### September 2011 EPA/600/R

- 10/076B



# Integrated Science Assessment for Ozone and Related Photochemical Oxidants

National Center for Environmental Assessment

- RTP Division Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Triangle Park, NC

# DISCLAIMER

This document is the second external review draft for review pur poses only and does not

constitute U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote iii September 2011 

# TABLE OF CONTENTS

AUTHORS, CONTRIBUTOR S, AND REVIEWERS

________________________________ __ XXVII

CLEAN AIR SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE OZONE NAAQS REVIEW P ANEL

____ XXXI

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVI ATIONS

________________________________ ___________ XXXIII

PREAMBLE

________________________________ ________________________________ _ XLIX

Process of ISA Development

________________________________ ________________________________ _____ xlix

EPA Framework for Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________________ liii Evaluating Evidence for Inferring Causation

________________________________ ___________________________ liv Consideration of evidence from scientific disciplines

________________________________ ________________ lv Application of Framework for Causal Determination

________________________________ _______________ lix
Table I Aspects to aid in judging causality

________________________________ ______ lx Determination of Causality

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ lxi
Table II Weight of evidence for causal determination

_____________________________ lxii Quantitative relationships: Effects on Human Populations

________________________________ _____ lxiii Quantitative relationships: Effects on Ecosyst ems or Public Welfare

____________________________ lxv Concepts in Evaluating Adversity of Health Effects

________________________________ ________________ lxv Concepts in Evaluating Adversity of Ecological Effects

________________________________ _____________ lxvi



### PREFACE

________________________________ ________________________________ _ LXVIII

Legislative Requirements for the NAAQS Review

________________________________ ________________ lxviii History of the NAAQS for Ozone

________________________________ ______________________________ lxix
Table III Summary of primary and secondary NAAQS promulgated for ozone during the period 1971

- 2008

________________________________ _________ lxx
References

________________________________ ________________________________ _____________ lxxiii



### 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

________________________________ ______________________ 1

- 1

1.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ______________ 1

- 1

1.2 Scope

________________________________ ________________________________ __________________ 1

- 1

1.3 Atmospheric Chemistry and Ambient Concentrations

________________________________ _____________ 1

- 2 Figure 1

- 1 Schematic overview of photochemical processes influencing stratospheric and tropospheric ozone.

________________________________ _____________ 1

- 3

1.4 Human Exposure

________________________________ ________________________________ _________ 1

- 4

1.5 Dosimetry and Modes of Actio n

________________________________ ______________________________ 1

- 4

Table 1

- 1 Summary of ozone causal determinations by exposure duration and health outcome

________________________________ ____________________ 1

- 5

1.6 Integration of Ozone Health Effects

________________________________ ___________________________ 1

- 6

1.6.1 Respiratory Effects

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ 1

- 6 Figure 1

- 2 The continuum of respiratory effects, noting increases in severity but decreases in the proportion of the population affected moving up the pyramid.

________________________________ _________________________ 1

- 7
1.6.2 Mortality Effects

________________________________ ________________________________ _____ 1

- 8
1.6.3 Emerging Evidence

________________________________ ________________________________ __ 1

- 8
1.6.4 Populations at Increased Risk

________________________________ __________________________ 1

- 9
1.6.5 Ozone Concentration

- Response Relationship

________________________________ _____________ 1

- 10

1.7 Integration of Effects on Vegetation and Ecosystems

________________________________ ____________ 1

- 10

Table 1

- 2 Summary of ozone causal determination for welfare effects

________________ 1

- 11

1.7.1 Visible Foliar Injury

________________________________ ________________________________ __ 1

- 11

1.7.2 Growth, Productivity, Carbon Storage and Agriculture

________________________________ _______ 1

- 12
1.7.3 Water Cycling

________________________________ ________________________________ ______ 1

- 12

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote iv September 2011 1.7.4 Below Ground Processes

________________________________ _____________________________ 1

- 13
1.7.5 Community Composition

________________________________ _____________________________ 1

- 13
1.7.6 Ozone Exposure

- Response Relationships

________________________________ ________________ 1

- 13

1.8 The Role of Tropospheric Ozone in Climate Change and UV

- B Effects

______________________________ 1

- 14 Figure 1

- 3 Schematic illustrating the effects of tropospheric O 3 on climate.

_____________ 1

- 15
Table 1

- 3 Summary of ozone causal determination for climate change and UV

- B effects

________________________________ __________________________ 1

- 16

1.9 Conclusion

________________________________ ________________________________ _____________ 1

- 16



### 2 INTEGRATIVE SUMMARY

________________________________ ____________________ 2

- 1

2.1 Policy

- Relevant Questions for O 3 NAAQS Review

________________________________ ________________ 2

- 1

2.2 ISA Development and Scope

________________________________ ________________________________ 2

- 4

2.3 Atmospheric Chemistry and Ambient Concentrations

________________________________ _____________ 2

- 6

2.3.1 Physical and Chemical Processes

________________________________ _______________________ 2

- 6 Figure 2

- 1 Schematic overview of photochemical processes influencing stratospheric and tropospheric ozone.

________________________________ _____________ 2

- 7
2.3.2 Atmosphe ric Modeling of Background Ozone Concentrations

________________________________ __ 2

- 8
2.3.3 Monitoring

________________________________ ________________________________ _________ 2

- 10 Figure 2

- 2 GEOS

- Chem modeled U.S. policy relevant background seasonal

- mean surface ozone concentrations in spring (left) and summer (right), 2006.

_______ 2

- 10
2.3.4 Ambient Concentrations

________________________________ ______________________________ 2

- 11

2.4 Human Exposure

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 2

- 12

2.5 Dosimetr y and Mode of Action

________________________________ ______________________________ 2

- 14

2.6 Integration of Ozone Health Effects

________________________________ __________________________ 2

- 17

Table 2

- 1 Summary of evidence from epidemiologic, controlled human exposure, and animal toxicological studies on the health effects associated with short

- and l ong

- term exposure to ozone

_______________________________ 2

- 18
2.6.1 Respiratory Effects

________________________________ ________________________________ __ 2

- 20 Figure 2

- 3 Snapshot of evidence for the association of O 3 with the continuum of respiratory effects, including sub

- clinical effects (bottom level of the pyramid) and clinical effects, increasing in se verity moving up the pyramid.

________________________________ ________________________ 2

- 23
2.6.2 Mortality Effects

________________________________ ________________________________ ____ 2

- 29
2.6.3 Cardiovascular Health Effects

________________________________ _________________________ 2

- 30
2.6.4 Central Nervous System Effects

________________________________ _______________________ 2

- 30
2.6.5 Reproductive and Developmental Effects

________________________________ ________________ 2

- 31
2.6.6 Cancer and Mutagenicity and Genotoxicity

________________________________ _______________ 2

- 3 1
2.6.7 Policy Relevant Considerations

________________________________ ________________________ 2

- 31
2.6.7.1 Populations at Increased Risk

________________________________ __________________ 2

- 31
2.6.7.2 Lag Structure in Epidemiologic Studies

________________________________ ___________ 2

- 33
2.6.7.3 Ozone Concentration

- Response Relationship

________________________________ ______ 2

- 34

2.7 Integration of Effects on Vegetation and Ecosystems

________________________________ ____________ 2

- 36

2.7.1 Visible Foliar Injury

________________________________ ________________________________ __ 2

- 37 Figure 2

- 4 An illustrative diagram of the major pathway through which O 3 enters leaves and the major endpoints that O 3 may aff ect in plants and ecosystems.

________________________________ _____________________ 2

- 37
Table 2

- 2 Summary of ozone causal determinations for vegetation and ecosystem effects

________________________________ __________________________ 2

- 38

2.7.2 Growth, Productivity, Carbon Storage and Agriculture

________________________________ _______ 2

- 39

2.7.2.1 Natural Ecosystems

________________________________ __________________________ 2

- 39

2.7.2.2 Agricultural Crops

________________________________ ____________________________ 2

- 41
2.7.3 Water Cycling

________________________________ ________________________________ ______ 2

- 42

2.7.4 Below

- Ground Processes

________________________________ _____________________________ 2

- 42
2.7.5 Community Composition

________________________________ _____________________________ 2

- 43
2.7.6 Policy Relevant Considerations

________________________________ ________________________ 2

- 44
2.7.6.1 Air Quality Indices

________________________________ ___________________________ 2

- 44
2.7.6.2 Exposure

- Response

________________________________ __________________________ 2

- 45

2.8 The Role of Tropospheric Ozone in Climate Change and UV

- B Effects

______________________________ 2

- 46

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote v September 2011 2.8.1 Tropospheric Ozone as a Greenhouse Gas

________________________________ _______________ 2

- 47 Figure 2

- 5 Schematic illustrating the effects of tropospheric O 3 on climate including the relationship between precursor emissions, tropospheric O 3 abundance, radiative forcing, climate response, and climate impacts.

________ 2

- 48
2.8.2 Tropospheric Ozone and UV

- B related effects

________________________________ _____________ 2

- 48

2.9 Summary of Causal Determinations for Health Ef fects and Welfare Effects

___________________________ 2

- 50

Table 2

- 3 Summary of ozone causal determinations by exposure duration and health outcome

________________________________ ___________________ 2

- 50
Table 2

- 4 Summary of ozone causal determination for welfare effects

________________ 2

- 51
Table 2

- 5 Summary of ozone causal determination for climate change and UV

- B effects

________________________________ __________________________ 2

- 51

2.10 References

________________________________ ________________________________ ____________ 2

- 52



### 3 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTR Y AND AMBIENT CONCEN TRATIONS

___________________ 3

- 1

3.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ______________ 3

- 1

3.2 Physical and Chemical Processes

________________________________ ____________________________ 3

- 1 Figure 3

- 1 Schematic overview of photochemical processes influencing stratospheric and tropospheric ozone.

________________________________ _____________ 3

- 2
3.2.1 Sources of Precursors Involved in Ozone Formation

________________________________ _________ 3

- 5 Figure 3

- 2 Estimated anthropogenic emissions of ozone precursors for 2005.

___________ 3

- 6
3.2.2 Gas Phase Reactions Leading to Ozone Formation

________________________________ _________ 3

- 9
3.2.3 Multiphase Processes

________________________________ _______________________________ 3

- 13
3.2.3.1 Indoor Air 3

- 15
3.2.4 Temperature and Chemical Precursor Relationships

________________________________ ________ 3

- 15 Figure 3

- 3 Measured concentrations of O 3 and NO Z

_______________________________ 3

- 19

3.3 Atmospheric Modeling

________________________________ ________________________________ ____ 3

- 20 Figure 3

- 4 Sample CMAQ modeling domains.

________________________________ ___ 3

- 21 Figure 3

- 5 Main components of a comprehensive atmospheric chemistry modeling system, such as the U.S. EPA’s Community Model for Air Quality (CMAQ) System.

________________________________ _________________ 3

- 22
3.3.1 Global Scale CTMs

________________________________ ________________________________ __ 3

- 26 Figure 3

- 6 Comparison of global CTM predictions of maximum daily 8

- h avg ozone concentrations and multi

- model mean with monthly averaged CASTNET observations in the Intermountain West and Southeast regions of the U.S.

____ 3

- 27

3.4 Background Ozone Concentrations

________________________________ __________________________ 3

- 28 Figure 3

- 7 Schematic overview of contributions to North American background concentrations of ozone, i.e., ozone concentrations that would exist in the absenc e of anthropogenic emissions from the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.

____ 3

- 30
3.4.1 Contributions from Anthropogenic Emissions outside North America

___________________________ 3

- 30 Figure 3

- 8 Time series of daily maximum 8

- h avg ozone concentrations (ppm) measured at Trinidad Head, CA, from April 18, 2002 through December 31, 2009.

________________________________ _______________________ 3

- 33
3.4.2 Contributions from Natural Sources

________________________________ _____________________ 3

- 33
3.4.2.1 Contributions from the Stratosphere

________________________________ _____________ 3

- 33
3. 4.2.2 Contributions from Other Natural Sources

________________________________ _________ 3

- 35
3.4.3 Estimating Background Concentrations

________________________________ __________________ 3

- 37 Figure 3

- 9 North American background ozone concentration in surface air for spring and summer 2006 (top). GEOS

- Chem calculated concentrations for the base case, i.e., including all sources in surface air for the U.S., Canada and Mexico for spring and summer of 2006 (bottom).

_____________________ 3

- 39 Figure 3

- 10 North American background ozone concentrations calculated when base case ozone is > 60 ppb.

________________________________ ____________ 3

- 41 Figure 3

- 11a Simulated vs. observe d daily 8

- h max ozone concentrations for spring (March

- May) and summer (June

- August) 2006 for the ensemble of CASTNET sites in the intermountain West.

_____________________________ 3

- 42 Figure 3

- 11b Simulated vs. observed daily 8

- h max ozone concentrations for spring (March

- May) and summer (June

- August) 2006 for the ensembles of CASTNET sites in the Northeast U.S., Great Lakes, and the Southeast U.S.

________________________________ ___________________________ 3

- 43

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote vi September 2011 Figure 3

- 12 Frequency distributions of daily 8

- h max ozone concentrations in March

August 2006 for the ensemble of low

- altitude (<1.5 km) a nd high

- altitude CASTNET sites in the U.S.

________________________________ _________ 3

- 44
3.4.4 Summary of Background Results

________________________________ _______________________ 3

- 45

3.5 Monitoring

________________________________ ________________________________ ______________ 3

- 46

3.5.1 Routine Mo nitoring Techniques

________________________________ ________________________ 3

- 46
3.5.2 Precision and Bias

________________________________ ________________________________ __ 3

- 49
Table 3

- 1 Summary of ozone monitors meeting 40 CFR Part 58, Appendix A Precision and Bias Goals

________________________________ ___________ 3

- 50 Figure 3

- 13 Box plots of precision data by year (2005

- 2009) for all ozone monitors reporting single

- point QC check data to AQS.

___________________________ 3

- 50 Figure 3

- 14 Box plots of percent

- difference data by year (2005

- 2009) for all ozone monitors reporting single

- point QC check data to AQS.

___________________ 3

- 51
3.5.2.1 Precision from Co

- located UV Ozone Monitors in Missouri

____________________________ 3

- 51 Figure 3

- 15 Box plots of RPD data by year for the co

- located ozone monitors at two sites in Missouri from 2006

- 2009.

________________________________ ____ 3

- 52 Figure 3

- 16 Box plots of RPD data by year for all U.S. ozone sites reporting single

point QC check data to AQS from 2005

- 2009.

___________________________ 3

- 52
3.5.3 Performance Specifications

________________________________ ___________________________ 3

- 53
Table 3

- 2 Performance specifications for ozone based in 40 CFR Part 53

_____________ 3

- 53
3.5.4 Monitor Calibration

________________________________ ________________________________ __ 3

- 53
3.5.5 Other Monitoring Techniques

________________________________ __________________________ 3

- 55
3.5.5.1 Portable UV Ozone Monitors

________________________________ ___________________ 3

- 55
3.5.5.2 NO

- based Chemiluminescence Monitors

________________________________ __________ 3

- 55
3.5.5.3 Passive Air Sampling Devices and Sensors

________________________________ _______ 3

- 56
3.5.5.4 Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometry

________________________________ _______ 3

- 57
3.5.5.5 Satellite Remote Sensing

________________________________ ______________________ 3

- 58
3.5.6 Ambient Ozone Network Design

________________________________ _______________________ 3

- 59
3.5.6.1 Monitor Siting Requirements

________________________________ ___________________ 3

- 59 Figure 3

- 17 U.S. ozone sites reporting data to AQS in 2010.

_________________________ 3

- 62 Figure 3

- 18 U.S. Rural NCore, CASTNET and NPS POMS ozone sit es in 2010.

_________ 3

- 63
3.5.6.2 Probe/Inlet Siting Requirements

________________________________ ________________ 3

- 63

3.6 Ambient Concentrations

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ 3

- 64

3.6.1 Measurement Units, Metrics, and Averaging Times

________________________________ _________ 3

- 65 Figure 3

- 19 Distribution in nation

- wide year

- round site

- level correlations between daily ozone metrics including 24

- h avg, 1

- h daily max and 8

- h daily max using AQS data, 2007

- 2009.

________________________________ _____________ 3

- 66
3.6.2 Spatial Variability

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ 3

- 67
3.6.2.1 Urban

- Focuse d Variability

________________________________ _____________________ 3

- 67 Figure 3

- 20 Required ozone monitoring time periods (ozone season) identified by monitoring site.

________________________________ ___________________ 3

- 68
Table 3

- 3 Summary of ozone data sets originating from AQS

_______________________ 3

- 69 Figure 3

- 21 Location of the 457 ozone monitors meeting the year

- round data set completeness criterion for all 3 years between 2007 and 2009.

_____________ 3

- 70 Figure 3

- 22 Location of the 1,064 ozone monitors meeting the warm

- season data set completeness criteria for all 3 years between 2007 and 2009.

______________ 3

- 70
Table 3

- 4 Nationwide distributions of ozone concentrations (ppb) from the year

round data set

________________________________ ___________________ 3

- 71
Table 3

- 5 Nationwide distributions of ozone concentrations (ppb) from the warm

season data set

________________________________ __________________ 3

- 72
Table 3

- 6 Seasonally stratified distributions of 8

- h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) from the year

- round data set (2007

- 2009)

_________________________ 3

- 7 3 Figure 3

- 23 Highest monitor (by county) 3

- year avg (2007

- 2009) of the 8

- h daily max ozone concentration based on the year

- round data set (top map) with

seas onal stratification (bottom 4 maps).

_______________________________ 3

- 74 Figure 3

- 24 Highest monitor (by county) 3

- year avg (2007

- 2009) of the 8

- h daily max

ozone concentration based on the warm

- season data set (top map) with annual stratification (bottom 3 maps).

________________________________ _ 3

- 75
Table 3

- 7 Focus cities u sed in this and previous assessments

______________________ 3

- 78
Table 3

- 8 City

- specific distributions of 8

- h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) from the warm

- season data set (2007

- 2009)

____________________________ 3

- 79

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote vii September 2011 Figure 3

- 25 Map of the Atlanta CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_______________________ 3

- 80 Figure 3

- 26 Map of the Boston CSA including ozone monitor locations, population
grav ity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_______________________ 3

- 80 Figure 3

- 27 Map of the Los Angeles CSA including ozone monitor locations, popula tion gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________ 3

- 81 Figure 3

- 28 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Atlanta CSA.

________________________________ __________________ 3

- 82 Figure 3

- 29 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Boston CSA.

________________________________ __________________ 3

- 82 Figure 3

- 30 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Los Angeles CSA.

________________________________ _____________ 3

- 84 Figure 3

- 31 Pair

- wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA.

________________________________ ________ 3

- 86 Figure 3

- 32 Pair

- wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus dis tance between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA.

________________________________ ________ 3

- 87 Figure 3

- 33 Pair

- wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.

________________________________ ___ 3

- 88 Figure 3

- 34 Pair

- wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA.

________________________________ __________________ 3

- 89 Figure 3

- 35 Pair

- wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA.

________________________________ __________________ 3

- 90 Figure 3

- 36 Pair

- wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.

________________________________ _____________ 3

- 91 Figure 3

- 37 Terrain map showing the location of two nearby AQS ozone monitoring sites (red dots) along the western edge of the Los Ang eles CSA. Site AL is near shore, 3 m above sea level, while Site AK is in an agricultural valley surrounded by mountains, 262 m above sea level.

__________________ 3

- 93 Figure 3

- 38 Terrain map showing the location of four AQS ozone monitoring sites (red dots) located in or near the city limits in the center of the Boston CSA. Site characteristics range from Site A near downtown at 6 m above sea level to Site D in a forested area on Blue Hill at 192 m above sea level.

_______ 3

- 94
3.6.2.2 Rural

- Focused Variability and Ground

- Level Vertical Gradients

________________________ 3

- 96
Table 3

- 9 Rural focus areas

________________________________ _________________ 3

- 97 Figure 3

- 39 Rural focus area site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the rural focus areas.

___________________________ 3

- 98 Figure 3

- 40 Terrain map showing the location of five AQS ozone monitoring sites (green/black stars) in Great Smoky Mountain National Park, NC

- TN (SMNP).

________________________________ ________________________ 3

- 99 Figure 3

- 41 Pair

- wise monitor correlations (left) and coefficients of divergence (COD, right) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot vs. distance between monitors (bottom) for Great Smoky Mountain National Park, NC

- TN (SMNP).

________________________________ _____ 3

- 100 Figure 3

- 42 Terrain map showing the location of the AQS ozone monitoring site in Rocky Mountain National Park, CO (black/green star) and the Denver CSA (red dots) along with ozone monitoring sites used in the Brodin et al. (201 0) study (blue circles).

________________________________ _________ 3

- 101 Figure 3

- 43 Terrain map showing the location of two AQS ozone monitoring sites (black/green stars) i n Sequoia National Park, CA.

_______________________ 3

- 102
3.6.3 Temporal Variability

________________________________ ________________________________ 3

- 103
3.6.3.1 Multiyear Trends

________________________________ ____________________________ 3

- 103 Figure 3

- 44 National 8

- h ozone trends, 2001

- 2008 (average of the annual fourth highest 8

- h daily max concentrations in ppm).

__________________________ 3

- 104
3.6.3.2 Hourly Variations

________________________________ ___________________________ 3

- 105

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote viii September 2011 Figure 3

- 45 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for Atlanta, Boston and Los Angeles between 2007 and 2009 using the year

- round data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison (right half).

______________________ 3

- 106
3. 6.4 Associations with Co

- pollutants

________________________________ _______________________ 3

- 109 Figure 3

- 47 Distribution of Pearson correlation coefficients for comparison of 8

- h daily

m ax ozone from the year

- round data set with co

- located 24

- h avg CO, SO 2 , NO 2 , PM 10 and PM 2.5 from AQS, 2007

- 2009

_______________________ 3

- 110 Figure 3

- 48 Distribution of Pearson correlation coefficients for comparison of 8

- h daily max ozone from the warm

- season (May

- Sept) data set with co

- located 24

- h avg CO, SO 2 , NO 2 , PM 10 and PM 2.5 from AQS, 2007

- 2009.

___________ 3

- 111

3.7 Chapter Summary

________________________________ ________________________________ ______ 3

- 112

3.7.1 Physical and Chemical Processes

________________________________ _____________________ 3

- 112
3.7.2 Atmospheric Modeling

________________________________ ______________________________ 3

- 113
3.7.3 Background Concentrations

________________________________ __________________________ 3

- 115
3.7.4 Monitoring

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 3

- 116
3.7.5 Ambient Concentrations

________________________________ _____________________________ 3

- 117

3.8 Supplemental Ozone Model Predictions from the Literature

________________________________ ______ 3

- 120

3.8.1 Time Series of GEOS

- Chem Model Predictions and Observations at Selected CASTNET Sites

_____ 3

- 120 Figure 3

- 49 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at four CASTNET sites in the Northeast with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and for the North American background case in 2006.

________________________________ _ 3

- 121 Figure 3

- 50 Comparison of time series of m easurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at four CASTNET sites in the Southeast with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and for the North American background case in 2006.

________________________________ _ 3

- 121 Figure 3

- 51 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at four CASTNET sites in the Upper Midwest with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and for the North American background case in 2006.

____________________________ 3

- 122 Figure 3

- 52 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at CASTNET sites in the Intermountain West with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and the North American background case in 2006.

________________________________ _ 3

- 122 Figure 3

- 53 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at CASTNET sites in the Intermountain West with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case a nd the North American background case in 2006.

________________________________ _ 3

- 123 Figure 3

- 54 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at CASTNET sites in the West with GEOS

Chem predictions for the base case and the North American background case in 2006.

________________________________ ___________________ 3

- 123 Figure 3

- 55 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at monitoring sites in Californiawith GEOS

Chem predictions for the base case and the North American background case in 200 6.

________________________________ ___________________ 3

- 124 Figure 3

- 56 Comparison of daily maximum 8

- h average ozone predicted using GEOS

Chem at 0.5°×0.67° and 2°×2.5° (left figure only) resolution with measurements at Mount Bachelor, OR (left) and Trinidad Head, CA (right) from March to August 2006.

________________________________ __ 3

- 124 Figu re 3

- 57 Comparison of monthly mean ± 1 standard deviation ozone calculated GEOS

- Chem (in red) with ozonesondes (in black) at Trinidad Head and Boulder, CO during April and August 2006.

____________________________ 3

- 125

3.9 Supplemental Ozone Model Predictions Using the Latest Release of GEOS

- Chem

____________________ 3

- 125

3.9.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 3

- 125
3.9.2 GEOS

- Chem Model Application

________________________________ _______________________ 3

- 126
3.9.3 Model Scenarios

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ 3

- 127
Table 3

- 10 Summary of GEOS

- Chem model scenarios

___________________________ 3

- 128
3.9.4 Model Performance Evaluation

________________________________ _______________________ 3

- 128 Figure 3

- 58 Frequency distributions of 8

- hr daily max ozone concentration from March

– August 2006 for low

- elevation (<1.5 km; top panel) and high

- elevation (>1.5 km; bottom panel) CASTNET sites.

_____________________________ 3

- 130

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote ix September 2011 3.9.5 Model Results

________________________________ ________________________________ _____ 3

- 131 Figure 3

- 59 Mean 8

- hr daily ma x O 3 concentration (ppb) for the Base Case (left panel) and North American Background scenario (right panel), based on the 2006, 2007 and 2008 simulation period.

______________________________ 3

- 132 Figure 3

- 60 Mean 8

- hr daily max O 3 concentration (ppb) for the North American Background scenario during winter (Dec

- Feb, upper right panel), spring (Mar

- May, upper right panel), summer (Jun

- Aug, lower left panel), and fall (Sep

- Nov, lower right panel), based on the 2006, 2007 and 2008 sim ulation period.

________________________________ ________________ 3

- 133
3.9.6 Model Attributes and Limitations

________________________________ ______________________ 3

- 134
3.9.7 Summary of Modeling Results

________________________________ ________________________ 3

- 135

3.10 Supplemental Figures of Observed Ambient Ozone Concentrations

________________________________ 3

- 136

3.10.1 Ozone Monitor Maps for the Urban Focus Cities

________________________________ __________ 3

- 136 Figure 3

- 61 Map of the Atlanta CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadw ays.

______________________ 3

- 137 Figure 3

- 62 Map of the Baltimore CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and maj or roadways.

______________________ 3

- 137 Figure 3

- 63 Map of the Birmingham CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas , and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 138 Figure 3

- 64 Map of the Boston CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 138 Figure 3

- 65 Map of the Chicago CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 139 Figure 3

- 66 Map of the Dallas CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity cent ers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 139 Figure 3

- 67 Map of the Denver CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 140 Figure 3

- 68 Map of the Detroit CSA including ozone monitor locations, population
gra vity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 140 Figure 3

- 69 Map of the Houston CSA including ozone monitor locations, populati on gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 141 Figure 3

- 70 Map of the Los Angeles CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 141 Figure 3

- 71 Map of the Minneapolis CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 142 Figure 3

- 72 Map of the New York CSA includin g ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 142 Figure 3

- 73 Map of the Philadelphia CS A including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 143 Figure 3

- 74 Map of the Phoen ix CBSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 143 Figure 3

- 75 Map of the Pittsburgh CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 144 Figure 3

- 76 Ma p of the Salt Lake City CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 145
Fi gure 3

- 77 Map of the San Antonio CBSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 145 Figure 3

- 78 Map of the San Francisco CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 146 Figure 3

- 79 Map of the Seattle CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 146 Figure 3

- 80 Map of the St. Louis CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 147
3.10.2 Ozone Concentration Box Plots for the Urban Focus Cities

________________________________ _ 3

- 147 Figure 3

- 81 Site informati on, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Atlanta CSA.

________________________________ _________________ 3

- 148 Figure 3

- 82 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Baltimore CSA.

________________________________ _______________ 3

- 148 Figure 3

- 83 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Birmingham CSA.

________________________________ _____________ 3

- 149

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote x September 2011 Figure 3

- 84 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Boston CSA.

________________________________ _________________ 3

- 149 Figure 3

- 85 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone f rom AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Chicago CSA.

________________________________ ________________ 3

- 150 Figure 3

- 86 Site information, st atistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Dallas CSA.

________________________________ _________________ 3

- 150 Figure 3

- 87 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Denver CSA.

________________________________ ________________ 3

- 151 Figure 3

- 88 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Detroit CSA.

________________________________ _________________ 3

- 151 Figure 3

- 89 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Houston CSA.

________________________________ _______________ 3

- 152 Figure 3

- 90 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors mee ting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Los Angeles CSA.

________________________________ ____________ 3

- 153 Figure 3

- 91 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Minneapolis CSA.

________________________________ _____________ 3

- 154 Figure 3

- 92 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the New York CSA.

________________________________ ______________ 3

- 154 Figure 3

- 93 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Philadelphia CSA.

________________________________ ____________ 3

- 155 Figure 3

- 94 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Phoenix CBSA.

________________________________ ______________ 3

- 155 Figure 3

- 95 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors mee ting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Pittsburgh CSA.

________________________________ ______________ 3

- 156 Figure 3

- 96 Site information, statistics and box p lots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Salt Lake City CSA.

________________________________ ___________ 3

- 156 Figure 3

- 97 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the San Antonio CBSA.

________________________________ ___________ 3

- 157 Figure 3

- 98 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the San Francisco CSA.

________________________________ ___________ 3

- 157 Figure 3

- 99 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Seattle CSA.

________________________________ _________________ 3

- 158 Figure 3

- 100 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS mon itors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the St. Louis CSA.

________________________________ _______________ 3

- 158
3.10.3 Ozone Concentration Relationships f or the Urban Focus Cities

______________________________ 3

- 159 Figure 3

- 101 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA.

_______________________________ 3

- 159 Figure 3

- 102 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Baltimore CSA.

_____________________________ 3

- 160 Figure 3

- 103 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Birmingham CSA.

___________________________ 3

- 161 Figure 3

- 104 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA.

_______________________________ 3

- 162

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xi September 2011 Figure 3

- 105 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Chicago CSA.

______________________________ 3

- 163 Figure 3

- 106 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Dallas CSA.

________________________________ 3

- 164 Figure 3

- 107 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Den ver CSA.

_______________________________ 3

- 165 Figure 3

- 108 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Detroit CSA.

________________________________ 3

- 166 Figure 3

- 109 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coe fficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Houston CSA.

______________________________ 3

- 167 Figure 3

- 110 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.

___________________________ 3

- 168 Figure 3

- 111 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Minneapolis CSA.

___________________________ 3

- 169 Figure 3

- 112 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogr am (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the New York CSA.

_____________________________ 3

- 170 Figure 3

- 113 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Philadelphia CSA.

___________________________ 3

- 171 Figure 3

- 114 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for t he Phoenix CBSA.

_____________________________ 3

- 172 Figure 3

- 115 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix ( middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Pittsburgh CSA.

_____________________________ 3

- 173 Figure 3

- 116 Pair

- wise monitor cor relation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Salt Lake City CSA.

__________________________ 3

- 174 Figure 3

- 117 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the San Antonio CBSA.

__________________________ 3

- 175 Figure 3

- 118 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the San Francisco CSA. of R.

_____________________ 3

- 176 Figure 3

- 119 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coeffic ients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Seattle CSA.

_______________________________ 3

- 177 Figure 3

- 120 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the St. Louis CSA.

______________________________ 3

- 178 Figure 3

- 121 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between moni tors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA.

________________________ 3

- 179 Figure 3

- 122 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (t op), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Baltimore CSA.

______________________ 3

- 180 Figure 3

- 123 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Birmingham CSA.

____________________ 3

- 181 Figure 3

- 124 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA.

________________________ 3

- 182 Figure 3

- 125 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) a nd scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Chicago CSA.

_______________________ 3

- 183

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xii September 2011 Figure 3

- 126 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Dallas CSA.

_________________________ 3

- 184 Figure 3

- 127 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Denver CSA.

________________________ 3

- 185 Figure 3

- 128 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Detroit CSA.

________________________ 3

- 186 Figure 3

- 129 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Houston CSA.

_______________________ 3

- 187 Figu re 3

- 130 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.

____________________ 3

- 188 Figure 3

- 131 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Minneapolis CSA.

____________________ 3

- 189 Figure 3

- 132 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour m atrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the New York CSA.

______________________ 3

- 190 Figure 3

- 133 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Philadelphia CSA.

____________________ 3

- 191 Figure 3

- 134 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Phoenix CBSA.

______________________ 3

- 192 Figure 3

- 135 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plo t versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Pittsburgh CSA.

______________________ 3

- 193 Figure 3

- 136 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence ( COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Salt Lake City CSA.

___________________ 3

- 194 Figure 3

- 137 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the San Antonio CBSA.

___________________ 3

- 19 5 Figure 3

- 138 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the San Francisco CSA.

__________________ 3

- 196 Figure 3

- 139 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Seattle CSA.

________________________ 3

- 197 Figure 3

- 140 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the St. Louis CSA.

_______________________ 3

- 198
3.10.4 Hourly Variations in Ozone for the Urban Focus Cities

________________________________ _____ 3

- 199 Figure 3

- 141 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for select CSAs between 2007 and 2009 using the year

- round data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison (right half).

________________________________ ___________ 3

- 199 Figure 3

- 142 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for select CSAs between 2007 and 2009

us ing the year

- round data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison (right half).

________________________________ ___________ 3

- 200 Figure 3

- 143 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for select CSAs between 2007 and 2009 using the year

- round data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data set for the weekday/weekend
comp arison (right half).

________________________________ ___________ 3

- 201 Figure 3

- 144 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for select CSAs/CBSAs between 2007 and 2009 using the year

- r ound data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison (right half).

____________________________ 3

- 202 Figure 3

- 145 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for select CSAs/CBSAs between 2007 and 2009 using the year

- round data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison ( right half).

____________________________ 3

- 203

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xiii September 2011 3.11 References

________________________________ ________________________________ ___________ 3

- 204



### 4 EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT OZONE

________________________________ _____________ 4

- 1

4.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ______________ 4

- 1

4.2 General Exposure Concepts

________________________________ ________________________________ 4

- 1

4.3 Exposure Measurement

________________________________ ________________________________ ____ 4

- 4

4.3.1 Personal Monitoring Techniques

________________________________ ________________________ 4

- 4
4.3.2 Indoor

- Outdoor Concentration Relationships

________________________________ _______________ 4

- 5
Table 4

- 1 Relationships of Indoor and Outdoor Ozone Concentration

_________________ 4

- 6
4.3.3 Personal

- Ambient Concentration Relationships

________________________________ _____________ 4

- 8 Figure 4

- 1 Variation in hourly personal and ambient concentrations of O 3 and PM 2.5 in various microenvironments during daytime hours.

_______________________ 4

- 9
Table 4

- 2 Correlations between Personal and Ambient Ozone Concentration

__________ 4

- 11
Table 4

- 3 Ratios of Personal to Ambient Ozone Concentration

_____________________ 4

- 13
4.3.4 Co

- Exposure to Oth er Pollutants and Environmental Stressors

_______________________________ 4

- 14
4.3.4.1 Personal Exposure to Ozone and Co

- pollutants

________________________________ ____ 4

- 14
4.3.4.2 Near

- Road Exposure to Ozone and Co

- pollutants

________________________________ ___ 4

- 15 Figure 4

- 2 Correlations between 1

- week concentrations of O 3 and copollutants measured near roadways.

________________________________ __________ 4

- 16
4.3.4.3 Indoor Exposure to Ozone and Co

- pollutants

________________________________ ______ 4

- 16

4.4 Exposure

- Related Metrics

________________________________ ________________________________ _ 4

- 17

4.4.1 Activity Patterns

________________________________ ________________________________ ____ 4

- 17 Figure 4

- 3 Distribution of time that NHAPS respondents spent in ten microenvironments based on smoothed 1

- min diary data.

_________________ 4

- 18

4.4.2 Ozon e Averting Behavior

________________________________ _____________________________ 4

- 19
4.4.3 Population Proximity to Fixed

- Site Ozone Monitors

________________________________ _________ 4

- 21
Table 4

- 4 Fraction of the 2009 population living within a specified distance of an ozone monitor in selected U.S. cities

________________________________ __ 4

- 23

4.5 Exposure Modeling

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 4

- 24

Table 4

- 5 Characteristics of exposure modeling approaches

_______________________ 4

- 24
4.5.1 Concentration Surface Modeling

________________________________ _______________________ 4

- 25
4.5.2 Residential Air Exchange Rate Modeling

________________________________ _________________ 4

- 27
4.5.3 Microenvironment

- Based Models

________________________________ _______________________ 4

- 29

4.6 Implications for Epidemiologic Studies

________________________________ ________________________ 4

- 32

4.6.1 Nonambient Ozone Exposure

________________________________ _________________________ 4

- 33
4.6.2 Spatiotemporal Variability

________________________________ _____________________________ 4

- 33
4.6.2.1 Spatial Variability

________________________________ ____________________________ 4

- 35
4.6.2.2 Seasonality 4

- 37
4.6.3 Expo sure to Co

- pollutants and Ozone Reaction Products

________________________________ ____ 4

- 38
4.6.4 Averting Behavior

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ 4

- 38 Figure 4

- 4 Adjusted asthma hospital admissions by age on lagged ozone by alert status, ages 5

- 19.

________________________________ _________________ 4

- 40 Figure 4

- 5 Adjusted asthma hospital admissions by age on lagged ozone by alert status, ages 20

- 64

________________________________ ________________ 4

- 40
4.6.5 Exposure Estimation Methods in Epidemiologic Studies

________________________________ _____ 4

- 41

4.7 Summary and Conclusions

________________________________ ________________________________ _ 4

- 41

4.8 References

________________________________ ________________________________ ____________ 4

- 44



### 5 DOSIMETRY AND MODE O F ACTION

________________________________ ___________ 5

- 1

5.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ______________ 5

- 1 Figure 5

- 1 Sch ematic of the O 3 exposure and response pathway.

_____________________ 5

- 2

5.2 Human and Animal Ozone Dosimetry

________________________________ _________________________ 5

- 2

5.2.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ _________ 5

- 2 Figure 5

- 2 Representation of respiratory tract regions in humans.

_____________________ 5

- 3 Figure 5

- 3 Structure of lower airways with progression from the large ai rways to the alveolus.

________________________________ _________________________ 5

- 4
5.2.2 Ozone Uptake

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 5

- 5

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xiv September 2011 Table 5

- 1 Human respiratory tract uptake efficiency data

___________________________ 5

- 6
5.2.2.1 Gas Transport Principles

________________________________ _______________________ 5

- 6
5.2.2.2 Target Sites for Ozone Dose

________________________________ ____________________ 5

- 7
5.2.2.3 Upper Respiratory Tract Ozone Removal and Dose

________________________________ __ 5

- 8
5.2.2.4 Lower Respiratory Tract Ozone Uptake and Dose

________________________________ ___ 5

- 9 Figure 5

- 4 Total ozone uptake efficiency as a function of breathing frequency at a constant minute ventilation of 30 L/min.

________________________________ 5

- 11 Figure 5

- 5 Ozone uptake fraction as a function of volumetric penetration (V p ) in a representative subject.

________________________________ _____________ 5

- 12
5.2.2.5 Mode of Breathing

________________________________ ___________________________ 5

- 12
5.2.2.6 Interindividual Variability in Dose

________________________________ ________________ 5

- 13
5.2.2.7 Physical Activity

________________________________ _____________________________ 5

- 15 Figure 5

- 6 Modeled effect of exercise on tissue dose of the LRT.

____________________ 5

- 16
5.2.2.8 Summary 5

- 16
5.2.3 Ozone Reactions and Reaction Products

________________________________ ________________ 5

- 17 Figure 5

- 7 Schematic overview of ozone interaction with PUFA in ELF and lung cells

.

________________________________ ___________________________ 5

- 19
5.2.3.1 Summary 5

- 24 Figure 5

- 8 Details of the O 3 interaction with the airway ELF to form secondary oxidation products.

________________________________ ________________ 5

- 24

5.3 Possible Pathways/Modes of Action

________________________________ __________________________ 5

- 25

5.3.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 5

- 25
5.3.2 Activation of Neural Reflexes

________________________________ __________________________ 5

- 26
5.3.3 Initiation of inflammation

________________________________ ______________________________ 5

- 29
5.3.4 Alteration of epithelial barrier function

________________________________ ___________________ 5

- 34
5.3.5 Sensitization of bronchial smooth muscle

________________________________ ________________ 5

- 35
5.3.6 Modification of innate/adaptive immune system responses

________________________________ ___ 5

- 39
5.3.7 Airways remodeling

________________________________ ________________________________ _ 5

- 43
5.3.8 Systemic inflammation and oxidative/nitrosative stress

________________________________ ______ 5

- 44
5.3.9 Impaired alveolar

- arterial O 2 transfer

________________________________ ____________________ 5

- 45
5.3.10 Summary

________________________________ ________________________________ _________ 5

- 46 Figure 5

- 9 The m odes of action/possible pathways underlying the health effects resulting from inhalation exposure to O 3

.

_______________________________ 5

- 46

5.4 Interindividual Variability in Response

________________________________ ________________________ 5

- 50

5.4.1 Dosimetric Considerations

________________________________ ____________________________ 5

- 50
5.4.2 Mechanistic Considerations

________________________________ ___________________________ 5

- 52
5.4.2.1 Gene

- Environment Interacti ons

________________________________ _________________ 5

- 52
5.4.2.2 Pre

- existing Diseases and Conditions

________________________________ ____________ 5

- 56
5.4.2.3 Nutritional Status

________________________________ ____________________________ 5

- 61
5.4. 2.4 Lifestage 5

- 62
5.4.2.5 Attenuation of Responses

________________________________ _____________________ 5

- 64
5.4.2.6 Co

- Exposures with Particulate Matter

________________________________ ____________ 5

- 66
5.4.2.7 Summary 5

- 67 Figure 5

- 10 Factors which contribute to the interindividual variability in responses resulting from inhalation exposure to ozo ne.

____________________________ 5

- 67

5.5 Species Homology and Interspecies Sensitivity

________________________________ _________________ 5

- 67

5.5.1 Dosimetry

________________________________ ________________________________ _________ 5

- 68 Figure 5

- 11 Species comparison of antioxidant / protein ratios of: (a) nasal lavage fluid and, (b) bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.

_____________________________ 5

- 70 Figure 5

- 12 Humans and animals are similar in the regional pattern of O 3 tissue dose distribution.

________________________________ ______________________ 5

- 71 Figure 5

- 13 Oxygen

- 18 incorporation into different fractions of BALF from humans and rats exposed to 0.4 and 2.0 ppm 18 O 3

.

_____________________________ 5

- 72
5.5.2 Homology of Response

________________________________ ______________________________ 5

- 73
5.5.3 Summary

________________________________ ________________________________ _________ 5

- 75

5.6 Chapter Summ ary

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 5

- 76

5.7 References

________________________________ ________________________________ ____________ 5

- 77

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xv September 2011 

### 6 INTEGRATED HEALTH EF FECTS OF SHORT

- TERM OZONE EXPOSURE

_____________ 6

- 1

6.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ______________ 6

- 1

6.2 Respiratory Effects

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 6

- 1

6.2.1 Lung Function

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 6

- 3
6.2.1.1 Controlled Human Exposure

________________________________ ____________________ 6

- 3 Figure 6

- 1 Cross

- study comparison of mean ozone

- induced FEV 1 decrements following 6.6 hours of exposur e to ozone.

_______________________________ 6

- 7 Figure 6

- 2 Frequency distributions of FEV 1 decrements observed by Schelegle et al. (2009) in young healthy adults (1 6 F, 15 M) following 6.6

- h exposures to ozone or filtered air.

________________________________ _______________ 6

- 13
6.2.1.2 Epidemiology 6

- 23
Table 6

- 1 Mean and upper percentile concentrations of ozone in epidemiologic studies examining lung function in populations with increased outdoor
exposures

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 24 Figure 6

- 3 Changes in FEV 1 (ml) or PEF (ml/sec) in association with ambient ozone exposure in studies of children attending su mmer camp.

__________________ 6

- 26
Table 6

- 2 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 3

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 27 Figure 6

- 4 Percent change in FEV 1 in association with ambient ozone exposures of adults exercising outdoors.

________________________________ _________ 6

- 28
Table 6

- 3 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 4 and results from studies in children exercising outdoors

__________ 6

- 29 Figure 6

- 5 Percent change in lung function in association with ambient ozone exposures among outdoor workers.

________________________________ ___ 6

- 31
Table 6

- 4 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 5

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 31
Table 6

- 5 Associations between ambient ozone exposure and lung function decrements in different ranges of ambient ozone concentrations

____________ 6

- 32
Table 6

- 6 Mean and upper percentile concentrations of ozone in epidemiologic studies examining lung function in children with asthma

___________________ 6

- 34 Figure 6

- 6 Percent change in FEV 1 in association with ambient ozone exposures among children with asthma.

________________________________ ________ 6

- 35
Table 6

- 7 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 6

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 36 Figure 6

- 7 Percent change in PEF or FEF 25

- 75% in association with ambient ozone exposures among children with asthma.

_______________________________ 6

- 37
Table 6

- 8 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 7

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 38
Table 6

- 9 Mean and upper percentile concentrations of ozone in epidemiologic studies examining lung function in adults with respiratory disease

___________ 6

- 44
Table 6

- 10 Mean and upper percentile concentrations of ozone in epidemiologic studies examining lung function in populations not restricted to individuals with asthma

________________________________ _____________________ 6

- 45 Figure 6

- 8 Percent change in lung function in association with ambient ozone exposures in studies not restricted to children with asthma.

________________ 6

- 46
Table 6

- 11 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 8 and results from other studies in children

______________________ 6

- 47
Table 6

- 12 Associations between ambient ozone exposure and changes in lung function in studies of adults

________________________________ _________ 6

- 4 9 Figure 6

- 9 Comparison of ozone

- associated changes in lung function in single

- and copollutant models.

________________________________ _______________ 6

- 52
Table 6

- 13 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6

- 9

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 53
6.2.1.3 Toxicology 6

- 56
6.2.2 Airway Hyperresponsiveness

________________________________ __________________________ 6

- 57
6.2.2.1 Controlled Human Exposures

________________________________ __________________ 6

- 57
6.2.2.2 Toxicology 6

- 59
6.2.3 Pulmonary Inflammation, Injury and Oxidative Stress

________________________________ _______ 6

- 61
6.2.3.1 Controlled Human Exposures

________________________________ __________________ 6

- 61
6.2.3.2 Epidemiology 6

- 66

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xvi September 2011 Table 6

- 14 Mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in studies examining biological markers of p ulmonary inflammation and oxidative stress

__________ 6

- 67 Figure 6

- 10 Percent change in exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) per standardized increment in ambient ozone exposure in studies of individuals with and without asthma.

________________________________ ________________________ 6

- 68
Table 6

- 15 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 10

________________________________ ______________________ 6

- 69
Table 6

- 16 Associations between short

- term ambient ozone exposure and biological markers of pulmonary inflammation and oxidative stress

__________________ 6

- 69
6.2.3.3 Toxicology 6

- 79
Table 6

- 17 Morphometric observations in non

- human primates after acute O 3 exposure

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 81
6.2.4 Respiratory Symptoms and Medication Use

________________________________ ______________ 6

- 84
6.2.4.1 Children with Asthma

________________________________ _________________________ 6

- 86
Table 6

- 18 Mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in epidemiologic studies examining respiratory symptoms, medication use, and activity levels in children with asthma

________________________________ ______________ 6

- 87 Figure 6

- 11 Associations of ambient ozone exposure with respiratory symptoms i n children with asthma.

________________________________ ______________ 6

- 88
Table 6

- 19 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6

- 11

________________________________ ______________________ 6

- 89 Figure 6

- 12 Associations of ambient ozone exposure with asthma medication use.

_______ 6

- 92
Table 6

- 20 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6

- 12

________________________________ ______________________ 6

- 92
6.2.4.2 Adults with Respiratory Disease

________________________________ ________________ 6

- 93
Table 6

- 21 Mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in epidemiologic studies examining respiratory symptoms and medication use in adults with respiratory disease

________________________________ ________________ 6

- 94
6.2.4.3 Populations not Restricted to Individuals with Asthma

________________________________ 6

- 95
Table 6

- 22 M ean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in epidemiologic studies examining respiratory symptoms in populations not restricted to individuals with asthma

________________________________ ____________ 6

- 95 Figure 6

- 13 Associations of ambient ozone exposure with respiratory symptoms in studies not restricted to children with asthma.

___________________________ 6

- 97
Table 6

- 23 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6

- 13

________________________________ ______________________ 6

- 97
6.2.4.4 Confounding in Epidemiologic Studies of Respiratory Symptoms and Medication Use

______ 6

- 98
Table 6

- 24 Associations between sh ort

- term ozone exposure and respiratory symptoms in single

- and copollutant models

____________________________ 6

- 99
6.2.4.5 Summary of Epidemiologic Studies of Respiratory Symptoms and Asthma Medication Use

_ 6

- 100
6.2.5 Lung Host Defenses

________________________________ ________________________________ 6

- 101
6.2.5.1 Mucociliary Clearance

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 102
6.2.5.2 Alveolobronchiolar Transport Mechanism

________________________________ ________ 6

- 102
6.2.5.3 Alveolar Macrophages

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 103
6.2.5.4 Infection and Adaptive Immunity

________________________________ _______________ 6

- 104
6.2.6 Allergic and Asthma

- Related Responses

________________________________ ________________ 6

- 108
6.2.7 Hospital Admissions, Emergency Department Visits, and Physicians Visits

_____________________ 6

- 110
6.2.7.1 Summary of Findings from 2 006 Ozone AQCD

________________________________ ____ 6

- 110
Table 6

- 25 Mean and upper percentile concentrations of respiratory

- related hospital admission and emergency de partment visit studies evaluated

_____________ 6

- 112
6.2.7.2 Hospital Admission Studies

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 113 Figure 6

- 14 Percent increase in respiratory hospital admissions from natural spline models for a 40 ppb increase in 1

- h max ozone concentrations for each locati on of the APHENA study.

________________________________ _____ 6

- 116
Table 6

- 26 Corresponding effect estimates for Figure 6

- 14

_________________________ 6

- 117 Figure 6

- 15 Estimated relative risks (RRs) of ozone

- related asthma hospital admissions allowing for possible nonlinear relationships using natural splines.

________________________________ ________________________ 6

- 123
6.2.7.3 Emergency Department Visit Studies

________________________________ ___________ 6

- 124 Figure 6

- 16 Risk ratio for respiratory ED visits and different ozone exposure metrics in Atlanta from 1993

- 2004.

________________________________ ___________ 6

- 125

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xvii September 2011 Figure 6

- 17 Loess dose

- response estimates and twice

- standard error estimates from generalized additive models for associations between 3

- day avg ozone
concentra tions and ED visits for pediatric asthma.

______________________ 6

- 128 Figure 6

- 18 Relative risk of asthma ED visits children and adults for a 30 ppb incre ase in max 8

- h avg O3 concentrations in Seattle, WA, 1998

- 2002.

_____________ 6

- 130
6.2.7.4 Outpatient and Physician Visit Studies

________________________________ __________ 6

- 131
6.2.7.5 Summary 6

- 132 Figure 6

- 19 Percent increase in respiratory

- related hospital admission and ED visits in studies that presented all

- year and/or seasonal results.

__________________ 6

- 133
Table 6

- 27 Corresponding Effect Estimates for Figure 6

- 19

________________________ 6

- 134 Figure 6

- 20 Percent increase in respir atory

- related hospital admissions and ED visits for studies that presented single and copollutant model results.

____________ 6

- 135
Table 6

- 28 C orresponding effect estimates for Figure 6

- 20

_________________________ 6

- 136
6.2.8 Respiratory Mortality

________________________________ ________________________________ 6

- 136
6.2.9 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 137

6.3 Cardiovascular Effects

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ 6

- 143

6. 3.1 Controlled Human Exposure

________________________________ _________________________ 6

- 143
6.3.2 Epidemiology

________________________________ ________________________________ _____ 6

- 144
6.3.2.1 Arrhythmia 6

- 145
Table 6

- 29 Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of arrhythmias

________________________________ ____________________ 6

- 145
6.3.2.2 Heart Rate/Heart Rate Variability

________________________________ _______________ 6

- 147
Table 6

- 30 Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of heart rate variability

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 14 8
6.3.2.3 Stroke 6

- 151 Figure 6

- 2 1 Odds ratio (95% confidence interval) for stroke by quintiles of ozone

. _______ 6

- 153
6.3.2.4 Biomarkers 6

- 153
Table 6

- 31 Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of biomarkers

________________________________ _____________________ 6

- 154
6.3.2.5 Myocardial Infarction (MI)

________________________________ _____________________ 6

- 159
6.3.2.6 Blood Pressure

________________________________ _____________________________ 6

- 160
Table 6

- 32 Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of blood
pressure

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 160
6.3.2.7 Hospital Admissions and Emergency Department Visits

_____________________________ 6

- 161
Table 6

- 33 Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of HAs and ED visits

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 162 Figure 6

- 22 Odds ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for over all cardiovascular ED visits or HAs.

________________________________ ____ 6

- 166
Table 6

- 34 Odds ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for overall cardiovascular ED visits or HAs in studies presented in Figure 6

- 22

________ 6

- 167 Figure 6

- 23 Odds Ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for congestive heart failure ED visits or HAs.

________________________________ ______ 6

- 168
Table 6

- 35 Odds Ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for congestive heart failure ED visits or HAs for studies in Figure 6

- 23

__________________ 6

- 169 Figure 6

- 24 Odds Ratio (95% confidence interval) per increment ppb increase in ozone for ischemic heart disease, coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, and angina pectoris ED visits or HAs.

________________________ 6

- 170
Table 6

- 36 Odds Ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for ischemic heart di sease, coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, and angina pectoris ED visits or HAs for studies presented in Figure 6

- 24

_____________ 6

- 171 Figure 6

- 25 Odds Ratio (95% confidence interval) per increment ppb increase in ozone for stroke ED visits or HAs.

________________________________ ___ 6

- 172
Table 6

- 37 Odds Ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for stroke ED visits or HAs for studies presented in Figure 6

- 25

_______________________ 6

- 173 Figure 6

- 26 Odds Ratio (95% confidence interval) per increment ppb* increase in ozone for arrhythmia and dysrhythmia ED visits or HAs.

__________________ 6

- 173
Table 6

- 38 Odds Ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb* increase in ozone for arrhythmia and dysrhythmia ED visits or HAs for studies presented in Figure 6

- 26

______ 6

- 174
6.3.2.8 Cardiovascular Mortality

________________________________ ______________________ 6

- 174
6.3.2.9 Summary of Epidemiologic Studies

________________________________ _____________ 6

- 175
6.3.3 Toxicology

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 6

- 175

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xviii September 2011 6.3.3.1 Summary of Findings from Previous Ozone AQCDs

________________________________ 6

- 175
6.3.3.2 Recent Cardiovascular Toxicology Studies

________________________________ _______ 6

- 177
Table 6

- 39 Characterization of study details for Section 6.3.3.2

_____________________ 6

- 182
6.3.4 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 183

6.4 Central Nervous System Effects

________________________________ ____________________________ 6

- 184

Table 6

- 40 Central Nervous System and Behavioral Effects of Short

- term O 3 Exposure in Rats

________________________________ ________________ 6

- 189
6.4.1 Neuroendocrine Effects

________________________________ _____________________________ 6

- 190
6.4.2 Summary and Causal Determina tion

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 191

6.5 Effects on Other Organ Systems

________________________________ ___________________________ 6

- 192

6.5.1 Effects on the Liver and Xenobiotic Metabolism

________________________________ __________ 6

- 192
6.5.2 Effects on Cutaneous and Ocular Tissues

________________________________ _______________ 6

- 193

6.6 Mortality

________________________________ ________________________________ ______________ 6

- 193

6.6.1 Summary of Findings from 2006 Ozone AQCD

________________________________ ___________ 6

- 193
6.6.2 Associations of Mortality and Short

- Term Ozone Exposure

________________________________ __ 6

- 194 Figure 6

- 27 Summary of mortality risk estimates for short

- term ozone exposure and all

- cause (nonaccidental) mortality from all

- year and summer season analyses.

________________________________ ______________________ 6

- 195
Table 6

- 41 Corresponding effect estimates for Figure 6

- 27

_________________________ 6

- 196
Ta ble 6

- 42 Range of mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in previous and recent multicity studies

________________________________ ________ 6

- 197
6.6.2.1 Confounding 6

- 198
Table 6

- 43 Correlations between PM and ozone by season and region

_______________ 6

- 199 Figure 6

- 28 Scatter plots of ozone mortality risk estimates with versus without adjustment for PM 10 in NMMAPS cities.

_______________________________ 6

- 200 Figure 6

- 29 Community

- specific ozone

- mortality risk estimates for nonaccidental mortality per 10 ppb increase in same

- day 24

- h avg summertime ozone concentrations in single

- pollutant models and copollutant models with sulfate.

________________________________ ________________________ 6

- 202 Figure 6

- 30 Percent increase in all

- cause (nonaccidental) and cause

- specific mortality from the APHENA study for single

- and copollutant models.

_______________ 6

- 204
Table 6

- 44 Corresponding Effect Estimates for Figure 6

- 30

________________________ 6

- 205
Table 6

- 45 Sensitivity of ozone risk estimates per 10 μg/m 3 increase in 24

- h avg ozone concentrations at lag 0

- 1 to alternativ e methods for adjustment of seasonal trend, for all

- cause mortality using Berkey MLE and TLNSE Hierarchical Models

________________________________ ______________ 6

- 207
6.6.2.2 Ef fect Modification

________________________________ __________________________ 6

- 207
Table 6

- 46 Additional percent change in ozone

- related mortality for individual

- level susceptibility factors

________________________________ ______________ 6

- 209 Figure 6

- 31 Ozone mortality risk estimates and community

- specific characteristics, U.S., 1987

- 2000.

________________________________ ________________ 6

- 211
Table 6

- 47 Percent change in all

- cause mortality, for all ages, associated with a 40ppb increase in 1

- h max ozone concentrations at Lag 0

– 1 at the 25th and 75th percentile of the center

- specific distribution of selected effect modifiers

________________________________ _______________________ 6

- 212
Table 6

- 48 Percentage increase in daily mortality for a 10 ppb increase in 24

- h avg ozone concentrations during the previous week by geographic region in the U.S., 1987

- 2000

________________________________ ______________ 6

- 213 Figure 6

- 32 Community

- specific Bayesian ozone

- mortality risk estimates in 98 U.S. communities.

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 214 Figure 6

- 33 Map of spa tially dependent ozone

- mortality coefficients for 8

- h max ozone concentrations using summer data.

____________________________ 6

- 214
6.6.2.3 Interaction 6

- 215
6.6.2.4 Evaluation of the Ozone

- Mortality C

- R Relationship and Related Issues

________________ 6

- 216
Table 6

- 49 Estimated effect of a 10 ppb increase in 8

- h max ozone concentrations on mortality during the summer months for single

- day and distributed lag models

________________________________ ________________________ 6

- 218 Figure 6

- 34 Estimated combined smooth distributed lag for 48 U.S. cities during the summer months.

________________________________ ________________ 6

- 219

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xix September 2011 Table 6

- 50 Estimated percent increase in cause

- specific mortality (and 95% CIs) for a 10

- μg/m 3 increase in maximum 8

- h ozone during June

- August, for t he same day (lag 0), the average of the same and previous day (lag 0

- 1), the unconstrained distributed lag model for the sum of 0

- 20 days and the penalized distributed lag model (lag 0

- 20)

_____________________________ 6

- 220 Figure 6

- 35 Estimated combined smooth distributed lag in 21 European cities during the summer (June

- August) months.

________________________________ __ 6

- 222
Table 6

- 51 Percent excess all

- cause mortality per 10 ppb increase in daily 8

- h max ozone on the same day, by season, month, and age groups

______________ 6

- 223 Figure 6

- 36 Estimated combined C

- R curve for ozone and nonaccidental mortality using the nonlinear (spline) model.

________________________________ __ 6

- 225
6.6.2.5 Associations of Cause

- Specific Mortality and Short

- term Ozone Exposure

______________ 6

- 227 Figure 6

- 37 Percent increase in cause

- specific mortality.

___________________________ 6

- 229
Table 6

- 52 Cor responding effect estimates for Figure 6

- 37

_________________________ 6

- 230
6.6.3 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 231

6.7 Overall Summary

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 6

- 233

Table 6

- 53 Summary of causal determinations for short

- term exposures to ozone

_______ 6

- 233

6.8 References

________________________________ ________________________________ ___________ 6

- 234



### 7 INTEGRATED HEALTH EF FECTS OF LONG

- TERM OZONE EXPOSURE

______________ 7

- 1

7.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ______________ 7

- 1

7.2 Respirator y Effects

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 7

- 1

7.2.1 New Onset Asthma

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ 7

- 2 Figure 7

- 1 Interaction of gene presence and O 3 level on the Hazard Ratio (HR) of

new

- onset asthma in the 12 Children’s Health Study communities.

___________ 7

- 5 Figure 7

- 2 Ozone modifies the effect of TNF G

- 308A genotype on bronchitic symptoms among children with asthma in the CHS.

_______________________ 7

- 8

7.2.2 Asthma Hospital Admissions and ED Visits

________________________________ _______________ 7

- 11 Figure 7

- 3 Ozone

- asthma concentration

- response relationship using the mean concentration during the entire follow

- up period.

_________________________ 7

- 13
7.2.3 Pulmonary Structure and Function

________________________________ ______________________ 7

- 14
7.2.3.1 Pulmonary Structure and Function: Evidence from To xicological Studies

_________________ 7

- 17
Table 7

- 1 Respiratory effects in nonhuman primates and rodents resulting from long

- term O 3 exposure

________________________________ _____________ 7

- 22

7.2.4 Pulmonary Inflammation, Injury, and Oxidative Stress

________________________________ _______ 7

- 23
7.2.5 Allergic Responses

________________________________ ________________________________ __ 7

- 25
7.2.6 Host Defense

________________________________ ________________________________ ______ 7

- 27

7.2.7 Respir atory Mortality

________________________________ ________________________________ _ 7

- 27
7.2.8 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 28
Table 7

- 2 Summary of selected key new studies examining annual ozone exposure and respiratory health effects

________________________________ ________ 7

- 29
Table 7

- 3 Studies providing evidence concerning potential confounding by PM for available endpoints

________________________________ _______________ 7

- 31

7.3 Cardiovascular Effects

________________________________ ________________________________ ____ 7

- 33

7.3.1 Cardiovascular Disease

________________________________ ______________________________ 7

- 33
7.3.1.1 Cardiovascular Epidemiology

________________________________ ___________________ 7

- 33
7.3.1.2 Cardiovascular Toxicology

________________________________ _____________________ 7

- 34
Table 7

- 4 Characterization of study details for Section 7.3.1.2

______________________ 7

- 36
7.3.2 Cardiac Mortality

________________________________ ________________________________ ____ 7

- 36
7.3.3 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 3 6

7.4 Reproductive and Developmental Effects

________________________________ _____________________ 7

- 37

7.4.1 Effects on Sperm

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ 7

- 38

7.4.2 Ef fects on Reproduction

________________________________ ______________________________ 7

- 39
7.4.3 Birth Weight

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 7

- 41 Figure 7

- 4 Birthweight deficit by decile of 24

- h avg O 3 concentration averaged over the entire pregnancy compared with the decile group with the lowest O 3 exposure.

________________________________ _______________________ 7

- 42
Table 7

- 5 Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of birth weight

____________________ 7

- 44

7.4.4 Preterm Birth

________________________________ ________________________________ ______ 7

- 45

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xx September 2011 Table 7

- 6 Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of PTB

__________________________ 7

- 49
7.4.5 Fetal Growth

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 7

- 50
Table 7

- 7 Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of fetal growth

____________________ 7

- 53
7.4.6 Postnatal growth

________________________________ ________________________________ ____ 7

- 53

7.4.7 Birth Defects

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 7

- 54
Table 7

- 8 Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of birth defects

___________________ 7

- 56
7.4.8 Developmental Respiratory Effects

________________________________ _____________________ 7

- 57
7.4.9 Developmental Central Nervous System Effects

________________________________ ___________ 7

- 61
7.4.9.1 Laterality 7

- 61
7.4.9.2 Brain Morphology and Neurochemical Cha nges

________________________________ ____ 7

- 61
7.4.9.3 Neurobehavioral Outcomes

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 62
7.4.9.4 Sleep Aberrations after Developmental Ozone Exposure

_____________________________ 7

- 63
7.4.10 Early Life Mortality

________________________________ ________________________________ __ 7

- 63

7. 4.10.1 Stillbirth 7

- 64
7.4.10.2 Infant Mortality, Less than 1 Year

________________________________ _______________ 7

- 64
7.4.10.3 Neonatal Mortality, Less than 1 Month

________________________________ ____________ 7

- 65
7.4.10.4 Postneonatal Mortality, 1 Month to 1 Year

________________________________ _________ 7

- 65
7.4.10.5 Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

________________________________ _________________ 7

- 67
Table 7

- 9 Brief summary of infant mortality studies

_______________________________ 7

- 68
Table 7

- 10 Summary of Key Reproductive and Developmental Toxicological Studies

_____ 7

- 69

7.4.11 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 70

7.5 Central Nervous System Effects

________________________________ _____________________________ 7

- 71

7.5.1 Effects on the Brain and Behavior

________________________________ ______________________ 7

- 71
Table 7

- 11 Central nervous system effects of long

- term O 3 exposure in rats

____________ 7

- 73
7.5.2 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 74

7.6 Carcinogenic and Genotoxic Potential of Ozone

________________________________ ________________ 7

- 75

7.6.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 7

- 75
7.6.2 Lung C ancer Incidence and Mortality

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 77
7.6.3 DNA Damage

________________________________ ________________________________ ______ 7

- 77
7.6.4 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 80

7.7 Mortality

________________________________ ________________________________ _______________ 7

- 80 Figure 7

- 5 Adjusted ozone

- mortality relative risk estimates (95% CI) by time period of analysis per subject

- weighted mean O 3 concentration in the Cancer Prevent ion Study II by the American Cancer Society.

_____________________ 7

- 81
Table 7

- 12 Relative risk (and 95% CI) of death attributable to a 10

- ppb change in the ambient O 3 concentration*

________________________________ __________ 7

- 84

7.7.1 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 85

7.8 Overall Summary

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 7

- 85

Table 7

- 13 Summary of causal determinations for long

- term exposures to ozone

________ 7

- 85

7.9 References

________________________________ ________________________________ ____________ 7

- 86



### 8 POPULATIONS POTENTIA LLY AT INCREASED RIS K FOR OZONE

- RELATED HEALTH EFFECTS

________________________________ ________________________________ __ 8

- 1

8.1 Preexisting Disease/Conditions

________________________________ ______________________________ 8

- 3

Table 8

- 1 Prevalence of respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes among adults by age and region in the U.S.

______________________ 8

- 4
8.1.1 Influenza/Infections

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ 8

- 4
8.1.2 Asthma 8

- 4
8.1.3 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

________________________________ ___________ 8

- 7
8.1.4 Cardiovascular Disease

________________________________ _______________________________ 8

- 8
8.1.5 Diabetes

________________________________ ________________________________ __________ 8

- 10
8.1.6 Hyperthyroidism

________________________________ ________________________________ ____ 8

- 10

8.2 Lifestage

________________________________ ________________________________ _______________ 8

- 10

8.2.1 Children 8

- 11
8.2.2 Older Adults

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 8

- 14

8.3 Sex

________________________________ ________________________________ ___________________ 8

- 16

8.4 Genetics

________________________________ ________________________________ _______________ 8

- 18

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxi September 2011 8.5 Diet

________________________________ ________________________________ ___________________ 8

- 23

8.6 Body Mass Index an d Physical Conditioning

________________________________ ___________________ 8

- 25

8.7 Socioeconomic Status

________________________________ ________________________________ ____ 8

- 26

8.8 Race/Ethnicity

________________________________ ________________________________ ___________ 8

- 28

8.9 Smoking

________________________________ ________________________________ _______________ 8

- 29

8.10 Heightened Exposure

________________________________ ________________________________ _____ 8

- 30

8.11 Healthy Responders

________________________________ ________________________________ ______ 8

- 32

8.12 S ummary

________________________________ ________________________________ ______________ 8

- 32

8.13 References

________________________________ ________________________________ ____________ 8

- 34



### 9 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT S: OZONE EFFECTS ON VEGETATION AND ECOSY STEMS 9

- 1

9.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ______________ 9

- 1 Figure 9

- 1 An illustrative diagram of the major pathway through which O 3 enters plants and the major endpoints that O 3 may affect in plants and ecosystems.

________________________________ ______________________ 9

- 3

9.2 Experimental Exposure Methodologies

________________________________ ________________________ 9

- 3

9.2.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ _________ 9

- 3
9.2.2 “Indoor,” Controlled Environment, and Greenhouse Chambers

________________________________ _ 9

- 4
9.2.3 Field Chambers

________________________________ ________________________________ _____ 9

- 4
9.2.4 Plume and FACE

- Type Systems

________________________________ ________________________ 9

- 6
9.2.5 Ambient Gradients

________________________________ ________________________________ ___ 9

- 7
9.2.6 Comparative Studies

________________________________ ________________________________ _ 9

- 8

9.3 Mechanisms Governing Vegetation Response to Ozone

________________________________ __________ 9

- 10

9.3.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 9

- 10
9.3.2 Ozone Uptake into the Leaf

________________________________ ___________________________ 9

- 12
9.3.2.1 Changes in Stomatal Function

________________________________ __________________ 9

- 13 Figure 9

- 2 The microarchitecture of a dicot leaf.

________________________________ __ 9

- 15 Figure 9

- 3 Possible reactions of ozone within water.

______________________________ 9

- 15 Figure 9

- 4 The Crigee mechanism of ozone attack of a double bond.

_________________ 9

- 16
9.3.3 Cellular to Systemic Responses

________________________________ ________________________ 9

- 17
9.3.3.1 Ozone Sensing and Signal Transduction

________________________________ __________ 9

- 17
9.3.3.2 Gene and Protein Expression Changes in Response to Ozone

________________________ 9

- 18 Figure 9

- 5 Composite diagram of major themes in the temporal evolution of the genetic response to ozone stress.

________________________________ ____ 9

- 23
9.3.3.3 Role of Phytohormones in Plant Response to Ozone

________________________________ 9

- 24 Figure 9

- 6 The oxidative cell death cycle.

________________________________ _______ 9

- 26
9.3.4 Detoxification

________________________________ ________________________________ ______ 9

- 26
9.3.4.1 Overview of Ozone

- Induced Defense Mechanisms

________________________________ __ 9

- 26
9.3.4.2 Role of Antioxidants in Plant Defense Responses

________________________________ ___ 9

- 27
9.3.5 Effects on Primary and Secondary Metabolis m

________________________________ ____________ 9

- 30
9.3.5.1 Light and Dark Reactions of Photosynthesis

________________________________ _______ 9

- 30
9.3.5.2 Respiration and Dark Respiration

________________________________ _______________ 9

- 32
9.3.5.3 Secondary Metabolism

________________________________ ________________________ 9

- 33
9. 3.6 Summary

________________________________ ________________________________ _________ 9

- 36

9.4 Nature of Effects on Vegetation and Ecosystems

________________________________ _______________ 9

- 38

9.4.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 9

- 38
9.4.1.1 Ecosystem Scale, Function, and Structure

________________________________ ________ 9

- 39
9.4.1.2 Ecosystem Services

________________________________ __________________________ 9

- 40
9.4.2 Visible Foliar Injury and Biomonitoring

________________________________ ___________________ 9

- 41
9.4.2.1 Biomonitoring 9

- 42
9.4.2.2 Summary 9

- 44
9.4.3 Growth, productivity and carbon storage in natural ecosystems

_______________________________ 9

- 45
9.4.3.1 Plant growth and biomass allocation

________________________________ _____________ 9

- 45
9.4.3.2 Summary 9

- 49
9.4.3.3 Reproduction 9

- 49

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxii September 2011 Table 9

- 1 Ozone effects on plant reproductive processes (derived from Table AX9

- 22 of the 2006 ozone AQCD)

________________________________ ________ 9

- 51
9.4.3.4 Ecosystem Pr oductivity and Carbon Sequestration

________________________________ __ 9

- 51
Table 9

- 2 Comparison of models used to simulate the ecological consequences of O 3 exposure

________________________________ _____________________ 9

- 53
9.4.3.5 Summary 9

- 57
Table 9

- 3 Modeled effects of ozone on primary production, C exchange, and C sequestration

________________________________ __________________ 9

- 58
9.4.4 Crop yield and quality in agricultural systems

________________________________ _____________ 9

- 58
9.4.4.1 Yield 9

- 59
9.4.4.2 Crop Quality 9

- 64
9.4.4.3 Summary 9

- 64
Table 9

- 4 Summary of recent studies of ozone effects on crops (exclusive of growth and yield)

________________________________ _______________________ 9

- 66
Table 9

- 5 Modeled effects of ozone on crop yield loss at regional and global scales

_____ 9

- 68
9.4.5 Water Cycling

________________________________ ________________________________ ______ 9

- 68 Figure 9

- 7 The potential effects of ozone exposure on watering cycling.

_______________ 9

- 69
9.4.5.1 Summary 9

- 71
9.4.6 Below

- Ground Processes

________________________________ _____________________________ 9

- 72 Figure 9

- 8 Conceptual diagram showing where ozone alters C, water and nutrient flow in a tree

- soil system, including transfer between biotic and abiotic
compone nts below ground that influence soil physical and chemical properties.

________________________________ ______________________ 9

- 73
9.4.6.1 Litter Carbon Chemistry, Litter Nutrient and The ir Ecosystem Budgets

___________________ 9

- 73
Table 9

- 6 The effect of elevated ozone on leaf/litter nutrient concentrations

____________ 9

- 75
9.4.6.2 Decomposer Metabolism and Litter Decomposition

________________________________ __ 9

- 75
9.4.6.3 Soil respiration and carbon formation

________________________________ ____________ 9

- 76
Table 9

- 7 The temporal variation of ecosystem resp onses to ozone exposure at Aspen FACE site

________________________________ _________________ 9

- 77
9.4.6.4 Nutrient cycling

________________________________ ______________________________ 9

- 79
9.4.6.5 Dissolved Organic Carbon and Biogenic Trace Gases Emission

_______________________ 9

- 80
9.4.6.6 Summary 9

- 81
9.4.7 Community composition

________________________________ ______________________________ 9

- 81
9.4.7.1 Forest 9

- 82
9.4.7.2 Grasslan d and Agricultural Land

________________________________ ________________ 9

- 83
9.4.7.3 Microbes 9

- 84
9.4.7.4 Summary 9

- 85
9.4.8 Factors that Modify Functional and Growth Response

________________________________ ______ 9

- 86
9.4.8.1 Genetics 9

- 87
9.4.8.2 Environmental Biological Factors

________________________________ ________________ 9

- 87
9.4.8.3 Physical Factors

________________________________ _____________________________ 9

- 88
9.4.8.4 Interactions with other Pollutants

________________________________ ________________ 9

- 89
Table 9

- 8 Response of plants to the interactive effects of elevated ozone exposure and N enr ichment

________________________________ _________________ 9

- 91
9.4.9 Insects and Other Wildlife

________________________________ ____________________________ 9

- 93
9.4.9.1 Insects 9

- 93
9.4.9.2 Wildli fe 9

- 96
9.4.9.3 Indirect Effects on Wildlife

________________________________ _____________________ 9

- 97
9.4.9.4 Summary 9

- 100

9.5 Effects

- Ba sed Air Quality Exposure Indices and Dose Modeling

________________________________ ___ 9

- 100

9.5.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 9

- 100
9.5.2 Description of Exposure Indices Available in the Literature

________________________________ __ 9

- 101 Figure 9

- 9 Diagrammatic representation of several exposure indices

________________ 9

- 102
9.5.3 Important Components of Exposure Indices

________________________________ _____________ 9

- 107
9.5.3.1 Role of Concentration

________________________________ _______________________ 9

- 107 Figure 9

- 10 Trends in May to September 12

- h SUM06, peak 1

- h ozone concentration and number of daily exceedances of 95 ppb

___________________________ 9

- 109 Figure 9

- 11 The number of hourly average concentrations between 50 and 89 ppb for the period 1980

- 2000 for the Crestline, San Bernardino County, CA, monitoring site.

________________________________ __________________ 9

- 110

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxiii September 2011 9.5.3.2 Diurnal and Seasonal Exposure

________________________________ ________________ 9

- 110 Figure 9

- 12 Mean diurnal.

________________________________ ___________________ 9

- 113 Figure 9

- 13 Maximum 3

- month, 12

- h W126 plotted against maximum 6

- month, 12

- h W126.

________________________________ _________________________ 9

- 115
9.5.4 Ozone Uptake/Dose Modeling for Vegetation

________________________________ ____________ 9

- 116
9.5.5 Summary

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 9

- 118

9.6 Ozone Exposure

- Plant Response Relationships

________________________________ _______________ 9

- 120

9.6.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ _______ 9

- 120
9.6.2 Estimates of Crop Yield Loss and Tree Seedling Biomass Loss in the 1996 and 2006 O zone AQCDs 9

- 123 Figure 9

- 14 Quantiles of predicted relative yield loss for 34 NCLAN crop experiments.

____ 9

- 125 Figure 9

- 15 Quantiles of predicted relative yield loss for 4 crop species in NCLAN experiments.

________________________________ ____________________ 9

- 126 Figure 9

- 16 Quantiles of predicted relative biomass loss for 49 tree species in NHEERL/WED experiments.

________________________________ _______ 9

- 127 Figure 9

- 17 Quantiles of predicted relative biomass loss for 4 tree species in NHEERL/WED experiments.

________________________________ _______ 9

- 128
Table 9

- 9 Ozone exposures at which 10 and 20% yield loss is predicted for 50 and 75% of crop species

________________________________ ______________ 9

- 129
Table 9

- 10 Ozone exposures at which 10 and 20% yield loss is predicted for 50 and 75% of crop species under drought conditions and adequate moisture

______ 9

- 129
Table 9

- 11 Ozone exposures at which 10 and 20% biomass loss is predicted for 50 and 75 %of tree species, based on composite functions for the 50th and 75th percentiles of 49 Weibull curves for relative above

- ground biomass los s data from 49 studies of 11 tree species grown under well

- watered conditions for 1 or 2 year; curves were standardized to 90

- day W126

_______ 9

- 130
9.6.3 Validation of 1996 and 2006 Ozone AQCD Models and Methodology Using the 90 day 12

- h W126 and Current FACE Data

________________________________ ________________________________ 9

- 130
9.6.3.1 Comparison of NCLAN

- Based Prediction and SoyFACE Data

________________________ 9

- 132
Table 9

- 12 Comparison between change in yield observed in the SoyFACE experiment between elevated and ambient ozone, and change predicted at the same values of ozone by the median composite function for NCLAN

________________________________ ________________________ 9

- 133
Table 9

- 13 Comparison between yield observed in the SoyFACE experiment and yield predicted at the same values of ozone by the median composite function for NCLAN

________________________________ ______________ 9

- 133 Figure 9

- 18 Comparison of yield observed in SoyFACE experiment in a given year with yield predicted by the median composite function based on NCLAN.

____ 9

- 134 Figure 9

- 19 Comparison of composite functions for the quartiles of 7 curves for 7 genotypes of soybean grown in the SoyFACE experiment, and for the quartiles of 11 curves for 5 genotypes of soybean grown in the NCLAN project.

________________________________ ________________________ 9

- 135
9.6.3.2 Comparison of NHEERL/WED

- Bas ed Prediction of Tree Biomass Response and Aspen FACE Data 9

- 136
Table 9

- 14 Comparison between change in above

- ground biomass eleva ted and ambient ozone in Aspen FACE experiment in 6 year, and change predicted at the same values of ozone by the median composite function for NHEERL/WED (two

- parameter relative biomass model)

_______________ 9

- 137
Table 9

- 15 Comparison between above

- ground biomass observed in Aspen FACE experiment in 6 year and biomass predicted by the median composite function based on NHEERL/WED (three

- parameter a bsolute biomass model with intercept scaled to Aspen FACE data)

_______________________ 9

- 137 Figure 9

- 20 Comparison between above

- ground biomass observed in Aspen FACE experiment in 6 year and biomass predicted by the median composite function based on NHEERL/WED.

________________________________ ___ 9

- 138
9.6.3.3 Exposu re

- Response in a Gradient Study

________________________________ _________ 9

- 139 Figure 9

- 21 Above

- ground biomass for one genotype of cottonwood grown in seven locations for o ne season in 3 years.

________________________________ __ 9

- 140
9.6.3.4 Meta

- analyses of growth and yield studies

________________________________ _______ 9

- 141
Table 9

- 16 Meta

- analyses of growth or yield studies published since 2005

____________ 9

- 141
9.6.3.5 Additional exposure

- response data

________________________________ _____________ 9

- 142
9.6.4 Summary

________________________________ ________________________________ ________ 9

- 142
Table 9

- 17 Summary of studies of effects of ozone exposure on growth and yield of agricultural crops

________________________________ ________________ 9

- 144

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxiv September 2011 Table 9

- 18 Summary of studies of effects of ozone exposure on growth of natural vegetation

________________________________ ______________________ 9

- 146

9.7 References

________________________________ ________________________________ ___________ 9

- 148



### 10 THE ROLE OF TROPOSPH ERIC OZONE IN CLIMAT E CHANGE AND UV

- B EFFECTS

__ 10

- 1

10.1 Introduction

________________________________ ________________________________ _____________ 10

- 1

10.2 Physics of the Earth’s Radiation Budget

________________________________ ______________________ 10

- 1 Figure 10

- 1 Diagram of the factors that determine human exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

________________________________ _______________________ 10

- 2

10.3 Effects of Tropospheric Ozone on Climate

________________________________ _____________________ 10

- 3 Background

________________________________ ________________________________ _____________ 10

- 3
10.3.1 Climate Change Evidence and the Influence of Tropospheric Ozone

___________________________ 10

- 4
10.3.1.1 Climate Change in the Recent Past

________________________________ ______________ 10

- 4
10.3.1.2 Projections of Future Climate Change

________________________________ ____________ 10

- 5
10.3.1.3 Metrics of Potential Climate Change

________________________________ _____________ 10

- 6
10.3.1.4 Tropospheric Ozone as a Greenhouse Gas

________________________________ _______ 10

- 7 Figure 10

- 2 Schematic illustrating the effects of tropospheric ozone on climate.

__________ 10

- 8
Fi gure 10

- 3 Global average radiative forcing (RF) estimates and uncertainty ranges in 2005 for anthropogenic CO 2 , CH 4 , ozone and other important agents and mechanisms

.

________________________________ ____________________ 10

- 9
10.3.2 Factors that Influence the Effect of Tropospheric Ozone on Climate

____________________________ 10

- 9
10.3.2.1 Trends in the Concentration of Tropospheric Ozone

________________________________ 10

- 10
10.3.2.2 The Effect of Surface Albedo on Ozone Radiative Forcing

___________________________ 10

- 13
10.3.2.3 The Effect of Vertical Distribution on Ozone Radiative Forcing

________________________ 10

- 13
10.3.2.4 Feedback Factors that Alter the Climate Response to Changes in Ozone Radiative Forcing

_ 10

- 1 3
10.3.2.5 Indirect Effects of Tropospheric Ozone on the Carbon Cycle

_________________________ 10

- 15
10.3.3 Competing Effects of Ozone Precursors on Climate

________________________________ _______ 10

- 15
10.3.4 Calculating Radiative Forcing and Climate Response to Past Trends in Tropospheric Ozone

_______ 10

- 17 Figure 10

- 4 Ensemble average 1900

- 2000 surface temperature trends ( oC per century) in response to tropospheric ozone changes.

____________________ 10

- 18

10.4 UV

- B Related Effects and Tropospheric Ozone

________________________________ ________________ 10

- 19

10.4.1 Background

________________________________ ________________________________ ______ 10

- 19
10.4.2 Human Exposure and Susceptibility to Ultraviolet Radiation

________________________________ _ 10

- 19
10.4.3 Human Health Effects du e to UV

- B Radiation

________________________________ ____________ 10

- 20
10.4.4 Ecosystem and Materials Damage Effects Due to UV

- B Radiation

____________________________ 10

- 22
10.4.5 UV

- B Related Effects Associated with Changes in Tropospheric Ozone Concentrations

___________ 10

- 24

10.5 Summary

________________________________ ________________________________ _____________ 10

- 27

10.5.1 Summary of the Effects of Tropospheric Ozone on Climate

________________________________ _ 10

- 27
10.5.2 Summary of UV

- B Related Effects on Human Health, Ecosystems, and Materials Relating to Changes in Tropospheric Ozone Concentrations

________________________________ ___________________ 10

- 28

10.6 References

________________________________ ________________________________ ___________ 10

- 29



### 11 REFERENCES

________________________________ _____________________________ 11

- 1

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxv September 2011 

# OZONE PROJECT TEAM

Executive Direction

Dr. John Vandenberg (Director)

— National Center for Environmental Assessment

- RTP Division, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Pro tection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Ms. Debra Walsh (Deputy Director)

— National Center for Environmental Assessment

- RTP Division, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Mary Ross (Bran ch Chief)

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC



## Scientific Staff

Dr. James Brown (O 3 

### Team Leader)

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Off ice of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Christal Bowman

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Barbara Buckley

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Ye Cao

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for E nvironmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Allen Davis

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Ag ency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Jean

- Jacques Dubois

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Steven J. Dutton

— National Center for Environment al Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Jeffrey Herrick

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Erin Hines

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Doug Johns

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Dennis Kotchmar

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Par k, NC

Dr. Meredith Lassiter

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Lingli Liu

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center fo r Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Thomas Long

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Thomas Luben

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Qingyu Meng

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Edu cation, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxvi September 2011 Dr. Kristopher Novak

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Elizabeth Oesterling Owens

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Molini Patel

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Joseph P. Pinto

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U .S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Joann Rice

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Jason Sacks

— National Center for E nvironmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Lisa Vinikoor

- Imler

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Prote ction Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC



## Technical Support Staff

Mr. Kenneth J. Breito

– Senior Environmental Employment Program, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Gerald Gurevich

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Mr. Ryan Jones

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office o f Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Ms. Ellen Lorang

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Mr. J. Sawyer Lucy

– Student Services Authority, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Deborah Wales

— National Center for Environmental Assessmen t, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Richard N. Wilson

– National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research T riangle Park, NC
Ms. Barbara Wright

— Senior Environmental Employment Program, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxvii September 2011 

# AUTHORS, CONTRIBUTOR S, AND REVIE WERS

Authors

Dr. James Brown (O 3 

### Team Leader)

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Christal Bowman

— National Center for Environmental Assessmen t, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Barbara Buckley

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Tr iangle Park, NC
Dr. Maggie Clark

— Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO

Dr. Jean

- Jacques Dubois

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Enviro nmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Steven J. Dutton

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Kelly Gillespie

— Donald Danfor th Plant Science Center, St. Louis, MO
Dr. Terry Gordon

— Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, NY
Dr. Jeffrey Herrick

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Envi ronmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Erin Hines

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Kazuhiko Ito

— Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, NY
Dr. Doug Johns

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Dennis Kotchmar

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Meredith Lassiter

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Lingli Liu

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Postdoctoral Research Fellow to National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Thomas Long

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Thomas Luben

— National Center for Environme ntal Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Loretta J. Mickley

— School of Engineering & Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA
Dr. Kristopher Novak

— National Center fo r Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Elizabeth Oesterling Owens

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environme ntal Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Molini Patel

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Jennifer Peel

— Department of Environme ntal and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxviii September 2011 Dr. Joseph Pinto

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Joan n Rice

— on detail to the National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, from the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

M r. Jason Sacks

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. George Thurston

— Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medici ne, Tuxedo, NY

Dr. Lisa Vinikoor

- Imler

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Cosima Wiese

— Department of Biology, Misericordia University, Dalla s, PA



## Contributors

Mr. Brian Adams

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Halil Cakir

— Oak Ridge I nstitute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Ye Cao

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Allen Davis

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protect ion Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Mr. Mark Evangelista

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Mr. Jay Haney

— ICF International, San Rafael, CA

Dr. E. Henry Lee

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR
Dr. Qingyu Meng

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Postdoctoral Research Fellow to National Center for Environmental As sessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. David Mintz

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangl e Park, NC
Mr. Tom Myers

— ICF International, San Rafael, CA

Mr. Mark Schmidt

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Huiquin Wang

— School of Engineering a nd Applied Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA
Mr. Benjamin Wells

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Lin Zhang

— School of Engineering and App lied Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA



## Reviewers

Dr. Christian Andersen

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR

Ms. Lea Anderson

— Office of General Counsel, U.S. Environment al Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxix September 2011 Dr

. Susan Anenberg

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

Dr. Robert Arnts

— National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. John Balmes

— Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco and School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA

Dr. Lisa Baxter

— National Exposure Research Labo ratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Souad Benromdhane

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Tri angle Park, NC
Dr. Fitzgerald Booker

— USDA

- ARS Plant Science Research Unit, Raleigh, NC

Dr. Michael Breen

— National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Philip Bromberg

— School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
Dr. Kent Burkey

— USDA

- ARS Plant Science Research Unit, Raleigh, NC

Dr. David DeMarini

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Developmen t, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Russ Dickerson

— Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD

Mr. Patrick Dolwick

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air a nd Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Aimen Farraj

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Arlene Fiore

— NOAA/Geophysical Dynamics Laboratory, Princeton, NJ

Dr. Ian Gilmour

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Stephen Graham

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Tara Greaver

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Gary Hatch

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Bryan Hu bbel

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Kristin Isaacs

— National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmenta l Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Scott Jenkins

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Karl Jensen

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Urmila Kodavanti

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. E nvironmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Petros Koutrakis

— Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA
Mr. John Langstaff

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Christopher Lau

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxx September 2011 Mr. Gary Lear

— Office of Administration and Policy

, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. E nvironmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
Dr. Morton Lippmann

— Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University, Tuxedo, NY

Dr. Karen Martin

— Office of Air Qual ity Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Connie Meacham

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Age ncy, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. David Mintz

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Pradeep Rajan

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Offi ce of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. John Rogers

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Vicki Sandiford

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Susan Stone

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air an d Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. John Vandenberg

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. James G . Wagner

— Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI

Ms. Debra Walsh

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research T riangle Park, NC

Dr. Jason West

— Department of Environmental Sciences & Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxi September 2011 

# CLEAN AIR SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE OZONE NAAQS REVIEW P ANEL

Chair of the Environmental Protection Agency ’ s Clean Air Sci entific Advisory Committee

Dr. Jonathan M. Samet*, Department of Preventive Medicine at the Keck School of Medicine, and Director of the Institute for Global Health at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA



## Chair of the Ozone Review Panel

Dr. Jonathan M. Samet*, Department of Preventive Medicine at the Keck School of Medicine, and Director of the Institute for Global Health at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA



## Members

Dr. George A. Allen*, Northeast States for Coordinat ed Air Use Management (NESCAUM), Boston, MA
Professor Ed Avol, Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
Dr. John Bailar, The National Academies, Washington, D.C.

Dr. Michelle Bell, Schoo l of Forestry & Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT
Dr. Joseph Brain*, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA
Dr. David Chock, Independent Consultant, Bloomfield Hills, MI

Dr. W illiam Michael Foster, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
Dr. H. Christopher Frey*, Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
Dr. Judith Graham, Independent Consultant, Pittsboro, NC
Dr. David Grantz, College of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Air Pollution Research Center, University of California Riverside, Parlier, CA

Dr. Jack Harkema, Center f or Integrated Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
Dr. Daniel Jacob, Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA
Dr. Steven Kleeberger, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Natio nal Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Frederick J. Miller, Independent Consultant, Cary, NC
Dr. Howard Neufeld, Department of Biology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC
Dr. Armistead (Ted) Russell*, Department of Civil and Environm ental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA

Dr. Helen Suh MacIntosh*, Environmental Health, NORC at the University of Chicago, and the School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA
Dr. James Ultman, Department of Chemical Engi neering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Dr. Sverre Vedal, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA

Dr. Kathleen W eathers*, Cary I nstitute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxii September 2011 Dr. Peter Woodbury, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
* Members of the statutory Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee (CASAC) appointed by the EPA Administrator



## Science Adv isory Board Staff

Dr. Holly Stallworth, Designated Federal Officer, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Mail Code 1400R, 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, 20004, Phone: 202

- 564

- 2073, Email: stallworth.holly@epa.gov

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxiii September 2011 

# ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

129 mouse strain (129S1/SvlmJ)

α alpha, ambient exposure factor

α

- ATD alpha 1

- antitrypsin deficiency

α

- SMA alpha

- smooth muscle actin

α

- tocopherol alpha

- tocopherol

α

- TOH alpha tocopherol

a air exchange rate of the microenviro nment

A2 climate scenario in IPCC

AADT annual average daily traffic

A1B climate scenario in IPCC

ABA abscisic acid

ABI abscisic acid insensitive

A1c glycosylated hemoglobin blood test

Ach acetylcholine
ACM (Harvard University) Atmospheric Chemistry Mo deling (Group)

ACS American Cancer Society

ACS

- CPSII ACS Cancer Prevention Study II

ADC arginine decarboxylase
ADSP Adirondack State Park, NY

AER air exchange rate

AH 2 ascorbic acid; ascorbate

AHR airway(s) hyperresponsiveness, airway(s) hyperreactivity

AhR aryl hydrocarbon receptor
AHSMOG (California Seventh Day) Adventist Heath and Smog (Study)

AI alveolar interstitial AIC(s) Akaike ’ s information criterion

AIRS Aerometric Information Retrieval System; Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (instrument)

A/J mouse strain

Ala

- 9Val genotype associated with Manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) gene

AM alveolar macrophage(s)

ANF atrial natriuretic factor

AOT20 seasonal su m of the difference between an hourly concentration at the threshold value of 20 ppb, minus the threshold value of 20 ppb
AOT30 seasonal sum of the difference between an hourly concentration at the threshold value of 30 ppb, minus the threshold value of 3 0 ppb
AOT40 seasonal sum of the difference between an hourly concentration at the threshold value of 40 ppb, minus the threshold value of 40 ppb AOT60 seasonal sum of the difference between an hourly concentration at the threshold value of 60 ppb, minus the threshold value of 60 ppb
AOTx family of cumulative, cutoff concentration

- based exposure indices

AP activated protein A2p climate scenario in IPCC (preliminary version of A2)

APEX Air Pollutants Exposure (model) APHEA(2) Air Pollution on Health: a European Approach (study)

APHENA Air Pollution and Health: A European and North American Approach ApoB apolipoprotein B ApoE apolipoprotein E

APX ascorbate peroxidase

aq aqueous form: (aq)O 3 AQCD Air Quality Criteria Document
AQI Air Quality Index
AQS (U.S. EPA) Air Quality System (database)

AR acoustic rhinometry

AR4 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) from the IPCC

AR5 Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) from the IPCC

ARG arginase variants (ex., ARG1, ARG2, ARG1h4)

ARIC Atherosclerosis Risk in Commu nities
ARIES (Atlanta) Aerosol Research and Inhalation Epidemiology Study

atm atmosphere

ATP adenosine triphosphate

ATPase adenosine triphosphatase; adenosine triphosphate synthase
ATS American Thoracic Society

avg average
AVHRR advanced very high resolution radiometer β beta, beta coefficient; regression coefficient; standardized coefficient; shape parameter; scale parameter

B boron

B1 climate scenario in IPCC

B6 mouse strain (C57BL/6J)

BAL bronchoalveolar lavage
BALB/c mouse strain

BALF br onchoalveolar lavage fluid

bb bronchials

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxiv September 2011 BB bronchial airways
BC black carbon

B cells bone

- marrow

- derived lymphocytes; B lymphocytes
B6C3F1 mouse strain

BDNF brain

- derived neurotrophic factor

BEAS

- 2B human bronchial epithelial cell line
BEIS B iogenic Emissions Inventory System

BELD Biogenic Emissions Landcover Database

BIPM International Bureau of Weights and Measures

BM basement membrane

BMI body mass index

BNP β

- type natriuretic peptide

BP blood pressure

BPD biparietal diameter bpm breaths per minute

Br bromine
BRFSS Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System

BS black smoke
BSA bovine serum albumin Bsp, BSP black smoke particles
Bt, BT, bt Bacillus thuringiensis ; bacterium proteins used in pesticides (or genetically engineered plants produce Bt toxin)

BTEX family of compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene)

BW body weight
C carbon; concentration; ([vitamin] C, ascorbate)

oC degrees Celsius

13 C carbon

- 13 isotope
C3 mouse strain (C3H/HEJ)

C3 plants tha t use only the Calvin cycle for fixing the carbon dioxide from the air

C4 plants that use the Hatch

- Slack cycle for fixing the carbon dioxide from the air

C16:0 palmitic acid (saturated fatty acid)

C18:1 unsaturated fatty acid

Ca calcium
C a ambient con centration [Ca] calcium concentration
Ca 2+ calcium ion
CA Canada (ICD

- 10

- CA)

CAA Clean Air Act

CALINE4 California line source dispersion model for predicting air pollutant concentrations near roadways
CAM plants that use crassulacean acid metabolism for fixing the carbon dioxide from the air

CAMP Childhood Asthma Management Program CAMx Comprehensive Air Quality Model, with extensions
CAN Canada CAP(s) concentrated ambient particles
CAR centriacinar region
CASAC Clean Air Scientific Advisory Comm ittee
CASTNET Clean Air Status and Trends Network
CAT catalase
CB carbon black; CMAQ mechanisms (ex., CB04, CB05, CB06)

C57BL/6 mouse strain
C57BL/6J mouse strain
CBSA core

- based statistical area
C/C carbon of total carbon

CCSP Clara cell secretory protein

CD cluster of differentiation (various receptors on T

- cells: CD8+, CD44, etc.); criteria document (see AQCD)

CD

- 1 mouse strain
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CF charcoal

- filtered; carbon filtered air

CF2 t wice

- filtered air (particulate filter and activated charcoal filter)

C

- fibers afferent, slow, unmylenated nerves innervating the respiratory system
CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CGRP calcitonin gene

- related peptide
CH 3 methyl group
CH 4 methane
C 2 H 2 a cetylene
C 2 H 4 ethylene
C3H mouse strain (C3H/HEJ or C3H/OuJ)

C 3 H 6 propylene
CHAD Consolidated Human Activity Database
CH 3 Br methyl bromide
CH 3 - CHO acetaldehyde
CH 3 Cl methyl chloride
CH 3 - CO acetyl radical(s)

CHD coronary heart disease
CHF congestiv e heart failure

C 2 H 5 – H ethane
C3H/HeJ mouse strain
CH 3 I methyl iodide
CHIP Effects of Elevated Carbon Dioxide and Ozone on Potato Tuber Quality in the European Multiple Site Experiment

CH 3 O 2 • methyl peroxy (radical)

CH 3 OOH acetic acid; methyl hydroperoxide
CHS Child Health Study

CI confidence interval(s)

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxv September 2011 C j airborne O 3 concentration at microenvironment j
Cl chlorine
Cl − chlorine ion
Cl 2 chlorine gas
CLE Current Legislation (climate scenario in IPCC)

CLM chemiluminescence method
ClNO 2 nitr yl chloride

cm centimeter(s)

cm2 square centimeters
CM Clinical Modification (ICD

- 9

- CM)
CMAQ Community Multi

- scale Air Quality modeling system
CN constant atmospheric nitrogen deposition (in PnET

- CN ecosystem model)

CNA continental North America
CNS centr al nervous system
CO carbon monoxide; Cardiac output

CO 2 carbon dioxide
COD coefficient of divergence; coefficient of determination

Col

- 0 (Arabidopsis ecotype) Columbia

- 0
COP Conference of Parties (to the UNFCCC)

COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disea se COX

- 2 cyclooxygenase 2 enzyme
C

- R concentration

- response CRA Centro di ricerca per la cerealicoltura (CRA) [The Centre for Cereal Research]

– Unit 5: The Research Unit for Cropping Systems in Dry Environments in Bari, Italy (water

- stressed conditions)

CRP C

- reactive protein
CS corticosteroid
CSA cross

- sectional area; combined statistical area csb, Csb cockayne syndrome (cb) gene/protein group A

CSF colony

- stimulating factor

CST central standard time
CSTR continuous stirr ed tank reactor
CSV comma

- separated values (a spreadsheet format)

CT computer tomography CTM(s) chemical transport model(s)

cum avg cumulative average
CUOt The cumulative stomatal uptake of O 3 , using a constant O 3 uptake rate threshold (t) of nmol/m 2 /s CV, C.V. coefficient of variation

cv, c.v. cultivar
CVD cardiovascular disease CXC chemokine family of cytokines, with highly conserved motif:cys

xxx

- cys (CXC) amino acid group

CXCR2 CXC chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2)

CXR Chest (x

- ray) radiograph(s) CyS p rotein cysteines Cys

- LT cysteinyl leukotrienes (LTC 4 , LTD 4 , LTE 4 )
cyt cytosolic

- free
Δ, δ delta, difference; change

ΔFEV 1 change in FEV 1 ΔV D change in dead space volume of the respiratory tract

2

- D two

- dimensional

3

- D three

- dimensional
DAHPS 3

- deoxy

- D

- arabino

- heptulosonat

7

- phosphate synthase

DBP diastolic blood pressure DC(s) dendritic cell(s)

DDM direct decoupled method DEP(s) diesel exhaust particle(s)

df degrees of freedom

DGGE denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis

DHA dehydroascorbate

DHAR dehydroascorbate reductase

DHBA 2,3

- dihydroxybenzoic acid

DLEM Dynamic Land Ecosystem Model

dm 3 cubic decimeter(s)

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DOAS differential optical absorption spectroscopy
DOC dissolved organic carbon

DR type of human leukocyte antigens (HLA

- DR)

dt Portion of time

- period spent in microenvironment j

DTH delayed

- type hypersensitivity

DU Dobson unit(s)

DW dry weight

E embryonic day (ex., E15, E16, etc); [vitamin] E

E a exposure to pollutant of ambient origin
EBC exhaled breath condensate (fluid)

EC elemental carbon
ECE endothelin converting enzyme(s) [i.e., ECE

- 1]
ECG electrocardiogram
ECOPHYS physiological process modeling to predict the response of aspen forest ecosystems ( modeling growth and environmental stress in Populus)

ED emergency department; embryonic day (ex., ED5, ED20)

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxvi September 2011 EGEA (The) Epidemiology (study on) Genetics and Environment of Asthma, (adults and children with asthma)

E GEA2 follow

- up study on EGEA (adults with asthma only)

EHC

- 93 ambient PM reference sample (urban dust [air particles] collected in Ottawa Canada)

ELF extracellular lining fluid

EMI (U.S. EPA) Exposure Model for Individuals

E na exposure to pollutant of nonambient origin

ENA

- 78 epithelial cell

- derived neutrophil

activating peptide 78
eNO exhaled nitric oxide
eNOS endothelial nitric oxide synthase
ENVISAT (EAS) Earth Observation satellite

EOTCP European Open Top Chamber Progra mme
EP epithelial cells

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EPIC European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition

ER emergency room ESA European Space Agency

ET extrathoracic; endothelin (i.e. ET

1)

ET 1 anterior nasal passages within the extrathoracic (ET) region

ET 2 oral airway and posterior nasal passages within the extrathoracic (ET) region

ETS environmental tobacco smoke

EU European Union
EUS eastern U.S.

Ф Phi; calculated efficiency

ФPSII

- max maximum photochemical effective
q uantum yield of PSII

f Fraction of the relevant time period

F female

F344 Fischer 344 (rat strain)

F2a 8

- isoprostane (major F2 prostaglandin [8 iso

- PGF2a])

FA filtered air

FACE free

- air−CO 2 enrichment (system)

FACES Fresno Asthmatic Children ’ s Environ ment Study

f B frequency of breathing

FC fibrocartilaginous coat

FEF forced expiratory flow

FEF 25

- 75 forced expiratory flow between the times at which 25% and 75% of the vital capacity is reached

FEFx forced expiratory flow after (x)% vital capacity (e.g., after 25, 50, or 75% vital capacity) FEM Federal equivalent method
FeNO exhaled nitric oxide fraction

FEV 1 forced expiratory volume in 1 second

FHM (USDA Forest Service) Forest Health Monitoring Pr ogram
FIA (USDA Forest Service) Forest Inventory and Analysis Program

F inf infiltration factor

F inf, i infiltration factor for indoor environment (i)

FLAG Federal land managers ’ air quality related values workgroup

F LRT fractional uptake efficiency of th e lower respiratory tract (LRT)

F nose fractional uptake efficiency via nasal absorption

F o fraction of time spent in outdoor microenvironments

FPM Forest Pest Management

FR Federal Register

FRAP ferric reducing ability of plasma

FRC functional residua l capacity

FRM Federal reference method

F RT fractional uptake efficiency of the respiratory tract (RT)

Fst0 1 flux cut off threshold

F URT fractional uptake efficiency of the upper respiratory tract (URT)

FVC forced vital capacity

Fv/Fm a ratio: a measure of the maximum efficiency of Photosystem II

FVI fruits and vegetables index

γ gamma

γ

- TOH gamma

- tocopherol g, mg, kg, μg, ng, pg gram(s), milligram(s), kilogram(s), microgram(s), nanogram(s), picogram(s)

G granulocyte; guanosine

g gram(s); gaseous form: (g)O 3 GAM generalized additive model(s)

g bs conductance through boundary layer and stomata
GCLC (glutathione genetic variant) glutamate

- cysteine ligase catalytic subunit
GCLM (glutathione genetic variant) glutamate

- cysteine ligase m odifier subunit
G

- CSF granulocyte colony

- stimulating factor (receptor)

GD gestational day
GEE generalized estimating equations
GEOS (NASA) Goddard Earth Observing System model

GEOS5 GEOS version 5
GEOS

- Chem GEOS

- Chemistry (tropospheric model)

GFAP glial fibrillary acidic protein

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxvii September 2011 GH growth hormone
GHG greenhouse gas GLM(s) generalized linear model(s)

GMAO (NASA) Global Modeling and Assimilation Office

GM

- CSF granulocyte macrophage colony

stimulating factor

GOME (ESA) Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (spectrometer)

GOMOS Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (ESA ENVISAT spectrometer measuring long

- term trends in O 3 )

G6P glucose

- 6

- phosphate
G6PD glucose

- 6

- phosphate dehydrogenase
GPP gross primary production
G

- proteins GTPases

GPT gas phas e titration
GR glutathione reductase
GSH glutathione; reduced glutathione
GSO 3 − /GSO 3 2− guanine sulfonates

GSR glutathione reductase
GSS glutathione synthetase
GSSG glutathione disulfide

GST glutathione S

- transferase

GSTM1 glutathione S

- transferase polymorphism M1 genotypes (GSTM1

- null,

- GSTM1

- sufficient)

GSTP1 glutathione S

- transferase polymorphism P1 genotypes
GTP guanosine triphosphate
GTPases G

- proteins/enzymes

GWP global warming potential
GxE gene

- environmental interaction

h hour(s) h/day hour (s) per day
H; H+; H• atomic hydrogen, hydrogen ion; hydrogen radical

3 H radiolabeled hydrogen; tritium

H 2 molecular hydrogen

ha hectare

HA hyaluronic acid HA(s) hospital admission(s)

Hb hemoglobin

HbA1c glycosylated hemoglobin (blood test) HC(s) hyd rocarbon(s) HCFC(s) hydrochlorofluorocarbon(s)

HCHO formaldehyde

H 2 CO formaldehyde

HCO• formyl (radical)

HDM house dust mite

2HDM second

- highest daily maximum

HDMA house dust mite allergen

3 He non

- radioactive isotope of helium HeJ O 3 - resistant C3H mouse strain (C3H/HeJ)

HEPA high efficiency particle air (filter)

HERO Health and Environmental Research Online, NCEA Database System

12

- HETE 12

- Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid

HF (HRV signal) high

- frequency
power HFCs hydrofluorocarbons Hg mercury
HHP

- C9 1

- hydroxy

- 1

- hydroperoxynonane
HIST histamine

HLA human leukocyte antigen

HLA

- DR human leukocyte antigen receptor genes HMOX Heme oxygenase
HMOX

- 1 heme

- oxygenase

- 1 (polymorphism)

HNE 4

- hydroxynonenal
HNO 2 nitrous acid
HNO 3 nitric a cid
HNO 4 pernitric acid
HO hydroxyl; heme oxygenase
HO• hydroxyl radical
HO

- 1 heme oxygenase 1
HO 2 • hydroperoxyl; hydroperoxy radical; protonated superoxide
HO 3 • protonated ozone radical

H 2 O water

H 2 O 2 hydrogen peroxide

H 3 O + hydronium ion
HOCH 2 OO H hydroxymethylhydroperoxide
HONO nitrous acid
HO 2 NO 2 peroxynitric acid
HOONO pernitrous acid
HOX hydrogen radical(s)

hPa hectopascal
HPLC high

- pressure liquid chromatography
HPOT 13

- hydroperoxide linolenic acid

HR heart rate, hazard ratio

HR max maximum heart rate

HRP horseradish peroxidase

HRV heart rate variability
HSC Houston Ship Channel (Texas)

hs

- CRP high

- sensitivity C

- reactive protein

H 2 SO 4 sulfuric acid

HSP high speed pellet (after centrifuge spin)

HSP70 heat shock protein 70
HSS hig h speed supernatant (after centrifuge spin)

5

- HT 5

- hydroxytryptamine

hv Energy per photon of electromagnetic energy at frequency v

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxviii September 2011 HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

Hz hertz

I iodine
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer

IAS interalveolar septum

IBM individual

- based model or modeling
IC inspiratory capacity; intracloud (lightning flash)

ICAM

- 1 intercellular adhesion molecule 1
ICARTT International Consortium for Atmospheric Research on Transport and Transformation

ICAS Inne r City Asthma Study

ICC intraclass correlation coefficient

ICD implantable cardioverter defibrillator(s); International Classification of Diseases

ICD

- 9 International Classification of Disease 9th revision
ICD

- 10 International Classification of Disease 10th revision
ICEM Indoor Chemistry and Exposure Model
ICNIRP International Commission on Non

Ionizing Radiation Protection
ICP Forests International Cooperative Programme on Assessment of Air Pollution Effects on Forests
ICU Intensive Care Unit

ICVE ischemic cerebrovascular events

IDW inverse

- distance

- weighted

IFN interferon (e.g., IFN

- ())

IFN

- γ interferon

- gamma Ig immunoglobulin (e.g., IgE) IgA immunoglobulin A IgE immunoglobulin E
IGF

- 1 insulin

- like growt h factor 1 IgG immunoglobulin G IgM immunoglobulin M

IHD ischemic heart disease

IL interleukin (e.g., IL

- 2, IL

- 4, IL

- 6, IL

8, etc.)

IL

- 1β interleukin

- 1β

Ile isoleucine

i.m. intramuscular (route)

IMPACT Interactive Modeling Project for Atmospheric Ch emistry and Transport
IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environment

IN intranasal

INF interferon

inh inhalation

iNKT invariant (type I) natural killer T

cell
iNOS inducible nitric oxide synthase INRA National agronomical research ins titute (INRA) in Thiverval

Grignon. France (adequately

watered conditions)

INTRASTAND a stand

- level model designed for hourly, daily and annual integration of forest carbon and water cycle fluxes

I/O indoor

- outdoor ratio
IOM Institute of Medicine i.p. intraperitoneal (route)

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPCC

- A2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2nd Assessment Report
IPCC

- AR4 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 4th Assessment Report
IPCC

- AR5 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 5th Assessment Report
IPCC

- TAR Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report

IPMMI International Photolysis Frequency Measurement and Modeling Inter

comparison
IQR interquartile range

IR infrared

I/R ischemia

- reperfu sion
IRIS Integrated Risk Information System

IRP Integrated Review Plan for the Ozone National Ambient Air Quality Standards

ISA Integrated Science Assessment

ISCCP International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project

ISO International Standards Organizati on
8

- iso

- PGF 8

- isoprostane

IT intratracheal

IU International Units
IUGR intrauterine growth restriction

i.v. intravenous (route)

IVF in vitro fertilization j Microenvironment

JA jasmonic acid

Jmax maximum rate of electron transport (for regeneratio n of RuBP)

JNK jun N

- terminal kinase

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory

κ kappa

κB kappa B

k dissociation rate; root:shoot allometric coefficient; rate of O 3 loss in the microenvironment

K potassium

K + potassium ion

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxix September 2011 K a intrinsic mass transfer coefficient/parameter

KC keratinocyte

- derived chemokine kg kilogram

K g mass transfer coefficient for gas phase

kHz kilohertz

kJ kilojoules

Kl mass transfer coefficient for liquid phase

km kilometer

KM particle optical reflect ance
KML keyhole markup language

KMZ zipped KML computer language
KO knockout

Kr reaction rate constant
KROFEX Krauzberg Ozone Fumigation Experiment L, dL, mL, μL Liter, deciLiter, milliLiter, microLiter

L0 Lag (e.x., Lag 0, Lag 1, etc.)

LAI leaf ar ea index

LBL Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

LBLX Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory model including airflow from natural ventilation Lb(s) pound(s)

LBW low birth weight
LC 50 median lethal concentration
LCL lower 95th% confidence limit

LDH lactate dehydrogena se
LDL low

- density lipoprotein ; lower detectable level

LF (HRV signal) low

- frequency power

LFHFR low frequency/high frequency (ratio)

LFT lower free troposphere

LI labeling index

LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging (remote sensing system)

LIF laser

- induced fluorescence

LINKAGES individual

- based model of forest succession
LIS lateral intercellular space

LLJ low

- level jet
L/min liters per minute

Ln Natural logarithm
LnRMSSD natural log of RMSSD; measure of HRV
lnSDNN natural log of the stan dard deviation of NN intervals in an EKG

LOAEL lowest observed adverse effect level
LOD limit of detection

LOEL lowest

- observed

- effect level

LOESS locally weighted scatterplot smoothing
LOP lipid ozonation products LOSU level of scientific understand ing
LOWESS locally weighted scatter plot smoother
LOX

- 1 Lipoxygenase; lectin

- like oxidized low density lipoprotein receptor

- 1
LPS lipopolysaccharide
LRS lower respiratory symptoms

LRT lower respiratory tract; lower airways; Long range transport
LST l ocal standard time

LT leukotriene (e.g., LTB4 , LTC 4, LTD4 , LTE4); local time

LT

- α lymphotoxin

- α
LTA lymphotoxin

- alpha

LUR land use regression

LVEDD left ventricular chamber dimensions at end diastole

LVEDP left ventricular end diastolic
pressure LWC liquid water content

μ mu, micro

μeq microequivalent

μg microgram μg/m 3 micrograms per cubic meter

μm micrometer, micron

m, cm, μm, nm meter(s), centimeter(s), micrometer/[micron](s), nanometer(s)

M male M, mM, μM, nM, pM Molar, milliMolar, micr oMolar, nanoMolar, picoMolar

m 2 square meters

m3 cubic meters

M# Month (M1 Month1; M2 Month2; M3 Month3; M4 Month4)

M2 type of muscarinic receptor

M7 7

- hour seasonal mean

M12 12

- hour seasonal mean of O 3

ma moving average
mAOT modified accumulated exp osure over threshold

MAP mitogen

- activated protein; mean arterial pressure

MAPK mitogen

- activated protein kinase(s), MAP kinase
MAQSIP Multiscale Air Quality Simulation Platform (model)

MARAT Mid

- Atlantic Regional Assessment Team
MARCO Macrophage rece ptor with collagenous structure

max maximum

MBL marine boundary layer
MCA minimum cross

- sectional area
MCCP Mountain Cloud Chemistry Program Mch; MCh methacholine
MCM master chemical mechanism

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xl September 2011 MCP

- 1 monocyte chemotactic protein 1

MDA malondialdehyde

MDAR monodehydroascorbate reductase

MDI Mediterranean diet index

MDL minimum detection level

MED minimal erythema dose

MEF 50% maximal midexpiratory flow at 50% of forced vital capacity

MEGAN model of emissions of gases and aerosols fr om nature

MeJA methyl jasmonate
MENTOR Modeling Environment for Total Risk Studies

METs metabolic equivalent unit(s) [of work]

MFR Maximum Feasible Reduction Mg magnesium
MGDG monogalactosyldiacylglycerol mg/m 3 milligrams per cubic meter
MHC major hi stocompatibility complex

mi mile(s)

MI myocardial infarction, “ heart attack ”
MIESR matrix isolation electron spin resonance (spectroscopy)

min minute; minimum

MIP macrophage inflammatory protein

MIP

- 2 macrophage inflammatory protein

2

mL milliliter
mL/min milliliter(s) per minute

MLN mediastinal lymph node

Mm megameter

mm millimeter(s)

MM Mt. Mt. Mitchell site

MM5 National Center for Atmospheric Research/Penn State Mesoscale Model (version 5)

MMAD mass median aerodynamic diameter; mass median aerodynamic density

MMEF maximal midexpiratory flow mmHg millimeters of mercury

MMMD mean maximum mixing height depth

MMP

- 2 matrix metalloproteinase

- 2

MMP

- 3 matrix metalloproteinase

- 3

MMP

- 9 metalloprotein ase

- 9
MMSP Mount Mitchell State Park, NC

Mn manganese M/N pooled data from mouth and nasal
exposure MnSOD Manganese superoxide dismutase

mo month(s) MOA(s) mode(s) of Action

MOBILE (U.S. EPA) mobile vehicle emission factor model (on

- road vehicles) MOBILE6 vehicle emissions modeling software version 6; replaced by MOVES

MODNR Missouri Department of Natural Resources
MONICA Monitoring of Trends and Determinants in Cardiovascular Disease
MoOx molybdenum oxides
MOSES Met Office Surface Exchange Sche me MOVES Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator (replaced MOBILE6; for estimating emissions from cars, trucks, and motorcycles
MOZAIC Measurement of Ozone and Water Vapor by Airbus In

- Service Aircraft

MOZART Model for Ozone and Related chemical Tracers

MPAN peroxymethacryloyl nitrate;
peroxy

- methacrylic nitric anhydride
MPO myeloperoxidase
MQL Minimum quantification limit

MRI magnetic resonance imaging; Midwest Research Institute; Meteorological Research Institute

mRNA messenger RNA

ms millisecond(s)

MS mass spectrometry; Mt. Moosilauke site
MSA Metropolitan Statistical Area; methane sulfonic acid

MSL mean sea level
MS/MS tandem mass spectrometry

MT million ton(s); metric ton(s)
MT, Mt metallothionein

MT1 mitochondria

MTBE methyl

- tertiary

- butyl eth er
mtDNA mitochondrial DNA

Mtn mountain

MV minute volume

MW molecular weight MyD88 myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 n, N number; number of observations

N nitrogen; North; nasal exposure by natural breathing

15 N nitrogen

- 15, stable is otope of nitrogen

N 2 molecular nitrogen; nonreactive nitrogen

Na sodium

NA noradrenaline; North American NA; N/A not available; not applicable

Na + sodium ion
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NAD nicotinamide adenine nucleotide

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xli September 2011 NADH reduc ed nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase

NADP National Atmospheric Deposition Program

NADPH reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

NADPH

- CR reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

- c ytochrome c reductase

NaE sodium erythorbate
NAG N

- acetyl

- glucosaminidase

Na

- K

- ATPase sodium

- potassium

- dependent adenosine triphosphatase
NAMS National Ambient Monitoring Stations

NAPAP National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program

NAPBN National Air Pollution Background Network

NARE North Atlantic Regional Experiment
NARSTO North American Regional Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone

NAS National Academy of Sciences; Normative Aging Study

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NBS National Bureau of Standards

NBTH 3

- methyl

- 2

- benzothiazolinone acetone azine
NCEA National Center for Environmental Assessment
NCEA

- RTP NCEA Division in Research Triangle Park, NC

NCHS National Center for Health Statistics

NCICAS National Coopera tive Inner

- City Asthma Study

NCLAN National Crop Loss Assessment Network
NCore National Core multi

- pollutant monitoring network
NC

- R resistant clones of white clover

NC

- S sensitive clones of white clover
ND; n.d. not detectable; not detected; no data

2ndHDM second

- highest daily maximum

NDF neutral detergent fiber

NEE net ecosystem CO 2 exchange

NEI National Emissions Inventory

NEM National Ambient Air Quality Standards Exposure Model

NEP Net Ecosystem Production

NERL National Exposure Research La boratory
NESCAUM Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management

NF National Forest; non

- filtered air

NF

- κB nuclear factor kappa B ng nanogram(s)

NGF nerve growth factor

NH northern hemisphere

NH 3 ammonia

NH 4 + ammonium ion

NH 4 HSO 4 ammonium bisulfate (NH 4 ) 2 HSO 4 ammonium sulfate

NHANES National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

NHANES III National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III

NHAPS National Human Activity Pattern Survey

NHEERL (U.S. EPA) National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory
NHIS National Health Interview Survey (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 ammonium sulfate

NIH National Institutes of Health

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

NK natural killer cells; neurokinin

NKT natural killer T cells

NL nasal lavage

NLF nasal lavage fluid

NM National Monument NMHC(s) nonmethane hydrocarbon(s)

NMMAPS National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study NMOC(s) nonmethane organic compound(s)

NMVOCs nonmethane volatile organic compounds

NN normal

- to

- normal (NN or RR) time interval between each QRS complex in the EKG

NNK 4

- (N

- nitrosomethylamino)

- 1

- (3

- pyridyl)

- 1

- butanone
nNOS neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS)

NO nitric oxide
·NO nitric oxide concentration (interpunct NO)

NO 2 nitrogen dioxide
NO 3 ; NO 3 • nitrate, nitrate radical
NO 3 − nitrate, nitrate ion

N 2 O nitrous oxide

N 2 O 5 dinitrogen pentoxide
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOAEL no observed adverse effect level

NOS nitric oxide synthase (types, N OS

1, NOS

- 2, NOS

- 3)

NO X nitrogen oxides, oxides of nitrogen (NO + NO2)

NO Y sum of NOX and NOZ; odd nitrogen species; total oxidized nitrogen

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– Do Not Cite or Quote xlii September 2011 NO Z sum of all inorganic and organic reaction products of NO X (HONO, HNO 3 , HNO 4 , organic nitrates, particulate ni trate, nitro

- PAHs, etc.)

NP National Park

NPP net primary production
NPS National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior
NQO1 NAD(P)H

- quinone oxidoreductase (genotype)
NQO1wt NAD(P)H

- quinone oxidoreductase wild type (genotype)

NR not reported

Nr reactive nitrogen
NRC National Research Council

Nrf

- 2 nuclear factor erythroid 2

- related factor 2

Nrf2

- ARE NF

- E2

- related factor 2

- antioxidant response element NS; n.s. nonsignificant; non

- smoker; national seashore; natural spline
NSAID non

- steroid al anti

- inflammatory agent
NSBR nonspecific bronchial responsiveness
NSF National Science Foundation

NTE nasal turbinate epithelial (cells)

NTN National Trends Network

NTP National Toxicology Program

NTRMs NIST Traceable Reference Materials
NTS nucleus of the solitary tract (in brainstem)

NWR national wildlife refuge

NWS National Weather Service

NZW New Zealand white (rabbit)

O oxygen; horizon forest floor

18 O oxygen

- 18, stable isotope of
oxygen O 2 molecular oxygen
O 2 − superoxide
O 2 • sup eroxide radical

1 O 2 singlet oxygen
O 3 ozone

18 O 3 (oxygen

- 18 labeled) ozone

O 3 * electronically excited ozone
OAQPS Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards

OAR Office of Air and Radiation

OBMs observationally based methods
OC organic carbon
OD outer diameter; optical density O( 1 D) electronically excited oxygen atom OH, OH• hydroxyl group, hydroxyl radical

8

- OHdG 8

- hydroxy

- 2 ́

- deoxyguanosine
OLS ordinary least squares
OMI Ozone Monitoring Instrument ON Ontario

ONOO − peroxynitrate ion O( 3 P) ground

- state oxygen atom
OPE ozone production efficiency

OPECs Outdoor Plant Environment Chambers

OR odds ratio
ORD Office of Research and Development
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OTC open

- top chamber
OuJ O 3 - sensitive C3H mouse strain (C3H/OuJ)

OVA ovalbumin
OX odd oxygen species; total oxidants OxComp oxidative capacity of the atmosphere

oz ounce(s)

P pressure in atmospheres; plants grown in pots; phosphorus; penetration fraction of O 3 into the microenvironment; pulmonary

r egion

p probability value

P450 cytochrome P450 p53 cell cycle protein gene

P90 90th percentile of the absolute difference in concentrations

PACF partial autocorrelation function of the model residuals

PAD peripheral arterial disease; pollutant

- applied dose

PAF platelet

- activating factor; paroxysmal atrial fibrillation PAH(s) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon(s)

PAI

- 1 plasminogen activator fibrinogen inhibitor

- 1

PAL phenylalanine ammonia lyase
PAMS Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations network

PAN peroxyacetyl nitrate
PaO 2 arterial oxygen pressure

PAPA Public Health and Air Pollution in Asia

PAR photosynthetically active radiation; proximal alveolar region

P atm Pressure in atmospheres

p

- ATP para

- acetamidophenol

Pb Lead

PBL planetary bounda ry layer; peripheral blood lymphocytes

PBM population

- based model or modeling

PBN C

- phenyl N

- tert

- butyl nitrone

PBPK physiologically based pharmacokinetic (model)

PBS phosphate buffered saline

PC phosphatidylchloline

### Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xliii September 2011 PC 20 provocative concentration that produces a 20% decrease in forced expiratory volume in 1 second
PC 20 FEV 1 provovative concentration that produces a 20% decrease in FEV 1 PC 50 provocative concentration that produces a 50% decrease in forced expiratory volume in 1 second
PCA principal component analysis
PC

- ALF 1

- palmitoyl

- 2

- (9

- oxonononoyl)

- sn

glycero

- 3

- phosphocholine
PCD programmed cell death
PCl picryl chloride pCNEM Canadian version of National Ambient Air Quality Standards Exposure Model
PCO 2 Average partial pressure of O2 in lung capillaries pCO 2 partial pressure of carbon dioxide

PCR polymerase chain reaction
PCR

- DGGE PCR

– denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis

PD pregnancy day

PD 20 provocative dose that produces a 20% decrease in FEV 1 PD 20 FEV 1 provocative dose that produces a 20% decrease in FEV 1 PD 100 provocative dose that produces a 100% increase in sRAW

PD 100 S Raw provocative dose that produces a 100% increase in S Raw PDI pain on deep inspiration

PE post exposure, phosphatidylethanolamine

PEF peak expiratory flow

PEF 0.75 peak expiratory flow in 0.75 second

PEFR peak expiratory flow rate

PEFT time to peak flow

PEG

- CAT polyethylene glycol

- catalase
PEG

- SOD polyethylene glycol

- superoxide dismutase PEM(s) personal exposure monitor(s)

Penh enhanced pause

PEPc phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase

PFD photosynthetic flux density

PFT pulmonary function test

pg picogram(s)

PG prostaglandin (e.g., PGE2 ,PGF2); phosphatidylglycerol
6PGD 6

- phosphogluconate dehydrogenase
PGE2 prostaglandin E2
PGF2 α prostaglandin F2

- alpha
PGHS

- 2 prostaglandin endoperoxide G/H synthase 2
PGP protein gene product (e.g., PGP9.5) PGSM Plant Growth Stress Model pH relative acidity; Log of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration

PHA phytohemagglutinin A

PI phosphatidylinositol; probability interval; posterior interval

PIF peak inspiratory flow

PiZZ respiratory phenotype

PK pharmacokinetics pKa dissociation constant

PLFA phospholipid fatty acid

PM particulate matter

PM X Particulate matter of a specific size range not defined for regulatory use. Usually X refers to the 50% cut point, the aerodynamic diameter at which the sampler collects 50% of the particles and rejects 50% of the particles. The collection efficiency, given by a penetration curve, increas es for particles with smaller diameters and decreases for particles with larger diameters. The definition of PM X is sometimes abbreviated as

“ particles with a nominal aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to X μm ” although X is usually a 50% cut point.

P M 2.5 In general terms, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to a nominal 2.5 μm; a measurement of fine particles in regulatory terms, particles with an upper 50% cut

- point of 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter (the 50% cut point diam eter is the diameter at which the sampler collects 50% of the particles and rejects 50% of the particles) and a penetration curve as measured by a reference method based on Appendix L of 40 CFR Part 50 and designated in accordance with 40 CFR Part 53, by a n equivalent method designated in accordance with 40 CFR Part 53, or by an approved regional method designated in accordance with Appendix C of 40 CFR Part 58.

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– Do Not Cite or Quote xliv September 2011 PM 10 In general terms, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to a n ominal 10 μm; a measurement of thoracic particles (i.e., that subset of inhalable particles thought small enough to penetrate beyond the larynx into the thoracic region of the respiratory tract) in regulatory terms, particles with an upper 50% cut

- point of 10± 0.5 μm aerodynamic diameter (the 50% cut point diameter is the diameter at which the sampler collects 50% of the particles and rejects 50% of the particles) and a penetration curve as measured by a reference method based on Appendix J of 40 CFR Part 5 0 and designated in accordance with 40 CFR Part 53 or by an equivalent method designated in accordance with 40 CFR Part 53.

PM 10

- 2.5 In general terms, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to a nominal 10 μm and greater than a nominal 2.5 μm; a measurement of thoracic coarse particulate matter or the coarse fraction of PM10 in regulatory terms, particles with an upper 50% cut

- point of 10 μm aerodynamic diameter and a lower 50% cut

- point of 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter (the 50%

cu t point diameter is the diameter at which the sampler collects 50% of the particles and rejects 50% of the particles) as measured by a reference method based on Appendix O of 40 CFR Part 50 and designated in accordance with 40 CFR Part 53 or by an equivale nt method designated in accordance with 40 CFR Part 53.

PM 10C The PM 10

- 2.5 concentration of PM 10

-
2.5 measured by the 40 CFR Part 50 Appendix O reference method which consists of currently operated, co

- located low

- volume (16.7 Lpm) PM 10 and PM 2.5 reference method samplers. p38MAPK p38 mitogen

- activated protein kinase(s)

PM

- CAMx Comprehensive Air Quality Model with extensions and with particulate matter chemistry PMN(s) polymorphonuclear leukocyte(s)

PMT photomultiplier tube

PND post natal day pNEM probabilistic National Exposure Model

PnET Photosynthetic EvapoTranspiration model

PNN proportion of interval differences of successive normal

- beat intervals in EKG PNN50 proportion of interval differences of successive normal

- beat intervals greater tha n 50 ms in EKG

PO 2 partial pressure of oxygen

POC particulate organic carbon
POD peroxidase polyADPR poly(adenosinediphosphate

ribose)

POMS Portable Ozone Monitoring Systems ppb parts per billion ppb

- h parts per billion per hour ppbv parts per billion by volume pphm parts per hundred million

ppm parts per million

ppm

- h parts per million hours; weighted concentration values based on hourly concentrations: usually summed over a certain number of hours, day(s), months, and/or

season.

ppmv parts per million by volume

PPN peroxypropionyl nitrate; peroxypropionic nitric anhydride

PPPs power plant plumes
ppt parts per trillion
pptv parts per trillion by volume
PQH2 plastoquinone

PR pathogenesis

- related (protein)

PR

- 1 promoter region 1

PRB policy

- relevant background preproET

- 1 pre

- protein form of ET

- 1 mRNA

PRYL predicted relative yield (biomass) loss
PS penalized spline
PS paradoxical sleep
PS II Photosystem II: enzyme that uses light to obtain electrons from water (for photosynthesis).

PSA picryl sulfonic acid

PSC polar stratospheric clouds

PTB preterm birth

PTR

- MS proton

- transfer

- reaction mass spectroscopy PU, PUL pulmonary PUFA(s) polyunsa turated fatty acid(s)

PV potential vorticity
PVCD peripheral vascular and cerebrovascular disease

PVD peripheral vascular disease
PVOCs photochemical volatile organic compounds

PWM pokeweed mitogen
PWTES (left ventricular) posterior wall thickness at end systole

Pxase peroxidase
QA Quality Assurance
QC quality control

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– Do Not Cite or Quote xlv September 2011 QCE quasi continuous exercise qNP non

- photochemical quenching

q NP non

- photochemical quenching qP photochemical quenching
QRS A complex of three distinct electrocardiogram waves wh ich represent the beginning of ventricular contraction
QT interval measure of the time interval between the start of the Q wave and the end of the T wave in the heart ’ s electrical cycle
QTc corrected QT interval

r Pearson correlation coefficient
R, r c orrelation coefficient

r 2 correlation coefficient

R 2 multiple regression correlation coefficient

R 2 , r 2 coefficient of determination

RACM Regional Atmospheric Chemistry Mechanism

RADM Regional Acid Deposition Model

rALP recombinant antileukoprotease
RAMS Regional Atmospheric Modeling System

RANTES regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (cells)

Raw airway resistance

RB respiratory bronchiole RBC(s) red blood cell(s); erythrocyte(s)

rbcL Rubisco large subunit
rbcS Rubisco small subunit R′CO acyl acyl carrier protein

R ’ C(O)

– O 2 acyl peroxy

rcd1 Arabidopsis mutant radical induced cell death
RCD3 rod

- cone dysplasia 3
RCP Representative Concentration Pathways
RDBMS Relational Database Management Systems

Re Reynolds number

REHEX Regional Human Exposure Model

RER rough endoplasmic reticulum; Respiratory exchange ratio

RF radiative forcing

RGR relative growth rate

RH relative humidity
RIOPA Relationship of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal Air (study)

RL total pulmonary r esistance

RLKs receptor

- like/Pelle kinase group

RMNP Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado

RMR resting metabolic rate
rMSSD root mean squared differences between adjacent normal

- to

normal heartbeat intervals Rn nasal resistance

RNA ribonucleic acid
RO 2 organic peroxyl; organic peroxy
ROG reactive organic gases
ROI reactive oxygen intermediate/superoxide anion

RONO 2 organic nitrate
ROOH organic peroxides
ROONO 2 , RO 2 NO 2 peroxy nitrate
ROS reactive oxygen species

RPD relative percent difference

RR normal

- to

- normal (NN or RR) time interval between each QRS complex in the EKG; risk ratio; relative risk; respiratory rate
RRMS relatively remote monitoring sites

RT respiratory tract

RT transepithelial resistance

RTLF respiratory tract lining flui d RuBisCO; Rubisco ribulose

- 1,5

- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase

RuBP ribulose bisphosphate

σ sigma, standard deviation

σg sigma

- g; (geometric standard deviation)

s second
S Short; smoker; sulfur; South

s.c. subcutaneous (route)

SA salicylic acid
SAB Science Advisory Board

SAC Staphylococcus aureus Cowan 1 strain
SAG21 senescence SAI Systems Applications International

S

- allele short

- allele
SAMD S

- adenosyl methionine decarboxylase
SaO 2 oxygen saturation of arterial blood

SAPALDIA Study of Air Pollution and Lung Diseases in Adults
SAPRC Stratospheric Processes and their Role in Climate; Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, University of California, Riverside

SAR systemic acquired resistance
SAROAD Storage and Retrieval of Aer ometric Data (U.S. EPA centralized database; superseded by Aerometric Information Retrieval System [AIRS]) SAWgrp small airway function group

SBNF San Bernardino National Forest, California

SBP systolic blood pressure
SBUV Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Spectrometer

SC stratum corneum
Sc scandium

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– Do Not Cite or Quote xlvi September 2011 SCAQS Southern California Air Quality Study SCE(s) sister chromatid exchange(s)

SD standard deviation; Sprague

Dawley rat
SDNN standard deviation normal

- to

normal (NN or RR) time interval between each QRS complex in the EKG

SE standard error
SEBAS Social Environment and Biomarkers of Aging Study

sec second
Sess. session
SEM simultaneously extracted metal; standard error of the mean; scanning electron microscopy
SENP Sequoia National Park, California

SE S socioeconomic status
SF San Francisco Bay Area

SF6 sulfur hexafluoride (tracer gas)

SGA small for gestational age

sRaw specific airway conductance

SH Shenandoah National Park site

SHEDS Stochastic Human Exposure and Dose Simulation

SHEN Shenandoah National Park

sICAM

- 1 soluble intercellular adhesion molecule
SIDS sudden infant death syndrome

SIGMOID sigmoid weighted summed concentration
SINIC Simple Nitrogen Cycle model

SIP State Implementation Plan

SIPK salicylic acid (SA) induced protein kinase
SK shikimate kinase
SLA specific leaf area

SLAC1 (protein) slow anion channel associated 1
SLAMS State and Local Air Monitoring Stations

SM smooth muscle
SMD soil moisture deficit

SME soybean oil methyl ester
SMNP Great Smoky Mountai n National Park (North Carolina and Tennessee)

SMOKE Spare

- Matrix Operator Kernel Emissions
S N normalized slope of the alveolar plateau
SNAAQS Secondary National Ambient Air Quality Standards SNP(s) single

- nucleotide polymorphism
SO 2 sulfur dioxide

S O 4 2− sulfate

SOA secondary organic aerosol
SOC soil organic carbon SOD superoxide dismutase
SOS Southern Oxidant Study

SO X sulfur oxides SoyFACE Soybean Free Air gas Concentration Enrichment (Facility)

SP surfactant protein (e.g., SPA, SPD); substan ce P
SP

- A surfactant protein

- A
SPF specific pathogen free

SPMs special purpose monitors
SP

- NK substance P

– neurokinin receptor complex
sRaw, specific airway resistance

SRBC sheep red blood cell
SRES Special Report on Emissions Scenarios

SRM standard reference method

SRP standard reference photometers

SSCP single

- strand conformation polymorphism
129S1/SvlmJ mouse strain
STE stratosphere

- troposphere exchange
STEP Stratospheric

- Tropospheric

Exchange Project
STN speciation trends network

sT NFR1 soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 1
STP standard temperature and
pressure STPD standard temperature and pressure, dry
STRF Spatio

- Temporal Random Field (theory) subscript i Index of indoor microenvironments subscript o Index of outdoor micr oenvironments subscript o,i Index of outdoor microenvironments adjacent to a given indoor microenvironment i
SUM00 sum of all hourly average concentrations
SUM06 seasonal sum of all hourly average concentrations ≥ 0.06 ppm
SUM07 seasonal sum of all hour ly average concentrations ≥ 0.07 ppm
SUM08 seasonal sum of all hourly average concentrations ≥ 0.08 ppm
SURE Sulfate Regional Experiment Program
SVE supraventricular ectopy
S

- W square

- wave SWS slow wave sleep
SZA solar zenith angle

τ tau, photochemical lifetime; atmospheric lifetime

t t

- test statistical value; t statistic

T time; duration of exposure

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– Do Not Cite or Quote xlvii September 2011 T cell(s) T lymphocyte(s), thymus

dependent lymphocytes

T1 first trimester

T2 second trimester

T 3 triiodothyronine

T3 third trimes ter

T 4 thyroxine

TAR IPCC Third Assessment Report

TAR WGI IPCC Third Assessment Report of Working Group I

TB tracheobronchial; terminal bronchioles; tuberculosis

TBA thiobarbituric acid
TBARS thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
TC total carbon

99m Tc Technetium

- 99m

T

- cells T

- lymphocytes, Thymus

- derived lymphocytes

99m Tc

- DTPA 99mTc

diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid

Tco core temperature
TDLAS Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectrometer

Te expiratory time

TEM transmission electron microscopy; Terrestrial Ecosystem Model
TES Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer
TexAQS Texas Air Quality Field Study Tg teragram(s)

TGF transforming growth factor TGF β transforming growth factor beta

Th T helper cell type

Th2 T helper cell type 2
THC Total hydrocarbon content tHcy total homocysteine

Ti inspiratory time

Ti titanium

TIA transient ischemic attack

TIMP

- 2 tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloprotease

- 2
TiO 2 titanium dioxide
TLC total lung capacity
TLNISE two

- level normal independent sampling estimation

Tlr toll

- like receptor gene

TLR Toll

- like receptor protein (ex., TLR2, TLR4)

TMPO tetramethylphrrolise 1

- oxide
TNC total nonstructural carbohydrate

TNF tumor necrosis factor (e.g., TNF

- α)

TNF

- 308 tumor necrosis factor genotype

TNF

- α tumor necrosis factor alpha

TNFR tumor necrosis factor receptor TOMS Total Ozone Mapping/Monitoring Satellite; total ozone mapping spectrometer
TOPSE Tropospheric Ozone Production About the Spring Equinox

tPA tissue plasminogen activator

TPLIF two

- photon la ser

- induced fluorescence

TRAMP TexAQS

- II Radical and Aerosol Measurement Project
TREGRO Tree Growth Model

TRIFFID Top

- down Representation of Interactive Foliage and Flora Including Dynamics

TRIM Total Risk Integrated Methodology (model) TRIM.Expo Tota l Risk Integrated Methodology Exposure Event (model)

TRP transient receptor potential (ion channel[s], ex., TRP

- A1, TRP

- V1, TRP

- M8)

TSH thyroid stimulating hormone
TSP total suspended particles
TTFMS two

- tone frequency

- modulated spectroscopy

TWA time

- weighted average

TX thromboxane (e.g., TXB 2 )

TXB 2 thromboxane B2

UA uric acid; Urate

UAM Urban Airshed Model
UCL upper 95th% confidence limit

UDGT UDP

- galactose

- 1,2,

- diacylglycerol galactosyltransferase

UDP uridine diphosphate

U.K. United Kin gdom
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

U

- O epioxides formed from uric acid

U

- O 2 − peroxides formed from uric acid

U

- O 3 − ozonides f ormed from uric acid

URI upper respiratory infection

URS upper respiratory symptoms

URT upper respiratory tract; upper airways
U.S. United States (of America) USC; U.S.C. U.S. Code

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFS U.S. Forest Service

USGCRP U.S. Global Change Research Program
USGS U.S. Geological Survey

UV ultraviolet radiation

UV

- A ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths of 320 to 400 nm

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– Do Not Cite or Quote xlviii September 2011 UV

- B ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths of 280 to 320 nm

UV

- C ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths of 200 to 280 nm

UV

- DIAL Ultraviolet Differential Absorption Lidar

V vanadium V, mV, μV volt, millivolt, microvolt

VA alveolar ventilation

Val valine
VC vital capacity
VCAM vascular cell adhesion molecule

V d deposition rate, deposition velocity (cm/s)

V D volume of the anatomic or physiological dead space

V E ventilation rate; minute ventilation; ventilatory volume
VEGF vascular endothelial growth factor

V E max maximum minute ventilation

Vmax maximum velocity

Vmax 25% maximum expiratory flow at 25% of the vital capacity

Vmax 50% maximum expiratory flow at 50% of the vital capacity

Vmax 75% maximum expiratory flow at 75% of the vital capacity

VMD volume median diameter

Vn nasal volume
VO 2 oxy gen consumption
VO 2 max maximum volume per time, of oxygen (maximal oxygen consumption, maximal oxygen uptake or aerobic capacity) VOC(s) volatile organic compound(s)

VP volumetric penetration

VP 50% volume at which 50% of an inhaled bolus is absorbed

V PD vapor pressure deficit; Vehicles per day; Ventricular premature depolarization

VT tidal volume

VTB terminal bronchiole region volume VTmax maximum tidal volume

VUA volume of the upper airways

vWF von Willebrand factor

W width; wilderness; week(s)

W126 cumulative integrated exposure index with a sigmoidal weighting function

W95 cumulative integrated exposure index with a sigmoidal weighting function

WBC white blood cell
WBGT wet bulb globe temperature

wc sigmoidal weighting of hourly O 3 concent ration
WCB warm conveyor belt

WED (U.S. EPA NHEERL) Western Ecology Division
WF, WFM White Face Mountain site

WHI Women ’ s Health Initiative
WHO World Health Organization wk(s) week(s)

W/m 2 , W m - 2 watts per square meter
WMO World Meteorological Orga nization
WMO/UNEP World Meteorological Organization/United Nations Environment Program

WRF Weather Research and Forecasting model

Ws Wassilewskija Arabidopsis ecotype
WS wood smoke

WT wild type; White Top Mountain site

wt % percent by weight
WUS wes tern U.S.

w/v weight per volume

Y three parameter Weibull model

yr year
Z Airway generation
ZAPS Zonal Air Pollution System

ZELIG a forest succession simulation model

Zn zinc