# Patent

## Title
Optimized semiconductor packaging in a three-dimensional stack

## Abstract

A mechanism is provided for optimizing semiconductor packing in a three-dimensional (3D) very-large-scale integration (VLSI) device. The 3D VLSI device comprises a processor layer coupled, via a first set of coupling devices, to at least one signaling and input/output (I/O) layer. The 3D VLSI device further comprises a power delivery layer coupled, via a second set of coupling devices, to the processor layer. In the 3D VLSI device the power delivery layer is dedicated to only delivering power and does not provide data communication signals to the elements of the three-dimensional VLSI device, and the at least one signaling and input/output (I/O) layer is dedicated to only transmitting the data communication signals to and receiving the data communications signals from the processor layer and does not provide power to the elements of the processor layer.

## Background
BACKGROUND
The present application relates generally to an improved data processing apparatus and method and more specifically to mechanisms for optimizing semiconductor packing in a three-dimensional stack.
Three-dimensional (3D) integration provides performance improvements for microprocessor architectures through the increased interconnectivity between tiers within the chip stack. However, the electrical off-stack connectivity (signals and power) is still implemented on only one surface of the chip stack and does not scale with the number of tiers. With further scaling of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) transistors the number of C4s will not be sufficient even for single dies, due to the slow reduction in C4 pitch over time. For 3D chip stacks, this results in sever design constraints and reduces the performance gain possible from vertical integration.
SUMMARY
In one illustrative embodiment, a three-dimensional very-large-scale integration (VLSI) device is provided. The three-dimensional VLSI device comprises a processor layer coupled to at least one signaling and input/output (I/O) layer via a first set of coupling devices. The three-dimensional VLSI device further comprises a power delivery layer coupled to the processor layer via a second set of coupling devices. In the three-dimensional VLSI device, the power delivery layer is dedicated to only delivering power and does not provide data communication signals to the elements of the three-dimensional VLSI device. Also in the three-dimensional VLSI device, the at least one signaling and input/output (I/O) layer is dedicated to only transmitting the data communication signals to and receiving the data communications signals from the processor layer and does not provide power to the elements of the processor layer.
In another illustrative embodiment, a data processing system is provided. The data processing system comprises a processor layer coupled to at least one signaling and input/output (I/O) layer via a first set of coupling devices. The data processing system further comprises a power delivery layer coupled to the processor layer via a second set of coupling devices. In the data processing system, the power delivery layer is dedicated to only delivering power and does not provide data communication signals to the elements of the data processing system. Also in the data processing system, the at least one signaling and input/output (I/O) layer is dedicated to only transmitting the data communication signals to and receiving the data communications signals from the processor layer and does not provide power to the elements of the processor layer.
In yet another illustrative embodiment, a method, in a data processing system, is provided for optimizing semiconductor packing in a three-dimensional very-large-scale integration (VLSI) device. The illustrative embodiment couples a processor layer to at least one signaling and input/output (I/O) layer using a first set of coupling devices. The illustrative embodiment also couples a power delivery layer to the processor layer using a second set of coupling devices. In the illustrative embodiment, the power delivery layer is dedicated to only delivering power and does not provide data communication signals to the elements of the three-dimensional VLSI device. In the illustrative embodiment, the at least one signaling and input/output (I/O) layer is dedicated to only transmitting the data communication signals to and receiving the data communications signals from the processor layer and does not provide power to the elements of the processor layer.
These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be described in, or will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of, the following detailed description of the example embodiments of the present invention.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS
The invention, as well as a preferred mode of use and further objectives and advantages thereof, will best be understood by reference to the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein:
FIG. 1 depicts a block diagram of a data processing system with which aspects of the illustrative embodiments may advantageously be utilized;
FIG. 2 depicts one example of a three-dimensional (3D) very-large-scale integration (VLSI) architecture in accordance with an illustrative embodiment;
FIGS. 3A-3C depict one example of a power delivery system implementation in accordance with an illustrative embodiment;
FIGS. 4A-4G depict another example of a power delivery system implementation in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; and
FIG. 5 depicts a 3D VLSI architecture comprising a high-speed signaling and I/O layer coupled to a substrate/board via a second plurality of C4 solder balls in accordance with an illustrative embodiment.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION
One illustrative embodiment provides a mechanism for optimizing semiconductor packing in a three-dimensional (3D) stack by dedicating one side of the 3D to power delivery and the other side of the 3D stack to high speed signaling delivery. Power delivery and high speed signal issues for the 3D stack are then solved by use of through silicon vias (TSVs). In another illustrative embodiment, delivery of multiple power voltages required by a 3D stack are provided via a heat sink that provides an integrated power delivery and distribution to the various integrated circuits of the 3D stack. In yet another illustrative embodiment, delivery of multiple power voltages required by a 3D stack are provided via a laminate structure between the top of a 3D chip stack and a heat dissipation device, such as a heat sink, a cold plate, or the like, that provides power delivery for multiple power domains to the various integrated circuits of the 3D stack and obstructs the heat conduction only minimally.
Thus, the illustrative embodiments may be utilized in many different types of data processing environments including a distributed data processing environment, a single data processing device, or the like. In order to provide a context for the description of the specific elements and functionality of the illustrative embodiments, FIG. 1 is provided hereafter as example environments in which aspects of the illustrative embodiments may be implemented. While the description following FIG. 1 will focus primarily on a single data processing device implementation for a three-dimensional processor core architecture that provides performance improvement through an increased interconnectivity and higher packaging density, this is only an example and is not intended to state or imply any limitation with regard to the features of the present invention. To the contrary, the illustrative embodiments are intended to include distributed data processing environments and embodiments in which performance improvement through an increased interconnectivity and higher packaging density may be provided for a three-dimensional processor core architecture.
Referring now to the drawings and in particular to FIG. 1, there is depicted a block diagram of a data processing system with which aspects of the illustrative embodiments may advantageously be utilized. As shown, data processing system 100 includes processor units 111a-111n. Each of processor units 111a-111n includes a processor and a cache memory. For example, processor card 111a contains processor 112a and cache memory 113a, and processor card 111n contains processor 112n and cache memory 113n. 
Processor units 111a-111n are connected to main bus 115. Main bus 115 supports a system planar 120 that contains processor units 111a-111n and memory cards 123. The system planar also contains data switch 121 and memory controller/cache 122. Memory controller/cache 122 supports memory cards 123 that include local memory 116 having multiple dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs).
Data switch 121 connects to bus bridge 117 and bus bridge 118 located within a native I/O (NIO) planar 124. As shown, bus bridge 118 connects to peripheral components interconnect (PCI) bridges 125 and 126 via system bus 119. PCI bridge 125 connects to a variety of I/O devices via PCI bus 128. As shown, hard disk 136 may be connected to PCI bus 128 via small computer system interface (SCSI) host adapter 130. A graphics adapter 131 may be directly or indirectly connected to PCI bus 128. PCI bridge 126 provides connections for external data streams through network adapter 134 and adapter card slots 135a-135n via PCI bus 127.
An industry standard architecture (ISA) bus 129 connects to PCI bus 128 via ISA bridge 132. ISA bridge 132 provides interconnection capabilities through NIO controller 133 having serial connections Serial 1 and Serial 2. A floppy drive connection, keyboard connection, and mouse connection are provided by NIO controller 133 to allow data processing system 100 to accept data input from a user via a corresponding input device. In addition, non-volatile RAM (NVRAM) 140, connected to ISA bus 129, provides a non-volatile memory for preserving certain types of data from system disruptions or system failures, such as power supply problems. A system firmware 141 is also connected to ISA bus 129 for implementing the initial Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) functions. A service processor 144 connects to ISA bus 129 to provide functionality for system diagnostics or system servicing.
The operating system (OS) is stored on hard disk 136, which may also provide storage for additional application software for execution by data processing system. NVRAM 140 is used to store system variables and error information for field replaceable unit (FRU) isolation. During system startup, the bootstrap program loads the operating system and initiates execution of the operating system. To load the operating system, the bootstrap program first locates an operating system kernel type from hard disk 136, loads the OS into memory, and jumps to an initial address provided by the operating system kernel. Typically, the operating system is loaded into random-access memory (RAM) within the data processing system. Once loaded and initialized, the operating system controls the execution of programs and may provide services such as resource allocation, scheduling, input/output control, and data management.
The illustrative embodiment may be embodied in a variety of data processing systems utilizing a number of different hardware configurations and software such as bootstrap programs and operating systems. The data processing system 100 may be, for example, a stand-alone system or part of a network such as a local-area network (LAN) or a wide-area network (WAN).
In known three-dimensional (3D) very-large-scale integration (VLSI) architectures, power delivery is mixed with high-speed signaling via C4 solder balls or pins to the 3D VLSI chip stack. However, the possible number of C4 pins which may be implemented limits that maximal input/output (I/O) bandwidth and power delivery. To distribute the power across the chip stack with minimal voltage drop, C4's on a 151 μm pitch are needed. Hence, only very few C4's may be used for signaling in the case of the limit of 44 C4′s per square millimeter, constraining the communication bandwidth. Furthermore, by mixing the power delivery with the high-speed signaling on one side of the 3D VLSI chip stack as is currently done in known prior art, the thermal path is minimized from the junction to the cooling device due to the full access of the heat dissipation device on the opposed chip stack surface whether the heat dissipation device is air or liquid cooled. Similar mixing of power delivery with high-speed signaling via C4 solder balls or pins is also implemented in two-dimensional VLSI architectures. Thus, while the below description is directed to 3D VLSI architectures, the illustrative embodiments may also be implemented for other dimensional VLSI architectures without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.
FIG. 2 depicts one example of a three-dimensional (3D) very-large-scale integration (VLSI) architecture in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. In order to increase power delivery to support future complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technologies, 3D VLSI architecture 200 comprises high-performance high-power processor layer 202 comprising a plurality of processor cores. Power delivery layer 204 delivers power (Vdd) and ground from data processing system 212 to high-performance high-power processor layer 202 via a first plurality of C4 solder balls 206 that are optimized by size and/or geometry to deliver the required power to each of the plurality of processor cores. While the illustrative embodiments use C4 solder balls, other types of coupling, such as copper pillars, may be used without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Possible implementations of power delivery layer 204 will be discussed in detail below. Power delivery layer 204 may be coupled to data processing system 212 using any type of coupling mechanism, such as connectors formed on a system board, cabling to a power supply, or the like. Using power delivery layer 204 to provide power via one side of 3D VLSI architecture 200 increases the number of C4 pins, as opposed to known systems, and increases the power delivery above the current limit of 100 watts per square centimeter. Additionally, providing power via one side of 3D VLSI architecture 200 decreases power noise that is currently experienced on signal paths when mixed with power on the same side of a 3D VLSI stack. Furthermore, TSVs needed to deliver the power to processor layer 202 through substrate/board 214 and signaling and input/output (I/O) layer 208 may be removed due to the direct power delivery from power delivery layer 204. Providing power from one side saves active silicon area and does not cause macro redesigns due to protruding TSVs, especially for large size memory blocks.
3D VLSI architecture 200 also comprises high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208 that comprises a plurality of high-speed signaling devices, which may include memory, switches, memory storage controller, or the like. In order to provide power to the high-speed signaling devices of high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208, 3D VLSI architecture 200 provides micro C4 (μC4) layer 210. Power passes from power delivery layer 204 through C4 solder balls 206, through processor layer 202 via through silicon vias (TSVs) within the silicon die of the processor layer, through μC4 layer 210, to high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208. A contact pad on one side of a die of processor layer 202 provides a connection of one or more C4 solder ball in C4 solder balls 206 to a TSV in processor layer 202, which passes power through processor layer 202 to a contact pad on the other side of the processor layer 202. The contact pad on the other side of processor layer 202 provides a connection of each TSV to a μC4 solder ball in μC4 layer 210. The use of micro μC4s in μC4 layer 210 allows higher interconnection density between processor layer 202 and high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208. Power may further pass from the μC4 layer 210 to one side of high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208. A contact pad on the side of high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208 provides a connection of one or more μC4 in μC4 layer 210 to a TSV in high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208, which passes power through high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208 to a contact pad on the other side of high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208. While only one high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208 is depicted, the illustrative embodiments recognize that any number of high-speed signaling and I/O layers may be implemented and connected via additional layers of C4 solder balls and TSVs.
Not only does μC4 layer 210 provide power to high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208, but μC4 layer 210 also provides connectivity for signaling between high-performance high-power processor layer 202 and high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208 in a reverse fashion similar to the above description for power delivery from one layer to another layer. In order for high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208 to transmit and receive signals with data processing system 212, high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208 is coupled to substrate/board 214 of data processing system 212 via a second plurality of C4 solder balls 216. In addition to providing connectivity for high-speed signaling and I/O, the second plurality of C4 solder balls 216 may also provide connectivity for ground as well as any low-power requirements that may not be provided by power delivery layer 204 via μC4 layer 210. Thus, high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208 comprises C4 pins for signals mixed with ground pins for shielding, power delivery, reference ground, and optional power for low(er) power chips.
Therefore, 3D VLSI architecture 200 provides for dedicated I/O for signal/ground via one side of the 3D stack and voltage/ground via an opposite side of the 3D stack. For connectivity to both high-performance high-power processor layer 202 and high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208, the illustrative embodiments provide different dedicated technologies, such as C4s, μC4s, or macroC4s in different geometries and pitches. Power delivery system 204 may provide power via power pads or power strips, while inductive, capacitive, or optical signal may be established via substrate/board 214 to high-speed signaling and I/O layer 208. The more flexible and granular arrangement of power pins for different power domains of high-performance high-power processor layer 202 decreases the restrictions associated with mixing signaling and I/O with power. That is, the different C4s pitch and geometries associated with a first plurality of C4 solder balls 206 precisely mimic power domains of processing units/processing cores of high-performance high-power processor layer 202. Furthermore, by not mixing power with signaling and I/O the inductances in power delivery are reduced and, thus, power noise in the signal and I/O paths is reduced.
FIGS. 3A-3C depict one example of a power delivery system implementation in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. In the illustrative embodiment shown in FIG. 3A, heat sink 302 comprises grooves 304 on one face of heat sink 302 that will be coupled directly to a first plurality of C4 solder balls providing connectivity to a high-performance high-power processor layer. Each groove in grooves 304 comprises insulating material 310 between the metal of heat sink 302 and conductors 312 which supply a path for power and ground from a coupled power supply to the first plurality of C4 solder balls. Insulating materials 310 may be comprised of any insulating material such as ceramics, oxides such as Aluminum Nitride (AlN), Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3), Silicon Dioxide (SiO2), polymers, or the like. Heat sink 302 may be comprised of any thermal conducting material such as copper, aluminum, or the like. Conductors 312 may be comprised of any electrical conducting material such as copper, aluminum, or the like. Depending on the required voltages of the processing units/processing cores of the high-performance high-power processor layer, one or more of conductors 312 in grooves 304 may supply one voltage, while another one or more of conductors 312 supply a different voltage, such as 1.00 volt, 1.10 volts, 1.20 volts, or the like, while another one or more of conductors 312 in grooves 304 may supply grounding potential. Additionally, heat sink 302 may be used for ground potential as long as heat sink 302 is coupled to the ground potential of the data processing system. Use of exemplary heat sink 302 provides very low impedance in power delivery, reduces noise, and reduces area impact associated with other types of power delivery systems.
In FIG. 3B, a face view of heat sink 302 is shown indicating that grooves 304 extend across the face of heat sink 302 that will be coupled directly to a first plurality of C4 solder balls. This figure shows only the grooves without the insulating material or the conducting material. In this example, the architecture of the high-performance high-power processor layer would be such that the various power pins of the processing units/processing cores of the high-performance high-power processor layer would need to be arranged such that the C4 pins would align with grooves 304 of heat sink 302. However, the illustrative embodiments are not limited to only providing straight grooves 304.
FIG. 3C depicts a face view of heat sink 302 indicating that grooves 304 are formed such that grooves 304 conform to the arrangement of the processing units/processing cores of the high-performance high-power processor layer. This figure shows only the grooves without the insulating material or the conducting material. Thus, as opposed to having grooves 304 extend across the face of heat sink 302 in a straight line or all the way across the face of heat sink 302, grooves 304 may be formed such that the grooves 304 conform to the C4 pins arrangement associated with the processing units/processing cores of the high-performance high-power processor layer.
Thus, the heat sink of the illustrative embodiments provides a conductive material for the heat sink to provide a plurality of voltages to the high-performance high-power processor layer without decoupling.
FIGS. 4A-4G depict another example of a power delivery system implementation in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. In the illustrative embodiment shown in FIG. 4A, laminated power plane 400 is formed by laminating a plurality of conductors 402 between a plurality of insulating material 404. Depending on the required voltages of the processing units/processing cores of the high-performance high-power processor layer, one or more of conductors 402 may supply one voltage, while another one or more of conductors 402 supply a different voltage, such as 1.00 volt, 1.10 volts, 1.20 volts, or the like, while another one or more of conductors 402 may supply grounding potential. In order that the supplied voltage may be transferred to a first plurality of C4 solder balls and then to the high-performance high-power processor layer, each plane of conductor 402 is solid at points 422 where through laminate vias (TLVs) will be coupled to the conductor plane while areas 424 where the plane will be penetrated but not coupled to have openings that will provide an insulating gap between a TLV and the conductor.
FIG. 4B depicts one illustration of the formation of a laminated power plane in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. As discussed above, laminated power plane 400 is formed by laminating a plurality of conductors 402 between a plurality of insulating material 404. In FIG. 4B, a first insulating layer 404a which is solid in composition is the basis for laminated power plane 400, on top of the first insulating layer 404a, is a first conducting layer 402a, which is solid in areas where connecting TLVs will be formed and open in areas where through TLVs will be formed. On top of first conducting layer 402a is a second insulating layer 404b which is solid in form. On top of the second insulating layer 404b, is second conducting layer 402b, which is solid in areas where connecting TLVs will be formed and open in areas where through TLVs will be formed. The process of forming laminated power plane 400 continues until a final conducting layer 402n is layered on top of a final conducting layer 404n. After laminated power plane is formed, the various TLVs are formed such that each TLV couples to a specified one of the plurality of conductors 402 while being insulated from other ones of the plurality of conductors 402.
FIGS. 4C-4G depicts alternative methods for the formation of a laminated power plane in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. As discussed above, laminated power plane 400 is formed by laminating a plurality of conductors 402 between a plurality of insulating material 404. In FIG. 4C, in formation of laminated power plane 400, an additional non-electrically conductive organic laminate layer 410 may be inserted to provide mechanical stability to laminated power plane 400 and to reduce the effective thermal expansion coefficient of the thermal power laminate. In FIG. 4D, the plurality of insulating material 404 may be polyimide material 412, which are organic materials with an attractive combination of characteristics, such as low relative permitivity (low k), good thermal stability, chemical inertness, and good adhesion to semiconductors and metals. In FIG. 4E, the plurality of insulating material 404 may be a low temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC) material 414 that reduces thermal resistance compared to organic materials. In FIG. 4F, laminated power plane 400 may have an additional thermal conductive silicon layer 416 formed on top of laminated power plane 400 to increase thermal conductivity and remove heat from the 3D stack. In FIG. 4G, laminated power plane 400 may have an additional thermal conductive silicon layer 418 formed below laminated power plane 400 to increase thermal conductivity and remove heat from the 3D stack; however, this example requires additional length be added to the TLVs.
In addition to providing power to a first plurality of C4 solder balls and then to high-performance high-power processor layer, a laminated power plane, such as that shown in FIGS. 4A-4G may also be configured to optimize thermal dissipation away from high-performance high-power processor layer. In FIG. 5, 3D VLSI architecture 500 comprises high-speed signaling and I/O layer 502 coupled to substrate/board 504 via a second plurality of C4 solder balls 506 in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. High-performance high-power processor layer 508 is coupled to high-speed signaling and I/O layer 502 via through silicon via (TSV)/micro C4 (μC4) layer 510. Further, power is delivered to high-performance high-power processor layer 508 from power delivery system 512 via a first plurality of C4 solder balls 514 and heat is removed from the 3D stack by heast dissipation device 516, which may be either a cold plate or a heat sink, coupled to power delivery system 512.
Power delivery system 512 may be formed in any one of the methods discussed in FIG. 4A-4G. In the depicted example, power delivery system 512 is a laminate structure comprising a plurality of conductors 518 between a plurality of insulating material 520, one or more ground planes 522, and an additional non-electrically conductive organic laminate layer 524, with TLVs 526 connecting the first plurality of C4 solder balls 514 to one of the plurality of conductors 518 or one or more ground planes 522. Additionally, in order to optimize thermal dissipation away from high-performance high-power processor layer 508, 3D VLSI architecture 500 may also include thermal conduction vias 528 for thermal transfer of heat though sidewalls from TLVs 526 that are directly coupled to the high-performance high-power processor layer 508 to the thermal conduction vias 528 that are coupled to ground planes 522 which is coupled to heat dissipation device 516. The thermal transfer of heat to ground planes 522 at sidewalls reduces heat flux by surface enlargement at low thermal conductivity interfaces for minimal temperature gradient. The arrows within power delivery system 512 indicate heat flow. 3D VLSI architecture 500 may also include ground thermal conduction trees 530 for thermal transfer of heat mainly through ground vias, which also take space above other via locations. 3D VLSI architecture 500 may also include in-plane heat collection 532 that reduces heat flux by surface enlargement at low thermal conductivity interfaces.
Thus, an anisotropic thermal conductive power plane is provided with high thermal conductivity normal to chip backside. The conductive power plane may be sandwiched between chip/stack and a cold plate in order to enable double side electrical access. The thermal coupling of the thermal power laminate to heat dissipation device 516 may be performed in general with thermal interface materials (typically particle filled polymers), such as thermal grease, thermal adhesive, thermal pads, or by soldering or fusion bonding.
The description of the present invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description, and is not intended to be exhaustive or limited to the invention in the form disclosed. Many modifications and variations will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. The embodiment was chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the invention, the practical application, and to enable others of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention for various embodiments with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated.

## Claims

1. A three-dimensional very-large-scale integration (VLSI) device, comprising:
a processor layer coupled, via a first set of coupling devices, to at least one signaling and input/output (I/O) layer; and
a power delivery layer coupled, via a second set of coupling devices, to the processor layer, wherein:
the power delivery layer is dedicated to only delivering power and does not provide data communication signals to the elements of the three-dimensional VLSI device, and
the at least one signaling and input/output (I/O) layer is dedicated to only transmitting the data communication signals to and receiving the data communications signals from the processor layer and does not provide power to the elements of the processor layer.

2. The three-dimensional VLSI device of claim 1, wherein the processor layer comprises a plurality of processors.

3. The three-dimensional VLSI device of claim 1, wherein the power is delivered to the processor layer via the second set of coupling devices and wherein the second set of coupling devices is at least one of C4 solder balls, micro C4 (μC4) solder balls, macroC4 solder balls, or copper pillars.

4. The three-dimensional VLSI device of claim 1, wherein the power delivery layer is coupled to a data processing system using at least one of connectors formed on a system board or cabling to a power supply.

5. The three-dimensional VLSI device of claim 1, wherein a number of the second set of coupling devices is increased by only providing power via the power delivery layer, wherein a power delivery per square centimeter is increased by only providing power via the power delivery layer, and wherein power noise experienced on signal paths of a plurality of processors in the processor layer is decreased by only providing power via the power delivery layer.

6. The three-dimensional VLSI device of claim 1, wherein the at least one signaling and I/O layer comprises a plurality of high-speed signaling devices and wherein the plurality of high-speed signaling devices comprise at least one of a memory, a switch, or a memory storage controller.