies and timber harvesters 

received the highest rating. 

evident, the first being the application of existing data. 

cludes two major aspects: 

and all agencies or researchers and (b) preserving the availability 

of the data. It was suggested that perhaps a small system or model 

for the exchange of information and continuity of research be developed. 

Several other priorities were also quite 

This in- 

(a) making existing data available to any 

Another priority was the need for a stream classification system 

to enable resource planners and managers to make the proper decisions 

regarding stream management. Possible classifications include: (a) 

stream productivity, (b) sensitivity to disturbance, (c) watershed geology and composition, or (d) fish producing capabilities and present 

standing stock , 

A second questionnaire sent after the workshop to those who had 

attended produced similar results. 

The exceptions in the similarities between the two questionnaires 

were in the category of research, with an increased emphasis on buffer 

strips and the effects of sediment on aquatic organisms. A combination 

of priority and feasibility values was used to determine needs, with 

feasibility implying a combination of available knowledge and realistic 

cost values, and priority implying a need for research. 

receiving a high priority but a low feasibility rating indicate a research need but perhaps a lack of funds or knowledge to fulfill the need. 

Categories 

Prevention of logging mishaps instead of rehabilitation was a common concern throughout the workshop. The needs listed are all necessary considerations for the establishment of guidelines for "optimum 

20 
watershed management," The ultimate goal of watershed management and 

protection should be to maximize social benefit from our watershed resources; and without adequate information, land planners and managers 

cannot accomplish this goal . 

SUMMARY 

Increasing emphasis is being placed on meeting the requirements 

of Forest Practices Acts (California, Oregon, and Washington, in particular), and in the future, more environmental impact statements of the 

Environmental Protection Agency-type will be required. Judging from 

published research, adequate impact statements obviously will be difficult to formulate. 

conservative, with an increasing amount of field supervision required 

to monitor whatever environmental impacts are predicted. 

Consequently, regulations will continue to be 

Research is at a point of requiring precise information on population dynamics of fishes and continued research on physical measurements of the environment. 

which will ultimately lead to more precise and meaningful guidelines 

for management, 

This will lead to more case history research 

Meanwhile, general survey-type research such as that of Calhoun 

(202) , Calhoun and Seeley (202), and Fisk et al. (208) of California 

streams, has had its day; and the logger, the researcher, and the 

management agencies must realize that there are no finite answers, no 

finite guidelines, and perhaps never will be. This, however, should 

intensify research and concern rather than relax it, for the formulation 

and application of theory or scientific laws that are open-ended are 

sometimes difficult but necessary. This is particularly difficult for 

the land user to accept, but it is a fact of life and a state- of-the- art 

for some time to come. On the other hand, the fisheries resource manager 

has difficulty accepting that which is becoming obvious--i.e., logging 

(even clearcutting) can be performed without radical damage, in fact, 

the changes can be so subtle as to defy measurement and at times may, 

indeed, be beneficial. An obvious area of needed research is the degree 

to which a stream should be cleared, manipulated, or even altered for 

improvement. In conclusion, there will never by a "once-and-for-all" 

answer to land use-fisheries problems, but we must continue answering 

questions to provide for optimal watershed management. 

21 
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

INTR 0 DU CTlO N 

The following annotated bibliography documents publications on 

effects of logging on fish of the Western United States and Canada, 

with a few other selected references also included. 

sible, the abstract or summary written by the author was used for 

the annotat ion. 

Whenever posThe titles are arranged alphabetically by authors and chronologically under each author's name. 

cluded. 

Author and subject indexes are in22 
EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION 

(1) Aitken, W. CJ. 

1936. The relation of ,soil erosion to stream improvement and 

fish life. J. For. 34(12) :1059-1061. 

The author notes that gradual changes in stream environment 

caused by erosion can bring about corresponding changes in fish fauna. 

Without eroslon control, stream improvement devices are of little value 

since they cannot eliminate turbidity, siltation, and other conditions 

resulting from erosion that are deleterious to fish life. 

(2) Anderson, H. W. 

1957. Relating sediment yield to watershed variables. Trans. 

Am. Geophys. Union 38(6):921-924. 

"The yield of sediment from watersheds depends upon three sets 

of variables : (1) inherent watershed characteristics such as geology and 

topography; (2) land use, condition of vegetation, and management and protective measures; and (3) nature of storms and streamflow which produce 

and transport sediment. 

sediment measuring device and on which fraction of total sediment yield is 

measured. 

watersheds can be evaluated by study of the yield from many watersheds 

which have wide differences in variables affecting sediment yields. Such 

studies are useful to determine and evaluate the principal sources of sediment, to evaluate the probable effects of conservation programs on yield, 

and to provide criteria for design of reservoirs and channels, 

summarizes some recent studies in which multiple regression analysis was 

used in relating sediment yield to watershed variables. The studies are 

discussed in the light of methods of selecting watersheds, data, variables, 

and functions; and the effects of neglected variables, errors in variables, 

and exclusion of nonsignificant variables." 

Measured quantities of yield also depend on the 

The sources of variation in sediment yield between and within 

This paper 

(3) Anderson, Henry W. 

1954. Suspended sediment discharge as related to streamflow, 

topography, soil and land use. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 

35( 2) : 268-281 . 

"The results of suspended-sediment sampling were used to obtain 

average annual suspended sediment discharge from 29 watersheds of western 

Oregon by relating sediment-sampling results to streanflow and by using 

streamflow frequencies . tained were related by regression analysis to average watershed values of 

two streamflow varidles , two topographic variables, two soil vari-ables , and one channel bank variable. The soil variables were functions of particle size and aggregation determined by analyzing samples of the surface 

soil taken at standardized locations in the major geologic types. 

other variables were functions of data published in maps and other secondary sources. The regression results were used (1) to construct a rnap of 

The values of average suspended sediment thus obThe 

23 
the sediment producing potential of lands in western Oregon under average land use conditions; (2) to estimate how the actual production of 

sediment would differ from the potential with deviation of land use 

from average; and (3) to distribute present sediment production to the 

three major source areas: forest land, agricultural land, and channel 

banks of the main river. It 

(4) Anderson, Henry W. 

1962. Current research on sedimentation and erosion in California wildlands. Rep. Publ., Assoc. Int. Hydrol. Sci., 

Gentbrugge 59:173-182. 

The effects of fire and logging on erosion and sedimentation 

were studied in the Sierra Nevada Coast Range and San Gabriel Mountains. 

No study of buffer zones was made, nor was their relation to logging discussed . 

(5) Anderson, Henry W. 

1971. Relative contributions of sediment from source areas, and 

transport processes. Irt James Morris [ed.], Proceedings of a 

symposium--Forest land uses and stream environment, p. 55-63. 

Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

"The paper reports new findings, offers a reanalysis of older 

studies, and summarizes pertinent results in the literature. Past land 

use, forest fires, road building, 'poor logging,' and conversion of steep 

lands to grass have increased sediment discharge by factors ranging from 

1.24 to more than 4. Projected future use is expected to increase sediment production by a factor of 4, with 80 percent associated with roads 

and 20 percent with logging.' Major floods have increased subsequent turbidity of streamflow by a factor of 2. 

logged areas of watersheds where roads were next to streams and landings 

were in draws than in undisturbed watersheds. Most landslides were associated with road development, next most with logged areas, and least with 

undisturbed forest area. The number of turbid days in streamflow varied 

by a factor of 2.34 with differences in silt plus clay content of soils, 

by 8.55 with differences in erodibility, and by 4.3 with the percent of 

gravel. Further, these soil characteristics were predictable from geologic 

rock types. In a sample calculation, 89 percent of channel bedload became 

suspended load enroute downstream. 

total sediment discharge from watersheds; channel bank erosion contributed 

54 to 55 percent." 

The increases were greater in 

Soil creep contributed 15 percent to 

(6) Anderson, Henry W., and James R. Wallis 

1963. Some interpretations of sediment sources and causes, 

Pacific coast basins in Oregon and California. U.S. Dep. Agric. 

Misc. Publ. 970:22-30. 

Sediment discharges associated with specific measures of meteorological potential, topographic potential, soil erodibility, and land 

use and condition from studies of sedimentation in coast basins of western 

Oregon and California were compared. Results obtained by combining the 

24 
effects of all the various sediment potentials can be used to delineate 

areas where caution in management may be needed and to measure the effectiveness of certain types of land management. 

(7) Bachman, Roger Werner 

1958. The ecology of four northern Idaho trout streams with 

reference to the influence of forest road construction. 

M.S. thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 

97 p. 

Physicochemical and biological measurements of four trout 

streams, one of which was being logged,were studied. 

to increase during rapid runoff from storms or snowmelt. 

increased in both riffles and pools. 

and water chemistry showed no change from the previous year. 

tion of stream channels away from road fills appeared to reduce the amount 

of eroded material entering the stream. 

Turbidity was found 

Water temperatures, volume of flow, 

The relocaSedimentation 

(8) Bishop, Daniel M., and Mervin E. Stevens 

1964. Landslides on logged areas in southeastern Alaska. USDA 

For. Serv. Res. Pap. NOR- 1, 18 p. North. For. Exp. Stn., 

Juneau, Alaska. 

''Recent large-scale clearcut logging of timber in southeast 

Alaska has accelerated debris avalanches and flows on steep slopes during 

heavy rainfall. Characteristics and possible mechanisms for these disturbances include : 

trl. Flows are more frequent within the V-notch side-drainages 

than on the smoother glacial valley walls. 

V-notch channel downcutting producing oversteepened slopes. 

This may be attributed to 

"2. Flows or avalanches usually slide on relatively smooth, 

wet planes oriented parallel to the slope when this plane is composed of 

such materials as glacial till, iron-organic layered material, metamorphosed sediments, or diorite. Such planes are resistant to downward 

water passage; hence, moisture builds up immediately above this layer. 

'l3. Limited evidence leads to the assumption that southeast 

Alaskan flow-prone soils are usually cohesionless. 

soil pore pressure phenomena may not reasonably be expected. 

If this is true, then 

"4. A greater addition of water weight to the soil mantle 

through rainfall is not a likely stimulus for increased flows after logging. Research in other areas indicates that water infiltration rate 

into the soil is reduced by clear- cut logging, and that loss of soil organic matter as a result of logging reduces water-holding capacity. 

these findings are applicable to southeast Alaska, then less weight from 

soil water might be expected. 

If 

25 
"5. Weight loss by timber removal probably has no direct net 

effect on the likelihood of shearing since decrease of shear stress with 

unloading is equal to shear strength reduction. 

"6. Loss of timber weight may reduce shear strength in soil 

immediately under the tree root systems. This action might result from 

'decompaction' of zones of soil earlier compacted by the weight of the 

tree . 

"7. Loss of root systems as a strength builder-maintainer in 

the soil mantle may be an important factor in accelerating flows after 

logging. 

tems by high-lead skid-roads. 

deterioration of root systems after clear cutting. 

activity after logging supports this view. 

This may reflect the destruction of inter-connected root sysIt may also reflect death and gradual 

The time lag in slide 

"8. Debris in the bottoms of steep ravines aggravates stability conditions. 

instability by rolling or sliding into the channel. The process follows 

a pattern--debris accumulates in the ravine bottoms and this is followed 

periodically by sweeping torrent-flows. 

Logs and stumps on side slopes contribute to such 

"9. Slopes of 34O (67 percent) or more are highly susceptible 

to failure when conventional downhill high-lead logging is used." 

(9) Brown, George W., and James T. Krygier 

1971. Clear-cut logging and sediment production in the Oregon 

Coast Range. Water Resour. Res. 7(5):1189-1198. 

"The impact of road construction, two patterns of clear- cut 

logging, and controlled slash burning on the suspended sediment yield and 

concentration from three small watersheds in the Oregon Coast Range was 

studied for 11 years. 

struction but before logging in one watershed and was tripled after burning and clear- cutting of another watershed. 

produce statistically significant changes in sediment concentration. 

Variation in the relation between sediment concentration and water discharge on small undisturbed streams was large. 

significance of all but very large changes in sediment concentration are 

limited because of annual variation for a given watershed, variation between watersheds, and variation with stage at a given point." 

Sediment production was doubled after road conFelling and yarding did not 

Conclusions about the 

(10) Bullard, W. E., Jr. 

1965. Role of watershed management in the maintenance of suitable environments for aquatic life. In Clarence M. Tarzwell 

[ed.], Transactions 3rd seminar on biological problems in 

water pollution. U.S. Public Health Serv. Publ. 999-WP-25, 

p. 265-269. Robert A. Taft Sanit,. Eng. Cent., Cincinnati, Ohio. 

"Increased sedimentation of streams seems to be the most obvious 

effect of land use practices on the aquatic habitat. The addition of finer 

26 
particles on the bottom gravels reduces the niches where many benthic organisms live. Perhaps the direct effects on eggs are among the most important. 

There is a smothering effect from silt coatings and a decreased permeability 

of the bottom gravels reducing the flow of water over the eggs. 

bidity resulting from the increase in suspended particles also reduces the 

light penetration and photosynthetic rate. 

The tur- 

"Not all sedimentation is a result of obvious operations such 

Perhaps the trampling of stream 

as mining and cultivation. 

of ducks has reduced fish egg survival. 

banks by cattle may be far more important than is commonly recognized. 

Changes in the stream bank brought about by cattle or man-made channel 

changes may produce a cycle of changes which may be carried clear to the 

mouth of the stream. 

Instances are on record in which the activity 

Usually, these changes are not desirable. 

"The feeling among the discussants seemed to be that, ideally 

for fish production, partial tree cover of the banks, something less than 

complete bank stabilization, and an increase in rainfall infiltration of 

the soil are all desirable goals along with reduction in siltation and 

turbidity. However, the attainment of such goals may affect the stream 

flow patterns and reduce the total amount of water reaching the stream. 

In more arid areas, grasses are more desirable than trees because they 

achieve stabilization of soil but do not lose as much water through transpiration. 

"In any case, the optimum conditions for fish production will 

have to be sacrificed in many instances for multiple uses of the surface 

waters. However, the general feeling was that many improvements could be 

made that would improve the waters for fish production and still incorporate multiple use." 

(11) Bullard, William 

1959. Watershed management-grazing, deforestation and road building. Proceedings 

5th symposium-Pacific Northwest on siltation --its source and 

effects on aquatic environment, p. 27-31. U.S. Dep. Health, 

Educ. G Welfare, Portland, Oreg. 

In E. F. Eldridge and J. N. Wilson [eds.], 

Sources of siltation and methods to control and correct it are 

discussed. An outline of factors to consider in watershed management for 

the control of erosion and subsequent siltation of streams is presented. 

(12) Burns, James W. 

1970. Spawning bed sedimentation studies in northern California 

streams. Calif. Fish & Game 56(4):253-270. 

"Changes in the size composition of spawning bed materials in 

six coastal streams were monitored for 3 years to determine the effects 

of logging on the habitat of silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and 

27 
trout (Satmo gairdnerYii gairdnefii and S. cZarkii ctarkii). 

streams were sampled before, during and after logging. 

unlogged watersheds and the undisturbed upstream section of one test 

stream served as controls. 

and old-growth forests was selected for observation. 

Four test 

Two streams in 

A variety of stream types in second-growth 

''Spawning bed composition in the four test streams changed 

The heaviest sedimentation occurred when bulldozers operated in 

after logging, roughly in proportion to the amount of streambank disturbance. 

narrow stream channels having pebble bottoms. In a larger stream with a 

cobble and boulder bottom, bulldozer operations in the channel did not 

increase sedimentation greatly. Sustained logging and road construction 

kept sediment levels high in one stream for several years. Sedimentation was greatest during periods of road construction near streams and 

removal of debris from streams, confirming the need for special measures 

to minimize erosion during such operations. 

little in spawning bed composition during the 3 years." 

Control streams changed 

(13) California Resource Agency 

1970. Task force findings and recommendations on sediment 

problems in the Trinity River near Lewiston and a summary of 

the watershed investigation. 

Resources, 32 p. Sacramento, Calif. 

A Report to the Secretary for 

Estimated amounts of sediment and transport capacities show 

that before logging and dam construction the Trinity River was capable 

of transporting bedload sediment. 

capacity and sediment discharge were approximately equal; hence, the 

river was still able to flush the added sediment from logging operations. 

After dam construction, the sediment transport capacity of the river was 

reduced to such an extent that sediment in the channel quickly built up. 

The result has been the deterioration of adequate spawning grounds. 

After logging, the river's transport 

(14) Cooper, A. C. 

1965. The effect of transported stream sediments on the survival of sockeye and pink salmon eggs and alevin. 

Salmon Fish. Comm. Bull. 18, 71 p. 

Int. Pac. 

"Results are presented of studies made to assess quantitatively 

the effectsof sediment deposition upon and within salmon spawning beds on 

the survival of salmon eggs and alevin. 

of bed load materials that may be expected on a given portion of a stream 

bed are presented. 

particle size grading, particle shape and gravel porosity. The velocity 

of fluid flow through the gravel is quantitatively related to the gravel 

permeability and the hydraulic gradient. 

on the gravel surface or within the gravel is shown to reduce gravel 

permeability with consequent reduction in fluid flow and reduction in 

rate of survival of salmon eggs and alevin deposited in the gravel. 

Methods of determining the size 

Spawning gravel permeability is defined in terms of 

Deposition of sediment either 

28 
Formulae are developed which relate time and silt size and concentration to the effect on gravel permeability, and examples of the consequent effect on survival of salmon eggs and alevin are presented. 

The results of the studies show the importance of preventing deposition of sediments on or within a salmon spawning bed." 

(15) Cordone, Almo J., and Don W. Kelley 

1961. The influences of inorganic sediment on the aquatic 

life of streams. Calif. Fish & Game 47(2):189-228. 

The effects of inorganic sediment on aquatic life in streams 

were discussed. The report covered the following subjects: direct effect of sediment upon fishes; influence of sediment upon eggs,alevins, 

bottom organisms,aquatic plants, chemical and physical characteristics 

of aquatic life, and fish habitat and population; and sediment standards 

and research. 

(16) Cordone, Almo J., and Steve Pennoyer 

1960. Notes on silt pollution in the Truckee River drainage, 

Nevada and Placer Counties. Calif. Fish & Game, Reg. 2, 

Inland Fish. Admin. Rep. 60-14, 25 p. [Processed.] 

Silt from a gravel washing plant drastically reduced the populations of bottom organisms immediately below the outfall and as far as 

10 miles downstream at Cold Creek and Truckee River, California. 

(17) Dellberg, Robert A., and John N. Taylor 

1962. Erosion control on timberland at harvest. J. Soil & 

Water Conserv. 17(4):177-178. 

Methods of erosion control were studied in a limited logging 

operation in Mendocino County, California. 

(18) mess, C. T. 

1966. Erodibility and erosion potential of forest watersheds. 

In William E. Sopper and Howard W. Lull [eds.], Forest hyr~logy, p. 599-611. Proc. Natl. Sci. Found. Adv. Sci. New 

York: Pergamon Press. 

"This paper reviews a portion of the literature dealing with 

forest soil erosion and erodibility. 

erodibility are generally stressed--resistance of soil particles to detachment and transport, and soil infiltration rate. 

tachment and transport is controlled to a large extent by amounts of 

water-stable aggregation. 

ferent measurements of surface soil aggregation, have been developed. 

Factors strongly influencing these erodibility indices include soil 

parent material, organic matter content, climatic conditions, and soil 

Two main aspects to forest soil 

Resistance to deSeveral erodibility indices, utilizing dif29 
chemical properties. Many studies have shown that infiltration rate 

decreases considerably when plant and litter cover is removed, thus 

exposing the mineral soil surface to the destructive action of rain. 

"Some accelerated erosion is generally a necessary consequence of road construction and logging in forest watersheds. 

causes are reported to be exposure of bare mineral soil and surface 

soil compaction. Both controlled burning and wildfires in forested 

areas are often followed by increased rates of surface erosion. A lthough severe burning may cause increased erodibility, light burning 

apparently has little effect on soil properties. 

importance caused by fire is removal of protective vegetation and 

litter. 

Primary 

A change of primary 

"Research needs in this field include development of methods 

for quantitatively estimating forest soil erosion potential and establishment of erosion tolerances for individual forest watersheds." 

(19) mness, C. T. 

1967. Mass soil movements in the H. J. Andrews Experimental 

Forest. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-42, 12 p. , illus. Pac. 

Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

"Analyzes 47 mass movement events resulting from severe storms 

Earthflow and channel scouring events were 

About 72 percent of the mass movements occurred in conduring the winter of 1964-65. the most common. 

nection with roads and 17 percent in logged areas. 

the events occurred in areas of tuff and/or breccia bedrock which occupy 

only 37 percent of the total area." 

Over 94 percent of 

(20) Dyrness, C. T. 

1967. Soil surface conditions following skyline logging. USDA 

For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-55, 8 p. Pac. Northwest For. & 

Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

There was very little difference in yarding-caused disturbance when skyline and high-lead logging were compared. 

fore concluded that the main advantage of skyline logging is that it 

requires less road construction. 

by V. W. Binkley to require one-third as many road requirements as highlead logging. 

source sediments which are a proven major source of sediment in streams. 

Thus, the use of skyline logging in steep, mountainous areas to reduce 

stream sedimentation deserves serious consideration. 

It was thereSkyline logging was previously proven 

This reduction is extremely important in reducing stream 

30 
(21) mess, C. T. 

1970. Stabilization of newly constructed road backslopes by 

mulch and grass-legume treatments. USDA For. Serv. Res. 

Note PW-123, 5 p. Pac. Northwest For. E Range Exp. Stn.', 

Portland, Oreg. 

"Amounts of soil loss from an unprotected newly constructed 

Of six roadside treatments studied, 

backslope were two to four times greater than loss from a 

slope 5 years after construction. 

the two showing consistently large amounts of soil loss during the first 

critical rainy period were the only ones without a straw mulch covering." 

comparable 

(22) Dyrness, C. T., C. T. Youngberg, and Robert H. Ruth 

1957. Some effects of logging and slash burning on physical 

soil properties in the Corvallis watershed. USDA For. Serv. 

Pac. Northwest For. G Range Exp. Stn. Res. Pap. 19, 15 p. 

Portland, Oreg 

"Physical soil properties measured in this study did not differ 

significantly among 4 of the 5 surface conditions sampled. 

severely burned condition was there found a consistent and significant 

departure, indicating that intense heat altered the character of the surface soil. 

and lightly burned portions of the clearcuts remained closely similar to 

those under adjacent timber stands. 

Only in the 

Physical properties of soil in undisturbed, disturbed-unburned, 

"This study can be considered only a partial evaluation of the 

effects of logging and slash burning on soils in the Douglas-fir region. 

Soil tests were not intended to be a complete investigation of the soil 

changes which occur. 

ined. These are known to occur throughout the Coast and Cascade Ranges 

in Oregon and Washington, so, while limited in scope, results of this 

study are applicable over a substantial part of the Douglas-fir region. 

Still, to assess fully the effect of logging and slash burning, other 

soils associated with the Douglas-fir type will need to be sampled and 

subjected to comprehensive tests." 

Furthermore, only three types of soil were exam- 

. 

(23) Ellis, M. M. 

1936. Erosion silt as a factor in aquatic environments. EcolO~Y 17:29-42. 

Effects of silt on the aquatic environment are discussed. 

Erosion silt alters the environment by (1) screening out light, (2) changing heat radiation, (3) covering the stream bottom, and (4) retaining organic material. 

31 
(24) Fredricksen [Fredriksen], R. L. 

1965. Sedimentation after logging road construction in a small 

western Oregon watershed. U.S. Dep. Agric. Misc. Publ. 970: 

56-59, illus. 

"During the summer of 1959, 1.65 miles of logging road were 

constructed in a 250-acre forested watershed that rises 2,000 feet in a 

distance of 1 mile. This study evaluates the change in sedimentation 

subsequent to road construction. Runoff from undisturbed watersheds in 

this area remains clear during the summer low-flow months and reaches 

concentrations of 100 parts per million during winter storm peaks. 

off from the first rainstorms after road construction carried 250 times 

the concentration carried in an adjacent undisturbed watershed. 

months after construction, sediment had diminished to levels slightly 

above those measured before construction. Sediment concentrations for 

the subsequent 2-year period were significantly different from preroad 

levels. 

were far in excess of predicted values, indicating a streambank failure 

or mass soil movement. Annual bedload volume the first year after construction was significantly greater than the expected yield, but the 

actual increase was small. A trend toward normalcy was evident the 

second year . " 

RunTwo 

In about 10 percent of the samples, sediment concentrations 

(25) Fredriksen, R. L. 

1970. Erosion and sedimentation following road construction 

and timber harvest on unstable soils in three small western 

Oregon watersheds. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-104, 15 p., 

illus. Pac. Northwest For. G Range Exp. Stn., Portland, beg. 

"In two steep headwater drainages, landslides were the predominant source of increased sedimentation of streams following timber 

harvest. Patchcut logging with forest roads increased sedimentation 

compared with a control by more than 100 times over a 9-year period. 

Landslide erosion was greatest where roads crossed high gradient stream 

channels. 

tion increased three times that of the control." 

In an adjacent clearcut watershed with no roads, sedimenta- 

(26) Gangmark, Harold A., and Richard G. Bakkala 

1960. A comparative study of unstable and stable (artificial 

channel) spawning streams for incubating king salmon at Mill 

Creek. Calif. Fish G Game 46:151-164. 

"With the knowledge that fast stream run-off was significant 

in the mortality of spawn, effort was directed toward finding exactly 

how severe runoff caused these losses. It was determined that mortalities were caked by both direct and indirect factors. Direct losses 

of spawn was due primarily to erosion of the streambed by high velocities of water. Information as to the fate of spawn washed out is not 

available, but it is reasonable to assume that once the eggs are washed 

32 
from the protecting gravel bed out into the stream of violent water 

flow and shifting gravel, their chance of survival is low. Indirect 

losses of spawn occurred from a series of events of diverse and complex nature involving loss of spawning gravel and erosion of soil. 

Another series of events causing indirect loss of salmon spawn starts 

with soil erosion that clogs the redd. 

adequate oxygen and poor delivery of oxygen to the eggs and poor cleansing of metabolic waste products ." 

This blockage leads to: in- 

(27) Hansen, Edward A. 

1971. Sediment in a Michigan trout stream, its source, movement, and some effects on fish habitat. USDA For. Serv. 

Res. Pap. NC-59, 14 p. North Cent. For. Exp. Stn., St. Paul, 

Minn. 

"A sediment budget was constructed from 3-years of measurements on a pool and riffle stream. Total sediment load increased five 

times along a 26-mile length of stream; most sediment came from 204 

eroding banks. Three-fourths of the total sediment load was sand size. 

The area of streambed covered with sand decreased downstream, indicating that the transporting capacity of the stream exceeded sediment supply. Complete streambank stabilization would reduce the sediment load 

by about half and probably result in streambed composition changes benef icial to trout. " 

(28) Haupt, Harold F., and W. Joe Kidd, Jr. 

1965. Good logging practices reduce sedimentation in central 

Idaho. J. For. 63(9):664-670. 

'%om the inception of a study of cutting ponderosa pine on 

16 small watersheds in the Boise Basin Experimental. Forest, sedimentation was checked reasonably well because of careful advance planning, 

close supervision of logging, and application of intensive measures for 

controlling erosion promptly after harvest. 

stream channels originated primarily on haul roads. 

road to a stream affected the frequency with which sediment flows reached 

that stream. Sediment reached channel bottoms through undisturbed buffer 

strips averaging 8 feet wide, but did not reach them if the strips were 

more than 30 feet wide. After 3 years, movement of sediment 'en route' 

had almost halted . )' 

Sediment that reached the 

Proximity of a 

(29) Hollis,Edgar H., Joseph G. Boone, Charles R. De Rose, and George 

J. Murphy. 1964. A literature review of the effects of turbidity and siltation on aquatic life. 26 p. Staff Rep., 

Dep. Chesapeake Bay Aff. Annapolis, Md. 

The detrimental effects of turbidity and siltation upon aquatic life are reviewed. 

raphy . The report contains a fairly extensive bibliog33 
(30) Hornbeck, J. W., and K. G. Reinhart 

1964. Water quality and soil erosion as affected by logging 

in steep terrain. J. Soil & Water Conserv. 19(1):23-27. 

"The influence of different forestry practices on streamflow 

has been investigated since 1951 on 5 forested watersheds, 38 to 96 acres 

in area, on the Fernow Experimental Forest in the mountains of West Vir - 

ginia. The effects of cutting and logging practices on water quality are 

reported in this article. 

"Practices ranged from a commercial clearcutting without regard to water values or the future value of the property to an intensive 

selection cutting with useful planning and careful logging. The experiment demonstrated that excessive damage to water quality can be avoided 

even when logging on steep terrain. 

streams were 56,000 ppm on the commercial clearcut area and only 25 ppm 

on the intensive selection cut watershed. 

quality occurred during and immediately after logging. 

Measured maximum turbidities of 

Most of the damage to water 

"Recommended forestry practices discussed include: planning 

of the logging operation; proper lccation, drainage, and grade of skidroads; and timely completion of the operation in any specific area. In 

most respects, practices recommended for watershed protection also contribute to the overall efficiency of the logging operation." 

(31) Kelley, Don 

1962. Sedimentation helps destroy trout streams. Outdoor 

Calif. 23(3):4, 5, 10-11. 

The effects of sediment on the basic needs of a trout population--its food, shelter, and a place to reproduce--are discussed. 

(32) Koski, K V. 

1972. Effects of sediment on fish resources. 

Presentation--Wash. State Dep. Nat. Resour. Manage. Semin. , April 18-20, 1972, 36 p. [Mimeogr.] 

The effects of sediment on aquatic organisms are discussed. 

Specific areas of discussion are: (1) freshwater requirements of salmonids, (2) general effects of sediment on fish, (3) effects of sediment on the reproduction of salmonids, (4) the harmful threshold of 

sediment, (5) effects of sediment on natural populations of fish, and 

(6) effects of logging on sediment production. An extensive bibliography is included. 

34 
(33) Larse, Robert W. 

1971. Prevention and control of erosion and stream sedimentation from forest roads. In James Morris red.], Proceedings 

of a symposium--Forest land uses and stream environment, 

p. 76-83. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

"To minimize erosion and resultant stream sedimentation, 

prevention and control measures must be given consideration in every 

aspect of road planning, design, construction and maintenance. 

mountainous terrain the forest land manager must establish specific 

objectives and prescriptions to guide road network construction and 

utilize the combined professional skills of the forester, engineer, 

geologist, biologist, and others to set standards for the protection 

of watershed values, identify alternatives, and offer solutions to 

specific problems . 

In 

"The decision to road an area should only be made after the 

resource-serving benefits have been carefully weighed against the cost 

and effect of roading on the watershed. The decision not-to-road and 

to accept other alternatives for land-use management must be strongly 

considered when the probability of lasting damage to soil, water, and 

other ecological values is recognized . 

(34) Lull, Howard W., and K. G. Reinhart 

1965. Logging and erosion on rough terrain in the east. 

U.S. Dep. Agric. Misc. Publ. 970:43-47. 

"Most of the erosion from logging roads occurred during the 

logging operation. This suggests: 

"1. That the operation in any one area should not be prolonged, but should be completed as soon as possible. 

"2. 

sion during the operation. 

measures to after-logging care. 

to cut and maintain broad-based outsloped drainage dips across skidroads. This is not always easy, and the idea will often be resisted 

by loggers. 

That more attention should be paid to preventing eroIt is not enough to limit erosion control 

Perhaps the most practical measure is 

"This study points up again the fact that erosion from only 

a fraction of the logging area can pollute a lot of water. Hoover... 

has pointed out that a short stretch of logging road can produce much 

more sediment than occasional patches of steep land in cultivated crops. 

The forester who might not permit clearing a piece of forested municipal watershed for a row crop because of the erosion hazard should feel 

just as much concern over the location of logging roads. 

35 
"Finally, observations in many areas indicate that continuously used permanent road systems in the forest can create serious waterquality problems. 

should be even higher than for logging roads that are used for only short 

periods of time . '' 

Standards for constructing and maintaining such roads 

(35) McCrimmon, H. R. 

1954. Stream studies on planted Atlantic salmon. J. Fish. Res. 

Board Can. 11(4):362-403. [Taken from Cordone (248).1 

"This is an evaluation of the survival and distribution of 

Atlantic salmon fry planted in a small stream tributary to Lake Ontaio. 

Included is an examination of some of the factors affecting the survival 

of these fry. The influence of sedimentation on survival was studied in 

detail. 

"When the correlation of salmon survival with brook trout predation was analyzed further, it was found that the amount of available 

shelter which the stream offered the fry was most important in determining the survival or death of the planted fish. 

"It has been shown in a previous section that the shelter 

offered by shallow gravelly riffle area was the only satisfactory habitat for the survival of planted fry in all streams. In the general description of the relative extent of sedimentation over the stream system, 

the criterion employed was the degree to which these gravelly riffle 

areas had become sedimented. Areas typed as 'unsedimented' were those 

in which the spaces around the gravel and rubble were not filled in by 

sediment and hence offered the shelter required by the planted fry. 

degree of bottom sedimentation played an important part in influencing 

the survival and distribution of the planted salmon. 

The 

"It was shown that the survival of the small fry in the pools 

was low, largely because the absence of suitable shelter for the young 

salmon resulted in predation by certain species of fish. This lack of 

shelter was directly caused by the deposition of sediment in the pools 

sufficiently great to cover generally the gravel and rubble, and fill 

the spaces around stones, boulders, logs and the like, to an extent 

that they could not be utilized by the fry. 

"Survival studies showed an average percentage survival for 

underyearling salmon. . .of 23.4 percent in comparison to a survival of 

only 2.2 percent in an area in which riffle sedimentation was the heaviest observed in the part of the stream system planted with salmon." 

36 
(36) McRorey, R. P., N. F. Meadowcroft, and C. J. Kraebel 

1954. A guide to erosion reduction on National Forest timber 

sale areas. USDA For, Serv. Calif. Reg. For. & Range Exp. 

Stn., 78 p. Berkeley, Calif, 

Over one-half the manual concerns the construction and maintenance of logging roads. 

Leaving an uncut, protective strip along streams is recommended; however, no minimum width is mentioned. 

(37) Marcuson, Pat 

1968, Stream sediment investigation, Mont. Dep. Fish G Game, 

South Cent. Mont. Fish. Study. Job Completion Rep. Pro$ 

F-20-R-13, 10 p. 

"This report.,.compares current data with data collected before completion of three stream habitat improvement projects on Bluewater 

Creek. Maximum and minimum water temperatures, mean monthly discharge 

and mean sediment data are tabled and discussed for the report period. 

"Mean monthly sediment concentrations and loads were lowest 

at Station 1 and progressively increased downstream. Average suspended 

sediment load'has been reduced by 1.9 tonslday or 32% at Station 2, 14.0 

tons/day or 52% at Station 3 and 10.5 tons/day or 44% at Station 4 following the three streambank improvement projects located near Station 2. 

"Trout composition at all stations on Bluewater Creek represented 37% of the fish sampled in 1968 compared to 13% in 1963 prior to 

habitat improvement. 

altered following a 32% reduction in sediment load at Station 2. 

responding with a 52% reduction in sediment load at Station 3, there 

has been a change in weight ratios of trout:rough fish from 39:61 in 

1963 to 63:37 in 1967 and 78:22 in 1968. 

fish weight ratio has changed from 12:88 in 1963 to 34:66 in 1967 to 

51:49 in 1968." 

Trout:rough fish ratios were not appreciably 

CorAt Station 4 the trout:rough 

(38) Megahan, W. F., and W. J. Kidd 

1972. Effects of logging and logging roads on erosion and 

sediment deposition from steep terrain. J. For. 70(3): 

136-141 . 

"Erosion plots and sediment dams were used to evaluate the 

effects of jammer and skyline logging systems on erosion and sedimentation in steep, ephemeral drainages in the Idaho Batholith of central 

Idaho. 

resulted from the two skidding systems as applied in the study. Sediment dam data obtained concurrently showed that the logging operations 

Five-year plot data indicated that no difference in erosion 

37 
alone (excluding roads) increased sediment production by a factor of 

about 0.6 over the natural sedimentation rate. Roads associated with 

the jammer logging system increased sediment production an average of 

about 750 times over the natural rate for the six-year period following construction. " 

(39) Miner, Norman H. 

1968. Natural filtering of suspended soil by a stream at low 

flow. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-88, 4 p. illus. Pac. 

Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, beg. 

"During road construction, soil that is added to a stream by 

tractors crossing during low flow is temporarily 'filtered' out before 

it travels far. Five-gallon samples were taken at 150, 300, 600, and 

1,200 feet downstream fr0m.a road cmssing, with sodium fluorescein dye 

used as a tracer. Suspended particle concentration was reduced from 

1,055 p.p.m. at 150 feet below the road to 108 p.p.m. at 1,200 feet. 

The 'filtering' action is a combination of settling of larger particles 

and dilution of sediment-laden water. 

deposi'ted soil will tend to be flushed downstream during high flows and 

may cause channel erosion or other damage." 

(40) 

The 

This filtration is temporary, and 

Packer,Paul E., and George F. Christensen 

Cn.d.1 Guides for controlling sediment from secondary logging 

roads. USDA For. Serv. Intermt. For. & Range Exp. Stn. and 

North. Reg., 42 p. Missoula, Mont. - 

"Measurements and observations indicate that as much as 

90 percent of the sediment produced by erosion on timber sale! areas is 

from roads. 

can be largely prevented by conscientious application of specific guides 

for design, location, construction, and maintenance of forest roads. 

Research and experience show that damage to soil and water 

"This handbook contains guides to help in location and design 

of secondary logging roads and installation of water control structures 

that will reduce mosion and prevent sediment from entering streams." 

(41) Patric, J. H., and D. N. Swanston 

1968. Hydrology of a slide-prone glacial till soil in southeast Alaska. J. For. 66(1):62-66. 

"Heavy irrigation caused no surface runoff, erosion, or debris 

avalanches on well-drained Karta soil, a tentative series producing much 

of the commercial timber in southeast Alaska. 

rainfall, streamflow, and piezometric head in terms of Darcy's equation 

showed how this slide-prone soil accommodates large amounts of water. 

About 2/3 of the water applied drained laterally through permeable surface layers to a stream adjacent to the study area. 

presumably drained deeply into highly fractured bedrock. 

Interpreting measured 

The remaining 1/3 

Less permeable 

38 
soil, less fractured bedrock, or longer irrigated slopes probably would 

have caused saturated soil under heavy watering. It appears that Karta 

soil must be saturated to cause debris avalanches, a condition which may 

occur naturally when much larger areas are wetted by much smaller rainfall." 

(42) Peters, John C. 

1965. The effects of stream sedimentation on trout embryo sur- vival. In Clarence M. Tarzwell [ed.], Transactions 3rd seminar on biological problems in water pollution. U.S. Public 

Health Serv. Publ. 999-WP-25, p. 275-279. Robert A. Taft 

Sanit . Eng . Cent . , Cincinnati, Ohio . "Bluewater Creek, during the study period, was characterized 

as a stream with little fluctuation in discharge. There was a progressive downstream increase in sediment concentrations at the five sampling areas in the stream. Man-made redds filled with 3/8-inch gravel 

chips were placed in the vicinity of each sediment-sampling station. 

Each redd, at the start of the study, had almost identically large intragravel dissolved-oxygen concentrations and intragravel apparent velocities. The intragravel dissolved-oxygen concentration rate and apparent velocity decreased progressively downstream in relation to the 

progressive downstream increase in sediment concentration. Accompanying the progressive downstream decrease in intragravel dissolved-oxygen 

concentrations and intragravel apparent velocities was a progressive 

increase in trout embryo mortality. 

"Sediment passing a given area of a stream can greatly affect trout embryo survival. Small sediment concentrations with small 

fluctuations in discharge in a stable streambed environment indicate 

a stream area with a potential for good trout embryo survival." 

(43) Phillips, Robert W. 

1971. Effects of sediment on the gravel environment and fish 

production. In James Morris [ed.], Proceedings of a 

symposium--Forest land uses and stream environment, p. 64-74. 

(beg. State Univ. , Corvallis. 

"Research in the field is summarized. Sediment influences 

fish in several ways. In suspension, (1) it blocks the transmission of 

light, reducing algae production, and (2) it damages the gill membranes, 

causing death where concentrations are high and exposure is prolonged. 

When sediment settles on the gravel beds, it is harmful in the following ways: 

surface waters and waters within the gravel bed. 

ply of dissolved oxygen to the egg, and interferes with the removal of 

metabolites (carbon dioxide and ammonia). (2) Sediment also forms a 

barrier to fry emergence by blocking the route of egress. 

solved oxygen and the physical barrier effect of sediment appear to be 

(1) It fills the interstices reducing interchange between 

This reduces the sup- 

(3) Low dis39 
additive in reducing survival. 

impaired because of a loss of escape cover and a reduction of aquatic 

organisms that are food for fish. 

pink and chum salmon survival is inversely related to the amount of 

sediment in gravel beds." 

(4) Sumrival after fry emergence is 

Examples are cited showing that 

(44) Platts, William S. 

1970. The effects of logging and road construction on the 

aquatic habitat of the South Fork Salmon River, Idaho. 

[Abstract.] USDA For. Serv., Zone Fish. Biol., 4 p. 

The harvest and resulting road construction of 325 million 

board feet of timber removed from 7 percent of the South Fork Salmon 

River caused aquatic habitat degradation. To determine the aquatic 

habitat conditions, data were collected *om 325 randomly located 

stream transects, 670 streambank points, 90 additional stream transects in spawning areas, 155 streambed core samples, and 80 additional 

streambed core samples in major spawning areas. Results showed the 

South Fork Salmon River to be a heavily sedimented stream, especially 

in the salmonid spawning areas. The studies showed that both streambed surface and depth sediment content-were very high. 

contained slightly less fine materials than the overall spawning areas 

but were not capable of eliminating required amounts of sediment from 

egg incubation, areas which would result in good permeability. 

The salmon redds 

A debris basin was effective in improving the aquatic habitat in the stream immediately below the basin during low and normal 

waterflows, but it was detrimental to downstream habitat during its 

initial construction and early existence. 

(45) Rice, R. M., and J. R. Wallis 

1962. How a logging operation can affect streamflow. For. 

Ind. 89 (11) : 38-40 . 

Effects of logging on streamflow and sedimentation in Castle 

Creek, a high Sierra watershed,, were studied. The res,ults pinpoint the 

fact that even though the total disturbance of the Castle Creek watershed 

was not great, roads and landings created a large source of sediment. 

(46) Saunders, J. W., and M. W. Smith 

1965. Changes in a stream population of trout associated with 

increased silt. J. Fish. Res. Board. Can. 22(2):395-404. 

"Low standing crops of brook trout , SaZveZinus fonthzzis, 

were closely associated with silting in Ellerslie Brook, Prince Edward 

Island, and appeared to result from the destruction of hiding places. 

Spawning was also curtailed by silting. 

soon increased. 

habitat with favourable flow and water temperature, was illustrated. " 

Following scouring, trout stocks 

The remarkable adaptability of trout to silting, in a 

40 
(47) Shapley, S. Philip, and Daniel M. Bishop 

1965. Sedimentation in a salmon stream. J. Fish, Res, Board 

Can. 22(4):919-928. 

"Sediment was artificially added to a small southeastern 

Alaskan salmon stream. Observations in sediment and control riffles 

indicate that the amount of sediment settling to the stream bottom 

decreases exponentially with distance downstream. 

content of intragravel stream water remained high in sedimented riffles. 

The added sediment was removed from streambed gravels by fall freshets 

and floods . " 

The dissolved oxygen 

(48) Sheridan, William L. 

1968. Land use and sediment. In Richard T. Myren [ea.], 

Logging and salmon, p. 62-79. Proc. Forum Am. Inst. Fish. 

Res. Biol., Alaska Dist., Juneau, Alaska. 

" Of the characteristics that logging and road construction 

could influence, sediment levels in spawning gravels may be one of the 

most important. 

ability of spawning gravels, interferes with interchange of water between the gravels and the surface stream, decreases the velocity of 

water bathing salmon embryos, and when abundant, prevents alevins from 

emerging. 

It has been established that sediment decreases perme- 

"Although there is little doubt that logging and road construction contribute some sediment to salmon streams, there is no evidence to show that these activities, when conducted according to protective clauses included in all timber sale contracts, have damaged 

the salmon resource in southeastern Alaska. 

"We know something of the mechanics and dynamics of sedimentation, but regarding some phases we still have much to learn. 

for example, that some sediment is carried into streams in almost every 

instance where roads are built in the watersheds. Through watershed 

studies, we are attaining a better understanding of the way in which 

sediment reaches the mainstream as a result of road construction and 

logging activities (chiefly by way of the, lateral tributaries) ." 

We know, 

(49) Sheridan, William L., and William J. McNeil 

1968. Some effects of logging on two salmon streams in Alaska. 

J. For. 66(2):128-133. 

"Sedimentation of spawning beds and density of pink salmon (0. 

gorbuscha) were observed before and after logg'ing in two streams in southeastern Alaska. The study lasted seven years (1958-1964). Although the 

amount of fine particles in spawning beds increased temporarily, the amount 

in 1964 (five years after logging began) was not significantly greater than 

41 
in 1959. 

areas during the period of this study. The increases were probably due 

to the abolition in 1959 of salmon traps (formerly the primary means of 

catching salmon) . '' 

Densities of salmon spawners and fry increased in the sampling 

(50) Stephens, F.'R. 

1966. Soil and watershed characteristics of southeast Alaska 

and some western Oregon drainages. USDA For. Sew. Alaska 

Reg., 16 p. Juneau, Alaska. 

Stephens states that the results of any study on the effects 

of land management on streams cannot be universally applied to all streams 

unless the land characteristics of each area are known and are comparable. 

To illustrate the variability of land characteristics which influence the 

hazards of sedimentation, four areas are compared: the South Umpqua, Alsea, 

and Bull Run drainages in Oregon, and southeast Alaska. 

(51) Swanston, D. N. 

1971. Principal mass movement processes influenced by logging, 

road building, and fire. 

of a symposium--Forest land uses and stream environment, 

p. 29-40. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

In James Morris [ed.], Proceedings 

"Dominant natural soil mass movement processes active on watersheds of the western United States include 1) debris avalanches, debris 

flows and debris torrents; 2) slumps and earth flows; 3) deep-seated soil 

creep; and 4) dry creep and sliding. A dominant characteristic of each 

is steep slope occurrence, frequently in excess of the angle of stability 

of the soil. All but dry creep and sliding occur under high.soi1 moisture 

conditions and usually develop or are accelerated during periods of abnormally high rainfall. 

truction of natural mechanical support on the slopes. 

ing, and fire play an important part in initiation and acceleration of 

these soil mass movements. Road building stands out at the present time 

as the most damaging activity, with soil failures resulting largely from 

slope loading, back-slope cutting, and inadequate slope drainage. Logging 

and fire affect stability primarily through destruction of natural mechanical support for the soils, removal of surface cover, and obstruction of 

main drainage channels by debris." 

Further, all are encouraged or accelerated by desLogging, road build- 

(52) Swanston, Douglas N. 

1967. Debris avalanching in thin soils derived from bedrock. 

USDA For. Sew. Res. Note PNW-64, 7 p., illus. Pac. Northwest 

For. E Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

"On slopes steeper than the internal angle of friction and in 

the absence of a well-developed, cohesive soil, landslides must be considered a natural erosion process responding to the basic laws of physics. 

42 
They are an inevitable result of any occurrence which tends to reduce 

the resistance of a slope to sliding. 

"Many of these slopes remain stable for years despite the 

action of external forces tending to reduce their resistance to sliding. 

The slope soils, therefore, must possess a slide resistance which is 

not directly related to the physical properties of the soil. 

indications are that this force is produced by tree rooting through the 

soil and into cracks in the underlying bedrock. 

rooting system would greatly increase susceptibility of the slope soil 

to slides. " 

Present 

Destruction of this 

(53) Swanston, Douglas N. 

1969. Mass wasting in coastal Alaska. USDA For. Serv. Res. 

Pap. PNW-83, 15 p., illus. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. 

Stn., Inst. North. For., Juneau, Alaska. 

"This paper summarizes and interprets the accumulated data 

and knowledge about slope erosion in southeast Alaska, particularly in 

relation to recently logged areas, with general suggestions and guidelines for prediction and control." 

(54) Swanston, Douglas N. 

1970. Mechanics of debris avalanching in shallow till soils of 

southeast Alaska. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-103, 17 p., 

illus. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, beg. 

"Studies in the Maybeso valley show that the majority of debris avalanches and flows develop on slopes greater than 34-O and are 

especially frequent around a critical angle of 37O. 

tour map of Maybeso valley ... this angle is represented by the critical 

contour 0.6, the sine of 37O. Above this critical contour, sliding is 

imminent with the destruction or disruption of any cohesive forces acting to hold the soil in place. Below the critical contour is a zone of 

decreasing instability. 

principally in the deeper stream notches and in a narrow band near the 

1,200-foot contour. The narrow band in the vicinity of maximum slide 

activity corresponds to the steep face of a till shoulder marking the 

upper limit of younger till. 

On an isosinal conThe zone of instability thus defined is located 

"By construction of an isosine map, or more simply mapping of 

slope angles, areas of general slope instability within a watershed can 

be located and the feasibility of applying preventive or control measures 

determined. If the area of instability is a bedrock cliff, no additional 

consideration need be given. 

timber stands, serious thought should be given to harvesting techniques 

and road construction in the critical area." 

If the area lies within some of the best 

43 
(55) Tebo, L. B., Jr. 

1955. Effects of siltation, resulting from improper logging on 

the bottom fauna of a small trout stream in the southern 

Appalachians. Progr. Fish-Cult. 17(2):64-70. 

Logging influenced the bottom fauna of a small trout stream in 

the Coweeta Experimental Forest. 

the effects of siltation on a stream community. 

those used commonly in the southeastern States. 

poorly planned road systems and skid trails result in a high rate of erosion and siltation in stream channels. 

benefit the logger by reducing road maintenance. 

Bottom fauna were selected to measure 

Logging practices were 

Results indicated that 

Properly constructed roads will 

(56) Tebo, L. B., Jr. 

1957. Effects of siltation on trout streams. Soco Am. For. 

PFOC. 1956:198-202. 

A study of the Coweeta Experimental Forest in western North 

Carolina showed that soil erosion and siltation reduced and, in severe 

cases, even destroyed the trout fishery by (1) inhibiting spawning success, (2) reducing the available food supply, and (3) changing the physical characteristics of the habitat so as to make it unsuitable for trout. 

(57) Ursic, S. J. 

1965. Sediment yields from small watersheds under various land 

uses and forest covers. U.S. Dep. Agric. Misc. Publ. 970: 

47-32. 

"Data from small watersheds in the hilly uplands of northern 

Mississippi show large variations in annual runoff and sediment production 

attributable to land use and cover types. Runoff decreased in the order: 

corn and pasture > abandoned fields and depleted hardwoods > pine plantations. Annual sediment yields and average concentrations of sediment per 

unit of runoff decreased in the order: corn > pasture > abandoned fields 

and depleted hardwoods > pine plantations and mature pine-hardwoods. 

These progressions represent discrete populations of erosion potential. 

"Runoff was greater from watersheds with loessial soils than 

from those with both loess and Coastal Plain soils, but the effect of 

soil on sediment yields was not consistent for all covers. 

"Extremes in annual sediment production ranged from 43 tons 

per acre from a cultivated watershed to a few pounds per acre from pine 

plantations. Sediment yields from abandoned fields with a dense cover 

of native grass and from forest covers did not exceed 0.5 ton per acre 

annually. 

been reported as 84 to 400 tons per acre. 

By contrast, yields from gullies in the same locality have 

44 
"The studies are yielding data that should eventually allow 

prediction of sediment production and permanent covers. 

opportunities for reducing runoff and sediment by changing land use and 

cover types. 

They suggest 

"Establishing pine on actively eroding abandoned fields has 

in two decades reduced sedimentation to amounts probably not in excess 

of the geologic norm for undisturbed climax forests in this area." 

(58) Wallis, James R. 

1963. Logging for water quality in northern California. USDA 

For. Serv. Res. Note PSW-N23, 7 p. Pac. Southwest For. G 

Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, Calif. 

"Eleven 'do's1 and 'don'ts' of logging for preserving water 

quality are listed and tips for recognizing the more erodible sites are 

given . I' 

(59) Wickett, W. P. 

1959. Effects of siltation on success of fish spawning. In 

E. F. Eldridge and John N. Wilson reds.], Proceedings 5th 

symposium--Pacific Northwest on siltation --its source and 

effects on aquatic environment, p. 16-17. U.S. Dep. Health, 

Educ. & Welfare, Portland, Oreg. 

Effects of siltation on salmon are discussed. 

(60) Wilson, John N. 

1960. Effects of turbidity and silt on aquatic life. In 

Clarence M. Tarzwell [ed.], Transactions 195.9 seminar on biological problems in water pollution. U.S. Public Health Serv. 

Tech. Rep. W60-3:235-239. Robert A. Taft Sanit. Eng. Cent., 

Columbus, Ohio. 

Effects of turbidity and silt on aquatic life and a consideration of the establishment of water quality criteria for silt and turbidity in natural waters are discussed. 

(61) Wustenberg, Donald W. 

1954. A preliminary survey of the influences of controlled logging on a trout stream in the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon. 51 p. M.S. thesis, Oreg. State Coll., Corvallis. 

The staggered-setting system of logging in mature Douglas-fir 

stands affects trout environments. 'Findings included: (1) an increase in 

localized sediment entering the stream associated with maintenance and 

use of logging 

centrations as 

sediments, ( 4) 

parts of small 

roads, (2) a lack of pronounced increases in sediment cona result of logging, (3) a fine silt consistency for most 

a preponderance of sediment concentrations in the upper 

tributaries, (5) a greater disruption of streambeds from 

45 
tractor logging than from high-lead logging, (6) severe scouring in logged 

streams during high flows in comparison with relatively undisturbed conditions in dogged sections of the same streams, (7) the elimination of 

cutthroat trout populations in logged streams and adverse effects on 

aquatic insects for at least one year, and (8) the possibility of reduction in water temperatures through the use of streamside buffer strips. 

46 
STREAMSIDE VEGETATION 

47 
(62) Brazier, Jon R., and George W. Brown 

1972. Buffer strips for stream temperature control. beg. 

State Univ. Res. Pap. No. 15, 12 p. 

"The purposes of this research bulletin are to show which 

buffer strip characteristics are important in regulating the temperature 

of small streams and to describe a method of designing buffer strips that 

will insure no temperature change and at the same time minimize the amount 

of commercial timber left in the strip to provide the necessary shade." 

(63) Burns, J. E. 

1970. The importance of streamside vegetation to trout and salmon 

in British Columbia. Dep. Recreation & Conserv., Vancouver 

Island Reg., Fish & Wildl. Branch, Fish. Tech. Circ. 1, 10 p. 

Nanaimo, B.C., Can. 

"Salmonids are adapted to cool, well oxygenated streams that 

have traditionally been relatively free of sediment and have been provided 

with energy sources and cover from streamside vegetation. Environmental 

disturbances such as the removal of the streamside canopy, erosion, sedimentation, debris deposition and spraying of toxins have resulted in the 

loss of much productive stream habitat for trout and salmon in Northwestern 

North America. The magnitude of this loss could have been reduced significantly by treating the stream as an integral part of the total forest environment and leaving streamside vegetation, a small part of the environment , relatively undisturbed . 

(64) Cormack, R. G. H. 

1949. A study of trout streamside cover in logged-over and undisturbed virgin spruce woods. Can. J. Res. 27(3):78-95. [Taken 

from Cordone (1481.1 

"The purpose of the survey was to obtain information concerning 

the vegetation of undisturbed and disturbed forest areas, to analyze the 

information and to relate it to the problems of soil erosion, water conservation, and trout stream management. 

"From evidence obtained in the present survey one measure of 

stream protection that seems most desirable would be the prohibition of 

all cutting along wide strips on both sides of the stream. 

siderable precedent for advising a policy of this kind, as multiple we 

forestry admits non-cutting in certain areas, if it is genuinely needed. 

The width of the strips to be left uncut will undoubtedly vary with the 

individual stream and with the type of forest cover. Taking conditions 

in the Carbondale River Valley as more or less general for this part of 

the watershed the writer suggests as a beginning point a strip of at least 

60 feet on each side of the stream. 

wide enough to provide the maximum of shade and protection to both stream 

There is conCertainly the uncut areas should be 

48 \ 
and streamside cover and to preserve the natural attractiveness of the 

stream. 

source, springs, and small feeder tributaries." 

Also they should be extensive enough to include the stream's 

(65) DeWitt, John W. 

1968. Streamside vegetation and small coastal salmon streams. 

Proc. Forum Am. Inst. Fish. Res. 

In Richard T. Myren Led.], Forum on the relation between logging and salmon, p. 38-47. 

Biol., Alaska Dist., Juneau, Alaska. 

"The main purpose of this talk is to review some general considerations of the influence of streamside vegetation, especially its 

stream 

and ecoloG of small coastal salmon streams. Some of the direct effects 

that I shall ascribe to changes in streamside vegetation can also be the 

result of changes in vegetation on slopes and ridges well away from the 

stream. The streams I am referring to are those of minimum flow of only 

a few cubic feet per second. 

these streams tend to have well-vegetated banks and to be well shaded." 

canopy aspects as affected by canopy removal, on the conditions 

In areas of virgin and recovered forest, 

(66) Green, Geoffrey E. 

1950. Land use and trout streams. J. Soil & Water Conserv. 

5( 3) : 125-126 . A study in the Coweeta Experimental Forest of North Carolina 

compared stream temperatures of two streams--an agricultural stream and 

an undisturbed forest stream. 

control of stream temperatures. 

shade ranged from 9O-2Oo F higher than the forest stream. 

As was expected, shading was the key to 

The agricultural stream with little 

(67) Johnson, Fred W. 

1953. Forests and trout. J. For. 51(8):551-554. 

The author states that: 

"...Stream-bank vegetation helps to maintain such [deep-water] 

areas through the reduction of lateral erosion. 

along stream banks ...pr ovide this needed protection against lateral erosion. 

skid trails and logging roads. During summer rainstorms, the writer has 

observed that silt flows fan out within 20 or 30 feet after entering the 

undisturbed mat of pine needles and other forest litter. " 

Strips of timber left 

Moreover, they also serve as buffers that arrest silt flows from 

The article discusses trout-forest relationships in general 

but probably refers to the Rocky Mountain area. 

49 
(68) McMynn, R. G. 

1970. "Green belts " or "leave. strips " to protect fish! Why? Dep. 

Recreation & Conserv., Comer, Fish. Branch, 36 p. Victoria, 

B.C., Can. 

Papers concerning logging practices in relation to water management and fish production are reviewed; first, to outline how logging practices can affect a watershed, and second, to explain how "leave strips " 

or "green belts " can be important in offsetting some of the detrimental 

effects of logging. 

(69) McMynn, Robert 

1970. Strips of trees could protect fish from loggers. West. 

Fish. 80(6):20-24. 

Benefits of "leave strips " or "green belts " along streams are 

discussed. Author states that such strips or belts would provide the most 

valuable means of protecting streams from harmful effects of logging on 

fish . 

(70) Sadler, Ronald R. 

1970. Buffer strips-- a possible application of decision theory. 

Bur, Land Manage. Tech. Note, 11 p. U.S. Dep. Inter. Portland, 

Oreg . 

The economic values of leaving buffer strips for stream protection are discussed. The article includes various formulas to determine 

economic value of the fishery as compared with the value of the timber in 

the buffer strips. 

(71) Streeby, Larry 

1971. Buffer strips--some considerations in the decision to leave. 

In James Morris [ed.], Proceedings of a symposium--Forest land 

uses and stream environment, p, 194-198. Oreg. State Univ., 

Corvallis . 

"Buffer strips have been receiving a great deal of attention 

as a method of protecting streams and the stream environment. 

are not equally useful in all places. 

strips is dependent on three classes of factors--physical-biotic factors, 

outside cultural factors, and management objectives. 

and benefits associated with buffer strips are identified, but all these 

costs'and benefits should not be expressed in dollar terms. Rather, all 

costs and benefits associated with each management objective should be 

explicitly recognized in their own natural measure of contribution to goals, 

and decisions should be made on the basis of this information." 

But they 

The desirability of applying buffer 

Some potential costs 

50 
WATER QUALITY 

51 
(72) Allen, E. J. 

1960. Water supply watershed problems - Seattle watershed. In 

E. F. Eldridge [ea.], Proceedings 7th symposium water pollution 

research, p. 15-17. U.S. Public Health Serv., Reg. IX, 

Portland, Oreg. 

Watershed activities which have a deleterious effect upon the 

quality or quantity of water are discussed. 

solution is multiple use management. 

The author suggests that the 

(73) Atkinson, Sheridan William 

1971. BOD and toxicity of log leachates. 96 p. M.S. thesis, 

Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

"A series of log storage experiments was conducted to determine whether leachates derived from water storage of logs are acutely 

toxic to fish. Log segments approximately 18 inches long and 16 inches 

in diameter were stored in tanks and held submerged for a period of 7 

days. 

mercury to retard biological decomposition of the leached substances. 

Mercury was selectively removed from leachate samples by chelation prior 

to biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and bioassay tes3ing. 

The holding water containing leached materials was made toxic with 

"Trout and salmon fry were subjected to the leachate water in 

short term acute bioassay tests. 

ance limit, (TLm), i.e., the concentration of leachate at which 50 percent 

of the test fish died for any given exposure time. 

tested for BODS, BOD k -rate, chemical oxygen demand (COD), wood sugar and 

Pearl Benson Index (PBI). 

Results are reported as a median tolerLeachates were also 

" Test results show that leachates from Douglas fir stored in 

fresh water exert a slight acute toxicity to fish. A TLmg6 of 20 percent 

leachate by volume, for a 50 year old Douglas fir log, was the most toxic 

leachate observed. Leachates from ponderosa pine, hemlock and older fir 

log stored under identical conditions produced no measurable acute toxicity. 

substances. The highest BOD5, (1.36 g/ft2 of submerged surface area) was 

exerted by leachate from a ponderosa pine log segment stored with bark 

removed. 

from a young Douglas fir log segment. 

ranged widely for the various leachates, but were relatively low which 

indicated a significant fraction of non-biodegradable substances. 

Hoffbuhr ... also observed a high non-biodegradable fraction in samples 

taken from log storage ponds. Wood sugars were found to account for a 

large part of the degradable portion of leachates. 

derosa pine log with bark intact exerted a high BOD and also contained 

the highest concentration of wood sugar observed, 0.84 g/ft2." 

Leachates contained a significant quantity of BOD and PBI exerting 

The highest PBI value (12.5 g/ft2), was observed for leachate 

B0D:COD ratios and BOD k-rate 

Leachates from pon52 
(74) Bormann, F. H., G. E. Likens, D. W. Fisher, and R. S. Pierce 

1968. Nutrient loss accelerated by clear cutting of a forest 

ecosystem. Science 159:882-884. 

"The forest of a small watershed-ecosystem was cut in order 

to determine the effects of removal of vegetation on nutrient cycles. 

Relative to undisturbed ecosystems, the cut ecosystem exhibited accelerated loss of nutrients: nitrogen lost during the first year after 

cutting was equivalent to the amount annually turned over in an undisturbed system, and losses of cations were 3 to 20 times greater than 

from comparable undisturbed systems. 

nutrient loss from the cut ecosystem are discussed." 

Possible causes of the pattern of 

(75) Bridges, W. R. 

1965. Some effects on fish of chemical control of forest insects. SOC. Am. For. Proc. 1964:192-194. 

"This paper deals primarily with some of the effects on fish 

caused by DDT aerial sprays conducted for forest insect control. Some 

aspects associated with the use of other less toxic chemicals are also 

considered. It 

(76) Brown, George W. 

1969. Predicting temperatures of small streams. Water Resour. 

Res. 5( 1) : 68-75 . 

"Hourly temperatures of small streams can be accurately predicted using an energy balance. 

required to assess the environment of the small stream accurately. The 

temperature-prediction technique was tested on three streams 'in Oregon. 

On unshaded stretches, net all-wave radiation is the predominant energy 

source during the day; evaporation and convection account for less than 

10% of the total energy exchange. 

bottom is an important energy balance component on shallow streams having 

a bedrock bottom. 

be transferred into the bed. 

predicted to within lo F more than 90% of the time. 

mits foresters to control water temperature through manipulation of 

stream-side vegetation . l1 

Micrometeorological measurements are 

Conduction of heat into the stream 

Up to 25% of the energy absorbed by such a stream may 

Hourly temperature changes of 0-16O F were 

This technique per- 

(77) Brown, George W. 

1970. Predicting the effect of clearcutting on stream temperature. J. Soil & Water Conserv. 25(1):ll-13. 

"The temperature change that occurs between two points on a 

stream is directly proportional to the surface area of the stream and 

the heat load applied between these points. It is inversely propor- tional to the flow. Good estimates of the heat load can be made with 

solar radiation data if the stream is uniformly exposed to sunlight. 

Foresters can use this technique to predict the effect of clearcutting 

on stream temperature." 

53 
(78) Brown, George W. 

1971. Water temperature in small streams as influenced by environmental factors and logging. 

Proceedings of a symposium--Forest land uses and stream environment, p . 175-181. Oreg . State Univ. , Corvallis . 

In James Morris [ed.], 

"Clearcut logging can produce large changes in the temperature 

Shade removal may increase radiation loads by 

of small streams. 

is direct solar radiation. 

six to seven times. 

ing shade between the boundary of the clearcut and the stream. 

shade may be provided by brush species if streams are very small. 

impact, both at the site and downstream, of exposing given amounts of 

stream surface to direct solar radiation is predictable." 

The principal source of heat affected by clearcutting 

Temperature control can best be achieved by provid- Adequate 

The 

(79) Brown, George W. 

1972. An improved temperature prediction model for small streams. 

Water Resour. Res. Inst., Rep. WRRI-16, 20 p. Oreg. State Univ., 

Corvallis . 

"A model for predicting the maximum change in temperature from 

completely exposing a reach of stream to solar radiation was developed 

during earlier research. This model, which assumes that net solar radiation is the sole source of energy to the stream, worked well on most 

streams. 

either a large proportion of pools or bed rock in the stream bottom. 

found that only the flowing portion of the pools should be included in 

the heat exchange process. 

toms can conduct about 20% of the incident solar radiation away from the 

stream. Reducing our estimates of stream surface area and net heat load 

according to pool configuration and bed condition provided good estimates 

of temperature change using the original model." 

In a few cases it worked very poorly. These streams contained 

We 

We also found that the bed rock stream bot- 

(80) Brown, George W., and James T. Krygier 

1967. Changing water temperatures in small mountain streams. 

J. Soil & Water Conserv. 22(6):242-244. 

The results from two studies show that clearcutting influences summer temperatures in small Oregon coastal streams. The integrated effect of numerous clearcuttings on small tributary streams may 

be a significant source of thermal pollution. 

(81) Brown, George W., and James T. Krygier 

Resour. Res. 6(4):1133-1139. 

1970. Effects of clear- cutting on stream temperature. Water 

"The principal source of energy for warming streams is the 

Average monthly maximum temperatures increased by 

sun. 

clear-cut logging. 

The amount of sunlight reaching the stream may be increased after 

54 
14O F and annual maximum temperatures increased from 57O to 85O F one year 

after clear- cut logging on a small watershed in Oregon's coast range. 

a nearby watershed where strips of brush and trees separated logging units 

from the stream, no changes in temperature were observed that could be attributed to clear- cutt ing . " 

In 

(82) Brown, George W., Gerald W. Swank, and Jack Rothacher 

1971. Water temperature in the Steamboat drainage. USDA For. 

Sew. Res. Pap. PNW-119, 17 p. Pac. Northwest For. E Range 

Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

"Stream temperatures were studied in a drainage in which logging operations were typical of much of the commercial forests on the west 

slopes of the Cascade Range. 

streams influenced by various degrees of exposure from logging were measured, and a simplified prediction equation was tested." 

Changes in water temperature of tributary 

(83) Bullard, William 

1963. Water quality problems originating on wild lands. In 

Symposium on forest watershed management, p. 313-319. Oreg. 

State Univ., Corvallis. 

The water quality problems originating on wild lands and some 

possible solutions to these problems are discussed. 

(84) Eschner, Arthur R., and Jack Larmoyeux 

1963. Logging and trout: four experimental forest practices and 

their effect on water quality. Progr. Fish-Cult. 25(2):59-67. 

Results of studies conducted in West Virginia are discussed: 

"Experimental logging of watersheds caused significant changes 

in quantity and quality of streamflow. 

"Poorly located and constructed skidroads resulted in continuous, very high stream turbidities during logging. 

ished with time after logging disturbance ended. 

constructed skidroads contributed negligible amounts of turbidity. 

This effect diminCarefully planned and 

"Clearcutting resulted in significantly higher maximum stream 

Maximum stream temperatures above those generally tole - 

temperatures in the growing season, lower minimum temperatures in the 

dormant season. 

rated by brook trout were noted often in the summer of 1959. Moderate 

cutting did not produce water-quality changes that might be harmful to 

trout . 

"Increases in pH, alkalinity, and specific conductance were 

noted in the stream flowing from the clearcut watershed. 

55 
"Streamflow was increased by the treatments in proportion to 

the amount of timber cut and killed. Most of the increases came late 

in summer and early in fall, the periods of high evapotranspiration and 

soil moisture recharge, when flow in many trout streams is dangerously 

low . 

"Changes in stream pH, alkalinity, and temperature are persisting; but treatment effects on quantity of flow and turbidity are 

diminishing as time passes . I' 

(85) Fredriksen, R. L. 

1971. Comparative chemical water quality - natural and disturbed streams following logging and slash burning. 

James Morris [ed.], Proceedings of a symposium--Forest land 

uses and stream environment, p. 125-137. 

Corvallis . 

In 

Oreg. State Univ., 

"The loss of nutrients from an old-growth Douglas-fir forest 

was measured in the streams of experimental watersheds. Following timber 

harvest and slash burning, loss of nutrients cations increased 1.6 to 3.0 

times the loss from the undisturbed watershed. A surge of nutrients that 

followed broadcast burning contained concentrations of ammonia and manganese that exceeded Federal water quality standards for a period of 12 

days. 

acre; 53 percent of this was organic nitrogen contained in sediment. 

Inorganic nitrogen, dissolved in the stream, made up the remaining part. 

Annual loss of nitrogen from the undisturbed forest was very small--.16 

pound per acre . 

Annual nitrogen loss following burning averaged 4.6 pounds per 

(86) Gibson, H. R., and D. W. Chapman 

1972. Effects of Zectran insecticide on aquatic organisms in 

Bear Valley Creek, Idaho . Trans . Am. Fish. SOC . 101( 2) : 330-344. 

"We assessed effects of the experimental insecticide Zectran @ 

on aquatic organisms in Bear Valley Creek, Idaho in 1966. 

drainage, nearby and not sprayed, served as a control. 

nificant fish mortality, and no effect on growth rate and condition of 

age Ot, 1+, 2t, and 3+ dolly Varden (SaZveZinus ma~rn). 

applications did not increase emigration and intrastream movement of fish. 

We noted no effects on benthic aquatic insect numbers, but observed that 

more insects drifted downstream for several hours beginning about 3 hours 

after spraying on July 7, 1966. Adult terrestrial insects, immature 

Heptageneidae and Rhyacophilidae, adult Chloroperlidae, and immature and 

adult Phryganeidae, Limnephilidae, and Blephariceridae increased in drift 

samples after spraying. 

aquatic organisms very little." 

Hayden Creek 

We found no sigInsecticide 

We concluded that the Zectran insecticide damaged 

56 
(87) Goldman, Charles R. 

1967. Effects of pesticides in California watersheds. In Man's 

effect on California watersheds, p. 211-217. Part 111, 1965- 

1967. Sacramento, California. 

The effects of pesticides on both the aquatic and terrestrial 

habitats are discussed. 

California is also included. 

A list of needed research and legislation in 

(88) Gordon, Robert, and Dennis Martens 

Fish., Sept., p. 41-43. 

1969. Sockeye eggs killed by bark on spawning gravel. West 

"Dangers of log-driving on salmon spawning streams are being 

studied by the Salmon Commission. 

which conclude that concentrations of bark over four percent of the gravel 

surface are detrimental. 

would be ' ill- advised. ' " 

Two biologists outline their findings, 

Resumption of the Stellako log drive, they say, 

(89) Graham, John LeRoy 

1970. Pollutants leached from selected species of wood in log 

storage waters. 46 p. M.S. thesis, Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

"A study was conducted to determine the quantity and character 

of substances leached from logs floating in water, and the rate of leaching of these substances. 

and ponderosa pine. The research was carried out in a controlled laboratory environment with log sections 14-inches in diameter by 20-inches long. 

The study included log sections submerged in both tap water and saline 

water. 

degradation of the leached materials. 

The species of wood studied were Douglas fir 

The holding water was chemically poisoned to prevent biological 

"The analyses performed on samples of the holding water taken 

at specified intervals during 40 day leaching periods included chemical 

oxygen demand (COD), Pearl-Benson Index (PBI), total solids (TS), total 

volatile solids (TVS) and total organic carbon (TOC). 

'The data showed that ponderosa pine logs contributed measurably greater quantities of soluble organic materials and color-producing 

substances than Douglas fir logs. The following COD and PBI values were 

measured after a leaching period of 20 days: ponderosa pine - 4.3 g COD/ft , 15 g PBI/ft2; Douglas fir - 3.2 g COD/ft2, 11 g PBI/ft2. 

"Leaching rate appeared to be affected by the concentration of 

soluble organic materials in the stagnant holding water; however, experiments showed that, in flowing water, the leaching rate was nearly constant. 

"Extrapolation of the laboratory test data to field conditions 

resulted in an estimate of nearly 800 pounds of COD per day contributed 

by approximately 8 million board feet of floating logs to a typical log 

storage water . I' 

57 
(90) Gray, J. R. A., and J. M. Edington 

1969. Effect of woodland clearance on stream temperature. J. 

Fish. Res. Board Can. 26:399-403. 

"A study was made of the temperature characteristics of a 

stream which flowed first through open fields and then through woodland. 

When the woodland was felled, that section of the stream showed a marked 

rise in summer temperature. 

of tree shading can be the decisive factor in determining the temperature 

of small streams . '' 

It is argued that the presence or absence 

(91) Griffin, L. E. 

1938. Experiments on tolerance of young trout and salmon for 

suspended sediment in water. Oreg. State Dep. Geol. Miner. 

Ind. Bull. No. 10, Append. B., p. 28-31. Portland, Oreg. 

The preliminary examination of data fkom a study on the tolerance of young trout and salmon to suspended sediment indicated that 

young trout and salmon are not directly injured by heavily silted water. 

(92) Grondal, Bror L. 

1945. Relation of runoff and water quality to land and forest 

use in Cedar River watershed. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 37(1): 

15-20 . 

A study commission formed with the primary objective of deciding the future policies in the Cedar River watershed with respect to logging recommended a continuation of logging in the watershed on a controlled 

sustained-yield basis. 

(93) Klock, G. 0. 

1971. Streamflow nitrogen loss following forest erosion control 

fertilization. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-169, 9 p. Pac. 

Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

"Three gaged watersheds, approximately 500 hectares in size, 

in north central Washington were severely burned in 1970 by wildfire. 

In an experimental erosion control seeding program, two watersheds were 

fertilized, one with urea and the other with ammonium sulfate. 

watershed was retained as an unrehabilitated control. 

during and following fertilization, 1.37 kilograms of urea-N and 2.90 kilograms of nitrate-N were estimated to have been carried by streamflow from 

the watershed fertilized with 27.5 metric tons of elemental nitrogen as 

urea. On the watershed fertilized with 33.16 metric tons of elemental 

nitrogen as ammonium sulfate, 1.45 kilograms of nitrate-N was estimated 

to have been transported from the watershed by streamflow." 

The third 

For a 60-day period 

58 
(94) Kopperdahl, Fredric R., James W. Burns, and Gary E. Smith 

1971. Water quality of some logged and unlogged California 

streams. Calif. Fish & Game, Inland Admin. Rep. 71-12, 19 p. 

"Water quality was monitored in 1968 and 1969 in six coastal 

streams in northern California, four of which were subjected to logging 

and/or road building (Bummer Lake Creek, South Fork Yager Creek, Little 

North Fork Noyo River, and South Fork Caspar Creek), while the others 

remained undisturbed (Godwood Creek and North Fork Caspar Creek). The 

purposes of this study were to characterize the water quality of the 

streams, to deternine if the logging and road construction drastically 

altered water quality, and to collect water quality data which could be 

tested for predicting stream carrying capacities for salmonids. 

"Conditions were generally suitable for salmonids during and 

after the logging. No abnormal concentrations of dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, hardness, dissolved solids, phosphate, chloride, sulfate, nitrate, tannin and lignin, or pH were detected. 

in most streams, except in South Fork Caspar Creek when it reached 8 pprn 

during decomposition of logging debris in the summer of 1968. Turbidity 

was highest in areas where bulldozers were working in the streams. Temperatures of most streams increased after the logging, but seldom exceeded 70° F because of the cool climate in the coastal fog belt. Alternating cut and uncut blocks on one stream, and retaining a buffer strip 

along another, kept temperatures low in two streams." 

Carbon dioxide was low 

(95) Kramer, Robert H. , and Lloyd L. Smith, Jr. 

1965. Effects of suspended wood fiber on brown and rainbow 

trout eggs and alevins. Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. 94:252-258. 

"Brown and rainbow trout (Sazmo trutta and S. gairdned) eggs 

were held in continuous-flow suspensions of 0-, 60-, 125-, and 250-ppm 

conifer groundwood fiber 6 to 8 days before hatching. Resulting alevins 

were held in the same fiber concentrations until swimup (14 to 16 days), 

then removed and maintained in clean water for up to 91 days. Suspended 

fiber had no effect upon egg survival, respiration rate of embryos, or 

growth rates of alevins and juveniles from eggs incubated in fiber but 

hatched and grown in clean water. 

suspensions, survival was reduced from 98 to 100 per cent in controls to 

0 to 72 per cent in 250-ppm fiber; respiration rate from 336.6 mm3/g per 

hour in controls to 146.3 in 125-ppm fiber; breathing rate from 1.39 to 

1.92 respiratory movements per second in controls to 0.52 to 0.97 in 

250-ppm fiber; heart rate from 1.50 to 1.60 beats per second in controls 

to 0.67 to 1.33 in 250-ppm fiber; and instantaneous growth rate (g) from 

.0213 to .0345 in controls to .0061 to -0062 in 250-ppm fiber. Growth 

rate of rainbow trout juveniles in clean water after exposure to fiber 

during the alevin stage was significantly reduced only in the 250-ppmfiber group. 

due to the fiber and not to residues of a mercuric slimicide added to 

the fiber at the paper mill. " 

When alevins were held in wood-fiber 

Concurrent tests indicated that observed effects were 

59 
(96) Lantz, Richard L. 

1971. Influence of water temperature on fish survival, growth 

and behavior. 

symposium--Forest land uses and stream environment, p. 182-193. 

Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

In James Morris Led.], Proceedings of a 

"Water temperature can control the functions and activities of 

freshwater fishes since their body temperature is similar to the temperature of their environment. The removal of streamside vegetation during 

logging operations can increase water temperatures. Such temperature increases would be most significant on small streams, which are essential 

to the production of salmon and trout in the Pacific Northwest. A general 

technical review of the effects of temperature on fish survival, growth, 

and behavior is presented. Concepts regarding the thermal requirements of 

fishes are summarized. Buffer strips of vegetation along streams are suggested as an important land management tool. 

minimizing water temperature increases, buffer strips serve other purposes 

and provide for true multiple-use of the resources of our watersheds.'' 

In addition to eliminating or 

(97) Levno, Al, and Jack Rothacher 

1967. Increases in maximum stream temperatures after logging in 

old-growth Douglas-fir watersheds. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note 

PNW-65, 12 p. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, 

Oreg . It. a .In this study, mean monthly temperature increases of 7O to 

12O Fa persisted from April through August, following direct exposure of 

the stream channel by scouring during the 1964 flood... 

"Under the pattern of patch clearcuts commonly used in the 

Douglas-fir region, little or no increase in maximum stream temperatures 

would be expected unless a large proportion of the streambed was directly 

exposed to solar radiation. 

provides some shade to the stream will apparently help prevent excessive 

increases in maximum water temperatures." 

Protection of any streamside vegetation which 

(98) Levno, Al, and Jack Rothacher 

1969. Increases in maximum stream temperatures after slash 

burning in a small experimental watershed. USDA For. Serv. 

Res. Note PW-110, 7 p. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., 

Portland, Oreg rn 

"The first year after slash was burned on a 237-acre clearcut 

A maximum 

watershed in the Cascade Range of Oregon, average maximum water temperatures 

increased 13O, 14O, and 12O F. during June, July, and August. 

stream temperature of 75O Fa persisted for 3 hours on a day in July." 

60 
(99) Likens, Gene E., F. Herbert Bormann, Noye M. Johnson, and others 

1970. Effects of forest cutting and herbicide treatment on 

nutrient budgets in the Hubbard Brook watershed-ecosystem. 

Ecol. Monogr. 40(1):23-47. 

" All vegetation on Watershed 2 of the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest was cut during November and December of 1968, and vegetation regrowth was inhibited for two years by periodic application of 

herbicides. 

and 27 crn or 28% the second year above the values expected if the watershed were not deforested. 

Annual stream-flow was increased 33 cm or 39% the first year 

"Large increases in streamwater concentrations were observed 

for all major ions, except NH4+, SO4= and HC03-, approximately five months 

after the deforestation. 

the undisturbed condition the first year and 56-fold higher the second.... 

Sulfate was the only major ion in stream water that decreased in concentration after deforestation.., . Average streamwater concentrations increased 

by 417% for Ca++, 408% for Mg++, 1558% for K+ and 177% for Nat during the 

two years subsequent to deforestation. 

2 in kg/ha-yr were about 142 for NO3-N, 90 for Ca++, 36 for K+, 32 for 

SiOySi, 24 for Al+t+, 18 for Mg+++, 17 for Na+, 4 for C1-, and 0 for 

Sob-S during 1967-68; whereas for an adjacent , undisturbed watershed (W6) 

net losses were 9.2 for Ca++, 1.6 for K+, 17 for Si02-Si, 3.1 for Al+++, 

2.6 for Pig++, 7.0 for Na+, 0.1 for C1-, and 3.3 for SO4-S. 

nitrate- nitrogen in precipitation normally exceeds the output in drainage 

water in the undisturbed ecosystems, and ammonium-nitrogen likewise accumulates in both the undisturbed and deforested ecosystems, Total gross 

export of dissolved solids, exclusive of organic matter, was about 75 

metric tons/km2 in 1966-67, and 97 metric tons/km2 in 1967-68, or about 

6 to 8 times greater than would be expected for an undisturbed watershed. 

Nitrate concentrations were 41-fold higher than 

Budgetary net losses from Watershed 

Input of 

'The greatly increased export of dissolved nutrients from the 

deforested ecosystem was due to an alteration of the nitrogen cycle within 

the ecosystem. 

"The drainage streams tributary to Hubbard Brook are normally 

acid, and as a result of deforestation the hydrogen ion content increased 

by Sfold (from pH 5.1 to 4.3). 

"Streamwater temperatures after deforestation were higher than 

the undisturbed condition during both summer and winter, Also in contrast 

to the relatively constant temperature in the undisturbed streams, streamwater temperature after deforestation fluctuated 3-4OC during the day in 

summer. 

"Electrical conductivity increased about 6-fold in the stream 

water after deforestation and was much more variable. 

61 
"Increased streamwater turbidity as a result of the deforestation was negligible, however the particulate matter output was increased 

about 4-fold. 

materials, after deforestation preliminary estimates indicate that the 

proportion of inorganic materials increased to 76% of the total particulates. '' 

Whereas the particulate m-tter is. normally 50% inorganic 

(100) McCall, Merley 

1970. The effects of aerial forest fertilization on water quality 

for two streams in the Capitol forest. Wash. State Dep. Ecol., 

14 p. Olympia. 

The studies of two streams in the fall and winter of 1969/1970 

indicated that aerial application of a urea fertilizer to the forested 

areas in the watersheds resulted in a rapid increase in urea concentration 

in the water. This was likely due to the direct application to feeder 

streams. 

ground levels within one month. 

parently in the form of nitrate only. 

quality was to significantly change the nitrogen levels, although the 

change was of short duration. '' 

Further sampling shows the urea concentration to fall to backAfter a mnth the nitrogen lost is apThe overall effect on the water 

(101) McNeil, William J. 

1962. Variations in the dissolved oxygen content of intragravel 

water in four spawning streams in southeastern Alaska. 

Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 402, 15 p. 

U.S. 

"Inexpensive equipment for sampling intragravel water for dissolved oxygen is described. 

standpipes driven into the streambed. 

tative of points sampled were obtained from 30-ml. samples of water taken 

about 24 hours after standpipes were placed. 

Water samples were withdrawn from plastic 

Dissolved oxygen values represen- 

"Fourfold seasonal and yearly changes in dissolved oxygen 

levels were observed. 

were greatest when discharge was low and temperature was high. 

Spatial differences in dissolved oxygen levels 

"For routine measurement of dissolved oxygen level random 

sampling was tried and found to be satisfactory." 

(102) Meehan, William R. 

1968. Relationship of shade cover to stream temperature in 

southeast Alaska. In Richard T. Myren Eed.1, Logging and 

salmon, p. 115-131. Proc. Forum Am. Inst. Fish. Res. Biol., 

Alaska Dist., Juneau, Alaska. 

"Temperature measurements in several streams in upper southeastern Alaska indicate that shade-producing streamside cover is important in maintaining cool water. Stream temperatures increase rapidly in 

62 
unshaded reaches on clear, warm days and likewise cool quite quickly when 

the water passes through shaded reaches. 

ture increases as the water flows downstream, but to a much lesser extent 

than on clear days in open areas. Average temperature differences per 

20 yards of stream channel exposed to solar radiation on warm, clear days 

were significantly different between streams in the Juneau-Haines area 

and in the Petersburg-Wrangell area. 

reaches and on overcast days." 

On overcast days, the temperaSuch was not the case in shaded 

(103) Meehan, William R. 

1970. Some effects of shade cover on stream temperature in 

southeast Alaska. USDA For. Sew. Res. Note PNW-113, 9 p. 

Pac. Northwest For. f Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

"Water temperatures were recorded in several southeast Alaska 

streams with a portable thermometer accurate to O.0lo C. 

were made at 20-yard intervals in shaded and unshaded reaches and on 

cloudy and clear days. 

side cover on stream temperatures can be evaluated by this technique, 

and ( 2) shade-producing streamside cover is important in maintaining 

cool water . 

Measurements 

Results indicate that (1) the effects of stream- 

(104) Morris, Logan A. 

1968. Stream contamination by herbicides after fall rains on 

forest land. West. SOC. Weed Sci. Res. Prog. Rep., p. 33-34. 

Based on previous studies and on a study of two Oregon streams, 

it was concluded that fall rains will not result in appreciable contamination of streams flowing through forest areas treated with phenoxy or 

amitrole herbicides. Unless heavy application is made directly into the 

stream, the major contribution of herbicides is overland movement of water 

and soil. 

(105) Morris, Logan A., and Duane G. Moore 

The entry and fate of forest chemicals in streams. In 

James Morris [ed.], Proceedings of a spposium--Forest land 

uses and stream environment, p. 138-158. Oreg. State Univ., 

Corvallis . 

1971. 

"Initial distribution of aerially applied forest chemicals, 

mechanisms of their entry into, and their fate in the aquatic environment are considered. 

established that most forest chemicals offer minimum potential for pollution of the aquatic environment when they are used properly." 

Research findings and long history of use have 

63 
(106) Pacific Northwest Pollution Control Council 

1971. Log storage and rafting in public waters. Task Force Rep. 

56 p. 

"Available research findings show that log debris , barks and 

wood leachates resulting from log handling in public waters can adversely 

affect water quality. The range of effects varies from mild to gross depending upon the specific characteristics of both the involved water body 

and log handling practices. In most instances where logs depreciate water 

quality, there are a number of practicable changes that can be made to i mprove conditions. 

"This report sets forth a number of recommendations for implementing improved log handling practices that will benefit water quality: 

"1. Log storage and handling should be restricted in or elim - 

inated from public waters where water quality standards cannot be met at 

all times or where these activities are a hindrance to other beneficial 

water uses such as small craft navigation. 

"2. 

be prohibited since this is the major cause and point source of loose 

bark and other log debris. 

The free-fall, violent dumping of logs into water should 

"3. Easy let-down devices should be employed for placing logs 

in the water, thereby reducing bark separation and the generation of other 

wood debris. 

"4. Positive bark and wood debris controls, collection, and 

disposal methods should be employed at log dumps, raft building areas, 

and millside handling zones. This would be required for both floating 

and sinking particles. 

"5. Log dumps should not be located in rapidly flowing waters 

or other water zones where positive bark and debris controls cannot be 

made effective. 

"6. Accumulations of bark and other debris on the land and 

docks around dump sites should be kept out of the water. 

"7. Whenever possible, logs should not be dumped, stored, or 

rafted where grounding will occur. 

"8. Where water depths will permit the floating of bundled 

logs, they should be secured in bundles on land before being placed in 

the water. 

millside . Bundles should not be broken again except on land or at 

"9. The inventory of logs in public waters for any purpose 

should be kept to the lowest possible number for the shortest possible 

time. 

64 
"10. Industry should provide and periodically update an accurate quantification of its use of public waters for log handling act ivities . " 

(107) Packer, Paul E. 

1967. Forest treatment effects on water quality, In William 

E. Sopper and Howard W. Lull [eds.], Forest hydrology, 

p. 687-699. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 

A review of information to determine the effects of forest 

treatments associated with timber harvesting has shown that: 

turbed forests produce small amounts of sediment; (2) timber cutting 

does not adversely affect water quality except for increases in streamflow peaks, streamflow temperatures, and streambank erosion caused by 

increased discharge; (3) skidding of logs and logging can increase sedimentation considerably; and (4) roads that are inadequately drained or 

located too close to streams are the main cause of deterioration of 

water quality in forests. 

(1) undis- 

(108) Packer, Paul E . , and Harold F. Haupt 

1966. The influence of roads on water quality characteristics. 

SOC. Am. For. Proc. 1965:112-115. 

This paper discusses the impact of timber harvest roads and 

(2) What are the harmful effects 

attempts to answer three questions: 

forest roads and logging operations? 

on stream biology? 

and drainage that will assure better water quality? 

(1) How much sediment comes from 

And, (3) What are some criteria for road location 

(109) Schaumburg, Frank D. 

1970. Influence of log handling practices on water quality. 

In Water studies in Oregon, p. 1-9. 

Res. Inst., beg. State Univ. Corvallis. 

Semin. Water Resour. 

The influence of log handling practices on water quality was 

evaluated in a study initiated in 1968. 

that logging and log handling practices do contribute measurably to the 

pollution of natural waters. 

evaluated at each location to determine their real significance. 

The results to date indicate 

The effects of logging practices must be 

(110) Schaumburg, Frank D. 

1970. The influence of log rafting on water quality. Annu. 

Rep. Res. Proj. W-01320-01, 68 p. beg. State Univ., 

Corvallis . Research activities on the influence of log rafting on water 

quality are summarized. The major portion of the report describes various projects including methods and apparatus used, experimental results, 

65 
and a discussion of the pertinent findings. 

are also included: 

in log storage waters, (2) The quantity and distribution of bark debris 

resulting from water storage of logs, (3) Pollution associated with the 

water storage of logs - Part I: 

Four technical publications 

(1) Pollutants leached from selected species of wood 

Bark debris; Part 11: Leachates. 

(111) Sears, Howard S., and William R. Meehan 

1969. Short-term effects of 2,4-D on aquatic organisms in the 

Nakwasina River watershed, southeastern Alaska. Pestic. Monit. 

J . 5( 2) : 213-217 

Preliminary results and analysis of data on the effects of 

aerial spraying of 2,4-D on aquatic organisms are presented. Results 

showed that 2,4-D caused no apparent significant immediate mortality on 

aquatic organisms. 

(112) Semizi, J. A,, D. W. Martens, and R. W. Gordon 

1970. Effects of decaying bark on incubating salmon eggs. Int. 

Pac. Salmon Fish. Corn., Prop. Rep. 24, 28 p. 

"The effect of bark contamination on salmon spawning grounds 

was assessed in laboratory tests on sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) 

eggs and alevins. Bioassays showed that chemical toxicity of materials 

leached from bark of Douglas fir, Lodgepole pine, Englemann spruce and 

Alpine fir was not a factor influencing survival under the conditions 

tested. 

during initial stages of decay, causing severe mortalities among sockeye 

eggs and alevins owing to suffocation. 

boxes, contamination of gravel with bark caused significant reductions 

in survival from egg to fry at bark concentrations of 10% by'volume, 

but 1% bark concentrations did not influence survival. 

attributed to blockage of intragravel water flow by bark particles. 

oxygen demand of decaying bark was found to be relatively constant with 

time during the 683-day study. 

bark indicated the amount of oxygen which would remain for egg incubation 

in natural redds at various temperatures and levels of bark contamination. 

Possible effects of various oxygen concentrations on size and emergence 

timing of fry were discussed and limiting amounts of bark recommended." 

However, abundant growths of SphaemtiZus occurred on bark 

In gravel-filled incubation 

Mortalities were 

The 

Calculations based on oxygen demand of 

(113) Swift, Lloyd W., Jr., and James B. Messer 

1971. Forest cuttings raise temperatures of small streams in 

the southern Appalachians. J. Soil E Water Conserv. 26(3): 

111-116 . "Stream temperatures were measured during six forest- cutting 

treatments on small (23- to 70-acre) watershed in the southern Appalachian Mountains. 

completely cut, maximum stream temperatures in summer increased from the 

normal 66O F to 73O or more. 

Where forest trees and all understory vegetation were 

Some extreme treatments raised temperatures 

66 
more than 12O above normal. Where streambank vegetation was uncut or had 

regrown, summer maximums remained unchanged or declined from temperatures 

measured under uncut mature hardwood forest. Increases in stream temperature were judged to degrade water quality and constitute thermal pollution because, after each clearcut, water temperatures exceeded optimum 

levels for trout habitat." 

(114) Tarrant, Robert F. 

1967. Pesticides in forest waters-symptom of a growing problem. 

SOC. Am. For. Proc. 1966:159-163. 

The water pollution problems associated with the application 

of forest chemicals are discussed. 

(115) Thut, Rudolph N., and Eugene P, Haydu 

1971. Effects of forest chemicals on aquatic life, In James 

Morris Led.), Proceedings of a symposium--Forest land uses 

and stream environment, p. 159-171. Oreg. State Univ., 

Corvallis . 

"Results of pesticide bioassays are not readily applicable 

to the conditions found after forest spray operations. They do have 

some value in determining the relative toxicities of the more widely 

used pesticides. 

bons, are more toxic than most herbicides to aquatic life. 

been instances where insecticides applied to forests, particularly DDT, 

were directly toxic to stream life; such has not been demonstrated with 

herbicides applied to forests. 

that the concentrations of urea fertilizer and its breakdown are well 

below toxic thresholds for aquatic life. 

eutrophication of some lakes remains a possibility." 

The insecticides, particularly chlorinated hydrocarThere have 

Field studies conducted to date indicate 

An increase in the rate of 

(116) Titcomb, John W. 

1926. Forests in relation to fresh water fishes. Trans. Am. 

Fish. SOC. 56:122-129. 

Titcomb states that where streamside vegetation is elimi - 

nated, water temperatures rise and that deforestation may cause silt to 

be carried into streams. 

(117) USDA Forest Service 

Cn.d.3 Guides for protecting water quality. Pac. Northwest Reg. 

27 p. Portland, Oreg. 

The purpose of this publication is "(1) to familiarize the 

user with some of the factors and influences that should be considered 

in making an on-the-ground decision on a case-by-case basis and (2) to 

provide a means for predicting temperature changes." 

67 
ALTERATION OF STREAMFLOW 

68 
(118) Anderson, Henry W, , and C. H, Gleason 

1960. Effects of logging and brush removal on snow water runoff. 

Hannoversch-Miinden, Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. 51:478-489. 

The effects of snow accumulation, snowmelt, summer soil moisture losses, interception, and estimated water yields are documented. 

Snow melt was affected by logging slash disposal. The area in which 

the slash was piled and burned had 3-1/2 inches more runoff water in the 

late spring than did the area of untreated slash. Duration and quantity 

of water yield from snow zone runoff may be influenced by methods of 

logging and brush removal. 

(119) Anderson, Henry W., and Robert L, Hobba 

1959. Forests and floods in the Northwestern United States. 

Hannoversch-Miinden, Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. 48:30-39. 

A regression model was used to isolate meteorologic, topographic, and geologic causes of floods; covariance analysis was used 

to determine forest effects, variation in forest effects with respect 

to watershed size, storm size, and geology. 

cutting and forest fires have increased floods from watersheds in the 

Northwestern United States. 

Results showed that clear- 

(120) Berndt, H. W. 

1971. Early effects of forest fire on streamflow characteristics. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-148, 9 p. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

"A comparison of streamflow records from three small mountain 

streams in north- central Washington before, during, and after a severe 

forest fire showed three immediate effects of destructive burning. These 

were : 

"Flow rate was greatly reduced while the fire was actively 

burning. 

"Destruction of vegetation in the riparian zone reduced d iurnal oscillation of flow rates. 

"Flow rates quickly increased to points above protracted 

normal depletion rates but to varying degrees. 

"No drastic immediate change in stream temperatures was 

noted . '' 

(121) Berndt, H. W., and G. W, Swank 

1970. Forest land use and streamflow in central Oregon. USDA 

For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-93, 15 p. Pac. Northwest For. 

& Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

69 
"In this case study, the hydrologic performance of a 295-squaremile drainage in central Oregon was compared with the land use history for 

the period 1921-65. Two distinct changes in streamflow regimen were identified. 

2.21 inches in average annual yield. The timing of this increase is 

approximately coincident with the onset of timber harvesting activity in 

the basin. 

water yield beginning about 1958. This change could possibly be related 

to the full stocking of cutover lands by dense, second-growth stands and a 

general reduction of timber harvest activity. 

The first, beginning about water year 1942, was an increase of 

The second change was a decrease of 1.18 inches in average 

"Though more sensitive, refined tests of the influence of 

timber harvest on water yield are needed for stands east of the Cascade 

Range, the analyses in this report show that accepted management practices for vegetative types found on Ochoco Creek have favored water 

yields . '' 

(122) Dunford, Earl G. 

1960. Logging methods in relation to streamflow and erosion. 

5th World For, Congr. Proc. Vol. 3, Sec. VII, p. 1703-1708. 

Seattle, Wash, 

Various steps in logging operations and their effects on 

streams and soil are discussed, 

a stream and parallel logging roads is recommended. 

An "undisturbed" strip of land between 

(123) Ferrell, W. K. 

1960. The control of stream flow and water quality through 

timber harvesting. 

of the Pacific Northwest. 7th Symp. Water Pollut. Res. Proc., 

p. 45-47. U.S. Public Health Serv., Reg. IX, Portland, Oreg. 

In E, F. Eldridge [ed.], Water problems 

The effects of timber harvesting on stream flow and water 

quality are discussed. The author also discusses the idea that forest 

harvesting practices of various kinds can be compatible with watershed 

management if these practices are carefully planned and controlled. 

(124) Gangmark, Harold A., and Richard G. Bakkala 

1958. Plastic standpipe for sampling streambed environment of 

salmon spawn. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 

261, 21 p. 

"Knowledge of prevailing conditions of streams for spawning 

salmon can lead to improved management of these streams and improved production of salmon. All-important to the salmon is the condition of the 

streambed, based both as the characteristics of seepage rate and on the 

availability of oxygen at spawn depth. 

most feasible method for procuring this information is by using the 

standpipe system. 

standpipe and its method of operation, discusses the mechanics of seepage, 

and compares the data obtained with data on survival of king salmon spawn." 

At Hill Creek, California, the 

This paper describes the design of the Hill Creek 

70 
(125) Harper, Warren Charles 

1969, Changes in storm hydrographs due to clearcut logging of 

coastal watersheds, 116 p. M,S, thesis, Oreg, State Univ,, 

Corvallis. 

"The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of 

clearcut logging on stormflow by analysis of characteristic parameters 

of individual storm hydrographs. 

of-rise, peak discharge, volume and time-to-peak. The hydrologic data 

were derived from experimental watersheds of the Alsea Study located in 

the Oregon Coast Range . 

Parameters considered included height- 

"Three clearcut watersheds were selected for study; Deer 

Creek IV (39 acres) was clearcut, and Needle Branch (1?5 acres) was 

clearcut and burned. 

acres), and untreated control, before and after treatment. 

Both watersheds were compared to Flynn Creek (502 

"Change in hydrologic parameters was determined from differences between pre- and post-logging linear regressions. Statistical 

techniques were utilized to test for difference in slope or vertical 

position. 

"Significant increases were found in peak discharge from 

both Needle Branch and Deer Creek IV following clearcut logging. 

increases were noted during the fall period than during the winter 

period. Volume parameters of quick flow, delayed flow, and total flow 

were increased for Needle Branch. Volume of flow was not shown to increase from Deer Creek IV, This may have been due to a lack of usable 

storm events for analysis from this watershed. 

altered in Needle Branch but was decreased for low flows and increased 

for high flows on Deer Creek IV, The height-of-rise parameter did not 

prove to be of value for detecting change in this study. 

the burned watershed (Needle Branch) to the unburned watershed (Deer 

Creek IV) did not produce a noticeable difference in any of the parameters . 

Larger 

Time-to-peak was not 

Comparison of 

"The observed changes in stormflow were related to clearcut 

logging and the effect of vegetative removal on watershed response." 

(126) Hibbert, Alden R. 

1967. Forest treatment effects on water yield. In William E. 

Sopper and Howard W. Lull [eds.], Forest hydrology, p. 527-543. 

Oxford: Pergamon Press, 

"Results are reported for thirty- nine studies 0x1 the effects 

of altering forest cover on water yield. 

reduction increases water yield, and that reforestation decreases water 

yield, 

4.5 mm/year for each percent reduction in forest cover, but most treatments produce less than half this amount. 

The studies reveal that forest 

A practical upper limit of yield increase appears to be about 

There is strong evidence that 

71 
in well-watered regions, streamflow response is proportional to reduction in forest cover. 

response in streamflow may be almost immediate or considerably delayed, 

depending upon climate, soils, topography, and other factors." 

Streamflow response to treatment is variable; 

(127) Hoover, Marvin D . 1952. Water and timber management. J. Soil & Water Conserv. 

7(2):75-78. 

Research on the relationship between forest cover and streamflow reveals that streamflow is significantly increased by removing trees 

growing along streams . 

(128) IIoyt, W. G., and H. C. Troxell 

1932. Forests and streamflow. Am. SOC. Civ. Eng. Proc. 

56:1039-1066. 

Two adjacent tracts in the Wagon Wheel Gap area, Colorado, 

were studied for eight years in the forested state and seven years following the deforestation of one tract. Some of the results are: 

"1. The total runoff increased an average of 15% in the 

deforested area. 

"2. About 52% of this increase occurred in nonflood periods. 

"3. The maximum daily discharges increased an average of 

48% in the deforested tract. 

"4. The summer runoff showed an average annual increase of 

12% in the deforested area. The average minimum flow increased 12%. 

"5. Deforestation produced no appreciable change in minimum 

winter flows 

"6. Erosion increased about eightfold in the deforested 

area, although always remained slight. 

"7. The mean annual temperature of the deforested area 

increased 1.3O F." 

(129) Hsieh, Frederic Shu-Kong 

1970. Storm runoff response from roadbuilding and logging on 

small watersheds in the Oregon Coast Range. 149 p. M.S. 

thesis, Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

"The effects of roadbuilding, logging and burning upon stream 

runoff responses to individual storms are evaluated for the Alsea 

experimental watersheds, located in the Oregon Coast Range. The parameters analyzed are peak discharge, induced peak discharge, time-to-peak, 

and storm-runoff volume. The volume parameter is further sub-divided 

into total, quick, delayed, rising limb and falling limb flows. The 

control-watershed approach and linear regression method are utilized in 

this study. 

72 
"Calibration of the main stations at Flynn Creek (502 acres) 

and Deer Creek (750 acres) started in 1958. That for subwatershed DC I1 

(138 acres) and DC I11 (100 acres) started in 1962. Watershed treatments 

included differing amounts of roadbuilding in the summer of 1965 and logging in 1966. 

building and to logging, respectively, were: 

3.7% and 26% of area in roads and logging, respectively, DC 11, 3.1% and 

20%, and DC 111, 12.1% and 72%. One small portion on the main watershed 

also received burning treatment in 1967. 

its natural state as a control. Data were analyzed through 1968. 

The percentages of each watershed area subject to roadDeer Creek main station, 

Flynn Creek was preserved in 

"The storm-runoff responses of the treated watershed were 

found to relate to the type of treatment applied and percent of area 

treated. 

duced peak discharges on DC 111, which was subjected to the most intensive treatment. 

on runoff than did roadbuilding, since more vegetation was removed. 

though highly significant augmentations in peak and ,induced peak discharges were detected after logging on subwatershed 111, only minor 

changes were observed at the main Deer Creek outlet. 

Roadbuilding resulted in significant increases in peak and inLogging generally demonstrated a more pronounced effect 

A l- 

"The time-to-peak parameter was generally not affected by the 

land manipulations in this study. 

%eparation of the annual data into the assumed recharging 

and recharged periods, based on antecedent soil moisture conditions, was 

selected for seasonal comparison over the use of an arbitrary cutoff 

date. 

"Changes in flow volume parameters due to roadbuilding were 

insignificant. 

main station was moderately increased after logging. 

crease in delayed flow and a decrease in quick flow occurred at the 

main station, these are considered to be compensating errors. 

Rising limb flow on DC I11 as well as at the Deer Creek 

Although an in- 

"Effects on design floods after treatments were indicated by 

the sharp increases in peak discharges, based upon flood frequency and 

statistical analyses." 

(130) Jeffrey, W. W. 

1968. Forest harvesting and water management. For. Chron. 

44(6):5-12. 

"Forest harvesting affects water management. Total water 

yield, flow regime and water quality are affected. 

Canada, these effects -- whether for good or ill -- are accidental and 

are not taken into consideration in management. This is at least partly 

due to resource management people being resource oriented (technocentric) 

rather than society oriented (democentric) in their attitudes. Forest 

harvesting-water management interactions represent a technical problem 

of ultimate social importance. To cope with this problem requires coordination of resource uses, improved communication and administrative 

Usually, in Western 

73 
organization, more democentricity, expanded research into socio-economic 

factors, more attention to long-term environmental goals, examination of 

land tenure systems, more land use planning, re- orientation of resource 

management education, a broadening of social conceptual awareness, and 

increased professional staffing." 

(131) Kovner, Jacob L. 

1957. Evapotranspiration and water yields following forest 

cutting and natural regrowth. SOC. Am. For. Proc. 1956: 

106-110 

"The experiment has shown that in the high-rainfall belt 

of the southern Appalachians cutting down all vegetation on a wellforested watershed produced very large increases in streamflow. These 

increases accompanying regrowth of the forest stand following clearcutting were remarkably well defined and showed dynamic relationship 

between vegetation and streamflow, which could be expressed as a linear 

function of the logarithm of the time variable. Practically all the 

increase in streamflow came from the base flow or groundwater. 

"The results obtained using paired watersheds were verified 

by use of the water-balance equation for the treated watershed. The 

increase in streamflow each year was due to a corresponding real decrease in the amount of evapotranspiration. Annual losses to the atmosphere are quite constant for the Coweeta watersheds because of the 

high rainfall. This accounts for the fact that the increases in streamflow were statistically independent of the annual precipitation for the 

range experienced--from 56 to 89 inches. 

connection that the rainfall was not low for a series of years. 

It should be noted in this 

"Heavy sprout and herbaceous growth sprang up and re-covered 

the area with surprising speed. Tests show that in the 13th year total 

annual foliage production, by oven-dry weight was not significantly different from that of the control watershed. At the end of the 12th year 

the basal area per acre was 51.6 square feet, or approximately 50 percent of the projected normal stand. 

stand was replaced by an even-aged stand with essentially a 6-inch diameter limit. '' 

The original relatively all- aged 

(132) McGuinness, J. Le, and L. L. Harrold 

Water Resour. Res. 7(4):845-852. 

1971. Reforestation influences on small watershed streamflow. 

"Analysis of flow duration curves showed that reforestation 

of a 44-acre watershed near Coshocton, Ohio, reduced flow in the low 

flow tail of the curve but did not significantly reduce flows above 

0.25 inch per day. 

in the maximum annual flow volumes for all periods of flow durations 

of 1 day or longer. 

delayed .I1 

Other analyses showed that reductions also occurred 

The onset of dormant season flow was significantly 

74 
(133) Martin, Iury L., and E. Roy Tinney 

1962, Logging in west coast watershed shows no effect on area's 

water yield. Timberman 63(5):46-48. 

The data from the study of the Nasselle River watershed show 

that logging has had a negligible influence on the area's water yield 

and base flow, 

(134) Pollard, R, A. 

1955. Measuring seepage through salmon spawning gravel. J. 

Fish. Res. Board Can. 12(5):706-741. 

"The rate of oxygen supply to salmon eggs incubating in a 

streambed depends on the oxygen concentration in the ground water 

Lintragravel water] and the rate of seepage through the redd. 

devised a simple field method of both sampling the ground water for the 

determination of its dissolved oxygen content and measuring the seepage 

rate, using one tool, a standpipe. The theory of seepage is outlined 

to show the factors governing the velocity of flow through a redd. Alternative ways of measuring this velocity were examined; the best one 

is a modification of Wickett's procedure using a similar standpipe. A 

new field procedure for measuring the oxygen concentration and ground 

water seepage rate in a streambed is recommended." 

Wickett... 

(135) Reinhart, K. G., and A. R. Eschner 

1962, Effect on streamflow of four different forest practices 

in the Allegheny Mountains. J. Geophys. Res. 67(6):2433-2445. 

"After a 6-year calibration, four watersheds in the Fernow 

experimental forest in West Virginia were logged during 1957-,1958. 

tices ranged from a commercial clearcutting with "logger's choice'' skid 

roads to a light selection cutting with planned skid roads on moderate 

grades. For the most part, the treatments did not seriously disturb the 

forest floor. Annual flow increased up to 5 area-inches on the clearcut 

watershed the year after treatment. Increases fell into a logical pattern with volume cut, Most of the increase came in the growing season; 

from May to October 1959, increases were 3.0, 1.8, 1.4, and 0.3 areainches for per-acre cuts of 8.5, 4.2, 3.7, and 1.7 thousand board feet, 

respectively. Low flows were augmented, especially for the two heavily 

cut watersheds. Effect on high flows was variable; on the clearcut watershed some storm-period flows in the growing season were more than doubled, 

whereas some snow-melt flows were less than expected. Care in the logging 

operation was clearly reflected in water quality; maximum turbidities 

ranged from 56,000 ppm on the watershed having unplanned skid roads and no 

provision for drainage to 25 ppm on the watershed having carefully planned 

skid roads. 

PracEffects of treatment are diminishing with passage of time. " 

75 
(136) Rothacher , Jack 

1965. Streamflow from small watersheds on the western slope 

of the Cascade Range of Oregon. Water Resour. Res. 

1( 1) : 125-134 . 

"Streamflow from small watersheds on the western slopes of 

the Oregon Cascade Range is strongly influenced by a maritime climate 

(wet winters and dry summers). Although annual precipitation is high 

(94 inches in the study area), overland flow is almost unknown. Peak 

flows result largely from subsurface flow and under conditions in 

which both retention and detention reservoirs are almost filled during 

extended periods of low-intensity rainfall. 

vegetation appears to exert a minimum influence on high streamflow. 

Lowest streamflow occurs from late August to mid-November and may follow a 60- to 100-day period with little or no rain. 

tation of this part of the Douglas-fir region appears to exert its 

major influence at such times. 

of a 250-acre watershed has caused a 12-28% increase in minimum streamflow. On a 237-acre watershed on which 80% of the trees were cut, the 

increase in low flow was 85%." 

Under these conditions, 

The dense vegeRemoval of vegetation from only 30% 

( 137 ) Rothacher , Jack 

1970. Increases in water yield following clear- cut logging in 

the Pacific Northwest. Water Resour. Res. 6(2):653-658. 

"Increases in water yield following timber harvest roughly 

conform to the proportion of the area cleared. In high precipitation 

areas of the Oregon Cascades, clear- cut logging can increase annual 

water yield 18 inches. 

the October to March season." 

Approximately 80% of the increase occurs during 

(138) Rothacher, Jack 

1971. Regimes of streamflow and their modification by logging. 

In James Morris Led.], Proceedings of a Symposium--Forest 

land uses and stream environment, p. 40-54. Oreg. State 

Univ., Corvallis. 

"Streamflow in the Pacific Northwest is most strongly influenced by the precipitation pattern, somewhat less by evapotranspiration 

losses. Evaporation and transpiration are strongly influenced by logging. Logging and burning old-growth Douglas-fir forests on an experimental watershed increased annual yields of streamwater by 18 inches or 

more. Most of the increase occurred in fall and winter months. We 

can't positively attribute any great increase in major 'wet mantle' flood 

flows to logging in west slope forests. 

vegetation increases lowest summer streamflow. 

short lived as vegetation rapidly invades the cutover areas." 

Logging which removes transpiring 

Such increases may be 

76 
(139) Rowe, P, B. 

1963. Streamflow increases after removing woodland-riparian 

vegetation from a southern California watershed. J. For. 

61( 5) : 365-370 . "A test of applied watershed management on the San Dimas Experimental Forest in southern California'has shown that streamflow yields can 

be appreciably increased. 

rooted woodland-riparian vegetation from selected canyon bottom reaches 

of Monroe Canyon, a typical southern California mountain watershed. 

increases in flow were especially important because they occurred primarily in summer and in the initial period of soil wetting during succeeding rainy seasons, when streamflow was lowest and water most needed. 

During the one rainy season of heavy precipitation and continuously wet 

soils the removal of the woodland-riparian vegetation had no appreciable 

effect on streamflow, peak discharge, or erosion rates. However, during 

wetting periods and during the one rainy season of light precipitation, 

streamflow yields, particularly during storms, were considerably increased, Streamflow was inadequate to produce sediment movement in either 

the treated or control watersheds during these wetting periods. 

of the tree-brush cover shading the stream course resulted in an increase 

in the algae content of the late spring and summer flows but had no other 

detectable effect on water quality. These first results show that, while 

streamflow can be increased by removal of the canyon bottom vegetation, 

this kind of treatment, to be most successful, should be limited to carefully selected areas with conditions of climate, vegetation, soil, and 

water capable of yielding the desired increases. That is, to areas in 

which (1) the water supply is adequate to exceed evapo-transpiration 

losses after treatment, (2) the water table or zone of saturation is 

within reach of the heavy water using woodland-riparian vegetation, and 

(3) the canyon bottom soils overlaying the water table are of' sufficient 

extent and depth to permit reduction in evapo-transpiration if the deeprooted vegetation is eliminated . '' 

This was accomplished by clearing the deepThe 

Removal 

(140) Sartz, Richard S. 

1951, An objective look at the vegetation-stream flow relation - 

ship . J , For . 49( 12) : 871-875 . 

The important factors involved in the precipitation-vegetationsoils streamflow relationships are discussed. 

(141) Terhune, L. D. B, 

1958. The MARK VI groundwater standpipe for measuring seepage 

through salmon spawning gravel. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 

15(5):1027-1063, 

Procedures of the MARK VI standpipe method for measuring gravel 

permeabilities and velocities are described. This method incorporates new 

procedures to the Pollard (134) method of measuring permeabilities and increases the range of permeability measurements from 100 to 100,000 cm/hr 

and velocity measurements from 5 to 200 cm/hr with less than 10 percent 

error. Complete details of design, construction, and procedure for use 

in salmon spawning gravels are given. 

77 
(142) Vaux, Walter G. 

1962. Interchange of stream and intragravel water in a salmon 

spawning riffle. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep., 

Fish. 405, 11 p. 

"Dissolved oxygen is supplied to intragravel water in a salmon 

spawning riffle through (1) interchange of water from the stream into 

streambed gravel, and (2) ground-water flow. 

control interchange are gradient in the stream profile, permeability of 

the gravel bed, and dimensions of the bed. 

The primary variables that 

"The delivery of dissolved oxygen to intragravel water and the 

way in which rate of delivery is affected by stream profile, permeability, 

and dimensions of the bed are explained. 

"The dissolution of oxygen through the air-water interface in 

turbulent stream water is rapid. 

oxygen level in surface water of unpolluted streams." 

This is shown by the near-saturation 

(143) Zach, L. W. 

1950. Effect of rainfall on stream flow in southeast Alaska. 

USDA For. Serv. Tech Note 4, 3 p. Alaska For. Res. Cent., 

Juneau, Alaska . 

The study has shown that southeastern Alaska salmon streams 

are characterized by marked fluctuations in flow and recurring fall 

floods. In the fall rainy season, violent floods move log jams and 

gravel bars and produce minor changes in the stream channels. 

78 
DESCRIPTIONS OF EFFECTS OF LOGGING STUDIES 

79 
(144) Bureau of Commercial Fisheries 

1963. Review of research on effects of logging on pink salmon 

streams in Alaska. Fish 4 Wildl. Serv., 18 p. U.S. Dep. 

Inter. Bur. Comm. Fish. Biol. Lab., Auke Bay, Alaska. 

The long-term study of the effects of logging on Alaskan 

pink salmon spawning streams is reviewed. The research objectives, 

methods of research, and achievements of the study and the specific 

problems which should be investigated in future studies are covered. 

(145) Calhoun, Alex 

1962. A long look at logging. Outdoor Calif., Nov. p. 7-10. 

Poor logging practices in California and some of the efforts 

The article states that there 

(1) log jams, which block migrating salmonids, 

to correct these problems are discussed. 

are two major problems: 

and (2) sedimentation, which smothers stream gravels, thus producing 

less food and fewer young fish by hatching fewer eggs and producing 

fewer places for small fish to hide. 

(146) Campbell, Homer J. 

1970. Fish, forests and water. Oreg. Game Comm. Bull., July, 

p. 3-6. 

The problems of resource managers and the results of improper 

logging are discussed. 

State of Oregon has conducted and some of the results. 

Briefly described are some of the studies the 

(147) Chapman, D. W. 

1962. Effects of logging upon fish resources of the west coast. 

J. For. 60(8):533-537. 

The author reviews the effects of logging on fish. It was 

found that after logging : 

"1) stream runoff was increased and as a result of heavy runoff gravel shifting occurred; 

"2) summer temperatures increased and winter temperatures decreased ; 

"3) chemical quality of water deteriorated; 

"4 sediment increased ; 

"5) stream energy source was disrupted; and 

"6) barriers to fish migration were left." 

A good bibliography is included. 

80 
(148) Cordone, Almo J. 

1956. Effects of logging on fish production. Calif. Fish G 

Game, Inland Fish. Adm. Rep. 56-7, 98 p. [Mimeogr.] 

"The material examined consisted of published and mimeographed 

literature, regulations and policies, and correspondence. No attempt was 

made to compile a complete bibliography. However, it is believed that 

the more important published and mimeographed literature was reviewed. 

The subject of pollution from sawdust and sulfite liquor wastes was not 

covered. 

stressed, Le., soil erosion, turbidity, sedimentation, fluctuating 

stream flows, etc. Material on direct effects of logging on fish life 

was rare, but papers concerning the foregoing factors were common. 

these factors are interrelated with fish production is universally accepted . 

The physical influences of logging on the environment were 

That 

"The report is divided into three parts: (1) review of literature, (2) review of regulations and policies, and (3) list of literature 

not examined. 

bibliography. 

The first part is presented in the form of an annotated 

Direct quotes are employed as annotations whenever feas- ible a 

of the 

(149) 

This eliminates some subjective interpretations. 

surveyed material is presented at the end of the report." 

A brief summary 

Fisheries Research Institute 

Univ. Wash., Seattle. 

1959. Logging and salmon. Fish. Res. Inst. Circ. 105, 12 p., 

A booklet to acquaint the reader with some of the techniques 

and results of studies by the Fisheries Research Institute at Hollis, 

southeast Alaska. 

(150) Hall, James D. 

1967. Alsea watershed study. Oreg. State Univ., Dep. Fish. 

& Wildl. Pam., 11 p. Corvallis. 

The pamphlet is a guide to the Alsea study area and an outline of the research underway to determine the effects of logging on 

aquatic resources. Areas of research include: (1) hydrologic studies; 

( 2 

ature; (4) chemical and bacteriological water quality; and (5) fishery 

studies. 

soil-vegetation survey ; ( 3 ) streamflow, sediment , and water temperThe pamphlet presents some initial results from the study. 

(151) Harris, A. S. 

1961. The physical effect of logging on salmon streams in 

southeast Alaska. [Abstract.] 11th Alaskan Sci. Conf. Proc. 

1960~143-144. 

The physical effects of logging on salmon streams are discussed. Results show that more basic research is needed on the physiological requirements of salmon eggs and alevins before man can evaluate 

the physical effects or changes of logging on salmon. 

81 
(152) Lantz, Richard L. 

1967. An ecological study of the effects of logging on salmonids. 47th Annu. Conf. West. Assoc. State Game Fish Corn. Proc. 

1967: 323-335. 

The Alsea watershed study and some of its findings concerning 

the effects of logging on fish populations are outlined. The objective 

of the study was to evaluate and compare the effects of two patterns of 

timber harvesting. The study included an examination of fish population, 

stream environment, intragravel environment on salmonid survival to emergence, streamflow, stream temperature, and suspended sediment. 

(153) Lantz, Richard L. 

1970. Effects of logging on aquatic resources. In H. J. Raper, 

H. J. Campbell, and W. C. Lightfoot reds.], Progress in game 

and sport fishery research ... 1963-1970, p. 13-16. Rep. Res. 

, Div. Corvallis: Oreg. State Univ. 

The work carried out by Oregon State University on the Alsea 

watershed in Oregon is summarized. 

aquatic environment due to logging were (1) an increase in stream temperature, (2) a decrease in dissolved oxygen levels in surface waters during 

summer when logging debris was present, (3) a decrease in intragravel dissolved oxygen levels and in the permeability of the intragravel environment when salmon embryos were present in the stream, (4) an increase in 

suspended sediments, and (5) a decrease in the cutthroat trout populations. 

Primary changes observed on the 

(154) Narver, David W. 

1971. Carnation Creek watershed study. Fish. Res. Board Can. 

Biol. Stn., 7 p. Nanaimo, B. C., Can. [Mimeogr.] 

"There is little scientific information about the impact of 

current laggimgand reforestation methods on the productive capacity of 

salmon and trout streams in British Columbia. Long-term watershed studies, 

including years before, during and after logging, are required. An unknown but presumably large portion of the coho salmon production in 

British Columbia is from small streams. The rate of deforestation (usually meaning clear- cutting and burning to the stream margin) is accelerating, and probably the small streams are most susceptible to damage. Small 

salmon nursery streams without lakes in the watershed to provide some flow 

control, are common along the British Columbia coast. Thus the study being 

implemented on Carnation Creek should have rather broad application on much 

of Vancouver Island and the coastal mainland. 

"The purpose of this document is to provide information to government, university and industry personnel about the Carnation Creek watershed study that is being conducted cooperatively by certain agencies of 

the new Federal Department of the Environment and MacMillan Bloedel Ltd. 

The possibility of participation by other organizations is emphasized." 

82 
(155) Phillips, Robert W. 

1963. Effect of logging on aquatic resources. Oreg. State Game 

Corn., Res. Div. Rep., p. 105-122. Portland. 

The study conducted in the Alsea watershed was primarily concerned with measuring the effect of logging on the production and yield 

of silver salmon and steelhead. 

determine (1) the effect of a grave1 environment on survival and (2) the 

effect of logging on the environment. This preliminary report covers 

the effect of the environment on survival and includes a discussion of 

(1) dissolved oxygen and apparent velocity versus emergence, ( 2) dissolved oxygen versus emergence, (3) gravel size versus emergence, (4) 

dissolved oxygen content of intragravel water, and (5) gravel permeability. 

The aim of the investigation was to 

(156) Phillips, Robert W., Homer J. Campbell, Wayne L. Hug, and Errol 

W. Claire 

1966. A study of the effects of logging on aquatic resources, 

1960-1966. Oreg. State Game Corn., Res. Div. Prog. Memo. 

Fish. 3, 28 p. Corvallis: Oreg. State Univ. 

The scope, methods, and techniques of a logging study are 

outlined; and some of the initial effects and specific problem areas 

encountered are presented. 

(157) Sheridan, William L., and William J. McNeil 

1960. Effects of logging on the productivity of pink salmon 

streams in Alaska. In Ted S. Y. Koo [ed.], Research in 

Fisheries, 1959. Coll. Fish. Contrib. 77:16-17. Univ. 

Wash., Seattle. 

The broad plan of the work carried out at Hollis, southeast 

Alaska, was to define normal patterns before logging so that the changes 

might be measured as logging progressed. 

year escapements of adult spawners, the abundance of downstream migrants, 

survival rates of eggs and alevins in gravel, distribution and intensity 

of spawning, and the quality of the environment. 

Changes studied were year-to83 
RELATED SALMONID INFORMATION 
(158) Au, David Wah Kwai 

1972. Population dynamics of coho salmon and its response to 

logging in three coastal streams. 258 p. Ph.D. thesis, 

Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

"This study examines the ecology and dynamics of coho salmon 

(Oncorhynchus kisuteh) in environments experimentally altered by logging . The objective was to evaluate processes that stabilize or regulate the 

populations . 

"Two small watersheds in Oregon's Coast Range were logged in 

1966, one clear- cut, the other patch-cut. 

was left uncut as a control. The influence of these treatments on the 

biology of the coho was assessed. 

tions of the six year classes 1963 to 1968. 

A third adjacent watershed 

Attention was concentrated on popula- 

"The natural variability of streamflow-related conditions 

influencing both the magnitude and pattern of coho recruitment each year 

was increased in the logged watersheds. Peak flow during storms increased; intragravel dissolved oxygen levels decreased in the stream 

draining the clear- cut watershed. 

ently within the range of variation that the coho naturally experience. 

Increased stream temperatures and mortalities, due to the logging effects, altered the post-recruitment life conditions of the coho in that 

stream but did not significantly affect the final smolt yield. 

These changes, however, were appar- 

. . . . . . 

"Adjustments in coho population size were largely accomplished 

by fall, resulting in stable and characteristic population levels in each 

stream. These adjustments 

are accomplished through high mortality during the months of the first 

spring and summer. This mortality is likely density dependent and re- lated to the territorial and agonistic behavior of the fish. 

A stable smolt yield was a further result. 

" Growth, biomass , and net production varied greatly during 

each year. Seasonal changes in growth rate resulted in seasonal variations in biomass that were in contrast to the stabilized trends of population number. The pattern of net production rate was also largely determined by the seasonal growth pattern, and like biomass, did not show 

a tendency to stabilize with time. 

streams for the period June 1 to April 15. 

It averaged 5 g/m2 among the three 

. . . . . 

"This study has shown that coho streams normally produce characteristic levels of smolt yield in spite of large natural variations in 

fry input and conditions for growth. 

tion for which this result holds may include short-term changes due to 

The range of environmental varia85 
logging, However a normal population response to such a severe altera 

tion as occurred on Needle Branch is very likely conditional upon a program that at least includes vigorous stream clearance, the restriction 

of additional mortality to early summer, when population adjustments are 

far from complete, and the encouragement of streamside revegetation. 

streamside buffer strip of trees is an effective way of protecting aquatic 

resources . l1 

A 

(159 ) Bakkala, Richard 

1964. Abernathy spawning channel proves effective for reproduction of chum salmon. Comm. Fish. Rev. 26(12):20-21. 

'lWith one exception, the environment created in the Abernathy 

channel has beewadequate for the successful incubation of chum salmon 

eggs. 

the channel has made it difficult to maintain the original permeable condition of the streambed gravel. Removing and screening the pave1 in the 

channel provided a temporary solution to this problem. 

solution will be attained with a settling basin which will remove silt 

and sand from the water supply before it enters the channel." 

Deposition of sediment from the water supply as it moved through 

A more permanent 

(160) Bjormn, T. C. 

1968. Survival and emergence of trout and salmon fry in various 

gravel-sand mixtures. 

salmon, p. 80-88. Proc. Forum Am. Inst. Fish. Res. Biol., 

Alaska Dist., Juneau, Alaska. 

In Richard T. Myren red.], Logging and 

"The survival and emergence of steelhead trout and chinook 

salmon were tested in various mixtures of gravel and sand in troughs with 

flow and gradient control. The emergence of swim-up steelhead trout fry 

placed in the troughs was reduced by large percentages of sand. Swim-up 

chinook salmon fry appeared to be more impeded by sand than were steelhead trout, but these results need to be verified because some sick fish 

were unknowingly included in the test samples. The survival from green 

egg to emergence of chinook salmon was relatively high (70-77 percent) in 

gravel with little or no sand but much reduced in gravel with 18 percent 

or more sand." 

(161) Burgner, Robert L. 

1960. Spawning and growth of fish. In E. F. Eldridge [ed.], 

Proceedings of 7th symposium on water pollution research, p. 33-39. 

U,S. Dep. Health, Educ. G Welfare, Reg. IX, Portland, Oreg. 

The aquatic environment and its effect on the development and 

survival of eggs and larvae of pink and chum salmon are discussed with 

respect to the logging studies conducted by the Fisheries Research Insti-, 

tute in southeast Alaska. 

86 
(162) Burns, James W. 

1971. The carrying capacity for juvenile salmonids in some 

northern California streams. Calif. Fish & Game 57(1):44-57. 

"Standing crops of juvenile coho (silver) salmon (Oncorhynehus 

khutch) , steelhead rainbow trout (Saho gairdnes) , and' coast cutthroat 

trout (SaZmo ctarki) were examined in seven coastal streams to define the 

natural carrying capacity of these streams, and to develop methods of population comparison and prediction which could be used to determine the 

effects of road construction and logging on salmon and trout production. 

"Biomass per unit of surface area was the best method of expressing carrying capacity, because biomass was better correlated with stream 

surface area than with other parameters tested. 

ments, total dissolved solids, alkalinity, and total phosphate in six 

streams were not satisfactory predictors of carrying capacity. 

living-space variables correlated significantly with biomass. 

streams reached carrying capacity in the summer and salmonid biomass was 

highly variable. 

ficult to attribute a change in carrying capacity under 50% to anything 

but natural variation . '' 

Volume of streambed sediOnly 

Not all 

Even with 3 years of prelogging study, it would be dif- 

(163) Chapman, D. W. 

1965. Net production of juvenile coho salmon in three Oregon 

streams. Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. 94(1):40-52. 

"Net production of juvenile coho salmon was estimated in three 

small streams in Oregon for 4 consecutive years. 

of coho was greatly different in the 4 years, but production per unit area 

was similar among streams, averaging about 9 g/m2 per year. ,No significant differences were found among streams in production per unit area for 

14 months from emergence of fry one spring through seaward migration the 

next spring. For 4 years biomass averaged 5-12 g/m2 shortly after emergence of fry, declining to 2-3 g/m2 by July and remaining at about 2-4 

g/m2 until emigration of smolts in the following spring. In all years, 

mean production declined from 1.9-2.8 g/m2 per month after emer ence to 

month prior to emigration. Monthly instantaneous growth rates were highest shortly after emergence of fry, declining until late winter, then increasing just before smolt emigration. The mean monthly instantaneous 

growth rate was about 0.19 for all streams and-years. Yield of smolts 

as seaward emigrants ranged from 18 to 67 per 100 m2. Net production 

was 1.5 to 3.0 times greater than yield as biomass of smolts. Net pro- duction of all fish in one stream containing coho, steelhead and cutthroat trout, and cottids was estimated to be 16 g/m2 per year and compared with data from other waters. 

Annual net production 

0.2-0.3 g/m2 per month in winter, then increased to 0.5-0.6 g/m 5 per 

Relatively large freshets appeared 

87 
to cause large downstream movements of juvenile coho. 

of postemergence fry and emzgration of yearlings tended to bias estimates 

of growth and net production in the residual populations." 

Downstream drift 

(164) Coble, Daniel W. 

1960. The influence of environmental conditions in redds on the 

survival of salmonid embryos. 37 p. M.S. thesis, Oreg. State 

Univ., Corvallis. 

Movement of gravel 10 inches below the surface of a streambed 

was indicated in areas where no logging disturbance was apparent. The 

survival of salmonid embryos in the gravel was related to the apparent 

velocity and dissolved oxygen content of subsurface water. 

(165) Cooper, A. C. 

1959. Discussion of the effects of silt on survival of salmon 

eggs and larvae. In E. F. Eldridge and J. N. Wilson Ceds.1, 

Proceedings 5th symposium--Pacific Northwest on siltation--its 

source and effects on aquatic environment, p. 18-22. U.S. Dep. 

Health, Educ. & Welfare, Portland, Oreg. 

Surface flow over a smooth bed with a constant gradient showed 

intragravel flow lines nearly parallel with some interchange near the surface. 

addition of large rocks, and downward interchange occurred when a pile of 

gravel was formed by a female salmon digging a redd. 

Interchange in the top 1 foot of stratum was increased with the 

(166) Dill, L. M., and T. G. Northcote 

1970. Effects of gravel size, egg depth, and egg density on intragravel movement and emergence of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus 

kisutch) alevins. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27(7):1191-1199. 

"In experimental aquaria with large gravel (3.2-6.3 cm), vertical and lateral movements of coho salmon (0ncorhgnchus kisutch) alevins 

were more extensive and area utilized per alevin was greater than in small 

gravel (1.9-3.2 cm). At low density (50 per aquarium) the alevins moved 

farther towards the inlet, but the mean area occupied per alevin was the 

same as that at high density (100 per aquarium). 

(20 and 30 cm) had no significant effect on vertical or lateral movements 

or on area utilized per alevin. Alevin orientation in the gravel, survival to emergence, and timing of emergence were not affected by any of 

the environmental variables examined." 

Burial depths tested 

(167) Dill, Lawrence M. 

1969. The sub-gravel behaviour of Pacific salmon larvae. In T. 

G. Northcote [ed.], Proceedings of symposium--Salmon and trout 

in streams, p. 89-99. Univ. B. C. , Vancouver, B.C. , Can. 

"Results of a study of the sub-gravel behaviour of the coho 

salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) are compared with studies of other salmonid 

88 
larvae. The present results were obtained through observation of the larvae or alevins in specially designed aquaria. 

within the gravel prior to emergence, apparently as a result of phototaxes 

and rheotaxes, the directions of which varied with the age of the fish. 

For example, the response to light was initially negative, but changed to 

positive as the time of emergence approached. 

similarly influenced by the current direction. 

The alevins moved about 

Lateral movements were 

''There was evidence that the alevins were spacing themselves 

out within the gravel, and that some interaction was taking place between 

them. The effects upon behaviour of changes in burial density, burial 

depth, and gravel size were also explored. Several studies are suggested 

as logical and productive continuations of the present work, and their 

implications are discussed *om both practical and theoretical standpoints." 

(168) Fisheries Research Institute 

1960. Observations in Hollis area study streams, fall 1959. Fish. 

Res. Inst. Circ. 117, 6 p. Univ. Wash., Seattle. 

"Our evidence indicates that in the fall of 1959 suspended sediment increased in tributaries to the Harris River and that during the same 

period streambed sediment increased in the upstream sampling area. 

of, nor death to, salmon eggs in the intertidal study area as a result of 

a number of large trees sweeping downriver on high water was not detected." 

Loss 

( 169) Gangmark, Harold A . 1963. A view of the present status of spawning channels. 

to 2d Governors' Conference on Pacific Salmon, Convened by 

Governor Albert D. Rosellini at Washington Hyatt House, Seattle. 

Report 

"Advantages of improved production (salmon) areas usually include: stabilized stream flow, reduced silt loads, clean gravel, gravel 

sizes that preclude washout of eggs, and predetermined hydraulic gradients. They can also include temperature regulation of the stream flow 

below impoundments . 

"Disadvantages may include construction and maintenance costs 

and confinement that might limit the carrying capacity and, in one way, 

favor predators . 

"On a management scale the cost benefit of controlled flow 

may make such areas of controlled flow for salmon alone prohibitive. 

When tied in with other benefits, however, it can become feasible. For 

example, the water conservation and flood control programs that involve 

practically every stream in California can provide many acres of such 

control flow for the benefit of salmon." 

89 
(170) Gangmark, Harold A. 

1962. The mill creek channel study. Presented West. Div. Am. 

Fish. Soc., Seattle, Washington. 

"To learn how we might achieve the conditions desired in our 

spawning channel, we studied, among other places, the Sacramento River 

near Red Bluff. In test plants similar to the ones made in Mill Creek, 

(salmon) egg samples were eroded out of the streambed and lost in four 

out of five seasons. In the one successful year, in which we were able 

to measure ow results , only 1.7% fry were produced. 

"In the fall of 1961, we moved the location of our river 

studies 40 miles upstream to a riffle near Redding where the tributaries 

entering the river, do so, below the Redding area. 

"Actual survival was 53.6% of the eggs planted or 74.4% of 

eggs that survived the initial handling and planting operation. As a 

result of comparing the differences between the Redding and Red Bluff 

stream sections we found the former had only 1/3 the fines. The streamflow at Redding was stabilized and heat storage in Shasta Reservoir was 

responsible for moderating and tempering water temperatures.'' 

(171) Gangmark, Harold A., and Robert D. Broad 

1955. Experimental hatching of king salmon in Mill Creek, a 

tributary of the Sacramento River. Calif. Fish. & Game 

41: 233-242. 

'The upper Sacramento River system continued to flood during 

the last stage of the experiment. 

State Division of Water Resources was torn from its positiomby the flood. 

Records received from the Water Resources Branch of the United States 

Geological Survey show the Mill Creek rose to 5,240 c.f.s. or approximately 100 times the flow recorded at the time the eggs were planted. 

result was that all but six sacks of eggs (salmon) disappeared from the 

stream bed. Examination of the sacks that could be found revealed that' 

none of the embryos had survived the floods. 

and the eroding and smothering action of silt and sand apparently caused 

a complete kill of the developing young salmon.'' 

The water gauge used by the California 

The 

The shifting of the channel 

(172) Gangmark, Harold A. , and Robert D. Broad 

1956. An experiment with Vibert boxes. bog. Fish. Cult. 

18( 3) :143-144. 

"Stream erosion and silting were mentioned as products of 

flooding which caused damage to (salmon) eggs in nature. In 1954, to 

explore this subject further, Vibert boxes...were used along with the 

usual plastic mesh sacks, for incubating eggs. 

as a research tool rather than to prove or disprove the Vibert system. 

The boxes were to serve 

90 
As Vibert boxes are made from extremely rigid plastic, the writers felt 

that damage to eggs by stream erosion could be eliminated. 

"It had been supposed that use of the rigid boxes, rather than 

plastic sacks, would eliminate the grinding, wearing factor of stream erosion; but except for three samples washed downstream, results favored the 

sacks . l1 

(173) Gangmark, Harold A. , and Robert D. Broad 

1956. Further observations on stream survival of king salmon 

spawn. Calif. Fish G Game 42:37-49. 

The authors present evidence of a relationship between the occurrence of floods and the reduced survival of salmon eggs. 

(174) Gangmark, Harold A., and F. Bruce Sanford 

1963. Theory on development of mounds near Red Bluff, California. 

U.S. Fish G Wildl. Serv., Fish Bull. 63(1):213-220. 

"Although the subject of mounds is not directly a part of fishery studies, the agents that we think lead to the formation of mounds - 

namely, flooding of the stream and erosion of soil materials - also kill 

salmon by scouring the stream gravel or depositing silt in the streambed. 

This action destroys incubating spawn by removing gravel and washing out 

eggs and by depositing silt and subsequently smothering the eggs. 

ilarly, larvae and other aquatic forms that the salmon fry eat are either 

washed out or the habitat of these forms is destroyed by deposition of 

silt, and the food supply for the young salmon is greatly diminished." 

Sim- 

(175) Graves, David S., and James W. Burns 

1970. Comparison of the yields of downstream migrant salmonids 

before and after logging road construction on the South Fork 

Caspar Creek, Mendocino County. Calif. Fish E Game, Inland 

Fish. Adm. Rep. 70-3, 11p. 

"Yields of juvenile steelhead rainbow trout (Sazmo gak&zezdi 

gairdnerii ) and silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) emigrants were compared in South Fork Caspar Creek, a small coastal stream in Mendocino 

County, California, before and after construction of a logging road along 

the stream in the summer of 1967. Numbers, lengths, and age class structures were compared. 

"There were 138% more steelhead smolts and 41% fewer silver 

salmon smolts in 1968 (first spring following road construction) than 

there had been in 1964 (preroad construction). Increased emigration of 

steelhead smolts in 1968 was probably caused by a decrease in favorable 

living space. The decrease in salmon smolts accompanied high mortalities 

91 
during road construction. Eighty-three percent of the total salmon population and 86% of the total steelhead population died or emigrated from 

the affected area during the road construction from June to October 1967. 

The combined populations of steelhead and salmon smolts decreased 20%. 

This combined decrease is within the range of natural fluctuation reported from other California streams; however, there is no doubt that 

road construction contributed to the decrease in Caspar Creek. 

"Steelhead and salmon fry were more numerous in 1968 than in 

1964. No steelhead fry were trapped in 1964, while 72% of the migrants 

trapped in 1968 were fry. 

markedly from 1964; fry comprised 5% of the total in 1964 and 81% in 1968. 

This increase in numbers of emigrating fry in 1968 could have resulted 

from poor environmental conditions. 

The age composition of the salmon also shifted 

"Steelhead smolts were smaller in 1968 than in 1964, while 

salmon smolts were larger. Steelhead 

fry cannot be compared as none was trapped in 1964. 

length of the salmon smolts may have resulted from a decrease in competition due to higher mortality in 1967. 

due to unfavorable intragravel conditions during incubation. 

of steelhead smolts is difficult because of the emigration of more than 

one year class. 

hypothesis of premature emigration due to unfavorable habitat ." 

Salmon fry were smaller in 1968. 

The increase in 

The fry may have been smaller 

Comparison 

The decrease in average length, however, supports the 

(176) Hanzel, Delano A. 

1961. Inventory of the waters of the project area. Northwest 

Mont. Fish. Stud. Mont. Fish E Game, Fish. Div. Fed. Aid in 

Fish Restoration, Job Completion Rep., Proj. F-7-R-10, 9 p. 

Helena, Mont. 

"Seven lakes and four of the principal tributaries in the 

Stillwater River Drainage were surveyed. Netting series on the lakes 

indicated a predominance of pumpkinseeds, largescale suckers, northern 

squawfish, and redside shiners. 

show a predominance of cutthroat trout, brook trout and Dolly Varden. 

Physical barriers block fish movement up the major tributaries. 

Electrical censusing of the tributaries 

"Surveys of five lakes in the South Fork of the Flathead River 

Drainage were conducted during the report period. Data is presented as a 

record of present fish populations and composition in a remote wilderness 

area. 

from the South Fork River and tributaries were in the I11 and IV age 

groups (ave. 9.4 inches). Fish measured on the Middle Fork River and 

tributaries averaged 1.3 inches smaller than those taken in the South 

Fork Drainage. 

(including both South and Middle Fork Drainages), west of the Continental 

The majority of cutthroat trout collected and checked in creels 

Estimated 1960 use of the Bob Marshall Wilderness Area 

92 
Divide, was 3,990 people (Summer - 2,190; Fall - 1,800). 

of 80 established camp sites in the wilderness area. 

marily (64 percent) non-guided parties. 

There is a total 

Summer use is pri- 

"A survey of the fish populations and physical stream characteristics were continued on Pinkham Creek in order to establish the effects of logging on a fish population. Timber has now been cut on 30 percent of the 39,300 acres within the drainage. Three of the eight sections 

previously censused were electrically fished, A total of 250 brook trout 

weighing 9.55 pounds and 170 rainbow trout weighing 10.63 pounds were collected. The number and weight of all fish in 1960 was greater than taken 

from these three sections in any previous year (1951-56)." 

(177) International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission 

1966. Effects of log driving on the salmon and trout populations 

in the Stellako River. Int . Pac. Salmon Fish. Corn. Prog. Rep. 

14, 88 p. 

"Field and laboratory investigation of effects of log driving 

on the fish populations of Stellako River were carried out during 1965. 

Field studies showed that log jams caused damage to approximately eight 

per cent of sockeye spawning grounds by erosion of gravel and bark deposition, That the damage was real was verified through analysis of subsequent spawning distribution which showed that spawners tended to avoid 

the damaged areas. 

disturbance due to erosion and gouging by individual logs could also have 

killed incubating trout eggs in Stellako River, but that vertical impact 

on the gravel surface would have caused only occasional mortality." 

Laboratory results indicated that moderate gravel 

(178) Johnson, B. W,, E. M. Miller, and C. H. Ellis 

1952. A report on steelhead egg and fry survival eAperiments 

on the North Fork of Stillaguamish River with relation to the 

North Fork earth slide. Unpubl'. rep. , Wash . State Fish, Dep. 

Olympia . 

"The silting of the slide in the Stillaguamish River has a 

very definite effect on development of eggs and fry for a limited distance of less than one mile below the slide and in that area causes 50% 

to 100% loss of eggs and fry. 

'Tram one mile to five miles below the slide no significant 

difference could be observed in loss of eggs and fry from silting effects 

[a 33.5% survivall. 

"Comparing survivals fkom a distance of one mile or more below the slide and survivals above the slide a very maximum of 10% loss 

to eggs and fry could be assessed to silting of the river. 

buried steelhead eggs in plastic sacks in gravel. 1" [Authors 

93 
(179) Kabel, C. S., and E. R. German 

1967. Caspar Creek study completion report. Calif. Fish & 

Game Mar. Res. Admin. Rep. 67-4, 27 p. 

This study included the effects of logging on Caspar Creek 

and its population of silver salmon (mcorhynchus kistrtch) and steelhead 

trout (Saho gairdnerii). 

havior of adults and young population, counts, length frequencies, and 

length-weight and length-fecundity relationships. 

that similar experiments be made on two tributary streams entering the 

ocean rather than on two forks of a single stream. 

these tributaries be larger than the individual forks of Caspar Creek. 

The information on both species includes beThe report recommends 

It also suggests that 

(180) McKernan, Donald L., Donald R. Johnson, and John I. Hodges 

1950. Some factors influencing the trends of salmon populations 

in Oregon. Trans. North Am. Wildl. Conf. 15:427-449. 

"Three factors were found to be significantly correlated with 

the fluctuations and trends in silver salmon production in Oregon. 

4 "(1) Logging was found to adversely affect the runs of salmon 

in later years. 

trend of logging in one coastal watershed studied and the abundance of 

silver salmon (as measured by the catch) in the river two cycles or six 

years later. 

A significant negative correlation was found between the 

"(2) Exceptional winter floods and low summer water flows seem 

to produce poor runs. 

" (3) The intensity of fishing was also found to affect the 

subsequent productivity of the fisheries . 

"Other factors studied did not bear on significant relationship to the fluctuations or trends of productivity of silver salmon." 

(181) McNeil, William J. 

1964. Environmental factors affecting survival of young salmon 

in spawning beds and their possible relation to logging. 

Fish & Wildl. Sem., Bur. Corn. Fish. Planuscr. Rep. 64-1, 

25 p. Auke Bay Biol. Lab., Auke Bay, Alaska. 

"In this report, an attempt has been made to review some of 

U.S. 

the factors influencing survival of salmon embryos and alevins which conceivably may be influenced by logging. The review has not been exhaus- tive, but an attempt has been made to include the more pertinent recent 

work which has come to the author's attention. 

some conclusions on the basis of this review. 

It is possible to make 

"Results of field studies have revealed that extrinsic environmental factors have an important bearing on the survival of young 

94 
salmon in spawning beds. The data indicate that increased mortality may 

occur during periods of minimum and maximum flow of streams, when debris 

shifts position in stream channels and when permeability of spawning beds 

is reduced by the presence of fine particulate matter. It is conceivable 

that logging could exert both harmful and beneficial influence on young 

salmon in spawning beds. Harmful effects might include increased maximum 

flows of streams, more debris in stream channels, and more settleable 

solids transported into spawning streams. A beneficial effect might result should logging cause the minimum flows of streams in Southeastern 

Alaska to increase. It is apparent that the addition of silt and debris 

to streams should be avoided and the stability of stream banks should be 

preserved whenever possible. 

r'Solution of the salmon-logging problem lies ultimately in the 

economic development of watersheds and streams for the benefit of both 

resources. 

ment of natural spawning beds in Alaska...and more work is planned or 

underway. 

great need to obtain a more detailed understanding of the biological and 

physical factors that control fry production from spawning beds. Hence, 

the natural processes that control fry production from salmon spawning 

beds must be well understood before a satisfactory evaluation or solution 

of the salmon-logging problem can be achieved." 

In this regard, some initial efforts have been made on improveBut even in the area of spawning bed improvement there is a 

(182) McNeil, William J. 

1966. Effect of the spawning bed environment on reproduction of 

pink and chum salmon. U.S. Fish E Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 

65( 2) : 495-523 . 

"Mortality of 5 brood years of pink salmon, Oncorhynehus 

gorbuscha, and chum salmon, 0. keta, in spawning beds of three Southeastern Alaska streams was studied. 

odically, and mortality was associated with certain environmental factors: 

The supply of dissolved oxygen, the stability of spawning beds, and freezing . 

Eggs and larvae were sampled peri- 

"Total mortality between spawning and fry emergence typically 

varied between 75 and 99 percent in the study areas. High mortality occurred during low and high stream discharge and freezing air temperatures. 

Mortalities ranging from 60 to 90 percent of deposited eggs occurred in 

association with low dissolved oxygen levels during and after the spawning 

period. Movement of gravel in certain instances was associated with the 

removal of 50 to 90 percent of eggs and larvae present in spawning beds. 

Freezing caused up to 65 percent mortality of eggs and larvae in one 

stream . 

"Low dissolved oxygen levels occurred once in 5 years. This 

occurrence was associated with unusually low water during spawning in 

95 
late summer. 

variable. 

debris was deposited within the high water channel. 

over spawning beds was not damaging to eggs and larvae. 

eral instances where mortality estimated at almost 50 percent occurred 

with no evidence that deposited wood debris shifted position. 

tality from freezing occurred only in the stream having the lowest minimum discharge e 

Mortality during periods of heavy precipitation was highly 

In one instance, a 90-percent mortality occurred where wood 

Wood debris floating 

There were sevHigh mor- 

(183) McNeil, William J. 

1968. Effect of streamflow on survival of pink and chum salmon 

in spawning beds. 

salmon, p. 96-114. Prac. Forum Am. Inst. Fish. Res. Biol., 

Alaska Dist., Juneau, Alaska. 

In Richard T, Myren [ea.], Logging and 

Studies conducted in southeast Alaska revealed the following: 

"1. Low streamflow in summer causes low levels of dissolved 

oxygen in intragravel water and high mortality of pink and chum salmon 

spawn . 

"2. F'reezing can cause high mortality of pink and chum salmon 

spawn where streamflow fluctuates drastically. 

atively stable streamflow which varied less than 100-fold between average 

daily minimum and maximum discharge experienced low mortality in cold 

winters . 

Spawn in streams with rel- 

"3. Eggs and alevins of pink and chum salmon are highly vulnerable to dislodgment fbom spawning beds during high streamflow. 

stranding of debris on spawning beds increases gravel movement and mortality . 

The 

ff4. Increased high streamflow and addition of debris to stream 

channels from logging would be harmful to pink and chum salmon. Increased 

low streamflow would be beneficial . 'I 

(184) McNeil, William J., and W. H. Ahnell 

1964, Success of pink salmon spawning relative to size of spawning bed materials. US. Fish & Wildl. Serv, Spec. Sci. Rep., 

Fish. 469, 15 p. 

"The potential of a salmon spawning bed to produce fry is directly related to its permeability. The relationship between the coefficient of permeability and the fraction of bottom materials consisting 

of fine particles is inverse, 

"Field methods for measuring size composition of bottom materials in salmon spawning beds are described, and an empirical relationship between the fraction (by volume) of solids less than 0.833 mm. minimum dimension and coefficient of permeability of stream bottom materials 

96 
is given. 

pink salmon (@zcorhynchus gorbtlscha) mried considerably . ductive spawning streams had the more permeable spawning beds. 

pink salmon caused the removal of finer particles from bottom materials 

during spawning. 

consist largely of organic matter. Logging caused fine sands and silts 

to accrue to spawning beds. Flooding caused the removal of fine particles from spawning beds." 

Size of bottom materials in streams utilized for spawning by 

The more proAdult 

The evidence indicates that the fine particles removed 

(185) McNeil, William J., Philip Shapley, and Donald E. Bevan 

1962. Effects of logging on pink salmon and spawning-bed i mprovement. 

Coll. Fish. Contrib. 139:lS-18. Univ. Wash., Seattle. 

In Ted S. Y. Koo [ed.], Research in Fisheries. 

A 6-year study on factors causing egg and larval mortality in 

three southeastern coastal salmon streams was conducted. 

cludes a discussion on the interrelationships among spawners, quality of 

intragravel water, quality of spawning bed, and the effect of these factors on egg and larval mortality. 

two of the salmon streams were alsc conducted. 

The summary inSpawning bed improvement studies on 

(186) Neave, Ferris, and R. F. Foerster 

1955. Problems of Pacific salmon management. Trans. North Am. 

Wildl. Conf. 20:426-439. 

Past and present Pacific salmon management problems are discussed. 

ward increasing salmon production by decreasing freshwater mortality. 

Deforestation looms as the major problem of fkeshwater mortality. 

The authors state that present research efforts are aimed to- 

(187) Neave, Ferris, and W. P. Wickett 

1949 . Factors affecting the freshwater development of Pacific 

salmon in British Columbia. 7th Pac. Sci. Congr. Proc. 

4:548-556. 

The ecology of the freshwater phases of Pacific salmon is discussed including the chemical, physical, and biological factors causing 

mortality in freshwater. The importance of freshwater factors as measured by adult populations is reviewed. 

populations with streamflow. 

The report also correlates adult 

(188) Phillips, Robert W., and Homer J. Campbell 

The embryonic survival of coho salmon and steelhead trout 

as influenced by some environmental conditions in gravel beds. 

Pac. Mar. Fish. Comm. Annu. Rep. 14:60-73. 

1962. 

, 

The results of two studies designed to determine the effect of 

three environmental factors on embryonic survival of steelhead trout and 

97 
coho salmon are reported. 

are: (1) dissolved oxygen concentration of the intragravel water, (2) 

seepage rate of intragravel water, and (3) permeability of the gravel. 

Also included in the report is a literature review of the effect of 

dissolved oxygen on embryonic survival. 

The three environmental factors considered 

(189) Phillips, Robert W., and K V. Koski 

1969. A fry trap method for estimating salmonid survival from 

egg deposition to fry emergence. J. Fish Res. Board Can. 

26:133-141. 

"The method involves a trap of nylon netting placed over an 

individual redd with the trap's edges buried 15-20 cm in the gravel just 

outside the periphery of the redd. 

than 70 coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) redds over the past 5 years, 

with as many as 2061 fry being captured from a single redd. The trap is 

relatively stable because it is flexible and conforms to the surface of 

the streambed, causing debris to float or roll over the surface. It can 

be used on individual redds; thus, emergent survival for separate parental combinations can be estimated. Field tests showed the efficiency of 

the trap approached 100%. 

significant effect on intragravel dissolved oxygen and gravel permeability. 

removed at least three times a week. 

a more accurate estimate of survival from egg deposition through fry emergence than four other methods . '' 

It has been used successfully on more 

Installation and presence of the trap had no 

Mortality of fry in the traps averaged less than 1.5% when fry were 

We concluded that the trap provides 

(190) Shapovalov, Leo, and Alan C. Taft 

1954. The life histories of the steelhead rainbow trout (Sazmo 

gairdneri gairheri) and silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), 

with special reference to Waddell Creek, California, and recommendations regarding their management. Calif. Fish & Game, 

Fish Bull. 98, 375 p. 

The report describes the life history of the steelhead rainbow 

trout and the silver salmon. The authors discuss: (1) the correlation 

between number of eggs and size of fish, (2) the relationship between 

hatching time and temperature, (3) the effects of silting on the duration 

of survival, (4) factors influencing growth, timing and size of migration, 

and (5) the improvement of the biological and physical habitat. 

(191) Sheridan, W. L., and S. T. Olson 

1970. Timber harvest and the salmon and trout fisheries of southeast Alaska. Presented to West. Div. Am. Fish. SOC., 10 p. 

Victoria, B.C., Can. 

"The purpose of this paper is to (1) summarize the progress of 

timber harvest on National Forest lands in Alaska; (2) outline the status 

98 
of some of the fisheries that could be affected; (3) discuss past and 

present studies aimed at evaluating the effects of logging; (4) review 

progress of the opportunities for habitat improvement; and (5) point out 

the most pertinent problems needing attention. 

(192) Sheridan, William L. 

1962. Waterflow through a salmon spawning riffle in southeastern 

Alaska. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 407, 

20 p. 

"The following characteristics were studied in a small salmon 

stream in Southeastern Alaska from 1956 through 1959: (1) dissolved oxygen 

content of ground water, (2) variation of dissolved oxygen with depth in 

streambed, (3) temperature of ground water, (4) extent of ground-water 

seepage, (5) interchange of flowing stream water and water of streambed 

gravels, and (6) flow of water in the gravel of streambank and gravel bar. 

"Ground water was generally low in dissolved oxygen content, 

and dissolved oxygen levels decreased with depth in streambed. Because 

of these and other points discussed in this paper, I conclude that the 

main source of intragravel water of high oxygen content is the flowing 

stream. lr 

(193) Wells, Ralph A., and William J. McNeil 

1970. Effect of quality of the spawning bed on growth and development of pink salmon embryos and alevins. U.S. Fish & 

Wildl. Sew. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 616, 6 p. 

"Among three segments of the spawning ground in Sashin Creek, 

southeastern Alaska, the largest and fastest developing embryos and alevins of pink salmon, Oncorhynehus gorbuscha, came from spawning gravels 

characterized by high levels of dissolved oxygen in intragravel water. 

The high oxygen levels occurred in a stream segment which has a relatively 

steep grade and coarse materials in the bed. No differences in water tem - 

perature were observed among the three segments." 

(194) Wendler, Henry 0 . , and Gene Deschamps 

1955. Logging dams on coastal Washington streams. Flash. Dep. 

Fish., Fish. Res. Pap. 1(3):27-38. 

The types and operations of log dams, their effects on fish 

life, early fisheries rehabilitation efforts, and rehabilitation efforts 

are discussed. 

(195) Wickett, W. P. 

1958. Review of certain environmental factors affecting the 

production of pink and chum salmon. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 

15( 5) : 1103-1126 . "The relation between stock and numbers of spawners is obscured 

by annual environmental changes. Stream discharge at the time the spawners 

99 
are migrating upstream, at the time when the eggs are in the early stages 

of incubation, and extreme discharge during the period eggs and alevins 

are in the gravel can impose an eightfold variation in the stock resulting from a given number of spawners in one area. Ocean conditions soon 

after the fry enter the sea have been observed to increase or decrease 

survival by a factor of 3. The density of spawners that produces the 

greatest numbers of fry is related to the average permeability of the 

stream bottom. Preliminary data indicate that more spawners could be 

used to advantage in most areas of the coast." 

(196) Wolf, P. H. 

1950. American problems and practice, I. Salmon which disappeared. Salmon Trout Mag. 130:201-212. 

The author states that among the many factors contributing to 

the elimination of salmon runs around Lake Ontario, siltings from erosion 

after extensive land cultivation and deforestation are the major contributors. Salmon fry disappear *om silted areas of a river, whereas a good 

yield is found from less spoiled regions. 

(197) Ziebell, Charles D. 

1960. Problems associated with spawning and growth of salmonids 

in Northwest watersheds. In E. F. Eldridge [ed.], Proceedings 

of 7th symposium on water pollution research, p. 28-32. U.S. 

Dep. Health, Educ. E Welfare, Reg. IX, Portland, Oreg. 

Our watershed problems fall into two basic categories, natural 

and manmade, which the author discusses with respect to spawning, incubation, and affiliated problems, as well as to fish growth problems emphasizing the need for more research and better control over logging operations. 

100 
MULTIPLE LOGGING EFFECTS 

101 
(198) Brode, John M., James W. Burns, and Gary E. Smith 

1973. Effects of logging road construction on invertebrates in 

a small coastal stream. Calif. Fish E Game, Inland Fish. Adm. 

Rep. 73-1, 47 p. 

"Benthos density, invertebrate drift rates, and salmonid diets 

were compared on two forks of Caspar Creek, Mendocino County, California, 

before and after the construction of a logging road on the South Fork. 

Road construction was immediately detrimental to most aquatic invertebrates in the South Fork, although conditions created favored Diptera and 

Plecoptera. The increases in these two insect orders offset losses of 

other invertebrates, causing the South Fork's benthos to increase about 

122%, from 286.02 to 634.41 mg/rn2, immediately after the road construction. 

scured by the fertilization of the South Fork's disturbed areas with 

817 kg urea immediately after the road was completed. 

enriched the stream's food base for insects. In addition, a comparable 

increase in benthos density occurred simultaneously in the undisturbed 

North Fork, indicating that the South Fork's immediate increase was not 

necessarily caused by the road construction and fertilization. Recolonization of the South Fork by other invertebrates was rapid and, within 

2 years, the benthos was 1,347.54 mg/m2, 371% greater than it had been 

prior to the road construction. 

65% during the same period. 

streams, ranging from 0.43 to 3.57 mg/hr/net in the North Fork and from 

1.07 to 3.89 in the South Fork. 

low sampling effort and precluded any statistical comparisons of drift 

rates before and after the road construction. In both streams, Trichoptera and Coleoptera made up the greatest biomass of insect orders in the 

drift. 

availability of food items, with juvenile steelhead trout (Sabo gairdne2.i) 

and coho (silver) salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) consuming relatively more 

Diptera in the South Fork after the road construction." 

The impact of the road construction, however, was partially obThe urea probably 

The North Fork's benthos increased only 

Drift rates were highly variable in both 

This variability was probably due to the 

Salmonid diets generally changed in response to changes in the 

(199) Burns, James W. 

1972. Some effects of logging and associated road construction on 

northern California streams . Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. 101(1) :1-17. 

"The effects of logging and associated road construction on four 

California trout and salmon streams were investigated from 1966 through 

1969. 

quality, fish food abundance, and stream nursery capacity. Logging was 

found to be compatible with anadromous fish production when adequate attention was given to stream protection and channel clearance. 

ing capacities for juvenile salmonids of some stream sections were increased when high temperatures, low dissolved oxygen concentrations, and 

adverse sedimentation did not accompany the logging. Extensive use of 

bulldozers on steep slopes for road building and in stream channels during 

This study included measurements of streambed sedimentation, water 

The carry102 
debris removal caused excessive streambed sedimentation in narrow streams. 

Sustained logging prolonged adverse conditions in one stream and delayed 

stream recovery . Other aspects of logging on anadromous E ish product ion 

on the Pacific Coast are discussed." 

(200) Calhoun, Alex 

1966. Bulldozer delinquents. Outdoor Calif. 27(8):10, 11, 19. 

Watershed and stream damage in California and regulations 

needed to control logging damage are discussed. 

(201) Calhoun, Alex 

1967. Stream damage. I?z Man's effect on California watersheds, 

p. 363-380. Part 111, 1965-1967. State Calif., Sacramento. 

Stream damage on California watersheds by logging operations, 

dam construction, earth-moving activities, overgrazing, and placer mining is discussed. The main emphasis is concern with logging operations; 

and the author recommends that loggers should leave buffer strips, practice more effective erosion control on roads and skid trails, and stop 

using streambeds as working areas, roads, and skid trails. 

(202) Calhoun, Alex, and Charles Seeley 

1963. Logging damage to California streams in 1962. Calif. 

Fish & Game, Inland Fish. Admin. Rep. 63-2, 15 p. 

Vareless logging operations continue to damage priceless 

Destructive practices include use of streambeds as roadways, operaAccelerated erosion compounds the damOrganic logging debris may also 

watersheds and to degrade important salmon and trout streams in California. 

tion of heavy equipment in streams, tractor logging on steep slopes, and 

removal of streamside vegetation. 

age. Valuable forest soils erode off the slopes and deposit'in streams, 

smothering eggs, fish, and fish food. 

pollute the streams. 

"During 1962, 33 streams were damaged by logging operations, 

mostly in north coast counties. All are on private land. 

"Careful timber harvesting on some private lands and in National Forests, has shown that such damage can be largely prevented. 

"Model timber sales contracts requiring good practices to 

protect soils, streams, and timber would help inexperienced owners of 

timberlands to minimize damage by contract loggers. 

"The increasingly serious problem of erosion control involves 

many agencies. It is beyond the power of the Department of Fish and Game 

103 
to solve alone. 

calling attention to resulting stream damage. 

to define this problem." 

Nevertheless, we hope to hasten corrective action by 

More research is needed 

(203) Campbell, C. J. 

1963. Fish management problems associated with timber harvesting. In Symposium--Forest watershed management, p, 331-337. 

Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

The article is a general discussion of fishery problems associated with timber management and harvesting. 

(204) Chapman, D. W. 

1963. Physical and biological effects of forest practices upon 

stream ecology. 

p. 321-330. Oreg. State Univ,, Corvallis. 

In Symposium--Forest watershed management, 

Changes induced by land treatments on the aquatic ecosystem 

and their effects on stream ecology are reviewed and discussed. 

(205) DeWitt, John W. 

1964. The fish and fish habitats of the coast redwood region 

in Mendocino, Humboldt, and Del Norte Counties in California, 

Final Rep., Coast Redwood Study. U.S. Natl. Park Serv., Proj. 

NPS-WASO-11-64- (4) 31 p . [Mimeogr .I 

"The purpose of this report partly is to identify the common 

fishes and to describe their distributions, general abundance, and importance, and ecological status in the redwood forest region in Mendocino, 

Humboldt, and Del Norte Counties. It is also for the purpose of describing the general nature, extent, and condition of fish producing waters in 

this region. 

"A discussion of the main fish and stream protection problems 

of the present and the future is presented. 

to the problem of protecting fish species peculiar to the redwood region 

and their habitats ." 

Special emphasis is given 

(206) Edgington, John R. 

1969. The impact of logging on the ecology of two trout streams 

in north Idaho. 73 p. M.S. thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 

"The effects of logging on two study locations, with a test 

and control stream, were studied for 11 years in northern Idaho. Clear 

and selective logging was carried out in varied percentages on the two 

locations. An impact on the stream ecology was noted early in the study 

due mainly to road construction. A decline then a gradual increase to 

previous levels was noted for four orders of stream insects with the exception of the order Plecoptera which showed a decline in abundance due 

104 
to siltation. 

timing and methods of timber harvesting are credited for the moderate 

effects to the stream ecology." 

There was no apparent effect on trout populations. The 

(207) Ellis, Robert J., and William A. Smoker 

1970. Report on a study of effects of log rafting and dumping 

on marine fauna in southeast Alaska, June 6-9, 1970. US. 

Fish & Wildl. Sew. Interdep. Rep., 11 p. Auke Bay Biol. Lab., 

Auke Bay, Alaska. 

A reconnaissance survey was made of log dumping sites and their 

effects upon the marine fauna in-the vicinity. The results showed a localized accumulation of bark and wood debris which eliminated plants and 

many animals in the immediate area. 

(208) Fisk, Leonard, Eric Gerstung, Richard Hansen, and John Thomas 

1966. Stream damage surveys--1966. Calif. Fish & Game, Inland 

Fish Adm. Rep. 66-10, 9 p. 

"Four stream drainages were surveyed during July 1966 to determine the extent of damage from past logging and other activities. 

streams are the Garcia River, Mendocino County; Redwood Creek, Humboldt 

County; North Fork of Battle Creek, Shasta County; and Middle Fork of 

Mokelumne River, Calaveras County. 

The 

"A total of 328 miles was surveyed. Of this, 108 miles (33%) 

were severely damaged, 27 miles (8%) more moderately damaged, 127.5 miles 

(39%) were lightly damaged, and 65.5 miles (20%) were undamaged. 

"The most severe damage occurred in Redwood Creek and the 

Garcia River, both in the redwood forests of the Coast Range,. 

"In the North Fork of Battle Creek and in Forest Creek, tributary to the Middle Fork of Mokelumne River, there was five times the 

poundage of trout per unit area in undamaged control sections as in severely damaged areas . 

"In Forest Creek, water temperatures increased about 0.5OF. 

per mile in well-shaded areas, compared to 1.5 to 2.0° F. per mile in 

unshaded areas . I' 

(209) Froehlich, Henry A. 

1971. Logging debris - managing a problem. In James Morris 

[ed.], Proceedings of a symposium--Forest land uses and stream 

environment, p. 112-117. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

''Floatable debris in forested watersheds is produced by both 

natural and human action. 

its subsequent flushing by periodic flood events are discussed. 

quency of major flood events since 1861 was examined and found to occur 

The natural accumulation of organic debris and 

The fre105 
at an average of only eight-year intervals. 

that one of the major contributors to storm damage is nonmanufactured 

debris. Studies were reviewed which show that logging debris adds significantly to the natural debris and often aggravates the flood damage. 

The impact of this debris movement on the forest road system was examined 

and a number of management techniques were discussed. 

ing road and culvert damages is recommended." 

Flood damage studies show 

A plan for reduc- 

(210) Fullerton, E. C. 

1972. Fish, wildlife, and logging practices in the Sierra. 

Presented to Assem. Comm. Nat. Resour. & Conserv. 7 p. Sugar 

Pine Point State Park, Lake Tahoe, Nev. 

This article presents a discussion of some of the effects 

which logging has on wildlife and its habitat in the Sierra. The discussion includes: (1) streamside vegetation, (2) logging debris disposal 

problems, (3) landslides, and (4) siltation and logging benefits to wildlife. 

(211) Hall, James D., and Richard L. Lantz 

1969. Effects of logging on the habitat of coho salmon and cutthroat trout in coastal streams. In T. G. Northcote Led.], 

Proceedings of a symposium--Salmon and trout in streams, 

p. 355-375. Univ. B. C., Vancouver, B. C., Can. 

"The effects of two patterns of Douglas-fir logging on water 

quality and fish populations have been studied in three coastal headwater 

streams. Clearcut logging of an entire watershed of 71 hectares (175 

acres) is being compared to clearcutting in patches on a larger watershed 

of 304 hectares (750 acres), where about 30 percent of the area has been 

harvested and a strip of timber left along the stream. The third watershed of 

logging 

logging 

tent of 

203 hectares (500 acres) will remain unlogged as a control. Pre - 

studies began in 1958, access roads were constructed in 1965, and 

took place in 1966. 

"Substantial changes in temperature and dissolved oxygen constream water followed logging in the entirely clearcut watershed. 

A maximum temperature of 3OoC and a maximum diurnal fluctuation of 16O 

were recorded. Comparable pre-logging maximums were 16O and 1.5O, respectively. 

dropped below 2 mg/l during logging operations. 

and cutthroat trout in the clearcut watershed has been affected by logging, but the significance of the effect cannot yet be fully evaluated. 

Dissolved oxygen levels of surface and intragravel water 

Survival of coho salmon 

"NO significant changes in the fish population or its habitat 

have been noted in the patch-cut watershed. 

several years to evaluate long-term effects of logging on the stream and 

to determine the period of recovery." 

Studies will continue for 

106 
(212) Hess, Lloyd J. 

1969. The effects of logging road construction on insect drop 

into a small coastal stream. 58 p. M.S. thesis, Humboldt 

State Coll., Arcata, Calif. 

"Because stream fisheries are so closely associated with forested watersheds, it is necessary that the streams and forests be managed 

jointly under a system of multiple use. This requires a knowledge of the 

interrelationships between these resources to yield maximum returns from 

both. 

management by ascertaining the effect of logging-road construction on the 

drop of insects into a stream. 

It is the purpose of this paper to relate logging practices to fish 

"On the South Fork of Caspar Creek the insects falling into the 

stream were greatly increased after a logging road was built. A twofold 

increase in number and weight of insects occurred over the entire stream. 

In 'Disturbed' areas, where the road paralleled the stream, drop insects 

increased three and one half times by number and one and one half times 

by weight over the 'Insect-Control' area. In the 'Highly Disturbed' areas, 

where the road crossed the stream, insect numbers increased by five and one 

half times and a threefold increase by weight over the 'Insect-Control' 

area was noted. 

"A more than proportionate amount of the increase occurred in 

those adult insects having aquatic immature stages. 

Chironomidae, had a greater occurrence after road construction than all 

insects combined before construction. 

icant change of the families studied." 

One such family, 

This family showed the most signif- 

(213) James, G. A. 

1956. The physical effect of logging on salmon strdeams of southeast Alaska. USDA For. Serv. Stn. Pap. No. 5, 49 p. Alaska 

For. Res. Cent., Juneau, Alaska. 

A 5-year study made on three streams concerning logging effects 

on streamflow, temperature, channel change, and sedimentation is summarized. 

(214) James, G. A. 

1957. The effect of logging on discharge, temperature and sedimentation of a salmon stream. USDA For. Serv. Tech. Note 39, 

2 p. Alaska For. Res. Cent. , Juneau, Alaska. 

The effect of logging on streamflow, stream temperature, and 

sedimentation is analyzed. 

however, it occurred during the dry weather months and may prove to be 

beneficial to coho salmon fry and late migrating pink and chum fry. 

may also help early spawning escapement upstream. 

stream temperature and sedimentation in the logged stream. 

Increase in streamflow was found to be small; 

It 

Logging did not change 

107 
(215) Larkin, P. A., and graduate students 

1959. The effects on fresh water fisheries of man-made activities in British Columbia. Can. Fish-Cult. 25:l-33. 

"There can be no question that historically, extensive clear 

cut logging has had deleterious effects on populations of freshwater and 

anadromous fish, particularly in coastal areas. However, the recent trend 

to sustained yield management of forest resources together with the inclusion of practices in logging which are designed to protect fisheries resources, will no doubt greatly mitigate these effects in the future. 

" At the same time, other trends in modern forestry practices 

are causing substantial concern to fisheries agencies. 

spraying of large areas of forest for insect control is known to have 

disastrous effects on fish in streams. 

on in the future on a large scale--and there are indications that it may 

be--fisheries agencies will require a greatly increased knowledge in this 

field upon which to base sound conservation measures." 

The indiscriminate 

If forest spraying is to be carried 

(216) Lehman, Carl 

1970. Effects of log storage on the Dungeness crab fishery in 

southeastern Alaska. Alaska Fish G Game. Corn. Fish. Res. 

G Dev. Act, Job Completion Rep., Proj. 5-10-R and 5-21-R, 

p. 39-43. Juneau, Alaska. 

"The scanty observations made during this preliminary study 

have shown that the physical presence of bark and associated debris on 

the substrate mechanically reduces the suitability of the habitat for 

Dungeness crab. 

rafting area, and in the absence of strong current. 

are present log-rafting debris is swept away and therefore has little 

effect upon the crab population in the immediate vicinity. 

in the area where such debris is eventually deposited, or to the marine 

animals in such an area, is not within the scope of this study." 

This mechanical effect is greatest in the immediate logWhen strong currents 

What happens 

(217) Meehan, W. R., W. A. Farr, D. M. Bishop, and J. H. Patric 

1969. Some effects of clearcutting on salmon habitat of two 

southeast Alaska streams. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-82, 

45 p. Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

The effects of clearcutting on streamflow, suspended sediment, 

stream temperature, log-debris jams, and indirectly on salmon populations 

of two watersheds were evaluated and compared with an uncut watershed in 

southeast Alaska. Although some effects were observed, the timber harvesting 

habitat or populations. 

as practiced on these watersheds did not appear harmful to salmon 

108 
(218) Narver, David W. 

1971. Effects of logging debris on fish production. In James 

Morris Led.], Proceedings of a Symposium--Forest land uses and 

stream environment, p. 100-111. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

"Stream salmonids (8 species of Pacific salmon, trout, and 

char) are discussed in relation to their environmental requirements and 

the possible impact of logging debris on their production. 

is on small streams because of their great importance as nursery and 

spawning areas for certain species and because they may be more susceptible to damage than larger streams or rivers. 

of pertinent literature. It is concluded that accumulations of logging 

debris in small streams can have serious consequences on the production 

of salmonid fishes . 

The emphasis 

Extensive use is made 

(219) Narver, David W. 

1972. A survey of some possible effects of logging on two eastern Vancouver Island streams. Fish. Res. Board Can., Tech. 

Rep. 323, 55 p. 

"The lack of British Columbia studies relating logging practices to salmon and trout production was the basic reason for a 1970 

survey of sections of two streams on the east coast of Vancouver Island. 

The objective was to compare fish populations, invertebrate drift, stream 

temperatures and stream channel widths in recently clearcut and burned 

stream sections and adjacent upstream sections in standing timber. 

"Late summer standing stock estimates of the trout population 

in Jump Creek was considerably greater in the timbered (2226 fish/acre 

and 38.8 lbs/acre) than the logged section (1420 fish/acre and 3.9 Us/ 

acre). 

Wolf Creek ranged from 6722 fish/acre (27.9 lbs/acre) to 10,206 fish/acre 

(49.8 lbs/acre) with the highest density (mainly steelhead) in the logged sections. 

higher in comparison to other stream salmonid populations reported in the 

literature. 

The standing stock of juvenile coho salmon and steelhead in 

Stock estimates for these two streams are similar or 

"Other possible effects of logging revealed in this survey was 

fish size, stream temperature and stream channel width. A larger average 

size of each age group of trout in the logged section of Jump Creek compared to the timbered section may have been related to higher stream temperatures in June and July leading to faster development of pre-emergent 

fry and earlier emergence. 

higher than in upstream timbered sections. 

ture was 21.1O C (70.0° F) in the logged section and 15.1O C (59.2O F) in 

the timbered section; temperatures over 20° C (68O F) lasted only a few 

hours each day. The channel of both streams in the logged sections appeared badly eroded with cutbanks and wide gravel bars, but only in Wolf 

Creek was the channel significantly wider in the logged than the timbered 

sections ." 

Stream temperature in the logged sections were 

In Jump Creek maximum tempera109 
(220) Reinhart, Kenneth G. 

1972. Effects of clearcutting upon soil/water relations. 172 

R. D. Nyland [ed . 1, A perspective on clearcutting in a changing world. Appl. For. Res. Inst. Misc. Rep. 4, p. 67-74. 

Syracuse, M.Y. 

The effects of timber harvesting are discussed, including 

tree cutting and removal of products on (1) streamflow, (2) water yield, 

(3) storm flows, (4) sediment, (5) nutrients, and (6) aquatic plants and 

animals. 

soil and water standpoint are: 

and scattering their location; and, (2) following the highest standards 

of road location, construction, and maintenance." 

The author states that the cornerstones of a good job from a 

"(1) restricting the size of clearcuts 

(221) Rich, Lowell R., H. G. Reynolds, and J. A. West 

1961. The Workman Creek 

Serv. Rocky Mt. For. E 

Fort Collins, Colo. 

A study of the effects 

tity is discussed. 

It was also found that 

experimental watersheds. USDA For. 

Range Exp. Stn., Stn. Pap. 65, 18 p. 

of logging on water quality and quanselective cutting in a central Arizona 

watershed did not greatly affect the rate of sedimentation'in adjacent 

streams if made under carefully controlled conditions. 

(222) Ringler, Neil Harrison 

1969. Effects of logging on the spawning bed environment in 

.two Oregon coastal streams. 

Corvallis. 

M.S. thesis, Oreg. State Univ., 

"The effects of two patterns of logging on the intragravel 

environment were studied in three Oregon coastal streams between June 

1968 and June 1969. 

been clearcut, and that of a second stream (Deer Creek) cut in staggered 

settings in 1966. 

ged control. 

and temperature of the intragravel water were determined, as well as the 

size composition and organic content of the gravel. Changes were evaluated in terms of their effects on the survival of salmonid eggs and alevins. 

The watershed of one stream (Needle Branch) had 

A third watershed (Flynn Creek) served as an unlogThe dissolved oxygen content, biochemical oxygen demand, 

. . . . . "Dissolved oxygen in redds of Needle Branch averaged 7.15 mg/l, 

whereas that in Deer Creek averaged 8.91 mg/l during 1969. 

in Needle Branch redds in 1969 were 37.4 percent lower than those reported 

in 1964. 

riod. Dissolved oxygen at permanent standpipe locations was significantly 

Oxygen levels 

Oxygen in Deer Creek redds dropped 12.7 percent in the same @e110 
lower than that in redds and showed greater variability. 

were positively correlated with streamflow and negatively correlated with 

temperature. 

Oxygen levels 

"Organic content of the gravel ranged from 0.33 to 7.52 percent 

by weight: less than 3 percent of the organic material was larger than 

6.35 mm. The quantity of organic material was directly related to the 

amount of fine sediment in the sample. Recent redds in Needle Branch contained significantly less organic debris than did former redds. 

the organic content of redds in Needle Branch did not differ statistically 

from that in Deer and Flynn Creeks. 

intragravel water averaged 1.95 mg/l for the three streams; differences 

among streams were not statistically significant. 

However, 

The biochemical oxygen demand of the 

" Stratification of fine sediment was evident in many redds, but 

a definite pattern of stratification could not be detected. 

composition in Needle Branch did not differ statistically from 

other streams. Recent redds in Needle Branch contained significantly less 

sediment than did former redds. 

Gravel size 

that of the 

"Intragravel water temperature lagged from 2 to 6 hours behind 

surface temperature in attaining the diurnal maximum. 

decreased with depth in the gravel in Needle Branch and Deer Creek on 

clear days, but the intragravel water was almost isothermal in Flynn Creek. 

Fluctuation in intragravel water temperature occurred as early as March, 

and maxima as great as 19.7OC were recorded prior to complete emergence of 

coho salmon. Surface and intragravel temperatures reflected the amount of 

shade over the stream surface. 

peared to be little affected by the observed changes in the intragravel 

environment . 1? 

Water temperature 

Survival to emergence of coho salmon ap- 

(223) Salo, Ernest 0. 

1967. Study of the effects of logging on pink salmon in Alaska. 

SOC. Am. For. Proc. 1966:59-62. 

The effects of logging on the pink salmon of the Harris River 

and Twelvemile Creek are discussed. 

ments in the the salmon spawning gravels was found. 

of qgs and fry.decreased during the study period (1959-641, but the 

actubl number of fry produced increased due to an increase in numbers 

of eggs deposited. 

A temporary increase in fine sediThe survival rate 

(224) Sheridan, W. L. 

1949. Effects of deforestation and logging operations on watersheds with special reference to the effects on fish life in 

the streams. Fish. Res. Inst., Circ. 2, 15 p. Univ. Wash., 

Seattle . 

"1. There is a direct relation of forest and streamflow according to most writers in the field. 

ing on the extent to which it is carried on, may have the following effects on streams: 

Denudation of timberland, depend111 
!'a. Fluctuations in streamflow may be altered to such an 

extent that a deleterious effect on young fish and spawn would ensue. 

"b. Temperatures of the water might be increased above 

the optimum level necessary for fish -life in the streams. 

"c. The occurrence of erosion and silting may be so aggravated by removal of forest cover that an adverse effect on aquatic 

organisms and spawning beds would result. 

"2. Accentuated runoff due to deforestation may scour stream 

bottoms, deposit sand bars and destroy aquatic organisms. 

113. Logging practices, depending on which methods of logging 

are used, may create a harmful environmental change for fish in the following manner : 

"a. The unwise construction of dams might possibly block 

salmon migration and fishways would have to be built. Artificial regulation of this type may also prove detrimental to both spawning adults and 

eggs and young in the gravel. 

"b. The use of streams as roadbeds down which logs would 

be dragged to tidewater could change the physical characteristics of the 

stream with a possible harmful effect on spawning fish, spawn, and also 

exert a diminishing effect on spawning areas. 

"c. The accumulation of chips, sawdust, etc., in streams 

could create a biochemical oxygen demand possibly high enough to lower 

the dissolved oxygen level of the water to an extent that fish could not 

live. 

I'd. The construction of logging roads through forests 

might possibly increase erosion with a consequent heavier silting of the 

streams . 

"5. The conclusions in any study of the influences of deforestation or logging in a new region due to the institution of pulp or 

paper mills in that region must be based on assumptions and data drawn 

from other areas in which similar work has been done." 

(225) Sheridan, W. L., J. F. Weisgerber, and C. N. Wilson 

1965. The effect of logging on twelve salmon streams in southeast Alaska. USDA For. Serv., 59 p. Alaska Reg., Juneau, 

Alaska . [Mimeogr . 1 

"The authors were accompanied at each of the streams by a representative of the local Forest Service office and, on- eight streams, by 

112 
a member of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. For each stream observations or measurements of the following items were recorded: 

present vegetation in the cutting area; (2) evidence of any erosion; (3) 

stream characteristics, including configuration, gradient, particle size, 

evidence of bedload movement, pool-riffle relationship, water quality, 

approximate discharge and water stage, bank stability, and apparent 

spawning potential; (4) number of salmon in the stream; (5) log jams in 

the stream; and (6) overall changes since the 1950 examination. In addition, areas photographed in 1950 were relocated (where possible) and 

comparison photos taken." 

(1) 

(226) Stefanich, Frank 

1956. The effects of logging on Pinkham Creek's fish population. Mont. Fish & Game. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Job 

Completion Rep., Proj. F-7-R-6, 10 p. 

"Eight randomly selected stations were sampled and a total 

of 401 eastern brook trout and 218 rainbow trout taken. The total 

weight and average condition factor C for the brook trout was 17.42 

pounds and 36.1, respectively. 

13.29 pounds and 25.3 were obtained for the total weight and average 

condition factor C. The total number of fish caught was higher than 

in 1955. 

For the rainbow trout, figures of 

"Approximately 1,350 acres of timber were logged on Forest 

Service land, producing 13,587.26 MBM and 181,090 linear feet of poles. 

An estimated 1,000 MBM of timber was cut on private lands. 

total of 61,087 MBM of timber has been removed from the Pinkham Creek 

drainage. '' 

To date, a 

(227) Stefanich, Frank 

1957. The effects of logging on Pinkham Creek's fish population. Mont. Fish & Game. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Job 

Completion Rep., Proj. F-7-R-6, 10 p. 

"Eight randomly selected statims, each 300 feet long were 

sampled and 345 eastern brook trout and 226 rainbow trout were captured. 

The condition factor (C) of the eastern brook trout averaged 26.4 and 

the rainbow trout 32.2. 

acres of land were cut from a 5 

increase of both total number and total weight of all trout captured." 

Logging operations have continued and 1,180 

to 95 percent cut. There was a slight 

(228) Stefanich, Frank A. 

1955. The effects of logging on Pinkham Creek's fish population. Mont. State Dep. Fish E Game. Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Job Completion Rep., Pmj. F-7-R-4, 5 p. 

"Nine randomly selected sections, each 300 feet long were 

sampled and 388 eastern brook trout and 200 rainbow trout were captured. 

113 
The eastern brook trout comprised 66 percent of the population. 

condition factor of the brook trout averaged 37.4 and the rainbow trout 

38.9. 

timber removed during the current year. 

was selective cut pine, fir and larch and the remainder was clear cut 

spruce. 

sections than in the upper. There was a decrease in both numbers and 

weights of fish from that of the previous years. 

fered the greatest reduction. Some new erosion of the stream banks was 

observed in the portion of the stream in which the lower three stations 

are located . 

The 

Logging operations have continued and 1,250 acres have had some 

Ninety percent of the logging 

The rainbow trout were found to be more numerous in the lower 

The rainbow trout suf- 

(229) Steinbrenner, E. C. 

1966. Logging on watersheds: what type, where, what.disturbance? 

watershed management, p. 109-115. Oreg. State Univ., 

Corvallis . 

In Proceedings of a Symposium--Practical aspects of 

"It appears that although we do have the scars on the landscape from past logging, once the problem was brought to light, improvements began to take shape. The development of new and better logging 

equipment has been encouraged and this equipment utilized to mhimize 

disturbances to the watershed, thus maintaining the productivity of the 

forest lands . 

"The forest industry moved into tree farming 25 years ago and 

is moving toward more intensive forestry. 

tance of maintaining the productivity of the land is recognized. 

tenance of improvement of site quality is a worthy objective in managing 

land for timber or water, or both." 

Among other things, the imporMain- 

(230) Wooldridge, David D. 

1960. Watershed disturbance from tractor and skyline crane logging. J. For. 58(5):369-372. 

"In a comparative study of logging methods, soil disturbance 

caused by a Wyssen Skyline Crane was only a quarter of that caused by a 

standard crawler tractor operation. 

Crane area was found on fewer transects, less damage was evident in the 

residual stand, and less road construction was needed. These advantages 

suggest the possibility of using skyline logging systems for harvesting 

timber in municipal watersheds and other areas previously closed to logging because of erosive soil conditions or steep, broken terrain. " 

Soil disturbance on the Skyline 

114 
(231) Zach, L. W. 

1951. Past logging affects little of watersheds. USDA For. 

Serv. Tech. Notes 8, p. 1. Alaska For. Res. Cent., Juneau, 

Alaska . "Past logging near salmon streams in Southeast Alaska has disturbed the watersheds very little. A compilation of watershed areas compared to areas cut on 24 Forest Service timber sales adjoining streams 

showed the following: 

"1 . 

"2 . 

"3 . 

"4. 

"5. 

Southeast Alaska watersheds are small. On the 24 sales 

they ranged from 342 acres to 20,000 acres. 

Areas logged are small. 

178 acres. 

They ranged from 18 acres to 

Average proportion of watershed cut over was only 1.3 

percent. 

15.5 percent. 

Individual sales ranged *om 0.28 percent to 

Cutting is nearly always confined to the lower part of 

the watershed. 

two miles up a drainage. 

In no case did cutting proceed more than 

Southeast Alaska forest stands are so broken up and intermingled with nonmerchantable types that no great unbroken clear- cuttings or denuded watersheds can be expected. '' 

115 
STREAM PROTECTION 

116 
(232) Burwell, Dave 

1971. Prevention of debris accumulation in streams by uphill 

felling. In James Morris [ed.], Proceedings of a symposium 

--Forest land uses and stream environment, p. 118-120. Oreg. 

State Univ. , Corvallis . 

"Felling trees uphill using a truck-mounted donkey and climber 

to attach the line, prevents breakage and distributes limbs and tops on 

slopes instead of in stream bottoms. 

of comparable conventional cutting. 

increased safety, lessened breakage, reduction of slash to eliminate 

burning and enable quicker regeneration, and reduction of expensive creek 

cleaning. These may more than offset additional costs." 

Costs are two to three times those 

Savings include the intangible of 

(233) Evans, W. A., and F. B. Johnston 

1973. Fish migration and fish passage--a practical guide to 

solving fish passage problems. USDA For. Serv., Reg. 5, 41 p. 

"This report is prepared as a working guide for forest biologists and engineers who are confronted with the practical problems of 

providing fish passage through or over both natural and artificial structures in streams. Useful material has been selected from the various 

reference sources and combined to form a simplified source of information 

for the California Region. 'I 

(234) Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 

1970. Industrial waste guide on logging practices. U.S. Dep. 

Inter., 40 p. Portland, Oreg. 

Some of the problems involved in improper or poorly planned 

logging operations are described, and guidelines are prescrtbed which 

should be used to prevent such operations. 

(235) Jones and Stokes Associates, Inc. and J. B. Gilbert Associates 

1972. A study to develop administrative and regulatory practices 

to prevent water quality degradation resulting from logging and 

construction operations in the north coast of California. 

Rep., Stand. Agreement No. 1-5-018, 72 p'. 

Control Board, Sacramento, Calif. 

Prog. 

State Water Resour. 

This progress report is a summary of the studies conducted to 

date along with a prospectus of future work. 

tions contains a summary review of literature regarding the adverse effects of logging operations on water quality. The second section deals 

with a format for evaluating the potential impact of a proposed logging 

operation. The final section surveys the administrative and regulatory 

practices of other States, the Federal Government, and other State agencies in California. 

The first of three sec117 
(236) Lantz, Richard L. 

1971. Guidelines for stream protection in logging operations. 

Oreg. State Game Corn., Rep. Res. Div., 29 p. Portland, Oreg. 

Practical guidelines for the management of a coastal watershed 

in Oregon are presented. The aims of management are to maintain production of timber, fish, and high-quality water. 

vegetation and minimizing somces of sedimentation, a watershed can be 

managed to benefit man. 

fishery management need not conflict but rather should work together for 

optimum success. 

By protecting streamside 

The report's main premise is that forestry and 

(237) Lawler, Thornas A. 

1971. Resource protection possibilities and alternatives in 

logging. 

Forest land uses and stream environment,p. 84-85. Oreg. 

State Univ., Corvallis. 

In James Morris red.], Proceedings of a symposium-- 

"Forest land resources may be protected during logging through 

the use of many logging alternatives. 

are discussed relative to using various alternatives including equipment 

now available and available in the future. 

by using a logging method other than the most economical must be balanced 

by a benefit of at least equal value. 

toried to determine specific future logging standards or requirements 

which will be compatible with anticipated resource protection needs. 

This will give direction to equipment development and acquisition. 

The public ultimately pays for and benefits from resource protection. 

Work must be done to determine how much protection the public is willing 

to pay for and how the costs should be borne." 

Three forest management concepts 

1) Any extra costs incurred 

2) Forest lands should be inven3) 

(238) Oregon State Game Commission 

1963. Precautions for stream and fish protection in road construction and logging operations. 

shed management, p. 338-340. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

In Symposium--Forest waterRecomended,practices for fish and stream protection are listed. 

The report states that the most common causes of fish problems in forest 

lands are removal of bank cover, improperly laid culverts, siltation, and 

logging debris. 

(239) Reid, Kenneth A. 

1955. For better trout fishing. Pa. Angler 24(10):4, 5, 23. 

In a study of trout production made in streams in the Adirondacks, more careful and well-planned logging practices are said to be 

needed to protect trout environments. 

118 
( 240) Rothacher , Jack 

1960. How much debris down the drainage? In Proceedings, 

Cooperative watershed management short course, p. 13-1 to 

13-4. beg. State Coll. , Corvallis. 

The author points out problems associated with the question 

of where logging debris should be removed from streams. 

that if a stream is fed by a watershed larger than 40 acres, logs and 

chunks should be withheld from the stream or removed before the winter 

flows . 

He suggests 

(241) Rothwell, R. L. 

1971. Watershed management guidelines for logging and road construction. Can. For. Serv, Inform. Rep. A-X-42, 78 p. For. 

Res. Lab., Edmonton, Alberta, Can. 

"This report presents a set of guidelines for logging and road 

construction to minimize erosion, sedimentation, and detericration of 

water quality. In the absence of local research and information, the 

guidelines are based on an extensive literature survey of research results and practices in North America and on a broad reconnaissance of 

forest conditions in Alberta. '' 

(242) Schneider, P. W. 

1956. The effects of logging old-growth timber on fish management. SOC. Am. For. Proc. 1955:121-123. 

Effects of logging virgin timber and the best way to avoid 

excessive damage to fishery resources are discussed, Two approaches 

suggested are research on the responses of stream to various timber 

harvest practices and the integration of fishery considerations with 

timber harvest operations. 

( 243) Sheridan , William , Theodore Hoffman , and Sigurd Olson 

1965. A technique for monitoring effects of land use on salmon 

streams in Alaska, 45th Annu. Conf. West. Assoc. Fish E Game 

COTIXII. PPOC. 1965:155-159. 

"Because of possible effects on salmon spawning environment 

in Alaska, a monitoring technique has been developed'by the Forest Service in cooperation with the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 

general objective of the monitoring system is to detect changes in the 

spawning environment that adversely affect salmon production. Characteristics being monitored in one stream (soon to be followed by two 

others) are as follows: 

The 

"1. Composition of streambed spawning areas 

"2. Streamflow and water temperature 

119 
"3. Stream channel configuration and amount and kind 

of debris in stream channel 

"4. Soil types in the watershed 

"5. Production of salmon fry 

"6. Adult salmon escapement 

"If changes in the salmon spawning environment, thought to 

be harmful, do occur, remedial measures can be undertaken. 

other hand, practices which may enhance the habitat can be expanded." 

On the 

(244) Smedley, Stephen C. 

1968. Progress report of joint stream monitoring by the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game and U.S. Forest Service. In 

Richard T. Myren red.], Logging and salmon, p. 48-61. Proc. 

Forum Am. Inst. Fish. Res. Biol., Alaska Dist., Juneau, Alaska. 

The monitoring system of three salmon streams in southeastern 

Alaska is discussed. The six characteristics monitored were: streambed 

gravel composition, yearly spawning escapement, preemergent pink salmon 

fry, streamflow, temperature, and incidence and movement of logs or de- bris in stream channels. 

(245) Society of American Foresters, Columbia River Section, Water 

Management Committee 

1959. Recommended logging practices for watershed protection in 

western Oregon. J. For. 57(6):460-465. 

Recommended practices for watershed protection are. outlined 

in the order in which problems occur in logging operations. 

(246) Society of American Foresters, Columbia River Section, Water 

Management Committee 

1961. Watershed protection. A manual for forest landowners. 

Oreg. State Coll., 16 p. Corvallis, Oreg.; Coll. Press. 

The manual serves as a nontechnical guide for logging and 

multiple-use management by private landowners and the general public. 

The report states that to provide' shade and protection from erosion the 

streambank should be protected from the wind whenever possible. 

(247) USDA Forest Service, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, and 

Alaska Department of Natural Resources 

[nod,] Logging and fish habitat. 22 p. Juneau, Alaska. 

"This pamphlet, directed mainly to timber sale administrators 

and loggers, describes some of the major habitat requirements of trout 

and salmon and lists some basic practices that will help to protect the 

habitat. '' 

120 
(248) Wilson, Robert L. 

1960. Reducing erosion in the construction of logging roads, 

In Proceedings,Cooperative watershed management short course, 

p. 17-1 to 17-4. Oreg. State Coll., Corvallis. 

"Erosion on logging roads can be minimized by increasing the 

angle to the back slope, hence reducing the area of slope subject to 

erosion, and by proper construction methods such as keying in all fill 

material and by compacting the subgrade." 

121 
STREAM IMPROVEMENT 

122 
(249) Bishop, Daniel M., and S, Philip Shapley 

1963. Effects of log-debris jams on southeast Alaska salmon 

streams. [Abstract.] 13th Alaskan Sci. Conf. Proc. 1962:90. 

"Log debris jams which were constructed on Maybeso Creek, Prince 

of Wales Island, induced streambed scouring under and around the jams and 

downstream migration and deposition of bedload. Fall floods which washed 

out the jams, removed fine material in the gravel which was accompanied 

by significant increase in dissolved oxygen in one of the jam areas. 

"Log jams created unstable streambeds by maintaining readily 

changeable conditions and concentrating high flows in the vicinity of the 

construct ion 

"Salmon eggs deposited near the log jams may be washed out or 

buried thus gravel movement above a certain degree may offset the advantages of improved quality of inter-gravel water." 

(250) BOUSSU, Marvin F. 

1954. Relationship between trout populations and cover on a 

small stream. J. Wildl. Manage. 18(2):229-239. 

"The study showed that trout populations in Trout Creek, Gallatin County, Montana, can be directly correlated with natural cover, 

application of artificial cover, and removal of natural cover on the 

stream . 'I 

(251) Broad, Robert D., and Harold A. Gangmark 

1956, Establishment of a controlled flow area and construction 

of king salmon spawning pens at Mill Creek, California. bog. 

Fish-Cult . 18( 3) : 131-134 , 

"An isolated channel that leads independently from Mill Creek 

to the Sacramento River was selected for conducting experimental spawning 

and incubation studies. Spawning pens and a water-control dam were built 

as essential counterparts of the experimental area. Brush, silt, sand, 

and gravel were bulldozed from its entrance to reestablish flow into the 

channel. A length of corrugated metal pipe was laid in the channel and 

covered with earth to create a dam extending 8 feet above the pipe. A 

headgate (Calco Model 101) was mounted at the upstream end of the pipe 

for flow regulation. 

"Stream improvement work was done in the old channel for approximately 1,000 feet below the dam. 

loosening gravel, and freeing it of silt and sand. 

a uniform width, and the slopes of each riffle were made constant. 

additional settling ponds were excavated below the dam." 

This involved removing large rocks, 

The channel was made 

Two 

123 
(252) Helmers, A. E. 

1966. Some effects of log jams and flooding in a salmon spawning stream. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note NOR-14, 4 p. North. 

For. Exp. Stn., Juneau, Alaska. 

"Streambed scouring and deposition occurred in the areas of 

two constructed log-debris jams. Gravel shif*ing associated with jams 

and flood flows reduced the fine material content of the streambed gravel 

and may have been responsible for the increased dissolved oxygen concentration . 

"Log-debris jams intensify streambed instability, especially 

during floods. They may reduce salmon production in otherwise favorable 

areas. Gravel movement presumably reduces egg and larvae survival. On 

the other hand, loss of fine material because of gravel movement should 

benefit the salmon development environment by improving intragravel waterflow, thus increasing dissolved oxygen availability and making possible 

more effective removal of metabolic wastes. 

jams on salmon production remains undetermined. 

point, however, temporary or unstable jams are judged to be detrimental." 

The effect of log-debris 

From a conservative view- 

(253) Holman, Gerald, and Willis A. Evans 

1964. Stream clearance project-completion report Noyo River, 

Mendocino County. Calif. Fish & Game, Inland Fish. Adm. Rep. 

64-10, 13 p. 

"This report covers one of the first major stream clearance 

projects to be conducted in the State. 

the initial surveys to post project inspections. 

Activities are described from 

"A total of 36 miles of spawning and nursery areasof the 

Noyo River drainage were improved at a cost of slightly over $19,000. 

Clearance work was conducted by use of Conservation Camp personnel. 

"The project was deemed beneficial , although no satisfactory 

method was devised to evaluate results. 

principal benefit of log jam removal is not removal of impassable barriers. 

to remove silt and gravel deposited behind log jams. 

that both spawning conditions and food production are thus removed for 

anadromous fishes. 

Contrary to popular belief, the 

It is improvement of habitat by permitting scouring winter flows 

It is believed 

(254) Meehan, William R. 

1971. Effects of gravel cleaning on bottom organisms in three 

southeast Alaska streams. Prog. Fish-Cult. 33(2):107-111. 

"The cleaning of gravel in three streams by the gravel shifter 

initially reduced the bottom fauna populations in each of these streams, 

124 
but within 1 year these populations apparently returned to the pretreatment levels in each of the streams." 

(255) Merrell, T. R. 

1951. Stream improvement as conducted in Oregon on the Clatskanie 

River and tributaries. Fish, Corn. Oreg., Res. Briefs 3:41-47. 

" All evidence seems to point to the fact that drastic clearance 

Although the stream bottom was greatly disof logs and debris from salmon streams increases accessibility and at least 

does not damage productivity. 

turbed, in less than a year natural conditions had largely restored themselves. About 15 additional miles of stream were made readily available 

to spawning salmonoids. 

"It is believed that due to improvements made the Clatskanie 

and its tributaries are at present capable of providing spawning and rearing facilities for large numbers of silver salmon and steelhead trout." 

(256) Nobel, E. L., and L. J, Lundeen 

1971. Analysis of rehabilitation treatment alternatives for 

sediment control. In James Morris [ed.], Proceedings of a 

symposium--Forest land uses and stream environment, p. 86-96. 

Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

"The aquatic environment of the South Fork Salmon River has 

A special study was conducted to determine the source and exbeen severely damaged in recent years by excessive rates of sediment production. 

tent of the damage, and measures required to reduce future sediment production to a 'tolerable' level. Linear programming was used as an aid 

to select from 190 possible treatment alternatives and minimize treatment costs at various levels of sediment reduction, The desired level 

of sediment could be reached at a cost of $5 million. Debris basins to 

trap sediment moving in the channel proved to be the most effective and 

economical type of treatment while control of sediment production from 

roads and timber harvest on steep, fragile lands would have a very high 

cost . " 

(257) Richard, James A. 

1963, Log stream improvement devices and their effects upon 

the fish population, south fork Mokelumne River, Calaveras 

County. Calif. Fish E Game, Inland Fish. Admin. Rep. 63-7, 

12 p. 

Richard states that due to severe bank erosion at the ends 

of the dams the construction of log dams proved ineffective for increasing fish populations or improving trout stream habitat. 

provement devices are recommended only for controlled streamflows. 

Log stream i m - 

125 
(258) Sheridan, W. L. 

1969. Benefit/cost aspects of salmon habitat improvement in 

the Alaska Region. USDA For. Serv., 47 p. Branch Wildl. 

Manage., Reg. 10, Juneau, Alaska. 

"...the purpose of this report is to: 

"1 . 

"2 . 

"3 . 

Present a method of benefit/cost analysis of habitat 

improvement projects whereby funds can be allotted to 

obtain the highest dollar return on the investment. 

Using a completed project, demonstrate how the method 

works in terms of project costs, benefits actually realized to date, and future returns. 

Present benefit/cost analyses for a series of proposed 

representative fish habitat improvements projects not 

yet funded." 

(259) Sheridan, W. L. 

1969. Effects of log debris jams on salmon spawning riffles in 

Saginaw Creek.... USDA For. Serv., 12 p. Juneau, Alaska. 

"A preliminary study of the effect of log debris jams on salmon 

spawning habitat was made in Saginaw Creek on Kuiu Island in June, 1968. 

This study showed that about 27 percent of the area in one lineal mile of 

this stream had been eliminated as spawning area by log jams. 

tions are made for judicial removal of jams and leaning trees, especially 

while a logging operator is in the watershed. 

ratio is 34:l for removal of a log jam and 342:l for removal of leaning 

trees . I' 

RecommendaDiscounted benefit cost 

(260) Sheridan, W. L., Richard W. Wilke, and S. T. Olson 

1968. The gravel cleaner ("Riffle Sifter"). USDA For. Serv. 

Prog. Rep., 1967, 8 p. Alaska Reg., Juneau, Alaska. 

"Research in fisheries and engineering has shown that egg to 

fry survival of salmon embryos is higher in sediment free gravels. For 

this reason, the Forest Service is developing equipment to remove sediment from spawning gravels. 

Service engineers in 1964, and a working model was developed by the Clark 

Equipment Company in 1966. in 1966 

and 1967. Although mechanical failures precluded thorough testing in 

Alaska, it was demonstrated that the equipment would remove large quantities of sediment from streambed gravels and that the principle of jetting the fines to the surface where they can be sucked up and disposed 

of is sound. The history of development and the results of testing of 

the "Riffle Sifter" are given in this progress report. 

ipated that a production (working) model will be available for use in 

Alaska prior to 1969." 

A prototype model was developed by Forest 

The equipment was tested in Alaska 

It is not antic - 

126 
MULTIPLE-USE MANAGEMENT 

127 
(261) Andersen, Harold E., and George A. James 

1957. Watershed management and research on salmon streams of 

southeast Alaska. J. For. 55(1):14-17. 

General problems associated with logging on salmon streams are 

discussed; i.e., sedimentation, temperature increases, and log jams. Restrictions in timber sale contracts are also reviewed. 

(262) Borovicka, Robert L. 

1968. Consideration of aquatic resources with forest practices 

in western Oregon. Presented to Oreg. State For. Dep., For.- 

Fish. Habitat Semin. , 9 p. ' Tillamook, Oreg. 

The Multiple-Use Act is discussed; defining its multiple uses 

to fisheries and forestry. 

fected by forestry practices in Oregon is pointed out, as well as forest 

practices which have helped fisheries. 

The importance of the fishery resource af- 

(263) Bullard, W. E. 

1950. Some references on watershed management. USDA For. Serv. 

Pac. Northwest For. & Range Exp. Stn., Res. Note 63, 26 p. 

Portland, Oreg. 

The relationship of forest vegetation to climate, soil, erosion, runoff, and streamflow and the effects of logging on each are summarized. 

(264) Bureau of Land Management 

1970. An allowable cut plan for western Oregon. 90 p. U.S. 

Dep. Inter., Portland, Oreg. 

"The purpose of this report is to present the results of the 

application of the BLM proposed allowable cut policies and procedures 

to the recent re-inventory of BLM's western Oregon forest lands. 

identifies the highest level of sustained timber production that can be 

economically achieved under environmentally sound management. 

objective is to develop a program indicating the manpower, funding and 

the size and timing of investments needed to implement timber production, 

multiple use, and environmental protection." 

It 

A further 

(265) Cosens, Richard D. 

1958. Reducing logging damage. USDA For. Serv. Calif. For. 

& Range Exp. Stn. Res. Note 82, 9 p. Berkeley. 

Preventing logging damage will be made easier by 

"1. Preparing and carrying out a detailed logging plan aimed 

at reduction of damage. 

128 
112. Properly training and supervising logging crews; and 

"3. Focusing engineering and logging ingenuity on designing 

equipment that will lessen damage to the advance growth 

as well as increase efficiency of yarding logs." 

(266) Croft, A. R., and Marvin D. Hoover 

1951. The relation of forests to our water supply. J. For. 

49(4):245-249. 

Several practices to reduce the deleterious effects of logging in the northern Rocky Mountains are suggested including selective 

cutting in a 200-400-ft strip along streams. 

related to water quality is briefly discussed. 

The problem of erosion as 

(267) Gleason, Clark H. 

1958. Watershed management--An annotated bibliography of erosion, streamflow, and water yield publications by the California Forest and Range Experiment Station. USDA For. Serv. 

Calif. For. & Range Exp. Stn. Tech. Pap. 23, 79 p. Berkeley. 

"Bibliography has two purposes (1) to list and describe publications of the California Forest and Range Expt. Station and (2) to cite 

a few important early articles by other workers that helped set the stage 

for the station's work. Subjects covered include: (1) analytical methods, 

(2) climate, (3) floods and flood control, (4) geology, (5) instrumentation, (6) watershed management, (7) plant relations, (8) research programs 

and (9) soil relations and water relations." 

(268) Greene, A. F. C. 

1967, The relationship of aquatic wildlife habitats to forest 

management. SOC. Am. For. Proc. 1966:62-65. 

Need for multiple-use management to protect and preserve OUT 

aquatic wildlife habitat is discussed. 

(269) Hagenstein, W. D . 1953. The tree farm program--an asset to fish and game management. J. For. 51(9):620-623. 

Hagenstein states that the controlled logging programs in Douglasfir forests benefit the hunter and fisherman because ground cover is seldom lacking more than 6 months during the year due to natural plant selection. Water courses can be protected through the use of streamside strips 

and forest rotation. 

129 
(270) Neale, Alfred T. 

1953. Watershed problems and their relation to water quality. 

Wash. Pollut. Control Corn., Tech. Bull. 15, 16 p. Olympia. 

Several methods of operations are suggested for use in commercial and recreational activities in forested watersheds with streams 

which support anadromous fish runs. Author suggests leaving a buffer 

strip at least 30 feet wide, except "in special cases where stream banks 

are subject to undercutting." 

(271) Needham, Paul R., and Fred W. Johnson 

1949. Forests and fish. In A. Stefferud [ed.], Trees, the 

yearbook of agriculture, p. 581-585. Washington, D.C.: 

U.S. Gov. Print. Off. 

Importance of multiple-use management in relation to factors 

affecting fish populations is discussed. 

(272) Packer, Paul E. 

1957. Management of forest watersheds and improvement of fish 

habitat. Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. 87:392-397. 

"Management of forest watersheds in the western United States 

for protection against floods and sediment and to improve water yields 

can also be very beneficial in fishery management. 

hydrologic processes that operate on watersheds are discussed. 

cipal kinds of watershed protection and water yield improvement problems 

are outlined and discussed in relation to maintenance of desirable fish 

habitat. 

tionships on watersheds and develop methods of forest management for 

better regulated and higher quality streamflow is emphasized." 

Some of the important 

The prinNeed for research to determine quantitative hydrologic rela- 

(273) Schlapfer, T. A. 

1972. Title 2100-multiple use management. USDA For. Serv., For. 

Serv. Man., Reg. 6, Suppl. 11, Code 2121.33, p. 27-34. 

Portland, Oreg. 

The Manual: 

"...Provides new policy and guidelines for protecting water 

quality through establishment of 'streamside management units ' (SMU) . Stream classification is determined by use made of water and each class 

has certain water quality objectives and criteria to be met in the conduct of land management activities." 

130 
(274) Smith, Allen C. 

1963. Tractor roads and trails planning, use and post treatment. 

Iiz Symposium--Forest watershed management, p. 283-289. Oreg. 

State Univ., Corvallis. 

"In logging a watershed with tractors it should always be remembered that a tractor is very versatile; and weather, soil, slope, and 

other conditions should regulate plans and policies rather than pre-set 

rules. 

costs to a minimum so that a maximum return from the timber can be realized. 

the timber the watershed may be ruined. 

control with skid trails distributed throughout. 

It should be possible to protect the watershed and still keep 

Fire protection is of high importance because when fire destroys 

Most areas are safer for fire 

"Protection of watershed areas should be easy with tractor 

logging if the logger realizes that this protection is part of his job." 

(275) Tanner, Howard A. 

1954. Place of game and fish in multiple use of watersheds. 

Trans. Am. Fish. SOC. 87:386-391. 

"Fish and wildlife in the near futwe will often have to be 

fitted into multiple use programs for watersheds. This involves compromise between various desired uses of land and water; uses which may be 

compatible, conflicting or independent. If fish and wildlife are to 

receive proper consideration in the multiple use program, it is essential 

that there be more factual information on relationships of wildlife to 

habitat and on wildlife values. 

use of these facts." 

Public support must be won through the 

(276) Toney, Robert D. 

1961. Multiple-use management and its effect on logging practices. llth Alaskan Sci. Conf. Proc. 1961:156-161. 

"This paper has attempted to point out some of the ways in 

which other uses of the national forests affect timber harvesting and 

logging practices. 

ging criteria are good forestry practices, but as the population increases and more and more people move into an area other uses for the 

land gain in importance and cannot be, and are not, ignored. Fisheries, 

water, and recreation are all gaining in importance, and it may be that 

someday the other uses for the national forests will become so important and widespread that standard logging practices will be obsolete." 

There are, however, still areas where the only log- 

(277) University of Washington 

1971. Clear- cutting, impacts - options - trade-offs. Inst. 

For. Prod. Proc., Coll. For. Contemp. For. Ser. No. 1, 44 p. 

Seattle. 

Discussions about the natural resources, including plants, 

soils, and water, the economics and politics of clearcutting, and land 

131 
use decisions are included. 

answers but to raise questions, to attempt to sort these questions as 

to their relevancy, and to provide information that might help those 

making policy decisions to arrive at useful answers. 

The conference was not designed to provide 

(278) Willington, R. P. 

1971. Forests, fish, and water. Symp. Cent. Contin. Educ. & 

Fac. For. 4 p. Univ. B. C., Vancouver, B.C., Can. 

The purpose of the symposium was to identify some of the major 

problems in forest-fish-water resources, with the objective of reaching a 

consensus of opinion. 

chieved, some valuable generalizations were developed, including: (1) a 

need for more advanced planning in forestry operations, (2) operator supervision of operational plans, (3) research aimed at the operational 

level rather than at the academic or basic level, and (4) retraining or 

refresher education courses for all levels of research personnel. 

Although conclusive unity of opinion was not a132 
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES NOT ANNOTATED 

(279) Allen, K. Radway 

1960. Effect of land development on stream bottom faunas. 

N. Z. Ecol. SOC. PPOC. 7~20-21. 

(280) Barney, Charles W . , and Robert E. Dils 

1972. Bibliography of clearcutting in western forests. Coll. 

For. & Nat. Resour. 65 p. Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. 

(281) Bethlahmy, Nedavia 

1960. Surface runoff and erosion--related problems of timber 

harvesting. J. Soil & Water Conserv. 15(4):158-161. 

(282) Bureau of Land Management 

1968. 6760-Stream preservation and improvement. U.S. Dep. 

Inter. BLM Man. 

(283) Bureau of Land Management 

1969. 5110-Stream protection. U.S. Dep. Inter. BLM Man. 

Suppl. Oreg. State Off., Portland. 

(284) Bureau of Land Management 

1969. 6512-Wildlife--forest management. U.S. Dep. Inter. BLM 

Man . 

(285) Chutter, F. M. 

1969. The effects of silt and sand on the invertebrate fauna 

of streams and rivers. Hydrobiologia 34(1):57-76. 

(286) Copeland, Otis L., Jr. 

1965. Land use and ecological factors in relation to sediment 

yields. U.S. Dep. Agric. Misc. Publ. 970:72-84. 

(287) Dymess, C. T. 

1967. Grass-legume mixtures for roadside soil stabilization. 

USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-71, 19 p. Pac. Northwest 

For. & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

(288) Evans, Willis A. 

1960. The effect of current west coast logging practices upon 

fisheries resources. SOC. Am. For. Proc. 1959:106-108. 

(289) Everts, Curtiss M., Jr. 

1957. Water quality depends on good forest management. SOC. Am. 

For. Proc. 1956:199-201. 

133 
(293) 

(299 

Gebhardt, Gary A. 

1970. The influence of stream disturbance activity on aquatic 

organisms--a review. U.S. Dep. Inter. Bur. Land Manage., 

43 p., Salem, Oreg. 

Hall, James D. 

1968, Effects of logging on fish resources. .Loggers Handb. 

28( Sect . 11) : 24-28. 

Hall, James D., and James T. Krygier 

1967. Studies on effects of watershed practices on fish. 'Fed. 

Water Pollut. Control Admin. Res. Grant WP 423, Prog. Rep., 

95 p. beg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

Hall, James D., and Thomas G. Scott 

1969. Recreational and esthetic values of wildlife in relation 

to forest management. In Hugh C. Black [ed.], Proceedings of 

a Symposium, wildlife and reforestation in the Pacific Northwest, p. 22-25. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 

Hansmann, Eugene W. 

1973. Effects of logging on periphyton in coastal streams of 

Oregon. Ecology 54(1):194-199. 

Herbert, D. W. M., and J. C. Merkens 

1961. The effect of suspended mineral solids on the survival of 

trout. Int. J. Air & Water Pollut. 5(1):46-55. 

Hewlett, John D., and Alden R. Hibbert 

1961. Increases in water yield after several types of forest 

cutting. Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. Bull. 6:5-17. 

Jeffrey, W. W., and B. C. Goodell 

Works Assoc. 62:380-385. 

1970. Land management in municipal watersheds. J. Am. Water 

Juntunen, Erland T., and Logan A. Norris 

1972. Field application of herbicides--avoiding danger to fish. 

Agric. Exp. Stn. Spec. Rep. 353, 26 p. beg. State Univ., 

Corvallis . 

Kelley, Don W. 

1959. Effects of siltation on production of fish food organisms. 

In E. F. Eldridge and John N. Wilson [eds.], Proceedings of 5th 

symposium--Pacific Northwest on siltation --its source and 

effects on aquatic environment, p. 13-15. U.S. Dep. Health, 

Educ. E Welfare, Portland, Oreg. 

134 
(300) Kunigk, W. A. 

1945. Relation of runoff and water quality to land and forest 

use in the Green River watershed. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 

37:21-31. 

(301) Liebeman, J. A., and M. D. Hoover 

1948. The effect of uncontrolled logging on stream turbidity. 

Water Sewage Works 95(7):255-258. 

(302) Megahan, Walter F. 

1972. Logging, erosion, sedimentation--are they dirty words? 

J. For. 70(7):403-407. 

(303) Mersereau, R. C., and C. T. Dyrness 

1972. Accelerated mass wasting after logging and slash burning in western Oregon. J. Soil & Water Conserv. 27(3): 

112-114 . 

(304) Metsker, Howard E. 

1970. Fish versus culverts. USDA For. Serv. Eng. Tech. Rep. 

ETR-7700-5, 19 p. Washington, D.C. 

( 305) Narver David W . 1973. Are hatcheries and spawning channels alternatives to 

stream protection? Fish. Res. Board Can. Circ. 93, 11 p. 

Pac. Biol. Stn., Nanaimo, B.C. 

(306) Reed, Richard D., and Steven T. Elliott 

[nod.] Effects of logging on dolly Varden. Alaska Dep. Fish G 

Game, Fed. Aid in Fish Restoration, Div. Sport Fish, Annu. 

Prog. Rep., Proj. F-9-4, Job R-IV-B, 62 p. Juneau, Alaska. 

(307) Reinhart, Kenneth G. and Howard W. Lull 

1969. Forests and floods: a reconsideration. Presented to 

Watershed Manage. Sect., SOC. Am. For., 6 p. 

(308) Ross, Richard 

1966. Forest influences on streamflow hydrology. In Proceedings of a symposium--Practical aspects of watershed management, 

p. 28-37. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis 

(309) Rothacher, Jack, C. T. Djrmess, and Richard L. Fredriksen 

1967. Hydrologic and related characteristics of three small 

watersheds in the Oregon Cascades. USDA For. Serv., 54 p. 

Pac. Northwest For. E Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 

(310) Shields, Herbert J. 

1968. Riffle sifter for Alaska salmon gold. In 1968 yearbook 

of agriculture, p. 204-208. Washington, DOC.: U.S. Gov. Print. 

Off. 

135 
(311) Skeesick, Delbert G. 

1970. The fall immigration of juvenile coho salmon into a 

small tributary. Fish. Corn. Oreg. Res. Rep. 2(1):1-6. 

(312) Smoker, William A. 

1953. Stream flow and silver salmon production in western 

Washington. Wash . Dep ., Fish . , Fish . Res . Pap . l(1) : 5-12 . 

(313) Tyler, Richard W. 

1970. Stream surveys of the Juneau unit sale area of southwest 

Admiralty Island, 1970. Univ. Wash., Fish. Res. Inst., 105 p. 

Seattle. [Mimeogr. 1 

(314) Tyler, Richard W., and Dave R. Gibbons 

tributaries of the Staney Creek watershed and the Thorne River 

watershed and of logging in the Sitka district. Univ. Wash., 

Fish. Res. Inst. Final Rep., Part I, F'RI-UW-7307, 58 p. 

Seattle. 

1973. ObservatJions of the effects of 1ogging.on salmon-producing 

(315) USDA Forest Service and USDA Soil Conservation Service 

1940. Influences of vegetation and watershed treatments on 

runoff, silting, and streamflow. U.S. Dep. Agric. Misc. 

Publ. 397, 80 p. 

(316) Wilm, H. G., and E. G. Dunford 

1948. Effect of timber cutting on water available for stream 

flow from lodgepole-pine forest. U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. 

Bull. 968, 43 p. 

(317) Worthington, R. E. 

1960. Erosion control measures for logged areas. Coop. Watershed Manage. Short Course Proc., p. 1 9 - 1 to 19-6. 0re.g. 

State Coll., Corvallis. 

136 
SUBJECT INDEX' 

Erosion and Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 12, 23, 24, 15, 26, 27, 

28, 29, 20, 22, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 32, 

33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 

48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67, 

84, 107, 108, 116, 135, 174, 177, 196, 199, 200, 210, 213, 

214, 215, 217, 220, 221, 222, 223, 248, 256, 260. 

Streamside Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 94, 96, 97, 

102, 103, 113, 116, 117, 122, 220, 266, 270 

WaterQuality.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 30, 35, 42, 47, 58, 62, 66, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 

79, 80, 82, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 92, 93, 

94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, ZOO, 102, 202, 203, 204, 205, 106, 

207, 208, 109, 220, 222, 222, 223, 214, 225, 226, 227, 123, 

130, 211, 217, 219, 221, 222 

Alteration of Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 45, 84, 118, 129, 120, 121, 222, 223, 224, 125, 226, 227, 

228, 229, 130, Z32, 232, 133, 234, 235, 136, 137, 238, 239, 

240, 242, 242, 243, 214, 217, 220 

Descriptions of Effects of Logging Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244, 245, 146, 247, 248, 249, 250, 152, 152, 253, 254, 255, 

256, 257, 161, 191 

Related Salmonid Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 26, 35, 36, 43, 59, 258, 259, 260, 162, 262, 263, 264, 

265, 266, 267, 268, 269, $70, 272, 272, 273, 274, 275, 27&, 

177, 278, 279, 280, 181, 282, 283, 284, 185, 186, 287, 188, 

289, 190, 292, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 247 

Multiple LoggingEffects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 68, 86, 298, 299, 200, 202, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 

220, 222, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 

261 

208, 209, 210, 261, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 

StreamProtection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 28, 30, 33, 34, 37, 40, 44, 50, 87, 205, 232, 233, 234, 

235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 

247, 248 

'Italics identify entries for which index subject is the major interest. 

137 
Stream Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145, 191, 194, 240, 249, 250, 252, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 

257, 258, 259, 260 

Multiple-Use Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 72, 123, 229, 262, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 

269, 270, 272, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278 

138 
AUTHOR INDEX 

Ahnel1,W.H. ................... Aitken.W.W .................... Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

Alaska Department of Natural Resources 

Al1en.E . J .................... Allen. K . Radway ................. Andersen. Harold E ................. Anderson. H . W ................... 

Atkinson. Sheridan William ............ 

........ ...... 

Anderson. Henry W ................. 

Au. David Wah Kwai ................ Bachman. Roger Werner ............... Bakkala. Richard ................. Bakkala. Richard G ................. Barney. Charles W ................. Berndt,H.W. ................... Bethlahmy. Nedavia ................ Bevan. Donald E .................. Bish0p.D.M .................... Bishop. Daniel M .................. Bjo~n,T.C .................... Boone. Joseph G .................. Bormann,F.H. .................. Bormann. F . Herbert ................ Borovicka. Robert L ................. BOUSSU. Marvin F .................. Brazier. Jon R ................... 

Broad. Robert D .................. Brode.JohnM ................... Brown. George W .................. 

Bridges. W . R ................... 

Bullard,W.E. .................. Bullard. W . E., Jr ................. Bullard. William' ................. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries .......... Bureau of Land Management ............. Burgner. Robert L ................. Burns,J.E. ................... Burns. JamesW ................... 

Burwell.Dave ................... 

184 

1 

247 

247 

72 

279 

261 

2 

3. 4. 5. 6. 118. 119 

73 

158 

7 

159 

26. 124 

280 

120. 121 

281 

185 

217 

8. 47. 249 

160 

29 

71c 

99 

262 

250 

62 

75 

171. 172. 173. 251 

198 

80. 81. 82 

263 

10 

11. 83 

144 

264. 282. 283. 284 

161 

63 

12. 94. 162. 175. 198 

199 

232 

I 

9. 62. 76. 77. 78. 79. 

139 
Calhoun. Alex ................... California Resource Agency ............ Campbell. C . J ................... Campbell. Homer J ................. Chapman,D.W. .................. Christensen. George F ............... Chutter,F.M. .................. Claire.EmlW .................. Coble. Daniel W .................. Co0per.A.C .................... Copeland. Otis L., Jr ............... Cordone. Almo J .................. Cormack,R.G.H. ................. Cosens. Richard D ................. Croft,A.R. ................... Dellberg. Robert A ................. De Rose. Charles R ................. Deschamps. Gene .................. DeWitt. JohnbJ ................... 

Dill. Lawrence M .................. Dils.RobertE ................... 

Dill. L . M ..................... 

Dunford,E.G. .................. Dyrness,C.T. .................. 

Edgington. John R ................. 

Elliott. Steven T ................. Edington. J . 14 ................... 

Ellis,C.H. ................... Ellis,F.I.M. ................... 

Eschner,A.R. .................. Ellis. Robert J .................. 

Eschner. Arthur R ................. Evans,W.A. ................... Evans. Willis A .................. Everts. Curtiss M., Jr ............... Farr,W.A ..................... Federal Water Pollution Control Administration . . 

Fisher,D.W. ................... Fisheries Research Institute ........... Fisk. Leonard ................... Foerster. R . F ................... Fredricksen [Fredriksen]. R . L ........... Fredriksen. R . L .................. Fredriksen. Richard L ............... Froehlich. Henry A ................. 

Gangmark. Harold A ................. 

Ferrel1,W.K. .................. 

Fullerton. E . C .................. 

145. 200. 201. 202 

13 

203 

146. 156. 188 

86. 147. 163. 204 

40 

285 

156 

164 

14. 165 

286 

15. 16. 148 

64 

265 

266 

17 

29 

194 

65. 205 

166 

167 

280 

122. 316 

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 

287. 303. 309 

206 

90 

306 

178 

23 

207 

135 

84 

233 

253. 208 

289 

217 

234 

123 

74 

149. 168 

208 

186 

24 

25. 85 

309 

209 

210 

26. 124. 169. 170. 171. 

172. 173. 174. 251 

140 
Gebhardt. Gary A .................. 

Gerstung. Eric .................. Gibbons. Dave R .................. Gibs0n.H.R .................... Gleason,C.H. .................. Gleason. Clark H .................. Goldman. Charles R ................. Goodel1,B.C. .................. Gordon,R.W. ................... Gordon. Robert .................. Graham. John LeRoy ................ Graves. David S .................. Gray,J.R.A. .................. Green. Geoffrey E ................. Greene,A.F.C. ................. Griffin,L.E. .................. Grondal. Bror L .................. Hagenstein. W . D .................. Hall.JamesD ................... Hansen. Edward A .................. Hansen. Richard .................. Hansmann. Eugene W ................. Hanzel. Delano A .................. Harper. Warren Charles .............. Harris,A.S. ................... Harrold,L.L. .................. Ilaupt. Harold F .................. Haydu. Eugene P .................. Helmers,A.E. .................. Herbert. D . W . M .................. Hess.LloydJ ................... 

German,E.R .................... 

Hewlett. John D .................. Hibbert. Alden R .................. Kobba. Robert I; .................. Hodges.John1 ................... Hoffman. Theodore ................. Hollis. Edgar H .................. Holman. Gerald ................... Hoover,M.D. ................... Hoover. Marvin D .................. Hormbeck,J.W. .................. Hoyt,W.G. .................... Hsieh. Frederic Shu-Kong ............. Hug.WayneL .................... International Pacific Salmon 

Fisheries Commission .............. 

290 

179 

208 

314 

86 

118 

267 

87 

297 

112 

88 

89 

175 

90 

66 

268 

91 

92 

269 

150. 211. 291. 292. 293 

27 

208 

294 

176 

125 

151 

132 

28. 108 

115 

252 

295 

212 

296 

126. 296 

119 

180 

243 

29 

253 

301 

127. 266 

30 

128 

129 

156 

177 

141 
J . B . Gilbert Associates ............. 235 

James. G . A .................... 213. 214 

James. George A .................. 261 

Jeffrey. W . W ................... 130. 297 

Johnson. B . W ................... 178 . 

Johnson. Donald R ................. 180 

Johnson. Fred W .................. 67. 271 

Johnson. Noye M .................. 99 

Johnston. F . €3 ................... 233 

Jones and Stokes Associates. Inc .......... 235 

Juntunen. Erland T ................. 298 

Kabe1,C.S. ................... 179 

Kelley.Don .................... 31 

Kelley. Don W ................... Kidd.W . J ..................... 38 

Kidd. W . Joe. Jr .................. 28 

Klock,G.O. ................... 93 

Kopperdahl. Fredric R ............... 94 

Koski.KV ..................... 32. 189 

Kovner. Jacob L .................. 131 

Kraebe1,C.J. .................. 36 

KTamer. Robert H .................. 95 

Krygier. James T .................. Kunigk.W.A .................... 300 

Lantz. Richard L .................. Larkin.P.A .................... 215 

Lamnoyeux. Jack .................. 84 

Lawler. Thomas A .................. 237 

Lehman. Carl ................... 216 

Levno.Al ..................... 97. 98 

Lieberman. J . A .................. 301 

Lull. Howard W ................... 34. 307 

Lundeen. L . J ................... 256 

McCall. Merley .................. 100 

McGuinness. J . L .................. 132 

McKernan. Donald L ................. 180 

McMynn,R.G. ................... 68 

McNynn. Robert .................. 69 

15. 299 

9. 80. 81. 292 

96. 152. 153. 211. 236 

Larse.RobertW .................. 33 

Likens.G.E .................... 74 

Likens. Gene E ................... 99 

McCrimmon. H . R .................. 35 

McNeil. William J ................. 49. 101. 157. 181. 182. 

McRorey. R . p ................... 36 

Marcuson. Pat ................... 37 

Martens. D . W ................... 112 

Martens. Dennis .................. 88 

Martin. Iury L ................... 133 

183. 184. 185. 193 

142 
Meadowcroft. N . F ................. Meehan.W.R .................... Meehan. William R ................. Megahan,W.F. .................. Megaan. Walter F ................. Merkens. J . C ................... Merrel1,T.R. .................. 

Messer. James B .................. Metsker. Howard E ................. Miller,E.M. ................... Miner. Norman H .................. 

Murphy. George J .................. Narver. David W .................. 

Neave. Ferris .................... Needham. Paul R .................. Nobe1,E.L. ................... Norris. Logan A .................. Northcote. T . G .................. Olson,S.T. ................... Olson. Sigurd .................... Oregon State Game Cormnission ........... Pacific Northwest Pollution 

Control Council ................. Packer.PaulE ................... Patric,J.H. ................... Pennoyer. Steve .................. Peters. John C ................... Phillips. Robert W ................. Pierce,R.S. ................... Platts. William S ................. 

Mersereau. R . C .................. 

Moore. Duane G ................... 

Neale.AlfredT .................. 

Pollard,R.A. .................. Reed. Richard D .................. Reid. Kenneth A .................. 

Reinhart. Kenneth G ................ Reynolds,H.G. .................. 

Rich.LowellR ................... Richard. James A ................... Ringler. Neil Harrison .............. ROSS. Richard N .................. Rothacher. Jack .................. 

Rothwell. R . L ................... Rowe,P.B* .................... 

Reinhart. K . G ................... 

Rice. R . M ..................... 

36 

217 

102. 103. 111. 254 

38 

302 

295 

255 

303 

113 

304 

178 

39 

105 

29 

154. 218. 219. 305 

270 

186. 187 

271 

256 

104. 105. 298 

166 

191. 260 

243 

238 

106 

40. 107. 108. 272 

41. 217 

16 

42 

43. 155. 156. 188. 189 

74 

44 

134 

306 

239 

30. 34. 135 

220. 307 

221 

45 

221 

257 

222 

308 

82. 97. 98. 136. 137. 

138. 240. 309 

241 

139 

143 
Ruth. Robert H ................... 22 

Sadler. Ronald R .................. 70 

Salo. Ernest 0 ................... 223 

Sanford. F . Bruce ................. 174 

Sartz. Richard S .................. 140 

Saunders. J . W ................... Schaumberg. Frank D ................ Schlapfer. T . A .................. Schneider. P . W .................. Scott. Thomas G .................. 293 

Sears. Howard S ................... 111 

Seeley. Charles .................. 202 

Servizi. J . A ................... Shapley. Philip .................. 185 

Shapley. S . Philip ................ 47. 249 

Shapovalov. Leo .................. 190 

Sheridan. W . L ................... 

Sheridan. William ................. 243 

Sheridan. William L ................ 48. 49. 157. 192 

Shields. Herbert J .................. 310 

Skeesick. Delbert G ................ 311 

Smedley. Stephen C ................. 244 

Smith. Allen C ................... 274 

Smith. Gary E ................... Smith. Lloyd L., Jr ................ Smith,M.W. ................... 46 

Smoker. William A .................. 207. 312 

Water Management Committee ........... 245. 246 

Stefanich. Frank ................. 226. 227 

Stefanich. Frank A ................. 228 

Steinbrenner. E . C ................. 229 

StephensF.R. .................. 50 

Stevens. Mervin E ................. 8 

Streeby. Larry .................. 71 

Swank,G.W. ................... 121 

Swank. Gerald W .................. 82 

Swanston. D . N ................... 41. 51 

Swanston. Douglas N ................ 52. 53. 54 

Swift. Lloyd W., Jr ................ Taft.AlanC .................... 190 

Tanner. Howard A .................. 275 

Tarrant. Robert F .................. 114 

Taylor. John 1L .................. 17 

Tebo. L . B., Jr .................. 55. 56 

Terhune. L . D . B .................. 141 

Thomas. John .................... 208 

46 

109. 110 

273 . 

242 

112 

191. 224. 225. 258. 

259. 260 

94. 198 

95 

Society of American Foresters. 

Columbia River Section. 

113 

144 
Thut, Rudolph N . 0 

Tinney,E.Roy .................. Titcomb. John W .................. Toney. Robert D .................. Troxel1,H.C. .................. Tyler. Richard F7 .................. USDA Forest Service ................ I.JST)A Soil Conservation Service .......... University of Washington ............. Ursic.S . J. ................... 

Wallis. James R .................. Weisgerber. J . F .................. 

Vaux. Walter G ................... Wallis,J.R .................... 

Wells. Ralph A ................... Wendler. Henry 0 .................. West,J.A. .................... Wickett,W.P. .................. Wilke. Richard W .................. Willington. R . P .................. Wilm,I?.G. .................... Wilson. C . N .................... Wilson. John fd ................... Wilson. Robert L .................. ..Olf.P.E ..................... Wooldridge. David D ................ Worthington. R . E. ................ Wustenberg. Donald W ................ 

Ziebell. Charles D ................. 

Youngberg. c . T .................. Zach.L.131 ..................... 

115 

133 

116 

276 

128 

313. 314 

117. 247. 315 

315 

277 

57 

142 

45 

6. 58 

225 

193 

194 

221 

59. 187. 195 

260 

278 

316 

225 

60 

248 

196 

230 

317 

61 

22 

143. 231 

197 

fr U . S . GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE- 1974-79E-349 I69 REGION IO 145 
The mission of the PACIFIC NORTHWEST FOREST 

AND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATION is to provide the 

knowledge, technology, and alternatives for present and 

future protection, management, and use of forest, range, and 

related environments. 

Within this overall mission, the Station conducts and 

stimulates research to facilitate and to accelerate progress 

toward the following goals: 

1. Providing safe and efficient technology for inventory, 

protection, and use of resources. 

2. Development and evaluation of alternative methods 

and levels of resource management. 

3. Achievement of optimum sustained resource productivity consistent with maintaining a high quality forest 

environment . 

The area of research encompasses Oregon, Washington, 

Alaska, and, in some cases, California, Hawaii, the Western 

States, and the Nation. Results of the research will be made 

available promptly. Project headquarters are at: 

Fairbanks, Alaska Portland, Oregon 

Juneau, Alaska Olympia, Washington 

Bend, Oregon Seattle, Washington 

Corvallis, Oregon Wenatchee, Washington 

La Grande, Oregon 

Mailing address: Pacific Northwest Forest and Range 

Experiment Station 

P.O. Box 3141 

Portland, Oregon 97208 
The FOREST SERVICE of the U. S. Department of Agriculture

is dedicated to the principle of multiple use management of the

Nation's forest resources for sustained yields of wood, water,

forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National Grasslands, it

strives — as directed by Congress -- to provide increasingly greater

service to a growing Nation.