PUBLICATION 460-144

More than a million acres in the Appalachian region 

were surface mined for coal under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) (US OSM 

2008). Much of this land was reclaimed using practices 

intended to stabilize the surface, prevent erosion, and 

establish herbaceous vegetation suitable for grazing 

livestock, but most is not used for grazing. Other areas 

were reclaimed to post-mining uses such as wildlife 

habitat or unmanaged forest using similar techniques, 

but with shrubs and trees able to survive heavy grass 

cover and compacted mine soils. Today, these lands 

are mostly covered with persistent herbaceous species, 

such as fescue and sericea lespedeza, and a mix of invasive and native woody species with little commercial 

or ecological value, and most are not used or managed. 

From an ecological standpoint, these lands are said to 

be in a state of “arrested succession,” meaning that current conditions hinder recruitment of native forest trees. 

For these lands to become productive forests, intervention is needed to loosen compacted mine soils, correct 

chemical or nutrient deficiencies, and replace the current vegetation.

Re-establishing productive forests on otherwise unused 

and non-productive mined lands will generate economic value for landowners and communities, and will 

enhance environmental quality by accelerating restoration of ecosystem services – such as watershed protection, water quality enhancement, carbon storage and 

wildlife habitat – that are typically provided by native 

forests on non-mined landscapes. 

This document describes practices that can be applied 

to restore native forests on unused mined lands that 

are unoccupied, unmanaged, and unproductive. Most 

unused mined land would be those acres mined since 

1980, reclaimed to satisfy SMCRA guidelines, bond 

released, and now under landowner control. Land mined 

before 1980, some of which has been identified as 

“abandoned mined land” could also be reforested using 

these guidelines. Today, lands being actively mined 

in Virginia and in some other states are commonly 

reclaimed using the Forestry Reclamation Approach 

(FRA) (see Virginia Cooperative Extension publication 

460-123 or Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 2), which 

establishes productive forest as a post-mining land use 

in accord with SMCRA. The guidelines in this publication are intended for lands mined and reclaimed without the FRA that are not forested and not under active 

management.

Forest restoration on these lands typically requires a 

sequence of steps or procedures over several years; 

we describe a series of such procedures, which can 

be reduced to “four Ps” – plan, prepare, plant, and 

protect: 

1. Assess site conditions and develop a forest restoration PLAN.

2. PREPARE the site to make it more favorable for forest establishment.

Reforestation Guidelines for Unused Surface 

Mined Lands in the Eastern United States

James A. Burger, Professor Emeritus, Forestry and Soil Science, College of Natural Resources, Virginia Tech

Carl E. Zipper, Extension Specialist, Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences, Virginia Tech

Po w e l l Ri v e Pro j e c

Reclamation Guidelines for Surface Mined

www.ext.vt.edu

Produced by Communications and Marketing, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, 

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2011

Virginia Cooperative Extension programs and employment are open to all, regardless of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, 

age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. An equal opportunity/affirmative action employer. 

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia State University, 

and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating. Alan L. Grant, Dean, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, and Interim 

Director, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg; Wondi Mersie, Interim Administrator, 1890 Extension 

Program, Virginia State, Petersburg.
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3. PLANT a combination of valuable, native trees or 

plantation species.

4. PROTECT the site and new planting with follow-up 

management, including weed control, fire prevention, and animal and human trespass.

Each of these major steps is described below as a 

series of procedures, in a format explaining “why” it is 

needed, “what to do,” and “how” to do it. All four steps 

are needed to ensure reforestation success. 

1. Assess the Site and Develop a 

Reforestation PLAN 

The first step in a reforestation process is to develop a 

plan or strategy by assessing site conditions. Based on 

this assessment, a written plan can be developed and 

contractors sought for the needed reforestation operations. State reclamation extension specialists and state 

foresters may assist with this assessment and planning.

Survey Existing Vegetation

Why: Herbaceous plants and woody shrubs, many 

of them non-native and invasive, often dominate 

reclaimed post-SMCRA mine sites (Zipper et al. 2007, 

and Figure 1). Successful reforestation requires that 

existing vegetation be eliminated or controlled. Thus, 

the reforestation plan must include a strategy for control of competing vegetation.

What To Do: Visit the site, observe, and take notes on the 

types and amounts of grass, legume, and woody cover. 

How:

• Develop a map of the area and delineate sections of 

the site that have different types and amounts of vegetation (Figures 1a – 1c). Determine the acreage of 

each area and the total for the site. A GIS map, or an 

aerial or satellite photo, would be especially useful to 

determine acreage and to record the assessment survey, as well as a record of the application of all reforestation procedures. Satellite imagery that is freely 

available on internet mapping sites can be used to 

prepare a base map and to estimate areas.

Figures 1a – 1c. Vegetation on unused post-SMCRA 

mine sites. Depending on reclamation method, site age, 

and soil conditions, vegetation may be predominantly 

herbaceous (a, upper left); predominantly low-value 

woody vegetation with invasive species (b, upper right); or 

mixed woody and herbaceous (c, lower left). In nearly all 

cases, the herbaceous and woody vegetation is dense and 

competitive. Successful reforestation will require that this 

vegetation be controlled or eliminated.
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• Identify areas having 50% or more of the site covered 

with low-value woody plants such as autumn olive, 

multi-flora rose or other invasive trees or shrubs. For 

these areas, aerial spraying will be an efficient and 

effective control method. 

• Identify areas having woody cover less than 50%. For 

these areas, aerial spraying may not be necessary and 

mechanical clearing may suffice. 

• Identify areas having less than 10% of the site covered by woody vegetation, where a clearing operation will not be necessary. 

• Determine the approximate density and amount of 

legume cover (e.g. sericea lespedeza). This information will be needed to formulate herbicide mixes, as 

grasses and legumes require different herbicides for 

their control.

The most troublesome competing plants are often vigorous grasses and legumes, including those sown after 

mining such as tall fescue and invasive species like 

sericea lespedeza that can occupy mine sites even when 

not sown. These species are tenacious and competitive; 

successful reforestation requires their control or elimination. About 5 years after reclamation, even if not 

planted, woody plants such as autumn olive and black 

locust invade the unmanaged mine sites. When allowed 

to mature, these invasive woody plants become a significant obstacle to any form of site management, including reforestation with more desirable timber species. 

Test Mine Soil Physical Properties

Why: Soil physical properties on unused coal mine 

sites are often poorly suited for planting trees and will 

benefit from deep soil tillage. Surface soils on many 

sites have been compacted by mining equipment, and 

virtually all mine soils have become denser over time 

due to gravity-induced physical settling. A dense or 

compacted soil does not have enough open pore space 

for normal rooting and water and air infiltration. 

Survey the site in advance of reforestation to determine 

where deep tillage will be needed and how it will be 

applied. Research demonstrates that loosening of older 

mine soils will significantly improve survival and growth 

of planted trees (Fields-Johnson et al. 2008; Skousen et 

al. 2009). Deep tillage of dense mine soils will produce 

a favorable soil condition where roots can extend easily 

and access needed water, nutrients and air. 

What To Do: Survey the site to determine how soil 

physical properties vary, paying special attention to soil 

density and compaction. Identify areas where deep tillage will be applied. 

How To:

• Walk over the site, and assess soil density on all major 

areas, Use a sharp, common hand spade to estimate 

the extent of compaction by putting a modest amount 

of foot pressure (~50 pounds) on the spade while 

rocking its tip to by-pass coarse fragments (if a rock 

Table 1. The relationship among degree of compaction, spade penetration depth, and forest site quality 

on mine soils with good chemical properties (after Burger, Mitchem, and Scott 2002). Forest site quality 

is an indicator of the soil’s ability to support growing trees.

Soil Density Condition 

Very Dense Dense

Moderately 

Compacted

Slightly 

Compacted Loose

Spade penetration 0-1 inches 1-3 inches 3-6 inches 6-9 inches 9-12 inches

Site Quality Class V (poor) IV (fair) III (medium) II (good) I (excellent)

Oak site index a 40 50 60 70 80

Use for wood products None Firewood Railroad ties Saw timber Veneer

$ /1000 board ft stumpage valueb - < $100 $200 $500 $1,000 

a

Oak site index: Tree height at age 50.

b Typical or average prices over the past 10 years, cited to illustrate the relationship between site quality and the value of timber produced. 

Timber market prices change with time.
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big enough to block the spade is encountered, move 

to another spot). The depth of spade penetration will 

be affected by the degree of compaction and is an 

indicator of forest site quality (Table 1). 

• If the surface is loose enough to allow the spade or 

shovel to penetrate easily (6 to 12 inches) with moderate foot pressure, planted trees should do well without tillage. 

• If the soil surface is so tight that it is difficult to penetrate the surface, the soil will need to be loosened to 

make the site productive. Even if surface soils are 

loose, subsurface compaction may be present; if it 

occurs within 4 feet of the surface, subsurface compaction will hinder the growth of planted trees. 

In our experience, trees planted on post-SMCRA mined 

sites with slopes less than 15% will usually benefit from 

deep tillage. Even when not overly compacted, mine 

soils on broad, near-level surfaces often experience 

poor drainage conditions because they lack subsurface 

channels to enable water and air movement (Figure 2). 

The presence of plant species such as rushes and cattails is a clear indication of continually moist soil conditions that must be alleviated in order for planted trees 

to grow and thrive. 

Test Mine Soil Chemical Properties

Why: Most Appalachian mine sites have soil chemical properties that are adequate for tree establishment, 

but it is prudent to check soil chemical properties as 

part of the reforestation plan. Mine soil acidity, salinity, 

and fertility are essential soil chemical properties that 

need assessment and testing for possible corrective 

measures. 

What To Do: Sample mine soils, complete necessary 

forms for each sample, and send the samples to a state 

or private testing lab; use the test results to determine if 

corrective measures are needed. 

How:

• For each area with different amounts of vegetation, 

collect a soil sample for chemical testing. Even 

within an area with a given amount of cover (e.g. less 

than 10%) there may be places where strongly acidic, 

salty, or nutrient poor-soil occurs; for these areas, a 

separate soil sample should be taken (if larger than 

10 acres). These areas can often be identified visually 

from patches of bare soil and sparse vegetation, which 

is sometimes discolored due to nutrient deficiencies. 

Procedures for sampling mine soils and interpreting 

test results are described by VCE publication 460-121. 

Mine land owners or managers in Virginia can obtain 

proper forms, sample boxes, and instructions from local 

Cooperative Extension offices and send soil samples to 

the Virginia Tech Soil Testing Laboratory (http://www.

soiltest.vt.edu/). 

Complete required forms for each sample. Common soil 

testing procedures are intended for natural soils. Mine 

soils are quite different from natural soils; therefore, it 

is important to request that the testing lab provide a recommendation specifically for mine soils as well as the 

forest type to be planted (e.g. native hardwoods, pines, 

biomass species, or any other specialty crop).

Test results are normally mailed within two weeks. 

Essential soil test results are:

• Acidity: If soil pH is between 5.5 and 6.5, soil chemical properties are likely excellent for reforestation. If 

soil pH is less than 5.5, lime should be applied as recommended by the soil test report as needed to raise 

soil pH to the 5.5–6.5 range. If pH is 4.0 or less, and 

if the landowner suspects that acid materials are close 

to the surface, more detailed soil investigations should 

be conducted to ensure that soil tillage does not disturb acidic materials in the subsurface. If pH is 7.0 or 

higher, soil properties will not be favorable for most 

native forest trees. In that case, the tree-planting prescription should use species that can tolerate high-pH 

sites as recommended by VCE publication 460-123.

Figure 2. The vegetation in the lower-center of the photo 

is emerging from a poorly drained area on this reclaimed 

mine site. Dominant plant species are cattails and rushes 

in the poorly drained area, while grasses, sericea lespedeza 

and annual broadleaf weeds dominate other portions of 

the mine site. Poorly drained areas such as this are common 

on near-level areas of post-SMCRA mine sites.
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• Salinity: On the surfaces of mine soils that have been 

in place for at least five years, soluble salts should be 

within or only slightly above the range that is typical 

for natural soils in the area. If soluble salt levels at 

the surface remain significantly above the range that 

is typical for natural soils, a more detailed soil investigation is advised.

• Minor nutrients: If the soil test shows low levels of one 

or more micronutrients, we recommend that a micronutrient mix be included in the fertilizer application.

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilizer should 

always be applied as fertilizer because most mine spoils 

carry little of these nutrients in plant available forms. 

Common reclamation procedures on older coal mine 

sites applied P fertilizers at levels that were adequate 

for establishing grasses, but were less than adequate for 

the long-term growth of forest trees. Mine soils do not 

retain the fertilizer N applied during reclamation unless 

it is converted into plant-biomass and soil-organic 

forms, so soil N available to trees in older mine soils 

will often be less than necessary to support the rapid 

early growth needed to overtop competing herbaceous 

vegetation.

Other essential macronutrients – calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), and sulfur (S) are usually 

present in adequate quantities because mine soils are 

made of freshly fractured rocks that are rich in these 

required nutrient elements; as the mine soils weather, 

these elements are released from the rock materials and 

become available to plants. 

If the site is so highly acidic that very little vegetation 

is growing on it, despite the passage of several years 

time since reclamation, it is likely that the soils contain significant quantities of acid-forming minerals. For 

such lands, the guidelines of this publication are not an 

appropriate treatment. 

Determine Forest Type and Species to Plant

The landowner should determine his or her objectives 

for the site as this affects which species and species 

mixes to plant. In most cases, mined land will be suitable for mixed native hardwoods. Professional tree 

planting contractors will plant a mix of silviculturallycompatible crop and wildlife tree species (see VCE 

publication 460-123). If the site is prepared correctly 

and protected from weeds and other pests, other desirable native species will volunteer. 

In some cases a landowner may want a pine or woody 

biomass plantation instead of, or in addition to, native 

hardwoods. Plantation management and harvesting 

usually require specialized operations and equipment; 

therefore, plantations should be planned on areas of 

the site with slopes less than 10 to 15%. A relatively 

large contiguous area is usually needed in order for 

a pine or biomass plantation to be a profitable enterprise. Because deep tillage causes significant roughening and loosening of the surface, vehicle-access 

roadways needed for plantation management activities should be planned prior to the deep tillage operations and left untilled.

Obtain Bids from Contractors

Using the site assessment results, contractors can be 

sought who are capable of conducting the operations 

that will be necessary to reforest the site. Because site 

clearing, tillage, liming and fertilization, tree planting 

and herbicide application are all specialized operations, solicitation of separate bids for each are advised. 

Develop written bid requests that include a site description, map with listed acreage, a detailed description of 

the work to be done, and the date by which the work 

must be completed. State forestry and county extension 

offices can often provide lists of available contractors 

who operate in a given region. 

2. PREPARE the Mined Site for 

Planting

Preparing the mined site for planting usually requires 

three steps: 1) removing and controlling existing undesirable vegetation; 2) improving the mine soil’s chemical properties by adding lime and fertilizer; and 3) 

improving the mine soil’s physical properties by deep 

tilling with a dozer to alleviate mine soil compaction 

and consolidation.

Remove and Control Existing Vegetation

Why: It is essential that the pre-existing vegetation be 

controlled because it will otherwise compete for sunlight, water, and nutrients needed by tree seedlings to 

survive and grow. Because the pre-existing vegetation 

has established rooting and physical stature, it has an 

advantage over newly planted seedlings. If pre-existing 

vegetation is not controlled, it will quickly overtop and 

out-compete planted tree seedlings, and those seedlings 

will not survive.
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What To Do: Kill and remove woody stems that will 

interfere with reforestation operations prior to soil preparation. Apply herbicides to control herbaceous vegetation both before and after planting tree seedlings. 

How to: 

• If the woody vegetation covers more than 50% of the 

site, is at an advanced growth stage (stems > 2 inches 

in diameter), and consists of species that vigorously 

re-sprout or re-grow when cut down, consider an aerial application of an early- to mid-summer herbicide; 

this is the most efficient and effective way to kill the 

existing vegetation. Application of a broad spectrum 

herbicide over the entire site will kill both woody 

and herbaceous species. Spraying, as opposed to cutting/chipping stems without spraying, is desirable 

because the spray will kill the root systems as well 

as the stems and prevent re-growth and re-sprouting. 

Aerial spraying requires the site to be sufficiently 

large (at least 40 acres) and removed from housing 

and other land uses that could be negatively affected 

by an aerial spray.

• During late summer to early fall, clear the dead woody 

stems that were killed with the aerial spray with a root 

rake mounted on a dozer (Figure 3b). Grubbing with 

a straight blade on a dozer is not advised because it 

removes surface soil, litter, and organic matter important for good soil tilth and fertility. Unlike a straight 

blade, a root rake removes woody vegetation but 

the soil filters through the rake and creates less site 

disturbance. 

• If aerial spraying is not an option on sites with dense 

woody vegetation, alternative strategies are possible. 

One is to shear woody stems at ground level using a 

shearing blade (Figure 3a) on a dozer and rake the 

stems into windrows or piles. A better alternative is 

to grind and chip all woody stems, leaving the chips 

on site (Figure 3c); these chips will be incorporated 

into the soil through tillage and will decompose over 

time, adding organic matter and nutrients to the soil. 

However, without aerial spraying to kill the root systems, stump and root sprouts will require post-planting control with herbicides.

Figures 3a - c. Equipment that can be used for site 

clearing operations: (a, upper left) a “KG-style” shearing 

blade, attached to a dozer, for shearing dense woody 

vegetation at ground level; (b, lower left) a brush-rake, 

also attached to a dozer, for grubbing roots and moving 

and piling sheared vegetation with low disturbance of 

surface soils; and (c, upper right) a tree shredder, attached 

to a skid-steer tractor, for grinding and shredding both 

above-ground and below-ground stumps and roots, an 

operation that can prevent much of the vigorous resprouting that will occur if only woody tops are removed. 
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• If woody cover is less than 50% and aerial spray is 

not an option, clear the woody vegetation with a chipper or tree-grinder (Figure 3c). Re-sprouting can be 

controlled with a subsequent herbicide application; a 

full-site herbicide application with tractors or ATVs 

is recommended when a dense sod covers most of the 

area. If no herbicides are used to control vegetation prior 

to planting, herbicide application shortly after planting 

will be critical to the planted seedlings’ survival.

• If woody cover is less than 10% and the stems are less 

than 2 inches in diameter, no site clearing is needed; 

tillage dozers can drive over vegetation of this size 

and it will not interfere with other operations. If a 

dense sod is present, and depending on the make-up 

of the vegetation, spray with a mix of glyphosate and/

or other herbicide products and at rates recommended 

by specialists, to kill the sod (Figure 4).

Improve the Mine Soil’s Chemical 

Properties

Why: Soil fertility is essential to the planted trees’ 

growth, and soil pH affects plant availability of soil 

P. In the short term, access to essential nutrients will 

enable quick early growth of planted seedlings; this 

is desirable because post-planting herbicide applications can cease once the planted seedlings overtop their 

competition. Over the longer term, adequate fertility is 

essential to forest productivity. 

What To Do: Apply lime (if necessary) and fertilizer as 

needed to improve the mine soil’s fertility and chemical 

properties. Lime is usually easy to apply with standard, 

commonly-available equipment. However, fertilizers 

must be applied strategically to restrict availability to 

the planted trees and to prevent the fertilizer application from stimulating competition by undesirable 

vegetation.

How To: 

• Apply lime prior to tillage (if needed) so it is incorporated into the soil. Apply an amount recommended 

by soil test results to attain a soil pH range of 5.5 

to 6.5, If lime is needed, it is essential that lime be 

applied prior to the tillage operation, as the rough 

surface created by the tillage will hinder or prevent 

application using standard wheeled equipment.

• Apply fertilizer in narrow bands over the tree-planting 

row that is established by the tillage operation. On 

most mined lands, application of 50 lbs. N and 100 

lbs. P (230 lbs P2

O5) per acre will improve tree survival 

and growth over the long term. If present in the fertilizer used, additional potassium (K) can also be applied 

to ensure that plant-available soil K is adequate for the 

trees’ early growth. An efficient way to do this is to 

mount a ground-driven fertilizer dispenser on the front 

of the tillage dozer that will apply the fertilizer in a 

narrow band so it can be incorporated into the soil by 

the tillage device on the tractor’s rear end. 

• If fertilizer cannot be applied in the tree row as 

described above, apply it at the base of each tree 

seedling using fertilizer pellets (also called “fertilizer 

tablets” by some marketers). Apply the fertilizer pellets as the trees are being planted by placing the pellet 

below the surface in the “tree closing hole” that is 

created about 2 to 4 inches from the planted seedling (see Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 7 for a 

description of this procedure).

 If fertilizer is applied as pellets, apply additional fertilizer around each tree after the first growing season. 

• If fertilizer is not applied prior to tree planting or 

applied only as pellets at planting, apply fertilizer to 

the soil surface after planting by distributing approximately one 16-ounce cup of di-ammonium phosphate 

fertilizer (18-46-0) per tree seedling in a 3-foot circle 

around the stem of each tree, keeping it about 12 

inches from the stem and ensuring that the fertilizer 

is evenly spread. As well as being more laborious and 

time consuming than the other two recommended 

methods, this method will be less effective because 

the surface-applied fertilizer is not incorporated into 

the soil. 

Figure 4. A tractor applying herbicide to a former mine 

site with little or no woody vegetation. 
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The most efficient and effective way to fertilize is to 

apply in a band, during tillage, over the tree-planting 

row. It is especially important to keep the N fertilizer in 

the tree row because it will stimulate growth by grasses 

and other herbaceous plants. Band application of fertilizer in the tree row using this procedure is commonly 

done in pine plantations in the Southeast. Restricting 

the fertilizer application to a narrow band will aid postplanting competition control, as herbicide application 

in the tree row only is easier than if stimulated growth 

occurs over the entire field. When fertilizer is applied in 

narrow bands as described above, post-planting weed 

control using herbicides sprayed in the same band is 

essential. Reclaimed mine sites usually have large herbaceous seed pools that will be especially competitive 

when fertilized, even during the first growing season 

after tillage and planting. Keeping fertilizer in the tree 

row also allows its incorporation into the soil by the 

tillage tool and places it where the young tree roots can 

access it easily. Subsurface incorporation is especially 

important for P because it is relatively immobile in 

soils.

Fertilizer pellets contain sufficient N to help the planted 

seedlings become established, but they do not contain 

enough P and other nutrients to support their long-term 

growth. Therefore, if pre-planting fertilizer is applied 

as pellets, it is essential to the planted trees’ productivity that additional P fertilizer be applied. 

The method of fertilizer application will influence postestablishment weed control. If the fertilizer is applied 

prior to planting over the tillage row as recommended, 

weed control can be applied as a band spray over that 

row. If fertilizer pellets and/or individual-tree applications are used, post-planting weed control can be 

accomplished by spot spraying a 3-foot circle around 

each tree. Less stimulation of competing vegetation 

will occur if fertilizer is applied in pellet form, and 

less herbicide damage of trees usually occurs with spot 

spraying compared to band spraying.

Improve the Mine Soil’s Physical Properties

Why: When mine soils have become dense, soil loosening is needed to allow normal rooting, water infiltration, 

soil drainage, and movement of air into the soil surface, 

all of which are required for productive tree growth. 

What To Do: Loosen compacted mine soils with a soil 

ripper, sub-soiler, or other specialized tillage device 

(Figure 5). Because forest trees require at least 4 feet 

of rooting depth for adequate growth, rip compacted 

mined sites to at least 3 feet of depth if possible. This 

deep tillage operation will typically require a dozer 

such as a Cat D-8 or larger. Application of deep tillage to active mines is described by Forest Reclamation 

Advisory No. 4; these practices can be adapted for use 

on older mined sites. 

How To: Several approaches are possible: 

• If the surface, and not the subsurface, has been compacted, use a shallow (less than 3 foot) ripper with 

two or more shanks to loosen the compacted surface. 

Till the entire surface of the mine site. However, 

unless the site manager has personal knowledge of 

the reclamation procedures, it is difficult to know that 

subsurface compaction is not an issue. 

• When the mined site is deeply compacted, which is 

typical, rip the site with a long-shank ripper (36 inches) 

10 feet between rips when planting hardwoods, or 8 

feet between rips when planting biomass plantations. 

• It is often necessary to loosen more land area than 

will occur with a single pass of a single-shank ripper. If a single-shank ripper is the only tool available, 

cross-rip the site in perpendicular directions with the 

first pass up and down the slope and the second pass 

parallel to the slope contour to minimize erosion. 

• If available, use a multi-featured Savannah-type tool 

(Figures 6 and 7) with a deep shank to break up compacted subsoils, coulters to form a mound over the 

Figure 5. A standard single-shank ripper preparing a 

mine site for reforestation. The soil-ripping “tooth” being 

pulled by the dozer is intended to loosen soil material to 

a depth of 3 feet or more. The best results are achieved if 

this operation is performed in late summer and fall when 

the soil is dry.
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ripped trench, and additional smaller shanks on either 

side of the deep shank to break up surface compaction. This treatment opens the subsoil for tap roots, 

loosens the surface for lateral feeder roots, and builds 

a small mound over the deep trench on which to plant 

the seedling. This type of tillage is most helpful on 

near-level areas with poor drainage, as trees planted 

on the elevated mounds will be able to root in the 

loosened, aerated soil.

• Where herbaceous vegetation has formed a thick 

rooting mass over the land surface, disk the site to 

break up the soil surface and herbaceous vegetation 

root mat (Figures 8 and 9). This operation will help 

prevent sod or root clumps from getting caught up 

in ripping tool. Breaking up the surface prior to ripping will also increase the movement of air and water 

through the soil surface after trees have been planted. 

If the site was limed, surface tillage will help incorporate the lime in the soil surface.

Rip the site at specific spacings to accommodate the 

tree-planting plan; trees should be planted near or over 

the deep rips. A common practice is for the dozer to 

Figure 6. An example of a soil ripping tool (Savannahtype plow) used to prepare several mine sites in Wise 

County, Virginia, for reforestation in late 2007. The ripping 

shank is 36” long and the large steel wheels on the end 

of the shaft behind the ripping shank (“coulters”) are 30 

inches in diameter. The coulters are intended to push a 

mound onto the top of the ripped channel, where trees 

can be planted.

Figure 7. An advanced tillage tool intended for use on 

mined lands. A center shank (not visible) rips a deep 

trench through the compacted mine soil while the 

coulters produce a mound of loose soil over the rip where 

the trees are planted. Smaller shanks (up to six) to the 

right and left break up the surface on either side of the 

planting location to a depth of 12-to-18 inches; the top of 

one such smaller shank is visible as it enters the soil on the 

right hand side of the tool bar.

Figure 8. A large disk being used to break up surface soil 

and herbaceous vegetation root mass prior to soil ripping. 

This operation is not always necessary, but it can increase 

the efficiency of the deep tillage operation on sites where 

dense vegetation is present.

Figure 9. Preparing an area for reforestation research at 

Powell River Project Research and Education Center. The 

large disk (left) is used first to break up the sod, then an 

advanced deep-tillage device (right), was used to prepare 

the land for planting.
10

progress across the site with each pass by tracking over 

one of the track marks from the previous pass; this 

practice will keep the rips parallel on an 8- to 10-foot 

spacing while limiting the area that is left compacted by 

the dozer tracks (Figure 10). 

In all cases, tillage should be done when the mine soil is 

relatively dry, usually late summer and fall. When dry, 

compacted mine soils are loosened to a greater extent 

by the tillage tool. When soils are wet, traction is limited, the dozer will compact the soil where it tracks, and 

tillage is less effective. Completing tillage operations 

by October allows enough time for loosened soil to settle a bit prior to planting which improves tree survival.

Figure 10. An aerial view of a former mine site being 

prepared for reforestation. Woody vegetation was 

removed and herbaceous vegetation was herbicided prior 

to the deep-tillage operation shown by the photo. Photo 

by Richard Davis, Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals 

and Energy.

3. PLANT the Site with Selected 

Tree Species

Why: Over many decades, native hardwoods are likely 

to re-establish on unused Appalachian mined lands 

through natural processes, but natural processes are 

hindered by the vigorous, non-forest vegetation that 

occurs on most mine sites. Natural invasion by the 

heavy-seeded tree species – including oaks and hickories – will occur even more slowly, especially on larger 

mine sites, because these species’ seeds are not carried 

by wind.

What To Do: Plant trees of species that are suited to 

reforestation goals. If the goal is to reestablish the 

native forest, plant a mix of native hardwoods, these 

trees should be commercially viable hardwoods that 

will provide multiple benefits including wood products, 

carbon sequestration, wildlife habitat, and watershed 

control. 

How: A mix of native hardwoods or single-species 

stands of biomass trees can be planted depending on 

the landowners’ objectives.

• To reforest with native hardwoods, plant white and 

red oaks, sugar maple, white ash, black cherry, tulip 

poplar, and/or hickory species at a combined rate of 

600 trees per acre. We generally recommend a mix 

of 5 to 6 species. Additional tree species to attract 

birds and other wildlife such as dogwood, shagbark 

hickory, redbud, crab apple, white pine, and black 

locust should also be included in the planting mix at 

a combined rate of 100 trees per acre. If soil conditions are favorable, other wind and bird-disseminated native species enter the site as seed, creating 

a diverse and compatible native forest cover. When 

the site is prepared correctly and the planted trees are 

protected from weeds and other pests, planted native 

trees should out grow and over top invasive species. 

Species other than those listed could be included in 

the mix (e.g. American chestnut hybrids), and one or 

more may need to be avoided due to species-specific 

pests (e.g. emerald ash borer). See VCE publication 

460-123 for further guidance on selection of trees for 

planting on mined lands.

• If the landowner intends to manage the restored site 

for the purpose of maximizing biomass production, 

faster growing species such as hybrid poplars or pines 

can be planted as single species plantations.

• Hand-plant the trees over the deep rips to enable tap 

roots to penetrate the soil easily. For mixed native 

hardwoods rows should be at 10-foot intervals, and 

for pine or biomass plantations rows should be at 

8-foot intervals. Plant seedlings 6 to 8 feet apart 

within the row to achieve desired stocking rates. 

• Plant trees on high ground, close to but beside the 

ripped channel, which will enable the roots to access 

the loosened soil within the rips easily. On sites prepared with a Savannah type-plow (Figures 6 and 7), 

plant the trees on the mound created by the coulter 

disks. Do not plant trees directly within the channel, 

where they can sink to below the optimal planting 

depth as the soil within the rip settles. On sites that 

are cross-ripped, plant trees where the rips cross to 

enable the lateral roots to extend easily in both directions. Tree planting procedures that are commonly 

applied on active surface mine can also be used on 
11

previously mined areas. See Forest Reclamation 

Advisory No. 7 for a detailed description of how to 

plant trees on mine sites.

Planting a mix of tree species correctly, and with the 

proper care that ensures survival, is both hard and specialized work. We recommend trained and/or professional tree planters be used to plant mined land; an 

experienced tree planter can properly plant 1000 to 

1200 trees in an 8-hour day (about 2 acres). 

4. PROTECT and Survey the Site 

and Trees After Planting 

Protect the Planted Trees 

Why: Young, planted trees are vulnerable to a variety of hazards, especially through their first year. The 

effort required to protect seedlings during the first few 

years after planting will be a small part of the overall 

reforestation project, but it is essential to a successful 

outcome.

A primary threat is competing vegetation, and there 

are several reasons for controlling it. Most obvious is 

that excessive competition will prevent seedlings from 

accessing the sunlight, water, and nutrients that they 

will need to survive. Perhaps not so obvious, rodents 

such as voles will use a heavy sod cover for winter 

shelter and de-bark the tree seedlings for a winter food 

source, killing the trees.

What To Do: Protect the site and planted trees from 

pests and hazards. 

Common-sense protective measures should be applied. 

For example, uncontrolled ATV traffic can cause significant damage, while the presence of combustible 

matter – such as windrows of woody vegetation that 

were removed prior to planting, and dense, dry, stems 

of sericea lespedeza in the early spring – can present 

a fire hazard. Maintaining gates and fences at critical 

access points can help limit uncontrolled human access 

and guard against these hazards.

Most critical, however, is the control of competing 

vegetation, usually with herbicides, which is essential 

to reforestation success on virtually all reforested sites 

(Figure 11). 

How: 

• Immediately after planting while the seedlings are 

still dormant, apply a pre-emergent herbicide in a 

band over the tree rows to reduce germination and 

emergence of herbaceous vegetation from seeds in 

the soil. This application will slow the herbaceous 

competition but will not prevent it. 

• Band or spot-spray around the trees with a post-emergent herbicide in June or July. If sprayed, trees will 

be killed by most post-emergent herbicides. Careful, 

direct spraying with tree shields on spray wands is 

recommended. 

• Repeat these herbicide applications for one or more 

additional years, as required, until the planted trees 

begin to overtop the herbaceous ground cover (see 

Figure 11). 

Herbicide application is a specialized practice and 

service. Some professional tree-planting contractors 

also provide herbicide application services; herbicides 

should be applied by a contractor who is familiar with 

the tree planting arrangement. During the growing 

Figure 11. A young oak seedling growing on a postSMCRA mine site that was prepared for reforestation 

using deep tillage. The soil loosening operation made 

the site more favorable for herbaceous vegetation, as 

well as for trees. Surrounding vegetation, mostly sericea 

lespedeza, is taller than the seedling; an opening for the 

seedling has been maintained with herbicide. When the 

seedling becomes taller than the surrounding vegetation, 

herbicide applications will no longer be needed. 
12

season, herbicides should be applied using tree-shields 

or other means and under calm atmospheric conditions 

to ensure that no herbicides contact leaves of planted 

trees. As the trees grow, develop canopy, and overtop 

the herbaceous ground cover, the competitive, sundemanding grasses and legumes will yield to species 

that enter the site as seed, and herbicides will no longer 

be needed.

Some of the post-planting protections can be minimized when vegetation is controlled effectively prior to 

planting. For example: the dense sod covers that support bark-consuming voles and rodents, and the dense 

stands of sericea lespedeza that can be fire hazards when 

standing as dry stems in the early spring, can both be 

limited by an effective pre-planting weed-control herbicide application.

Browsing by deer, and possibly by elk, is another hazard, one that is difficult to predict and control. Occasional browse will slow the growth of young hardwood 

tree seedlings, but usually will not kill them. 

Assess Survival of Planted Trees and 

Replant if Needed

Why: Stocking surveys are needed to determine success 

of the reforestation effort. To foresters, the term “stocking” means the number of living trees per unit area at 

a given point in time, and is usually expressed as trees/

acre. If stocking is inadequate after the first growing 

season, additional planting can be done the following 

winter. If the reforestation steps were applied according 

to these guidelines, significant effort and money were 

spent to clear, till, and fertilize the area. A stocking survey followed by re-planting, if and where needed, will 

take advantage of the work already applied at significant expense. 

What To Do: In September of the planted trees’ first 

year, assess tree survival and stocking by determining 

the number of trees/acre still living. Mid-summer of the 

trees’ first growing season is their most critical period; 

trees that survive the mid-summer heat and drought will 

generally make it through the fall and winter and into the 

next growing season. Assess site stocking (trees/acre) 

after the mid-summer heat has passed but while the trees 

still have their leaves so living trees are easy to identify. 

How: Assess stocking by establishing circular 1/20 acre 

plots at various locations over the site; count surviving 

trees within those plots. 

• To define a 1/20 acre circular plot, use a rope or tape 

measure with a radius of 26 feet 4 inches to define a 

circle around a fixed point. This circle is 1/20 of an 

acre in area.

• For small mine sites (10 acres or less), locate one 

plot per acre. For areas greater than 10 but less than 

40 acres, locate one plot for every 2 acres. For areas 

greater than 40 acres, a total of 25 sample plots randomly located over the site will usually be adequate. 

• Locate sample plots randomly across the planted 

acreage. One way to do this is to walk in a straight 

line across the planted area, locating sample points 

every 40 paces (80 steps). 

• Count the number of planted trees within each 1/20 

acre circular plot and multiply that number by 20 to 

estimate the number of trees per acre. Record this 

per-acre number for each plot.

• Repeat for all plots and add all plot values. Divide 

this total by the number of plots for an overall average trees/acre for the mined site. 

Where weeds have been controlled successfully over 

the planted trees’ first summer, one that has not been 

unusually hot and dry, site stocking of planted trees 

should be no less than 420 trees per acre, or 70% survival if 600 trees per acre were planted. If stocking is 

below this level, the site manager should work with the 

tree planter to determine the cause for poor survival. If 

the reason is poor seedling quality or improper planting, 

the manager can determine who is responsible and seek 

to engage that party in remedial re-planting. If first-year 

survival is not satisfactory, “holes” left by non-surviving trees should be re-planted during the next winter. 

By the end of the third growing season, trees should 

be above the competing ground cover vegetation and 

free to grow. By this time, they should be established 

and beyond the point of imminent threat by competing weeds, rodents, and other pests. If all reforestation 

guidelines and procedures were executed properly, 

there will be little further tree mortality until self-thinning occurs after tree canopy closure at about age 12 

to 15. A final stocking survey should be done after the 

third growing season using the same stocking survey 

procedures described above. At this time, a minimum of 

400 well-distributed, healthy, trees/acre ensures reforestation success. This stocking could include desirable 

woody species that were not planted but volunteered 

on the site. 
13

Summary: Step-by-Step Guidance

Table 2 is a step-by-step prescription and timeline for a 

full suite of site preparation treatments and forestry operations, as described above. Depending on site conditions, 

it is possible that not all of these treatments are necessary. 

For example, if the site assessment reveals little or no 

woody vegetation, no initial site clearing is needed. 

Different combinations of these treatments may be 

needed depending on site conditions, cost, or availability 

of contractors. If sites are mostly covered by non-marketable native and non-native woody species, site clearing is needed and total reforestation costs could exceed 

$1000 per acre. When these procedures can be implemented prior to development of dense woody vegetation, 

reforestation costs can be significantly reduced.

Expected Outcome

Re-establishment of native Appalachian forests on 

reclaimed mine lands, that are not being used and managed for other purposes, can produce economic benefits 

in the form of marketable timber and environmental benefits such as watershed protection, carbon sequestration, 

and improved wildlife habitat. Until recently with the 

adoption of the Forestry Reclamation Approach (Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 2), common coal-mine 

reclamation practices under SMCRA were not adequate 

for establishing native, productive forests on mine sites, 

and often created conditions unfavorable to reforestation. When the guidelines described above are applied 

appropriately, productive Appalachian forests can be 

restored on these unused mined lands (Figure 12). 

In addition to planting trees, necessary practices include 

site clearing to remove woody vegetation that interferes 

with tillage and planting operations; soil tillage (“ripping”) with a dozer to mitigate soil compaction on the 

near-level and gently sloping sites where ripping can be 

conducted safely and where soil compaction is generally most intense; vegetation control to reduce competition by plants that would otherwise compete with tree 

seedlings for water, light, and nutrients; and fertilization 

to supply nutrients that are generally not available in 

sufficient quantities to support productive tree growth 

over the long term. Application of these practices will 

amount to a significant long-term investment. Where 

land managers are willing to make such investments, 

these practices can establish or restore forests and the 

products and services they provide (Figure 13).

Figure 12. Native hardwoods have been established 

successfully on a West Virginia mine site that was ripped to 

mitigate mine soil compaction. Hardwood seedlings can be 

seen growing on the mounds. The loose mine soil created 

by the ripping operation and the sparse nature of this treecompatible ground cover have aided seedling survival. 

Figure 13. This post-SMCRA mine site in Kentucky was 

reforested through application of techniques similar to 

those described in this publication, about eight years 

before this photograph was taken.
14

Table 2. Timeline and summary of recommended practices for restoring forest cover on lands that have 

been mined for coal and reclaimed using conventional practices. Cited costs are general estimates as of 

this writing. Herbicides are suggested as general guidance; site managers should obtain professional 

expertise, as needed, to ensure that herbicides are properly selected and applied for specific vegetation 

and site conditions.

Time Task Task Detail

PLAN

Prior to July 

of Year 1

Survey vegetation, test 

soil properties

Survey the area as needed to assess vegetation, and test soil physical 

and chemical properties. Use the resulting information to develop a 

reforestation plan that is suited to site conditions.

PREPARE (Year 1)

July Remove and control 

existing vegetation

Broadcast spray a mix of glyphosate and triclopyr herbicides (e.g. 

Accord, Garlon) via ground or air for herbaceous and woody weed 

control, following label directions. Approximate cost is $100 per 

acre. Alternatively, employ a contractor to grind and chip all woody 

vegetation on site (approximate cost is $200 per acre) to be followed 

by broadcast spray of a herbicide such as glyphosate, glyphosate2,4D, or glyphosate-triclopyr mix for herbaceous control, for approximately $100 per acre.

August - 

September

Improve soil properties: 

Apply lime, if needed

Apply lime as needed to raise pH to the 5.5 – 6.5 range. If soil test 

data are not available, apply lime at 4 tons/acre. Approximate cost 

is $15 per acre. If trees are to be fertilized using pellets, band- apply 

fertilizer P but not N.

October Improve soil properties: 

Deep-till and fertilize

Till and mound (on the contour, if possible) with a deep-tillage tool 

with approximately 8 to10 ft spacing between center rows. Simultaneously band-apply in front of the plow, per acre, 250 pounds of 

diammonium phosphate and 75 pounds of potash with 20 pounds of 

pre-mixed micronutrients. Approximate cost is $400 per acre.

PLANT (Year 2)

FebruaryMarch

Plant trees Plant a mix of commercially-valuable tree species at a rate of 600 

trees per acre along with 100 mixed wildlife trees/shrubs. Approximate cost is $500 per acre. If banded fertilizer was not applied as part 

of the tillage operation, place a fertilizer pellet in the closing hole 

next to each tree seedling when planted. The fertilizer pellet should 

be a one-ounce, complete, slow-release fertilizer.
15

Table 2. (cont.) Timeline and summary of recommended practices for restoring forest cover on lands 

that have been mined for coal and reclaimed using conventional practices. Cited costs are general 

estimates as of this writing. Herbicides are suggested as general guidance; site managers should obtain 

professional expertise, as needed, to ensure that herbicides are properly selected and applied for 

specific vegetation and site conditions.

Time Task Task Detail

PROTECT

Year 1:

FebruaryMarch

Apply preemergent weed 

control

Immediately after planting, band spray over the tree rows a pre-emergent herbicide following label directions. An oxyfluorfen product 

combined with pendimethalin product has proved effective. Approximate cost is $100 per acre.

May-June Apply postemergent weed 

control

Band-apply or spot-apply herbicide around each tree seedling (for 

example: glyphosate plus 2,4-D or triclopyr) following label directions. Approximate cost is $100 per acre.

September Assess tree survival Survey tree stocking, determine if any re-planting is needed, and 

report on the success of the reforestation plan. Approximate cost is 

$30 per acre. 

Year 2:

JanuaryMarchReplant if needed If the tree survival assessment reveals inadequate survival in any 

area, fill in between surviving trees as needed to assure adequate 

stocking.

FebruaryMarch

Repeat premergent weed 

control

Repeat the preemergent herbicide treatment as necessary. Approximate cost is $100 per acre.

May-June Repeat postemergent 

weed control

Repeat the spot-spray herbicide treatment as necessary. Approximate 

cost is $100 per acre. 

Year 3:

May-June Assess vegetation Walk the site to determine if the majority of planted trees have grown 

to the point where the uppermost leaves are above the herbaceous 

competition.

May-June Repeat postemergent 

weed control, if needed

If/where planted trees are not above the herbaceous vegetation: 

Repeat the spot-spray herbicide treatment as necessary. Approximate 

cost is $100 per acre treated. 

September Final stocking survey Survey tree stocking. Look for a minimum of 400 planted tress/acre.
16

Acknowledgements

These guidelines were developed as an outcome of 

research activities supported by Appalachian Regional 

Commission, The Nature Conservancy, U.S. Department of Energy, Alpha Natural Resources, and Powell 

River Project. Text describing use of commercial products does not constitute endorsements of those products.

References

Powell River Project / Virginia Cooperative Extension 

(VCE) Publications: Available from Powell River 

Project (http://www.cses.vt.edu/PRP/) and Virginia 

Cooperative Extension.

Burger, J. A., and C. E. Zipper. How to Restore Forests on 

Surface-Mined Lands. VCE publication 460-123. 

Burger, J. A., and C. E. Zipper. Restoring the Value of 

Forests on Reclaimed Mined Land. VCE publication 460-138.

Daniels, W. L., and C. E. Zipper. Creation and Management of Productive Mine Soils. VCE publication 460-121.

Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative (ARRI) 

Publications: Available from http://arri.osmre.gov/

FRA.shtm

Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 1: The Appalachian 

Regional Reforestation Initiative.

Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 2: The Forestry Reclamation Approach.

Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 4: Loosening Compacted Soils on Mine Sites.

Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 5: Mine Reclamation 

Practices to Enhance Forest Development Through 

Natural Succession.

Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 7: Planting Hardwood Tree Seedlings on Reclaimed Mine Land in 

Appalachia.

Other References

Burger, J. A., D. Mitchem, and D. Scott. 2002. Field 

assessment of mine site quality for establishing 

hardwoods in the Appalachians. p. 226-240. In 

Proceedings, American Society of Mining and Reclamation, 226-240. Lexington, Ky.: ASMR.

Fields-Johnson, C., C. Zipper, D. Evans, T. Fox, and J. 

Burger. 2008. Fourth-year Tree Response to Three 

Levels of Silvicultural Input on Mined Land. In 

Proceedings, 25th Annual Meeting, American Society of Mining and Reclamation. Lexington, Ky.: 

ASMR.

Haering, K. C., W. Daniels, and J. Galbraith. 2004. The 

influence of overburden weathering and mining 

method on Appalachian mine soil morphology and 

properties. Soil Science Society of America Journal

68: 1315-1325.

Skousen, J., J. Gorman, E. Pena-Yewtukhiw, J. King, 

J. Stewart, P. Emerson, and C. DeLong. 2009. 

Hardwood tree survival in heavy ground cover 

on reclaimed land in West Virginia: Mowing and 

ripping effects. Journal of Environmental Quality

38:1400-1409.

U.S. Office of Surface Mining (US OSM). 2008 Annual 

Report. Department of the Interior. Washington, D.C.

Zipper, C., J.A. Burger, J.M. McGrath, and B. Amichev. 2007. Carbon Accumulation Potentials of 

Post-SMCRA Coal-Mined Lands. In Proceedings, 

24th Annual Meeting, American Society of Mining 

and Reclamation. Lexington, Ky.: ASMR.