These guidelines are advisory in nature and informational in content. They are not a new standard or regulation and do not create 

any new OSHA duties. Under the OSH Act, the extent of an 

employer’s obligation to address ergonomic hazards is governed by 

the general duty clause, 29 U.S.C. 654(a)(1). An employer’s failure 

to implement the guidelines is not a violation, or evidence of a violation of the general duty clause. Furthermore, the fact that OSHA 

has developed this document is not evidence of an employer’s 

obligations under the general duty clause; the fact that a measure 

is recommended in this document but not adopted by an employer 

is not evidence of a violation of the general duty clause. In addition, the recommendations contained herein were developed with 

the idea that they could be adapted to the needs and resources of 

each individual place of employment. Thus, implementation of the 

guidelines may differ from site to site depending on the circumstances at each particular site. 

Employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthful 

workplace for their employees. OSHA’s role is to assure the 

safety and health of America’s working men and women by 

setting and enforcing standards; providing training, outreach 

and education; establishing partnerships; and encouraging 

continual improvement in workplace safety and health. 

This publication is in the public domain and may be reproduced, fully or partially, without permission. Source credit is 

requested but not required.

This information is available to sensory impaired individuals 

upon request. Voice phone: (202) 693-1999; teletypewriter 

(TTY) number: (877) 889-5627.
Guidelines for Shipyards

Ergonomics for the Prevention of

Musculoskeletal Disorders

United States Department of Labor

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OSHA 3341-03N

2008

 Guidelines for Shipyards 1
Contents

Executive Summary 3

Introduction 4

A Process for Protecting Employees 5

Providing Management Support 5

Involving Employees 5

Providing Training 5

Identifying Problems 6

Implementing Solutions 7

Addressing Reports of Injuries 7

Evaluating Progress 7

Implementing Solutions 8

 Site-wide 9

 Material/Equipment Handling 12

 Tools 31

 Metal work 35

 Shipside 38

 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 44

Additional Sources of Information 47

References 48

2 Guidelines for Shipyards
Executive Summary

Many proactive initiatives taken by the shipyard 

industry have resulted in a reduction in injuries 

and illnesses. Shipyards have reported that many 

shipyard tasks are performed in awkward body 

postures, at nonadjustable workstations, on scaffolds, and in enclosed or confined spaces (1, 2, 

3). Even in this environment, the shipbuilding 

industry has found ways to make shipyard work 

easier through ergonomic solutions. However, the 

industry still has higher injury rates than general 

industry and construction (4). 

More remains to be learned about the relationship 

between workplace activities and the development 

of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). Continuing 

research and operational experience will provide 

additional information that will assist in designing 

further recommendations for reducing the potential for MSDs in workplaces. However, the experiences of numerous shipyards that have successfully addressed this important issue have provided a 

sufficient basis for taking action to better protect 

employees. 

These guidelines provide recommendations for 

shipyards to help reduce the number and severity of work-related musculoskeletal disorders, 

increase employer and employee awareness of 

ergonomic risk factors, eliminate unsafe work 

practices, alleviate muscle fatigue, and increase 

productivity. 

 

In order to develop these guidelines, OSHA reviewed existing ergonomic practices in several 

shipyards, conducted site visits to observe these 

practices in action, and interviewed employees in 

shipyards. Many shipyards addressed ergonomic 

issues by integrating ergonomics into their overall 

health and safety programs (1, 2, 3). In addition, 

the Agency reviewed available scientific information regarding shipyard work activities that may 

benefit from implementing specific ergonomic 

solutions. 

The general information in these guidelines is 

intended to provide shipyard employers and employees with effective solutions and a useful reference when determining the need for ergonomic 

assistance for specific jobs in the shop, yard, or on 

board a ship. The recommendations and information presented here are intended as general guidelines - a flexible framework to be adapted to the 

needs and resources of each individual shipyard. 

Boat builders who make sailboats or small recreational powerboats are not addressed in these 

guidelines. However, those industries may find in 

this document some approaches to help address 

ergonomic concerns. The ideas presented in these 

guidelines may also be beneficial in other industries with metal forming and assembly operations.

OSHA realizes that some shipyards, particularly 

small ones, may need help with the implementation of some of the ergonomic solutions. They 

may need assistance in setting up a plan to implement an appropriate ergonomics process and to 

make recommended solutions applicable to their 

individual situations. Therefore, OSHA emphasizes the availability of its free consultation services 

to address these needs.

The heart of these guidelines is the description 

of various solutions that have been implemented 

by shipyards. OSHA recommends that shipyards 

consider these solutions in the context of a systematic process that includes the elements described in the pages that follow. Such a process 

will make it more likely that the solutions implemented in a particular workplace will be successful in reducing injuries and will be cost effective.

These guidelines expand on these recommendations, and include additional information that 

employers can use to identify problems and train 

employees. This document includes an introduction; a process for protecting employees; solutions 

that employers can use to help reduce MSDs in 

shipyards which are of particular value; and additional sources of information on ergonomics in 

shipyards.

 

 Edwin G. Foulke, Jr.

 Assistant Secretary of Labor for

 Occupational Safety and Health

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 3
Introduction

The shipyard work environment is very complex. 

Shipyards work on a variety of vessels including tankers, cargo carriers, fishing vessels, military ships, and 

barges. In addition, shipyards perform different types 

of work such as new ship construction, repair, maintenance, and demolition (shipbreaking). Shipyard work 

typically involves fabrication and forming of large 

steel plates, beams, and pipes, as well as painting and 

coating operations. In addition, there are outfitting 

activities such as electrical work, sheet metal work, 

and work on propulsion systems. Welding is also a 

common job in shipbuilding, requiring grinding and 

chipping of welds. Moreover, most shipyard employees work outdoors and are exposed to adverse conditions, such as extreme temperatures (5).

Small shipyards may employ less than one hundred 

people, while the large shipyards may have 5,000 or 

more employees. Shipyard work is divided into three 

categories: work in the shop, in the yard, and on the 

ship. In most shipyards, fabrication starts in a shop 

off the vessel, where the work conditions are similar 

to some manufacturing or maintenance activities. 

However, final assembly is completed on the vessel in 

varying and unique environments. In addition, many 

shipyards are involved in repair and maintenance 

work, some of which can be done off the vessel, but 

the vast majority must be done on a vessel. 

Early indications of MSDs include numbness, tingling, pain, restriction of joint movement, or soft 

tissue swelling. Studies have shown that persistent or 

recurring general shoulder pain (related to e.g., rotator 

cuff tendonitis) is commonly reported by shipyard 

employees (6, 7). In addition, shipyard employees 

experience lower extremity MSDs, strains and sprains 

of the low back muscles, and associated low back 

disorders (6, 8, 9). Moreover, hand-arm vibration 

syndrome, known as “vibration white finger,” is often 

identified among shipyard employees who use vibrating tools (5, 10, 11).

Some MSDs develop gradually over time as a result 

of intensive work (3, 7, 12). When the work environment requires employees to assume awkward or static 

body postures for a prolonged period of time, the 

employees may be at risk of developing MSDs (7, 

13, 14). Activities outside the workplace that involve 

substantial physical demands may also cause or contribute to MSDs (15). In addition, the development of 

MSDs may be related to genetic causes, gender, age, 

and other factors (15, 16). Finally, there is evidence 

that reports of MSDs may be linked to certain psychosocial factors such as job dissatisfaction, monotony, 

and limited job control (15, 17). These guidelines address only physical risk factors in the workplace. The 

ergonomics-related risk factors that shipyard employees are most often exposed to include:

• Force, 

• Repetition,

• Awkward and prolonged static body posture,

• Contact stress,

• Vibration, and 

• Cold temperatures combined with the risk factors 

above.

The combination of these risk factors in a job can 

result in a greater risk of injury (17). However, the 

presence of risk factors on a job does not necessarily 

mean that the employees will develop MSDs. 

OSHA visited shipyards that had implemented ergonomic solutions and achieved considerable success in reducing work-related MSDs (1). Providing 

a safer and more comfortable work environment has 

also resulted in additional benefits including reduced 

absenteeism, increased efficiency and productivity, 

decreased fatigue, and improved employee morale (1). 

4 Guidelines for Shipyards

Due to ergonomic improvements our accident rate 

from 5 years ago is down about 80%. 

In addition, we have been consistently profitable in 

the shipyard for 4 years. 

Steve Welch, CEO, Todd Pacific Shipyard 2003 (2)
A Process for Protecting Employees

For many operations, the number and severity 

of injuries resulting from physical overexertion, 

as well as associated costs, may be substantially 

reduced (15). OSHA recommends that employers 

develop a process for systematically addressing 

ergonomic issues in their work environments and 

incorporate this process into their existing safety 

and health programs. To be most effective, the 

process should be tailored to an individual shipyard’s operations. 

Shipyard management personnel should consider 

the general steps discussed below when establishing and implementing an ergonomics program. It 

should be noted, however, that each shipyard will 

have different needs and limitations that should 

be considered when identifying and correcting 

workplace problems. Shipyards may implement 

different types of programs and activities and may 

assign staff from a variety of departments to accomplish the goals of the ergonomics program.

Providing Management Support

Strong support by management is critical for the 

overall success of an ergonomics process (15). 

OSHA recommends that shipyards develop clear 

goals and objectives for the ergonomics process, 

discuss them with the employees, and assign 

responsibilities to the designated staff members to 

achieve those goals, and provide feedback to employees. Implementation of an effective ergonomics process includes a sustained effort, the coordination of activities, and the resources necessary 

to ensure that the objectives of the ergonomics 

process will be accomplished. 

Many shipyards have successfully integrated 

more than an ergonomics process into their business; for example, the “lean manufacturing” and 

“Five S” strategies focus on providing the right 

material to the right place at the right time in a 

proper manner (1, 3). These strategies attempt to 

eliminate non-value steps in the manufacturing 

process, such as “wasted walking” or “wasted 

motion” to pick up parts (3, 18, 19). Ergonomics is a good fit with these strategies - ergonomic 

principles help to identify and control activities 

that detract from employee performance and may 

lead to MSDs.

Involving Employees

Employees are a vital source of information about 

hazards in their workplaces. They have a unique 

insight into the problems of their jobs and can 

assist in identifying work-related risk factors. 

Employees’ opinions and suggestions for change 

are valuable, particularly in such a difficult and 

complex work environment as a shipyard. Employees can provide early reports of MSD symptoms, submit their concerns and suggestions for 

reducing exposure to risk factors, and evaluate the 

changes made as a result of an ergonomic assessment. They can also participate in other activities 

such as ergonomic task groups and respond to 

management surveys and questionnaires. 

Shipyard employers reported that employee involvement in the ergonomics process enhances 

employee morale and job satisfaction. Employee 

involvement leads to greater acceptance when 

changes are made and to better understanding of 

ergonomics both on and off the job (1, 20).

Providing Training

Training is also an important element of the ergonomics process. Training ensures that employees 

are informed about ergonomic concerns in the 

workplace and ways to minimize the risk of injury. Training is best provided by individuals who 

have experience with ergonomic issues in shipyards. Training should be provided in a manner 

and language that all employees can understand.

Training prepares employees for active participation in the ergonomics process, including identifying potential problems, implementing solutions, 

and evaluating the process. Effective training 

includes:

• Proper use of equipment, tools, and machine 

controls;

• Good work practices, including proper lifting 

techniques;

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 5
• Awareness of work tasks that may lead to pain 

or injury; 

• Recognition of MSDs and their early indications;

• Addressing early indications of MSDs before 

serious injury develops; and

• Shipyard procedures for reporting work-related 

injuries and illnesses as required by OSHA’s injury and illness recording and reporting regulation (29 CFR 1904).

Employees will benefit from orientation and 

hands-on training received prior to starting tasks 

with potential ergonomic risk factors. Employees should also be notified of workplace changes, 

instructed on using new equipment, and notified 

of new work procedures. 

Identifying Problems

It is important to periodically review the job site 

and the activities of employees to identify possible ergonomic issues. Information about existing problems can be obtained from a variety of 

sources including analysis of OSHA 300 and 301 

injury and illness information, workers’ compensation records, and employee reports of problems.

In addition, observations of workplace conditions and work processes, job analyses, workplace 

surveys, and employee interviews are important 

in identifying ergonomics-related risk factors. The 

ergonomics-related risk factors that may lead to 

the development of MSDs include:

• Force - the amount of physical effort required to 

perform a task (such as heavy lifting, pushing, 

pulling) or to maintain control of the equipment 

or tools. 

• Repetition - performing the same motion or 

series of motions frequently for an extended 

period of time. 

• Awkward and prolonged static postures – assuming positions that place stress on the body, 

such as repeated or prolonged reaching above 

the shoulder height, bending forward or to the 

side, twisting, kneeling, or squatting. 

• Contact stress – pressing the body or part of the 

body (such as the hand) against hard or sharp 

edges, or using the hand as a hammer.

• Vibration – using vibrating tools such as sanders, chippers, drills, grinders, or reciprocating 

saws may result in fatigue, pain, numbness, 

increased sensitivity to cold, and decreased 

sensitivity to touch in fingers, hands, and arms. 

Exposure to whole body vibration may damage 

the joints of the skeletal system. 

Cold temperatures combined with the risk factors 

above may increase the risk of musculoskeletal 

disorders (8, 15). 

When there are several risk factors in a job, as is 

often found in shipyards, there can be a greater 

risk of injury (17). Whether certain work activities put an employee at risk of injury can depend 

on the duration (how long), frequency (how 

often), and magnitude (how intense) of the employee’s exposure to the risk factors in the activity 

(17), as well as other factors. These characteristics are particularly important when considering 

work activities and conditions. For example:

• Grinding welds in a small compartment can 

involve a combination of vibration, force, and 

awkward postures.

• Pulling cable through an overhead channel can 

involve awkward postures and repetition.

• Using a needle gun outdoors can involve awkward postures and vibration in a cold environment.

Additionally, the following types of employee behavior may indicate the presence of ergonomicsrelated problems:

• Employees shaking arms and hands or rolling 

shoulders due to discomfort,

• Employees voluntarily modifying workstations 

and equipment to increase comfort, and 

• Employees bringing in ergonomic products to 

the worksite (such as wrist braces).

As reported by Gunderson, Inc., awkward postures and long task durations are their greatest 

ergonomic issues (1).

6 Guidelines for Shipyards
Implementing Solutions

Examples of potential solutions for various ergonomic concerns are located in the Implementing 

Solutions section of these guidelines.

Addressing Reports of Injuries

 

Addressing reports of injuries is essential to the 

success of the ergonomics process. The goal of 

this effort is to ensure evaluation, diagnosis, and 

treatment of musculoskeletal disorders. Addressing reports of injuries focuses shipyards’ efforts on 

preventing MSDs in those specific jobs where injuries occur most often and are most severe. It also 

provides needed input into the management of the 

ergonomics process. Integrating health care providers into shipyard ergonomic efforts promotes 

returning to work more quickly and successfully. 

As a part of the ergonomics process, addressing 

reports of injuries:

• Reinforces employee training on the recognition 

of the indications of MSDs and the necessary 

procedures for reporting potential injuries;

• Encourages employees to report MSDs and 

potential MSDs early. Early reporting, diagnosis, and interventions can limit injury severity, 

improve effectiveness of treatment, minimize the 

likelihood of permanent damage, and reduce 

workers’ compensation claims (21). Federal 

and state laws prohibit discrimination against 

employees who report a work-related injury or 

illness [29 U.S.C. 660(c)];

• Provides prompt medical evaluation, medical 

care, and follow-up care (including rehabilitation services when available); and

• Provides guidance on job modifications, restrictions, or alternative jobs for injured employees.

Work accommodations and alternative duty tasks 

will help employees recover faster, so that they 

can return to their usual job without restrictions 

and risk of reinjury. Health care providers in shipyards, who remain knowledgeable about shipyard 

operations and work practices by conducting 

periodic, systematic workplace walkthroughs to 

observe workplace conditions and processes, can 

effectively identify potential alternative duty jobs and 

maintain close contact with the employees (1). 

 

Evaluating Progress

Procedures and mechanisms to assess the effectiveness of the ergonomics process are also important. Evaluation and follow-up are essential to 

continuous improvement and long-term success. 

OSHA recommends that the ergonomics process 

be regularly evaluated to determine whether ergonomic objectives are met, including after new solutions are implemented. Such evaluations should 

include input from shipyard managers, health care 

providers, and employees to review goals, suggest 

changes in the process, and evaluate the effectiveness of ergonomic improvements. 

The success of an ergonomics process can be evaluated based on interaction with employees and 

observations of the work environment, which are 

likely to be sufficient for small shipyards. Evaluation of more formal processes in larger shipyards 

can also include activity and outcome measures 

used as indicators of process performance. Process 

evaluations may include the following:

• Direct communication with employees during 

training sessions, interviews during workplace 

observations, and follow-up medical evaluations.

• Evaluation of each element of the ergonomics process, as determined by activity measures 

such as:

o Average time between employee report of injury, risk factors or other ergonomics-related 

problem and implementation of appropriate 

solutions, 

o Number of jobs analyzed and number of hazards identified, 

o Number of employees trained, and

o Number of risk factors reduced or eliminated.

• Evaluation of the success in eliminating or reducing exposure to the ergonomic risks factors 

as determined by outcome measures that may 

include:

o Number of OSHA recordable MSDs,

o MSD incidence rate,

o Number of workers’ compensation claims,

o Severity rate of MSDs,

o Annual medical cost for MSDs,

o Average workers’ compensation costs per 

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 7
Implementing Solutions

The section on ergonomic solutions for shipyards 

describes changes to equipment, work practices, 

and procedures that can address ergonomicsrelated risk factors, help control costs, and reduce employee turnover. These changes may also 

increase employee productivity and efficiency 

because they eliminate unnecessary movements 

and reduce heavy manual work. OSHA recommends that employers use engineering controls, 

where feasible, as the preferred method of dealing 

with ergonomic issues in shipyards. The first set of 

solutions is applicable to all or most areas of the 

shipyard.

The recommended shipyard ergonomic solutions 

presented on the following pages have already 

been implemented in some shipyards. These 

solutions are not intended to cover all ergonomic 

challenges in shipyards, nor does OSHA expect 

that all of these solutions are applicable to each 

and every shipyard. OSHA recognizes that implementing engineering solutions may present certain 

challenges in the shipyard environment, which 

includes work that is performed outdoors and in 

cramped spaces. However, shipyard personnel are 

encouraged to use the examples in this document 

as a starting point for developing innovative solutions tailored to the specific ergonomic challenges 

in their individual shipyard. The solutions have 

been categorized according to the locations and 

jobs in which they are most frequently performed:

• Site-wide,

• Material/Equipment Handling,

• Tools,

• Metal work,

• Shipside, and 

• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).

8 Guidelines for Shipyards

MSD, and

o Number of job transfer requests per trade.

The results of process evaluations can be used 

to change the goals of the process over time. As 

some goals are achieved, it may be appropriate to 

focus efforts on other goals that remain. 
SITE-WIDE

Task Lighting

Description: Positioning lights directly over a work area 

and/or equipment.

Advantage: 

•	 Reduces awkward neck and back position required to 

get close to the work to view it.

Point to Remember:

•	 Lights on adjustable arms allow accurate positioning 

and can help avoid shadows and glare.

Reduces awkward 

postures

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 9
Point-of-Use Tool Boards and 

Rigging Racks

Description: Devices that position work between the 

knees and shoulders and within easy reach. 

Advantages: 

• Provide easy access to tools and material.

• Reduce wasted time to untangle parts.

•	 Reduce forceful exertions to pull tangled tools 

apart.

Points to Remember:

•	 Arrange tools so that the most frequently used 

tools are within easy reach.

•	 Device can be used any time the work, tools, or 

equipment is farther than an arm’s reach, lower 

than the knees, or above the shoulders.

Reduce awkward postures and 

fatigue

10 Guidelines for Shipyards
Standing Platforms BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Small platforms or benches that can be 

easily transported to the work area. 

Advantages: 

•	 Platform use provides more stability for body 

posture and may decrease the risk of injury when 

doing overhead work.

•	 Lightweight platforms can be folded up and 

carried onto a vessel.

Points to Remember: 

•	 Platform use may reduce the amount of overhead 

work that may cause shoulder and neck fatigue. 

•	 When possible, employees should work with 

hands between waist and shoulder height.

Reduce physical exertions and 

awkward postures

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders

11
MATERIAL/EQUIPMENT HANDLING

Carts, Hand Trucks, 

Pallet Jacks 

Description: Wheeled devices designed to 

transport and carry materials. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduce lifting, pushing, and pulling forces.

•	 Allow heavy or awkward materials, tools, or 

equipment to be moved without carrying. 

•	 Save time.

•	 Hand trucks and carts are available in many 

shapes and sizes and can be customized for 

special applications.

Points to Remember:

•	 Motorized pallet jacks are preferred for 

frequent or distant movement of materials. 

•	 Wheels should be appropriate to the floor 

conditions to minimize push/pull forces. 

Larger diameter wheels may improve cart 

maneuvering.

•	 Swivel wheels on the rear and fixed wheels 

on the front make pushing easier for longer 

distances. 

•	 Swivel wheels on both the front and rear make 

maneuvering in small, cramped areas easier. 

•	 Wheels should be well maintained.

•	 Handles should be located at the rear of the 

cart and positioned at waist level. 

•	 Load height on the cart should not obstruct 

vision. 

•	 Loads should be balanced and load weight 

kept under the manufacturer’s recommended 

weight limits.

•	 Pushing is preferred to pulling.

Reduce lifting, pushing, and 

pulling forces

12 Guidelines for Shipyards
Drum Movers/Tilters BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Overhead handling system that 

easily lifts and tilts a heavy drum. 

Advantages: 

•	 Eliminate manual lifting and tilting of heavy 

drums. 

•	 Reduce potential for accidental contact 

with chemicals.

•	 Reduce forces on back from rolling the 

drum on its edge (chimming).

Points to Remember:

•	 Different handling systems and drum 

grippers are available for many situations.

•	 Ensure the system/device is rated for the 

drum weight.

Reduce lifting, pushing, and pulling 

forces

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 13
Overhead Cranes

Description: Overhead devices used to lift and 

transport heavy items. 

Advantages: 

•	 Eliminate manual lifting and carrying of heavy 

objects.

•	 Eliminate pushing heavy carts of material and 

equipment (i.e., sheet metal, pipes, and large 

tools) across rough floors. 

•	 Various adaptors are available to attach items 

such as drums, boxes, bags, and hooks.

Points to Remember:

•	 Ensure the system/device is rated for the load 

weight.

•	 Movement pattern should be considered prior to 

installation of the crane.

•	 Proper design of control buttons may reduce 

awkward hand position.

Reduce lifting, pushing, and 

pulling forces

14 Guidelines for Shipyards
Jib Cranes BEFORE

AFTER

 

 

Description: Wall, floor, or pillar mounted 

I-beam with a rolling trolley/hoist used to lift 

and position equipment and material. 

Advantages: 

•	 Eliminate manual lifting, carrying, and 

positioning of heavy equipment and 

material. 

•	 Eliminate the need to push heavy carts 

across rough floors.

•	 May save time.

•	 Hose handling systems attached to the jib 

crane keep welding hoses untangled and 

eliminate dragging hoses across the floor. 

•	 Cranes are capable of rotating 180-360 

degrees for maximum versatility. 

•	 A variety of grippers can be attached to the 

crane for handling different objects. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Jib cranes can be mounted to a wall, floor, 

or pillar.

•	 Most jib cranes have a reach capability of 

up to 20 feet.

•	 Movement pattern should be considered 

prior to installation of the crane.

•	 Proper design of control buttons may 

reduce awkward hand position.

•	 Ensure the system/device is rated for the 

load weight.

Reduce lifting, pushing, and pulling 

forces 

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 15
Hoists/Balancers 

BEFORE

AFTER

 

Description: Portable devices used to lift and 

position heavy objects or tools. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduce the force needed to lift and position 

heavy objects or tools over the work area. 

•	 Reduce fatigue from frequent lifting.

•	 Easy to set up at locations where a crane is 

not installed. 

Points to Remember:

•	 A variety of attachments are available to lift 

different objects. 

•	 Ensure the hoist is rated for the load weight.

•	 Many makes and models of hoists and 

balancers are commercially available (e.g., 

spring-loaded, pneumatic, electric, or 

computer-controlled). 

Reduce lifting, pushing, and 

pulling forces

16 Guidelines for Shipyards
Conveyors BEFORE

 

AFTER

 

 

Description: Tabletops or work surfaces with 

manual or powered roller systems. 

Advantages: 

•	 Eliminate carrying large sheets of metal or 

heavy objects between work stations. 

•	 Reduce shoulder and back fatigue caused 

by frequently carrying objects between work 

stations. 

•	 Conveyors can be designed to move 

material around corners. 

•	 Conveyors can be flexible to extend into 

trucks or pushed together to minimize 

blocking forklift traffic aisles.

Points to Remember:

•	 Powered conveyors minimize pushing and 

pulling forces. 

•	 Manual conveyors require regular 

maintenance to minimize pushing and 

pulling forces. 

•	 Objects on a manual conveyor are easier to 

push or slide when at or slightly below waist 

height. 

•	 Ensure that employees are aware of pinch 

hazards.

Reduce lifting, pushing, and pulling 

forces

 Portable Lifts / 

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 17
Roller Ball Surfaces

Description: Tabletops or work surfaces with roller 

balls. 

Advantages:

•	 Reduce friction force when moving, loading, or 

positioning large sheets of metal, wood, or pipe 

into a machine.

•	 Roller tops can be located on top of existing 

work surfaces and tables.

•	 Some rollers are capable of rotating 360 

degrees allowing for objects to be rotated and 

turned easily.

•	 Powered rollers minimize pushing and pulling 

forces.

•	 Pushing or sliding objects eliminates lifting and 

carrying that can be more strenuous for the 

arms and back. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Objects are easier to push or slide when they 

are at waist height.

•	 Roller ball surfaces require regular maintenance 

to minimize pushing and pulling forces.

•	 Ensure that employees are aware of pinch 

hazards.

Reduce pushing and pulling 

forces

18 Guidelines for Shipyards
Moveable Containers

BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Large containers for storing and 

transporting materials, tools, and equipment to 

where they are being used. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduce material handling and improve 

efficiency. 

•	 Large quantities of material (i.e., cables, 

welding units, hoses, rigging equipment) can 

be transported at one time using a forklift or 

crane.

•	 Storage containers may be customized for 

special applications.

Points to Remember:

•	 Store items between knee and shoulder height 

whenever possible.

•	 Avoid using containers with high sides that 

require reaching. 

Reduce manual material handling

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 19
Pulley System 

Description: Pulleys attached to tools or 

equipment that assist in manual handling and 

positioning. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduces force needed to lift, position, or 

operate tools or equipment. 

•	 Pulleys can be attached to various tools, 

such as a powered saw, to reduce the 

force required to operate the saw. 

Points to Remember:

•	 One or more pulleys can be used to 

reduce the forces needed to handle tools 

and equipment. 

•	 Ensure the system/device is rated for the 

load weight.

Reduces lifting, pushing, and pulling 

forces

20 Guidelines for Shipyards
Automatic Hose Roller

Description: A machine that coils long hoses. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduces the time and effort needed to 

manually roll up long hoses.

•	 Increases efficiency.

Points to Remember: 

•	 Machines can be manufactured to meet 

specific needs.

•	 Ensure the device is rated for the load 

weight.

Reduces pushing and pulling forces, 

and repetitive motions

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 21
Hose, Cord, and Cable 

Management Systems

Description: Reels that coil hoses and cords 

and store them out of the way. 

Advantages: 

•	 Overhead reels reduce the need to drag, 

bend, and reach for air hoses.

•	 Retractable reels store pneumatic and 

electrical hose/cords easily and conveniently.

•	 Spring retractable devices reduce the need 

to manually wind the reel.

•	 Reels can be portable, mounted overhead, or 

attached to a wall or workstation.

•	 Manual and powered rewind hose reels are 

widely available.

•	 Overhead reels prevent trip hazards by 

keeping hoses/cords off of the ground/floor.

Points to Remember:

•	 Minimize tangles and pinch points in the 

travel path to reduce the pulling forces.

•	 Provide enough leader on the hose to 

minimize pulling.

Reduce pulling forces

22 Guidelines for Shipyards
Turning and Rotating Devices BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Turntables and rotating tabletops 

that allow objects to be easily turned, rotated, and 

positioned. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduce the forces needed to position, turn, or 

rotate parts, tools, and equipment on a workbench. 

•	 Some turntables are capable of rotating 

completely.

•	 A pneumatic foot-operated rotating tabletop 

allows table to be easily rotated and objects to be 

placed within easy reach.

Points to Remember:

•	 Turntables come in a variety of sizes, shapes, 

and configurations. 

•	 Turntables and rollers can be manual or powered. 

•	 Turntables and roller tops can be located on top 

of existing work surfaces.

•	 Turning and rotating devices require regular 

maintenance to minimize the forces needed to 

position, turn, or rotate objects on a workbench.

Reduce forceful exertions

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 23
Racks and Shelves

Description: Devices to stage, move, or store 

materials, tools, or equipment.

Advantages: 

•	 Position materials, tools, and equipment 

within easy reach. 

•	 Allow objects to be lifted or moved without 

bending, twisting, or excessive reaching.

•	 Wheeled rack carts allow for easy 

movement and maneuverability.

•	 Moving racks by crane reduces manual 

carrying of hoses and leads.

•	 Storing items on racks allows them to be 

easily lifted from mid-thigh level (instead of 

the floor). 

•	 The racks also improve organization. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Store items between knee and shoulder 

height whenever possible.

•	 Racks and shelves can be customized to 

meet individual needs.

Reduce manual material handling

24 Guidelines for Shipyards
Material Positioners BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Devices that position and support 

material at an appropriate level.

Advantages: 

•	 Allow for easy positioning of large sheets of 

wood, steel, or aluminum.

•	 A sawhorse with a roller ball top and hinged 

sides allows employees to easily position and 

hold heavy sheets of plywood in a horizontal 

position and slide them through a saw.

•	 Work surfaces that are easily raised or lowered 

allow employees to work in neutral posture.

•	 Hinged work surfaces reduce bending and 

reaching.

Points to Remember:

•	 Surfaces must be able to support the weight of 

the objects or materials.

•	 Powered devices are easier to operate.

•	 Material positioners and height-adjustable 

devices require regular maintenance to ensure 

their easy use.

Reduce awkward body postures

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 25
Moving Welding Units

BEFORE

AFTER

Description: A welding unit with an attached 

fixture/handle.

Advantages: 

•	 Allows welding unit to be moved without lifting.

•	 Allows two-person efforts when relocating 

welding equipment.

•	 Reduce muscle fatigue and the risk of back 

injury. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Design of the fixture should allow the weight 

to be balanced.

•	 The fixture attached to the welding unit should 

have easy to grip handles. 

Reduce lifting forces

26 Guidelines for Shipyards
Large Hose Reel

Description: Device that provides a mechanical 

advantage in coiling long hoses.

Advantages: 

•	 Reduces forces needed to roll large hoses.

•	 Can be transported with a forklift or crane.

•	 Hose reels can be customized for special 

applications.

Points to Remember:

•	 Keep the reels well maintained and easy to turn.

•	 Saltwater and moisture may make reels more 

difficult to turn. 

•	 Ensure system/device is rated for load weight.

Reduces lifting and pulling 

forces

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 27
Synthetic Line BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Lightweight synthetic lines. 

Advantages: 

•	 Up to 75% lighter than steel lines.

•	 Some synthetic lines can be handled by 

one person.

Points to Remember:

•	 Ensure system/device is rated for the 

load weight.

•	 Store synthetic lines properly to reduce 

their deterioration caused by exposure 

to environmental conditions.

Reduces lifting and pulling forces

28 Guidelines for Shipyards
Tractor and Trailer BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Devices used to move multiple 

units to and from the ship. 

Advantages: 

•	 Loading materials and equipment onto a 

trailer before transporting them to the dock 

requires fewer trips, saves time, and reduces 

handling. 

•	 Trailers come in a variety of sizes, types, and 

load capacities. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Ensure device is rated for the load weight.

•	 Ensure items are secure and balanced on the 

trailer to avoid shifting or tipping.

Reduce manual material handling

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 29
Stack Blower on Wheels BEFORE

AFTER

Description: A custom modification that adds 

wheels and a handle to a conventional stack 

blower. 

Advantage: 

•	 By attaching a handle and wheels to 

each unit, stack blowers can be easily 

maneuvered. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Appropriate wheels should be selected 

based on the floor or ground surface and 

conditions. 

•	 Using larger diameter wheels is often an 

easy way to reduce pushing and pulling 

forces.

•	 Handles should be located at about waist 

height for pushing and pulling. 

•	 Ensure that the top of the stack blower 

does not obstruct vision. 

•	 Pushing is preferred to pulling.

Reduces lifting, pushing, and pulling 

forces

30 Guidelines for Shipyards
TOOLS

Tool Extension Handles BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Long extension handles for 

hand tools. 

Advantages: 

•	 Enable the operator to work standing 

instead of using the tools in awkward 

postures (e.g., kneeling or crouching). 

•	 May reduce vibration being transmitted to 

the hands and arms.

•	 Can be attached to many types of 

handheld tools such as needle guns, 

buffing wheels, and grinders.

•	 The handle and tool can be attached to 

wheels or channel sliding plates to reduce 

the weight and force needed to operate 

the tool. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Altering the tool may pose hazards and 

may void the manufacturer’s warranty.

•	 Tools should not be altered in a way that 

violates the National Electrical Code and 

must not be altered in a way that violates 

OSHA standards.

Reduce awkward body postures

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 31
Power Tools

Description: Tools constructed with durable, lightweight materials. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduce hand and arm fatigue caused by holding 

a tool for several hours. 

•	 Reduce force required to hold heavier tools.

Points to Remember:

•	 If lighter tools are not available, tool balancers 

may be used to reduce the weight held and the 

forces associated with using heavy tools.

•	 Select lighter tools with less vibration. 

Reduce hand and arm fatigue

32 Guidelines for Shipyards
Low Vibration Tools

Description: Tools specifically designed to reduce 

vibration. 

Advantage: 

•	 Reduce the vibration being transmitted to the 

hands. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Tool maintenance should be performed on a 

regular basis. 

•	 Oiling and cleaning tools daily increases the life 

of the tool and reduces vibration.

•	 Out-of-balance or off-center grinding wheels, 

pads, and spindles are major contributors to 

vibration. 

•	 Some tools use auto-balancing technology to 

compensate for off-center pads/wheels. 

•	 Tools should be gripped as lightly as possible 

while still maintaining control of the tool.

•	 Cold hands are more vulnerable to the effects of 

vibration. 

•	 Select gloves that minimize the loss of tactile 

sensitivity.

•	 Many low vibration tools are commercially 

available, such as grinders, sanders, and impact 

wrenches.

Reduce hand and arm 

vibration 

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 33
Tool Balancers

Description: Portable devices used to support and 

position tools. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduce hand and shoulder muscle fatigue 

caused by holding a tool for prolonged time. 

•	 May reduce exposure to tool vibration.

Points to Remember:

•	 Balancers require adjustment and maintenance. 

•	 Ensure system/device is rated for weight.

•	 Spring-loaded, pneumatic, electric, or computer 

controlled models are widely available. 

•	 Various adaptors are available to attach to 

different tool configurations.

Reduce muscle fatigue 

34 Guidelines for Shipyards
METAL WORK 

Robotic Welders 

Description: Robotic technology applied to 

welding machines.

Advantages: 

•	 Reduce the fatigue associated with 

prolonged welding or welding performed in 

an awkward or constrained position. 

•	 Reduce the amount of manual welding 

required and may improve efficiency.

•	 Can be operated by one person with 

minimal effort.

Point to Remember:

•	 Not applicable for all welding applications.

Reduce awkward postures and 

repetitive motions

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 35
Electromagnetic and Air Presses

BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Portable electromagnetic and air 

presses that hold parts in place during welding 

operations. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduce awkward postures and forceful 

exertion associated with manually 

clamping parts prior to welding operations. 

•	 Can significantly reduce the time needed 

to complete a job.

Point to Remember:

•	 Used when welding long seams on butted 

metal plates.

Reduce forceful exertions

36 Guidelines for Shipyards
Support Bar

Description: A metal bar placed vertically under a 

long piece of steel for support as it passes through a 

machine. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduces static and awkward postures.

•	 Reduces static exertions while loading the steel 

into the machine.

•	 Useful on long pieces of steel that would require 

manual support.

Point to Remember:

•	 Be sure the bar is stable and can support the 

load.

Reduces static exertions and 

awkward postures

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 37
SHIPSIDE 

Dry Dock Centering Device

Description: Mechanized reel system that pulls ships into 

position in dry dock. 

Advantage: 

•	 Reduces the extreme pulling forces previously required to 

manually pull a vessel into a dry dock. 

Point to Remember:

•	 Check lines frequently and replace damaged ones.

Reduces pulling 

forces

38 Guidelines for Shipyards
Lighter-Weight Blowers

Description: Lighter-weight blowers used to move 

air in small spaces. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduce the lifting forces associated with 

carrying blowers onto vessels.

•	 Have handles for easy carrying.

•	 The weight is more balanced for easy carrying. 

Point to Remember: 

•	 Ensure the air volume is adequate.

Reduce lifting forces

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 39
Stools and Creepers BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Portable seats that allow the 

employee to be seated while working.

Advantages: 

•	 Provide support in the right position for hardto-reach areas, such as underneath ships, 

decks, or platforms or when working below 

waist level.

•	 Tools, equipment, and materials can be 

attached to the stools/chairs for convenience. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Adjustable stools and creepers are preferred.

•	 Locking the casters helps prevent the stools 

and creepers from moving unexpectedly.

•	 Some stools can be custom made.

Reduce awkward postures

40 Guidelines for Shipyards
Gas Line Connector Rack

Description: A device that allows gas lines to 

be connected to one central location. 

Advantages: 

•	 Reduces the number of gas tanks that are 

handled. 

•	 The rack can be moved by crane as a single 

unit.

Points to Remember:

•	 The gas racks are assembled by the vendor.

•	 Use of the gas rack is more efficient when 

used by several employees in the same 

area.

Reduces material handling

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 41
Davit Cranes

Description: Devices mounted to dry docks to move heavy 

items onto or off of vessels. 

Advantage: 

•	 Reduce manual lifting and handling.

Points to Remember:

•	 Ensure the device is rated for the load weight.

•	 Many types, sizes, and capacities of overhead cranes 

are widely available to lift and transport heavy items.

Reduce manual lifting 

and handling

42 Guidelines for Shipyards
Block Lifting Device BEFORE

AFTER

Description: A hook-like device that allows wood 

blocks to be lifted by a crane or forklift. 

Advantage: 

•	 Reduces the manual lifting, moving, and 

positioning of very heavy wood blocks. 

Point to Remember:

•	 Ensure device is well maintained.

Reduces manual handling

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 43
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

Anti-vibration Gloves

Description: Gloves with anti-vibration properties. 

Advantage: 

•	 Reduce the vibration being transmitted to the hands 

and arms from vibrating tools such as grinders, needle 

guns, and sanders. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Optimal fit is essential to reduce unnecessary fatigue. 

•	 Anti-vibration gloves should not dramatically increase 

grip diameter.

•	 Gloves should be chosen to minimize the loss of tactile 

sensitivity.

•	 Full finger gloves provide the maximum protection. 

Reduce hand–arm vibration

Elbow Pads

Description: Pads to protect the elbow from contact stress. 

Advantage: 

•	 Useful for working in cramped spaces and/or leaning on 

the elbows.

Point to Remember:

•	 Elbow pads should fit snugly but should not compromise 

circulation in the arm.

Reduce contact stress

44 Guidelines for Shipyards
Shoulder Pads

Description: Pads that protect the shoulder when 

carrying objects on the shoulder.

Advantage: 

•	 Reduce the contact stress to the shoulder. 

Points to Remember:

•	 Shoulder pads should be used when an item cannot 

be transported with a cart or other transport device. 

•	 Carrying heavy objects on the shoulder often causes 

excessive pressure applied over a small area.

Reduce contact stress

Kneeling Supports BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Support devices that distribute weight and 

reduce knee strains.

Advantage: 

•	 Reduce pressure within the knee while kneeling and 

prevent the knee from bending too far.

Point to Remember:

•	 When possible, work surfaces should be raised to 

minimize kneeling.

Reduce contact stress

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 45
Kneepads BEFORE

AFTER

Description: Pads worn to protect the knee when 

kneeling on a hard surface. 

Advantage: 

•	 Kneepads reduce contact stress. 

Points to Remember: 

•	 When possible, work surfaces should be raised to 

minimize kneeling.

•	 Kneepads should fit snugly but should not 

compromise circulation to the lower leg. 

•	 Kneeling on one or both knees can cause contact 

stress on the bones and soft tissues of the knees.

•	 Contact stress can reduce circulation and pinch 

nerves.

•	 Pad should be replaced when cushion material 

becomes compacted.

•	 Select fire-resistant pads when performing hot 

work.

Reduce contact stress

46 Guidelines for Shipyards
Additional Sources of Information

The following sources may be useful to those 

seeking further information about ergonomics and 

the prevention of work-related musculoskeletal 

disorders in shipyards.

Shipyard Ergonomics Video and Workbook CD

Shipbuilders Council of America. The video cassette and CD are designed to instruct shipyard 

employees, supervisors, and trainers in identifying ergonomic-related risks and providing tools 

to allow the development of creative solutions to 

reduce the hazards. 

Easy Ergonomics, A Practical Approach for 

Improving the Workplace

California Department of Industrial Relations, 

http://www.dir.ca.gov/dosh/dosh_publications/

EasErg2.pdf; Ergonomic Guidelines for Manual 

Handling, [NIOSH Publication No. 2007-131] 

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2007-131/

pdfs/2007-131.pdf; Easy Ergonomics: A Guide 

to Selecting Non-Powered Hand Tools, [NIOSH 

Publication No. 2004-164] http://www.cdc.gov/

niosh/docs/2004-164/default.html. These documents are designed to provide general ergonomic 

advice, and are not industry specific. The documents provide a simple, hands-on approach to 

ergonomics to help employers, supervisors, and 

employees as they work toward improving ergonomic conditions in their workplace. 

Elements of Ergonomics Programs

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 

– National Institute for Occupational Safety and 

Health, (800) 356-4674, http://www.cdc.gov/

niosh/docs/97-117/pdfs/97-117.pdf. The basic elements of a workplace program aimed at preventing work-related musculoskeletal disorders are described in this document. It includes a “toolbox,” 

which is a collection of techniques, methods, 

reference materials, and sources for other information that can help in program development. 

Ergonomic Interventions in the Building, Repair, 

and Dismantling of Ships

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 

– National Institute for Occupational Safety and 

Health, (800) 356-4674, http://www.cdc.gov/

niosh/ergship/ergship.html. This NIOSH web page 

includes a number of shipyard ergonomic research 

documents, including ergonomic injury rates, 

recommendations for ergonomic interventions at 

eight shipyards, and a Compendium of Ergonomic 

Analyses of Shipyard Work Processes and Associated Appendices.

Many states and territories operate their own 

occupational safety and health programs under 

plans approved by OSHA. Information on specific 

state shipyard initiatives and compliance assistance, as well as state standards that may apply to 

shipyards is available on OSHA’s website at www.

osha.gov/dcsp/osp/index.html on specific state 

shipyard initiatives and compliance assistance, as 

well as state standards that may apply to shipyards.

A free consultation service is available to provide 

occupational safety and health assistance to businesses. OSHA Consultation is funded primarily by 

federal OSHA but is delivered by the 50 state governments, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto 

Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The states offer the 

expertise of highly qualified occupational safety 

and health professionals to employers who request 

help to establish and maintain a safe and healthful 

workplace. Developed for small and medium-sized 

employers in hazardous industries or with hazardous operations, the service is provided at no cost 

to the employer and is confidential. Information 

on OSHA Consultation can be found at www.

osha.gov/dcsp/smallbusiness/consult.html.

 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 47
References

(1) Report of OSHA site visits to shipyards.

(2) Videotape, “Shipyard Ergonomics” 2003, 

produced by John Sabella and Associates, Inc., 

Seattle, Washington, Stewart Prezant Ergonomics Group, Seattle, Washington, and Shipbuilders 

Council of America; http://www.shipbuilders.org/.

(3) National Shipbuilding Research Program 

(NSRP). Shipyard evaluation for ergonomics and 

applications. Awareness and intervention efforts. 

Report 2004. 

(4) Bureau of Labor Statistics. U.S. Department of 

Labor, December 2006.

(5) Jae-Yeon, J., Soyeon, K., Sang Kyu, P., Jaehoon, R., Tae-Young, L., Jeong Taek, Y., 2002, 

Quantitative exposure assessment for shipyard 

workers exposed to hand-transmitted vibration 

from a variety of vibration tools. AIHA Journal. 

63, pp 305-310.

(6) Lowe, B.D., Wurzelbacher, S.J., Shulman, S.A., 

Hudock, S.D., 2001, Electromyographic and discomfort analysis of confined-space shipyard welding process. Applied Ergonomics. 32, 255-269.

(7) Torell, G., Sanden, A., 1988, Musculoskeletal 

disorders in shipyard workers. J. Soc. Occup. 

Med. 38, pp 109-113.

 (8) Mooney, V., Kenney, K., Leggett, S., Holmes, 

B., 1996, Relationship of lumbar strength in shipyard workers to workplace injury claims. Spine. 

Vol. 21, No. 17, pp 2001-2005.

(9) Lindberg, H., Montgomery, F., 1987, Heavy 

labor and occurrence of gonarthrosis. Clinical 

Orthopedics and Related Research, 214: 235-236. 

(10) Cherniak, M., Brammer, A.J., Lundstrom, R., 

Mayer, J., Morse, T.F., Nealy, T., Nilsson, Peterson, D., Toppilla, E., Warren, N., 2004, Segmental nerve condition velocity in vibration-exposed 

shipyard workers. Int Arch Occup Environ 

Health. 77, pp 159-176.

(11) Johnson, K.L., Hans, J.C., Robinson, M.A., 

1996, Development of a vibratory white finger 

prevention program for shipyard workers: An exploratory study. American Journal of Preventive 

Medicine. Vol. 12, No. 6, pp 478-481.

(12) Hoozenmans, M.J.M., Van der Beek, A.J., 

Frings-Dresen, M.H.W., Van der Woude, L.H.V., 

Van Dijk, F.J.H., 2002, Pushing and pulling in association with low back and shoulder complaints. 

Occup Environ Med. 59, pp 696-702.

(13) Frost. P., Andersen, J.H., 1999, Shoulder impingement syndrome in relation to shoulder intensive work. Occup Environ Med. 56, pp 494-498.

(14) Nahit, E.S., Macfarlane, C.M., Pritchard, 

C.M., Cherry, N.M., Silman, A.J. 2001, Shortterm influence of mechanical factors on regional 

musculoskeletal pain: a study of new workers 

from 12 occupational groups. Occup Environ 

Med. 58 (6), pp 374-381.

(15) National Research Council and Institute of 

Medicine. 2001. Musculoskeletal Disorders and 

the Workplace – Low Back and Upper Extremities. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, 

DC: National Academy Press.

(16) Eriksen, W., Natvig, B., Knardahl, S., Bruusgaard, D., 1999, Job characteristics as predictors 

of neck pain. J Occup. Environ Med., Vol. 41, 

No. 10, pp 893-902.

(17) Musculoskeletal Disorders and Workplace 

Factors – A Critical Review of Epidemiologic 

Evidence for Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders of the neck, upper extremity and low back. 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and 

Health (NIOSH), 1997, Publication # 97-141.

(18) Liker, J.K. 2002, What is lean ship construction and repair? Journal of Ship Production, Vol. 

18, No. 3, pp 121-142.

(19) DiBarra, C. 2002, 5S – A tool for culture 

change in shipyards, Journal of Shipyard Production, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp 143-151.

48 Guidelines for Shipyards
 Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders 49

(20) Marras, W.S., 2000, Occupational low back 

disorder causation and control. Ergonomics. Vol. 

43, No. 7, pp 880-902.

(21) Pope, M.H., Goh, K.L., Magnusson, M.L. 

2002, Spine Ergonomics. Annu. Rev. Biomed. 

Eng. 4, pp 49-68.
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