# Patent

## Title
Modified toxins

## Abstract

The present application relates to compositions of modified toxins exhibiting reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to vascular endothelium or vascular endothelial cells, thereby reducing the incidence of Vascular Leak Syndrome. Also provided are polypeptide toxophores from a modified diphtheria toxin, where modifications are in at least one amino acid residue of at least one T-cell epitope. Another aspect relates to a polypeptide toxophore from a modified diphtheria toxin, where modifications are in at least one amino acid residue of at least one T-cell epitope and at least one amino acid residue of at least one VLS motif of an unmodified native diphtheria toxin. Another aspect relates to a fusion protein which comprises a modified diphtheria toxin and a non-diphtheria toxin fragment that is a cell binding portion. Another aspect relates to the use of a modified diphtheria toxin for the treatment of a malignant disease or a non-malignant disease.

## Background
CROSS-REFERENCE
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/945,556, filed Jun. 21, 2007, U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/954,278, filed Aug. 6, 2007, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/032,888, filed Feb. 29, 2008, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/042,178, filed Apr. 3, 2008, U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/945,568, filed Jun. 21, 2007, U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/954,284, filed Aug. 6, 2007, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/032,910, filed Feb. 29, 2008, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/042,187, filed Apr. 3, 2008, each of which applications is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference.


BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Efficacy of a therapeutic protein can be limited, for example, by an unwanted immune reaction to the therapeutic protein. For instance, several mouse monoclonal antibodies have shown promise as therapies in a number of human disease settings but in certain cases have failed due to the induction of significant degrees of a human anti-murine antibody (HAMA) response [Schroff, R. W. et al (1985) Cancer Res. 45: 879-885; Shawler, D. L. et al (1985) J. Immunol. 135: 1530-1535]. For monoclonal antibodies, a number of techniques have been developed in attempt to reduce the IAMA response [WO 89/09622; EP 0239400; EP 0438310; WO 91/06667]. These recombinant DNA approaches have generally reduced the mouse genetic information in the final antibody construct while increasing the human genetic information in the final construct. Notwithstanding, the resultant “humanized” antibodies have, in several cases, still elicited an immune response in patients [Issacs J. D. (1990) Sem. Immunol. 2: 449,456; Rebello, P. R. et al (1999) Transplantation 68: 1417-1420].
Antibodies are not the only class of polypeptide molecule administered as a therapeutic agent against which an immune response may be mounted. Proteins of human origin and with the same amino acid sequences as occur within humans can still induce an immune response in humans. Notable examples include the therapeutic use of granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor [Wadhwa, M. et al (1999) Clin. Cancer Res. 5: 1353-1361] and interferon alpha 2 [Russo, D. et al (1996) Bri. J. Haem. 94: 300-305; Stein, R. et al (1988) New Engl. J. Med. 318: 1409-1413]. In such situations where these human proteins are immunogenic, there is a presumed breakage of immunological tolerance to these proteins that would otherwise have been operating in these subjects.
A sustained antibody response to a therapeutic protein requires the stimulation of T-helper cell proliferation and activation. T-cell stimulation requires an interaction between a T-cell and an antigen presenting cell (APC). At the core of the interaction is the T-cell receptor (TCR) on the T-cell engaged with a peptide MHC class II complex on the surface of the APC. The peptide is derived from the intracellular processing of the antigenic protein. Peptide sequences from protein antigens that can stimulate the activity of T-cells via presentation on MHC class II molecules are generally referred to as “T-cell epitopes”. Such T-cell epitopes are any amino acid residue sequence with the ability to bind to MHC Class II molecules, and which can, at least in principle, cause the activation of these T-cells by engaging a TCR to promote a T-cell response. It is understood that for many proteins, a small number of T-helper cell epitopes can drive T-helper signaling to result in sustained, high affinity, class-switched antibody responses to what may be a very large repertoire of exposed surface determinants on the therapeutic protein.
T-cell epitope identification is recognized as the first step to epitope elimination of T-cell epitopes in therapeutic proteins. Patent applications WO98/52976 and WO00/34317 teach computational threading approaches to identifying polypeptide sequences with the potential to bind a sub-set of human MHC class II DR allotypes. In these applications, predicted T-cell epitopes are computationally identified and subsequently removed by the use of judicious amino acid substitution within the protein of interest. However with this scheme and other computationally based procedures for epitope identification [Godkin, A. J. et al (1998) J. Immunol. 161: 850-858; Sturniolo, T. et al (1999) Nat. Biotechnol. 17: 555-561], it has been found that peptides predicted to be able to bind MHC class II molecules may not function as T-cell epitopes in all situations, particularly, in vivo due to the processing pathways or other phenomena. In addition, the computational approaches to T-cell epitope prediction have in general not been capable of predicting epitopes with DP or DQ restriction.
In vitro methods for measuring the ability of synthetic peptides to bind MHC class II molecules, for example using B-cell lines of defined MHC allotype as a source of MHC class II binding surface [Marshall K. W. et al. (1994) J. Immunol. 152:4946-4956; O'Sullivan et al (1990) J. Immunol. 145: 1799-1808; Robadey C. et al (1997) J. Immunol. 159: 3238-3246], may be applied to MHC class II ligand identification. However, such techniques are not adapted for the screening multiple potential epitopes to a wide diversity of MHC allotypes, nor can they confirm the ability of a binding peptide to function as a T-cell epitope.
In addition to T-cell epitopes, many proteins are known to induce Vascular Leak Syndrome (VLS). VLS arises from protein-mediated damage to the vascular endothelium. In the case of recombinant proteins, immunotoxins and fusion toxins, the damage is initiated by the interaction between therapeutic proteins and vascular endothelial cells.
The mechanisms underlying VLS are unclear and likely involve a cascade of events which are initiated in endothelial cells (ECs) and involve inflammatory cascades and cytokines (Engert et al., 1997). VLS has a complex etiology involving damage to vascular endothelial cells (ECs) and extravasation of fluids and proteins resulting in interstitial edema, weight gain and, in its most severe form, kidney damage, aphasia, and pulmonary edema (Sausville and Vitetta, 1997; Baluna and Vitetta, 1996; Engert et al., 1997).
It was reported that one of the VLS motifs found in ricin toxin, the “LDV” motif, essentially mimics the activity of a subdomain of fibronectin which is required for binding to the integrin receptor. Integrins mediate cell-to-cell and cell-to-extracellular matrix interactions (ECM). Integrins function as receptors for a variety of cell surface and extracellular matrix proteins including fibronectin, laminin, vitronectin, collagen, osteospondin, thrombospondin and von Willebrand factor. Integrins play a significant role in the development and maintenance of vasculature and influence endothelial cell adhesiveness during angiogenesis. Further, it was reported that the ricin “LDV” motif can be found in a rotavirus coat protein, and this motif is important for cell binding and entry by the virus. (Coulson, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94(10):5389-5494 (1997)). Thus, it appears to be a direct link between endothelial cell adhesion, vascular stability and the VLS motifs which mediate ricin binding to human vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) and vascular leak.
Mutant deglycosylated ricin toxin A chains (dgRTAs) were constructed in which this motif was removed by conservative amino acid substitution, and these mutants illustrated fewer VLS effects in a mouse model (Smallshaw et al. Nat. Biotechnol., 21(4):387-91 (2003)). However, the majority of these constructs yielded dgRTA mutants that were not as cytotoxic as wild type ricin toxin, suggesting that significant and functionally critical structural changes in the ricin toxophore resulted from the mutations. It should also be noted that no evidence was provided to suggest that the motifs in dgRTA mediated HUVEC interactions and VLS in any other protein. Studies revealed that the majority of the mutant dgRTAs were much less effective toxophores and no evidence was provided to suggest that fusion toxins could be assembled using these variant toxophores.
VLS is often observed during bacterial sepsis and may involve IL-2 and a variety of other cytokines (Baluna and Vitetta, J. Immunother., (1999) 22(1):41-47). VLS is also observed in patients receiving protein fusion toxin or recombinant cytokine therapy. VLS can manifest as hypoalbuminemia, weight gain, pulmonary edema and hypotension. In some patients receiving immunotoxins and fusion toxins, myalgia and rhabdomyolysis result from VLS as a function of fluid accumulation in the muscle tissue or the cerebral microvasculature (Smallshaw et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 21(4):387-91 (2003)). VLS has occurred in patients treated with immunotoxins containing ricin A chain, saporin, pseudomonas exotoxin A and diphtheria toxin (DT). All of the clinical testing on the utility of targeted toxins, immunotoxins and recombinant cytokines reported that VLS and VLS-like effects were observed in the treatment population. VLS occurred in approximately 30% of patients treated with DAB389IL-2 (Foss et al., Clin Lymphoma 1(4):298-302 (2001), Figgitt et al., Am J Clin Dermatol., 1(1):67-72 (2000)). DAB389IL-2, interchangeably referred to in this application as DT387-IL2, is a protein fusion toxin comprised of the catalytic (C) and transmembrane (T) domains of DT (the DT toxophore), genetically fused to interleukin 2 (IL-2) as a targeting ligand. [Williams et al., Protein Eng., 1:493-498 (1987); Williams et al., J. Biol. Chem., 265:11885-11889 (1990); Williams et al., J. Biol. Chem., 265 (33):20673-20677, Waters et al., Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 30(636):403-405, (1991); Kiyokawa et al., Protein Engineering, 4(4):463-468 (1991); Murphy et al., In Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, 145:91-104 (2000)].
VLS has also been observed following the administration of IL-2, growth factors, monoclonal antibodies and traditional chemotherapy. Severe VLS can cause fluid and protein extravasation, edema, decreased tissue perfusion, cessation of therapy and organ failure. [Vitetta et al., Immunology Today, 14:252-259 (1993); Siegall et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 91(20):9514-9518 (1994); Baluna et al., Int. J. Immunopharmacology, 18(6-7):355-361 (1996); Baluna et al., Immunopharmacology, 37(2-3):117-132 (1997); Bascon, Immunopharmacology, 39(3):255 (1998)].
Thus, there is a need to design modified diphtheria toxins that cause reduced vascular leak syndrome compared to wild-type diphtheria toxin and/or have reduced immunogenicity compared to wild-type diphtheria toxin.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
Provided herein are modified toxins, fusion proteins containing the modified toxins, compositions thereof, methods of making modified toxins and methods of treating diseases such as cancer with modified toxins.
Provided herein are modified toxins, fusion proteins containing the modified toxins, compositions thereof, methods of making modified toxins and methods of treating diseases comprising a toxin having at least one amino acid residue modification in at least one T-cell epitope, wherein said modified toxin exhibits reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified toxin.
Provided herein are modified diphtheria toxins comprising at least one amino acid residue modification in at least one T-cell epitope, said modified toxins exhibiting reduced immunogenicity compared to unmodified toxins. T-cell epitopes can comprise an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NOS: 181, 184, 187, 190, 193, 196 and 199. In one embodiment of the compounds disclosed herein, at least one amino acid residue modification in a modified diphtheria toxin is made in the epitope core of SEQ ID NOS: 181, 184, 187, 190, 193, 196 and 199. In yet another embodiment, at least one amino acid residue modification is made in the N-terminus, C-terminus, or both of SEQ ID NOS: 181, 184, 187, 190, 193, 196 and 199. In still further embodiments, at least one amino acid residue modification is made in the epitope core and in the N-terminus, C-Terminus or both of SEQ ID NOS: 181, 184, 187, 190, 193, 196 and 199.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin of contains one or more modifications selected from among V7S, V7T, V7N, V7D, D8E, S9A, S9T, V29S, V29T, V29N, V29D, D30E, S31N, I290T, D291E, S292A, S292T, V97A, V97T, V97D, L107N, M116A, M116Q, M116N, F124H, V148A, V148T, L298A, and L298N.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin contains two modifications selected from among V7N, V7T, V29N, V29T, and V29D. Modifications include, but are not limited to, V7N V29N, V7N V29T, V7N V29D, V7T V29N, V7T V29T or V7T V29D.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin contains three modifications selected from among V7D, V7N, V7T, L107A, L107N, and F124H. Modifications include, but are not limited to, V7D L107A F124H, V7D L107N F124H, V7N L107A F124H, V7N L107N F124H, V7T L107A F124H, and V7T L107N F124H.
In one embodiment, a DT variant contains four modifications such as, for example, V7D V97D L107N F124H, V7N V97D L107N F124H, V7T V97A L107N F124H, V7T V97D L107N F124H, V7T V97T L107N F124H, V7D V97A L107N F124H, V7D V97T L107N F124H, V7N V97A L107N F124H, and V7N V97T L107N F124H.
Provided herein are modified toxins, including fusions containing toxins, wherein said toxins comprise a diphtheria toxin or a fragment thereof and exhibit reduced immunogenicity compared to unmodified diphtheria toxins. Further provided herein are modified toxins that exhibit reduced immunogenicity comprising a diphtheria toxin and at least one cell binding domain of a ligand from a non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide. In one embodiment, the cell binding domain from a non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide is a cell-binding ligand. In another embodiment of the compounds disclosed herein, the modified toxin is a fusion toxin wherein a non-toxin polypeptide is a cell-binding ligand, including but not limited to an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof, a cytokine, a polypeptide, a hormone, a growth factor, or insulin.
In one embodiment, the modified toxin is fusion toxin wherein the cell binding domain is an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof. An antibody can be, for example, monoclonal, polyclonal, humanized, genetically engineered, or grafted. An antigen-binding fragment can be, for example, a Fab, Fab2, F(ab′)2, scFv, scFv2, single chain binding polypeptide, VH, or a VL. In a further embodiment, the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof binds to a B-cell surface molecule such as, for example, the B-cell surface molecule CD19 or CD22. Alternatively, the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof, binds to the ovarian receptor MISIIR (Mullerian Inhibitory Substance type II receptor).
Non-diphtheria toxin polypeptides can comprise, but are not limited to, an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof, EGF, IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-11, IL-12, IL-13, IL-14, IL-15, INFα, INFγ, GM-CSF, G-CSF, M-CSF, TNF, VEGF, Ephrin, BFGF and TGF. In one embodiment, the cytokine is IL-2.
Also provided herein are modified toxins comprising a toxin having at least one amino acid residue modification in at least one T-cell epitope, wherein said modified toxin exhibits reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified toxin. Further provided are modified toxins having at least one amino acid residue modification in at least one T-cell epitope wherein said toxin is a diphtheria toxin or a fragment thereof. Also provided are modified toxins having at least one amino acid residue modification in at least one T-cell epitope wherein said toxin is a diphtheria fusion toxin. Additionally provided are modified toxins having at least one amino acid residue modification in at least one T-cell epitope wherein said toxin is a diphtheria fusion toxin comprising diphtheria toxin and at least one cell binding domain from a non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide. Also provided are modified toxins having at least one amino acid residue modification in at least one T-cell epitope, wherein said toxin is a diphtheria fusion toxin comprising diphtheria toxin and at least one cell binding domain from a non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide, and wherein a non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide is IL-2.
Provided herein are compositions comprising modified diphtheria toxins with reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells, said modified diphtheria toxin comprising an amino acid sequence as recited in SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200 with one or more amino acid modifications therein, wherein at least one T-cell epitope comprising an amino acid sequence selected from among SEQ ID NOS: 1981, 184, 187, 190, 193, 196 and 199 is modified, and wherein at least one amino acid modification is made within an (x)D/E(y) motif in a region selected from among residues 7-9, 29-31 and 290-292 of SEQ ID NO 2 or 200, and wherein said modified diphtheria toxin has cytotoxicity comparable to an unmodified diphtheria toxin, wherein a modification at position (x) is a substitution of V or I by an amino acid residue selected from among A, S, E, F, C, M, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, D, N, K, R, G, L and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1; and/or wherein a modification at position D/E is a substitution of D or E by an amino acid residue selected from among A, S, E, I, V, L, F, C, M, G, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, N, K, R and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1; and/or wherein a modification at position (y) is a substitution by an amino acid residue selected from among I, F, C, M, A, G, T, W, Y, P, H, E, Q, D, N, K, R, S, L, V, and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1.
Unmodified diphtheria toxins can have, for example, an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200 or an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOS: 4-147.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin contains one or more modifications selected from among V7T, V7N, V7D, D8N, S9A, S9T, S9G, V29N, V29D, V29T, D30N, S31G, S31N, I290T, D291E, S292A, S292G and S292T.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin contains two modifications. Such modified diphtheria toxins can contain a combination of mutations such as, for example, V7N V29N, V7N V29T, V7N V29D, V7T V29N, V7T V29T or V7T V29D.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin contains three modifications. Such modified diphtheria toxins can contain a combination of mutations such as, for example, V7N V29N I290N, V7N V29N I290T, V7N V29N S292A, V7N V29N S292T, V7N V29T I290N, V7N V29T I290T, V7N V29T S292A, V7N V29T S292T, and V7T V29T I290T.
Compositions comprising modified diphtheria toxins exhibit (have) reduced immunogenicity (modified T-cell epitopes and/or B-cell epitopes) and reduced binding activity to human vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) compared to an unmodified diphtheria toxin. Such compositions can further comprise a non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide including, but not limited to, an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof, EGF, IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-11, IL-12, IL-13, IL-14, IL-15, INFα, INFγ, GM-CSF, G-CSF, M-CSF, TNF, VEGF, Ephrin, BFGF and TGF. The non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide can also be a fragment of such polypeptides, such as a cell-binding portion thereof. In one embodiment, the non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide is IL-2 or a cell-binding portion thereof.
Provided herein is a modified diphtheria toxin made by a process of (i) identifying at least one T-cell epitope within diphtheria toxin, and (ii) modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one T-cell epitope identified in (i), wherein said modified diphtheria toxin exhibits reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified toxin.
Also provided herein is a method of selecting a modified diphtheria toxin exhibiting reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells compared to an unmodified toxin comprising (i) identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a diphtheria toxin of SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200, (ii) modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one T-cell epitope identified in (i), (iii) modifying at least one amino acid residue within the regions selected from the group consisting of residues 7-9, 29-31, and 290-292 of SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200, wherein said modified diphtheria toxin exhibits reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells compared to an unmodified toxin, (iv) analyzing the modified amino acid sequence of the modified diphtheria toxin to confirm that at least one T-cell epitope or at least one VLS motif have been modified, and (v) selecting a modified diphtheria toxin exhibiting reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells compared to an unmodified toxin.
Provided herein is a method of making modified diphtheria toxin exhibiting reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified toxin comprising: (i) identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a diphtheria toxin of SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200; and (ii) modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one T-cell epitope identified in (i).
Further provided herein is a method of making a modified diphtheria toxin exhibiting reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells compared to an unmodified toxin comprising: (i) identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a diphtheria toxin of SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200; (ii) modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one T-cell epitope identified in step (i); and (iii) modifying at least one amino acid residue within the regions selected from the group consisting of residues 7-9, 29-31, and 290-292 of SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200, wherein said modified diphtheria toxin exhibits reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells compared to an unmodified toxin.
Further provided herein is a method of making a modified diphtheria toxin exhibiting reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells compared to an unmodified toxin comprising: (i) identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a diphtheria toxin of SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200; (ii) modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one T-cell epitope identified in (i); (iii) modifying at least one amino acid residue within the regions selected from the group consisting of residues 7-9, 29-31, and 290-292 of SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200; (iv) analyzing the modified amino acid sequence of the modified diphtheria toxin to identify whether the modification of a T-cell epitope created a VLS motif; and (v) modifying said VLS motif identified in (iv), wherein said modified diphtheria toxin exhibits reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells compared to an unmodified toxin.
Further provided herein is a method of making a modified diphtheria toxin exhibiting reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells compared to an unmodified toxin comprising: (i) identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a diphtheria toxin of SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200; (ii) modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one T-cell epitope identified in (i); (iii) modifying at least one amino acid residue within the regions selected from the group consisting of residues 7-9, 29-31, and 290-292 of SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200; (iv) analyzing the modified amino acid sequence of the modified diphtheria toxin to identify whether the modification of a VLS motif created a T-cell epitope; and (v) modifying said T-cell epitope identified in (iv), wherein said modified diphtheria toxin exhibits reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells compared to an unmodified toxin.
Provided herein is a method of selecting a modified diphtheria toxin wherein said modified diphtheria toxin has lost at least one B-cell epitope comprising (i) obtaining a serum sample from a subject immunized with a diphtheria toxin vaccine, wherein said serum contains antibodies against said diphtheria toxin vaccine; (ii) contacting said serum with one or more modified diphtheria toxins wherein binding of said antibodies to said modified diphtheria toxin forms a complex; (iii) detecting the presence or absence of said complex, wherein if a complex is detected, the modified diphtheria toxin has not lost at least one B-cell epitope and if a reduced level of complex is detected, the modified diphtheria toxin has lost at least one B-cell epitope; and (iv) selecting a modified diphtheria toxin that has lost at least one B-cell epitope.
Provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions comprising a modified toxin and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient.
Provided herein is a method for treating malignant diseases and non-malignant diseases such as GVHD in a mammal comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition described herein to said mammal.
Malignant diseases can be a blood cancer. Malignant diseases can be a solid tumor. Malignant diseases also can be a metastasis. Exemplary blood cancers include, but are not limited to, acute myelogenous leukemia, cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, relapsed/refractory T-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma, relapsed/refractory B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma, panniculitic T-cell lymphoma, extranodal natural killer/T cell lymphoma, nasal type, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, solid tumor and human T-cell lymphotrophic virus 1-associated acute T cell leukemia/lymphoma. Exemplary solid tumors include, but are not limited to, those of a tissue or organ selected from among skin, melanoma, lung, pancreas, breast, ovary, colon, rectum, stomach, thyroid, laryngeal, prostate, colorectal, head, neck, eye, mouth, throat, esophagus, chest, bone, testicular, lymph, marrow, bone, sarcoma, renal, sweat gland, liver, kidney, brain, gastrointestinal tract, nasopharynx, genito-urinary tract, muscle, and the like tissues. Metastasis include, but are not limited to, metastatic tumors of any of the solid tumors described.
Non-malignant diseases include, for example, GVHD, aGVHD and psoriasis.
Provided herein is a method of enhancing activity of an anti-cancer agent (e.g., RNA transfected DCs, anti-CLTA4 antibodies, MISIIR scFvs, etc.), by administering a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein described herein. In one embodiment, a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered followed by administration of the anti-cancer agent. In one non-limiting example, the DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered at least four (4) days prior to the anti-cancer agent.
Also provided herein is a method of treating a metastatic cancer via reduction or elimination of Tregs by administering an anti-cancer agent (e.g., RNA transfected DCs, anti-CLTA4 antibodies, MISIIR scFvs, etc.) and a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein described herein. Metastatic tumors include, for example, metastatic renal cell carcinoma, metastatic prostate cancer, metastatic ovarian cancer and metastatic lung cancer. In one embodiment, a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered followed by administration of the anti-cancer agent. In one non-limiting example, the DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered at least four (4) days prior to the anti-cancer agent.
In another aspect, provided herein is a method of treating a prostate tumor, an ovarian tumor, a lung tumor or a melanoma via reduction or elimination of Tregs by administering an anti-cancer agent (e.g., RNA transfected DCs, anti-CLTA4 antibodies, MISIIR scFvs, etc.) and a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein described herein. In one embodiment, a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered followed by administration of the anti-cancer agent. In one non-limiting example, the DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered at least four (4) days prior to the anti-cancer agent.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1. Frequency of Allotypes in Donor Population. A comparison of the frequency of donor allotypes expressed in the study cohort and the world population.
FIG. 2. DT T-cell Epitope Map and Donor Responses. CD4+ T-cell epitope map of DT-1 using overlapping peptides tested against 51 healthy donors. The background response rate (5.6%) is indicated by the red dotted line. Any peptide inducing responses above this threshold contains a T-cell epitope (indicated by a + symbol)
FIG. 3. DT T-cell Epitope 1. Epitope 1 was identified using EpiScreenTM T-cell epitope mapping. Three donors responded to peptide 2 (donors 30, 36 and 47). The proposed 9 mer binding register for peptide 2 (SEQ ID NO: 161) is shown with p1 and p9 anchor residues indicated. Peptides 1 and 3 (SEQ ID NOS: 158 and 160) are shown for comparison.
FIG. 4. DT T-cell Epitope 2. Epitope 2 was identified using EpiScreenTM T-cell epitope mapping. Four donors responded to peptide 31 (donors 12, 23, 30 and 36). The proposed 9 mer binding register for peptide 31 (SEQ ID NO: 162) is shown with p1 and p9 anchor residues indicated. Peptide 32 (SEQ ID NO: 163) is also shown for comparison.
FIG. 5. DT T-cell Epitope 3. Epitope 3 was identified using EpiScreenTM T-cell epitope mapping. Three donors responded to peptide 35 (donors 1, 2 and 35). The proposed 9 mer binding register for peptide 35 (SEQ ID NO: 166) is shown with pi and p9 anchor residues indicated. Peptide 34 (SEQ ID NO: 165) is shown for comparison.
FIG. 6. DT T-cell Epitope 4. Epitope 4 was identified using EpiScreenTM T-cell epitope mapping. Three donors responded to peptide 39 (donors 5, 15 and 50). The proposed 9 mer binding register for peptide 39 (SEQ ID NO: 169) is shown with p1 and p9 anchor residues indicated.
FIG. 7. DT T-cell Epitope 5. Epitope 5 was identified using EpiScreenTM T-cell epitope mapping. Six donors responded to peptides 40, 41 and 42. The proposed 9 mer binding register for this region (SEQ ID NO: 173) is shown with p1 and p9 anchor residues indicated.
FIG. 8. DT T-cell Epitope 6. Epitope 6 was identified using EpiScreenTM T-cell epitope mapping. Three donors (donors 30, 39 and 49) responded to peptide 49. The proposed 9 mer binding register for this region (SEQ ID NO: 175) is shown with p1 and p9 anchor residues indicated.
FIG. 9. DT T-cell Epitope 7. Epitope 7 was identified using EpiScreenTM T-cell epitope mapping. Four donors (donors 1, 15, 30 and 35) responded to peptides 100. The proposed 9 mer binding register for peptide 100 (SEQ ID NO: 178) is shown with p1 and p9 anchor residues indicated. Peptide 99 (SEQ ID NO: 176) is also shown for comparison.
FIG. 10. DT T-cell Epitope Map. Position of CD4+T-cell epitopes within the sequence of DT-1 (SEQ ID NO: 409). T-cell epitopes identified by T cell epitope mapping are shown as bars that contain the responding donor identifiers above the sequence.
FIG. 11. Frequency of Donor Allotype Response to DT Peptides. Pie chart representation of the frequency (shown as percentages) of responding donor allotypes compared to the frequency expressed in the study population. The analysis was restricted to epitopes that induced a response in more than 8% of the study cohort, and to allotypes expressed at frequencies greater than 5% in the study population.
FIG. 12. DT Peptide Stimulation Indices for Non-adjusted Donor Data. Stimulation indices highlighted in bold text indicate a positive response (SI>2.0, p.<0.05). Numbers highlighted in italicized text indicate a borderline result (SI>1.9, p<0.05). Donors 13, 20, and 38 were excluded from the analysis due to very low CPM.
FIG. 13. DT Peptide Stimulation Indices for Adjusted Donor Data. Stimulation indices highlighted in bold text indicate a positive response (SI>2.0, p.<0.05). Numbers highlighted in italicized text indicate a borderline result (SI>1.9, p<0.05). Donors 13, 20, and 38 were excluded from the analysis due to very low CPM.
FIG. 14. Wild-type ΔR DT (diamonds) inhibited transcription/translation of T7-luc plasmid to a greater extent than the null construct (asterisk) in an IVTT assay.
FIG. 15. DT specific antibodies detected DT bound to the surface of endothelial cells. Binding of a DT variant (DT-Glu52; CRM mutant) to HUVEC cells and detection by antibodies using FACS analysis. Black bars are results using no binding agents. Diagonal hatching indicates assay controls using various conditions as described. Cross-hatching indicates DT variant in the presence of detection antibodies (DT+Goat pAb anti-DT (Serotec)+anti-gt-PE).
FIG. 16. Binding of ONTAK-Al488 and DT-Glu52-Al488 to HUVEC cells—detection by antibody by FACS. ONTAK®-Al488 6:1 D:P (yellow top line; diamonds); DT-Glu52-Al488 3:1 D:P (red middle line; circles); and DT-Glu52-Al488 2:1 D:P (green bottom line; triangles).
FIG. 17. HUVEC cells were tested for IL-2R expression by FACS: it was confirmed that ONTAK®-Al488 is not binding via IL-2 receptors.
FIG. 18. Illustrates cell membrane integrity assays using propidium iodide and FACS to measure loss of integrity of cell membrane after short incubation with toxins. ONTAK® (diamonds), DT-Glu52 (squares) and rhIL-2 (triangles). ONTAK (containing 4 VLS motifs) appears to cause more membrane damage than either DT-Glu52 (3 VLS motifs) or rhIL-2 (1 VLS motif).
FIG. 19. Cytotoxicity assays are utilized to confirm activity of DT-IL2 T cell epitope and VLS variant leads selected in IVTT assays. ONTAK® (diamonds), recombinant human IL-2 (rhIL-2; squares) and control (triangles) illustrate that ONTAK® is cytotoxic.
FIG. 20. Illustrates ADP Ribosylation activity of variants relative to wild-type (WT). Threshold for the assay was 0.5. Bars marked with “!” or “*” indicate statistically significant results.
FIG. 21. Illustrates design of a representative number of epitope variants. Figure discloses SEQ ID NO: 410.
FIG. 22. Illustrates ADP Ribosylation activity of variants relative to wild-type (WT). Threshold for the assay was 0.5.
FIG. 23. Inhibition of in vitro transcription/translation of target T7-luciferase plasmid, by wild-type and epitope (Ep) variants of DT, was measured using the T7-coupled reticulocyte lysate kit and SteadyGlo chemiluminescence reagents (Promega). IC50s were determined and value for wild-type DT was divided by the value for each epitope variant to calculate the activity ratio plotted (Y axis). Mean values from replicate experiments (n=3) are shown. 1=WT activity. 0.5=threshold of minimum acceptable activity.
FIG. 24. Shows the relative activities of epitope variants of DT382 compared to wild type DT382 in the inhibition of protein synthesis.
FIG. 25. Shows the relative activities of VLS DT variants compared to wild type DT in the inhibition of protein synthesis.
FIG. 26. Shows binding of labeled VLS variants to HUVEC cells. DT389-IL2 is shown as closed diamonds (♦), DT382 is shown as closed squares (▪), DT382(V7N V29T S292T) is shown as closed triangles (▴), DT382(V7N V29T I290N) is shown as an “x,” and BSA is shown as a closed circle (●).
FIG. 27. Provides IC50 data for modified DT variants compared to wild-type and a null DT variant. WT is shown as closed diamonds (♦), null DT variant is shown as open squares (□), DT29N is shown as a “+” symbol, S30G is shown as a closed triangle (▴), and V148A is shown as an asterisk (*).
FIG. 28. The following T-cell map of DAB398 (DT) (SEQ ID NO: 411) was generated using iTopeTM T cell epitope prediction software. Regions that potentially contain T cell epitopes are underlined with the potential p1 anchor residues in bold. Location of T cell epitopes identified using ex vivo T cell assays are highlighted in boxes.
FIG. 29. Provides the IC50 data for of quadruple T cell epitope DT variants.
FIG. 30. Binding of ONTAK-488, control DT(ΔR)-488 and BSA-488 to HUVEC cells—detection by antibody by FACS. ONTAK®-488 2.8:1 D:P (top line; plus sign “+”); control DT(ΔR)-488 3:1 D:P (second top line; circles “●”); BSA-488 7:1 D:P (middle line; asterisks “*”), BSA-488 5:1 D:P (second bottom line; “x”) and BSA-488 2.6:1 D:P (bottom line; triangles “▴”).
FIG. 31. Provides amino acid sequences of wild type DT382, DT382 variants, and null construct DT382(G53E). Underlined sequences are vector/tag sequences; enterokinase cleavage site highlighted in italicized text; and mutations from WT sequences are shown in bold text. Figure discloses SEQ ID NOS 412-499, respectively, in order of appearance.



INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE
All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. This application contains references to amino acid sequences which have been submitted concurrently herewith as the sequence listing text file “33703201.TXT”, file size 1 MegaByte (MB), created on Jul. 28, 2008. The aforementioned sequence listing is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety pursuant to 37 CFR §1.52(e)(5).
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
It is to be understood that this application is not limited to particular formulations or process parameters, as these may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting. Further, it is understood that a number of methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the present invention(s).
In accordance with the present application, there may be employed conventional molecular biology, microbiology, and recombinant DNA techniques within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature. See, e.g., Sambrook et al, “Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual” (1989); “Current Protocols in Molecular Biology” Volumes I-III [Ausubel, R. M., ed. (1994)]; “Cell Biology: A Laboratory Handbook” Volumes I-III [J. E. Celis, ed. (1994))]; “Current Protocols in Immunology” Volumes I-III [Coligan, J. E., ed. (1994)]; “Oligonucleotide Synthesis” (M. J. Gait ed. 1984); “Nucleic Acid Hybridization” [B. D. Hames & S. J. Higgins eds. (1985)]; “Transcription And Translation” [B. D. Hames & S. J. Higgins, eds. (1984)]; “Animal Cell Culture” [R. I. Freshney, ed. (1986)]; “Immobilized Cells And Enzymes” [IRL Press, (1986)]; B. Perbal, “A Practical Guide To Molecular Cloning” (1984), each of which is specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
I. Methods of Identifying T-Cell Epitopes
Recently, techniques exploiting soluble complexes of recombinant MHC molecules in combination with synthetic peptides have come into use [Kern, F. et al (1998) Nature Medicine 4:975-978; Kwok, W. W. et al (2001) Trends in Immunol. 22:583-588]. These reagents and procedures are used to identify the presence of T-cell clones from peripheral blood samples from human or experimental animal subjects that are able to bind particular MHC-peptide complexes and are not adapted for the screening multiple potential epitopes to a wide diversity of MHC allotypes.
Biological assays of T-cell activation remain the best practical option to providing a reading of the ability of a test peptide/protein sequence to evoke an immune response. Examples of this kind of approach include the work of Petra et al using T-cell proliferation assays to the bacterial protein staphylokinase, followed by epitope mapping using synthetic peptides to stimulate T-cell lines [Petra, A. M. et al (2002) J. Immunol. 168: 155-161]. Similarly, T-cell proliferation assays using synthetic peptides of the tetanus toxin protein have resulted in definition of immunodominant epitope regions of the toxin [Reece J. C. et al (1993) J. Immunol. 151: 6175-6184]. WO99/53038 discloses an approach whereby T-cell epitopes in a test protein may be determined using isolated sub-sets of human immune cells, promoting their differentiation in vitro and culture of the cells in the presence of synthetic peptides of interest and measurement of any induced proliferation in the cultured T-cells. The same technique is also described by Stickler et al [Stickler, M. M. et al (2000) J. Immunotherapy 23:654-660]; where in both instances the method is applied to the detection of T-cell epitopes within bacterial subtilisin. Such a technique requires careful application of cell isolation techniques and cell culture with multiple cytokine supplements to obtain the desired immune cell sub-sets (dendritic cells, CD4+ and or CD8+ T-cells).
Published Application WO 02/069232 describes an in silico technique to define MHC class II ligands for multiple proteins of therapeutic interest. However, for reasons such as the requirement for proteolytic processing and other physiologic steps leading to the presentation of immunogenic peptides in vivo, it is clear that a relatively minor sub-set of the entire repertoire of peptides definable by computer-based schemes will have ultimate biological relevance. Thus, ex vivo human T-cell activation assays may be used to identify the regions within the protein sequence of a toxin that are able to support T-cell activation and are thereby most biologically relevant to the problem of immunogenicity in this protein. As used herein, “T-cell epitope” refers to an amino acid sequence which is able to bind MHC class II, able to stimulate T-cells and/or also to bind (without necessarily measurably activating) T-cells in complex with MHC class II.
According to a method disclosed herein, synthetic peptides are tested for their ability to evoke a proliferative response in human T-cells cultured in vitro. The T-cells are present within peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) layer readily obtainable by well known means from whole blood samples. Moreover, the PBMC preparation contains physiological ratios of T-cells and antigen presenting cells and is, therefore, a good source of materials with which to conduct a surrogate immune reaction in vitro. In the operation of such an assay, a stimulation index approaching or exceeding 2.0 is a useful measure of induced proliferation. However, the stimulation index may be different depending upon the toxin and may be established with reference to a baseline for each toxin and corresponding peptide library. In one example of such testing, the stimulation index (SI) may be conventionally derived by division of the proliferation score (e.g. counts per minute of radioactivity if using for example 3H-thymidine incorporation) measured to the test peptide by the score measured in cells not contacted with a test peptide. Peptides which evoke no response may give a SI=1.0 although SI values in the range 0.8-1.2 may also be unremarkable. A number of technical procedures can be built into the operation of such assays in order to ensure confidence in the recorded scores. Typically all determinations are made at least in triplicate and the mean score may be computed. Where a computed SI=>2.0, individual scores of the triplicate can be examined for evidence of outlying data. Test peptides are contacted with cells in at least two different concentrations and the concentrations would typically span a minimum two-fold concentration difference. Such a concentration range provides an off-set to the kinetic dimension to the assay and may be useful where a single time point determination, for example at plus day 7, is being conducted. In some assays, multiple time course determinations may be conducted and these too may be made using peptide immunogen provided at a minimum of two different concentrations. Similarly the inclusion of control peptides for which there is expectation that the majority of PBMC donor samples will be responsive may be included in each assay plate. The influenza haemagglutinin peptide 307-309, sequence PKYVKQNTLKLA (SEQ ID NO: 201); and the Chlamydia HSP 60 peptide sequence KVVDQIKKISKPVQH (SEQ ID NO: 202) are examples of control peptides to be used in such an assay. Alternatively, or in addition, assays could also use a potent whole protein antigen, such as hemocyanin from Keyhole Limpet, to which all PBMC samples would be expected to exhibit an SI significantly greater than 2.0. Other control antigens for such use will be well-known in the art.
The methods disclosed herein can provide an epitope map of a toxin where the map has relevance to a wide spectrum of possible MHC allotypes. The map may be sufficiently representative to allow the design or selection of a modified protein for which the ability of the protein to evoke a T-cell driven immune response may be eliminated or at least ameliorated for the majority of patients to whom the protein is likely to be administered. Amelioration can refer to a reduction in an immune response (i.e., reduced immunogenicity) compared to an unmodified protein (e.g. about 1.5 fold less, about 2 fold less, about 5 fold less, about 10 fold less, about 20 fold less, about 50 fold less, about 100 fold less, about 200 fold less, about 500 fold less or more, or any range therein). Alternatively, a protein or toxin with reduced immunogenicity can refer to a percent reduction in its ability to elicit an immune response compared to an unmodified protein (e.g. about 1% less, about 2% less, about 3% less, about 4% less, about 5% less, about 10% less, about 20% less, about 50% less, about 100% less, and any range therein). Accordingly in the practice of the screening process, PBMC derived T-cells from naive donors are collected from a pool of donors of sufficient immunological diversity to provide a sample of at least greater than 90% of the MEC class II repertoire (HLA-DR) extant in the human population. Where a naive T-cell response is to be detected to a given synthetic peptide, the peptide in practice is contacted with PBMC preparations derived from multiple donors in isolation; the numbers of donors (or “donor pool” size), is for practical purposes not likely to be less than 20 unrelated individuals and all samples in the donor pool may be pre-selected according to their MHC class II haplotype.
As used herein, the term “naive donor” refers to a subject that has not been previously exposed to a toxin, either environmentally, by vaccination, or by other means such as, for example, blood transfusions.
It is noted that individuals in certain countries are routinely vaccinated against toxins or have been exposed to environmental sources of exogenous toxin and toxin-like proteins such as, for example, diphtheria toxin. In such individuals, there is a likelihood of a recall response as measure by an increased SI score as described above.
When screening for T-cell epitopes, T-cells can be provided from a peripheral blood sample from a multiplicity of different healthy donors but who have not been in receipt of the protein therapeutically. If needed, patient blood samples can be tested for the presence of a particular polypeptide using conventional assays such as an ELISA which uses antibodies to identify the presence or absence of one or more polypeptides. The assay is conducted using PBMC cultured in vitro using conventional procedures known in the art and involves contacting the PBMC with synthetic peptide species representative of the protein of interest (i.e. a library), and following a suitable period of incubation, measurement of peptide induced T cell activation such as cellular proliferation. Measurement can be by any suitable means and may, for example, be conducted using H3-thymidine incorporation whereby the accumulation of H3 into cellular material is readily measured using laboratory instruments. The degree of cellular proliferation for each combination of PBMC sample and synthetic peptide can be examined relative to that seen in a non-peptide treated PBMC sample. Reference may also be made to the proliferative response seen following treatment with a peptide or peptides for which there is an expected proliferative effect. In this regard, it is advantageous to use a peptide with known broad MHC restriction and especially peptide epitopes with MHC restriction to the DP or DQ isotypes, although the invention is not limited to the use of such restricted peptides. Such peptides have been described above, for example, with respect to influenza haemagglutinin and chlamydia HSP60.
In one non-limiting example, T-cell epitopes for diphtheria toxin (DT) are mapped and subsequently modified using the methods described herein. To facilitate assembly of an epitope map for DT, a library of synthetic peptides is produced. Each of the peptides is 15 amino acid residues in length and each overlapped the next peptide in the series by 12 amino acid residues; i.e. each successive peptide in the series incrementally added a further 3 amino acids to the analysis. In this way, any given adjacent pair of peptides mapped 18 amino acids of contiguous sequence. One method for defining a T-cell map for DT using naive T-cell assays is illustrated in the Example 7. Each of the peptides identified via the method to define a T-cell map of the toxin are suggested to be able to bind MHC class II and engage at least one cognate TCR with sufficient affinity to evoke a proliferative burst detectable in the assay system.
II. Methods of Modifying Toxins
The toxin molecules described herein can be prepared in any of several ways including the use of recombinant methods. The protein sequences and information provided herein can be used to deduce a polynucleotide (DNA) encoding an amino acid sequence. This can be achieved for example using computer software tools such as the DNAstar software suite [DNAstar Inc, Madison, Wis., USA] or similar. Any such polynucleotide encoding the polypeptides or significant homologues, variants, truncations, elongations, or further modifications thereof, are contemplated herein.
Provided herein are methods of mapping (identifying) T-cell epitopes of toxins and modifying the epitopes such that the modified sequence reduces (partially or completely) induction of a T-helper response. Modification includes amino acid substitutions, deletions, or insertion made in codons of a polynucleotide encoding modified polypeptides to affect similar changes. Codons encoding amino acid residues are well known in the art. It is possible to use recombinant DNA methods to achieve directed mutagenesis of the target sequences and many such techniques are available, described herein, and known in the art such as described above. In general, the technique of site-specific mutagenesis is well known. Briefly, a bacteriophage vector that produces a single stranded template for oligonucleotide directed PCR mutagenesis is employed. Phage vectors (e.g. M13) are commercially available and their use is generally well known in the art. Similarly, double stranded plasmids are also routinely employed in site directed mutagenesis, which eliminates the step of transferring the polynucleotide of interest from a phage to a plasmid. Synthetic oligonucleotide primers bearing the desired mutated sequence can be used to direct the in vitro synthesis of modified (desired mutant) DNA from this template and the heteroduplex DNA is used to transform competent E. coli for the growth selection and identification of desired clones. Alternatively, a pair of primers can be annealed to two separate strands of a double stranded vector to simultaneously synthesize both corresponding complementary strands with the desired mutation(s) in a PCR reaction.
In one embodiment, the Quick Change site-directed mutagenesis method using plasmid DNA templates as described by Sugimoto et al. can be employed (Sugimoto et al., Annal. Biochem., 179(2):309-311 (1989)). PCR amplification of the plasmid template containing the insert target gene of insert is achieved using two synthetic oligonucleotide primers containing the desired mutation. The oligonucleotide primers, each complementary to opposite strands of the vector, are extended during temperature cycling by mutagenesis-grade PfuTurbo DNA polymerase. On incorporation of the oligonucleotide primers, a mutated plasmid containing staggered nicks is generated. Amplified un-methylated products are treated with Dpn I to digest methylated parental DNA template and select for the newly synthesized DNA containing mutations. Since DNA isolated from most E. coli strains is dam methylated, it is susceptible to Dpn I digestion, which is specific for methylated and hemimethylated DNA. The reaction products are transformed into high efficiency strains of E. coli to obtain plasmids containing the desired modifications. Additional methods for introducing amino acid modifications into a polypeptide are well known in the art and can also be used herein.
Suitable modifications to a protein may include amino acid substitution of particular residues or combinations of residues. For the elimination of T-cell epitopes, amino acid substitutions are made at appropriate points or amino acid residues within an amino acid sequence predicted to achieve reduction or elimination of the activity of the T-cell epitope. In practice, an appropriate point or amino acid residue will preferably equate to an amino acid residue binding within one of the pockets provided within the MHC class II binding groove. Such modifications may alter binding within the first pocket of the cleft at the so-called “P1” or “P1 anchor” position of the peptide. The quality of binding interaction between the P1 anchor residue of the peptide and the first pocket of the MHC class II binding groove is recognized as being a major determinant of overall binding affinity for the whole peptide. An appropriate substitution at this position of the amino acid sequence will generally incorporate an amino acid residue less readily accommodated within the pocket (e.g., substitution to a more hydrophilic residue). Amino acid residues in the peptide at positions equating to binding within other pocket regions within the MHC binding cleft are also considered and fall under the scope of the present.
It is understood that single amino acid modifications within a given potential T-cell epitope represent one route by which one or more T-cell epitopes may be eliminated. Combinations of modifications within a single epitope may be contemplated and can be appropriate where individually defined epitopes are in overlap with each other. Moreover, amino acid modifications (either singly within a given epitope or in combination within a single epitope) may be made at positions not equating to the “pocket residues” with respect to the MHC class II binding groove, but at any point within the amino acid sequence. Modifications may be made with reference to a homologous structure or structural method produced using in silico techniques known in the art and described herein may be based on known structural features of the polypeptide. A change (modification) may be contemplated to restore structure or biological activity of the variant molecule. Such compensatory changes and changes may also include deletion or addition (insertion) of particular amino acid residues from a polypeptide. Additionally, modifications can be made that alter the structure and/or reduce the biological activity of the molecule and also eliminate a T-cell epitope, thus reducing the immunogenicity of the molecule. All types of modifications are contemplated herein.
An additional means of removing epitopes from protein molecules is the concerted use of a naive T-cell activation assay scheme as outlined herein together with an in silico tool developed according to the scheme described in WO 02/069232 which is also incorporated fully herein by reference. The software simulates the process of antigen presentation at the level of the polypeptide-MHC class II binding interaction to provide a binding score for any given polypeptide sequence. Such a score is determined for many of the predominant MHC class II allotypes extant in the population. As this scheme is able to test any polypeptide sequence, the consequences of amino acid substitutions additions or deletions with respect to the ability of a polypeptide to interact with a MHC class II binding groove can be predicted. Consequently new sequence compositions can be designed which contain reduced numbers of amino acids able to interact with a MHC class II and thereby function as immunogenic T-cell epitopes. Where the biological assay using any one given donor sample can assess binding to a maximum of four DR allotypes, the in silico process can test a same polypeptide sequence using >40 allotypes simultaneously. In practice this approach is able to direct the design of new sequence variants which are altered in their ability to interact with multiple MHC allotypes. As will be clear to one in the art, multiple alternative sets of substitutions could be arrived at which achieve the objective of removing undesired epitopes. The resulting sequences would however be recognized to be closely homologous with the specific compositions disclosed herein and therefore fall within the scope of the present application.
A combined approach of using an in silico tool for the identification of MHC class II ligands and design of sequence analogues lacking MHC class II ligands, in concert with epitope mapping and re-testing optionally using biologically based assays of T-cell activation is an additional method and embodiment of the present application. The general method according to this embodiment comprises the following steps:

    i) use of naive T-cell activation assays and synthetic peptides collectively encompassing the protein sequence of interest to identify epitope regions capable of activating T-cells;
    ii) use of a computational scheme simulating the binding of the peptide ligand with one or more MHC allotypes to analyze the epitope regions identified in step (i) and thereby identify MHC class II ligands within the epitope region;
    iii) use of a computational scheme simulating the binding of the peptide ligand with one or more MHC allotypes to identify sequence analogues of the MHC ligands encompassed within the epitope region(s) which no longer bind MHC class II or bind with lowered affinity to a lesser number of MHC allotypes and optionally,
    iv) use of naive T-cell activation assays and synthetic peptides encompassing entirely or in collection encompassing the epitope regions identified within the protein of interest and testing the sequence analogues in naive T-cell activation assay in parallel with the wild-type (parental) sequences.


In one embodiment, a method of making a modified toxin exhibiting reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified toxin comprises identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a toxin and modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one identified T-cell epitope.
In another embodiment, a modified toxin exhibiting reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified toxin is produced by a process of identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a toxin and modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one identified T-cell epitope.
In yet another embodiment, a method of selecting a modified toxin that exhibits reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified toxin comprises identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a toxin, modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one identified T-cell epitope, and selecting a modified toxin that exhibits reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified toxin.
DT T-Cell Epitopes
Also provided herein are DT variants having or containing at least one modification in one or more T-cell epitopes. Seven (7) T-cell epitopes have been identified within DT via the methods described herein and further described in Example 9. The seven T-cell epitopes comprise diphtheria toxin amino acid sequences as set forth in SEQ ID NOS: 181, 184, 187, 190, 193, 196 and 199. As described herein, SEQ ID NO: 181 corresponds to amino acid residues 1-27 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, SEQ ID NO: 184 corresponds to amino acid residues 85-117 of SEQ ID NO: 2, SEQ ID NO: 187 corresponds to amino acid residues 95-127 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, SEQ ID NO: 190 corresponds to amino acid residues 104-136 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, SEQ ID NO: 193 corresponds to amino acid residues 112-144 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, SEQ ID NO: 196 corresponds to amino acid residues 136-168 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, and SEQ ID NO: 199 corresponds to amino acid residues 286-318 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200. These epitopes further comprise core 9-mer amino acid sequences that are the most favorable binding registers for MHC class II binding of the epitope (9-mer binding register) as well as adjacent amino acid residues. While the core 9-mer binding register is believed to be the primary epitope, residues located outside of the 9-mer binding register have been shown to interact with MHC class II molecules and support the stability of the peptide/MHC class II complex. The core 9-mer binding registers of the seven identified DT T-cell epitopes have the amino acid sequences of SEQ ID NOS: 161, 164, 167, 169, 173, 175, and 178.
The T-cell epitopes described herein can be further characterized by the regions of the epitope. Such regions include the epitope core, the N-terminus and the C-terminus. As used herein “epitope core” refers to the core 9-mer amino acid sequences of the T-cell epitopes. The epitope core can further include 0, 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residues adjacent to the core 9-mer amino acid sequence on the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus. Thus the epitope core, in certain embodiments, can range in length from about 9 amino acids up to about 15 amino acids.
As used herein, “N-terminus” refers to the amino acids adjacent to the N-terminus of the epitope core and includes at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 amino acids adjacent to and upstream of the N-terminus of the epitope core.
As used herein, “C-terminus” refers to the amino acids adjacent to the C-terminus of the epitope core and includes at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 amino acids adjacent to and downstream of the C-terminus of the epitope core.
DT T-cell epitope 1 comprises the 9-mer peptide having the amino acid sequence set forth as VDSSKSFVM (SEQ ID NO: 161). As described herein, elimination of a T-cell epitope can be achieved by modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15 amino acids of the epitope core and/or modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or more of the amino acid residues adjacent to the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of the epitope core.
In one non-limiting example, provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the epitope core of DT T-cell epitope 1 having the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 181, wherein the amino acid modification is by insertion, deletion, or substitution. The core epitope of DT T-cell epitope 1 can comprise amino acid residues 7-15, 6-16, 5-17, 4-18 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 181. Also provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications in the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 1 having the amino acid sequence set for as SEQ ID NO: 181. The N-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 1 comprises amino acid residues 1-6, 1-5, 1-4, 1-3 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 181. The C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 1 comprises the amino acid residues 16-24, 17-25, 18-26, 19-27 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 181. Further provided herein are modified diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications in the epitope core of SEQ ID NO: 181 and within the N-terminus and/or C-terminus of SEQ ID NO: 181. In one non-limiting example, the P1 valine residue of the epitope core can be replaced with any amino acid residue to modify and/or eliminate the identified T-cell epitope. In one embodiment, the P1 valine residue of the epitope core can be replaced with a polar amino acid residue such that the polar moiety of the residue is surface exposed on the DT molecule and the hydrophobic region is buried in order to modify and/or eliminate the identified T-cell epitope. Exemplary polar amino acid residues include, but are not limited to: histidine (H), glycine (G), lysine (K), serine (S), threonine (T), cysteine (C), tyrosine (Y), asparagine (N), aspartic acid/aspartate (D), glutamic acid/glutamate (E), and glutamine (Q). One would understand that these modifications could be applied to the other epitopes described below.
DT T-cell epitope 2 comprises the 9-mer peptide having the amino acid sequence set forth as VDNAETIKK (SEQ ID NO: 164). Elimination of this T-cell epitope can be achieved by modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 amino acids of the epitope core and/or modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or more of the amino acid residues of the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus. In one non-limiting example, provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the epitope core of SEQ ID NO: 184, wherein the amino acid modification is by insertion, deletion, or substitution. The core epitope of DT T-cell epitope 2 can comprise amino acid residues 13-21, 12-22, 11-23, 10-24 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 184. Also provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 2 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 184. The N-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 2 comprises amino acid residues 1-9, 2-10, 3-11, 4-12 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 184. The C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 2 comprises the amino acid residues 22-30, 23-31, 24-32, 25-33 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 184. Further provided herein are modified diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications in the epitope core and within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of SEQ ID NO: 184. In one non-limiting example, the P1 valine residue of the core 9-mer can be replaced with any amino acid residue to modify and/or eliminate the identified T-cell epitope.
DT T-cell epitope 3 comprises the 9-mer peptide having the amino acid sequence set forth as LGLSLTEPL (SEQ ID NO: 167). Elimination of this T-cell epitope can be achieved by modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 amino acids of the epitope core and/or modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or more of the amino acid residues in the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus. In one non-limiting example, provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the epitope core of SEQ ID NO: 187, wherein the amino acid modification is by insertion, deletion, or substitution. The core epitope of DT T-cell epitope 3 can comprise amino acid residues 13-21, 12-22, 11-23, 10-24 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 187. Also provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 3 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 187. The N-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 3 comprises amino acid residues 1-9, 2-10, 3-11, 4-12 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 187. The C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 3 comprises the amino acid residues 22-30, 23-31, 24-32, 25-33 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 187. Further provided herein are modified diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications in the epitope core and within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of SEQ ID NO: 187. In one non-limiting example, the P1 lysine residue of the core 9-mer can be replaced with a polar amino acid residue such that the polar moiety of the residue is surface exposed on the DT molecule and the hydrophobic region is buried in order to modify and/or eliminate the identified T-cell epitope. In yet another non-limiting example, the P6 threonine and/or the P7 glutamic acid positions of the core 9-mer can be substituted with any amino acid to modify and/or eliminate the identified T-cell epitope.
DT T-cell epitope 4 comprises the 9-mer peptide having the amino acid sequence set forth as MEQVGTEEF (SEQ ID NO: 169). Elimination of this T-cell epitope can be achieved by modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 amino acids of the epitope core and/or modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or more of the amino acid residues in the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus. In one non-limiting example, provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the epitope core of SEQ ID NO: 190, wherein the amino acid modification is by insertion, deletion, or substitution. The core epitope of DT T-cell epitope 4 can comprise amino acid residues 13-21, 12-22, 11-23, 10-24 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 190. Also provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 4 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 190. The N-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 4 comprises amino acid residues 1-9, 2-10, 3-11, 4-12 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 190. The C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 4 comprises the amino acid residues 22-30, 23-31, 24-32, 25-33 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 190. Further provided herein are modified diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications in the epitope core and within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of SEQ ID NO: 190. In one non-limiting example, the P6 threonine and/or P7 glutamic acid residues of the core 9-mer can be replaced with any amino acid to modify and/or eliminate the identified T-cell epitope.
DT T-cell epitope 5 comprises the 9-mer peptide having the amino acid sequence set forth as FIKRFGDGA (SEQ ID NO: 173). Elimination of the T-cell epitope can be achieved by modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 amino acids of the epitope core and/or modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or more of the amino acid residues on the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus. In one non-limiting example, provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the epitope core of SEQ ID NO: 193, wherein the amino acid modification is by insertion, deletion, or substitution. The core epitope of DT T-cell epitope 5 can comprise amino acid residues 13-21, 12-22, 11-23, 10-24 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 193. Also provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 5 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 193. The N-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 5 comprises amino acid residues 1-9, 2-10, 3-11, 4-12 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 193. The C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 5 comprises the amino acid residues 22-30, 23-31, 24-32, 25-33 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 193. Further provided herein are modified diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications in the epitope core and within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of SEQ ID NO: 193. In one non-limiting example, the P4 arginine residue, P6 glycine residue, P7 aspartic acid residue, and/or P9 alanine residue of the core 9-mer, or any combination therein, can be replaced to modify and/or eliminate the identified T-cell epitope.
DT T-cell epitope 6 comprises the 9-mer peptide having the amino acid sequence set forth as VEYINNWEQ (SEQ ID NO: 175). Elimination of this T-cell epitope can be achieved by modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 amino acids of the epitope core and/or modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or more of the amino acid residues in the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus. In one non-limiting example, provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the epitope core of SEQ ID NO: 196, wherein the amino acid modification is by insertion, deletion, or substitution. The core epitope of DT T-cell epitope 6 can comprise amino acid residues 13-21, 12-22, 11-23, 10-24 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 196. Also provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 6 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 196. The N-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 6 comprises amino acid residues 1-9, 2-10, 3-11, 4-12 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 196. The C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 6 comprises the amino acid residues 22-30, 23-31, 24-32, 25-33 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 196. Further provided herein are modified diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications in the epitope core and within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of SEQ ID NO: 196. In one non-limiting example, the P1 valine of the core 9-mer can be replaced with polar amino acid residues such that the hydrophilic moiety is surface exposed and the hydrophobic region is buried within the protein to modify and/or eliminate the identified T-cell epitope.
DT T-cell epitope 7 comprises the 9-mer peptide having the amino acid sequence set forth as LEKTTAALS (SEQ ID NO: 178). Elimination of this T-cell epitope can be achieved by modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 amino acids of the epitope core and/or modifying 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or more of the amino acid residues in the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus. In one non-limiting example, provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the epitope core of SEQ ID NO: 199, wherein the amino acid modification is by insertion, deletion, or substitution. The core epitope of DT T-cell epitope 7 can comprise amino acid residues 13-21, 12-22, 11-23, 10-24 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 199. Also provided herein are diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 7 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 199. The N-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 7 comprises amino acid residues 1-9, 2-10, 3-11, 4-12 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 199. The C-terminus of DT T-cell epitope 7 comprises the amino acid residues 22-30, 23-31, 24-32, 25-33 or any combination therein of the amino acid sequence set forth as SEQ ID NO: 199. Further provided herein are modified diphtheria toxins having one or more amino acid modifications in the epitope core and within the N-terminus and/or the C-terminus of SEQ ID NO: 199. In one embodiment, the P1 leucine of the core 9-mer can be replaced with any amino acid to modify and/or eliminate the identified T-cell epitope.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin of contains one or more modifications selected from among V7S, V7T, D8E, S9A, S9T, V29S, V29T, V29N, V29D, D30E, S31N, I290T, D291E, S292A, S292T, V97A, V97T, V97D, L107N, M116A, M116Q, M116N, F124H, V148A, V148T, L298A, and L298N.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin contains two modifications selected from among V7N, V7T, V29N, V29T, and V29D. Modifications include, but are not limited to, V7N V29N, V7N V29T, V7N V29D, V7T V29N, V7T V29T or V7T V29D.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin contains three modifications selected from among V7D, V7N, V7T, L107A, L107N, and F124H. Modifications include, but are not limited to, V7D L 107A F 124H, V7D L 107N F 124H, V7N L107A F124H, V7N L107N F124H, V7T L107A F124H, and V7T L107N F124H.
In one embodiment, a DT variant contains four modifications such as, for example, V7D V97D L107N F124H, V7N V97D L107N F124H, V7T V97A L107N F124H, V7T V97D L107N F124H, V7T V97T L107N F124H, V7D V97A L107N F124H, V7D V97T L107N F124H, V7N V97A L107N F124H, and V7N V97T L107N F124H.
In addition to the aforementioned examples and embodiments, modified diphtheria toxins with one or more amino acid modifications in one or more T-cell epitopes are contemplated herein. In one non-limiting example, provided herein are diphtheria toxins having at least one modification in at least one T-cell epitope. In another non-limiting example, provided herein is a diphtheria toxin having at least one amino acid modification in 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 of the T-cell epitopes described above. Additional non-limiting examples include diphtheria toxins having more than one amino acid modification in more than one T-cell epitope. Any combination of the amino acid modifications in any number of the DT T-cell epitopes described above are contemplated herein.
DT T-Cell Epitopes and Allotype Frequency
Individual epitopes found within antigens can be preferentially presented by specific MHC class II allotypes, and similarly other specific epitopes within the same antigen may not be presented on MHC class II molecules at all. Such associations of particular epitopes with specific MCH class II molecules have been shown to depend upon the MHC class II allotype of the individual. The association of a specific epitope with a specific allotype can also be considered when modifying DT for the removal of T-cell epitopes. Such considerations can allow for the highly specific modification of a DT molecule for specific allotypes (e.g. for specific populations of subjects having certain MHC class II allotypes). The MHC class II allotype of a subject or subjects can be easily determined by genotyping methods known in the art, and the association of DT T-cell epitopes with the given allotype thus easily identified, for consideration in modification of a toxin tailored to that allotype. Identification of associations between DT T-cell epitopes and MHC class II allotypes are shown in Example 9, Table 5, and FIG. 12. Contemplated herein are modified toxins that have T-cell epitope modifications tailored to the MHC class II associations identified for the given epitopes of the toxin.
Based on the teachings of the present specification, one can apply these methods to other toxins described herein. For example amino acid sequences of toxins which have been analyzed with respect to MHC associations and T-cell epitopes can be readily used. In addition, toxins which have not been analyzed with respect to MHC associations can also be analyzed and tested using the methods described throughout the specification and in the examples below.
III. B-Cell Epitope Screen
In addition to the identification and modification of T-cell epitopes as disclosed herein, the identification and modification of B-cell epitopes can further reduce the immunogenicity of a toxin. Serological methods, in silico methods, or a combination of both methods can be used to identify B-cell epitopes within a toxin or modified toxin. Serological methods employ the ability of a subject to generate antibodies to immunogenic molecules, including proteins, peptides, and polypeptides. When a toxin or modified toxin is one that has been previously administered to a population, such as for vaccination, the antibody response generated in the subjects can be used to screen toxins or modified toxins for B-cell epitopes. In one non-limiting example, a toxin (e.g., diphtheria toxin) that has had its T-cell epitopes modified as disclosed herein can be further screened to identify B-cell epitopes. A peptide library based upon the sequence of the modified toxin can be synthesized, and sera from toxin-vaccinated donors that contain antibodies against the toxin can be tested for the ability to bind to the peptides of the peptide library. Various techniques and assays including, but not limited to, ELISA, RIA, and Western blotting are well known in the art and can be used to identify one or more peptides which bind to antibodies from the sera of toxin-vaccinated donors. Those one or more peptides which bind antibodies in the donor sera represent B-cell epitopes within the toxin sequence. Following the identification of modified toxin B-cell epitopes, amino acid residues that correspond to the B-cell epitopes can be modified, and the modified toxin re-screened against donor sera. This process can be performed multiple times to further reduce the immunogenicity of the modified toxin. As noted for the identification of T-cell epitopes herein, in silico methods which utilize known B-cell epitope databases and predictive protein modeling programs can be employed to identify B-cell epitopes within a toxin or modified toxin. Once such epitopes are identified and modified via the in silico methods, the modified toxin can be screened against vaccinated donor sera as described herein. The in silico B-cell epitope screening methods can be used alone or in combination with the peptide library B-cell epitope screen for identification and modification of B-cell epitopes within the toxin. Optionally, the modified toxin can be screened prior to, and or subsequently to, B-cell epitope screening. Also contemplated herein is screening a B-cell epitope modified toxin for the presence of any T-cell epitopes that may be been generated during B-cell epitope modification.
Application of the invention described herein includes a method of selecting a modified toxin wherein said modified toxin has lost at least one B-cell epitope comprising obtaining a serum sample from at least one subject immunized with a toxin, wherein said serum contains antibodies against said toxin, contacting said serum with one or more modified toxins wherein binding of said antibodies to said modified toxin forms a complex, detecting the presence or absence of said complex, wherein if a complex is detected, the modified toxin has not lost at least one B-cell epitope and if a reduced level of complex is detected, the modified toxin has lost at least one B-cell epitope, and selecting a modified toxin that has lost at least one B-cell epitope. In one non-limiting embodiment, a reduced level of complex can be, for example, about 1.5-fold less, about 2-fold less, about 5-fold less, about 10-fold less, about 20-fold less, about 50-fold less, about 100-fold less, about 200-fold less, or about 500-fold less than that observed with an unmodified toxin.
IV. Vascular Leak Syndrome
Cell damage, particularly endothelial cell damage, whether produced by toxins, such as from snake bites or molecules causing septic shock, or therapeutic agents, such as immunotoxins or interleukins, remains a problem for patients.
VLS is often observed during bacterial sepsis and may involve IL-2 and a variety of other cytokines (Baluna and Vitetta, Immunopharmacology, 37:117-132, 1996). The mechanisms underlying VLS are unclear and are likely to involve a cascade of events which are initiated in endothelial cells (ECs) and involve inflammatory cascades and cytokines (Engert et al., In: Clinical Applications of Immunotoxins, Frankel (ed.), 2:13-33, 1997). VLS has a complex etiology involving damage to vascular endothelial cells (ECs) and extravasation of fluids and proteins resulting in interstitial edema, weight gain and, in its most severe form, kidney damage, aphasia, and pulmonary edema (Sausville and Vitetta, In: Monoclonal Antibody-Based Therapy of Cancer, Grossbard (ed.), 4:81-89, 1997; Baluna and Vitetta, Immunopharmacology, 37:117-132, 1996; Engert et al., In: Clinical Applications of Immunotoxins, Frankel (ed.), 2:13-33, 1997). Vascular leak syndrome (VLS) has been a major problem with all immunotoxins thus far tested in humans, as well as cytokines such as interleukin 2 (IL-2), TNF and adenovirus vectors (Rosenberg et al., N. Engl. J. Med., 316:889-897, 1987; Rosenstein et al., J. Immunol., 137:1735-1742, 1986).
Antibody-conjugated peptides from ricin toxin A chain containing a modified sequence at residues L74, D75, V76, exhibited reduced (Vitetta et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,566,500). Thus, it is contemplated that one or more amino acid deletion(s) or mutation(s) of the (x)D/E(y) sequence(s), and/or one or more flanking residues of a toxin, such as for example, diphtheria toxin, may reduce or prevent the ability of toxin molecules comprising these sequences to induce EC damage. It is expected that one or more polypeptides comprising at least one mutated motif and/or one or more flanking residues can be created that reduce or eliminate the EC damaging activity of such agents.
Described herein below are compositions with reduced VLS promoting abilities based upon mutations in the (x)D/E(y) or (x)D/E(y)T sequences within polypeptides, which remove or alter such sequences, respectively, and their methods of use. Thus, it will be understood that all methods described herein for producing polypeptides with reduced VLS promoting ability will be applied to produce polypeptides with reduced EC damaging activity. All such methods, and compositions identified or produced by such methods as well as equivalents thereof, are encompassed by the present invention.
In certain aspects, the application provides the use of a modified toxin composition that has at least one amino acid of a sequence comprising (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T removed or altered, relative to the sequence of an unmodified toxin composition, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a disease, including but not limited to malignant diseases such as, for example cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, relapsed/refractory T-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma, relapsed/refractory B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma, panniculitic T-cell lymphoma, extranodal natural killer/T cell lymphoma, nasal type, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and human T-cell lymphotrophic virus 1-associated acute T cell leukemia/lymphoma; non-malignant diseases such as, for example, graft versus host disease and psoriasis and damage to endothelial cells (i.e., VLS) during the progression of such diseases.
Reduction or elimination of Vascular Leak Syndrome (VLS) as a side effect would represent a significant advancement as it would improve the “risk benefit ratio” of protein therapeutics, and in particular, the immunotoxin and fusion toxin subclasses of protein therapeutics. (Baluna et al., Int. J. Immunopharmacology, 18(6-7):355-361 (1996); Baluna et al., Immunopharmacology, 37(No. 2-3):117-132 (1997); Bascon, Immunopharmacology, 39(3): 255 (1998). The ability to develop fusion proteins, single chain molecules comprised of a cytotoxin and unique targeting domain (cell binding domains in the case of immunotoxins) could facilitate the development of the therapeutic agents for autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis transplant rejection and other non-malignant medical indications. (Chaudhary et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87(23):9491-9494 (1990); Frankel et al., in Clinical Applications of Immunotoxins Scientific Publishing Services, Charleston S.C., (1997), Knechtle et al., Transplantation, 15(63):1-6 (1997); Knechtle et al., Surgery, 124(2): 438-446 (1998); LeMaistre, Clin. Lymphoma, 1:S37-40 (2000); Martin et al., J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 45(6):871-881, 2001)). DAB3891L-2 (ONTAK®) is currently the only FDA approved protein fusion toxin and employs a DT toxophore and the cytokine IL-2 to target IL-2 receptor bearing cells and is approved for the treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) (Figgitt et al., Am. J. Clin. Dermatol., 1(1):67-72 (2000); Foss, Clin. Lymphoma, 1(4):298-302 (2001); Murphy et al., In Bacterial Toxins: Methods and Protocols, Holst O, ed, Humana Press, Totowa, N.J., pp. 89-100 (2000)). ONTAK® is variously referred to as denileukin diftitox, DAB389-IL-2, or Onzar. Its structure is comprised of, in order, a methionine residue, residues 1-386 of native DT, residues 484-485 of native DT, and residues 2-133 of IL-2 (SEQ ID NO: 148). Hence, full length ONTAK® contains 521 amino acids. It should be noted that, as a result of the methionine residue added at the N terminus of ONTAK®, numbering in the sequence of diphtheria is out of register with that of ONTAK® by one.
A number of other toxophores, most notably ricin toxin and pseudomonas exotoxin A, have been employed in developing both immunotoxins, fusion toxins and chemical conjugates; however, these molecules have not successfully completed clinical trials and all exhibit VLS as a pronounced side effect (Kreitman, Adv. Pharmacol., 28:193-219 (1994); Puri et al., Cancer Research, 61:5660-5662 (1996); Pastan, Biochim Biophys Acta., 24:1333(2):C1-6 (1997); Frankel et al., Supra (1997); Kreitman et al., Current Opin. Invest. Drugs, 2(9):1282-1293 (2001)). Thus, the modifications described herein for diphtheria toxin can be extrapolated to other toxins such as, for example, ricin and pseudomonas exotoxin A.
In certain embodiments, toxins or compounds modified based on one or more of the (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T motifs or its flanking sequences can be used to inhibit VLS in vivo. Thus, it is contemplated that such mutations that affects the (x)D(y) sequence or flanking sequence can alter the ability of a polypeptide to induce VLS or other abilities associated with these sequences. In one non-limiting example, diphtheria toxin is modified to inhibit VLS in vivo.
In order to produce toxins or compounds that have a reduced ability to induce VLS, it is contemplated that one or more (up to, and including all) remaining (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T sequences have a reduced exposure to the surface of the polypeptide. For example, it is contemplated that (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T sequences that are at least partly located in the non-exposed portions of a polypeptide, or otherwise masked from full or partial exposure to the surface of the molecule, would interact less with cells, receptors or other molecules to promote or induce VLS. Thus, the complete elimination of (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T sequences from the primary structure of the polypeptide may not be necessary to produce toxins or molecules with a reduced ability to induce or promote VLS. However, removal of all (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T sequences is contemplated to produce a composition that has the least ability to induce or promote VLS.
To determine whether a mutation would likely produce a polypeptide with a less exposed (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T motif, the putative location of the moved or added (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T sequence can be determined by comparison of the mutated sequence to that of the unmutated polypeptide's secondary and tertiary structure, as determined by such methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art including, but not limited to, X-ray crystallography, NMR or computer modeling. Computer models of various polypeptide structures are also available in the literature or computer databases. In a non-limiting example, the Entrez database website (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Entrez/) can be used to identify target sequences and regions for mutagenesis. The Entrez database is cross-linked to a database of 3-D structures for the identified amino acid sequence, if known. Such molecular models can be used to identify (x)D(y), (x)D(y)T and/or flanking sequences in polypeptides that are more exposed to contact with external molecules, than similar sequences embedded in the interior of the polypeptide. (x)D(y), (x)D(y)T and/or flanking sequences that are more exposed to contact with external molecules are more likely to contribute to promoting or reducing VLS and other toxic effects associated with these sequences and, thus, should be primary targets for mutagenesis. The mutated or wild-type polypeptide's structure could be determined by X-ray crystallography or NMR directly before use in in vitro or in vivo assays, as would be known to one of ordinary skill in the art.
Once an amino acid sequence comprising a (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T sequence is altered in a polypeptide, changes in its ability to induce or promote at least one toxic effect can be assayed using any of the techniques described herein or as known to one of ordinary skill in the art.
As used herein, “alter,” “altered,” “altering,” and “alteration” of an amino acid sequence comprising a (x)D(y) sequence or a (x)D(y)T sequence can include chemical modification of an amino acid sequence comprising a (x)D(y) and/or a (x)D(y)T sequence in a polypeptide as known to those of ordinary skill in the art, as well as any mutation of such an amino acid sequence including, but not limited to, insertions, deletions, truncations or substitutions. Such changes can alter or modify (reduce) at least one toxic effect (i.e., the ability to promote VLS, EC damage, etc.) of one or more amino acid sequence(s) comprising a (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T sequences. As used herein an amino acid sequence comprising a (x)D(y) sequence or a (x)D(y)T sequence can contain at least one flanking sequence C- and/or N-terminal to a (x)D(y) and/or a (x)D(y)T tri- or quatra-peptide sequence. Such an “alteration” can be made in synthesized polypeptides or in nucleic acid sequences that are expressed to produce mutated polypeptides.
In one aspect, the alteration of an amino acid sequence containing a (x)D(y) and/or a (x)D(y)T sequence is by removal of the amino acid sequence. As used herein, “remove”, “removed”, “removing” or “removal” of an amino acid sequence containing a (x)D(y) and/or a (x)D(y)T sequence refers to a mutation in the primary amino acid sequence that eliminates the presence of the (x)D(y) and/or a (x)D(y)T tri- or quatra-peptide sequence, and/or at least one native flanking sequence. The terms “removed” or “lacks” are used interchangeably.
One aspect of the present application relates to genetically modified polypeptides of diphtheria toxin (DT) having reduced binding to human vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs). These modified polypeptides are hereinafter referred to as modified DTs, modified DT polypeptides or DT variants. The present application provides for modified DT having one or more changes within the (x)D(y) motifs of the DT polypeptide, i.e., at residues 6-8 (VDS), residues 28-30 (VDS), and residues 289-291 (IDS) of the native DT sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1), or at residues 7-9 (VDS), residues 29-31 (VDS), and residues 290-292 (IDS) of SEQ ID NO:2 or 200. Since the (x)D(y) motifs are referred to as “VLS motifs,” the modified DT polypeptides with one or more modified (x)D(y) motifs can be referred to as “VLS-modified DT polypeptides.”
One aspect of the present application relates to genetically modified polypeptides of toxins (e.g. diphtheria toxin (DT)) having reduced binding to human vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs). These modified toxins are hereinafter referred to as modified toxins. The present application provides for modified toxins having one or more changes within the (x)D/E(y) motifs of the toxin polypeptide. For example, (x)D/E(y) motifs found within DT occur at residues 6-8 (VDS), residues 28-30 (VDS), and residues 289-291 (IDS) of the native DT sequence (SEQ ID NO 1), or at residues 7-9 (VDS), residues 29-31 (VDS), and residues 290-292 (IDS) of SEQ ID NO 2 or 200. Since the (x)D/E(y) motifs are referred to as “VLS motifs,” the modified toxin polypeptides with one or more modified (x)D/E(y) motifs are sometimes referred to as “VLS-modified toxin polypeptides.”
With the identification of the (x)D/E(y) and the (x)D/E(y)T motifs as inducing VLS, inducing apoptosis, and other effects, it is possible that the creation of a new family of molecules of VLS inhibitors will allow these molecules to exert maximal beneficial effects. For example, a reduced toxicity of toxin therapeutic agents using the compositions and methods disclosed herein may allow larger patient population to be treated or more advanced disease to be treated (e.g., cancer). In certain embodiments, modified proteins or fusion proteins based on the (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T motif or its flanking sequences may be used to inhibit VLS or other activities in vivo.
To produce peptides, polypeptides or proteins that lack the (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T sequence, one could delete or mutate the conserved aspartic acid (D) or the conserved glutamic acid (E), substitute another amino acid for the aspartic acid or the glutamic acid, or insert one or more amino acids at or adjacent to its position. Modifications contemplated herein include a substitution of the (D) or (E) residue in the sequence with an amino acid residue selected from among alanine (A), Glutamic acid (E), Serine (S), isoleucine (I), valine (V), leucine (L), phenylalanine (F), cysteine (C), methionine (M), glycine (G), threonine (T), tryptophan (W), tyrosine (Y), proline (P), histidine (H), glutamine (Q), asparagine (N), lysine (K), arginine (R) and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1, as a consequence of a deletion or mutation event.
Alternatively, to produce peptides, polypeptides or proteins that lack the (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T sequence, one could delete or mutate the conserved aspartic acid (D), substitute another amino acid for the aspartic acid, or insert one or more amino acids at or adjacent to its position. Modifications contemplated herein include a substitution of the (D) residue in the sequence by an amino acid residue selected from among isoleucine (I), valine (V), leucine (L), phenylalanine (F), cysteine (C), methionine (M), alanine (A), glycine (G), threonine (T), tryptophan (W), tyrosine (Y), proline (P), histidine (H), glutamine (Q), asparagine (N), lysine (K), arginine (R) and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1, as a consequence of a deletion or mutation event.










TABLE 1





Abbre-





viation
Amino acid
Abbreviation
Amino acid







Aad
2-Aminoadipic acid
EtAsn
N-Ethylasparagine


BAad
3-Aminoadipic acid
Hyl
Hydroxylysine


BAla
β-alanine,
Ahyl
Allo-Hydroxylysine



β-Amino-propionic acid


Abu
2-Aminobutyric acid
3Hyp
3-Hydroxyproline


4Abu
4--Aminobutyric acid,
4Hyp
4-Hydroxyproline



piperidinic acid


Acp
6-Aminocaproic acid
Ide
Isodesmosine


Ahe
2-Aminoheptanoic acid
Aile
Allo-Isoleucine


Aib
2-Aminoisobutyric acid
MeGly
N-Methylglycine,





sarcosine


BAib
3-Aminoisobutyric acid
MeIle
N-Methylisoleucine


Apm
2-Aminopimelic acid
MeLys
6-N-Methyllysine


Dbu
2,4-Diaminobutyric acid
MeVal
N-Methylvaline


Des
Desmosine
Nva
Norvaline


Dpm
2,2′-Diaminopimelic acid
Nle
Norleucine


Dpr
2,3-Diaminopropionic acid
Orn
Ornithine


EtGly
N-Ethylglycine









In one embodiment, the (x) residue could be deleted, substituted, or moved by the insertion of one or more amino acids, to remove the (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T sequence. Modifications contemplated herein include a substitution of the (x) residue in the sequence an amino acid residue selected from among phenylalanine (F), cysteine (C), methionine (M), threonine (T), tryptophan (W), tyrosine (Y), proline (P), histidine (H), glutamic acid (E), glutamine (Q), aspartic acid (D), asparagine (N), lysine (K), arginine (R), glycine (G), serine (S), alanine (A), leucine (L), and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1 as a consequence of the deletion or mutation event.
Alternatively, the (x) residue could be deleted, substituted, or moved by the insertion of one or more amino acids, to remove the (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T sequence. Modifications contemplated herein include a substitution of the (x) residue in the sequence by an amino acid residue selected from among phenylalanine (F), cysteine (C), methionine (M), threonine (T), tryptophan (W), tyrosine (Y), proline (P), histidine (H), glutamic acid (E), glutamine (Q), aspartic acid (D), asparagine (N), lysine (K), arginine (R) and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1 as a consequence of the deletion or mutation event. For example, a V or I amino acid residue as described is replaced with any of such amino acid residues.
In one embodiment, the (y) residue could be deleted, substituted, or moved by the insertion of one or more amino acids, to remove the (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T sequence. An amino acid that may replace the (y) residue in the sequence as a consequence of the deletion or mutation event is, for example, isoleucine (I); phenylalanine (F); cysteine/cystine (C); methionine (M); alanine (A); glycine (G); threonine (T); tryptophan (W); tyrosine (Y); proline (P); histidine (H); glutamic acid (E); glutamine (Q); aspartic acid (D); asparagine (N); lysine (K); and arginine (R), leucine (L), valine (V), serine (S), and including, but not limited to, those shown at Table 1.
Alternatively, the (y) residue could be deleted, substituted, or moved by the insertion of one or more amino acids, to remove the (x)D(y) and/or (x)D(y)T sequence. An amino acid that may replace the (y) residue in the sequence as a consequence of the deletion or mutation event is, for example, isoleucine (I); phenylalanine (F); cysteine/cystine (C); methionine (M); alanine (A); glycine (G); threonine (T); tryptophan (W); tyrosine (Y); proline (P); histidine (H); glutamic acid (E); glutamine (Q); aspartic acid (D); asparagine (N); lysine (K); and arginine (R), and including, but not limited to, those shown at Table 1.
Other residues that are positioned in the physical region, three-dimensional space, or vicinity of the HUVEC binding site and/or the (x)D/E(y) motif may be mutated or altered to abrogate, reduce, or eliminate VLS. The amino acids targeted for mutation in the flanking regions include amino acids on or near the surface of a native toxin protein. The alteration may remove or substitute a charged residue in the region of a (x)D/E(y) motif, which may negate or reverse the charge in a particular area on the surface of the protein. The alteration may also change size and/or hydrophilic nature of an amino acid in the physical region, space or vicinity of the (x)D/E(y) sequence or active site of a protein. For example, LDV constitutes the minimal active site in the CS1 domain of fibronectin responsible for its binding to the α4β1 integrin receptor (Makarem and Humphries, 1991; Wayner and Kovach, 1992; Nowlin et al., 1993). However, fibronectin (FN) does not damage HUVECs. Instead, FN protects HUVECs from RTA-mediated damage (Baluna et al., 1996). Unlike RTA, FN has a C-terminal LDV-flanking proline instead of a threonine. In disintegrins, residues flanking RGD, play a role in ligand binding (Lu et al., 1996). The difference between the ability of an LDV or homologue-containing molecule to promote vascular integrity (e.g., FN) or disrupt it (e.g., DT) may depend on the orientation, or availability for interaction (i.e., binding), of the LDV motif and hence, on flanking sequences. Therefore, changes in one or more flanking residues of the (x)D/E(y) sequence may enhance or reduce the ability of a molecule to promote VLS. Further, changes that expose the (x)D/E(y) sequence to the external surface of the protein so as to interact with other proteins, such as receptors, would enhance VLS promoting activity, while conformations that are less exposed may reduce VLS promoting activity.
At least one mutation, chemical modification, movement or other alteration in the N- or C-terminal flanking sequences of the (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T sequence may also produce proteins, polypeptides or peptides that have a reduced ability to promote VLS. Preferably, such mutations or alterations would occur in one or more residues which will not affect the active site. In other embodiments, the mutations or alterations would occur in one or more residues of from about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6 or more N-terminal and/or C-terminal to the (x)D/E(y) tripeptide sequence. In other aspects, one or more residues that are not adjacent to the (x)D/E(y) tripeptide may contribute to the function of the (x)D/E(y) motif. Such residues may be identified by their proximity to the tripeptide sequence in a 3-dimensional model, as described herein and as would be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, and are contemplated for alteration as part of a flanking sequence. Such alterations may include any of those described above for altering the (x)D/E(y) and (x)D/E(y)T sequences, as long as one or more “wild type” flanking residues are altered, removed, moved, chemically modified, etc.
Such amino acid modifications can be assayed for the ability to effectively deliver the catalytic domain of DT to a targeted cell within the context of a fusion protein, and not reconstitute an intact VLS motif. Provided herein are modified diphtheria toxins that have a reduced ability to induce VLS; any remaining (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T sequences, if possible, are to have a reduced exposure to the surface of the protein, polypeptide or peptide.
In one non-limiting example, it is contemplated that (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T sequences that are at least partly located in the non-exposed portions of a diphtheria toxin, or otherwise masked from full or partial exposure to the surface of the molecule, would interact less with cells, receptors or other molecules to promote or induce VLS. Thus, it is contemplated that the complete elimination of (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T sequences from the primary structure of the diphtheria toxin is not necessary to produce toxins or molecules with a reduced ability to induce or promote VLS. However, in one embodiment, all (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T sequences are removed to generate a composition that has the least ability to induce or promote VLS.
To determine whether a mutation would likely produce a modified toxin with a less exposed (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T motif, the putative location of the moved or added (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T sequence could be determined by comparison of the mutated sequence to that of the unmutated toxin's secondary and tertiary structure, as determined by such methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art including, but not limited to, X-ray crystallography, NMR or computer modeling. Computer models of various polypeptide and peptide structures are also available in the literature or computer databases. In a non-limiting example, the Entrez database can be used to identify target sequences and regions for mutagenesis. The Entrez database is crosslinked to a database of 3-D structures for the identified amino acid sequence, if known. Such molecular models can be used to identify (x)D/E(y), (x)D/E(y)T and/or flanking sequences in diphtheria toxin that are more exposed to contact with external molecules, (e.g. receptors) than similar sequences embedded in the interior of the polypeptide or polypeptide. It is contemplated that (x)D/E(y), (x)D/E(y)T and/or flanking sequences that are more exposed to contact with external molecules are more likely to contribute to promoting or reducing VLS and other toxic effects associated with these sequences, and, thus, should be primary targets for mutagenesis. In certain embodiments, when adding at least one (x)D/E(y), (x)D/E(y)T and/or flanking sequence is desirable, regions of the protein that are more exposed to contact with external molecules are preferred as sites to add such a sequence. The mutated or wild-type toxin's structure could be determined by X-ray crystallography or NMR directly before use in in vitro or in vivo assays, as would be known to one of ordinary skill in the art.
Once an amino acid sequence comprising a (x)D/E(y) and/or (x)D/E(y)T sequence is altered in a toxin, changes in its ability to promote at least one toxic effect can be assayed by any of the techniques described herein or as would be known to one of ordinary skill in the art. Methods of altering (changing) amino acid sequences are described in more detail below and are known in the art.
Modifications (changes) are those amino acid substitutions, insertions or deletions which permit the alteration of a native sequence or a previously modified sequence within these regions but do not impair the cytotoxicity of a toxin or toxophore. These modifications would not include those that regenerate the VDS/IDS sequences responsible for mediating the interaction with endothelial cells. Such non-native recombinant sequences therefore comprise a novel series of mutants that maintain the native function of the unique domains of toxin while significantly decreasing their ability to interact with vascular endothelial cells.
In one embodiment, the DT variants of the present invention contain at least one modification within one of the (x)D/E(y) motifs of the DT molecule, i.e., within residues 6-8 (VDS), residues 28-30 (VDS), and residues 289-291 (IDS) of SEQ ID NO:1 to eliminate motifs that are associated with VLS and thereby reduce the clinical adverse effects commonly associated with this syndrome. The modified DTs of the present application, however, are as effective and efficient as DT387 in their ability to facilitate the delivery of its catalytic domain to the cytosol of targeted eukaryotic cells when incorporated into protein fusion toxins. DT387 (SEQ ID NO 2) is a truncated DT protein comprising amino acid residues 1-386 of the native DT protein including the catalytic domain and the translocation domain and an addition of an N-terminal methionine. DT389 (SEQ ID NO: 200) is a truncated DT protein including in order, a methionine residue, residues 1-386 of native DT and residues 484-485 of native DT. In one embodiment, the DT variants of the present invention contain at least one modification within one of the (x)D/E(y) motifs of the DT molecule, i.e., within residues 7-9 (VDS), residues 29-31 (VDS), and residues 290-292 (IDS) of SEQ ID NO:2 or 200 to eliminate motifs that are associated with VLS and thereby reduce the clinical adverse effects commonly associated with this syndrome.
Unmodified diphtheria toxins can have, for example, an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2, 200 or an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOS: 4-147. In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin having cytotoxicity comparable to an unmodified diphtheria toxin refers to a modified diphtheria toxin having cytotoxicity substantially similar to, or with at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, or at least about 95% or more cytotoxicity compared to an unmodified diphtheria toxin. Purified DAB389IL-2 produced in E. coli generally yields an IC50 of between 5×10−11 M and 1×10−12 M. Thus, in another embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin having cytotoxicity comparable to an unmodified diphtheria toxin refers to a modified diphtheria toxin having an IC50 of between about 5×10−11 M to about 1×10−12 M, of about 1×10−10 M to about 1×10−10 M, of about 1×10−9 M to about 1×10−10 M, or of about 1×10−8 M to about 1×10−9 M. Cytotoxicity of a modified diphtheria toxin compared to an unmodified diphtheria toxin can be tested in a cytotoxicity assay such as that described below in the Examples.
In addition to the modification in the (x)D/E(y) motifs, the modified DTs can further comprise a deletion or substitution of 1 to 30 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:2 or 200, 1 to 10 amino acids, or 1-3 amino acids, so long as the truncated molecule retains the ability to translocate into cells and kill target cells when the truncated molecule is fused with a cell binding domain.
In one embodiment provided herein is a modified diphtheria toxin, said modified diphtheria toxin having an amino acid sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO. 2 or 200 with one or more amino acid modifications therein, wherein at least one amino acid modification is made within an (x)D(y) motif in a region such as, for example, residues 7-9, 29-31 and 290-292 of SEQ ID NO 2 or 200, and the modified diphtheria toxin has cytotoxicity comparable to an unmodified diphtheria toxin. In one embodiment, a modification at position (x) is a substitution of V or I by A, S, E, F, C, M, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, D, N, K, R, G, L, or a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1. In one embodiment, a modification at position D is a substitution of D by A, S, E, I, V, L, F, C, M, G, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, N, K, R or a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1. In one embodiment, a modification at position (y) is a substitution by I, F, C, M, A, G, T, W, Y, P, H, E, Q, D, N, K, R, S, L, V, and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1.
Alternatively, in another embodiment, provided herein is a modified diphtheria toxin having one or more amino acid modifications therein, wherein at least one amino acid modification is made within an (x)D/E(y) motif in a region selected from the group consisting of residues 7-9, 29-31 and 290-292 of SEQ ID NO 2 or 200, and wherein said modified diphtheria toxin has cytotoxicity comparable to an unmodified diphtheria toxin. In one embodiment, a modification at position (x) is a substitution of V or I by F, C, M, T, W, Y, P, H, E, Q, D, N, K, R, or a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1. In another embodiment, a modification at position D/E is a substitution of D/E by I, V, L, F, C, M, A, G, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, N, K, R or a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1. In one embodiment, a modification at position (y) is a substitution by I, F, C, M, A, G, T, W, Y, P, H, E, Q, D, N, K, R, S, L, V, and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin contains one or more modifications selected from among V7T, V7N, V7D, D8N, S9A, S9T, S9G, V29N, V29D, V29T, D30N, S31G, S31N, I290T, D291E, S292A, S292G and S292T.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin contains two modifications. Such modified diphtheria toxins can contain a combination of mutations such as, for example, V7N V29N, V7N V29T, V7N V29D, V7T V29N, V7T V29T or V7T V29D.
In one embodiment, a modified diphtheria toxin contains three modifications. Such modified diphtheria toxins can contain a combination of mutations such as, for example, V7N V29N I290N, V7N V29N I290T, V7N V29N S292A, V7N V29N S292T, V7N V29T I290N, V7N V29T I290T, V7N V29T S292A, V7N V29T S292T, and V7T V29T I290T.
Modified diphtheria toxins containing about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or up to about 20 modifications within one or more (x)D/E(y) motifs can be made, using the methods described herein, by sequentially modifying amino acid residues and comparing activity after each modification to the previously unmodified or previously modified diphtheria toxin. Alternatively, modified diphtheria toxins containing more than one modification can be made, using the methods described herein, by modifying two or more amino acid residues at the same time and comparing activity to the previously unmodified diphtheria toxin. Modified toxins can be tested for activity using assays known in the art and described herein including, but not limited to, cytotoxicity assays and ADP ribosylation assays.
Expressed toxin-mutants and toxin-fusion proteins can be tested for their functional activity. Methods for testing various toxins' activity are well-known in the art. For example, the VLS effect of DT-mutants and DT-fusion proteins can be tested in HUVECs as described in Example 2. The ribosyltransferase activity of DT variants or DT-fusion proteins can be tested by the ribosyltransferase assay described in Example 3. The cytotoxicity of DT variants or DT-fusion proteins can be tested as described in Example 4. VLS modified DT fusion toxins using these ligands are useful in treating cancers or other diseases of the cell type to which there is specific binding.
V. Toxins with T-Cell Epitope, B-Cell Epitope, and VLS Motif Modifications
In addition to the methods for reducing immunogenicity via modification of T-cell and B-cell epitopes and to the methods for reducing vascular leak syndrome via modification of VLS motifs as described herein, toxins and modified toxins can include both modifications to produce polypeptides that exhibit reduced immunogenicity (T-cell, B-cell, or both) and reduced capacity to cause vascular leak syndrome (i.e. reduced binding to endothelial cells and vascular endothelial cells and reduced disruption of endothelial cell junctions and other indications of vascular leak syndrome as described herein).
To produce a toxin (e.g., diphtheria toxin) that has modifications in T-cell epitopes, B-cell epitopes, VLS motifs, and combinations thereof, the amino acid residue modifications made for each type of modification are considered in light of the other modifications. In one non-limiting example, modification of both T-cell epitopes and VLS motifs is desired. When modifying both T-cell epitopes and VLS motifs, modification of at least one amino acid within at least one T-cell epitope within the toxin should not create a VLS motif. Similarly, the modification of at least one amino acid within at least one VLS motif within the toxin should not create a T-cell epitope. Additionally, the modification of a T-cell epitope or a VLS motif should not re-introduce a previously modified T-cell or VLS motif. Furthermore, modification of such polypeptides can also take into consideration the modification of B-cell epitopes, which when desired, should also not create or re-introduce T-cell epitopes or VLS motifs.
Modifications that affect the cytotoxicity of the toxins can also be made. For instance, if one or more modifications are made to one or more of a T cell epitope, a VLS motif and/or a B cell epitope are made and the cytotoxicity of the modified toxin is less than the unmodified toxin, it is contemplated herein that one or more modifications could made to restore the cytotoxicity to a level comparable to that of the unmodified toxin or to an effective level.
The membrane-inserting domain (translocation domain) of diphtheria toxin (T) contains an amphipathic region that is involved in the delivery of the catalytic domain (C) domain to the cytosol of a cell. In one non-limiting example, replacement of one or more amino acid residues of the amphipathic region with one or more different amino acid residues that retain the helical structure of the region can maintain cytoxicity. Consideration of the composition and distribution of the charged and hydrophobic amino acid residues within the amphipathic region and modification thereof is also contemplated herein. Examples of charged amino residues include Glu, Asp, Asn, Gln, Lys, Arg and His; hydrophobic amino acids include, but are not limited to, alanine and phenylalanine.
Modification of the binding cleft of the catalytic domains of the ADP-ribosylating protein family, described herein, can also affect cytotoxicity. In one non-limiting example, modification of one or more amino acid residues of the F/Y-X-S-T-X motif of the diphtheria toxin C domain can affect the cytotoxicity of the polypeptide. Replacement of one or more amino acid residues in this region one or more different amino acid residues that retain the catalytic domain can maintain cytoxicity. Comparison with related members of the ADP-ribosylating protein family (e.g., Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A) can provide further guidance on amino acid residue modification and composition of domains such as the diphtheria toxin C domain. Modifications such as these are also contemplated herein.
Provided herein are methods of making modified toxins that have reduced immunogenicity, reduced VLS effects (i.e. reduced endothelial cell binding), and combinations thereof. Furthermore, methods of selecting modified toxins that have reduced immunogenicity, reduced VLS effects, and combinations thereof are also contemplated within the invention described herein.
In one embodiment, a toxin is modified for T-cell epitopes, B-cell epitopes, VLS motifs, and combinations thereof, and the amino acid sequence of the modified toxin is subsequently examined for the creation or re-introduction of T-cell epitopes, B-cell epitopes, or VLS motifs. Where a T-cell epitope, B-cell epitope, VLS motif, or combination thereof is found to have been created or re-introduced, the amino acid residues therein are further modified to remove said T-cell epitope, B-cell epitope, VLS motif, or combination thereof without creating or re-introducing any T-cell epitope, B-cell epitope, VLS motif, or combinations thereof.
In another embodiment, T-cell epitopes within a toxin are first identified and modified, followed by identification and modification of any VLS motifs within the toxin. The modified toxin is then examined for the creation or re-introduction of any T-cell epitopes, and any such T-cell epitopes are modified without creating or re-introducing VLS motifs. In yet another embodiment, VLS motifs within a toxin are first identified and modified, followed by identification and modification of T-cell epitopes within the toxin.
Application of the methods described herein also provides for methods of making modified toxins that exhibit reduced immunogenicity, reduced VLS effects (i.e. reduced endothelial cell binding), and combinations thereof. Furthermore, methods of selecting modified toxins that have reduced immunogenicity, reduced VLS effects, and combinations thereof are also contemplated herein. Methods of testing modified toxins for such characteristics are known in the art and are, described, for example, in the Examples provided herein. In one embodiment, a method of making a modified toxin exhibiting reduced immunogenicity and reduced VLS effects compared to an unmodified toxin comprises identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a toxin, modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one identified T-cell epitope, identifying at least one VLS motifs within the amino acid sequence of the toxin, and modifying at least one amino acid within at least one identified VLS motif.
In another embodiment, a modified toxin exhibiting reduced immunogenicity and reduced VLS effects compared to an unmodified toxin is produced by a process of identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a toxin, modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one identified T-cell epitope, identifying at least one VLS motifs within the amino acid sequence of the toxin, and modifying at least one amino acid within at least one identified VLS motif.
In yet another embodiment, a method of selecting a modified toxin that exhibits reduced immunogenicity and reduced VLS effects compared to an unmodified toxin comprises identifying at least one T-cell epitope within the amino acid sequence of a toxin, modifying at least one amino acid residue within at least one identified T-cell epitope, identifying at least one VLS motifs within the amino acid sequence of the toxin, modifying at least one amino acid within at least one identified VLS motif, and selecting a modified toxin that exhibits reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified toxin.
VI. Toxins
A used herein, the term “toxin” refers to any anticellular agent, and includes, but is not limited to, cytotoxins and/or any combination of anticellular agents. In certain aspects, the toxin is, for example, a plant toxin, a fungal toxin, a bacterial toxin, a ribosome inactivating protein (RIP) or a combination thereof. Toxins include, but are not limited to, Abrin A chain, Diphtheria Toxin (DT) A-Chain, Pseudomonas exotoxin, RTA, Shiga Toxin A chain, Shiga-like toxin, Gelonin, Momordin, Pokeweed Antiviral Protein, Saporin, Trichosanthin, Barley toxin, and various other toxins known in the art. Toxin, as used herein, specifically excludes Staphylococcus enterotoxin B (SEB), hirudin, and bouganin proteins.
Diphtheria toxin is a member of the mono-ADP-ribosylating toxin family which further includes such toxins as cholera toxin, pseudomonas exotoxin A, pertussis toxin, and clostridium C3-like toxin. Members of this family contain many similar protein domains and motifs, in particular the catalytic site of the toxins. For example, the catalytic site of many members of this family is known to contain a glutamic acid residue important in the catalytic function of these toxins. The members of this family are contemplated as within the invention described herein using DT as an exemplary toxin. DT is composed of three domains: a catalytic domain; transmembrane domain; and a receptor binding domain (Choe et al. Nature, 357:216-222 (1992)). The nucleic acid and amino acid sequences of native DT were described by Greenfield et al. PNAS (1983) 80: 6853-6857 in FIG. 2. Native DT is targeted to cells that express heparin binding epidermal growth factor-like receptors (Naglish et al., Cell, 69:1051-1061 (1992)). The first generation targeted toxins were initially developed by chemically cross-linking novel targeting ligands to toxins such as DT or mutants of DT deficient in cell binding (e.g. CRM45). (Cawley, Cell 22:563-570 (1980); Bacha et al., Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 181(1):131-138 (1986); Bacha et al., Endocrinology, 113(3):1072-1076 (1983); Bacha et al., J. Biol. Chem., 258(3):1565-1570 (1983)). The native cell binding domain or a cross-linked ligand that directs the DT toxophore to receptors on a specific class of receptor-bearing cells must possess intact catalytic and translocation domains. (Cawley et al., Cell, 22:563-570 (1980); vanderSpek et al., J. Biol. Chem., 5:268(16):12077-12082 (1993); vanderSpek et al., J. Biol. Chem., 7(8):985-989 (1994); vanderSpek et al., J. Biol. Chem., 7(8)985-989 (1994); Rosconi, J. Biol. Chem., 10; 277(19):16517-161278 (2002)). These domains are critical for delivery and intoxification of the targeted cell following receptor internalization (Greenfield et al., Science, 238(4826)536-539 (1987)). Once the toxin, toxin conjugate or fusion toxin has bound to the cell surface receptor the cell internalizes the toxin bound receptor via endocytic vesicles. As the vesicles are processed they become acidified and the translocation domain of the DT toxophore undergoes a structural reorganization which inserts the nine transmembrane segments of the toxin into the membrane of the endocytic vesicle. This event triggers the formation of a productive pore through which the catalytic domain of the toxin is threaded. Once translocated the catalytic domain which possess the ADP-ribosyltransferase activity is released into the cytosol of the targeted cell where it is free to poison translation thus effecting the death of the cell (reviewed in vanderSpek et al., Methods in Molecular Biology, Bacterial Toxins: methods and Protocols, 145:89-99, Humana press, Totowa, N.J., (2000)).
Fewer than ten molecules of DT will kill a cell if they enter the cytosol (although many times that number must bind to the cell surface because the entry process is inefficient). This extraordinary potency initially led to the concern that such poisons were too powerful to control. However, toxins such as DT can be rendered innocuous (except when directed to the target cells) simply by removing or modifying their cell-binding domain or subunit. The remaining portion of the toxin (lacking a cell-binding domain) is then coupled to a ligand (e.g., a polypeptide or portion thereof containing a cell-binding domain) that targets the toxic portion to the target cell. By selecting a polypeptide or portion thereof containing a cell-binding domain lacking unwanted cross-reactivity, fusion proteins are safer and have fewer non-specific cytotoxic effects than most conventional anti-cancer drugs. The other main attraction of toxins such as DT is that because they are inhibitors of protein synthesis, they kill resting cells as efficiently as dividing cells. Hence, tumor or infected cells that are not in cycle at the time of treatment do not escape the cytotoxic effect of a fusion protein.
Toxins such as DT often contain two disulfide-bonded chains, the A and B chains. The B chain carries both a cell-binding region and a translocation region, which facilitates the insertion of the A chain through the membrane of an acid intracellular compartment into the cytosol. The A chain then kills the cell after translocation. For their use in vivo, the ligand and toxin are coupled in such a way as to remain stable while passing through the bloodstream and the tissues and yet be labile within the target cell so that the toxic portion can be released into the cytosol.
However, it may be desirable from a pharmacologic standpoint to employ the smallest molecule possible that nevertheless provides an appropriate biological response. One may thus desire to employ smaller A chain peptides or other toxins which will provide an adequate anti-cellular response.
Diphtheria toxin as described herein comprises the amino acid sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200. Additionally, variants of diphtheria are known to contain nucleic acid residue insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions in their nucleic acid sequence while still retaining their biological activity. Variants of diphtheria toxin have been characterized demonstrating nucleic acid variation among diphtheria toxins. (Holnes, R. K., J. Infect. Dis., 181 (Supp. 1): S156-S167 (2000)), thus diphtheria toxins can comprise different nucleic acid and/or amino acid sequences. Nucleic acid residue insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions can also affect the amino acid sequence. However, not all nucleic acid residue changes will result in a change at the amino acid residue level of a protein due to the redundancy of the genetic code. Nucleic acid and/or amino acid variations (i.e., insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions) of diphtheria toxin are also included within the definition of diphtheria toxin and contemplated herein. As used herein, diphtheria toxin comprises the amino acid sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200 and further includes diphtheria toxins comprising amino acid sequences about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% homologous to SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200. C-terminal truncations of DT can also made and include for example, deletion of about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, or about 50 amino acid residues of DT389 or DT387. For example, as used herein, diphtheria toxin comprises the amino acid sequence as set forth in amino acid residues 1-382 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 149 and further includes diphtheria toxins comprising amino acid sequences about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% homologous to amino acid residues 1-382 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 149. One would understand that variants of diphtheria toxin could be modified and tested for function using any of the methods described herein.
In one aspect, toxin as used herein contemplates fusion proteins between toxins (e.g. diphtheria toxin) and non-toxin polypeptides containing at least one cell binding domain. In one non-limiting example, a diphtheria toxin or a fragment thereof is fused to a cell-binding domain of interleukin 2 (IL-2), thus creating a fusion toxin. As described in further detail herein, fusion protein toxins can also comprise linker polypeptides and conjugates. Such toxins are also contemplated as toxins to be modified by the methods of the invention disclosed herein.
In one embodiment, a toxin is a fusion protein comprising a modified toxin wherein the toxin binding domain has been replaced with the binding domain of a non-toxin polypeptide. In another embodiment, the toxin is a fusion protein comprising a modified diphtheria toxin and a non-toxin polypeptide. In another embodiment, the toxin is a fusion protein comprising diphtheria toxin and IL-2.
While diphtheria toxin is frequently discussed as an exemplar toxin, one would recognize that the methods of the invention described herein can be applied to any of the aforementioned toxins.
VII. Fusion Proteins
The present invention also provides modified toxin fusion proteins. Modified toxin polypeptides can be fused to, for example, a non-toxin polypeptide. In one embodiment, the non-toxin polypeptide is a cell-specific binding ligand. The specific-binding ligands used in the invention can contain an entire ligand, or a portion of a ligand which includes the entire binding domain of the ligand, or an effective portion of the binding domain. It is most desirable to include all or most of the binding domain of the ligand molecule. In one non-limiting example, a DT fusion protein contains a DT-related polypeptide (e.g., a modified DT described herein) and a non-DT polypeptide fused in-frame to each other. The DT-related polypeptide corresponds to all or a portion of DT variant having reduced immunogenicity or modified T-cell epitopes, reduced binding to human vascular endothelial cells, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, a DT fusion protein comprises at least one portion of a modified DT sequence recited in one of SEQ ID NOS: 4-147. In another embodiment, a DT fusion protein comprises at least one T-cell epitope modification. In a further embodiment, a DT fusion protein comprises at least one T-cell epitope modification, and at least one modification set forth in one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 4-147. In a further embodiment, a DT fusion protein comprises at least one T-cell epitope modification, at least one modification set forth in one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 4-147, and at least one B-cell epitope modification.
In one embodiment of the compounds disclosed herein, the modified toxin is a fusion toxin wherein a non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide is a cell-binding ligand. In a further embodiment, the cell-binding ligand is an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof, a cytokine, a polypeptide, a hormone, a growth factor, or insulin. In yet another embodiment, the cytokine is IL-2.
In another embodiment, the modified toxin is a fusion toxin wherein the cell binding domain is an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof. An antibody can be, for example, monoclonal, polyclonal, humanized, genetically engineered, or grafted. An antigen-binding fragment can be, for example, a Fab, Fab2, a F(ab′)2, a scFv, a scFv2 (a tandem linkage of two scFv molecules head to tail in a chain), a single chain binding polypeptide, a VH or a VL. Methods of making antigen-binding fragments are known in the art and are incorporated herein. Useful antibodies include those that specifically bind to a receptor or other moiety expressed on the surface of the target cell membrane or tumor associated antigens.
“Specifically binds” means that the binding agent binds to the antigen on the target cell with greater affinity than it binds unrelated antigens. Preferably such affinity is at least about 10-fold greater, at least about 100-fold greater, or at least about 1000-fold greater than the affinity of the binding agent for unrelated antigens. The terms “immunoreactive” and “specifically binds” are used interchangeably herein. In certain embodiments, the anti-tumor antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof (e.g., scFv, scFv2, etc.) are those which recognize a surface determinant on the tumor cells and are internalized in those cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis. In a further embodiment, the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof binds to a B-cell surface molecule such as, for example, the B-cell surface molecule is CD19 or CD22. Alternatively, the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof, binds to the ovarian receptor MISIIR (Mullerian Inhibitory Substance type II receptor).
Cell-specific-binding ligands can also include, but are not limited to: polypeptide hormones, e.g., those made using the binding domain of α-MSH can selectively bind to melanocytes, allowing the construction of improved t-MSH chimeric toxins useful in the treatment of melanoma. (Murphy, J. R. et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 83(21):8258-8262 (1986)). Other specific-binding ligands which can be used include insulin, somatostatin, interleukins I and III, and granulocyte colony stimulating factor. Other useful polypeptide ligands having cell-specific binding domains are follicle stimulating hormone (specific for ovarian cells), luteinizing hormone (specific for ovarian cells), thyroid stimulating hormone (specific for thyroid cells), vasopressin (specific for uterine cells, as well as bladder and intestinal cells), prolactin (specific for breast cells), and growth hormone (specific for certain bone cells). Specific-binding ligands which can be used include cytokines including, but not limited to, IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-11, IL-12, IL-13, IL-14, IL-15, β-interferon, α-interferon (INF-α), INF-γ, angiostatin, thrombospondin, endostatin, METH-1, METH-2, GM-CSF, G-CSF, M-CSF, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), SVEGF, TGF-β, Flt3 and B-cell growth factor. IL-2 is of particular importance because of its role in allergic reactions and autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythmatosis (SLE), involving activated T cells. Toxin fusion proteins made using B-cell growth factor can be used as immunosuppressant reagents which kill proliferating B-cells, which bear B-cell growth factor receptors, and which are involved in hypersensitivity reactions and organ rejection. Other cytokines include Substance P (Benoliel et al., Pain, 79(2-3):243-53 (1999)), VEGF (Hotz et al., J Gastrointest Surg., 6(2):159-66 (2002)), IL-3 (Jo et al., Protein Exp Purif. 33(1):123-33 (2004)) and GM-CSF (Frankel et al., Clin Cancer Res, 8(5):1004-13 (2002)). Modified fusion toxins using these ligands are useful in treating cancers or other diseases of the cell type to which there is specific binding.
In IL-2, a LDL sequence (a “VLS” motif) at residues 19-21 (SEQ ID NO: 3) is located in an α-helix and is also partially exposed. Mutating Asp-20 to Lys in the LDL motif eliminates binding of IL-2 to the β chain of the IL-2 receptor and subsequent cell proliferation (Collins et al., 1988). It has been reported that IL-2 directly increases the permeability of the vascular endothelium to albumin in vitro and that this effect can be inhibited by anti-IL-2 receptor monoclonal antibodies (Downie et al., 1992). The LDL sequence in IL-2 damages HUVECs. The Asp-20 in the LDL of IL-2 is involved in receptor binding and functional activity (Collins et al., 1988). Thus, it is contemplated that in certain embodiments, mutations in IL-2's (x)D/E(y) sequence and/or flanking sequence(s) to eliminate or reduce VLS should be conservative with respect to Asp-20 or the biological activity of IL-2 may be reduced.
For a number of cell-specific ligands, the region within each such ligand in which the binding domain is located is now known. Furthermore, advances in solid phase polypeptide synthesis enable those skilled in this technology to determine the binding domain of practically any such ligand, by synthesizing various fragments of the ligand and testing them for the ability to bind to the class of cells to be labeled using conventional methods known in the art such as an ELISA assay. Thus, the chimeric genetic fusion toxins of the invention need not include an entire ligand, but rather can include only a fragment of a ligand which exhibits the desired cell-binding capacity. Likewise, analogs of the ligand or its cell-binding region having minor sequence variations can be synthesized, tested for their ability to bind to cells, and incorporated into the hybrid molecules of the invention. The amino acid sequences of cell-binding polypeptides can be analyzed for one or more VLS motifs, T-cell epitopes, B-cell epitopes, or combinations thereof and modified according to the concepts described herein.
In one aspect, a toxin-fusion protein of the present invention is produced by standard recombinant DNA techniques. For example, DNA fragments coding for the different polypeptide sequences are ligated together in-frame in accordance with conventional techniques, for example, by employing blunt-ended or stagger-ended termini for ligation, restriction enzyme digestion to provide for appropriate termini, filling-in of cohesive ends as appropriate, alkaline phosphatase treatment to avoid undesirable joining, and enzymatic ligation. In another embodiment, the fusion gene can be synthesized by conventional techniques including automated DNA synthesizers. Alternatively, PCR amplification of gene fragments can be carried out using anchor primers which give rise to complementary overhangs between two consecutive gene fragments which can subsequently be annealed and reamplified to generate a chimeric gene sequence.
If needed for proper conformational folding of the fusion protein, a peptide linker sequence can be employed to separate the toxin-related polypeptide from non-toxin polypeptide components by a distance sufficient to ensure that each polypeptide folds into its secondary and tertiary structures. Such a peptide linker sequence can be incorporated into the fusion protein using standard techniques well known in the art and can be chosen based on the following factors: (1) its ability to adopt a flexible extended conformation; (2) its inability to adopt a secondary structure that could interact with functional epitopes on the toxin-related polypeptide and non-toxin polypeptide; and (3) the lack of hydrophobic or charged residues that might react with the polypeptide functional epitopes. Preferred peptide linker sequences contain Gly, Asn and Ser residues. Other near neutral amino acids, such as Thr and Ala, can also be used in the linker sequence. Amino acid sequences which can be usefully employed as linkers include, but are not limited to, those disclosed in Maratea et al., Gene, 40:39-46, 1985; Murphy et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 83:8258-8262, 1986; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,935,233 and 4,751,180. The linker sequence can generally be from 1 to about 50 amino acids in length. Linker sequences may not be required when the toxin-related polypeptide and non-toxin polypeptide have non-essential N-terminal amino acid regions that can be used to separate the functional domains and prevent steric interference.
Chemical cross-linking or conjugation results in a variety of molecular species representing the reaction products, and typically only a small fraction of these products are catalytically and biologically active. In order to be biologically active, the reaction products must be conjugated in a manner that does not interfere with the innate structure and activity of the catalytic and translocation domains in the toxophore. Resolution of the active or highly active species from the inactive species is not always feasible as the reaction products often possess similar biophysical characteristics, including for example size, charge density and relative hydrophobicity. It is noteworthy that isolation of large amounts of pure clinical grade active product from chemically cross-linked toxins is not typically economically feasible for the production of pharmaceutical grade product for clinical trials and subsequent introduction to the clinical marketplace. To circumvent this issue, a genetic DT-based protein fusion toxin in which the native DT receptor-binding domain was genetically replaced with melanocyte-stimulating hormone as a surrogate receptor-targeting domain was created (Murphy et al., PNAS, 83:8258-8262 (1986)). This approach was used with human IL-2 as a surrogate targeting ligand to create DAB4861L-2 that was specifically cytotoxic only to those cells that expressed the high-affinity form of the IL-2 receptor (Williams et al., Protein Eng., 1:493-498 (1987)). Subsequent studies of DAB4861L-2 indicated that truncation of 97 amino acids from the DT portion of the molecule resulted in a more stable, more cytotoxic version of the IL-2 receptor targeted toxin, DAB3891L-2 (Williams et al., J. Biol. Chem., 265:11885-889 (1990)). The original constructs (the 486 forms) still possessed a portion of the native DT cell binding domain. The DAB389 version contains the C and T domains of DT with the DT portion of the fusion protein ending in a random coil between the T domain and the relative receptor binding domain. A number of other targeting ligands have since been genetically fused to this DT toxophore, DAB389 (VanderSpek et al., Methods in Molecular Biology, Bacterial Toxins:Methods and Protocols., 145:89-99, Humana Press, Totowa, N.J. (2000)). Similar approaches have now been employed with other bacterial proteins and genetic fusion toxins are often easier to produce and purify.
VIII. Nucleic Acids, Vectors, and Host Cells
Another aspect of the present invention pertains to vectors containing a polynucleotide (nucleic acid, DNA) encoding a modified DT variant or a fusion protein thereof.
The nucleotide and polypeptide sequences for various genes have been previously disclosed, and can be found at computerized databases known to those of ordinary skill in the art. One such database is the National Center for Biotechnology Information's Genbank and GenPept databases. The coding regions for these known genes can be amplified and/or expressed using the techniques disclosed herein or by any technique that would be know to those of ordinary skill in the art. Additionally, polypeptide sequences can be synthesized by methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art, such as polypeptide synthesis using automated polypeptide synthesis machines, such as those available from Applied Biosystems (Foster City, Calif.).
As used herein, the term “expression vector or construct” means any type of genetic construct containing a nucleic acid coding for a gene product in which part or all of the nucleic acid encoding sequence is capable of being transcribed. The transcript can be translated into a protein, but it need not be. Thus, in certain embodiments, expression includes both transcription of a gene and translation of a RNA into a gene product. In other embodiments, expression only includes transcription of the nucleic acid, for example, to generate antisense constructs.
Particularly useful vectors are contemplated to be those vectors in which the coding portion of the DNA segment, whether encoding a full length protein, polypeptide or smaller peptide, is positioned under the transcriptional control of a promoter. A “promoter” refers to a DNA sequence recognized by the synthetic machinery of the cell, or introduced synthetic machinery, required to initiate the specific transcription of a gene. The phrases “operatively positioned,” “under control” or “under transcriptional control” means that the promoter is in the correct location and orientation in relation to the nucleic acid coding for the gene product to control RNA polymerase initiation and expression of the gene.
The promoter can be in the form of the promoter that is naturally associated with a gene, as can be obtained by isolating the 5′ non-coding sequences located upstream of the coding segment or exon, for example, using recombinant cloning and/or PCR technology, in connection with the compositions disclosed herein.
In other embodiments, it is contemplated that certain advantages will be gained by positioning the coding DNA segment under the control of a recombinant, or heterologous, promoter. As used herein, a recombinant or heterologous promoter is intended to refer to a promoter that is not normally associated with a gene in its natural environment. Such promoters can include promoters normally associated with other genes, and/or promoters isolated from any other bacterial, viral, eukaryotic, or mammalian cell, and/or promoters made by the hand of man that are not “naturally occurring,” that is, containing difference elements from different promoters, or mutations that increase, decrease or alter expression.
Promoters that effectively direct the expression of the DNA segment in the cell type, organism, or even animal, are chosen for expression. The use of promoter and cell type combinations for protein expression is generally known to those of skill in the art of molecular biology, for example, see Sambrook et al., (1989), incorporated herein by reference. The promoters employed can be constitutive, or inducible, and can be used under the appropriate conditions to direct high level expression of the introduced DNA segment, such as is advantageous in the large-scale production of recombinant proteins or peptides.
At least one module in a promoter generally functions to position the start site for RNA synthesis. The best known example of this is the TATA box, but in some promoters lacking a TATA box, such as the promoter for the mammalian terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase gene and the promoter for the SV40 late genes, a discrete element overlying the start site itself helps to fix the place of initiation.
Additional promoter elements regulate the frequency of transcriptional initiation. Typically, these are located in the region 30-110 base pairs (bp) upstream of the start site, although a number of promoters have been shown to contain functional elements downstream of the start site as well. The spacing between promoter elements frequently is flexible, so that promoter function is preserved when elements are inverted or moved relative to one another. In the tk promoter, the spacing between promoter elements can be increased to 50 bp apart before activity begins to decline. Depending on the promoter, it appears that individual elements can function either co-operatively or independently to activate transcription.
The particular promoter that is employed to control the expression of a nucleic acid is not believed to be critical, so long as it is capable of expressing the nucleic acid in the targeted cell. Thus, where a human cell is targeted, it is preferable to position the nucleic acid coding region adjacent to and under the control of a promoter that is capable of being expressed in a human cell. Generally speaking, such a promoter might include either a human or viral promoter.
In expression, one will typically include a polyadenylation signal to effect proper polyadenylation of the transcript. The nature of the polyadenylation signal is not believed to be crucial to the successful practice of the invention, and any such sequence may be employed. Polyadenylation signals include, but are not limited to the SV40 polyadenylation signal and the bovine growth hormone polyadenylation signal, convenient and known to function well in various target cells. Also contemplated as an element of the expression cassette is a terminator sequence. These elements can serve to enhance message levels and to minimize read through from the cassette into other sequences.
A specific initiation signal also can be required for efficient translation of coding sequences. These signals include the ATG initiation codon and adjacent sequences. Exogenous translational control signals, including the ATG initiation codon, may need to be provided. One of ordinary skill in the art would readily be capable of determining this and providing the necessary signals. It is well known that the initiation codon must be “in-frame” with the reading frame of the desired coding sequence to ensure translation of the entire insert. The exogenous translational control signals and initiation codons can be either natural or synthetic. The efficiency of expression may be enhanced by the inclusion of appropriate transcription enhancer elements.
It is contemplated that polypeptides can be co-expressed with other selected proteins, wherein the proteins can be co-expressed in the same cell or a gene(s) can be provided to a cell that already has another selected protein. Co-expression can be achieved by co-transfecting the cell with two distinct recombinant vectors, each bearing a copy of either of the respective DNA. Alternatively, a single recombinant vector can be constructed to include the coding regions for both of the proteins, which could then be expressed in cells transfected with the single vector. In either event, the term “co-expression” herein refers to the expression of both the gene(s) and the other selected protein in the same recombinant cell.
As used herein, the terms “engineered” and “recombinant” cells or host cells are intended to refer to a cell into which an exogenous DNA segment or gene, such as a cDNA or gene encoding a protein has been introduced. Therefore, engineered cells are distinguishable from naturally occurring cells which do not contain a recombinantly introduced exogenous DNA segment or gene. Engineered cells are thus cells having a gene or genes introduced through the hand of man. Recombinant cells include those having an introduced cDNA or genomic gene, and also include genes positioned adjacent to a promoter not naturally associated with the particular introduced gene.
To express a recombinant polypeptide, whether modified or wild-type, in accordance with the present invention one would prepare an expression vector that comprises a wild-type, or modified protein-encoding nucleic acid under the control of one or more promoters. To bring a coding sequence “under the control of” a promoter, one positions the 5′ end of the transcription initiation site of the transcriptional reading frame generally between about 1 and about 50 nucleotides “downstream” of (i.e., 3′ of) the chosen promoter. The “upstream” promoter stimulates transcription of the DNA and promotes expression of the encoded recombinant protein. This is the meaning of “recombinant expression” in this context.
Many standard techniques are available to construct expression vectors containing the appropriate nucleic acids and transcriptional/translational control sequences in order to achieve protein, polypeptide or peptide expression in a variety of host-expression systems. Cell types available for expression include, but are not limited to, bacteria, such as E. coli and B. subtilis transformed with recombinant bacteriophage DNA, plasmid DNA or cosmid DNA expression vectors.
Certain examples of prokaryotic hosts are E. coli strain RR1, E. coli LE392, E. coli B, E. coli X 1776 (ATCC No. 31537) as well as E. coli W3110 (F-, lambda-, prototrophic, ATCC No. 273325); bacilli such as Bacillus subtilis; and other enterobacteriaceae such as Salmonella typhimurium, Serratia marcescens, and various Pseudomonas species.
In general, plasmid vectors containing replicon and control sequences which are derived from species compatible with the host cell are used in connection with these hosts. The vector ordinarily carries a replication site, as well as marking sequences which are capable of providing phenotypic selection in transformed cells. For example, E. coli is often transformed using derivatives of pBR322, a plasmid derived from an E. coli species. pBR322 contains genes for ampicillin and tetracycline resistance and thus provides easy means for identifying transformed cells. The pBR plasmid, or other microbial plasmid or phage must also contain, or be modified to contain, promoters which can be used by the microbial organism for expression of its own proteins.
In addition, phage vectors containing replicon and control sequences that are compatible with the host microorganism can be used as transforming vectors in connection with these hosts. For example, the phage lambda GEMTM-11 may be utilized in making a recombinant phage vector which can be used to transform host cells, such as E. coli LE392.
Further useful vectors include pIN vectors (Inouye et al., 1985); and pGEX vectors, for use in generating glutathione S-transferase (GST) soluble fusion proteins for later purification and separation or cleavage. Other suitable fusion proteins are those with β-galactosidase, ubiquitin, and the like.
Promoters that are most commonly used in recombinant DNA construction include the β-lactamase (penicillinase), lactose and tryptophan (trp) promoter systems. While these are the most commonly used, other microbial promoters have been discovered and utilized, and details concerning their nucleotide sequences have been published, enabling those of skill in the art to ligate them functionally with plasmid vectors.
The following details concerning recombinant protein production in bacterial cells, such as E. coli, are provided by way of exemplary information on recombinant protein production in general, the adaptation of which to a particular recombinant expression system will be known to those of skill in the art.
Bacterial cells, for example, E. coli, containing the expression vector are grown in any of a number of suitable media, for example, LB. The expression of the recombinant protein may be induced, e.g., by adding IPTG to the media or by switching incubation to a higher temperature. After culturing the bacteria for a further period, generally of between 2 and 24 hours (h), the cells are collected by centrifugation and washed to remove residual media.
The bacterial cells are then lysed, for example, by disruption in a cell homogenizer and centrifuged to separate the dense inclusion bodies and cell membranes from the soluble cell components. This centrifugation can be performed under conditions whereby the dense inclusion bodies are selectively enriched by incorporation of sugars, such as sucrose, into the buffer and centrifugation at a selective speed.
If the recombinant protein is expressed in the inclusion bodies, as is the case in many instances, these can be washed in any of several solutions to remove some of the contaminating host proteins, then solubilized in solutions containing high concentrations of urea (e.g., 8 M) or chaotropic agents such as guanidine hydrochloride in the presence of reducing agents, such as β-mercaptoethanol or DTT (dithiothreitol).
It is contemplated that the polypeptides produced by the methods described herein can be overexpressed, i.e., expressed in increased levels relative to its natural expression in cells. Such overexpression can be assessed by a variety of methods, including radio-labeling and/or protein purification. However, simple and direct methods are preferred, for example, those involving SDS/PAGE and protein staining or western blotting, followed by quantitative analyses, such as densitometric scanning of the resultant gel or blot. A specific increase in the level of the recombinant protein, polypeptide or peptide in comparison to the level in natural cells is indicative of overexpression, as is a relative abundance of the specific polypeptides in relation to the other proteins produced by the host cell and, e.g., visible on a gel.
Expression vectors provided herein comprise a polynucleotide encoding modified DT or a fusion protein thereof in a form suitable for expression of the polynucleotide in a host cell. The expression vectors generally have one or more regulatory sequences, selected on the basis of the host cells to be used for expression, which is operatively linked to the polynucleotide sequence to be expressed. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the design of the expression vector can depend on such factors as the choice of the host cell to be transformed, the level of expression of protein desired, and the like. The expression vectors described herein can be introduced into host cells to produce proteins, including fusion proteins, encoded by polynucleotides as described herein (e.g., a modified DT or a DT fusion protein, and the like).
Expression vectors can be designed for expression of a modified DT or a DT fusion protein in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. The presence of a single DT gene inside a eukaryotic cell would kill the cell. Specifically, the toxin binds to EF-tu which is required for translation and ribosylation. Accordingly, DT can only be expressed in eukaryotic cells with modified EF-tu that is no longer recognized by DT (see, e.g., Liu et al., Protein Expr Purif, 30:262-274 (2003); Phan et al., J. Biol. Chem., 268(12):8665-8 (1993); Chen et al., Mol. Cell. Biol., 5(12):3357-60 (1985); Kohne et al., Somat Cell Mol. Genet., 11(5):421-31 (1985); Moehring et al., Mol. Cell. Biol., 4(4):642-50 (1984)). In addition, a modified DT or a fusion protein thereof can be expressed in bacterial cells such as E. coli (Bishai et al., J Bacteriol 169(11):5140-51 (1987)). Consideration is given to the expression and activity of the types and levels of host protease expression, and this is dependent upon the cleavage site present in the engineered DT toxophore. The innate expression host protease expression profile could negatively impact the yields of DT fusion toxin produced (Bishai et al., supra (1987)). To the degree that this requisite cleavage site can be altered to modulate the cell selectivity of resultant fusion proteins, it is envisioned that such cleavage site mutants could be in VLS-modified toxophores (Gordon et al., Infect Immun, 63(1):82-7 (1995); Gordon et al., Infect Immun, 62(2):33340 (1994); Vallera et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 94:597-606 (2002); Abi-Habib et al., Blood., 104(7):2143-8 (2004)). Alternatively, the expression vector can be transcribed and translated in vitro.
The present application further provides gene delivery vehicles for the delivery of polynucleotides to cells, tissue, or a mammal for expression. For example, a polynucleotide sequence of the present invention can be administered either locally or systemically in a gene delivery vehicle. These constructs can utilize viral or non-viral vector approaches in in vivo or ex vivo modality. Expression of such coding sequences can be induced using endogenous mammalian or heterologous promoters. Expression of the coding sequence in vivo can be either constitutive or regulated. The invention includes gene delivery vehicles capable of expressing the contemplated polynucleotides including viral vectors. For example, Qiao et al. developed a system employing PG13 packaging cells produce recombinant retroviruses carrying a DT fragment which kills cancer cell and provides a method for using DT as component a suicide vector. Qiao et al., J. Virol. 76(14):7343-8 (2002).
Expressed DT-mutants and DT-fusion proteins can be tested for their functional activity. Methods for testing DT activity are well-known in the art. For example, the VLS effect of DT-mutants and DT-fusion proteins can be tested in HUVECs as described in Example 2. The ribosyltransferase activity of DT variants or DT-fusion proteins can be tested by the ribosyltransferase assay described in Example 3. The cytotoxicity of DT variants or DT-fusion proteins can be tested as described in Example 4.
The present application also provides purified, and in preferred embodiments, substantially purified, polypeptides expressed using one or more of the methods described herein. The term “purified” as used herein, is intended to refer to a proteinaceous composition, isolatable from mammalian cells or recombinant host cells, wherein at least one polypeptide is purified to any degree relative to its naturally-obtainable state, i.e., relative to its purity within a cellular extract. A purified polypeptide therefore also refers to a wild-type or modified polypeptide free from the environment in which it naturally occurs.
Where the term “substantially purified” is used, this will refer to a composition in which the specific polypeptide forms the major component of the composition, such as constituting about 50% of the proteins in the composition or more. In one embodiment, a substantially purified polypeptide will constitute more than about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, about 99% or even more of the polypeptides in the composition.
A polypeptide that is “purified to homogeneity,” as applied to the present invention, means that the polypeptide has a level of purity where the polypeptide is substantially free from other proteins and biological components. For example, a purified polypeptide will often be sufficiently free of other protein components so that degradative sequencing can be performed.
Various methods for quantifying the degree of purification of polypeptides will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. These include, for example, determining the specific protein activity of a fraction, or assessing the number of polypeptides within a fraction by gel electrophoresis.
To purify a desired polypeptide, a natural or recombinant composition comprising at least some specific polypeptides will be subjected to fractionation to remove various other components from the composition. In addition to those techniques described in detail herein below, various other techniques suitable for use in protein purification will be well known to those of skill in the art. These include, for example, precipitation with ammonium sulfate, PEG, antibodies and the like or by heat denaturation, followed by centrifugation; chromatography steps such as ion exchange, gel filtration, reverse phase, hydroxylapatite, lectin affinity and other affinity chromatography steps; isoelectric focusing; gel electrophoresis; and combinations of such and other techniques.
Another example is the purification of a specific fusion protein using a specific binding partner. Such purification methods are routine in the art. As the present invention provides DNA sequences for the specific proteins, any fusion protein purification method can now be practiced. This is exemplified by the generation of a specific protein-glutathione S-transferase fusion protein, expression in E. coli, and isolation to homogeneity using affinity chromatography on glutathione-agarose or the generation of a polyhistidine tag on the N- or C-terminus of the protein, and subsequent purification using Ni-affinity chromatography. However, given many DNA and proteins are known, or may be identified and amplified using the methods described herein, any purification method can now be employed.
There is no general requirement that the polypeptides always be provided in their most purified state. Indeed, it is contemplated that less substantially purified polypeptides which are nonetheless enriched in the desired protein compositions, relative to the natural state, will have utility in certain embodiments. Polypeptides exhibiting a lower degree of relative purification may have advantages in total recovery of protein product, or in maintaining the activity of an expressed protein.
Provided herein is a method for making a composition comprising: (a) constructing a vector comprising a polynucleotide which encodes a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NOS: 4-147 or a polypeptide having two or more of such modifications, and (b) causing said polypeptide to be expressed in a host cell comprising said vector. In one embodiment, a composition produced by such a method, wherein said composition has a reduced binding activity to human vascular endothelial cells (HLUVEC) compared to a DT molecule having a sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200. Further provided herein is a method for making a composition comprising: (a) constructing a vector comprising a polynucleotide which encodes a toxin having at least one T-cell epitope modification, and (b) causing said polypeptide to be expressed in a host cell comprising said vector. In one embodiment, a composition produced by such a method wherein the toxin is DT. In one embodiment, a composition produced by such a method, wherein said composition has a reduced immunogenicity compared to a DT molecule having a sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200.
Provided herein is a method for making a modified toxin having a reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified toxin, said method comprising the step of: (a) constructing a vector comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding a toxin, said modified diphtheria toxin comprising a diphtheria toxin having an amino acid sequence as recited in SEQ ID NO: 2 with one or more amino acid modifications therein, wherein at least one amino acid modification is made within a T-cell epitope, and wherein said modified diphtheria toxin has cytotoxicity comparable to an unmodified diphtheria toxin. and (b) causing said polypeptide to be expressed in a host cell comprising said vector.
Further embodiments include a method for making a modified diphtheria toxin having a reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding activity to human vascular endothelial cells (HUVEC) compared to an unmodified diphtheria toxin, said method comprising the step of: (a) constructing a vector comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding a modified diphtheria toxin, said modified diphtheria toxin comprising a diphtheria toxin having an amino acid sequence as recited in SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200 with one or more amino acid modifications therein, wherein at least one amino acid modification is made within a T-cell epitope, within an (x)D(y) motif in a region selected from the group consisting of residues 7-9, 29-31 and 290-292 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, within a B-cell epitope, or combinations thereof, and wherein said modified diphtheria toxin has cytotoxicity comparable to an unmodified diphtheria toxin, and (b) causing said polypeptide to be expressed in a host cell comprising said vector. In one non-limiting example, a modified VLS (x)D/E(y) motif can be a modification at position (x) that is a substitution of V or I by an amino acid residue selected from among A, S, E, F, C, M, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, D, N, K, R, G, L and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1; and wherein a modification at position D/E is a substitution of D/E by an amino acid residue selected from among A, S, E, I, V, L, F, C, M, G, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, N, K, R and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1. In one embodiment, a modification at position (y) is a substitution by I, F, C, M, A, G, T, W, Y, P, H, E, Q, D, N, K, R, S, L, V, and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1.
Unmodified diphtheria toxins can have, for example, an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2, 200 or an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOS: 4-147.
Bacterial and plant holotoxins often contain two disulfide-bonded chains, the A and B chains. The B chain carries both a cell-binding region (whose receptor is often uncharacterized) and a translocation region, which facilitates the insertion of the A chain through the membrane of an acid intracellular compartment into the cytosol. The A chain then kills the cell after incorporation. For their use in vivo, the ligand and toxin are coupled in such a way as to remain stable while passing through the bloodstream and the tissues and yet be labile within the target cell so that the toxic portion can be released into the cytosol. However, it may be desirable from a pharmacologic standpoint to employ the smallest molecule possible that nevertheless provides an appropriate biological response. One can, thus, desire to employ smaller A chain peptides which will provide an adequate anti-cellular response. To this end, DT can be “truncated” and still retain an adequate toxin activity. It is proposed that where desired, this truncated A chain can be employed in fusion proteins in accordance with the embodiments described herein.
Alternatively, one may find that the application of recombinant DNA technology to the toxin moiety may provide additional benefits. In that biologically active DT has now been cloned and recombinantly expressed, it is now possible to identify and prepare smaller or otherwise variant peptides which nevertheless exhibit an appropriate toxin activity. Moreover, the fact that DT has now been cloned allows the application of site-directed mutagenesis through which one can readily prepare and screen for DT A chain, toxin-derived peptides and obtain additional useful moieties for use in connection with the presently described compounds. Once identified, these moieties can be mutated to produce toxins exhibiting a reduced ability to promote VLS, EC damaging activity and/or other effects of such sequences described herein or known to one of skill in the art.
Provided herein is a fusion protein comprising a modified diphtheria toxin made by such methods and a non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide, wherein said non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide is selected from among an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof, EGF, IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-11, IL-12, IL-13, IL-14, IL-15, INFα, INFγ, GM-CSF, G-CSF, M-CSF, TNF, VEGF, Ephrin, BFGF, TGF, and a cell-binding portion thereof. In one embodiment, the non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide is, for example, IL-2 or a cell binding portion thereof. In certain embodiments, the fusion protein or toxin further comprises at least another agent. Such an agent can be a molecule or moiety including, but not limited to, at least one effector (therapeutic moiety) or reporter molecule (a detectable label) as described elsewhere herein.
IX. Detectable Labels
The present invention provides fusion proteins against target epitopes, such as epitopes expressed on a diseased tissue or a disease causing cell (e.g., IL-2 receptors on cancer cells). In certain embodiments the fusion protein comprises a modified DT described herein. In other embodiments the fusion protein further comprises a second agent. Such an agent can be a molecule or moiety such as, for example, a reporter molecule or a detectable label. Reporter molecules are any moiety which can be detected using an assay. Non-limiting examples of reporter molecules which have been conjugated to polypeptides include enzymes, radiolabels, haptens, fluorescent labels, phosphorescent molecules, chemiluminescent molecules, chromophores, luminescent molecules, photoaffinity molecules, colored particles or ligands, such as biotin. Detectable labels include compounds and/or elements that can be detected due to their specific functional properties, and/or chemical characteristics, the use of which allows the polypeptide to which they are attached to be detected, and/or further quantified if desired. Many appropriate detectable (imaging) agents are known in the art, as are methods for their attachment to polypeptides (see, for e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,021,236; 4,938,948; and 4,472,509, each incorporated herein by reference). The imaging moieties used can be paramagnetic ions; radioactive isotopes; fluorochromes; NMR-detectable substances; X-ray imaging. Molecules containing azido groups can also be used to form covalent bonds to proteins through reactive nitrene intermediates that are generated by low intensity ultraviolet light (Potter & Haley, 1983). In particular, 2- and 8-azido analogues of purine nucleotides have been used as site-directed photoprobes to identify nucleotide binding proteins in crude cell extracts (Owens & Haley, 1987; Atherton et al., 1985). The 2- and 8-azido nucleotides have also been used to map nucleotide binding domains of purified proteins (Khatoon et al., 1989; King et al., 1989; and Dholakia et al., 1989) and can be used as polypeptide binding agents.
X. Compositions and Therapeutic Uses
Each of the compounds described herein can be used as a composition when combined with an acceptable carrier or excipient. Such compositions are useful for in vitro analysis or for administration to a subject in vivo or ex vivo for treating a subject with the disclosed compounds.
Thus pharmaceutical compositions can comprise, in addition to active ingredient, a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, carrier, buffer, stabilizer or other materials well known to those skilled in the art. Such materials should be non-toxic and should not interfere with the efficacy of the active ingredient. The precise nature of the carrier or other material will depend on the route of administration.
Pharmaceutical formulations comprising a protein of interest, e.g., an antibody, identified by the methods described herein can be prepared for storage by mixing the protein having the desired degree of purity with optional physiologically acceptable carriers, excipients or stabilizers (Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences 16th edition, Osol, A. Ed. (1980)), in the form of lyophilized formulations or aqueous solutions. Acceptable carriers, excipients, or stabilizers are nontoxic to recipients at the dosages and concentrations employed, and include buffers such as phosphate, citrate, and other organic acids; antioxidants including ascorbic acid and methionine; preservatives (such as octadecyldimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride; hexamethonium chloride; benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride; phenol, butyl or benzyl alcohol; alkyl parabens such as methyl or propyl paraben; catechol; resorcinol; cyclohexanol; 3-pentanol; and m-cresol); low molecular weight (less than about 10 residues) polypeptides; proteins, such as serum albumin, gelatin, or immunoglobulins; hydrophilic polymers such as polyvinylpyrrolidone; amino acids such as glycine, glutamine, asparagine, histidine, arginine, or lysine; monosaccharides, disaccharides, and other carbohydrates including glucose, mannose, or dextrins; chelating agents such as EDTA; sugars such as sucrose, mannitol, trehalose or sorbitol; salt-forming counter-ions such as sodium; metal complexes (e.g., Zn-protein complexes); and/or non-ionic surfactants such as TWEEN®, PLURONICS® or polyethylene glycol (PEG).
The formulation described herein can also contain more than one active compound as necessary for the particular indication being treated. Such molecules are suitably present in combination in amounts that are effective for the purpose intended.
Acceptable carriers are physiologically acceptable to the administered patient and retain the therapeutic properties of the compounds with/in which it is administered. Acceptable carriers and their formulations are and generally described in, for example, Remington' pharmaceutical Sciences (18th Edition, ed. A. Gennaro, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. 1990). One exemplary carrier is physiological saline. The phrase “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” as used herein means a pharmaceutically acceptable material, composition or vehicle, such as a liquid or solid filler, diluent, excipient, solvent or encapsulating material, involved in carrying or transporting the subject compounds from the administration site of one organ, or portion of the body, to another organ, or portion of the body, or in an in vitro assay system. Each carrier must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of the formulation and not injurious to a subject to whom it is administered. Nor should an acceptable carrier alter the specific activity of the subject compounds. Exemplary carriers and excipients have been provided elsewhere herein.
In one aspect, provided herein are pharmaceutically acceptable or physiologically acceptable compositions including solvents (aqueous or non-aqueous), solutions, emulsions, dispersion media, coatings, isotonic and absorption promoting or delaying agents, compatible with pharmaceutical administration. Pharmaceutical compositions or pharmaceutical formulations therefore refer to a composition suitable for pharmaceutical use in a subject. The pharmaceutical compositions and formulations include an amount of a compound described herein, for example, an effective amount of modified fusion protein described herein, and a pharmaceutically or physiologically acceptable carrier.
Compositions can be formulated to be compatible with a particular route of administration, systemic or local. Thus, compositions include carriers, diluents, or excipients suitable for administration by various routes. Pharmaceutical compositions for oral administration may be in tablet, capsule, powder or liquid form. A tablet may comprise a solid carrier such as gelatin or an adjuvant. Liquid pharmaceutical compositions generally comprise a liquid carrier such as water, petroleum, animal or vegetable oils, mineral oil or synthetic oil. Physiological saline solution, dextrose or other saccharide solution or glycols such as ethylene glycol, propylene glycol or polyethylene glycol may be included.
In a further embodiment, the compositions can further comprise, if needed, an acceptable additive in order to improve the stability of the compounds in composition and/or to control the release rate of the composition. Acceptable additives do not alter the specific activity of the subject compounds. Exemplary acceptable additives include, but are not limited to, a sugar such as mannitol, sorbitol, glucose, xylitol, trehalose, sorbose, sucrose, galactose, dextran, dextrose, fructose, lactose and mixtures thereof. Acceptable additives can be combined with acceptable carriers and/or excipients such as dextrose. Alternatively, exemplary acceptable additives include, but are not limited to, a surfactant such as polysorbate 20 or polysorbate 80 to increase stability of the peptide and decrease gelling of the solution. The surfactant can be added to the composition in an amount of 0.01% to 5% of the solution. Addition of such acceptable additives increases the stability and half-life of the composition in storage.
The pharmaceutical composition can be administered subcutaneously, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, orally or intravenously. Aerosol delivery of the compositions is also contemplated herein using conventional methods. For example, intravenous delivery is now possible by cannula or direct injection or via ultrasound guided fine needle. Mishra (Mishra et al., Expert Opin. Biol., 3(7):1173-1180 (2003)) provides for intratumoral injection.
Formulations for enteral (oral) administration can be contained in a tablet (coated or uncoated), capsule (hard or soft), microsphere, emulsion, powder, granule, crystal, suspension, syrup or elixir. Conventional non-toxic solid carriers which include, for example, pharmaceutical grades of mannitol, lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, sodium saccharin, talcum, cellulose, glucose, sucrose, magnesium carbonate, can be used to prepare solid formulations. Supplementary active compounds (e.g., preservatives, antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal agents) can also be incorporated into the formulations. A liquid formulation can also be used for enteral administration. The carrier can be selected from various oils including petroleum, animal, vegetable or synthetic, for example, peanut oil, soybean oil, mineral oil, sesame oil. Suitable pharmaceutical excipients include e.g., starch, cellulose, talc, glucose, lactose, sucrose, gelatin, malt, rice, flour, chalk, silica gel, magnesium stearate, sodium stearate, glycerol monostearate, sodium chloride, dried skim milk, glycerol, propylene glycol, water, ethanol.
Compositions for injection include aqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. For intravenous administration, suitable carriers include physiological saline, bacteriostatic water, Cremophor ELTM (BASF, Parsippany, N.J.) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS). The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, and liquid polyethylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof. Fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use of surfactants. Antibacterial and antifungal agents include, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, ascorbic acid and thimerosal. Isotonic agents, for example, sugars, polyalcohols such as mannitol, sorbitol, and sodium chloride may be included in the composition. The resulting solutions can be packaged for use as is, or lyophilized; the lyophilized preparation can later be combined with a sterile solution prior to administration.
Compositions can be conventionally administered intravenously, such as by injection of a unit dose, for example. For injection, an active ingredient can be in the form of a parenterally acceptable aqueous solution which is substantially pyrogen-free and has suitable pH, isotonicity and stability. One can prepare suitable solutions using, for example, isotonic vehicles such as Sodium Chloride Injection, Ringer's Injection, Lactated Ringer's Injection. Preservatives, stabilizers, buffers, antioxidants and/or other additives may be included, as required.
In one embodiment, the composition is lyophilized. When the compositions are considered for medicaments, or use in any of the methods provided herein, it is contemplated that the composition can be substantially free of pyrogens such that the composition will not cause an inflammatory reaction or an unsafe allergic reaction.
Acceptable carriers can contain a compound that stabilizes, increases or delays absorption or clearance. Such compounds include, for example, carbohydrates, such as glucose, sucrose, or dextrans; low molecular weight proteins; compositions that reduce the clearance or hydrolysis of peptides; or excipients or other stabilizers and/or buffers. Agents that delay absorption include, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin. Detergents can also be used to stabilize or to increase or decrease the absorption of the pharmaceutical composition, including liposomal carriers. To protect from digestion the compound can be complexed with a composition to render it resistant to acidic and enzymatic hydrolysis, or the compound can be complexed in an appropriately resistant carrier such as a liposome. Means of protecting compounds from digestion are known in the art (see, e.g., Fix (1996) Pharm Res. 13:1760 1764; Samanen (1996) J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 48:119 135; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,391,377, describing lipid compositions for oral delivery of therapeutic agents).
For intravenous, injection, or injection at the site of affliction, the active ingredient will be in the form of a parenterally acceptable aqueous solution which is pyrogen-free and has suitable pH, isotonicity and stability. Those of relevant skill in the art are well able to prepare suitable solutions using, for example, isotonic vehicles such as Sodium Chloride Injection, Ringer's Injection, Lactated Ringer's Injection. Preservatives, stabilizers, buffers, antioxidants and/or other additives may be included, as needed.
The phrase “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to molecular entities and compositions that are physiologically tolerable and do not typically produce an allergic or similar untoward reaction, such as gastric upset, dizziness and the like, when administered to a human.
The term “unit dose” when used in reference to a therapeutic composition refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosage for humans, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of active material calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect in association with the required diluent; i.e., carrier, or vehicle.
The compositions can be administered in a manner compatible with the dosage formulation, and in a therapeutically effective amount. The quantity to be administered depends on the subject to be treated, capacity of the subject's immune system to utilize the active ingredient, and degree of binding capacity desired. Precise amounts of active ingredient required to be administered depend on the judgment of the practitioner and are peculiar to each individual. Suitable regimes for initial administration and booster shots are also variable, but are typified by an initial administration followed by repeated doses at one or more hour intervals by a subsequent injection or other administration. Alternatively, continuous intravenous infusion sufficient to maintain concentrations of ten nanomolar to ten micromolar in the blood are contemplated.
A physician or veterinarian can readily determine and prescribe the “effective amount” (ED50) of the composition required. For example, the physician or veterinarian could start doses of the compounds employed in the composition at levels lower than that required in order to achieve the desired therapeutic effect and gradually increase the dosage until the desired effect is achieved.
A “therapeutically effective amount” as used herein, is an amount that achieves at least partially a desired therapeutic or prophylactic effect in an organ or tissue. In one example, the amount of a modified DT necessary to bring about prevention and/or therapeutic treatment of the disease is not fixed per se. The amount of modified DT fusion toxin administered will vary with the type of disease, extent of the disease, and size of species of the mammal suffering from the disease. Generally, amounts will be in the range of those used for other cytotoxic agents used in the treatment of cancer, although in certain instances lower amounts will be needed because of the specificity and increased toxicity of the modified DT fusion toxins. In certain circumstances and as can be achieved by, currently available techniques for example (cannulae or convection enhanced delivery, selective release) attempts to deliver enhanced locally elevated fusion toxin amounts to specific sites may also be desired. (Laske et al., J. Neurosurg., 87:586-5941(997); Laske et al., Nature Medicine, 3:1362-1368 (1997), Rand et al., Clin. Cancer Res., 6:2157-2165 (2000); Engebraaten et al., J. Cancer, 97:846-852 (2002), Prados et al., Proc. ASCO, 21:69b (2002), Pickering et al., J Clin Invest, 91(2):724-9 (1993)).
One embodiment contemplates the use of the compositions described herein to make a medicament for treating a condition, disease or disorder described herein. Medicaments can be formulated based on the physical characteristics of the patient/subject needing treatment, and can be formulated in single or multiple formulations based on the stage of the condition, disease or disorder. Medicaments can be packaged in a suitable package with appropriate labels for the distribution to hospitals and clinics wherein the label is for the indication of treating a subject having a disease described herein. Medicaments can be packaged as a single or multiple units. Instructions for the dosage and administration of the compositions can be included with the packages as described below.
The invention is further directed to pharmaceutical compositions comprising a modified toxin or fusion protein thereof described hereinabove and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating an active ingredient in the required amount in an appropriate solvent with one or a combination of ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filtered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the active ingredient into a sterile vehicle which contains a basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods of preparation are vacuum drying and freeze drying which yields a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desired ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered solution thereof.
In certain embodiments is the further purification of this mixture to obtain preparations essentially comprising fusion proteins. This purification is accomplished by further chromatographic separation which can be accomplished by affinity chromatography for example, using a salt gradient to elute the various species of immunotoxins and gel filtration to separate the immunotoxins from larger molecules.
A gel to be used in purification of compounds described herein is a three dimensional network which has a random structure. Molecular sieve gels are those cross-linked polymers that do not bind or react with the material being analyzed or separated. For gel filtration purposes, a gel material is generally uncharged. The space within the gel is filled with liquid and the liquid phase constitutes the majority of the gel volume. Materials commonly used in gel filtration columns include dextran, agarose and polyacrylamide.
Dextran is a polysaccharide composed of glucose residues and is commercially available under the name SEPHADEX (Pharmacia Fine Chemicals, Inc.). The beads are prepared with various degrees of cross-linking in order to separate different sized molecules by providing various pore sizes. Alkyl dextran is cross-linked with N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide to form SEPHACRYL-S100 to S1000 which allows strong beads to be made that fractionate in larger ranges than SEPHADEX can achieve.
Polyacrylamide can also be used as a gel filtration medium. Polyacrylamide is a polymer of cross-linked acrylamide prepared with N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide as the cross-linking agent. Polyacrylamide is available in a variety of pore sizes from Bio-Rad Laboratories (USA) to be used for separation of different size particles.
The gel material swells in water and in a few organic solvents. Swelling is the process by which the pores become filled with liquid to be used as eluant. As the smaller molecules enter the pores, their progress through the gel is retarded relative to the larger molecules which do not enter the pores, forming the basis of the separation. The beads are available in various degrees of fineness to be used in different applications. The coarser the bead, the faster the flow and the poorer the resolution. Superfine can be used for maximum resolution, but the flow is very slow. Fine is used for preparative work in large columns which require a faster flow rate. The coarser grades are for large preparations in which resolution is less important than time, or for separation of molecules with a large difference in molecular weights.
Affinity chromatography is generally based on the recognition of a protein by a substance such as a ligand or an antibody. The column material can be synthesized by covalently coupling a binding molecule, such as an activated dye, for example to an insoluble matrix. The column material is then allowed to adsorb the desired substance from solution. Next, the conditions are changed to those under which binding does not occur and the substrate is eluted. The requirements for successful affinity chromatography are that the matrix must adsorb molecules, the ligand must be coupled without altering its binding activity, a ligand must be chosen whose binding is sufficiently tight, and it must be possible to elute the substance without destroying it.
One embodiment of the compounds described herein is an affinity chromatography method where the matrix is a reactive dye-agarose matrix. Blue-SEPHAROSE, a column matrix composed of Cibacron Blue 3GA and agarose or SEPHAROSE can be used as the affinity chromatography matrix. Alternatively, SEPHAROSE CL-6B is available as Reactive Blue 2 from Sigma Chemical Company. This matrix binds fusion proteins directly and allows their separation by elution with a salt gradient.
Provided herein are compositions containing modified toxins. In one embodiment, modified toxins comprise diphtheria toxins, said modified diphtheria toxin comprising an amino acid sequence as recited in SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200 with one or more amino acid modifications therein, wherein at least one amino acid modification is made within a T-cell epitope, within an (x)D/E(y) motif in a region selected from among residues 7-9, 29-31 and 290-292 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, within a B-cell epitope, or a combination thereof, and wherein said modified diphtheria toxin has cytotoxicity comparable to an unmodified diphtheria toxin. In one non-limiting example, a modified VLS (x)D/E(y) motif includes a modification at position (x) that is a substitution of V or I by an amino acid residue selected from among A, S, E, F, C, M, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, D, N, K, R, G, L, and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1; and wherein a modification at position D/E is a substitution of D or E by an amino acid residue selected from among A, S, E, I, V, L, F, C, M, G, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, N, K, R, and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1. In one embodiment, a modification at position (y) is a substitution by I, F, C, M, A, G, T, W, Y, P, H, E, Q, D, N, K, R, S, L, V, and a modified or unusual amino acid from Table 1.
Unmodified diphtheria toxins can have, for example, an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2, 200 or an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOS: 4-147.
Compositions comprising modified diphtheria toxins, said have reduced immunogenicity, reduced binding activity to human vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs), and combinations thereof compared to an unmodified diphtheria toxin. Such compositions can further comprise a non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide including, but not limited to, an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof, EGF, IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-11, IL-12, IL-13, IL-14, IL-15, INFα, INFγ, GM-CSF, G-CSF, M-CSF, TNF, VEGF, Ephrin, BFGF and TGF. The non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide can also be a fragment of such polypeptides, such as a cell-binding portion thereof. In one embodiment, the non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide is IL-2 or a cell binding portion thereof.
Modified toxins and fusion proteins thereof having reduced immunogenicity, reduced binding to HUVECs, or a combination thereof while maintaining the cytotoxicity can be used for the treatment of various lymphoid-derived malignancies (e.g., cancers), solid tumors and non-malignant diseases such as GVHD or psoriasis.
In an exemplary embodiment, the T-cell epitope modified DT fusion toxins of the invention are administered to a subject such as a mammal (e.g., a human), suffering from a medical disorder, e.g., a cancer such as a T cell lymphoma, or non-malignant conditions characterized by the presence of a class of unwanted cells to which a targeting ligand can selectively bind.
Denileukin diftitox has been shown to be effective in treating a subject having previously treated cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (Chin and Foss (2006) Clinical Lymphoma and Myeloma, 7(3): 199-204; Talpur et al. (2006) J. Investigative Dermatology 126: 575-583). Briefly, denileukin diftitox was administered intravenously for 3 or 5 consecutive days a dose of 4 μg/kg/day, 9 μg/kg/day or 18 μg/kg/day for 3-21 cycles. An overall response rate of 51% was observed. Denileukin diftitox has been approved by the FDA for treatment of cutaneous T cell lymphoma in the United States.
Provided herein is a method of treating a subject having cutaneous T-cell lymphoma by administering a modified DT fusion protein as described herein
Denileukin diftitox has been shown to be effective in treating subjects having relapsed/refractory T-cell and B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (Dang et al. (2006) Br. J. Haematology 136: 439-447; Dang et al. (2004) J. Clin. Oncol. 22: 4095-4102). Briefly, eligible patients received denileukin diftitox (18 μg/kg/day) for 5 days every three weeks for up to eight cycles. Such a regimen was well tolerated in patients and was effective in treating relapsed/refractory T-cell and B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Provided herein is a method of treating a subject having relapsed/refractory T-cell or B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma by administering a modified DT fusion protein as described herein.
In a Phase II clinical study, it was shown that ONTAK® in combination with rituximab was significantly effective in treating patients having relapsed/refractory B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Therefore, provided herein is a method of treating a subject having relapsed/refractory B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma by administering a modified DT fusion protein as described herein.
Denileukin diftitox has been shown to be effective in treating a subject having panniculitic T-cell lymphoma (McGinnis et al. (2002) Arch. Dermatol. 138: 740-742). Briefly, a female patient previously treated with bexarotene and interferon alpha relapsed within 2 months of therapy. The patient was then treated with 1 cycle of intravenous denileukin diftitox (9 μg/kg/day for 5 days). Clinical remission was observed with resolution of all cutaneous disease, and constitutional symptoms was achieved 2 weeks after the completion of the third cycle of denileukin diftitox.
Provided herein is a method of treating a subject having panniculitic T-cell lymphoma by administering a modified DT fusion protein as described herein. In one non-limiting embodiment, if needed, the subject can be treated in combination with one or more other therapies, such as, for example, bexarotene and/or interferon alpha.
Denileukin diftitox has been shown to be effective in treating a subject having extranodal natural killer/T cell lymphoma, nasal type (Kerl et al. (2006) Br. J. Dermatology, 154: 988-991). Briefly, a 58-year old male with rapidly progressive Epstein-Barr virus-positive nasal type extranodal natural killer/T cell lymphoma was treated with a combination of bexarotene and denileukin diftitox. A significant regression of the cutaneous tumors was observed after a first cycle of denileukin diftitox and was maintained for a period of 5 months with monthly cycles of denileukin diftitox.
Provided herein is a method of treating a subject having extranodal natural killer/T cell lymphoma, nasal type by administering a modified DT fusion protein as described herein in combination with bexarotene.
Denileukin diftitox has been shown to be effective in treating a subject having previously treated chronic lymphocytic leukemia (Frankel et al. (2006) Cancer, 106(10): 2158-2164). Briefly, denileukin diftitox was administered as a 60-minute intravenous infusion for 5 days every 21 days at a dose of 18 μg/kg/day for up to 8 cycles. Overall, patients exhibited reduction of peripheral chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells, reductions in lymph node size, and in some cases, remission as identified over time from bone marrow biopsies. In one instance, a patient treated was chemorefractory against fludarabine (Morgan et al. (2004) Clin. Cancer Res. 9(10 Pt 1): 3555-3561).
Provided herein is a method of treating a subject having chronic lymphocytic leukemia by administering a modified DT fusion protein as described herein.
Denileukin diftitox has been shown to be effective in treating a subject having human T-cell lymphotrophic virus 1-associated acute T cell leukemia/lymphoma (Venuti et al. (2003) Clin. Lymphoma 4(3): 176-180). Briefly, 4 cycles of denileukin diftitox was administered which resulted in restoration of normal hematopoiesis and a reduction in bone marrow myelofibrosis. Following disease progression, 4 cycles of hyper-CVAD (hyperfractionated cyclophosphamide/doxorubicin/vincristine/decahedron) were administered and complete clinical remission was achieved. The patient received maintenance therapy with denileukin diftitox for 1 year.
Provided herein is a method of treating a subject having human T-cell lymphotrophic virus 1-associated acute T cell leukemia/lymphoma by administering a modified DT fusion protein as described herein in combination with hyper-CVAD therapy.
Denileukin diftitox has been shown to be effective in treating a subject having a solid tumor (Eklund and Kuzel. Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther., 2005 February; 5(1):33-8). Therefore, provided herein is a method of treating a subject having one or more solid tumors by administering a modified DT fusion protein as described herein. Exemplary solid tumors include, but are not limited to, those of a tissue or organ selected from among skin, melanoma, lung, pancreas, breast, ovary, colon, rectum, stomach, thyroid, laryngeal, ovary, prostate, colorectal, head, neck, eye, mouth, throat, esophagus, chest, bone, testicular, lymph, marrow, bone, sarcoma, renal, sweat gland, liver, kidney, brain, gastrointestinal tract, nasopharynx, genito-urinary tract, muscle, and the like tissues.
Acute Graft-versus Host Disease (aGVHD) is mediated partly through activated T cells which express the high affinity receptor for IL-2, which is recognized by denileukin diftitox. In a phase II study of patients suffering from steroid-resistant aGVHD, one group of patients were treated with a dose regimen of 4.5 μg/kg daily on days 1-5 and then weekly on study days 8, 15, 22 and 29. Another group of patients were treated at with a dose regimen of 9 μg/kg on the same schedule. Responses were assessed at days 36 and 100. 41% of the patients responded, all with a complete response at day 36 and 27% patients responding at day 100 (4 complete responses and 2 partial responses).
Provided herein is a method of treating a subject having aGVHD by administering a modified DT fusion protein as described herein.
Psoriasis is an immune-mediated skin disease in which T-cells are chronically stimulated by antigen-presenting cells in the skin. Psoriasis is a chronic relapsing disease that requires intermittent treatment. Denileukin diftitox was shown to effectively target activated T cells and improved psoriasis; however, a side effect of the treatment was vascular leak syndrome (Walsh and Shear. (2004) CMAJ, 170(13): 1933-1941). In a phase II study of patients suffering from severe psoriasis, 35 patients were treated with one of three doses of ONTAK® (0.5, 1.5 or 5 μg/kg/day) and received three doses per week for eight weeks. Eight out of 15 patients (treated with 5 or 1.5 μg/kg/day) showed more than 50% decrease in symptoms as measured by the Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) and Physician's Global Assessment (PGA). Four patients, all treated with a dose of 5 μg/kg/day, benefited from a 2-grade improvement on the 5-grade PGA scale.
Provided herein is a method of treating a subject having psoriasis by administering a modified DT fusion protein as described herein.
Also contemplated herein is a method of providing maintenance therapy by administering a non-immunogenic DT fusion protein as described herein.
As described by Dannull et al. (J. Clin. Invest. 115(12): 3623-3633 (2005)), immunization with RNA-transfected dendritic cells (DCs) is an effective strategy to stimulate potent T cell responses in patients with metastatic cancers (Su et al. 2003. Cancer Res. 63: 3127-2133; Heiser et al. 2002. J. Clin. Invest. 109: 409-417). CD4+ T cells constitutively expressing the IL-2 receptor α-chain (CD25) act in a regulatory capacity by suppressing the activation and function, of other T cells (Shevach, E. M. 2001. J. Exp. Med. 193: F41-F46). Their physiological role is to protect the host against the development of autoimmunity by regulating immune responses against antigens expressed by normal tissues (Jonuleit et al. 2000. J. Exp. Med. 192: 1213-1222; Read and Powrie. 2001. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 13: 644-649). Since tumor antigens are largely self antigens, T regulatory cells (Tregs) may also prevent the tumor-bearing host from mounting an effective anti-tumor immune response. Previous studies have shown that elevated numbers of CD4+CD25+ Tregs can be found in advanced cancer patients (Woo et al. 2002. J. Immunol. 168: 4272-4276) and that high Treg frequencies are associated with reduced survival (Curiel et al. 2004. Nat. Med. 10: 942-949). The important role of CD4+CD25+ Tregs in controlling tumor growth was further highlighted by the demonstration that depletion of Tregs using anti-CD25 antibodies can evoke effective anti-tumor immunity in mice (Shimizu et al. 1999. J. Immunol. 163: 5211-5218; Onizuka et al. 1999. Cancer Res. 59: 3128-3133). Moreover, anti-CD25 therapy enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of GM-CSF-secreting B16 tumor cells and prolonged survival of tumor-bearing animals (Sutmuller et al. 2001. J. Exp. Med. 194: 823-832). Cumulatively, these experimental data suggest that the efficacy of cancer treatment could be enhanced by administration of agents that lead to the preferential depletion of CD4+CD25+ Tregs, such as compounds that target cells expressing the IL-2 receptor CD25 subunit.
Recombinant IL-2 diphtheria toxin conjugate DAB389IL-2 (also known as denileukin diftitox and ONTAK®) to eliminate CD25-expressing Tregs in metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC) patients. The cytotoxic action of DAB3891L-2 occurs as a result of binding to the high-affinity IL-2 receptor, subsequent internalization, and enzymatic inhibition of protein synthesis, ultimately leading to cell death.
DAB389IL-2 was shown to selectively eliminate Tregs from human PBMCs in a dose-dependent manner without apparent bystander toxicity to other PBMCs or CD4+ T cells with intermediate- or low-level expression of CD25. Treg depletion resulted in enhanced stimulation of proliferative and cytotoxic T cell responses in vitro but only when DAB389IL-2 was used prior to and omitted during the T cell priming phase. Depletion of Tregs in RCC patients with DAB389IL-2 followed by immunization with tumor RNA-transfected DCs led to improved stimulation of tumor-specific T cells when compared with administration of tumor RNA-transfected DCs alone. CD4+CD25high Tregs can be eliminated using a single dose of DAB389IL-2 without apparent bystander toxicity and without having an impact on the function of other cells expressing CD25. DAB389IL-2 profoundly reduced the number of Tregs present in the peripheral blood of RCC patients, reduced levels of peripheral blood-derived FoxP3 transcripts, and abrogated Treg-mediated immunosuppressive activity in vivo. Moreover, significantly higher frequencies of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells could be measured in patients treated with combined DAB389IL-2 and DC immunization when compared with subjects receiving the DCs alone. Also, there was a trend toward an improved CD4+ T cell response after combined therapy.
Cognate immunity against neoplastic cells depends on a balance between effector T cells and regulatory T (Treg) cells. Treg cells prevent immune attack against normal and neoplastic cells by directly suppressing the activation of effector CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. The use of a recombinant interleukin 2/diphtheria toxin conjugate (DAB/IL2; Denileukin Diftitox; ONTAK®) was studied as a strategy to deplete Treg cells and break tolerance against neoplastic tumors in humans. DAB/IL2 (12 microg/kg; four daily doses; 21 day cycles) was administered to 16 patients with metastatic melanoma and the effects on the peripheral blood concentration of several T cell subsets and on tumor burden are measured.
Rasku et al. (J. Translational Medicine; 6: 12 (2008)) found that DAB/IL2 caused a transient depletion of Treg cells as well as total CD4+ and CD8+ T cells (<21 days). T cell repopulation coincided with the de novo appearance of melanoma antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in several patients as determined by flow cytometry using tetrameric MART-1, tyrosinase and gp100 peptide/MHC conjugates. Sixteen patients received at least one cycle of DAB/IL2 and five of these patients experienced regressions of melanoma metastases as measured by CT and/or PET imaging. One patient experienced a near complete response with the regression of several hepatic and pulmonary metastases coupled to the de novo appearance of MART-1-specific CD8+ T cells. A single metastatic tumor remained in this patient and, after surgical resection, immunohistochemical analysis revealed MART1+ melanoma cells surrounded by CD8+ T cells. The transient depletion of T cells in cancer patients may disrupt the homeostatic control of cognate immunity and allow for the expansion of effector T cells with specificity against neoplastic cells.
Recent work demonstrates that lack of naturally induced tumor associated antigen (TAA)-specific immunity is not simply a passive process. Barnett et al. (Am J Reprod Immunol. 54(6):321 (2005)) demonstrated that tumors actively prevent induction of TAA-specific immunity through induction of TAA-specific tolerance. This tolerance was mediated in part by regulatory T cells (Tregs). Barnett et al. presented evidence that depleting Tregs in human cancer, including ovarian cancer, using denileukin diftitox (ONTAK®), improves immunity.
CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells have been implicated in the lack of effective antitumor immunity (Litzinger et al. (2007) Blood; 110(9): 3192-201). Denileukin diftitox (DAB(389)IL-2), provides a means of targeting Treg cells. Treg cells in spleen, peripheral blood, and bone marrow of normal C57BL/6 mice were variously reduced after a single intraperitoneal injection of denileukin diftitox; the reduction was evident within 24 hours and lasted approximately 10 days. Injection of denileukin diftitox 1 day before immunization with another agent enhanced antigen-specific T-cell responses above levels induced by immunization alone. Litzinger et al. demonstrated in a murine model the differential effects of denileukin diftitox on Treg cells in different cellular compartments, the advantage of combining denileukin diftitox with another agent to enhance antigen-specific T-cell immune responses, the lack of inhibition by denileukin diftitox of host immune responses directed against a live viral vector, and the importance of dose scheduling of denileukin diftitox when used in combination with an immunogen.
Tregs have been shown to be an integral part of regulating and even suppressing an immune response to growing tumor cells. Matsushita et al. (J. Immunol. Methods; 333(1-2):167-79 (2008)) compared three methods of Treg depletion and/or elimination, utilizing low dose cyclophosphamide (CY), a specific antibody directed against the IL-2 receptor found on Tregs (PC61) and the use of denileukin diftitox (DD). Matsushita demonstrated that utilization of DD resulted in a >50% Treg cell reduction without parallel cytocidal effects upon other T cell subsets but did not enhance anti-tumor immunity against B16 melanoma. Lastly, the PC61 showed a moderate reduction of Tregs that lasted longer than the other reagents, without a reduction in the total number of CD8(+) T cells.
Provided herein is a method of enhancing activity of an anti-cancer agent (e.g., RNA transfected DCs, anti-CLTA4 antibodies, MISIIR scFvs, etc.), by administering a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein described herein. In one embodiment, a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered followed by administration of the anti-cancer agent. In one non-limiting example, the DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered at least four (4) days prior to the anti-cancer agent.
Also provided herein is a method of treating a metastatic cancer via reduction or elimination of Tregs by administering an anti-cancer agent (e.g., RNA transfected DCs, anti-CLTA4 antibodies, MISIIR scfvs, etc.) and a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein described herein. Metastatic tumors include, for example, metastatic renal cell carcinoma, metastatic prostate cancer, metastatic ovarian cancer and metastatic lung cancer. In one embodiment, a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered followed by administration of the anti-cancer agent. In one non-limiting example, the DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered at least four (4) days prior to the anti-cancer agent.
In another aspect, provided herein is a method of treating a prostate tumor, an ovarian tumor, a lung tumor or a melanoma via reduction or elimination of Tregs by administering an anti-cancer agent (e.g., RNA transfected DCs, anti-CLTA4 antibodies, MISIIR scFvs, etc.) and a DT variant-1L2 fusion protein described herein. In one embodiment, a DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered followed by administration of the anti-cancer agent. In one non-limiting example, the DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is administered at least four (4) days prior to the anti-cancer agent.
Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of such ingredient can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g., for determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio LD50/ED50. Compounds which exhibit large therapeutic indices are preferred. While compounds that exhibit toxic side effects may be used, care should be taken to design a delivery system that targets such compounds to the site of affected tissue in order to minimize potential damage to non-cancerous and otherwise healthy cells and, thereby, reduce side effects.
The data obtained from the cell culture assays and animal studies can be used in formulating a range of dosage for use in humans. The dosage of such compounds lies preferably within a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED50 with little or no toxicity. The dosage may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. For any compound used in the method of the invention, the therapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially from cell culture assays. A dose may be formulated in animal models to achieve a circulating plasma concentration range that includes the IC50 (i.e., the concentration of the test compound which achieves a half-maximal inhibition of symptoms) as determined in cell culture and as presented below in Example 4. Such information can be used to more accurately determine useful doses in humans. Levels in plasma may be measured, for example, by high performance liquid chromatography.
The embodiments of the compounds and methods of the present application are intended to be illustrative and not limiting. Modifications and variations can be made by persons skilled in the art in light of the above teachings specifically those that may pertain to alterations in the DT toxophore surrounding the described modifications to T-cell epitope sequences, described VLS sequences, and B-cell epitope sequences that could result in reduced immunogenicity, and/or reduced HUVEC binding while maintaining near native functionally with respect to the ability to use as a DT toxophore in protein fusion toxin constructions.
It is also conceivable to one skilled in the art that the compounds and methods described herein can be used for other purposes, including, for example, the delivery of other novel molecules to a selected cell population.
The present application contemplates compositions for use in immunization embodiments. It is contemplated that proteinaceous compositions that are less effective in promoting VLS or other toxic effects by alterations in one or more (x)D/E(y), (x)D/E(y)T and/or flanking sequences are useful as antigens to stimulate an immune response to the toxin. In particular embodiments, DT comprising one or more modified (x)D/E(y), (x)D/E(y)T and/or flanking sequences are contemplated as useful antigens. Preferably the composition is extensively dialyzed to remove undesired small molecular weight molecules and/or lyophilized for more ready formulation into a desired vehicle. In other embodiments, it is also possible to use toxins lacking one or more active site residues (i.e., a toxoid) for immunization.
The compounds and methods described herein can be employed under those circumstances in which amounts of a toxin would be used to deliver such agents in a clinical setting or in settings where it would be desirable to reduce as much as possible the potential for immunogenicity, VLS, or combinations thereof. In this setting the catalytic domain or some portion thereof would be replaced, rendered inactive and fused with the desired agent or molecule. Acid sensitive or protease sensitive cleavage sites could be inserted between the remnant of the catalytic domain and the desired agent or molecule.
Agents or molecules that might be coupled to modified toxins such as disclosed herein include but are not limited to; peptides or protein fragments, nucleic acids, oligonucleotides, acid insensitive proteins, glycoproteins, proteins or novel chemical entities that required selective delivery.
Therefore, it should be understood that changes may be made in the particular embodiments disclosed which are within the scope of what is described.
XI. Packages and Kits
In still further embodiments, the present application concerns kits for use with the compounds described above. Toxins exhibiting reduced immunogenicity, VLS promoting or toxic effects, or combinations thereof can be provided in a kit. Such kits may be used to combine the toxin with a specific cell binding ligand to produce a fusion protein that targets a particular receptor on a cell (e.g., IL-2 receptors on cancer cells) in a ready to use and storable container. The kits will thus comprise, in suitable container means, a composition with reduced immunogenicity, VLS promoting or toxic effects, or combinations thereof. The kit may comprise a modified DT or a fusion protein thereof in suitable container means.
The container means of the kits will generally include at least one vial, test tube, flask, bottle, syringe and/or other container means, into which the at least one polypeptide can be placed, and/or preferably, suitably aliquoted. The kits can include a means for containing at least one fusion protein, detectable moiety, reporter molecule, and/or any other reagent containers in close confinement for commercial sale. Such containers may include injection and/or blow-molded plastic containers in which the desired vials are stored. Kits can also include printed material for use of the materials in the kit.
Packages and kits can additionally include a buffering agent, a preservative and/or a stabilizing agent in a pharmaceutical formulation. Each component of the kit can be enclosed within an individual container and all of the various containers can be within a single package. Invention kits can be designed for cold storage or room temperature storage.
Additionally, the preparations can contain stabilizers (such as bovine serum albumin (BSA)) to increase the shelf-life of the kits. Where the compositions are lyophilized, the kit can contain further preparations of solutions to reconstitute the lyophilized preparations. Acceptable reconstitution solutions are well known in the art and include, for example, pharmaceutically acceptable phosphate buffered saline (PBS).
Additionally, the packages or kits provided herein can further include any of the other moieties provided herein such as, for example, one or more reporter molecules and/or one or more detectable moieties/agents.
Packages and kits can further include one or more components for an assay, such as, for example, an ELISA assay, cytotoxicity assay, ADP-Ribosyltransferase activity assay, etc. Samples to be tested in this application include, for example, blood, plasma, and tissue sections and secretions, urine, lymph, and products thereof. Packages and kits can further include one or more components for collection of a sample (e.g., a syringe, a cup, a swab, etc.).
Packages and kits can further include a label specifying, for example, a product description, mode of administration and/or indication of treatment. Packages provided herein can include any of the compositions as described herein. The package can further include a label for treating a cancer.
The term “packaging material” refers to a physical structure housing the components of the kit. The packaging material can maintain the components sterilely, and can be made of material commonly used for such purposes (e.g., paper, corrugated fiber, glass, plastic, foil, ampules, etc.). The label or packaging insert can include appropriate written instructions. Kits, therefore, can additionally include labels or instructions for using the kit components in any method of the invention. A kit can include a compound in a pack, or dispenser together with instructions for administering the compound in a method described herein.
Instructions can include instructions for practicing any of the methods described herein including treatment methods. Instructions can additionally include indications of a satisfactory clinical endpoint or any adverse symptoms that may occur, or additional information required by regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration for use on a human subject.
The instructions may be on “printed matter,” e.g., on paper or cardboard within or affixed to the kit, or on a label affixed to the kit or packaging material, or attached to a vial or tube containing a component of the kit. Instructions may additionally be included on a computer readable medium, such as a disk (floppy diskette or hard disk), optical CD such as CD- or DVD-ROM/RAM, magnetic tape, electrical storage media such as RAM and ROM, IC tip and hybrids of these such as magnetic/optical storage media.
EXAMPLES
The application may be better understood by reference to the following non-limiting examples, which are provided as exemplary embodiments of the application. The following examples are presented in order to more fully illustrate embodiments of the invention and should in no way be construed, however, as limiting the broad scope of the application. While certain embodiments of the present application have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments described herein may be employed in practicing the methods described herein.
Example 1
Construction, Expression and Purification of DT Variant and DT-Fusion Proteins
Construction of DT Variant and DT-Fusion Proteins
A truncated DT-based toxophore comprising a methionine residue at the N-terminus and amino acid residues 1 through 386 (SEQ ID NO: 2) of the native DT (now residues 2-387 in the truncated toxophore) is constructed as DT387 or residues 1-382 of DT387. The DT-based toxophore can also comprise a methionine residue at the N-terminus, amino acid residues 1 through 386 (SEQ ID NO: 2) of the native DT (now residues 2-387 in the truncated toxophore), and residues 484-485 of native DT, constructed as DT389. DT387 and DT389 contains three (x)D(y) motifs at residues 7-9 (VDS), residues 29-31 (VDS), and residues 290-292 (IDS). DT382 contains residues 1-382 of DT387 or DT389. Other C-terminal truncated DT constructs as described herein can be used in the assays provided herein for testing functionality of DT variants. One would understand that modifications made to DT389 also could be made in a truncated construct (e.g., DT382) and tested for functionality. FIG. 31 provides amino acid sequences of wild type DT382, DT382 variants, and null construct DT382(G53E): underlined sequences are vector/tag sequences; enterokinase cleavage site highlighted in italicized text; and mutations from WT sequences are shown in bold text.
Site directed mutagenesis is employed to alter the (x)D(y) motif in DT. A Stratagene Quickchange mutagenesis kit is used to construct the mutations. Oligonucleotide primers are designed to alter encoding residues within the (x)D(y) motif implicated in VLS.
SEQ ID NOS: 4-147 provides a list of non-limiting exemplary modified DTs and the corresponding amino acid sequences.
The mutants are tested in the context of protein fusion toxin genetically fused to sequences encoding human interleukin 2 (SEQ ID NO: 3) or a cell binding portion thereof. DT-fusion proteins are expressed and purified.
Expression and Purification of DT Variants and DT-Fusion Proteins
Plasmid constructs encoding truncated and/or modified DT protein, modified DT mutants, and modified DT-fusion protein are transformed into E. coli HMS 174 (DE3) cells. E. coli HMS 174 is a protease-deficient strain in which over-expression of recombinant proteins can be achieved. Induction of the recombinant protein expression is obtained by addition of isopropylthiogalactosidase (IPTG) to E. coli HMS 174. Following incubation, the bacterial cells are harvested by centrifugation and lysed, and the recombinant protein is further purified from inclusion body preparations as described by Murphy and vanderSpek, Methods in Molecular Biology, Bacterial Toxins: methods and protocols, 145:89-99 Humana press, Totowa, N.J. (2000). It may be necessary to remove endotoxin from the protein preparations to assure that effects on HUVECs are from VLS and not due to the presence of the endotoxins. Endotoxin is removed to <250 EU/ml by passage over an ion-exchange resin. Separation of breakdown products from full-length material also occurs during ion-exchange chromatography. After another final purification over ion exchange resin, endotoxin is reduced to <25 EU/ml and the toxophore is tested for VLS as a function of HUVEC cell binding in vitro. Analysis of DT387 or DT389 toxophore can be conducted using Coomassie Blue staining and Western Blot when samples from the process described above are resolved by SDS Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE) using conventional techniques described herein and known in the art.
Mutations that result in stable constructs with adequate expression that do not affect ribosyltransferase activity of the DT387 or DT389 toxophore can be subsequently tested for targeted cytotoxicity in the corresponding VLS modified DT-EGF and VLS modified DT-IL-2 protein fusion toxins (Example 5, respectively).
Example 2
Cell Permeability Assays
Human vascular endothelial cells are maintained in EGM media (obtained from Cambrex, Walkersville, Md.). Sub-confluent early passage cells are seeded at equivalent cell counts onto plastic cover slips. Purified, endotoxin free wild type DT toxophore and mutants are labeled with the fluorescent tag F-150 (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.) through chemical conjugation. HUVECs are incubated with equivalent amounts of the labeled toxophores. The media is then aspirated, and the cells are then washed, fixed and prepared for analysis. Examination of the cells on cover slips from different treatment groups permits the analysis of the number of cells labeled by the fluorescent toxophore. No targeting ligand is present on the toxophore and, consequently, the level of HUVEC interaction is proportional only to the toxophores affinity for HUVECs. Comparisons are carried out using a fluorescent microscope and comparing the number of cells labeled from at least ten independent fields, different cover slips or different slides. DAPI stain is used to localize cells, particularly in the case of the mutant constructs as cell labeling is not readily apparent. 4′-6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) is known to form fluorescent complexes with natural double-stranded DNA; as such DAPI is a useful tool in various cytochemical investigations. When DAPI binds to DNA, its fluorescence is strongly enhanced. Thus, DAPI serves as a method of labeling cell nuclei. In contrast, cells treated with F-150DT toxophore are easily observed. To facilitate that quantification of the mutant DT toxophore constructs the signal intensity and changes in background signal are also increased.
Effect of the DT variant IL-2 fusion proteins on the morphology of HUVEC monolayers can also be assessed according to methods described, by example, Baluna et al. (Int. J. Immunopharm., 18:355-361, 1996) and Soler-Rodriguez et al. (Exp. Cell Res., 206:227-234, 1993). To determine whether the VLS sequences in DT and IL-2 damage HUVECs, monolayers are incubated with different concentrations of DT variants, DT variant-IL-2-fusion proteins, or controls. HUVECs are isolated, cultured and studied microscopically. Briefly, HUVEC monolayers are incubated at 37° C. for 18 hours with 10−6 M of each variant, fusion protein, control, or medium-only and then examined by phase-contrast microscopy (magnification at 20 times). Normal monolayers consist of highly packed cells with elongated shapes, whereas damaged cells round up and detach from the plate. Untreated HUVECs consist of tightly packed elongated cells. Monolayers can be assessed after 2 hours for cell rounding after 2 hr of incubation and after 18 hours for formation of gaps in the monolayer. Toxic effects on HUVECs are assessed.
Another method for measuring permeability of endothelial monolayers in vitro has been described in detail previously (Friedman et al. J. Cell. Physiol., 129: 237-249 (1986); Downie et al. Am. J. Resp. Cell. Mol. Biol., 7(1): 58-65 (1992)). After incubation with the various media described, the filters containing confluent endothelial cells are washed 2 times with PBS. The filters with attached endothelial cells are then mounted in modified flux chambers, and the chambers placed in a culture dish. The upper well of the chamber is filled with serum-free medium containing 50 mM Hepes. The dish is filled with the same medium. A stirring bar is added to the lower well, and the entire chamber placed on an electrical stirring device and incubated at 37° C. The chamber is incubated until the level of media between the upper well and the surrounding fluid in the beaker is equal. Thus, no hydrostatic pressure difference is present between the upper and lower wells. After this equilibration period, a small aliquot of medium in the upper well is removed and replaced with medium containing [125I]bovine serum albumin (30,000 cpm/ml). The radiolabeled albumin is extensively dialyzed against 1 M PBS immediately before use. Chromatographic monitoring of the dialyzed [125I] albumin as well as the media in the lower well after the end of the study is demonstrated >95% of the 125I to co-chromatograph with albumin (Friedman et al. J. Cell. Physiol., 129: 237-249 (1986)). Small aliquots of media (in triplicate) are removed serially from both the upper and lower wells 10, 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240 min after the addition of the 125I probe. The 125I activity in each aliquot is measured in a gamma counter, and the average cpm/ml for the samples from the upper and lower wells is determined. Appropriate corrections are made for background using the experimental media. The [125I]albumin transfer rate of the BPAEC monolayers is expressed as the rate of appearance of counts in the lower well relative to the number of counts in the upper well/hour over the 90 to 240-min period of steady-state clearance (Friedman et al. J. Cell. Physiol., 129: 237-249 (1986)). Each albumin transfer rate point (“n”) represents the average rate of duplicate filters within a group. Each group of filters included duplicate control filters (i.e., monolayers on filters incubated with diluent alone). In additional filters, non-radiolabeled bovine serum albumin (final concentration of 1%) is added along with [125I]bovine serum albumin in the upper well. The [125I]albumin transfer rate across the monolayer is determined using the previously described method. The endothelial monolayers is expected to be more intact after exposure to DTvariant-IL-2 fusion proteins compared to unmodified DT-IL-2 fusion proteins.
In yet another assay, channel-forming activities of the mutants of DT-IL-2 are determined using a planar lipid bilayer membrane system (vanderSpek et al., J. Biol. Chem. 268: 12077-12082 (1993); Silverman et al., J. Membr. Biol. 137: 17-28 (1994); Hu et al. Prot. Eng. 11(9): 811-817 (1998)) and compared to unmodified DT-IL-2. The membranes are formed across 50-100 μm apertures are made in polystyrene cups. A 1% hexane solution of lecithin type IIS (Sigma) with the neutral lipids removed (Kagawa and Racker, Biol. Chem. 246: 5477-5487 (1971)) is used to coat both sides of the aperture and allowed to dry. The outside of the aperture is then coated with a 1.5% squalene solution prepared in light petroleum. The cup is placed in the back chamber of a block prepared by Warner Instruments (Hamden, Conn.). A buffer solution (1 M KCl, 2 mM CaCl2, 1 mM EDTA, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.2) is added to the cup to above the level of the aperture (0.5 ml). The front chamber of the block is filled with 1.0 ml of the same buffer solution, except with 30 mM MES, pH 5.3, instead of the HEPES. A 50 μl aliquot of the lecithin hexane solution is layered on top of the buffer in the front chamber and the hexane is allowed to evaporate. The buffer in the front chamber is then lowered and raised above the level of the aperture and the planar lipid bilayer is formed. Unmodified DT-IL-2 fusion proteins and DT variant-IL-2 fusion proteins thereof are added to the front chamber at concentrations ranging from 20 to 730 ng/ml. A voltage of +60 mV is applied across the membrane using voltage clamp conditions. The back chamber of the block, containing the cup, is held at virtual ground and the voltages refer to the front chamber to which the proteins are added. Current is monitored using standard methods (Jakes et al., J. Biol. Chem. 265: 6984-6991 (1989)). Channel conductances are determined using the equation g=I/V, where g is the conductance, I is the current flowing through the membrane and V is the voltage applied across the membrane. The lipid bilayer is expected to be more intact after exposure to DTvariant-IL-2 fusion proteins compared to unmodified DT-IL-2 fusion proteins.
Example 3
This example describes a method for testing ADP-Ribosyltransferase Activity. Ribosome inactivating protein toxins, such as diphtheria toxin, catalyze the covalent modification of translation elongation factor 2 (EF-2). Ribosylation of a modified histidine residue in EF-2 halts protein synthesis at the ribosome and results in cell death. Ribosyltransferase assays to determine catalytic activity of the DT387 mutants are performed in 50 mM Tris-Cl, pH8.0, 25 mM EDTA, 20 mM Dithiothreitol, 0.4 mg/ml purified EF-2, and 1.0 μM [32P]-NAD+ (10 mCi/ml, 1000 Ci·mmol, Amersham-Pharmacia). The purified mutant proteins are tested in a final reaction volume of 40 μl. The reactions are performed in 96 well, V-bottom microtiter plates (Linbro) and incubated at room temperature for an hour. Proteins are precipitated by addition of 200 μl 10% TCA and collected on glass fiber filters, and radioactivity is determined by standard protocols. Traditional methods for measuring ADP-ribosylation use permeabilized cells treated with double stranded (ds) activator DNA oligonucleotide; subsequent measurement of radiolabeled NAD+ is incorporated into acid insoluble material. FACS-based methods such as those described by Kunzmann et al. (Immunity & Ageing, 3:8 (2006)) are also available.
Example 4
Cytotoxicity Assays on Crude Extracts of Modified DT-IL-2 Fusion Proteins
The DT387 or DT389 construct is initially used to demonstrate that modified toxophores can be chemically coupled to a number of targeting ligands and yield functional targeted toxins. Single chain fusions toxins, as exemplified by DT387linker IL-2 or DT389linker IL-2, circumvent the scale-up purification problems typically encountered in the development of conjugate toxins. To confirm the effects of the engineered changes, a number of modified DT387 IL-2 fusion or DT389 IL-2 fusion toxins are produced and tested in cytotoxicity assays.
Amino acid substitutions made, as described above; to determine that the changes do not yield inactive toxophores incapable of producing fusion toxins, cytotoxicity assays are performed.
Cytotoxicity Assays
Cytotoxicity assays are performed using HUT102/6TG cells, a human HTLV1 transformed T-cell line that expresses high affinity Interleukin-2 receptors. HUT102/6TG cells are maintained in RPMI 1640 (Gibco) media supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 2 mM glutamine, 50 IU/ml penicillin and 50 μg/ml streptomycin. The cells are seeded at a density of 5×104/well into 96 well, V-microtiter plates. The fusion protein toxins are typically added to the wells in molarities ranging from 10−7 M down to 10−12 M. Final volume in the wells is 200 μl. The plates are incubated for 18 hours, at 37° C. in a 5% CO2 environment. The plates are subjected to centrifugation to pellet the cells, the media removed and replaced with 200 μl leucine-free, minimal essential medium containing 1.0 μCi/ml[14C] leucine (<280 mCi/mmol, Amersham-Pharmacia) and 21 mM glutamine, 50 IU/ml penicillin and 50 μg/ml streptomycin. The cells are pulsed for 90 minutes and then the plates subjected to centrifugation to pellet the cells. The supernatant is removed and the cells are lysed in 60 μl, 0.4 M KOH followed by a 10 minute incubation at room temperature. 140 μL of 10% TCA is then added to each well and another 10 minute, room temperature incubation is performed. The precipitated proteins are collected on glass fiber filters using a PHD cell harvester and the incorporated radioactivity is determined using standard methods. The results are reported as a percentage of control (no fusion protein added to inhibit protein synthesis) [14C]-leucine incorporation. ToxilightTM, VialightTM and ALAMARBLUETM kits are non-radioactive, commercial assays which can be used to assess the variants. The assays are conducted in a 96-well plate format, titrating toxin (10−7-10−12 M) over time using susceptible and resistant cell lines.
Pharmaceutical grade GMP purified DAB389IL-2 produced from E. coli typically yields an IC 50 of between 5×10−11 M to 1×10−12 M. Partially purified toxins exhibit activity between 10-100 fold lower in partially purified non-homogenous extracts. Pharmaceutical grade toxins are purified to homogeneity and the active fractions of refolded fusion toxins are used as biologically active drug. In the example above we utilize a moderate through put analysis to determine the receptor specific cytotoxicity of partially purified modified DT-IL-2 fusion toxins and compared them to the activity of similarly purified DAB389IL-2. These assays demonstrate comparable activity of the modified DT387linker IL-2 fusion to DAB389IL-2. It should be noted that the calculation of specific cytotoxicity was based upon the total amount of protein in the samples of partially fusion toxin. For assays equimolar concentrations of fusion toxins were tested.
The relative amounts of non-fusion toxins protein in each sample could artificially alter the IC50 of any given construct. That is, the presence of non full length or non fusion toxin protein in the samples used in this analysis could potentially account for small differences in IC50.
Purified DAB389IL-2 produced in E. coli typically yields an IC50 of between 5×10−11 M and 1×10−12 M.
A moderate throughput cytotoxicity assay is used to analyze crude purifications of modified DT-IL-2 fusion toxins and compare them to the activity of similarly purified DT387linkerIL-2.
It should be noted that there is one (x)D/E(y) motif in IL-2 located at residues 19-21 (LDL). The contribution of IL-2 to VLS can be determined by modifying the (x)D/E(y) motif in the IL-2 and test the modified protein using the cytotoxicity assay described above. For example, using modified DT mutants derived from DT387 or DT387linker IL-2, it is possible to distinguish between effects of the mutations on catalytic activity, VLS activity and effective delivery of the targeted toxin to the cytosol of target cells. The comparison between modified DT mutants of DT387 and DT387linker IL2 will also separate the effects of modified sequences of the toxophore alone from the IL-2 targeting ligand present in DT387linker IL-2. In another example, using modified DT mutants derived from both DT389 and DT389linker IL-2, it is possible to distinguish between effects of the mutations on catalytic activity, VLS activity and effective delivery of the targeted toxin to the cytosol of target cells. The comparison between modified DT mutants of DT389 and DT389linker IL2 will also separate the effects of modified sequences of the toxophore alone from the IL-2 targeting ligand present in DT389linker IL-2.
Example 5
This example describes an in vivo method to test the effect of fusion proteins described herein. A model has been developed to study the effect of toxin-containing fusion proteins on human endothelium in vivo by grafting vascularized human skin onto SCID mice, injecting the mice with toxin-containing fusion proteins and measuring fluid accumulation in the graft as the wet/dry weight ratio (Baluna et al., J. Immunother., 22(1):41-47 (1999)). Fluid accumulation in the human skin is measured by weighing punch biopsies of the skin grafts before and after freeze drying. This model can be used to evaluate the effect of the modified DT fusion proteins described herein in vivo.
The fluid accumulation in the lungs of normal SCID mice is also used as a surrogate model for VLS. IL-2 has been shown to induce fluid accumulation in the lungs of mice (Orucevic and Lala, J Immunother Emphasis Tumor Immunol., 18(4):210-220 (1995)). The water content of the lungs or skin grafts is calculated as the wet/dry weight ratio. In this model, pulmonary vascular leak can also be assessed by measuring the accumulation in the lungs of 125I-albumin injected intravenously (Smallshaw et al., Nature Biotechnology 21:387-391 (2003)).
Example 6
Multiple assays are available to test the function of DT variants described herein such as, for example, in vitro cytotoxicity assays, in vitro vascular toxicity, in vivo mouse models as well as any other assay described herein or known in the art.
In Vitro Cytotoxicity Assays
The cytotoxic activities of the different modified DT fusion proteins are determined using CD22+ Daudi cells and [3H]-leucine incorporation as described previously (Ghetie et al., 1988). The concentration of fusion protein which reduces [3H]-leucine incorporation by 50% relative to an untreated control culture is defined as the IC50.
Vascular Toxicity
As a first step in evaluating the ability of fusion proteins prepared with modified DTs to induce vascular damage, a series of in vitro studies using HUVECs can be conducted. For in vitro assays, the effect of modified DT fusion proteins on the morphology of HUVEC monolayers is tested as described previously (Baluna et al., 1996).
In Vivo Assays
The effects of modified DT fusion proteins can be determined in the SCID/Daudi tumor model (Ghetie et al., 1992). Briefly, female SCID mice are injected intravenously (I.V.; lateral tail vein) with 5×106 Daudi cells on day zero. Fusion proteins are injected I.V. on days 1, 2, 3 and 4. Groups of 5 mice are used for each treatment and studies are repeated. Treatment groups receive (1) no treatment (control); (2) unmodified DT fusion proteins; or (3) modified DT fusion proteins. Mice are followed and sacrificed when the paralysis of their hind legs occurs. Pulmonary vascular leak in SCID mice is evaluated as described (Baluna et al., 1999). The water content of the lungs is calculated as the wet/dry weight ratios of lungs removed from mice injected with 10 μg modified DT fusion protein/g of mouse weight.
Example 7
This example describes a method of screening a toxin for T-cell epitopes. The interaction between MHC, polypeptide and T cell receptor (TCR) provides the structural basis for the antigen specificity of T cell recognition. T cell proliferation assays test the binding of polypeptides to MHC and the recognition of MHC/polypeptide complexes by the TCR. In vitro T cell proliferation assays of the present example, involve the stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), containing antigen presenting cells (APCs) and T cells. Stimulation is conducted in vitro using synthetic peptide antigens. Stimulated T cell proliferation is measured using 3H-thymidine (3H-Thy) and the presence of incorporated 3H-Thy is assessed using scintillation counting of washed fixed cells.
Buffy coats from a donor pool of human blood stored for less than 12 hours are obtained, and polypeptide libraries corresponding to the amino acid residue sequence of the toxin are synthesized via known methods or obtained from an appropriate source. Erythrocytes and leukocytes are separated from plasma and platelets by gentle centrifugation of buffy coats. The top phase (containing plasma and platelets) is removed and discarded. Erythrocytes and leukocytes were diluted 1:1 in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) before layering onto 15 ml ficoll-plaque (GE Healthcare). Centrifugation is done according to the manufacturers recommended conditions and PBMCs are harvested from the serum+PBS/ficoll plaque interface. PBMCs are mixed with PBS (1:1) and collected by centrifugation. The supernatant is removed and discarded and the PBMC pellet is resuspended in 50 ml PBS. Cells are again pelleted by centrifugation and the PBS supernatant discarded. Cells are then resuspended using 50 ml AIM V media and at this point counted and viability assessed using trypan blue dye exclusion. Cells are again collected by centrifugation and the supernatant discarded. Cells are resuspended for cryogenic storage at a density of 3×107 per ml. The storage medium is 90% (v/v) heat inactivated AB human serum (Invitrogen) and 10% (v/v) DMSO (Invitrogen). Cells are transferred to a regulated freezing container and placed at −70° C. overnight before transferring to liquid N2 for long term storage. When required for use, cells are thawed rapidly in a water bath at 37° C. before transferring to 10 ml pre-warned AIM V medium.
PBMCs are stimulated with polypeptide antigens in a 96 well flat bottom plate at a density of 2×105 PBMC per well. PBMC were incubated for 7 days at 37° C. before pulsing with 3H-Thy. Synthetic polypeptides (15 mers) that overlapped by increments of 12 amino acids are generated that span the entire sequence of the toxin.
Each polypeptide is screened individually against PBMCs isolated from 20 naive donors. Two control polypeptides that have previously been shown to be immunogenic and a potent non-recall antigen, KLH, are used in each donor assay. The control antigens used are Flu haemagglutinin; Chlamydia HSP 60 peptide and Keyhole Limpet hemocyanin. Polypeptides are dissolved in DMSO to a final concentration of 10 mM, these stock solutions are then diluted 1/500 in AIM V media (final concentration 20 μM). Polypeptides are added to a flat bottom 96 well plate to give a final concentration of 2 and 20 μM in a 100 μl. The viability of thawed PBMCs is assessed by trypan blue dye exclusion, and cells are then resuspended at a density of 2×106 cells/ml, and 100 μl (2×105 PBMC/well) is transferred to each well containing peptides. Triplicate well cultures are assayed at each peptide concentration. Plates are incubated for 7 days in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 at 37° C. Cells are pulsed for 18-21 hours with 1 μCi 3H-Thy/well before harvesting onto filter mats. CPM values are determined using a microplate beta top plate counter. Results are expressed as stimulation indices, where the stimulation index (SI) is derived by division of the proliferation score (e.g. counts per minute of radioactivity) measured to the test peptide by the score measured in cells not contacted with a test peptide.
Example 8
Deimmunization has been successfully applied to generate T cell epitope-depleted variants of several proteins including plant (EP1737961) and bacterial (WO2004/018684) toxins. Deimmunization technology has been improved, such as through the development of EpiScreenTM (Antitope, Ltd., Cambridge, UK) which is more sensitive for measuring T cell epitopes.
T cell epitopes can be removed by replacement with sequence segments from other proteins using Composite ProteinTM technology (Antitope, Ltd.) rather than introduction of point mutations which, as a result, provides a more flexible solution in removing T cell epitopes while retaining protein function.
The methods described herein are to generate variants of DT with reduced VLS and reduced immunogenicity using the following seven stages:
Stage 1—T cell epitope mapping of DT and the junction with a selected ligand, e.g., human IL-2;
Stage 2—assays for VLS and DT activity;
Stage 3—gene synthesis, expression and purification of whole DT in E. coli in a format suitable for screening multiple variants (approximately 100-250 variants);
Stage 4—generation and testing of DT variants for reduced VLS (HUVEC binding assay)—variants are tested in two rounds (single locus/multiple loci);
Stage 5—generation and testing of DT variants after removal of T cell epitopes—variants are tested in rounds (single epitope, multiple epitope, optimization) with the second round involving combination with VLS variants (stage 4);
Stage 6—generation of lead DT-fusion variant by fusion of lead DT variant from stage 5 with a protein ligand such as human IL-2 and purification/testing of protein (this stage is optional); and
Stage 7—immunogenicity testing of lead DT 1-389 (‘truncated DT (ΔR)’) variant by EpiScreenTM (control of wild-type truncated DT (ΔR)).
Testing of the DT variants containing mutations in VLS motifs in the HUVEC binding assay as well as testing of all DT variants for potency in the IVTT assay is done with, for example, truncated DT variants without the wild-type receptor binding (R) domain (DT (ΔR)). Testing of leads for potency in cytotoxicity assays is performed with both full length DT versions as well as fusion proteins in which DT(DR) is fused to IL-2. For EpiScreenTM validation of one or more lead DT variants (stage 7), the optimized DT variants with modified C and I domains are tested by expression of truncated DT (ΔR).
Example 9
EpiScreenTM T Cell Epitope Mapping of DT
EpiScreen Donor Selection
Peripheral Blood Mononuclear cells (PBMC) were isolated from healthy community donor buffy coats (from blood drawn within 24 hours) which were obtained from the UK National Blood Transfusion Service (Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK) according to approval granted by Addenbrooke's Hospital Local Research Ethics Committee. PBMC were isolated from buffy coats by Lymphoprep (Axis-shield, Dundee, Scotland) density centrifugation and CD8+ T cells were depleted using CD8+ RossetteSepTM (StemCell Technologies, Inc.). Donors were characterized by identifying HLA-DR haplotypes using a Biotest HLA SSP-PCR based tissue-typing kit (Biotest, Landsteinerstrape, Denmark). T cell responses to a control antigen, Keyhole Limpet Haemocyanin (KLH) (Pierce, Rockford, USA) were also determined. A cohort of 54 donors was selected to best represent the number and frequency of HLA-DR allotypes expressed in the world population (Table 1 and FIG. 1). Analysis of the allotypes expressed in the cohort against those expressed in the world population revealed that coverage of >80% was achieved and that all major HLA-DR alleles (individual allotypes with a frequency >5% expressed in the world population) were well represented. Table 1 shows donor haplotypes and a comparison of responses to KLH obtained during the processing and isolation of donor PBMC (test 1) against donor responses obtained after re-testing during this study (ANG01). A summary of donor haplotypes is provided in Table 2, and a comparison of the frequency of donor allotypes used in the study versus those present in the world population is shown in FIG. 1.







TABLE 2













 








 








 











Donor details and haplotypes. Donor responses (SI) to KLH are shown for two independent tests. Test 1 was performed on freshly isolated PBMC and ANG01 is the re-test in the current study. Responses that did not produce the same result (i.e., positive or negative) in both tests are highlighted in grey. Three donors with very low basal cpm (<150 cpm) were excluded from the analysis.






EpiScreen Analysis: Proliferation Assays

EpiScreemTM was used to test overlapping peptides derived from the sequence of DT 1-389 including the DT C and I domains with 10 amino acids of human IL-2 at the C terminus. Overlapping peptides were designed spanning residues 1-389 of DT-1 together with 10 amino acids of human IL-2 at the C terminus (DT 1-389/IL-2 2-10). A series of 128×15 mer peptides overlapping by 12 amino acids were synthesized together with 1×14 mer and 1×11 mer and used to stimulate peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) derived from a cohort of 51 healthy donors using EpiScreenTM T cell epitope mapping. Individual peptides were tested in replicate cultures and responses were assessed using T cell proliferation assays to identify the precise location of epitopes. PBMC from each donor were thawed, counted and assessed for viability. Cells were revived in room temperature AIM V culture medium (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) before adjusting the cell density to 2.5×106 PBMC/ml (proliferation cell stock). Peptides were dissolved in DMSO (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, Mo., USA) to a final concentration of 10 mM. Peptide culture stocks were then prepared by diluting into AIM V culture medium to a final concentration of 5 μM. For each peptide and each donor, sextuplicate cultures were established by adding 100 μl of the peptide culture stocks to 100 μl of proliferation cell stock in a flat bottomed 96 well plate. Both positive and negative control cultures were also established in sextuplicate. A total of 9×96 well plates were used for each donor, and each plate was sufficient to test 15 peptides with one negative control (carrier alone) in sextuplicate. On the final plate, the positive control KLH was added.
Cultures were incubated for a total of 6 days before adding 0.5 μCi 3[H]-Thymidine (Perkin Elmer®, Waltham, Mass., USA) to each well. Cultures were incubated for a further 18 hours before harvesting onto filter mats using a TomTec Mach III cell harvester. Counts per minute (cpm) for each well were determined by MeltilexTM (Perkin Elmer®, Waltham, Mass., USA) scintillation counting on a Microplate Beta Counter (Perkin Elmer®, Waltham, Mass., USA) in paralux, low background counting mode.
For proliferation assays, an empirical threshold of a stimulation index (SI) equal to or greater than 2 (SI≧2) has been previously established whereby samples inducing proliferative responses above this threshold are deemed positive (where included, borderline SIs≧1.90 are highlighted). Extensive assay development and previous studies have shown that this is the minimum signal to noise threshold allowing maximum sensitivity without detecting large numbers of false positive responses. Positive responses are defined by the following statistical and empirical thresholds:

    
    
        1. Significance (p<0.05) of the response by comparing cpm of test wells against medium control wells using unpaired two sample student's t-test.
        2. Stimulation index greater than 2 (SI≧2), where SI=mean of test wells (cpm)/mean medium control wells (cpm).
    
    


In addition, intra-assay variation was assessed by calculating the coefficient of variance and standard deviation (SD) of the raw data from replicate cultures.
Proliferation assays were set up in sextuplicate cultures (“non adjusted data”). To ensure that intra assay variability was low, data was also analyzed after removing the maximum and minimum cpm values (“adjusted data”) and the SI of donor responses were compared using both data sets. Details of donor SIs from both adjusted and non-adjusted data sets are presented in FIGS. 12 and 13. T cell epitopes were identified by calculating the average frequency of responses to all peptides in the study+2×SD (background response rate). Any peptide(s) that induced proliferation above this threshold was considered to contain a T cell epitope.
In Silico iTopeTM Analysis of Peptides
The sequences of peptides that were positive in the proliferation assay were analyzed using Antitope's predictive iTopeTM software. This software predicts favorable interactions between amino acid side chains of the peptide and specific binding pockets within the MHC class II binding groove. The location of key binding residues was determined by generating 10 mer peptides that overlapped by one amino acid spanning the long peptide sequence. Each 10 mer was tested against Antitope's database of MHC class II allotypes (32 total) and scored based on their fit and interactions with the MHC class II molecules. Peptides that produced a high binding score against a large number of alleles were considered to contain the core 9 mer. Such testing provided a comprehensive T cell epitope analysis of DT 1-389/IL-2 2-10 including (a) a full T cell epitope map of DT 1-389/IL-2 2-10 DT 1-389/IL-2 2-10; (b) assessment of the potency of individual T cell epitopes and prioritization for removal from DT; and (c) assessment of T cell epitope association with MHC class II allotypes.
Identification of T Cell Epitopes
All one hundred thirty peptides identified using the EpiScreenTM Analysis described above were successfully synthesized for testing against 51 healthy donors (54 donors were originally selected, but donors 13, 20 and 38 were excluded from the analysis due to low basal cpm, i.e., below the cut off value of 150 cpm). Positive responses were defined by donors that produced a significant (p<0.05) response with a SI≧2 to any given peptide. Borderline responses (a significant (p<0.05) response with an SI≧1.90) were also included. The outputs from non-adjusted and adjusted data analyses were compared to ensure that intra-assay variability was low and that positive responses were not the result of spurious proliferation in individual wells. The results from each analysis showed little difference between the methods; consequently, the T cell epitope map was compiled using the adjusted data analysis. Donor stimulation indices from both non-adjusted and adjusted analyses are shown in FIGS. 12 and 13, respectively. T cell epitopes were identified by calculating the average frequency of the responses to all peptides in the study plus twice the standard deviation (termed ‘background response rate’). This was calculated to be 5.6% and was the equivalent of inducing a positive response in three or more donors. Peptides inducing proliferative responses above this threshold were considered to contain a T cell epitope.
Table 3 provides a summary of the individual donor responses to each of the peptides (SEQ ID NOS 158-160, 290-316, 162-163, 317-318, 166, 319-321, 168-172, 322-327, 174, 328-377, 177 and 378-407, respectively, in order of appearance). A graph showing the frequency of responses to the peptides can be found in FIG. 2. Nine peptides induced proliferative responses above the background response rate (peptides 2, 31, 35, 39, 40, 41, 42, 49, and 100) and were therefore considered to contain a T cell epitope. From these nine peptides, a total of seven T cell epitopes were identified within the DT-1 sequence and are discussed in further detail below.







TABLE 3







Summary of donor responses to individual


peptides.








Peptide
No. of responses













 1
1
42* (1.94)
MGADDVVDSSKSFVM


 


 2
3
30* (1.93), 36
DDVVDSSKSFVMENF




(2.13), 47





(2.2)



 


 3
1
36 (2.02)
VDSSKSFVMENFSSY


 


 4


SKSFVMENFSSYHGT


 


 5
1
 1 (2.2)
FVMENFSSYHGTKPG


 


 6


ENFSSYHGTKPGYVD


 


 7


SSYHGTKPGYVDSIQ


 


 8


HGTKPGYVDSIQKGI


 


 9
1
47 (2.03)
KPGYVDSIQKGIQKP


 


10
2
36 (2.07), 47
YVDSIQKGIQKPKSG




(4.01)



 


11
2
36* (1.99), 47
SIQKGIQKPKSGTQG




(2.26)



 


12
1
47 (3.71)
KGIQKPKSGTQGNYD


 


13
1
47 (2.13)
QKPKSGTQGNYDDDW


 


14


KSGTQGNYDDDWKGF


 


15
1
47* (1.95)
TQGNYDDDWKGFYST


 


16


NYDDDWKGFYSTDNK


 


17
1
36* (1.95)
DDWKGFYSTDNKYDA


 


18


KGFYSTDNKYDAAGY


 


19


YSTDNKYDAAGYSVD


 


20


DNKYDAAGYSVDNEN


 


21


YDAAGYSVDNENPLS


 


22
1
 6* (1.97)
AGYSVDNENPLSGKA


 


23


SVDNENPLSGKAGGV


 


24
1
36 (2.05)
NENPLSGKAGGVVKV


 


25
2
21 (2), 36
PLSGKAGGVVKVTYP




(2.11)



 


26
1
35 (2.11)
GKAGGVVKVTYPGLT


 


27


GGVVKVTYPGLTKVL


 


28


VKVTYPGLTKVLALK


 


29


TYPGLTKVLALKVDN


 


30


GLTKVLALKVDNAET


 


31
4
12 (2.23), 23
KVLALKVDNAETIKK




(2.01), 30





(2.04), 36





(2.12)



 


32
2
23* (1.90), 50*
ALKVDNAETIKKELG




(1.92)



 


33
2
36* (1.94), 46
VDNAETIKKELGLSL




(2.01)



 


34
1
47 (2.22)
AETIKKELGLSLTEP


 


35
3
 1 (4.29), 2
IKKELGLSLTEPLME




(2.88), 35





(2.23)



 


36


ELGLSLTEPLMEQVG


 


37


LSLTEPLMEQVGTEE


 


38


TEPLMEQVGTEEFIK


 


39
3
 5 (2.26), 15
LMEQVGTEEFIKRFG




(2.01), 50*





(1.94)



 


40
6
15 (2.0), 36
QVGTEEFIKRFGDGA




(2.45), 46*





(1.90), 47





(2.48), 49





(2.19), 50 (2.06)



 


41
6
35* (1.99), 36
TEEFIKRFGDGASRV




(2.21), 40*





(1.93), 46 *





(1.92), 49





(3.12), 50





(2.06)



 


42
6
35 (2.11), 36
FIKRFGDGASRVVLS




(2.53), 40





(2.17), 47





(5.09), 49





(4.72), 50 (2.04)



 


43
2
 4 (6.71), 49
RFGDGASRVVLSLPF




(3.37)



 


44


DGASRVVLSLPFAEG


 


45


SRVVLSLPFAEGSSS


 


46


VLSLPFAEGSSSVEY


 


47
2
30 (2.05), 46*
LPFAEGSSSVEYINN




(1.92)



 


48


AEGSSSVEYINNWEQ


 


49
3
30 (2.27), 39
SSSVEYINNWEQAKA




(2.01), 49





(3.10)



 


50
1
23* (1.91)
VEYINNWEQAKALSV


 


51


INNWEQAKALSVELE


 


52
1
44* (1.92)
WEQAKALSVELEINF


 


53


AKALSVELEINFETR


 


54
1
48* (1.99)
LSVELEINPETRGKR


 


55
1
46 (2.01)
ELEINFETRGKRGQD


 


56
1
46* (1.94)
INFETRGKRGQDAMY


 


57


ETRGKRGQDAMYEYM


 


58


GKRGQDAMYEYMAQA


 


59


GQDAMYEYMAQACAG


 


60


AMYEYMAQACAGNRV


 


61
1
47 (4.13)
EYMAQACAGNRVRRS


 


62
2
23 (2.00), 47
AQACAGNRVRRSVGS




(3.38)



 


63


CAGNRVRRSVGSSLS


 


64


NRVRRSVGSSLSCIN


 


65


RRSVGSSLSCINLDW


 


66


VGSSLSCINLDWDVI


 


67


SLSCINLDWDVIRDK


 


68


CINLDWDVIRDKTKT


 


69


LDWDVIRDKTKTKIE


 


70
1
 8 (2.11)
DVIRDKTKTKIESLK


 


71
1
35* (1.90)
RDKTRTKIESLKEHG


 


72


TKTKIESLKEHGPIK


 


73


KIESLKEHGPIKNKM


 


74


SLKEHGPIKNKMSES


 


75


EHGPIKNKMSESPNK


 


76
2
35 (2.09), 48*
PIKNKMSESPNKTVS




(1.92)



 


77
2
30* (1.94), 35
NKMSESPNKTVSEEK




(2.08)



 


78
1
35 (2.15)
SESPNKTVSEEKAKQ


 


79
1
35* (1.91)
PNRTVSEEKAKQYLE


 


80


TVSEEKAKQYLEEFH


 


81


EEKAKQYLEEFHQTA


 


82


AKQYLEEFHQTALEH


 


83


YLEEFHQTALEHPEL


 


84
2
35 (2.12), 48
EFHQTALEHPELSEL




(2.31)



 


85
2
15 (2.07), 35
QTALEHPELSELKTV




(2.1)



 


86
1
35 (2.36)
LEHPELSELKTVTGT


 


87
1
35 (2.32)
PELSELKTVTGTNPV


 


88
2
16 (2.22), 35
SELKTVTGTNPVFAG




(2.1)



 


89
1
35* (1.92)
KTVTGTNPVFAGANY


 


90


TGTNPVFAGANYAAW


 


91


NPVFAGANYAAWAVN


 


92
1
35 (2.6)
FAGANYAAWAVNVAQ


 


93


ANYAAWAVNVAQVID


 


94
2
23 (2.36), 35
AAWAVNVAQVIDSET




(2.02)



 


95


AVNVAQVIDSETADN


 


96
1
 2 (3.86)
VAQVIDSETADNLEK


 


97


VIDSETADNLEKTTA


 


98


SETADNLEKTTAALS


 


99


ADNLEKTTAALSILP


 


100
4
 1 (2.2), 15*
LEKTTAALSILPGIG




(1.95), 30





(3.0), 35 (2.07)



 


101
1
32 (2.15)
TTAALSILPGIGSVM


 


102
1
32 (2.21)
ALSILPGIGSVMGIA


 


103


ILPGIGSVMGIADGA


 


104
1
32* (1.96)
GIGSVMGIADGAVHH


 


105


SVMGIADGAVHHNTE


 


106


GIADGAVHHNTEEIV


 


107


DGAVHHNTEEIVAQS


 


108


VHHNTEEIVAQSIAL


 


109
1
 2 (4.64)
NTEEIVAQSIALSSL


 


110
1
 2 (3.85)
EIVAQSIALSSLMVA


 


111


AQSIALSSLMVAQAI


 


112


IALSSLMVAQAIPLV


 


113


SSLMVAQAIPLVGEL


 


114


MVAQAIPLVGELVDI


 


115
1
36* (1.97)
QAIPLVGELVDIGFA


 


116
1
15 (2.16)
PLVGELVDIGFAAYN


 


117


GELVDIGFAAYNFVE


 


118


VDIGFAAYNFVESII


 


119
2
36* (1.93), 47
GFAAYNFVESIINLF




(2.08)



 


120


AYNFVESIINLFQVV


 


121
2
30* (1.99), 45
FVESIINLFQVVHNS




(2.07)



 


122
2
30 (2.31), 45
SIINLFQVVHNSYNR




(2.09)



 


123
1
35 (2.05)
NLFQVVHNSYNRPAY


 


124


QVVHNSYNRPAYSPG


 


125


HNSYNRPAYSPGHKT


 


126


YNRPAYSPGHKTHAP


 


127


PAYSPGHKTHAPTSS


 


128


SPGHKTHAPTSSSTK


 


129


HKTHAPTSSSTKKT


 


130
1
35* (1.97)
HAPTSSSTKKT





Positive responses (SI >= 2 and p < 0.05) are indicated by the donor number and individual SIs are shown in brackets next to the corresponding donor. Borderline responses (SI >= 1.9 & p < 0.05) are indicated (*). The background response rate was 5.6% which was equivalent to 3 donors.






T Cell Epitopes Identified Via EpiScreen

(a) Epitope 1-Peptide 2

Peptide 2 (DDVVDSSKSFVMENF; SEQ ID NO: 159) contains a T cell epitope as indicated in Table 2 and FIG. 2. A total of three donors (30, 36 and 47) responded to peptide 2 although the response of donor 30 was borderline (SI of 1.92). As discussed throughout the specification above, elimination of T-cell epitopes can be accomplished via modification of amino acids in the identified epitopes. Modification of amino acids in the epitope, such as the amino acid residues associated with binding the anchor pockets (p1 and p9) of the MHC class II binding cleft, can affect and/or prevent the successful presentation of the epitope on the MHC class II molecule (i.e., eliminate the epitope). Similarly, modification of amino acid residues associated with binding the interior pockets of the MHC class II binding cleft, and/or residues outside the core 9-mer epitope that affect or interact with the MHC class II molecule can eliminate the epitope, Various combinations of amino acid residue modifications for the elimination of T-cell epitopes can be made and tested by the methods described herein.
Using Antitope's in silico iTopeTM MHC class II predictive software, peptide 2 was analyzed for potential 9 mer MHC class II binding registers. This software predicts the most favorable binding register for epitopes based on the number of alleles which have the potential to bind (from a total of 32) together with the mean binding score of the alleles (where the positive threshold is set at 0.5). The results of this analysis indicated that the core 9 mer is VDSSKSFVM (SEQ ID NO: 161) with a valine (V8) as the potential p1 anchor residue (FIG. 3). In this conformation, the analysis predicted the binding of 25 out of 32 alleles.
The VDSSKSFVM core 9 mer (SEQ ID NO: 161) is also present in both peptides 1 and 3 which are overlapping with peptide 2. Interestingly, donor 36 responded to both peptides 2 and 3, (SIs of 2.13 and 2.02, respectively) and also had a high response to peptide 1 (SI=1.88) which was statistically significant (p<0.05), indicating that VDSSKSFVM (SEQ ID NO: 161) is the core 9 mer binding register. Similarly, donor 30 responded to peptide 1 with an SI of 1.64 which was clearly below the cut off of 1.9-2.0 but was statistically significant (p<0.05) and higher than the overall background SI. Donor 47 did not mount positive responses to peptides 1 and 3. This is presumably due to the location of the core 9 mer within the peptide; it is well documented that the interaction of residues outside of the 9 mer binding register support the stability of the peptide:MHC class II complex (Engelhard et al 1994). It is therefore likely that peptide 2 contains the core 9 mer in an optimal configuration for MHC class II binding. Inspection of the DT-1 crystal structure (Steere et al 2000) revealed that the p1 valine residue (V8) is in a partially exposed position; therefore polar replacement residues can be selected such that the polar moiety is surface exposed and the hydrophobic region is buried. Such modifications to the T-cell epitope can reduce immunogenicity of the toxin.

(b) Epitope 2-Peptide 31

Table 3 and FIG. 2 show that 4 donors (donors 12, 23, 30 and 36) responded to peptide 31 (KVLALKVDNAETIKK; SEQ ID NO: 162) indicating the presence of a T cell epitope in this region. Furthermore, analysis of overlapping peptides showed that donor 23 produced a borderline response to peptide 32, and donor 36 also responded to peptide 32 with a response that was sub-threshold (SI=1.81) but statistically significant (p<0.05). Using iTopeTM in silico analysis, the core 9 mer for this peptide was predicted to be VDNAETIK (SEQ ID NO: 164) with a valine (V97) as the primary p1 anchor residue (FIG. 4). This was supported by the response of donor 23 to peptide 32, and the sub-threshold response of donor 36 to peptide 32 which also contained the same core 9 mer (FIG. 5). In this conformation, the analysis indicated the binding of 28 out of 32 MHC class II alleles. Structure and homology modeling revealed the location of V97 to be well exposed on the surface of the molecule and not associated with the active site.
(c) Epitope 3-Peptide 35
Peptide 35 (SEQ ID NO: 166) contains a T cell epitope as indicated by three donors (donors 1, 2 and 35) which produced positive proliferation responses following stimulation as described above in Stage 1 (FIG. 2 and Table 3). Analysis by iTopeTM revealed that the most favorable binding register for this peptide was LGLSLTEPL (SEQ ID NO: 167) with a leucine (L107) as the primary anchor residue, p1 (FIG. 5). This 9 mer had the potential to bind 13 out of 32 MHC class II alleles. Donor 35 also had a proliferative response (SI=1.83) to peptide 34 which contained the same core 9 mer. This was below the 1.9-2.0 cut off for a positive response but was statistically significant (p<0.05) and indicates that the sequence LGLSLTEPL (SEQ ID NO: 167) is the epitope within this region.
Crystal structure analysis and homology modeling of the p1 anchor for this epitope indicates it is mostly buried, with a small amount of surface exposure. As for epitope 1, it would be possible to substitute polar residues to remove binding to MHC class II. The p9 anchor of this peptide is also buried; therefore changes are considered at other pocket positions including p6 and p7 which are well exposed on the surface of the toxin.
(d) Epitope 4-Peptide 39
Three donors (donors 5, 15 and 50) produced positive proliferative responses following stimulation with peptide 39 (LMEQVGTEEFIKRFG; SEQ ID NO: 168) although the response of donor 50 was borderline (SI of 1.94) (FIG. 2 and Table 3). The T cell epitope within this peptide was predicted after iTopeTM analysis to contain MEQVGTEEF (SEQ ID NO: 169) as a core 9 mer MHC class II binding register (FIG. 6). In this conformation, a methionine at position 116 forms the p1 anchor residue and this epitope is predicted to bind 19 out of 32 MHC class II alleles. Positions 1 and 9 of this MHC class II binding register are buried in the core of the catalytic domain of the toxin, and are packed against each other. These residues are therefore considered important for the overall stability of the protein. Similar to epitope 3, residues that interact with other pockets in the core 9 mer, such as p6 and p7 (which are well exposed), are considered for substitution.
(e) Epitope 5-Peptides 40, 41 and 42.
A potent T cell epitope appears to lie within peptides 40, 41 and 42 (SEQ ID NOS: 170-172). Of all the epitopes detected, the epitope in this region is the most immunogenic, as shown by its ability to induce responses in a total of 8 different donors, representing 15.7% of the study cohort (Table 3 and FIG. 2). Six donors responded to peptides 40 (donors 15, 36, 46, 47, 49 and 50), peptide 41 (donors 35, 36, 40, 46, 49, 50) and 42 (donors 35, 36, 40, 47, 49 50), and responses to all 3 overlapping peptides were observed for donors 49 and 50 while donors 30, 40, 46 and 47 responded to two overlapping peptides. iTopeTM in silico analysis predicted the binding motif for this peptide to be FIKRFGDGA (SEQ ID NO: 173) with a phenylalanine (F124) as the p1 anchor residue (FIG. 7). This 9 mer was present in all three overlapping peptides and was predicted to bind 23 out of 32 MHC class II alleles. Phenylalanine 124 is substantially buried within the core of the catalytic domain and packs against M115 and V118 and is therefore considered to be potentially structurally important. However anchor positions 4, 6, 7 and 9 are exposed to varying degrees and can be targeted to remove the epitope.
(f) Epitope 6-Peptide 49.
Peptide 49 (SSSVEYINNWEQAKA; SEQ ID NO: 174) also contains a T cell epitope. FIG. 2 and Table 3 show that three donors (donors 30, 39 and 49) produced positive proliferative responses following stimulation with peptide 49. Using iTopeTM in silico analysis, the most favorable binding register for this peptide was predicted to be VEYINNWEQ (SEQ ID NO: 175; FIG. 8) which had the potential to bind 22 out of 32 MHC class II alleles. This binding register had a valine (V148) as the p1 anchor residue. While peptides 48 and 50, which overlapped with peptide 49, also contained the same core 9 mer, donors 30, 39 and 49 did not respond to the overlapping peptides, demonstrating that residues outside the core 9 mer are also important in the binding of the peptide to the MHC class II molecule. Valine 148 is partially surface exposed; therefore polar replacement residues can be selected such that the hydrophilic moiety is surface exposed and the hydrophobic region is buried.
(g) Epitope 7-Peptide 100.
Epitope 7 was found within peptide 100 (LEKTTAALSILPGIG; SEQ ID NO: 177). Four donors (donors 1, 15, 30 and 35) responded to peptide 100, and the response of donor 15 was borderline. iTopeTM analysis predicted the core 9 mer binding register for this peptide to be LEKTTAALS (SEQ ID NO: 178) with a leucine (L298) as the p1 anchor residue (FIG. 9). This 9 mer was predicted to bind 24 out of 32 possible MHC class II alleles. The 9 mer was also present within peptide 99, to which donor 30 mounted a statistically significant (p<0.05) sub-threshold response (SI=1.84) thus supporting LEKTTAALS (SEQ ID NO: 178) as the binding motif for these peptides. Leucine 298 lies well exposed on the surface of the translocation domain and is not associated with the activity of this domain. It therefore poses no apparent problems for replacement. Thus, the residue can be readily replaced in order to modify/eliminate the T-cell epitope.
T Cell Epitopes and Allotype Responses
Table 4 summarizes the details of the seven T cell epitopes found within the DT-1 sequence and FIG. 10 shows the location of the epitopes within the protein sequence. No epitopes were detected within the junction between DT-1 and IL-2.
The T cell epitope located in peptide 40, 41 and 42 (epitope 5) induced responses in 15.7% of the cohort. Epitopes located within peptides 31 and 100 (epitopes 2 and 7, respectively) induced responses in 7.84% of the study cohort (Table 4). The epitopes within peptides 2 (epitope 1), 35 (epitope 3), 39 (epitope 4) and 49 (epitope 6) induced responses in 5.88% of the cohort. Analysis of the magnitude (mean SI) of positive responses to each of the epitopes showed that all appeared to be fairly equal in their potency with average SIs of 2-2.5. Epitope 3 however had a larger mean SI of 3.13.







TABLE 4







Summary of the magnitude and frequency of positive responses


to peptides containing T cell epitopes.












Peptide

Mean
%


Epitope
(s)
Donors Responding
SI +/− SD
response














epitope 1
2
30, 36, 47
2.09 (+/−0.14)
5.9


epitope 2
31
12, 23, 30, 36
2.10 (+/−0.10)
7.8


epitope 3
35
1, 2, 35
3.13 (+/−1.05)
5.9


epitope 4
39
5, 15, 50
2.07 (+/−2.18)
5.9


epitope 5
40
15, 36, 46, 47, 49, 50
2.18 (+/−0.24)
15.7



41
35, 36, 40, 46, 49, 50
2.21 (+/−0.46)



42
35, 36, 40, 46, 49, 50
3.11 (+/−1.41)


epitope 6
49
30, 39, 49
2.46 (+/−0.57)
5.9


epitope 7
100
1, 15, 30, 35
2.31 (+/−0.47)
7.8









Associations between the expression of HLA-DR allotypes and donors responding to individual peptides were also analyzed. Epitopes 2, 5 and 7 (peptides 31, 40-42 and 100) were assessed. Table 4 and FIG. 12 show the frequency of allotypes expressed by donors responding to each of the peptides compared with the frequency of allotypes expressed in the ANG01 study cohort. An association between MHC class II allotype and a response to a particular epitope was considered if the frequency of the allotype within the responding population was more than double the observed frequency (i.e. the frequency in the study population×2).
A comparison of positive donor responses observed in the EpiScreenTM assay against MHC class II allotypes expressed by individual donors indicated that responding donors to epitopes 2, 5 and 7 are associated with particular allotypes. T cell responses to epitope 5 were associated with the expression of HLA-DRB1*11, HLA-DRB1*15 and HLA-DR5. The frequencies of donors responding to this epitope and expressing these allotypes were 12%, 15%, and 15%, respectively. All of these were more than double the frequencies of these allotypes within the ANG01 study cohort, which were 5%, 7% and 7% respectively. In addition, iTopeTM analysis of the peptide showed that HLA-DR5 would bind the predicted core 9 mer. T cell responses to epitopes 2 and 7 both appeared to be associated with HLA-DRB1*15 and HLA-DRB5. The frequency of donors responding to epitope 2 or epitope 7 and expressing HLA-DRB1*15 and HLA-DRB5 was 20% and 21% for each respective allele which was more than double the observed frequency of 7% for each allele in the ANG01 study cohort. iTopeTM analysis of these peptides showed the predicted binding register for each peptide had the potential to bind HLA-DR5. In addition to identification of T cell epitopes, these analyses also indicate an association of T cell responses to a particular peptide with the expression of MHC class II alleles.







TABLE 5







Frequency (shown as percentages) of responding donor allotypes compared to the frequency


of allotypes expressed within the study population. Associations between an MHC class II


allotype and a response to an epitope are highlighted in gray.

















Frequency (%) of HLA alleles
DRB
DRB
DRB
DRB
DRB
DRB
DRB


DRB


expressed within
1*01
1*03
1*04
1*07
1*11
1*13
1*15
DRB3
DRB4
5




















Study population
6
9
10
7
5
7
7
20
17
7


Responders to epitope 2
0
7
7
13
0
0
20
7
20
20


Responders to epitope 5
3
3
9
0
12
3
15
18
12
15


Responders to epitope 7
7
7
14
0
0
0
21
7
14
21









Example 10
VLS Assays
Various assays can be used to assess VLS activity of DT variants as described herein.
In one assay, DT-IL2 or variants are conjugated to fluorescein. Fluorescence microscopy/manual counting of labeled cells can be used to assess direct binding to HUVEC cells as surrogate for VLS activity.
In vivo studies; morphological changes; cell monolayer permeability or loss of cell membrane integrity; and correlation with CD31 expression represent various means by which the variants described herein can be detected can also be used to assess VLS activity.
(a) Detection with Antibodies
DT-specific antibodies can be used to detect DT bound to endothelial cell surface via VLS motif. Common epitopes were directly labeled to detect differences in binding between variants. An ELISA was used to confirm specificity/affinity of available anti-DT antibodies. In addition to the method described here, His-tag Abs provide another means by which DT variants can be selected.
FIG. 15 illustrates binding of a DT variant (DT-Glu52; CRM mutant) to HUVEC cells and detection by antibodies using FACS analysis.
(b) Direct Conjugates
Direct conjugates of DT and toxin variants to fluorochrome (Alexa 488) can be used to assess DT variants described herein. Alexa dyes are highly stable and bright. The Microscale Protein Labelling Kit (Molecular Probes/Invitrogen: A30006) allows microscale labelling of protein (20-100 ug). The degree of labelling (DOL) can be optimised and the dye:protein (D:P) ratio is measured by spectrophotometer and reproducible. FACS is used to measure fluorescence.
The assay achieved good detection of ONTAK-Al488 and control DT-Glu52-Al488 binding to HUVEC cells as illustrated in FIG. 16. The assay achieved good detection of ONTAK-Al488 and control DT(ΔR)-Al488 binding to HUVEC cells compared to binding of BSA-Al488 as illustrated in FIG. 30.
HUVEC cells were tested for IL-2R expression by FACS: it was confirmed that ONTAK-Al488 binding to HUVEC cells is independent of IL-R as shown in FIG. 17.
(c) Cell Membrane Integrity
Cell membrane integrity can be assessed to measure loss of integrity of cell membranes after exposure to toxins. Peptides encompassing VLS motifs were directly conjugated to a fluorochrome using methods as described by Baluna et al (PNAS USA, 96: 3957 (1999)). Alternatively, other assays described herein or known in the art can be utilized.
Cell membrane integrity assays were conducted using propidium iodide (PI) and the effect on the toxins was assessed by FACS to measure PI uptake as a surrogate for loss of integrity of cell membrane after short incubation with toxins (FIG. 18).
For potential to induce VLS, a HUVEC cell DT-binding assay is tested using truncated DT (ΔR) comprising the C and I domains only. DT molecules are labeled for analysis of binding to HUVEC. This step utilizes expression of DT(ΔR) from stage 3 and, thus, generation of HUVEC assays is initiated after DT expression.
DT Activity/Cytotoxicity Assays
Assays suitable for measurement of DT activity have been established. Cytotoxicity assays are utilized to confirm toxin activity of DT-IL2 T cell epitope and VLS variant leads selected in IVTT assays.
(a) In Vitro Transcription-Translation (IVTT) Assay
Using an in vitro transcription-translation (IVTT) assay to measure DT activity, direct transcription/translation of DT genes was tested using a rabbit reticulocyte lysate system. Typically this involves coupled transcription/translation of a luciferase gene with a chemiluminescent assay which measures IVTT of target plasmid (T7-luciferase)—active toxin inhibits and reduces luciferase signal. PCR products are utilized allowing medium throughput screening (MTS) with a titration curve and all variants are compared to WT DT in the same 96-well assay plate. A surrogate IC50 can be determined from an inhibition curve. Since DT binds and causes the covalent modification of elongation factor-2 (EF-2), this should cause an inhibition of luciferase production for active DT variants. Coupled transcription/translation assays can be used for analysis of ribosome-inhibitory proteins to provide information on activity of the C domain of DT. Various methods are known to those of skill in the art that are useful in carrying out such coupled transcription/translation assays reactions such as, for example, described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,976,806 and 5,695,983, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.
Using the IVTT assay described herein, it was shown that WT DR DT demonstrated dose-dependant inhibition of transcription/translation of T7-luc plasmid approaching 90% while the null plateaued at approximately 20% inhibition (FIG. 14).
(b) Luminescent Cytotoxicity Assay
ToxilightTM, VialightTM and ALAMARBLUETM kits are non-radioactive, commercial assays which can be used to measure cytotoxicity. The assays are conducted in a 96-well plate format, titrating toxin (10−7-10−12 M) over time using susceptible and resistant cell lines. Cytotoxicity of ONTAK vs. IL-2 to human T cell lines was assessed using the Toxilight kit at 48 hours; luminescence counts per second (LCPS) reflect the degree of adenylate kinase release (FIG. 19).
(c) Ribosyltransferase Assay
In addition to the coupled transcription/translation assay, a ribosyltransferase assay (such as described in Example 3) was established in a 96-well format. This assay uses samples of DT from expression of DT genes in E. coli (stage 3) and is tested in conjunction with the coupled transcription/translation assay above. Traditional methods for measuring ADP-ribosylation use permeabilized cells treated with double stranded (ds) activator DNA oligonucleotide; subsequent measurement of radiolabeled NAD+ is incorporated into acid insoluble material.
New FACS-based methods such as those described by Kunzmann et al. (2006 Immunity & Ageing) are also available.
For measurement of cytotoxicity of DT variants, a cellular cytotoxicity assay (such as described in Example 4) is developed, using HUT102-6TG cells in a 96-well format for analysis of full length DT variants (HUT102-6TG is the cell line used for final analysis of the lead DT-IL-2 protein (stage 6)). As the cellular cytotoxicity assay requires expression of full length DT, this assay is used after DT expression in stage 3.
Example 11
Gene Synthesis, Expression and Purification
DT and human IL-2 genes are synthesized at the start of stage 3 using codons optimized for expression in E. coli using conventional techniques known in the art. For generation of full length DT and DT(ΔR) (comprising the C and I domains only) to be used in analysis in cellular cytotoxicity and HUVEC binding assays (see stage 2), vector systems are used which include secretory leader sequences for export of DT into the periplasmic space of E. coli. The plasmid and E. coli strain are optimized to produce soluble product. His tagged DT products are purified on Ni-IDA columns and spin columns allow parallel purification of leads. Methods for purification of DT include, for example, purification via affinity tags fused to DT (e.g., a His6 tag (SEQ ID NO: 408)). The method developed in stage 3 provides for reliable production of multiple DT variants with similar quality such that the activities of these variants can be accurately compared in order to identify lead candidates in stages 4 and 5.
Example 12
Design and Construction of VLS Variants of DT
Variants of DT for reduction in potential to induce VLS are generated by two rounds of mutation: first, with separate mutations at each of the three (x)D(y) motifs in DT and, second, with combinations of lead mutations with optional additional mutations. Each DT variant is tested in the HUVEC binding assay (stage 2) and the optimal mutations selected after the second round of mutation are combined with T cell epitope mutations at the mid-stage of stage 5 of the project. Generation of DT variants for these assays is by expression of truncated DT (ΔR) in E. coli (stage 3).
Example 13
Design, Construction, and Testing of T Cell Epitope Variants of DT
Variants of DT for elimination of T cell epitopes to reduce immunogenicity are generated by two rounds of substitutions in the C and I domains. The first round of variants involves separate substitutions at single epitope loci which are then combined in a second round of variants to generate combinations of two, three or more variant loci (depending on the number and priority of T cell epitopes). The second round of variants includes combinations with VLS variants from stage 4 Due to the extra step of combining VLS mutations with T cell epitope substitutions, an optional third round of DT variants is included if further optimization of the lead DT variant is needed.
Substitutions at T cell epitope loci in DT are generated (primarily) by substituting amino acids within the core MHC binding 9-mer from the T cell epitope with amino acids which occur at homologous loci in other proteins, especially proteins related to DT, and using sequence segments from other proteins with similar tertiary structures. Analysis by the in silico peptide-MHC class II binding prediction software iTopeTM (Antitope, Ltd.) is used as a guide to selected substitutions for elimination of T cell epitopes. Structural analysis of the DT crystal structure is also used as a guide to mutations least likely to reduce the activity of DT or to reduce stability of the DT structure. In certain cases, such structural analysis may suggest compensatory substitutions outside the T cell epitope loci which can accommodate certain substitutions within T cell epitopes without loss of activity or stability.
T cell epitope variants of DT are tested primarily using the rabbit reticulocyte assay (stage 2) for analysis of substitutions in the C domain and the cellular cytotoxicity assay (stage 2) for analysis of substitutions in C and I domains. Expression of DT variants for these assays uses transcription/translation and expression of full length DT in E. coli, respectively (stage 3). For leads from the second (and optional third) round of substitutions, the ribosyltransferase and HUVEC binding assays are also used to identify lead candidates.
Twenty-six (26) epitope variants have been designed and constructed (FIG. 21). Ten out of twenty-six (10/26) variants have been tested in an IVTT assay as described herein. T cell epitopes have been prioritized based on relative strength (FIG. 22). FIG. 23 shows representative results for mutants of the seven epitopes, demonstrating that mutants have been obtained for each epitope that retain wild type activity.
DT Epitope Variants Inhibit Protein Synthesis
A DT382 construct was used and contained amino acid residues 1-382 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 149 of DT as well as IL2. A restriction enzyme site was engineered at amino acid residue 382 for cloning in either the R domain or the IL2 portion. Modifications are incorporated as described below.
Variants of DT382 gene were produced in which T-cell epitopes 1, 3 and 5 were modified at the putative MHC class II binding p1 anchor residues. Residues V7, L107 and F124 in the wild type DT sequence were substituted for amino acids that were predicted to remove T cell epitopes (by disrupting MHC class II binding) whilst retaining activity (individual substitutions were identified as active in the single epitope variants). The activity of single and combined variants was measured in an in vitro transcription/translation assay. Purified PCR product of each variant was titrated into a TnT coupled transcription/translation reaction mix (#L4610 Promega, Madison Wis., according to the manufacturer's instructions) containing rabbit reticulocyte lysate, TnT buffer, T7 RNA polymerase, amino acid mix-Met, amino acid mix-Leu and RNasin (#N2511 Promega, Madison Wis.) using a DNA range from 1 ng to 64 ng per reaction in a total volume of 10.5 μl. Reactions were incubated at 30° C. for 30 minutes to allow for possible differences in the rate of DT gene translation between the different variants. 250 ng of T7-luciferase control plasmid was then added and reactions were incubated for a further 45 minutes at 30° C. Expression of luciferase was measured by luminescence after incubating the reaction with SteadyGlo luciferase assay reagent, according to manufacturer's instructions (#E2510 Promega, Madison Wis.). Luminescent readout was measured using BMG FLUOstar OPTIMA fluorescent plate reader (BMG Labtech, Durham, N.C.).
Twenty-eight (28) VLS mutants have been designed and constructed. Eighteen out of twenty-eight (18/28) VLS mutants have been tested in an IVTT assay. Known VLS variants were shown to have activity equivalent to or greater than wild type (WT) and a number of alternative VLS variants have been identified that also demonstrate activity equivalent to or greater than WT (FIG. 20).
Percentage inhibition of protein synthesis was plotted against DNA concentration in the reaction and the resulting curves were used to calculate the IC50 for each variant. IC50s were normalized to allow for inter-assay variation by dividing the IC50 of wild type DT (included on every assay plate) with the IC50 of the DT variant so that a value of =1 shows an equal activity to wild type, a value of >1 shows an increase in DT activity and a value of <1 shows a decrease in DT activity.







TABLE 6







IC50 data for modified DT variants compared to wild-type and a


null DT variant. Data for single variants is presented in FIG. 27


as a line graph and data for quadruple variants is presented in


FIG. 29 as a bar graph.











Molecule
IC50 (ng/12.5 μl)
Relative Activity















WT
20.27
1.00



D30N
37.93
0.53



S31G
40.57
0.5



V148A
18.48
1.10



Null
46.65
0.43










Quadruple variants V7D V97A L107N F124H, V7D V97T L107N F124H, V7N V97A L 07N F124H, and V7N V97T L107N F124H exhibited equivalent IC50 activity relative to WT.
Quadruple variants V7D V97D L107N F124H, V7N V97D L107N F124H, V7T V97A L107N F124H, V7T V97D L107N F124H, and V7T V97T L107N F124H exhibited improved IC50 activity relative to WT.







TABLE 7







Relative IVTT scores for VLS and/or T cell epitope variants


compared to WT. The relative IVTT score is determined


by dividing the IC50 of wild type DT by the IC50 of the


mutant DT.









Mutation
Relative IVTT score
Activity Compared to WT





V7S
1.00
Equivalent


V7T
0.93
Equivalent


V7N
0.63
Reduced


V7D
0.57
Reduced


D8E
0.90
Equivalent


D8N
0.36
Inactive


S9A
2.25
Improved


S9G
0.48
Inactive


S9T
1.50
Equivalent


V29S
3.61
Improved


V29T
1.57
Equivalent


V29N
2.47
Improved


V29D
1.51
Equivalent


D30E
2.18
Improved


D30N
0.56
Reduced


S31T
0.14
Inactive


S31G
0.26
Inactive


S31N
1.85
Equivalent


I290S
0.07
Inactive


G53E
0.43
Inactive


I290S
0.07
Inactive


I290T
4.41
Improved


I290D
0.43
Inactive


D291E
1.84
Equivalent


S292A
1.00
Equivalent


S292T
2.11
Improved


S292G
0.65
Reduced


V97A
3.50
Improved


V97T
2.57
Improved


V97D
4.15
Improved


L107A
0.61
Reduced


L107N
1.45
Equivalent


M116A
1.29
Equivalent


M116Q
0.90
Equivalent


M116N
1.25
Equivalent


F124A
0.42
Inactive


F124H
1.51
Equivalent


F124K
0.47
Inactive


V148A
0.83
Equivalent


V148T
1.48
Equivalent


L298A
0.80
Equivalent


L298N
1.65
Equivalent


V7N V29N
1.18
Equivalent


V7N V29T
1.56
Equivalent


V7N V29D
1.18
Equivalent


V7T V29N
0.78
Equivalent


V7T V29T
0.97
Equivalent


V7T V29D
1.15
Equivalent


V7D L107A F124H
1.14
Equivalent


V7D L107N F124H
2.07
Improved


V7N L107A F124H
1.46
Equivalent


V7N L107N F124H
1.87
Equivalent


V7T L107A F124H
1.19
Equivalent


V7T L107N F124H
1.55
Equivalent









FIG. 24 shows the relative activities of epitope variants of DT382 compared to wild type DT382 in the inhibition of protein synthesis. The data shows that the following T cell epitope variants of DT; V7N L107N F 124H, V7N L107A F124H, V7D L107N F124H, V7D L107A F124H, V7T L107N F124H and V7T L107A F124H, and V7T V29T I290T all show similar activity to wild type DT382 in the inhibition of protein synthesis. In contrast, a G53E substitution results in a decrease in activity. As described herein, a reference to a G52 modification refers to amino acid residue numbering of a DT molecule of SEQ ID NO: 1 that does not contain the N-terminal methionine.
Example 14
DT VLS Variants Inhibit Protein Synthesis
Variants of DT382 gene were produced where VLS motifs were mutated such that the recognized x(D)y motif was disrupted. The activity of variants at single and multiple loci were assessed for activity in an in vitro transcription/translation assay using PCR products (as described for example 1).
FIG. 25 shows the relative activities of VLS variants of DT382 compared to wild type DT382 in the inhibition of protein synthesis. The data shows that the following VLS variants; V7N V29N I290N, V7N V29N I290T, V7N V29N S292A, V7N V29N S292T, V7N V29T I290N, V7N V29T I290T, V7N V29T S292A and V7N V29T S292T all show equivalent activity to DT382 in the inhibition of protein synthesis.
Example 15
Binding of VLS Variants to HUVECs
Human vascular endothelial cells (HUVEC) were maintained in EBM (CC-3124 Lonza, Basel, Switzerland). Before use, cells were detached from plastic substratum using an enzyme free dissociation buffer (C5914 Sigma, Poole, UK) and resuspended in phosphate buffered saline containing 1% BSA and 0.05% NaN3. Cells were then incubated in the same buffer containing 5% normal human serum for 20 minutes before adding a titration of purified DT382 protein or DT382 VLS variants that had been conjugated to Alexa488 fluorochrome (A30006 Invitrogen, Carlsbad Calif.), according to the manufacturer's instructions. The cells were incubated with the labelled protein for 30 minutes before being washed and resuspended in PBS+1% BSA+0.05% NaN3 buffer. Labelled DT-389-IL2 fusion was used as a positive control and labelled BSA was used as a negative control. Cells were then analyzed on a FACSCalibur flow cytometer (Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, N.J.) and fluorescent staining of the cell population was measured. The percentage of cells that showed above background staining was then plotted against the concentration of labelled protein used.
FIG. 26 shows binding of labelled DT382 VLS variants to HUVEC cells. Labelled DT-389-IL2 fusion (ONTAK®) was used as a positive control and labelled BSA was used as a negative control. The data shows that purified Alexa488 labelled DT382 and DT389-IL2 (positive control) bind to HUVEC at similar levels. In contrast, binding of the VLS variants V7N V29T S292T (shown), V7N V29T I290N (shown), and V7N V29N I290N (not shown) exhibit a reduced level of binding to HUVECs compared to either DT382 or DT389-IL2.
Example 16
The sequences of DT derived peptides were analyzed using Antitope's iTopeTM software which predicted potential MHC class II binding peptides. The iTopeTM software combines data from in vitro MHC class II binding studies with alignments of large databases of peptides that have been demonstrated to be T cell epitopes via ex vivo T cell assays into scoring matrices. Overlapping 13 mer peptides were screened using iTopeTM in 1 amino acid increments for the entire DT sequence. Binding scores were generated by summing the contribution of each amino acid within a peptide at key pocket positions as derived from the scoring matrices. Peptides (9 mers) containing potential T cell epitopes were identified (underlined sequence) where the mean binding scores where >0.6 (for the 32 MHC class II alleles tested) and where >15 MHC class II alleles were predicted to bind (FIG. 28). The p1 anchor position of each 9 mer is highlighted in bold and the full list of potential binding peptides is summarized in Table 8. For comparison T cell epitopes identified using ex vivo T cell assays are shown in boxes.







TABLE 8







List of 9mer sequences predicted to contain T


cell epitopes using iTope TM MHC class II


binding software.










9mer peptide
SEQ ID NO






MGADDVVDS
203


 



VVDSSKSFV
204


 



VDSSKSFVM
205


 



MENFSSYHG
206


 



VDSIQKGIQ
207


 



LTKVLALKV
208


 



VDNAETIKK
209


 



LGLSLTEPL
210


 



MEQVGTEEF
211


 



VEYINNWEQ
212


 



WEQAKALSV
213


 



MYEYMAQAC
214


 



IRDKTKTKI
215


 



LKEHGPIKN
216


 



LSELKTVTG
217


 



VNVAQVIDS
218


 



VIDSETADN
219


 



LEKTTAALS
220


 



LSILPGIGS
221


 



LPGIGSVMG
222


 



IVAQSIALS
223


 



VAQSIALSS
224


 



IALSSLMVA
225


 



LSSLMVAQA
226


 



LMVAQAIPL
227


 



MVAQAIPLV
228


 



VAQAIPLVG
229


 



VESIINLFQ
230


 



IINLFQVVH
231


 



INLFQVVHN
232


 



VHNSYNRPA
233









Example 17
Construction and Expression of Variant DT-IL2
In stage 6, one or more lead DT-IL2 variants is generated by fusion of the lead DT variant from stage 5 with the human-IL2 (2-133) gene from stage 3. Expression of the wild-type and lead DT-IL2 variant in E. coli follows conventional methods for, for example, DT-IL2 involving accumulation of protein aggregates in inclusion bodies and refolding. Wild-type and one or more lead DT-IL2 variants are then tested in the cytotoxicity and VLS-related assays as described in stage 2.
Example 18
Immunogenicity Testing of Lead DT Variants Using EpiScreenTM
Lead DT (ΔR) variants from stage 5 are purified and compared against the wild-type DT (ΔR) using EpiScreenTM time course T cell assays. A large number of healthy donors representing the world population according to expression of HLA allotypes are selected from a donor library as described above. Donors are stimulated with each protein in separate bulk cultures containing 2−4×106 CD8+ T cell depleted PBMC. Replicate samples (of T blasts) are removed from bulk cultures on days 5-8, and proliferation along with IL-2 secretion (ELISPOT) is assessed. To further validate the assessment between wild type and DT (ΔR) variants, the study cohort is supplemented with responding donors from the EpiScreenTM T cell epitope mapping study performed during stage 1 (provided sufficient numbers of CD8+ T cell depleted PBMC remain).
In order to confirm loss of immunogenicity in lead DT (ΔR) variants, an analysis of T cell immunogenicity by EpiScreenTM time course T cell assays is undertaken as follows:

    
    
        (i) Buffy coats from healthy donors (with >80% DRB1 allotypic coverage for world population) are used to isolate PBMC which contain physiological levels of APC and CD4+ T cells;
        (ii) Each donor is tested against positive control antigens including keyhole limpet haemocyanin (a potent neoantigen) or Tetanus Toxoid (recall antigen);
        (iii) CD8+ T cells are depleted to exclude the detection of MHC class I restricted T cell responses;
        (iv) Lead DT (ΔR) variants and wild-type DT (ΔR) are compared against each other to evaluate relative capacity to activate T cells CD4+ T cells;
        (v) Data is analyzed using previously validated assay parameters with positive responses of SI>2 supported by additional information including statistical and frequency analysis;
        (vi) Data from EpiScreenTM time course T cell assays provides information on the magnitude and kinetics of T cell responses to individual DT molecules;
        (vii) Any remaining PBMC from donors that produce positive responses is archived and is available for use in repeat testing studies; and
        (viii) An assessment is made of association between donor allotype and responses to DT (ΔR) and any responses to variant DT (ΔR) leads.
    
    


Example 19
Adjuvant Effect of DT Variant-IL2 Fusion Proteins
Clinical Trial Design and Patient Eligibility
Treatment of patients is performed following written informed consent as part of a protocol approved by an Institutional Review Board and the FDA. Patients with histologically confirmed metastatic RCC are eligible for study. All patients are required to have adequate hepatic, renal, and neurological function, a life expectancy of more than 6 months, and a Karnofsky performance status of greater than or equal to 70%. Patients are to have recovered from all toxicities related to any prior therapy and not received any chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or immunotherapy for at least 6 weeks prior to study entry. Excluded from this study are patients with CNS metastases, with a history of autoimmune disease, and with serious intercurrent chronic or acute illnesses. Patients on immunosuppressive agents are also excluded. Eligible subjects are randomized with equal probability to receive either a single dose of DT variant-IL2 fusion protein (18 μg/kg) followed by immunization with tumor RNA-transfected DCs or DT variant-1L2 fusion protein alone. All subjects receive 3 intradermal injections of tumor RNA-transfected DCs. The injections are administered intradermally at biweekly intervals and consist of 1×107 cells suspended in 200 μL 0.9% sodium chloride at each injection. Following treatment, subjects are evaluated for clinical toxicity and immunological and clinical responses. Due to regulatory restrictions and, in some subjects, limited access to rumor tissue, no tumor biopsies are performed.
DT Variant-IL2 Fusion Protein and Composition Preparation
DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is provided as a frozen, sterile solution formulated in citrate buffer in 2 ml single-use vials at a concentration of 150 μg/ml. After thawing, DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is diluted with sterile normal saline to a final concentration of 15 μg/ml and delivered by intravenous infusion over a 30-minute period. Patients are permitted to receive acetaminophen (600 mg) and antihistamines 30 to 60 minutes prior to infusion. For DC culture, a concentrated leukocyte fraction is harvested by leukapheresis. PBMCs are isolated from the leukapheresis product by density gradient centrifugation (Histopaque; Sigma-Aldrich). The semiadherent cell fraction is used for DC culture in serum-free X-VIVO 15 medium (Cambrex Corp.) supplemented with recombinant human IL-4 (500 U/ml; R&D Systems) and recombinant human GM-CSF (rhGM-CSF; 800 U/ml; Immunex Corp.). After 7 days, immature DCs are harvested and transfected with total RNA extracted from tumor tissues histologically classified as clear cell carcinoma. Control RNA used for immunological monitoring studies is isolated from autologous benign renal tissues (RE) or from PBMCs. Transfection of immature DCs is carried out by electroporation. DCs are washed in PBS and resuspended at a concentration of 4×107 cells/ml in ViaSpan (Barr Laboratories). Cells are then co-incubated for 5 minutes with 5 μg RNA per 1×106 cells and electroporated in 0.4 cm cuvettes via exponential decay delivery at 300 V and 150 μF (Gene Pulser II; Bio-Rad). After electroporation, cells are re-suspended in X-VIVO 15 medium and matured for 20 hours in the presence of 10 ng/ml TNF-α, 10 ng/ml IL-1β, 150 ng/ml IL-6 (R&D Systems), and 1 μg/ml prostaglandin E2 (PGE2; Cayman Chemical Co.). Prior to administration, cells are characterized to ensure that they met the typical phenotype of fully mature DCs: Linneg, HLA class I and IIhigh, CD86high, and CD83high.
Evaluation of Immune Status.
IFN-γ and IL-4 ELISPOT analyses are performed using PBMCs obtained prior to, during, and after immunization. PBMCs are cultured overnight in complete RPMI 1640 medium. CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are isolated from PBMCs by negative depletion (Miltenyi Biotec). After blocking, 1×105 T cells and 1×104 RNA-transfected DCs are added to each well of 96-well nitrocellulose plates (Multiscreen-IP; Millipore) precoated with 2 μg/ml IFN-γ capture antibody (Pierce Biotechnology Inc.) or with IL-4 capture antibody (BD Biosciences Pharmingen). Plates are incubated for 20 hours at 37° C., and biotinylated IFN-γ detection antibody (Pierce Biotechnology Inc.) or biotinylated IL-4 antibody (BD Biosciences Pharmingen) is added to each well. Cells are then incubated for an additional 2 hours at room temperature, then with streptavidin-alkaline phosphatase (1 μg/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) is added; plates are developed with substrate (KPL). After washing, spots are counted using an automated ELISPOT reader (Zeiss).
CTL assays are performed by co-culturing RNA-transfected DCs with autologous PBMCs. Cells are re-stimulated once, and IL-2 (20 units/ml) is added after 5 days and every other day thereafter. After 12 days of culture, effector cells are harvested. Target cells are labeled with 100 μCi of Na2[51CrO4] (PerkinElmer) in 200 μl of complete RPMI 1640 for 1 hour at 37° C. in 5% CO2, and 51Cr-labeled target cells are incubated in complete RPMI 1640 medium with effector cells for 5 hours at 37° C. Then 50 μl of supernatant is harvested, and release of 51Cr is measured with a. scintillation counter.
For proliferation assays, purified CD3+ T cells are seeded into round-bottomed microplates in the presence of mRNA-transfected DCs. T cells alone are used as the background control. After 4 days, 1 μCi of [methyl-3H] thymidine (PerkinElmer) is added to each well for an additional 16 hours. Incorporation of thymidine is determined using a liquid scintillation counter.
Cytotoxicity of DT variant-IL2 fusion protein is determined in MTT assays. After 6 hours incubation with varying concentrations of DT variant-IL2 fusion protein, cells are seeded in 96-well plates at a density of 5×103 cells/well. After 48 hours of incubation, 20 μl MTT from a 5 mg/ml stock is added. After 4 hours, the formazan crystals are solubilized by adding 100 μl isopropanol/0.1 M hydrochloric acid. The absorbance of the formazan product is measured on an ELISA plate reader at 570 nm.
Cytokine secretion by vaccine-induced CD4+ T cells is measured using the human Th-1/Th-2 cytokine kit (Cytokine Bead Array; BD Biosciences Pharmingen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Isolated CD4+ T cells are re-stimulated overnight with RNA-transfected DCs at a ratio of 10:1.
Four-color FACS analyses are performed using the following antibodies: anti-CD4 FITC, anti-CD45RO, anti-CD45RA (CALTAG Laboratories), anti-CD25 PE (BD Biosciences Pharmingen), and anti-GITR (R&D Systems) as well as isotypic controls (CALTAG Laboratories). Sorting of CD4+/CD25neg, CD4+/CD25int and CD4+/CD25high T cells is performed using a BD FACSAria cell sorter after antibody labeling. For intracellular detection of FoxP3, cells are permeabilized with 30 μg/ml digitonin for 45 minutes at 4° C. Subsequently, cells are stained with anti-FoxP3 antibody (Abcam), and R-phycoerythrin anti-goat IgG in the presence of 10 μg/ml digitonin for 30 minutes 4° C. Following staining, cells are fixed analyzed by FACS. For intracellular CTLA4 detection, T cells are permeabilized, fixed, and stained with biotinylated anti-CD152 (BD Biosciences Pharmingen) followed by APC-strepavidin (BD Biosciences Pharmingen). A total of 1×106 cells are suspended in staining buffer (PBS with 1% PCS, 2 mM EDTA, and 0.1% sodium aside) and incubated for 20 minutes at 4° C. with the antibody.
The suppressive activity of Tregs isolated from PBMCs of study subjects prior to and 4 days after DT variant-IL2fusion protein administration is analyzed as described previously (Tsaknaridis et al. 2003. J. Neurosci. Res. 74: 296-308). CD4+/CD25+ T cells are isolated from the PBMCs of study subjects using magnetic bead separation techniques. Cells are washed with PBS, re-suspended in complete RPMI 1640 medium, and placed into 96-well round bottom plates pre-coated with anti-CD3/CD28 antibodies (0.4 μg/well) (CALTAG Laboratories). CD4+/CD25− cells are plated at 2.0×104/well alone or in combination with CD4+/CD25+ cells in triplicate wells at a ratio of 1:2 (CD4+/CD25:CD4+CD25+). On day 5, 1 μCi of 3H-thymidine is added for the final 16 hours of the cultures. Cells are then harvested on glass fiber filters and assessed for uptake of radiolabeled thymidine.
Details of real-time PCR-based quantification of β-actin transcripts are previously described in the literature. FoxP3 mRNA transcripts are quantified using the Hs00203958 ml Taq-Man gene expression assay (Applied Biosystems) according to the protocol provided by the manufacturer. A plasmid containing the full-length FoxP3 insert is used to generate standard curves.
T cell analysis before and after treatment is performed by IFN-γ ELISPOT on all patients who completed immunotherapy. Increases of antigen-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells after immunization are compared using the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test, analyzing the null hypothesis that the rates of change in T cell response are equivalent prior to and after therapy. A 2-sided P value of less than 0.05 is considered statistically significant.
This invention may be embodied in other forms or carried out in other ways without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The present disclosure is therefore to be considered as in all aspects illustrated and not restrictive, and all changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency are intended to be embraced therein.
Various references are cited throughout this specification, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

## Claims

1. A modified diphtheria toxin or fragment thereof comprising an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to the full length sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200 and comprising at least one modified T-cell epitope core comprising at least one amino acid modification in a sequence selected from:
i) amino acid residues 97-105 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200;
ii) amino acid residues 107-115 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200;
iii) amino acid residues 116-124 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200;
iv) amino acid residues 124-132 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200;
v) amino acid residues 148-156 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, wherein any modification at residue 148 is selected from V148A and V148T; and
vi) amino acid residues 298-306 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, wherein any modification at residue 298 is selected from L298A and L298N;
wherein said modified diphtheria toxin or fragment thereof is cytotoxic and exhibits reduced immunogenicity compared to an unmodified diphtheria toxin.

2. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 1 wherein said modified diphtheria toxin comprises one or more modifications selected from among V97A, V97T, V97D, L107N, M116A, M116Q, M116N, F124H, V148A, V148T, L298A, and L298N.

3. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 1 further comprising at least one modification selected from among V7N, V7T, V29N, V29T, and V29D.

4. A composition comprising said modified diphtheria toxin of claim 1 and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient or carrier.

5. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 1, wherein said modified diphtheria toxin or fragment thereof comprises one or more modifications at amino acid residue 97 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, amino acid residue 112 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, amino acid residue 117 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, amino acid residue 127 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, amino acid residue 148 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, wherein any modification at residue 148 is selected from V148A and V148T, or amino acid residue 298 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, wherein any modification at residue 298 is selected from L298A and L298N.

6. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 1, wherein the at least one modified T-cell epitope core consists of 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 modifications.

7. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 1 further comprising modified amino acid residues 7-15 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200, wherein said amino acid residues 7-15 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200 comprise at least one amino acid modification.

8. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 7 wherein said modified diphtheria toxin comprises three modifications selected from among V7D, V7N, V7T, L107A, L107N, and F124H.

9. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 7 wherein said modified diphtheria toxin comprises a modification at amino acid residue 15 of SEQ ID NO: 2 or 200.

10. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 1, further comprising at least one cell binding ligand from a non-diphtheria toxin polypeptide.

11. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 10 wherein the cell-binding ligand is an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof, a cytokine, a polypeptide, a hormone, a growth factor, or insulin.

12. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 11 wherein the cytokine is IL-2 or IL-3.

13. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 11 wherein the antibody is monoclonal, polyclonal, humanized, genetically engineered or grafted.

14. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 11 wherein the antigen-binding fragment is a Fab, a Fab2, a F(ab′)2, a ScFv, a (ScFv)2, a single chain binding polypeptide, a VH, or a VL.

15. A composition comprising said modified diphtheria toxin of claim 10 and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient or carrier.

16. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 1 further comprising one or more amino acid modifications in an (x)D/E(y) motif, and wherein said modified diphtheria toxin has cytotoxicity comparable to an unmodified diphtheria toxin and exhibits reduced immunogenicity and reduced binding to endothelial cells compared to an unmodified diphtheria toxin.

17. The modified diphtheria toxin of claim 16, wherein:
at least one amino acid modification is made within an (x)D/E(y) motif; and
a modification at position (x) is a substitution of V or I by an amino acid residue selected from among A, S, E, F, C, M, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, D, N, K, R, G, L, and a modified or unusual amino acid; a modification at position D/E is a substitution of D or E by an amino acid residue selected from among A, S, E, I, V, L, F, C, M, G, T, W, Y, P, H, Q, N, K, R, and a modified or unusual amino acid; a modification at position (y) is a substitution of S by an amino acid residue selected from among I, F, C, M, A, G, T, W, Y, P, H, E, Q, D, N, K, R, S, L, V, and a modified or unusual amino acid; or a combination thereof.

18. The composition of claim 16, wherein said modified diphtheria toxin comprises one or more modifications selected from among V7T, V7N, V7D, D8N, S9A, S9T, S9G, V29N, V29D, V29T, D30N, S31G, S31N, I290T, D291E, S292A, S292G and S292T.