Wetlands

and

Fish:

Catch

the

Link

Wetlands

and

Fish:

Catch

the

Link

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Marine Fisheries Service

Office of Habitat Conservation

1315 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910

(301) 713-2325

www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat
WETLANDS AND FISH: CATCH THE LINK

For additional copies of this document, contact:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Marine Fisheries Service

Office of Habitat Conservation

1315 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

(301)713-2325

www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/

Authors:

Leah Graff and Julie Middleton

Save Our Streams Program

Izaak Walton League of America, Inc.

707 Conservation Lane

Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878

(800)BUG-IWLA (284-4952)

www.iwla.org

Special thanks to the following reviewers:

Mason D. Bryant, U.S. Forest Service, Alaska

Sandy Burk, Potomac Conservancy, Maryland

Jim Bybee, National Marine Fisheries Service, California

Allan H. Clark, Citizen’s Water Quality Monitoring Program, Georgia

Shelly Hatleberg, HDR Engineering, Inc., California

Bill Hastie, Governor’s Natural Resources Office, Oregon

Nick Iadanza, National Marine Fisheries Service, Oregon

Robert J. Kent, New York Seagrant Program, New York

Jason McGarvey, Izaak Walton League of America, Inc., Maryland

Allyn Rowland Rozzelle, Izaak Walton League of America, Inc., Maryland

Sharon Rushton, SR Enterprises, Pennsylvannia

Ron Scott, Izaak Walton League of America, Inc., Maryland

Joseph Starinchak, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.

In Cooperation with:

Mike Meador, U.S. Geological Survey, North Carolina

Cover Page:

Photographs: Kathryn Conant

Striped bass graphic: Duane Raver

I
WETLANDS AND FISH: CATCH THE LINK

Table of Contents

Fish Need Wetlands .............................................................................. 1

This section highlights the importance of wetlands to fish

and the effects of declining wetlands on fish populations.

Wetland Functions Are Essential to Fish .............................................. 3

This section provides examples of benefits wetlands provide to fish

such as food, spawning sites, refuge, and clean water.

Which Fish Use My Wetland ................................................................ 5

This section provides information on different types of wetlands and

the fish that depend on them.

Becoming a Wetland Steward ............................................................... 24

This section provides examples of how people can become involved in

protecting and restoring wetlands and the fish that depend on them.

Resources.............................................................................................. 27

Glossary................................................................................................ 30

References............................................................................................. 31

Appendix A........................................................................................... 36

II
III
What kinds of wetlands exist in your community? If

you live near a river, there are probably wetlands along

the river and in the floodplain. If you live near a lake,

there may be wetlands in shallow areas around the

edge of the lake. If you live near the ocean, wetlands

may be located behind the beach dunes or in shallow

bays. Even if there is no open water near your home, a

wet shrubby depression or grassy valley could contain

wetlands that fill with water during the rainy season

and are dry for the rest of the year. Wherever you live,

it is more than likely that wetlands are nearby.

It is important to remember that wetlands do not exist

in isolation, but are instead a part of an extensive,

interconnected system of land and water called a

watershed. A watershed is the area of land that drains

to a particular body of water such as a river, lake, or

wetland. Wetlands are linked to the atmosphere

through the hydrologic cycle. Rain enters wetlands

directly or through lakes, streams, and groundwater.

Wetlands help regulate the hydrologic cycle by holding

rainwater and slowly releasing it back into streams and

lakes, ensuring that fish have a constant and steady

water supply.

Wetlands are vital to fish populations because fish

depend on certain wetland processes. Wetlands serve as

a food base, shelter, spawning and nursery areas, and

for water filtration. They contain large volumes of

food that attract many animal species. Plants and other

organic matter provide food for small aquatic insects,

fish, and shellfish. In turn, the smaller insects and fish

become food for larger predatory fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals. Wetlands not only

provide food for aquatic and non-aquatic animal and

fish species, they also provide vegetated areas where

fish can reproduce, hide from predators, and take

refuge from inclement weather or other changes in the

physical environment. Wetlands also filter out sediments and pollutants, providing the clean water that

fish need. Thus, a network of abundant and healthy

wetlands is vital to the survival of most fish species.

Declining Wetlands,

Declining Fish Habitat

Despite the important benefits that wetlands provide,

more than 50 percent of the wetlands in the lower 48

states have been affected by pollution or development

since colonial times. Fortunately, wetlands now are

recognized as a necessary and integral part of natural

Fish1 and humans have similar basic survival

needs. Both require food, shelter, and a healthy

environment. Wetlands fulfill these essential

needs for fish across the United States. For example,

shrimp feed and grow in the tidal marshes of the

Mississippi delta. Striped bass pursue killifish living in

the salt marshes along the Chesapeake Bay. Young

salmon rest in the brackish marshes along the Pacific

Coast, until their bodies adapt to salty ocean waters.

Alewife and blueback herring lay eggs in the forested

wetlands along rivers in the eastern United States.

Different types of wetlands provide fish with food,

refuge, and safe areas to lay their eggs.

This publication explains the critical link between

wetlands and the survival of fish populations. Reading

this publication will give you information to help you

educate others about the importance of wetlands to

fish and ideas for how to conserve wetlands in your

community. If you catch fish, eat fish, or appreciate

the beauty of fish and their importance in the web of

life, this publication will assist you in becoming

involved in wetlands conservation. If you already

understand the importance of wetlands, this information can be used to reach out to fishing communities

to join you in your efforts to protect wetlands.

What is a Wetland?

Wetlands can be as small as a backyard pond or as

large as the Everglades, and they are found throughout

the United States and on every continent except

Antartica. The primary characteristic that differentiates

wetlands from other landscape features is that they are

wet. Within this publication, wetlands are defined as

vegetated areas that are covered with water or have very

wet soils for part of the year. However, there are many

different legal and scientific definitions of wetlands

that include other characteristics. Other wetland

definitions include wet areas without vegetation, but

this document focuses on vegetated areas because

wetland plants provide a unique habitat and other

benefits to fish that unvegetated areas do not provide.

Fish Need Wetlands

1

1 The term “fish” refers to both finfish and shellfish, unless otherwise specified
ecosystems. Federal, state, and local regulations have

curbed losses of this important ecosystem during the

last 20 years. Despite a better understanding of their

importance and regulations restricting wetlands

destruction, the United States continues to experience

a net loss (approximately 58,500 acres per year from

1986 to 1997) from development, agriculture, and

transportation projects.

Increased development and continued conversion of

wetlands to other uses result in wetlands being degraded or destroyed. As a result, it becomes more

difficult for fish to find the habitats they need. Studies

reveal that one factor limiting the survival of juvenile

coho salmon is the lack of habitat such as forested

wetlands, beaver ponds, and stream pools they need to

survive through the rainy winters. Blue crab populations along the East Coast may be declining due to the

loss of the eelgrass beds that juveniles and molting

adults need to hide from predators. Declining fish

habitat may result in the listing of fish under the

Endangered Species Act.

Wetland loss and declining fish populations affect not

only natural ecosystem functions, but commercial and

recreational fishing as well. In total, the marine and

freshwater commercial and recreational fishing industries contribute hundreds of billions of dollars to the

2

U.S. economy and provide jobs for millions of American citizens each year. The U.S. Department of

Commerce reports that during 1999 Americans spent

approximately $52.3 billion on seafood products,

including money spent at restaurants and grocery

stores. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,

America’s 35 million adult anglers spent approximately

$37 billion on fishing activities in 1996. With

sportfishing supporting 1.2 million jobs nationwide,

the American Sportfishing Association reports that if

sportfishing were ranked as a corporation, it would

place 13th on the Fortune 500 list of America’s largest

businesses.

Wetland destruction and its effect on fish populations

are among the many issues forcing us to re-evaluate

our activities on the land. The linkage between the

land, water, and atmosphere assures that there is no

lake, stream, ocean, or wetland that has not been

affected by human activity. Pollution, habitat destruction, and the introduction and subsequent population

explosions of non-native species have brought us to a

point where more than one-third of the freshwater fish

species found in North America are listed as endangered, threatened, or of special concern by at least one

state. Conserving and restoring wetlands are good

places to start to reverse this trend.

Fish swimming among mangrove roots. National Marine Fisheries Service
Humans also rely on wetlands for food. Although most

of us would not find a plate of steamed cattails appealing, many people would enjoy some mouth-watering,

grilled largemouth bass. Largemouth bass also don’t

like to eat wetland plants or detritus directly, but they

do eat red swamp crawfish. And red swamp crawfish

eat detritus. The relationship between wetland plants

that produce detritus, red swamp crawfish that eat

detritus, largemouth bass that eat red swamp crawfish,

and people who eat largemouth bass is an example of a

food chain. Through a series of interconnected food

chains, known as food webs, wetland plants support

fish and all of the birds, reptiles, bears, otters, sea lions,

and people who eat fish.

Food webs have a delicate balance. For example,

wetland degradation affects not only

golden shiners that live and eat in

swamps, but also herons, egrets,

kingfishers, and water snakes that eat

golden shiners. In addition, breeding

success of the California brown pelican

is strongly correlated with abundance

of anchovies that feed in salt marshes

and other wetlands. In fact, population

declines of many marine mammals and

seabirds have been linked to diminishing populations of the fish they eat.

Because of the interconnected nature of

food webs, any wetland alteration that

disrupts the food web can have a

cascading effect on fish, wildlife, and

human populations.

Function: Spawning and

Nursery Areas

Fish eggs and young fish have different needs than

adult fish, which is why many adult fish live in other

habitats and then lay eggs in wetlands. Defenseless and

immobile eggs can be hidden from predators among

wetland edges and underwater grasses. Wetland plants,

dead plant material, and detritus provide a surface for

fish to attach their eggs. When the eggs hatch, the

vegetation becomes both a protective cover and a food

source. Young fish dart into the wetland vegetation to

hide, while the juvenile stages of bay scallops, hard

Wetland Functions Are Essential to Fish

3

A Food Web Wildlife Forever

Food, shelter, clean water, and a safe place to raise

young are as vital to fish as they are to humans.

Wetlands can fulfill many fish needs because of

their functions, such as providing habitat, producing

food, and cycling nutrients. The most important

wetland functions for fish survival are food production, spawning and nursery habitat, refuge, and the

reduction of harmful pollutants in water.

Function: Food Production

Wetlands provide a plentiful food supply because of

their rapid plant production. Some fish eat plant parts

while other fish eat small insects and crustaceans that

eat or live on plants. Some fish prefer wetland plant

material that has been decomposed by bacteria,

worms, and aquatic insects into an energy-rich organic

material called detritus. In addition to being enriched

with nutrients important for fish growth, detritus

flows throughout the aquatic system. For example, the

alternate flooding and drying of forested floodplains

increases plant growth, detritus production, and

nutrient availability. These products are then washed

downstream, benefiting fish living many miles away,

such as the menhaden, whose diet is one-third detritus. Furthermore, fish do not have to eat detritus

directly to benefit from this large source of wetland

food production. For example, striped bass eat smaller

fish and shellfish that consume detritus.
In addition to using wetlands to elude predators, fish

need wetlands to escape changes in environmental

conditions such as changes in water level, velocity, or

bad weather. Coho salmon rely on the calmer waters of

forested wetlands adjacent to streams to escape the fast

currents of Pacific Northwest streams during winter

floods.

Function: Clean Water

Clean water is as important to fish as clean air is to

people. Wetlands help to clean water by filtering out

potentially harmful pollutants. Some pollutants can

become trapped by wetland vegetation and then stored

within layers of sediment. Other pollutants are

transformed into less harmful forms by wetland plants

and small organisms called microbes.

Wetlands provide natural filtration in a way that is

much less expensive and far more efficient than

technology. In 1991, scientists estimated that if it was

possible to mimic the filtering capacity of the bottomland hardwood wetlands found throughout South

Carolina, it would cost millions of dollars to construct

such a water treatment plant. Not only would a

treatment plant be difficult and costly to construct, the

plant’s maintenance would cost even more.

Wetlands also reduce the effects of natural water

quality changes on fish populations. The roots, stems,

and leaves of wetland plants slow down water flows,

reducing streambank and shoreline erosion. Minimizing erosion reduces the amount of sediment in the

water that can clog fish gills or smother fish eggs. For

example, Lake Erie marshes trap silt, benefitting

species that need clear water and sand or gravel

bottoms to spawn. Forested wetlands in the North

Carolina coastal plain regulate the flow of freshwater

into brackish and estuarine nursery areas downstream.

Without this valuable function, salinity levels would

change drastically with each rainfall, placing stress on

fish and other aquatic organisms that rely on a delicate

balance of freshwater and saltwater.

clams, and some other shellfish cling to salt marsh

vegetation and seagrasses for several weeks before

settling on the bottom. Most shrimp harvested in the

Gulf of Mexico depend on salt marshes for nurseries.

The vegetation protects young shellfish until they have

grown large enough to ensure their survival on the

estuary floor. Shallow waters in wetland ecosystems

provide shelter for young fish from adult predators

because many adult fish cannot live in shallow water.

Wetlands provide productive spawning areas for fish.

Northern pike swim from the deep waters of Lake Erie

to spawn in freshwater marshes along the shoreline.

The adults leave the marshes soon after spawning, but

larvae and juveniles remain in the protective vegetation

until mid-summer, when the shallow waters become

too warm. Anadromous fish, such as salmon and river

herring (alewife and blueback), migrate hundreds or

thousands of miles from saltwater to freshwater

streams and streamside wetlands to spawn. Blueback

herring spawn when floodwaters allow access to the

abundant food supplies of streamside hardwood

forests. Although many salmon species lay their eggs in

the moderate-moving water of streambeds, the larvae

and juveniles exploit the abundant food supply of

streamside wetlands during floods. Some populations

of chum salmon spawn directly in coastal marshes.

Striped bass migrate to freshwater areas to spawn so

juveniles can use tidal freshwater wetlands as nursery

and feeding areas.

Function: Refuge

Adult and juvenile fish alike use wetlands to hide from

predators. Thick plant growth can visually confuse

predators and camouflage small fish. Juvenile muskellunge, northern pike and other small fish with green

and mottled coloring can blend in with marsh grasses,

virtually disappearing before a would-be predator’s

eyes. Dense vegetation and shallow water prevent

many predators from entering coastal marshes and

other wetlands. Gobies, anchovies, juvenile snook, and

juvenile spotted seatrout dart into the intertwining

root systems of mangrove wetlands to escape larger

predators. The root systems of trees and shrubs in

floodplain wetlands allow stream banks to hang over

the water, providing protective habitat for chinook

salmon, cutthroat trout, and other fish.

4
The first step in learning about the fish that live

in local wetlands is to determine what type of

wetland is in your backyard or neighborhood.

Compare your wetland to the descriptions of common

wetland types on the following pages. Then, turn to

the page for that wetland type and see what fish species

might be found there. Please note that many more

species of fish use wetlands than have been listed in

this publication. Also, many species use more than one

type of wetland but were used as an example for only

one wetland type in this publication. For more information on the variety of fish that can be found in

wetlands, please see Appendix A. These tables list

many of the fish species known to use each common

wetland type, how each species uses the wetland, and

the regions of the country where each fish is found.

Additional information can be found at the National

Marine Fisheries Service’s Office of Habitat Conservation web page, www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat. Finally,

go straight to the source - your wetland - to find out

exactly which fish are using it.

Wetlands come in many shapes, sizes, and forms. The

unifying feature of these ecosystems is that they are

wet. Different fish species reside in different types of

wetlands. The amount of water in a wetland and the

length of time the wetland stays wet influences the fish

species that can benefit from the wetland. The type of

wetland, its geographic location, salinity level, and

vegetation type are important features that determine

the fish species found in a particular a wetland.

What makes a wetland a usable habitat for fish? Fish

need standing water that is deep enough not to freeze

solid in the winter. Marshes along rivers, lakes, and

estuaries often are flooded and are easily accessible to

many types of fish. However, wetlands do not have to

be wet all the time to be important habitat for fish. For

example, forested floodplains that may have standing

water for only a few weeks at a time are vital to the

reproductive cycles of many fish such as American eel

and Pacific salmon that live part or all of their lives in

streams and rivers. Not every wetland is accessible to

fish. Some wetlands are shallow depressions in the

landscape that collect rain and runoff for only a few

months every year. To be good fish habitat, wetlands

that dry up in the summer must be close enough to

another water source to allow fish to migrate back to

safer, more permanent waters when necessary.

Which Fish Use My Wetland?

Wetlands can be grouped numerous ways based on

similar and differing characteristics. Sorting wetlands

can sometimes be useful to determine what fish might

be found in them. Several methods have been developed to describe different wetland types. This publication separates wetlands into categories based on

whether or not they are tidal, whether the water is salty

or fresh, and the type of vegetation that most commonly grows in the wetland.

Common Wetland Types

Saltwater Wetlands

For all saltwater wetlands, the salinity varies with

season, time, precipitation, location, and water depth.

Seagrass Beds

Submerged saltwater wetlands in all coastal states

except Georgia and South Carolina. Vegetation

includes rooted submerged plants (eelgrass, turtlegrass,

widgeon grass, etc.) collectively known as seagrass.

Although the plants look similar to grasses, they are

not part of the grass family.

Tidal Salt Marshes

Tidal (water depth varies with the tide) saltwater

wetlands usually vegetated by salt-tolerant grasses,

rushes, sedges and other soft-stemmed plants. Found

along protected coastlines throughout the United

States.

Mangrove Wetlands

Tidal wetlands in the Southeast, Gulf Coast region,

and Hawaii, dominated by short salt-tolerant mangrove trees. Like salt marshes, mangrove wetlands

require protection from the open ocean. Mangrove

trees are noted for their unique system of twisted roots

that rise above the water surface and provide fish and

wildlife habitat.

Freshwater Wetlands

Freshwater wetlands receive water from one or more

sources: precipitation, surface water or ground water.

Tidal Freshwater Marshes

Tidal (water depth varies with the tides) freshwater

wetlands dominated by grasses, sedges, rushes, and

broad-leaved aquatic plants. Found throughout coastal

regions. 5
Non-tidal Freshwater Marshes

Freshwater wetlands that are not tidal, but water depth

may vary with the seasons. Can be wet all year or dry

up seasonally. Vegetated by a wide variety of softstemmed aquatic plants such as cattails, arrowheads,

pickerelweed, reeds, grasses, and sedges. Can be

isolated from other water sources or may border a

river, lake, or pond. Found throughout the country,

this type includes prairie potholes, playas, some vernal

pools, and fens.

Forested Wetlands

Freshwater wetlands that can be tidal or non-tidal, but

water depth may vary with the seasons. Vegetated by

trees such as red maple, cypress, tupelo, and/or

evergreen shrubs. Found throughout the country,

forested wetlands include floodplains of rivers, backwater swamps, pocosins, and bogs. These wetlands can

appear seasonally dry.

Regions of the United States

Because wetlands and fish populations vary from place

to place, this document divides the United States into

several regions. These region names are used in the rest

of this section and in Appendix A.

• Pacific

• Southwest

• Great Lakes

• Southeast

• Northeast

• Mountain-Prairie

• Alaska

• Gulf Coast

6

Great Lakes

Northeast

Southeast

Gulf Coast

Pacific

Southwest

Mountain-Prairie

Alaska
roots and by trapping fine sediments and suspended

particles. This function helps provide the clear water

many fish and eggs need to breathe.

Fish prefer a variety of foods, and seagrass beds are

excellent places to find diverse food sources. Pinfish,

queen conch, and other fish eat the grass blades

directly. For those fish that find the grass unappetizing,

there are many other choices on the seagrass bed

menu, including detritus from decomposing leaves,

organisms that attach themselves to the grass blades,

and the smaller fish, shellfish,

and invertebrates that live among

the seagrass beds. Some coral reef

inhabitants, such as parrotfish

and snappers, often forage in

seagrass beds at night. Juvenile

and adult fish move into seagrass

beds to feed or hide from predators during high tide and move

back into deeper water as the tide

falls. Bluefish, weakfish, and

spotted seatrout are among the

large predators that will eat

smaller fish in the seagrass beds at

high tide.

Juvenile fish may use other types

of habitat along the coasts, but

the thick tangle of seagrass blades

seems to be their preferred place

to live, eat, and hide from

predators. Schools of juvenile fish

are found in seagrass beds during

spring and summer, when the

beds are growing in full force.

Seagrasses provide a spawning

surface for a variety of fish,

including Pacific herring and bay

scallops. Young bay scallops

attach to seagrass blades to

reduce their risk of being eaten

by small crabs that patrol the sea

bottom. In fact, the population

of bay scallops in the Chesapeake

Bay collapsed during the 1930s when a disease apparently killed most of the seagrass beds.

Seagrass Beds

If you live in any coastal state, except Georgia and

South Carolina, seagrass beds brimming with fish may

be nearby. Seagrasses are grass-like plants that live in

shallow, salty waters of the world’s coastal zone, where

they constantly are battered by waves and tides. Beds

can be small, isolated patches that shift over time or

vast carpets covering many hundreds of miles of ocean

floor. Seagrasses must have clear, salty water to live.

The coasts of Georgia and South Carolina have water

that is too fresh and too turbid for seagrass beds to

survive. Fish almost always have access to seagrass

beds, because they usually remain submerged, even at

low tide. The grasses slow water currents, making

movement easier for fish. They also reduce turbulence

and erosion by stabilizing the sea bottom with their

7

Alaska seagrass bed U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Fish Found in Seagrass Beds

Atlantic stingray (Dasyatis sabina)

This small ray lives in shallow coastal waters from

Florida and the Gulf of Mexico north to the Chesapeake Bay and eats small crustaceans and invertebrates

found in seagrass beds.

Bay scallop (Argopecten irradians)

This important commercial scallop attaches to seagrass

blades as juveniles before settling on the bottom. Bay

scallops live along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf

Coasts, using wetlands for food, refuge, spawning, and

as a nursery.

English sole (Parophrys vetulus)

This fish uses shallow coastal water, including seagrass

beds, for food, shelter, and as a nursery. They eat

crustaceans, worms, and other small aquatic animals

often found within seagrass beds. Marketed as filet of

sole, they are commercially important on the West

Coast, including Alaska.

Bay scallop

Lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus)

Juvenile lingcod prefer to feed and seek shelter in

shallow, inter-tidal areas of bays near seagrass beds. An

important commercial and sport fish along the Pacific

Coast, it uses wetlands for food and refuge.

Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi)

This herring species spawns in shallow Pacific shoreline wetlands. The fertilized eggs attach to seagrasses,

algae, and marsh grasses. This species is commercially

important, particularly for its eggs. Other commercial

uses of this fish include table food (fresh or salted), fish

meal, and bait.

Spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus)

This popular commercial and sport fish prefers

shallow, grassy areas including seagrass beds and salt

marshes in the Northeast, Southeast, and Gulf Coast

regions. Spotted seatrout eat grass shrimp and small

fish. They use wetlands for food, refuge, spawning, and

as a nursery.

English sole

NOAA

Lingcod

National Ocean Service

Pacific herring

National Ocean Service

Spotted seatrout

Diane Peebles

8

NOAA
Striped mullet (Mugil cephalus)

This important commercial fish lives over shallow,

muddy bottoms in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf

regions. It feeds by scooping mouthfuls of mud and

digesting tiny plants as the mud passes through the

gut. It uses wetlands for food, refuge, and as a nursery.

For more comprehensive list of fish using seagrass beds see

Appendix A.

Case Study: Seagrass Bed

Blue crab (Callinectes sapidus)

Life history: Blue crabs can be found along the

Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. Their life cycle involves free

swimming and bottom-dwelling stages that require a

variety of habitats from marshes to open-water estuary.

Females carry the eggs until they hatch into a floating

stage. Eventually, the larvae move to the bottom and

become small crabs. Crabs shed their shells and

generate new ones to give their bodies room to grow.

Soft-shelled crabs eat their old shells and use the

calcium to grow new shells. Herons, gulls, fish, and

people love to eat these soft-shell crabs.

Importance of wetlands to blue crabs: Young crabs

depend on seagrass beds and coastal marshes for food

and refuge. Without these wetlands, the crabs have a

limited viable nursery or protection from predators.

Molting adults also rely on the protective cover of

wetland plants. Adult blue crabs frequent grassy

shallow bays to scavenge for smaller crabs, clams,

seaweed, and dead fish.

Importance of blue crabs to people: Blue crabs

support a large seafood industry in Chesapeake Bay

and along the southeastern and Gulf Coasts. Crabs are

boiled, roasted, curried, served cold, and spiced in

homes and restuarants throughout these regions. In the

Chesapeake Bay region, the blue crab represents a way

of life. This symbol of the Chesapeake’s proud heritage

appears on coffee cups, keychains, and other souvenirs.

Crab festivals, complete with hardshell races and the

crowning of Miss and Little Miss Crustacean, are

integral to the identities of Chesapeake Bay communities.

Status: Blue crab populations have declined in recent

years at an alarming rate. In 1992, the harvest dropped

from 91 million pounds to 54 million pounds. Loss of

seagrass beds and over-fishing are considered major

causes of the recent decline in blue crab populations.

Tidal Salt Marshes

Tidal salt marshes are common in coastal areas.

Salinity in salt marshes varies depending upon the

wetland’s proximity to the ocean, and if there are

freshwater inputs such as streams and precipitation.

Salt marshes are thick with salt-tolerant grasses, rushes,

and sedges, and their distribution varies depending on

the salinity. Fish use the vegetation for food, refuge,

and spawning areas. Salt marshes are available to fish

daily because they generally are flooded at least once a

day with the rising tide. Channels of deeper water cut

through dense salt marsh vegetation like a maze and

provide ready access to food.

Even at low tide, when most of the marsh plants are

exposed to the air, fish are able to use salt marshes by

swimming in the channels. Some smaller fish, such as

killifish, live in salt marshes throughout their life cycle

because they are able to survive in a wide range of

conditions, including changes in salinity and temperature. One type of killifish, the mummichog, can

Striped mullet

Diane Peebles

Blue crab

NOAA

9
Fish Found In Tidal Salt

Marshes

Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus)

This commercially important, though not well known,

fish uses salt marshes along the Atlantic and Gulf

Coasts as a nursery for young. This fish is used to

produce fish meal and oil.

Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)

Juveniles of this species live in salt marshes for six

months or longer to benefit from abundant food

sources and to adjust from the freshwater where they

were hatched to the saltwater where they live as adults.

Diamond killifish (Adinia xenica)

This fish can be found from the central Atlantic Coast

south to Florida and along the Gulf Coast. This

important prey species lives in salt marshes and

mangroves.

burrow into the mud when the tide goes out and wait

for the water level to rise again. When the tide returns,

mummichogs venture far into the shallow waters of

the marshes in search of plentiful food supplies.

Killifish are an important food source for predators

such as striped bass, bluefish, and other larger fish.

The shallow water and harsh conditions of salt marshes

prevent many larger fish from inhabiting salt marshes

permanently. Instead, fish such as croakers, flounders,

and halfbeaks move into salt marshes during high tide

to feed on the abundant smaller fish and invertebrates,

then return to deeper water when the tide goes down.

Other fish are seasonal visitors and use the marsh for

spawning, nursery grounds, or refuge from predators.

Sticklebacks (fish that are related to seahorses and have

bony plates along their sides) are seasonal spawners

that build their nests in the marsh vegetation.

Many juvenile fish, including crabs, shrimp, striped

bass, and alewife, benefit from the marsh. Along the

Gulf Coast, juvenile drum, anchovy, mullet, and

mojarra spend the summer months in marshes taking

advantage of the abundant food and warm temperatures, increasing their growth rate.

Chinook salmon

10

Tidal Salt Marsh U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, 1906
Striped bass (Morone saxatalis)

This popular commercial and sport fish lives in coastal

waters, bays, and salt marshes along the Atlantic Coast,

and has been introduced in the western United States

and inland reservoirs. Juveniles eat small shrimp and

other crustaceans, worms, and insects found in salt

marshes. Adults feed on a wide variety of fish and

crustaceans living in salt marshes and other coastal

habitats. Adults spawn in salt marshes and freshwater

tidal marshes.

Summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus)

Summer flounder is found along the Pacific, Atlantic,

and Gulf Coasts and uses salt marshes as a nursery for

young.

For a more comprehensive list of fish using tidal salt

marshes, see Appendix A.

Case Study: Tidal Salt Marsh:

Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)

Life history: Salmon are anadromous, meaning that

they spend their adult lives in the ocean but migrate

upstream to spawn. Young coho live in streams and

backwater wetlands for up to a year, then migrate

downstream to marshes in estuaries where they become

adjusted to saltwater. Juveniles mature in the ocean

about two years, before returning as adults to streams

to spawn. Most salmon return to their natal stream,

but a small percentage seeks out new locations. Salmon

recognize their birthplace stream through their powerful sense of smell. Most Pacific salmon die after

spawning.

Dungeness crab (Cancer magister)

This crab uses salt marshes and seagrass beds along the

northern Pacific Coast and Alaska as a nursery. Larvae

hitchhike on jellyfish or ride tidal currents to get to the

wetlands from their spawning grounds in the lower

portions of estuaries. The young crabs seek food and

refuge among the wetland vegetation until the crabs

grow into adulthood. Adult crabs are a favorite food of

seals, sea lions, and humans.

Northern anchovy (Engaulis mordax)

This fish finds food and refuge from predators within

salt marshes along the northern Pacific Coast. Northern anchovies eat small crustaceans and fish larvae

found in wetlands, and in turn are eaten by larger fish

and birds. In addition, the anchovy supports a multimillion dollar commercial fishing industry.

Saltmarsh topminnow (Fundulus jenkinsi)

This Gulf Coast species is dependent on salt marshes.

Loss of valuable salt marsh habitat may lead to a future

listing of the saltmarsh topminnow as an endangered

species.

Dungeness crab

NOAA

Northern anchovy

Striped bass

Duane Raver

11

National Ocean Service

U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, 1906

Coho salmon
subsistence fishing. A popular sport fish, coho salmon

have been introduced to the Great Lakes region to

provide sport for anglers.

Status: Heavy market consumption and the rapid

destruction of and decreased access to habitat have led

to the disappearance of Pacific salmon from 40

percent of their historical breeding ranges over the last

century. Many remaining populations are reduced,

and most runs are largely composed of fish produced

in hatcheries. Many populations have been listed as

threatened or endangered. Sport and commercial

fishing for several species has been restricted or

prohibited.

Mangrove Wetlands

Mangrove wetlands are found along the coastline in

Florida, Louisiana, Texas, and Hawaii. Mangroves are

shrubby, salt-tolerant trees that grow along tropical

and subtropical coasts. Among the states mentioned

above, mangroves are most common in Florida.

Mangroves, like salt marshes, require protection from

the open ocean and can occur in a wide range of

salinities.

Importance of wetlands to salmon: Flooded streamside wetlands offer food and protection to young

salmon. During the rainy winter season, young coho

seek refuge from strong currents in flooded wetlands,

beaver ponds, and other areas of slow water. Tidal

marshes and swamps provide a safe area with plentiful

food resources for salmon to adjust to saltier water

before entering the open ocean. Wetlands also are

important for the survival of the smaller fish, crustaceans, and insects that comprise the salmon’s diet.

Importance of salmon to people: Salmon belonging

to the genus Oncorhynchus, including coho, chinook,

sockeye, chum, pink, steelhead, and cutthroat trout,

are often discussed together as “Pacific Coast salmon”

when discussing economics and status. Pacific Coast

salmon are extremely important commercial and sport

fish. In 1997, approximately 570 million pounds of

Pacific salmon valued at about $270 million were

caught and exported canned or fresh. About 75

percent of the total U.S. catch of coho salmon comes

from Alaska. However, the value of wild salmon

cannot be -measured by dollars alone. Many Native

American tribes celebrate the return of these majestic

fish with elaborate rituals. Most Northwest states have

designated members of the salmon family as their state

fish. Salmon also are an important resource for

12

Managrove Wetlands in the Everglades, Florida Kathryn Conant
How do fish live among trees? Mangrove trees have a

thick root system that rises above the soil and water.

When flooded by the tide, these roots provide excellent fish habitat. Juveniles and smaller fish hide among

the mangroves, safe from larger fish that cannot

navigate the tangled roots. Small fish and shellfish are

known to swim in the streams and channels that

meander through these wetlands. The stagnant

backwater areas of mangrove swamps are permanent

homes to killifish and other fish species that can

tolerate low oxygen and high saline levels.

The extensive root system is not the only reason fish

utilize mangrove wetlands. Detritus-rich soils of

mangrove wetlands are a rich food source for both

crabs and other invertebrates, which are in turn a food

source for other fish. Young gamefish such as tarpon,

ladyfish, snook, and gray snapper hide from predators

among the mangrove roots to eat the abundant

invertebrates.

Fish Found in Mangrove

Wetlands

Dwarf seahorse (Hippocampus zosterae)

This fish lives in shallow water with grasses, floating

vegetation, submerged roots of mangroves, or other

vegetation.

Gray snapper (Lutjanus griseus)

This commercially and recreationally important fish

spends its early life sheltered in mangrove swamps and

seagrass beds. Adults also venture among the mangrove

roots at high tide to exploit the wetland’s rich food

source.

Ladyfish (Elops saurus)

This fish spawns in the open sea, but young ladyfish

seek refuge and food in mangroves and other wetlands.

This popular sportfish is noted for its habit of skipping

along the surface of the water and for jumping after

being hooked.

Mangrove rivulus (Rivulus marmoratus)

This fish lives in shallow saltwater environments with

vegetation, including salt marshes and mangroves.

Some individuals seek protection in crab burrows.

Mangrove rivulus can survive at low oxygen levels.

Loss of salt marsh and mangrove habitats may lead to

the future listing of this species as endangered.

Spotfin mojarra (Eucinostomus argenteus)

This fish seeks food and refuge along shallow, mangrove-lined tidal creeks. Spotfin has a mouth with jaws

that can be extended to form a short tube used to suck

up worms and other invertebrates from the bottom.

Tarpon (Megalops spp.)

These fish prefer warm, shallow waters including

mangrove wetlands. They also use mangroves as a

nursery for young. Tarpon can survive in areas with

low oxygen levels. Adults feed at night on small fish

and crustaceans.

For a more comprehensive list of fish using mangrove

wetlands, see Appendix A.

Gray snapper

Diane Peebles

Ladyfish

Diane Peebles

Tarpon

National Ocean Service

13
Importance of shrimp to people: Brown, white, and

pink shrimp are the most valuable commercial fishery

in the United States. These shrimp also are important

for recreational fishing. In 1999, 304 million pounds

of shrimp, valued at $561 million, were caught in U.S.

waters.

Status: U.S. shrimp harvests have been fairly steady

since 1960, but there are concerns that continued

wetland losses, particularly in the Gulf of Mexico

region, could lead to sudden population declines of

these wetland-dependent shellfish.

Tidal Freshwater Marshes

Tidal freshwater marshes are found farther upstream

from the coast than salt marshes or mangroves. These

marshes are close enough to the coast to experience

tides, but at the same time are above the reach of the

ocean’s saltwater. Tidal freshwater marshes are found

most often along the mid- and south-Atlantic coastline. Many of the plants found in tidal freshwater

marshes, such as arrowhead, cattails, bulrushes, and

other soft-stemmed plants, also can be found in nontidal marshes, and therefore it is difficult to differentiate these wetland types solely by vegetation. Fish utilize

the portions of the marsh that are closest to the river

because these areas have deeper water and are flooded

more regularly.

Case Study: Mangrove

Shrimp (Penaeus spp.)

Life history: Brown (Penaeus aztecus), white

(P. sertiferus), and pink (P. duorarum) shrimp are found

along the Atlantic Coast from Massachusetts to Florida

and within the Gulf of Mexico. Shrimp spawn in the

ocean. After spending some time drifting in open

water, larvae float with the tides into estuaries and salt

marshes, where they settle to the bottom among the

wetland vegetation. Adults eventually move back to the

shallow water near the shore to spawn.

Importance of wetlands to shrimp: Shrimp need

wetlands in order to survive. They benefit from tidal

salt marshes as a food source and to escape predators,

especially as juveniles. Juveniles eat marsh detritus and

algae that grows on marsh plants. Studies have shown

that as wetland acres increase and shrimp access to

wetlands increase, shrimp production increases.

Kenilworth Marsh, Washington, D.C. U.S. Army Corp of Engineers, Baltimore District

14

Shrimp

NOAA
The fish communities of tidal freshwater marshes are

complex and change seasonally. These wetlands are

used by freshwater, estuarine, marine, and migratory

fish. A wide variety of fish species is attracted to

freshwater tidal marshes because their dense vegetation

and rapid production of detritus provides excellent

refuge for juveniles, areas for spawning, and plentiful

food resources.

Fish Found in Tidal

Freshwater Marshes

American shad (Alosa sapidissima)

These migratory fish use tidal freshwater marshes of

the Atlantic Coast as nurseries for their young. Juveniles stay in wetland nurseries until the fall, when they

move out to sea. Adults later return to the streams

where they were hatched to spawn. American shad eat

insects, shrimp, worms, and fish.

Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus)

This fish uses tidal freshwater marshes as nursery areas.

Adults also visit these wetlands in warmer weather to

feed on mollusks, worms, small shrimp, and crabs.

American shad

Diane Peebles

Chain pickerel (Esox niger)

Found along the Atlantic Coast, these fish use tidal

freshwater marshes as a food source and as nursery and

spawning areas. Chain pickerel’s color patterns helps

them to use the cover of aquatic plants to hide from

their prey. Pickerel scatter their eggs among wetland

plants to protect the eggs from predators.

Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)

This important sport and commercial fish finds food

in tidal freshwater marshes in the Mississippi basin, the

Gulf Coast, and many other parts of the country

where it has been introduced. This is the catfish most

commonly served in restaurants and supermarkets.

The catfish scours the bottom of marshes for plant

seeds, insects, crawfish, small fish, and other prey. This

fish locates food through smell and touch, using

whisker-like appendages.

Pacific lamprey (Lampetra tridentata)

This fish migrates from the open ocean to freshwater

to spawn in pools and tidal freshwater marshes. The

parasitic adults attach to the sides or bellies of other

fish or whales and draw blood and other body fluids

for food.

American croaker

Diane Peebles

Chain pickerel

Channel catfish

Duane Raver

15

Duane Raver
Common Snook (Centropomus undecimalis)

This sport fish uses Gulf and Atlantic coasts tidal marshes as

a nursery for their young. Adults stay close to shore and eat

the crustaceans and small fish that live in marshes.

For a more comprehensive list of fish found in tidal

freshwater marshes, see Appendix A.

Case Study: Tidal freshwater

marsh

American eel (Anguilla rostrata)

Life history: American eels can be found throughout

the Mississippi River basin and in many eastern rivers.

Eels spend much of their lives, particularly during

winter hibernation, buried in gravel, mud, or rocks.

Adept at working their way upstream over or around

low falls or dams, eels are thought to sometimes even

travel overland on rainy nights. Eels eat a variety of

fish, insects, crustaceans, and worms. The eel’s acute

sense of smell may help it find food. The American eel

is a catadromous species, which means it lives in

freshwater but returns to saltwater to spawn. These fish

stop eating when they leave their freshwater homes to

migrate thousands of miles to spawn in the Sargasso

Sea, which is part of the Atlantic Ocean east of the

Bahamas and south of Bermuda. Eels expend so much

energy during their migratory journey that they die

soon after they spawn.

Importance of wetlands to American eels: Eels,

because of their snakelike movements, are able to

navigate in extremely shallow marshy areas. They

prefer mangrove roots and other wetland areas, such

as marshes and seagrass beds, to hide from predators.

They flock to all types of wetlands to eat the abundant small fish, crustaceans, and insect larvae that

make wetlands their home. Immature eels often seek

winter refuge in tidal and non-tidal wetlands.

Importance of American eels to people: American

eels have long been fished for food and sport. Smoked

eel is considered a delicacy, especially in Asian and

European cultures. Native Americans in the eastern

United States would partially dam rivers with stones

and then net or spear migrating eels as they were

forced through the restricted openings. In addition to

their consumptive importance, the American eel has

long held a place in myth and speculation. Until the

beginning of the 20th century, the location of the eels’

spawning grounds and their movements at sea were

mysteries.

Status: Recent concerns about declining American eel

populations were one factor that led the Atlantic

States Marine Fisheries Commission to develop a

management plan for the fish. Declines throughout

the East Coast are thought to be the result of dams

blocking eel migration, loss and degradation of

habitats, water pollution, and the appearance of a

parasite that has reduced the eel populations in parts

of Europe.

Common snook

Diane Peebles

American eel

Duane Raver

16
Non-tidal Freshwater

Marshes

One of the broadest categories of wetlands is non-tidal

freshwater marshes. Wetlands included in this category

are any non-tidal wetland with soft-stemmed plants

rather than trees or shrubs. The vegetated areas

generally have no standing water or have shallow water

that varies in depth depending on rainfall, but they

may contain pools or channels with much deeper

water. Non-tidal marshes typically are dominated by

floating plants such as water lilies and duckweed, or

soft-stemmed plants such as cattails, arrowheads, reeds,

and sedges. Non-tidal marshes can be found in low

spots in a field or meadow, fringing lakes, and adjacent

to rivers.

Non-tidal marshes are found throughout the United

States, but some types of non-tidal marshes are

associated with specific geographic regions. Prairie

potholes are typically found in the northcentral United

States and southcentral Canada. Playas are small basins

that dry up in the summers and most commonly

found in the western and southwestern states. Fens are

peatlands found in northern states and mountainous

areas. Non-tidal marshes can be found even in the

deserts of the southwest, where one-third of fish

species are completely dependent on groundwater-fed

wetlands and river-side marshes called cienegas.

Some non-tidal marshes support fish and some do not.

As a general rule, the deeper the water in the marsh

and the more its hydrology is connected with lakes and

rivers, the more likely the marsh is to support fish.

Non-tidal marshes with little or no standing water

support few, if any, fish. Non-tidal marshes with very

shallow water often dry up in the summer and/or

freeze solid in the winter, making them only temporary

homes for fish. If shallow-water non-tidal marshes

contain deep pools or are close to a pond, river, or

lake, they may contain northern pike, brown bullhead,

bluegills, and other fish during certain seasons.

However, if these shallow non-tidal marshes are

isolated from other bodies of water, large fish probably

will not live in them. Some isolated or shallow nontidal marshes may support killifish and other small fish

that can survive the higher temperatures and lower

oxygen levels associated with shallow water. Human

alteration also impacts fish use of non-tidal marshes.

For example, most playas are unavailable as fish habitat

because they are farmed or used as a water source for

irrigation.

Non-tidal marshes that fringe large water bodies like

the Great Lakes provide spawning areas and a food

source for many fish such as walleye and muskellunge.

Lake Erie supports more fish in terms of numbers and

diversity than any of the other Great Lakes, partly

because of its extensive system of marshes that provide

feeding areas, shelter, and spawning areas to a variety

of fish species. Smaller lakes and slow-moving rivers

throughout the country also can have fringing marshes

that provide essential habitat to many common fish

species.

Fish Found in Non-tidal

Everglades, Florida Kathryn Conant

17
Freshwater Marshes

Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)

This heavily fished species lives in shallow water

marshes and fens among wetland plants. Males create

nests within wetland vegetation and protect eggs until

they hatch. Fry remain in marshes and use these

wetlands as nursery areas.

Minnows (Cyprinidae)

These small fish are important food for larger fish, and

they use marshes for food and refuge from predators.

Some minnows are used by anglers as bait and others

are used in laboratories to test pollution levels of

industrial discharge to rivers.

Muskellunge (Esox masquinongy)

This popular sport fish is found in heavily vegetated

marshes bordering lakes and large rivers. Muskellunge

scatter their eggs among aquatic vegetation.

Northern pike (Esox lucius)

This large sport fish spawns in shallow vegetated areas

along the borders of lakes and in fens. This fish

frequents marshes in search of food. The color pattern

of northern pike allows it to hide from its prey among

non-tidal marsh vegetation.

Bluegill

Duane Raver

White bass (Morone chrysops)

This important commercial and sport fish can be

found in shallow and deep portions of water bodies in

the Great Lakes and Mississippi River basin regions.

White bass spawn in marshes by broadcasting eggs

over vegetation in shallow water. This fish also seeks

food in marshes.

Yellow bullhead (Ameiurus natalis)

One of the most popular bullheads for sportfishing,

this fish is native to the Great Lakes and eastern

United States, but has been introduced throughout the

country. Yellow bullhead visit marshes to eat plant

matter, crawfish, aquatic insects, mollusks, and other

fish. Males and females make nests in shallow wetlands

among plants and roots. Juveniles also use these

wetlands as nursery areas.

For a more comprehensive list of fish using non-tidal

freshwater marshes, see Appendix A.

18

White bass

Duane Raver

Yellow bullhead

Duane Raver
Case Study: Non-tidal Freshwater

Marsh

Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)

Life history: Largemouth bass spawn in late spring to

mid-summer. Males build nests for the eggs in shallow

water and guard their young for up to two weeks.

Juvenile bass leave their nests when they are about a

week old and form a small school until they disperse

along the shorelines.

Importance of wetlands to largemouth bass:

Shallow marshes at the edges of lakes and

floodplain wetlands of large, slow-moving rivers are

the largemouth’s favorite habitat. Wetland vegetation provides cover for largemouth bass and supports its food source. Largemouth take cover

among flooded stumps and trees and marsh plants

such as water lilies and cattails. Adults move to deep

water during the day and return to the shallow

water at night to feed on small fish, frogs, and

crayfish.

Importance of largemouth bass to people: The

largemouth bass is well known by anglers across the

country for its excellent fighting ability on the line

and its tasty flesh. Largemouth bass is so popular

that there are television shows, magazines, clubs,

and fishing derbies dedicated to this exceptional

fish.

Status: Although the historic range of the fish

extended from the Great Lakes region south to

Texas and east to the Atlantic Coast, stocking (the

release of hatchery-reared fish into an area, largely to

support recreational fishing) has spread its

range to almost every state.

Forested Wetlands

Forested wetlands are freshwater tidal or non-tidal

areas that are vegetated with trees and shrubs. This

category includes wetlands in the floodplains of rivers,

swamps in the backwaters of slow-moving rivers,

pocosins and bogs, and isolated wetlands. Fish use

these types of wetlands in a variety of ways. Although

mangrove wetlands are forested, they are discussed

separately because mangroves are salt tolerant trees that

grow along shorelines and support coastal fish populations, while other forested wetlands occur in freshwater

areas.

Floodplain wetlands

Forested floodplain wetlands are wooded areas adjacent

to rivers and are flooded when river water is high.

Common forested species include red maple, swamp

white oak, northern white cedar, green ash, highbush

19

Largemouth bass

Duane Raver

Forested Wetland U.S. Forest Service

Cypress Swamp in Okefenokee National Kathryn Conant

Wildlife Refuge, Georgia
Peatlands

Bogs, pocosins, and Carolina Bays are types of

peatlands. Mosses are the most distinguishing feature

of peatlands, and are what forms the “peat” in these

wetlands. Fens are also peatlands, but are typically

dominated by herbaceous plants; therefore, fens are

discussed with the non-tidal freshwater wetland group

rather than here. Bogs and pocosins are the bestknown examples of wetlands whose soils are a mixture

of partially decayed plant matter called peat. These

wetland types vary in their vegetation, connection to

other water sources, availability of nutrients needed for

plant growth, and acidity. Despite the harsh conditions

found in some peatlands, many do support fish.

Bogs form in old lake basins or depressions in the

landscape and are found largely in the northern United

States. Bogs get their water from rain, because they are

usually isolated from groundwater and surface water.

The ground may appear solid, but it is often nothing

more than a floating mat of sphagnum moss that

quakes underfoot. The sphagnum moss and the peat

produce an acidic substance, making some bogs

inhospitable to fish. Less acidic bogs may provide

habitat for gamefish such as pike, walleye, bluegill, and

smallmouth bass.

Pocosins and Carolina Bays are bog-like wetlands

found from Virginia to northern Florida, with the

majority located in North Carolina. The most obvious

difference between pocosins of the Southeast and the

bogs of the North is the vegetation. Pocosins are

dominated by evergreen shrubs and trees, while bogs

have mostly mosses and fewer trees. The word “pocosin” comes from the Algonquin Native American

phrase “swamp on a hill.” Indeed, these wetlands are

often found on high areas of a flat, water-logged,

acidic, and nutrient-poor landscape. Some of the fish

found in pocosins are thought to have evolved from

saltwater fish species that occupied these areas when

sea levels were higher. Other fish species found in

pocosins originate from nearby streams or lakes.

Occasional drying of these wetlands in the summer or

low oxygen levels in the winter can cause fish kills, so

pocosins in close proximity to another water source are

more likely to be recolonized during floods. Some

game species found in pocosins include redfin pickerel,

yellow perch, warmouth, flier, black crappie, bluegill,

and largemouth bass.

cranberry, and buttonbush. Many fish species gain

access to forested floodplain wetlands during floods.

Fish find valuable food on the forest floor and use the

shallow water areas to spawn. In the eastern United

States, about half of the fish species found within the

lower Mississippi River use the floodplain as a nursery

and spawning ground. The majority of southern

freshwater fish, including bass and sunfish, lay eggs in

the shallow water of forested floodplain wetlands.

Likewise, after swimming upstream from the ocean,

shad spray their eggs over the submerged vegetation in

forested wetlands. Once the eggs hatch, the larvae

must find food from the surrounding environment, so

the plentiful food supply of detritus found in forested

floodplain wetlands is an advantage. The vegetation

also protects young fish from predators.

Use of forested floodplains by fish varies throughout

the United States. Streams in the arid west often have

running water only during wetter times of the year.

However, forested floodplain wetlands in the Northwest are particularly important to Pacific salmon

species. Large woody debris from the riverside wetlands dam sloughs or slow-moving streams and

enhance salmon habitat. Strong water currents during

the rainy season send young Coho salmon to seek

shelter in forested floodplain wetlands. Many salmon

species take advantage of the shelter and abundant

food supply of forested floodplains by using them as

nursery areas. That wetland connection offers a special

challenge to resource managers trying to nurture

populations of endangered or threatened Pacific or

Atlantic salmon back from the brink of extinction.

Backwater swamps

In contrast to forested floodplain wetlands that are

temporary, backwater swamps usually retain water

even after floodwater recedes, which means they can

serve as habitat for fish that do not return to the

stream channel. While floodplain wetlands generally

support hardwoods such as maples, oaks, and ash, the

typical vegetation of backwater swamps includes bald

cypress, water tupelo, and black gum. These backwaters are less than optimal for aquatic life because of

fluctuating water levels and low dissolved oxygen

levels. Bowfin, gar, and some minnows are able to

handle these living conditions because they can breathe

oxygen from the air. In general, small fish dominate

backwater swamps while larger fish generally use these

areas during floods.

20
Carolina Bays are small lakes found among the

riverside forested wetlands of the Atlantic Coastal Plain

that extend from North Carolina to Georgia. These

bays are surrounded by or overgrown with marshes

and forested wetlands. Small fish such as killifish,

darters, and minnows thrive in the thick cover of

vegetation these bays provide.

Fish Found in Forested

Wetlands

Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus)

This important commercial species migrates up rivers

and small streams to spawn in quiet backwater wetlands. Young alewife swim downstream to lakes or the

ocean in the winter. People enjoy alewife smoked,

dried and salted, and fried. This fish also is used for

crab and lobster bait. Alewife and blueback herring,

another wetland-dependent fish, are related species

that often are grouped together as river herring.

Atlantic needlefish (Strongylura marina)

Found throughout the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and

non-tidal regions, this fish takes advantage of insects

and other food sources found on forested floodplains.

Bowfin (Amia calva)

This eastern U.S. fish species lives in swamps with

dense vegetation. Males create nests in the shallow

water of forested wetlands by tearing out vegetation

and making a trench among the roots. For a week after

hatching, fry seek shelter in the wetlands by attaching

an adhesive organ in their snout to vegetation. If the

dissolved oxygen in the slow-moving wetland water

becomes too low, bowfin can breathe oxygen from the

air.

Crawfish (Procambarus spp.)

Resembling small lobsters, these crustaceans have welldeveloped claws and a broad, flattened tail that serves

as an oar. Crawfish burrow into the mud along

floodplains of stream and other forested wetlands to

reach water below the surface. During floods, they

emerge to take advantage of abundant food resources.

Found along the Southeast Coast and the Gulf Coast,

crawfish also use forested wetlands as nursery areas and

for spawning.

Darters (Etheostoma spp.)

This group of fish lives in clear, swift-moving rivers in

the eastern United States. Darters use forested wetlands along streams for spawning and nursery areas.

Some darters have adapted to live in the slow, lowoxygenated waters of floodplain wetlands.

Paddlefish (Polyodon spathula)

Found within the Mississippi River basin and the

rivers of the Gulf Coast, paddlefish use forested

wetlands for nursery areas. This fish gets its name from

its large paddle-shaped snout. Paddlefish are fished

commercially for their eggs, which are consumed as

caviar.

For a more comprehensive list of fish using forested

wetlands, see Appendix A.

21

Duane Raver

Bowfin

Paddlefish

Duane Raver
If your wetland seems to lack a fish population, go

back at different times of the year to see if fish have

seasonal access to the area. Also keep in mind that fish

do not have to live in or even visit a wetland to reap

the benefits that it offers. Knowing that your local

wetlands are important to fish should help you get

others in your community excited about their conservation. Remember, whether or not fish are living in a

particular wetland, its protection can be vital to fish

survival.

Case Study: General

White Sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus)

Life history: White sturgeon is a large anadromous

fish found along the West Coast and inland. Sturgeon

use fleshy whisker-like appendages and taste buds

along the outside of their mouths to search stream and

brackish wetland bottoms for insect larvae, snails,

worms, small fish, and crustaceans. Males may take 12

years to reach maturity and females take up to 20 years

or longer. Sturgeons are experiencing over fishing and

threats to their habitat, resulting in a younger average

age and fewer individuals living to sexual maturity. In

the early 1900s, catching 800 to 1,000 pound white

sturgeon was common, which is now unusual. Females can produce as many as four million eggs at a

time and may spawn only once every two to eight

years.

White sturgeon spawn predominantly in three large

river systems: Sacramento-San Joaquin River system in

California, the Columbia River system in the Pacific

Northwest, and the Fraser River system in British

Columbia, Canada. The current migration range is

not as extensive as its historic range because of humancaused barriers. Unlike Pacific salmon, white sturgeon

cannot jump forward, so it is difficult for them to get

over small obstacles such as low dams and culverts.

Currently, there are eighteen landlocked (non-migratory) populations of white sturgeon throughout

western North America. Some of these populations

are isolated because of natural barriers formed during

the last glacial age (approximately 10,000 years ago).

Unfortunately with the development of dams on many

sturgeon-inhabited streams, additional barriers were

formed, limiting migration paths even more. These

landlocked populations have adapted to a nonmigratory life cycle.

22

Alligator gar

Duane Raver

Case Study: Forested Wetland

Alligator gar (Lepisosteus spatula)

Life history: Alligator gars are found along the Gulf

Coast and into the Mississippi River valley. This fish

species is a classic lie-in-wait predator, ambushing and

eating turtles, waterfowl, other fish, and small mammals. Gars spawn during spring flooding when they

have access to flooded lowland swamps. Gars may live

up to 60 years.

Importance of wetlands to alligator gars: Backwater

wetlands are prime habitat for gars. Alligator gars time

their reproduction cycles to coincide with flooding so

they can lay eggs in vegetated shallows. Adults typically

live in pools and slow-moving waters of rivers,

swamps, bayous, and lakes. Gars have adapted to low

oxygen levels by using their swim bladder, an organ

that allows a fish to have buoyancy, as a lung. Alligator

gars intake air from above the water’s surface into the

swim bladder, which transfers oxygen directly into

surrounding blood vessels.

Importance of alligator gars to people: These sport

fish are highly sought for their firm white flesh.

Status: Some state fish and game agencies have limited

angling for alligator gars to relieve decreasing populations.

Explore and Learn

This chapter has described a variety of wetland types

and provided examples of how different fish may be

utilizing them. More information on the fish that rely

on local wetlands can be found in Appendix A or by

asking local experts. However, the best way to find out

about fish populations is to explore the area. Fact

finding can be accomplished by fishing, asking other

anglers, and talking to your state fisheries biologists.
Importance of wetlands to sturgeon: Sturgeons rely

on wetlands for spawning and nursery areas. Juveniles

may spend several years in tidal freshwater wetlands

before migrating to the ocean, feeding on shellfish and

insect larvae. Adult sturgeons visit freshwater marshes

to feed on schools of smaller foraging fish.

Importance of sturgeon to people: Sturgeon historically have been and continue to be valuable commercial fish. They are so valued that English kings and

queens once decreed that sturgeon could be served

only at the royal table. Sturgeon are caught for their

meat, to produce fine oil, and for their eggs, which are

considered prized caviar. The swim bladder is used to

clarify white wines, make special glues, and manufacture water-proofing materials.

Status: Dams, pollution, habitat destruction, and

overfishing have greatly reduced both the numbers and

the geographic ranges of sturgeon. Sturgeon declines

have become so serious that many species, including

pallid, shortnose, and Gulf sturgeon have been added

to the endangered or threatened species list. A naturally landlocked population of white sturgeon in

Montana and Idaho is also listed as endangered.

23
Fish conservation cannot happen without your

help. As a nation, the United States has taken

the first strides to preserve clean water, conserve

wetlands and other valuable habitat, and conserve

native fish populations. Additional wetland legislation,

education, and conservation are needed to preserve the

delicate balance of land, air, water, aquatic life, and

other wildlife needed to sustain fish, wildlife, and

people.

Fish and Wetland

Conservation Through

Legislation

Many legislative programs have been enacted to

address wetland and fish protection and restoration.

The best known legislation is the Clean Water Act

(CWA), which seeks to improve water quality by

maintaining and restoring the physical, chemical, and

biological integrity of the nation’s waters. Although

the CWA has helped to reduce the amount of sewage

and toxic chemicals entering waterways, its two major

goals of making our nation’s waters fishable and

swimmable have not yet been realized. Pollution

prevention and habitat restoration are important steps

toward achieving the goal of fishable and swimmable

waters.

One of the oldest examples of fish conservation

legislation is the Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration

Act, which was enacted in 1950. Commonly known as

“Dingell-Johnson,” the legislation channels the dollars

of America’s anglers directly into the restoration and

management of fishery resources in the United States.

This act applies an 11 percent manufacturers’ excise

tax on fishing rods, reels, creels, artificial baits, lures,

and flies. The revenue is distributed to the states to

conduct research, purchase access to fishing areas,

build boating access sites, and maintain other projects

that benefit fish and anglers. This act was amended in

1984 and 1991 to expand the revenue sources to

implement fisheries restoration. The amendments,

commonly called “Wallup-Breaux,” support increased

boating access, aquatic resources education programs,

and coastal wetlands restoration as a way to improve

nursery habitat for marine sport fish.

Becoming a Wetland Steward

More recent legislation that identifies and helps

protect important fish habitat is the MagnusonStevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act

amended 1996. This legislation authorizes the

National Marine Fisheries Service, working with

regional Fishery Management Councils, to designate

“essential fish habitat” (EFH) for federally managed

marine species. For many species and life stages,

wetlands comprise an important component of EFH.

States and local governments also have an important

role in wetland conservation. However, because of the

large amount of information in this area, we did not

try to summarize all the important state and local

legislation that builds upon the conservation provided

by the Federal legislation. Many states are implementing new innovative programs to help reduce wetland

degradation and we encourage you to contact your

local or state government to get information on their

wetland protection and restoration programs.

Citizen Action

Although national and state legislation has played an

important role in protecting and restoring fish habitat,

partnerships and community involvement are essential

to continued success. It is important that citizens,

government, businesses, and other interested partners

work together to protect fish habitat.

The U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA) are among the agencies that have wetland

restoration programs that benefit fish populations.

One program that specifically targets fish habitat

restoration and involves citizen action is NOAA’s

Community-based Restoration Program (CRP). Since

establishment in 1996, NOAA and its partners have

supported grassroots efforts to address important

fishery habitat concerns across coastal America by

providing seed money and technical expertise. For

example, CRP supports “Pepper Busters,” a volunteer

project coordinated by the Marine Resources Council

of East Florida. Volunteers remove invasive Brazilian

pepper trees from mangrove wetlands. Since their

24
Tampa BayWatch supports wetland restoration efforts

through the construction and maintenance of nurseries

to grow salt marsh plants. Wetlands plants are grown

from local seeds that have adapted to the Tampa Bay

estuarine environment. The organization then works

with other ongoing restoration efforts to plant the salt

marsh grasses at appropriate restoration sites. The

nursery plants provide an inexpensive source of native

plants for many federal, state, county, and city restoration projects throughout the Tampa Bay estuary.

Schools and local scientists help monitor salinity,

temperature, and plant growth of the newly planted

wetlands.

Support and funding for this initiative has come from

a variety of sources. Area middle and high schools

partner with Tampa BayWatch through their science

and ecology clubs. The volunteer students help plant

and raise the young plants, providing the students with

educational opportunities on ecology and agricultural

practices. These volunteers also help plant the wetland

plants. Program support has been provided from a

wide range of sources including private companies and

citizens, the state of Florida, the Southwest Florida

Water Management District, the National Estuary

Program, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) through its Communitybased Restoration Program.

You Can Make a Difference

There are many things that you can do in your community to raise awareness about the

interconnectedness of fish and wetlands and to take an

active role in their protection and restoration.

Some possibilities include:

• Join a local conservation organization

(see resources section for examples).

• Sponsor a wetland tour with a local expert to

raise awareness about the ecological importance

of wetlands, particularly to fish.

• Become involved in community land-use

planning to prevent wetland destruction.

• Provide assistance to local efforts to protect and

restore wetlands and fish populations.

• Urge others to join the effort to protect

wetlands as important fish habitat.

• Restore wetlands by planting native vegetation

with the help of local ecologists.

• Monitor the health of local wetlands.

introduction as an ornamental tree, Brazilian pepper

trees have proliferated in mangrove swamps where they

produce thick shade that kills slower-growing plants

below and releases compounds that inhibit the growth

of other plants. As Brazilian pepper trees strangle

mangrove stands whose submerged roots provide vital

fish habitat, fish populations suffer. After removing

Brazilian pepper trees, volunteer Pepper Busters plant

mangrove seedlings. In one day, volunteers restored

enough mangrove fish habitat to support three million

fish during the life of the vegetation. In fact, through

this project, volunteers restore more than three miles

of shoreline each year. For another excellent example of

how volunteer involvement in wetland restoration can

benefit fish habitat, read the case study for the Tampa

Bay estuary in this section.

In addition to restoring degraded wetlands, volunteers

and landowners can play an important role in protecting existing wetland fish habitat. In New Hampshire,

the Great Bay Resource Partnership was organized in

1994 to support the North American Waterfowl

Management Plan and Wetland Conservation Act. A

broad mix of non-profit conservation organizations,

citizens, and government agencies formed this partnership to protect the Great Bay Estuary located in the

southeastern portion of the state. This estuary is 4,500

acres of crucial habitat for fish, waterfowl, and other

wildlife species. The partnership works with landowners on a voluntary basis to identify and implement

conservation options for their land. This part of New

Hampshire is facing heavy development pressures, and

the partnership is working to ensure that important

wetland habitat is not destroyed in the process. To

date, the partnership has protected several hundred

acres around the Great Bay.

 Case Study: Volunteers Help

Grow and Plant Salt Marsh

The Tampa Bay estuary is located along Florida’s Gulf

of Mexico coast and supports a diversity of wetlands

and fish. Common shellfish and fish that use the tidal

salt marshes include crabs, shrimp and marine juvenile

fish. Unfortunately, shoreline development and other

human activities have significantly altered the estuarine

ecology, and destroyed almost half of the historic

mangroves and salt marshes. In response, the Tampa

BayWatch organization was formed to monitor,

protect, and restore the Tampa Bay marine and

wetland system.

25
• Share this publication with friends, family, and

other people who care about fish and their

habitat needs in your community.

Community-based projects and educational programs

are essential to the continued existence of fish and

shellfish populations as well as the wetlands they call

home. Your efforts to conserve, protect, and restore

wetlands and other valuable fish habitat will have a

lasting positive effect on the entire ecosystem and your

community.

26

Planting Saltmarsh, Prall’s Island, New York NOAA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds

401 M Street, SW

Washington, DC 20460

(202) 260-2090

www.epa.gov

U.S. Forest Service

Watershed and Air Management

PO Box 96090

Washington, DC 20090-6090

(202) 205-1475

www.fs.fed.us

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

National Fisheries Program or Division of Habitat

Conservation

4401 North Fairfax Dr.

Arlington, VA 22203

(703) 358-1715 or 358-2183

www.fws.gov

U.S. Geological Survey

Water Resources Division

John W. Powell Federal Building

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive

Reston, VA 20192

(888) 275-8747

www.usgs.gov

Non-governmental

Organizations

Many of these organizations have local chapters. Find

local chapters and other local organizations by contacting these national offices, using the Internet, or

looking in your phone book.

American Fisheries Society

5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 110

Bethesda, MD 20814

(301) 897-8686

www.fisheries.org

American Sportfishing Association

1033 N. Fairfax St., Suite 200

Alexandria, VA 22314

(703) 519-1872

www.asafishing.org

Government Contacts

These agencies have regional, and in some

cases, state and local offices. Call or visit their

websites for more information. State environmental, natural resources, and fish and wildlife offices

also are good sources of information. Local contact

information is available on the Internet or in local

phone books.

National Oceanic and Atomspheric Administration

National Marine Fisheries Service

Office of Habitat Conservation

1315 East-West Hwy

Silver Spring, MD 20910

(301) 713-2325

www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat

National Park Service

Water Resources Division

1849 C Street, NW

Washington, DC 20013

(202) 208-4747

www.nps.gov

National Sea Grant College Program

NOAA/OAR/R/SE Room 11708

SSMC3

1315 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910-3226

(301) 713-2431

www.oar.noaa.gov/organization/

programs/sgcolleges.html

Natural Resources Conservation Service

(formerly the Soil Conservation Service)

Watersheds and Wetlands Division

P.O. Box 2890, Washington, DC 20013

(202) 720-3210

www.nrcs.usda.gov

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Regulatory and Planning Divisions

441 G Street, NW

Washington, DC 20314

(202) 761-0008

www.usace.army.mil

Resources

27
Association of State Wetland Managers

P.O. Box 269, 1434 Helderberg Trail

Berne, NY 12023

(518) 872-2171

www.aswm.org

Ocean Conservancy

1725 DeSales St., NW, Suite 600

Washington, DC 20036

(202) 429-5609

www.oceanconservancy.org

Ducks Unlimited

One Waterfowl Way

Memphis, TN 38120

(901) 758-3825

www.ducks.org

FishAmerica Foundation

1033 North Fairfax St., Suite 200

Alexandria, VA 22314

(202) 543-5509

www.fishamerica.org

Izaak Walton League of America

Save Our Streams Program

707 Conservation Lane

Gaithersburg, MD 20878

(800) BUG-IWLA (284-4952)

www.iwla.org

Marine Fish Conservation Network

660 Pennsylvania Ave., SE Suite 302B

Washington, D.C. 20003

202-543-5509

www.conservfish.org

National Audubon Society

666 Pennsylvania Ave., SE

Washington, DC 20003

(202) 547-9009

www.audubon.org

Project WET (Water Education for Teachers)

201 Culbertson Hall

Montana State University

P.O. Box 170575

Bozeman, MT 59717-0575

(406) 994-5392

www.montana.edu/wwwater

Restore America’s Estuaries

www.estuaries.org

Sierra Club

730 Polk St.

San Francisco, CA 94109

(415) 977-5500

www.sierraclub.org

Society of Wetland Scientists

PO Box 1897

Lawrence, KS 66044

(601) 634-2942

www.sws.org

The Nature Conservancy

4245 North Fairfax Drive

Suite 100

Arlington, VA 22203-1606

(800) 628-6860

www.tnc.org

The Watercourse Program

201 Culbertson Hall

Montana State University

P.O. Box 170575

Bozeman, MT 59717-0575

(406) 994-5392

www.montana.edu/wwwater

Trout Unlimited

1500 Wilson Blvd., Suite 300

Arlington, VA 22209-2404

(703) 522-0200

www.tu.gov

Wildlife Forever

10365 West 70th Street

Eden Praire, NM 55344

(952) 833-1522

www.wildlifeforever.com

28
Books and Pamphlets

Fisheries, Wetlands and Jobs: The Value of Wetlands to America’s Fisheries, 1998. 28-page report on

the economic importance of fisheries and the importance of wetlands to fish. Source: Clean Water Network, 1200 New York Ave., Suite 400, Washington,

DC 20005, (202) 289-2395,

cleanwaternt@igc.apc.org, ($5.00 or view on line at

www.cwn.org).

The Economic Importance of Sport Fishing, 1996.

This 10-page booklet provides economic data on sport

fishing throughout the United States. Source: American Sportfishing Association, 1033 N. Fairfax St.,

Alexandria, VA 22314, (703) 519-9691,

info@asafishing.org, www.asafishing.org. (Free).

Handbook for Wetlands Conservation and

Sustainability, 1998. This 288-page book provides

information on wetland ecology, functions and values,

and stewardship projects. Includes monitoring instructions and data forms for plants, soils, hydrology,

wildlife, and human impacts to wetlands. Source:

Izaak Walton League, 707 Conservation Lane,

Gaithersburg, MD 20878, (301) 548-0150; (800)

BUG-IWLA (284-4952), www.iwla.org, ($38.50 plus

shipping).

Wetland Fact Sheets. Source: Environmental Protection Agency’s Wetlands Information Hotline, (800)

832-7828.

Periodicals

National Wetlands Newsletter. Focuses on research

and education about wetland policy, law, and management. Source: Environmental Law Institute, 1616 P

St., NW, Second Floor, Washington, DC 20036, (800)

433-5120, ($48 for 6 issues).

Wetland Journal. Concentrates on wetland issues,

education, restoration techniques, research, and

horticulture. Source: Environmental Concern, Inc.,

P.O. Box P, 210 W. Chew Ave., St. Michaels, MD

21663, (410) 745-9620, www.wetland.org, ($34 per

year).

Educational Materials

Aquatic Project Wild. Curriculum for K-12 with

supplemental materials about wetlands and related

topics. Source: Project WILD, 707 Conservation Lane,

Gaithersburg, MD 20878, (301) 527-8900, (price

varies).

Discover Wetlands. Wetland activities form a unit or

are used with existing curricula. Source: Washington

State Department of Ecology, Mail Stop PV-11,

Olympia, WA, (206) 438-7538, ($11.50).

WOW! Wonders of Wetlands. K-12 curriculum with

classroom and outdoor activities. Source: Environmental Concern, Inc., P.O. Box P, 210 West Chew Ave., St.

Michaels, MD 21663, (410) 745-9620,

www.wetland.org, ($30).

State Fish Art Project Lesson Plan: Something’s

Fishy. Short curriculum on fish biology and ecology

for grades 4-12. Illustrations and descriptions provided

for state fish of each state. Instructions and entry form

for state fish artwork and essay contest. Source:

Wildlife Forever, 10365 West 70th Street, Eden

Prairie, MN 55344, (612) 833-1522,

www.wildlifeforever.org or www.statefishart.com.

(Free).

Field Guides

A Field Guide to Atlantic Coast Fishes: North

America (Peterson Field Guides), 1986. Houghton

Mifflin Co. ISBN 0395975158.

A Field Guide to Pacific Coast Fishes (Peterson

Field Guides), 1983. Houghton Mifflin Co. ISBN

061800212X.

A Field Guide to Freshwater Fishes, 1998.

Houghton Mifflin Co. ISBN 0395910919.

29
Glossary

Anadromous: Describes fish that spend most of their

lives in the sea and migrate to freshwater to spawn.

Bog: Wetland type that forms in old lake basins or

depressions in the landscape and is characterized by

acidic, nutrient poor, peat soils; typical vegetation

includes sphagnum moss, woody shrubs, and carnivorous plants.

Brackish: Water containing some salt.

Catadromous: Describes fish that spend most of their

lives in freshwater and migrate to saltwater to spawn.

Cienegas: Southwestern term for wetlands near rivers

or fed by springs that are dominated by sedges and

other herbaceous and woody wetland plants.

Detritus: Dead and decomposing plant and animal

material.

Ecosystem: A community of plants and animals

interacting with one another and with their physical

environment.

Endangered: As defined under the Federal Endangered Species Act, a species is considered endangered if

it is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.

Estuary: A semi-enclosed body of water with an open

connection to the sea, where saltwater and freshwater

mix.

Fen: Peat-accumulating wetland fed by groundwater

that forms at low points in the landscape or on slopes;

water levels are fairly constant all year; dominated by

soft-stemmed plants, such as grasses and sedges.

Finfish: Fish with fins, gills, streamlined bodies, and

no shells.

Fishery/Fisheries: The act, process, and industry of

catching fish, crustaceans, mollusks, or other aquatic

animals for commercial, recreational, subsistence or

other purposes.

Floodplain: The flat area of land adjacent to a stream

that stores and dissipates floodwater.

Food web: Elaborate, interconnected feeding relationship in an ecosystem.

Fry: A young, recently hatched fish.

Microbes: Minute lifeforms such as bacteria.

Peat: Partially decomposed plant matter.

Peatlands: Wetlands that accumulate peat.

Pocosins: Evergreen shrub bogs found on the Coastal

Plain of the southeastern United States, typically found

on high areas of a flat, water-logged, acidic, and

nutrient-poor landscape.

Prairie potholes: Marsh-like ponds that have formed

in shallow basins caused by the retreat of glaciers in the

northcentral United States and southcentral Canada;

water levels fluctuate seasonally and they can be dry for

several years.

Salinity: Measure of the salt content of water or other

liquids.

Shellfish: Any aquatic animal that has a shell, such as

crustaceans and mollusks.

Subsistence fishery/fisheries: A fishery in which the

harvested resource is used directly without sale for

profit; not considered a leisure or sporting activity.

Spawn/Spawning: Process of releasing and fertilizing

eggs.

Threatened: As defined under the Federal Endangered

Species Act, a species is considered threatened if it is

likely to become an endangered species.

Tidal: Pertaining to, affected by, or having tides.

Watershed: An area of land that drains to a particular

body of water.

Wetland: A vegetated ecosystem transitional between

water and land that is covered with water or has very

wet soils for some part of the year.

30
Ahle, R.C., 1995. Freshwater Wetlands: Their Value

to Fish and Fisheries Habitat, South Carolina Department of Natural Resources.

Augusta Chronicle, 1998. Researchers Hunt for

American Eels in Cape Fear. Augusta Chronicle.

Camp, Dresser & McKee. Environmental Sciences

Division. 1981. Effect of Peat Mining on Fish and

other Aquatic Organisms in the Upper Midwest. U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.

Camuso, P., 1998. The Continuing Saga of the

American Eel. Outdoor Magazine.

Chubb, S.L. and C.R. Liston, 1986. Density and

Distribution of Larval Fishes in Pentwater Marsh, A

Coastal Wetlands on Lake Michigan, Journal of Great

Lakes Restoration, 12(4):332-343.

Clean Water Network. 1998. Fisheries, Wetlands and

Jobs: The Value of Wetlands to America’s Fisheries,

1998. 28-page report on the economic importance of

fisheries and the importance of wetlands to fish.

Conner, W.H. and J.W. Day, Jr., 1987. The Ecology

of Barataria Basin, Louisiana: An Estuarine Profile,

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Coreil, P.D., 1994. Wetlands Functions and Values in

Louisiana. Louisiana Cooperative Extension.

Crance, J.H., 1988. Relationships Between Palustrine

Wetlands of Forested Riparian Floodplains and

Fishery Resources: A Review. U.S. Fish and Wildlife

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Dahl., T.E. 2000. Status and trends of wetlands in

the conterminous United States 1986 to 1997. U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 111 pp.

Daly, M., B. Sundquist, and J. Waldeck, 1992.

Wetlands of the United States, A Macro-Perspective.

Sierra Club, Pittsburgh, PA.

Emmett, R. L., S. L. Stone, S. A. Hinton, and M.E.

Monaco. 1991. Distribution and abundance of

fishes and invertebrates in west coast estuaries,

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Report No. 8 NOAA- National Ocean Service,

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Filisky, M., 1989. Peterson First Guides: Fishes.

Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission,

2000. Seagrass Habitat. Florida Marine Research

Institute Web page, www.fmri.usf.edu.

Fonseca, M.S., W. J. Kenworthy, and G.W. Thayer,

1992. Seagrass Beds: Nursery for Coastal Species in: R.

H. Stroud (Ed.), Stemming the Tide of Coastal Fish

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Froese, R. and D. Pauly. Editors. 1999. FishBase 99.

World Wide Web electronic publication.

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Gosselink, J.G., 1984. The Ecology of Delta Marshes

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Hall, H.D. and V.W. Lambou, 1990. The Ecological

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Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta: A Community Profile.

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Herdendorf, C.E. and C. N. Raphael, 1986. The

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Herschner, C, 1990. Ecological Functions and Values

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Appendix A

More Fish Species Found in Wetlands

For each wetland type discussed in “Which Fish Use My Wetlands?” there is a corresponding table that lists many of the fish

that utilize that type. For each fish, the tables include interesting facts about its life history, unique value, regions of the

country where it is found, and ways it utilizes the specific wetland. This table divides the ways fish use wetlands into the

following categories:

• Food - adults eat wetland plants or animals

• Nursery juveniles grow into adulthood in the wetlands, eating plants or animals and finding refuge

• Refuge - adults seek refuge in the wetland

• Spawing - adults lay their eggs in the wetland.

In some cases, these uses are clarified in the “Facts of Interest” column. For a description and map of the regions used in the tables,

see the section titled “Which Fish Use My Wetlands.” Please note that many more species of fish use some of these wetland types

than we have room to list in this document.

Fish Found in Seagrass Beds

American eel Migrate from freshwater to the saltwater of the Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Anguilla rostrata Sargasso Sea to spawn. Juveniles return to grow up Southeast Refuge

in freshwater wetlands.

American lobster Use two large front claws to catch and crush fish, Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Homarus americanus worms, crabs, and other food. Southeast Refuge

Atlantic croaker Frequent seagrass beds when weather is warm to eat Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Micropogonias undulatus small shrimp, crabs, mollusks, and worms. Southeast; Refuge

Gulf Coast

Atlantic herring These important commercial fish are eaten fresh, Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Clupea harengus pickled, or smoked. Southeast Refuge

Atlantic stingray These small, tropical rays live in shallow coastal Southeast; Food

Dasyatis sabina waters and eat small crustaceans and invertebrates Gulf Coast

found in seagrass beds.

Atlantic thread herring Filter plankton and eat small fish, crabs and shrimp. Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Opisthonema oglinum Southeast; Refuge

Bay scallop Attach to seagrass blades as juveniles before Northeast; Food; Nursery

Argopecten irradians settling on the bottom. Southeast; Refuge

Gulf Coast Spawning

Black sea bass Usually just called sea bass; also known in some Northeast; Food; Nursery

Centropristis striata regions as hannabill, black Harry, talywag, Southeast Refuge

and black Will. Eat small fish and crustaceans.

Blue Crab Young crabs and molting adults depend on Northeast; Food; Nursery

Callinectes sapidus seagrass deds and coastal marshes for food Southeast Refuge

and refuge from pedators, Adult blue crab

visit grassy, shallow bays to eat smaller crabs,

clams, seaweed and dead fish.

Blue fish Feed on smaller fish in eelgrass beds. Bluefish Northeast; Food; Nursery

Pomatomus saltatrix travel in schools and prefer warm water. Southeast

Polular sport fish.

Bonefish Feed on crustaceans and worms in shallow Northeast; Nursery

Albula vulpes areas. Tails may break water surface while Southeast:

they feed. Pacific

Brown Shrimp Shrimp proudction has been linked to amount of Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Penaesus aztecus of wetlands acres and amount of edge between Southeast; Refuge

wetlands and open water. Gulf Coast

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

36
Califorina halibut Pacific Food; Nursery

Paralichtys Refuge

californicus

California skate Pacific Food; Nursery

Raja inornata Refuge

Chum salmon Adults live in saltwater but return to freshwater to Pacific; Alaska Food; Nursery

Oncorhynchus keta reproduce. Young salmon rest in seagrass they

become adjusted to saltwater.

Dungeness crab Larvae ride tidal currents to get from offshore Pacific; Alaska Nursery; Refuge

Cancer magister to salt marshes and seagrass beds, where they

grow to adulthood. Larvae also ride jellyfish

to inshore waters.

English sole Eat crustaceans, worms, and other small aquatic Pacific; Alaska Food; Nursery;

Pleuronectes vetulus animals. Marketed as filet of sole. Refuge

Gag Juveniles live in estuaries and seagrass beds and Southeast Food; Nursery;

Mycteroperca eat crustaceans that live in grass beds. Adults Refuge

microlepis are usuallyfound offshore or inshore on rocky

or grassy bottoms.

Gobies A diverse group of fish that feeds mostly on Northeast; Nursery;

Gobiidae invertebrates or algae. Females lay eggs over Southeast Spawning

vegetation and males fertilize and guard eggs.

Gray snapper Spend early life sheltered in mangrove swamps Southeast Food; Nursery;

Lutjanus griseus and seagrass beds. Refuge

Grunts Medium-size, perch-like sport fish that make Northeast; Food; Nursery

Haemulidae grunting sounds with teeth. Southeast

Hard clam Juveniles attach to seagrass blades before settling Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Mercenaria mercenaria on the bottom. Adults burrow into bottom mud. Southeast Refuge

Lingcod Adult lingcod feed and seek shelter in shallow, Pacific; Alaska Food

Ophiodon elongatus inter-tidal areas of bays near seagrass beds.

Northern anchovy Important commercial fish and the main food Alaska Food; Nursery;

Engraulis mordax source for many seabirds. Refuge;

Spawning

Pacific angel shark Pacific Food; Nursery;

Squatina californica Refuge

Pacific herring Spawning takes place in shallow shoreline Pacific Spawning

Clupea pallasi wetlands close to vegetation. Fertilized eggs attach

to marsh grasses, eelgrass, and algae.

Pacific tomcod Eat shrimp, mussels, and other small fish. Adults Pacific Nursery

Microgadus proximus frequent deep water while young stay in the shallows.

Permit Bottom feeders that eat small fish and crustaceans. Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Trachinotus falcatus Feed in seagrass beds at high tide. Popular sport fish. Southeast; Refuge

Gulf Coast

Pigfish Schooling fish that feed on crustaceans and Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Orthopristis chrysoptera smaller fish, mainly at night. Southeast; Refuge

Gulf Coast

Pinfish Can feed directly on seagrass blades. Southeast; Food; Nursery;

Lagodon rhomboides Gulf Coast Refuge

Pink shrimp Shrimp production has been linked to amount Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Penaeus duorarum of wetland acres and amount of edge between Southeast; Refuge

wetlands and open water. Gulf Coast

Queen conch Feed on other invertebrates and directly on Southeast Food; Nursery

Strombos gigas seagrass blades.

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

37
Rainbow Smelt Small relative of trouts, rainbow smelt is often Northeast; Food; Nursery

Osmerus mordax caught by ice fishing. Southeast; Refuge

Greats Lakes

Red drum These commercial and recreational fish eat crabs Northeast; Food; Nursery

Sciaenops ocellatus and shrimp that use seagrass beds. Southeast; Refuge

Gulf Coast

Redfin parrotfish Feed on seagrass blades and animals that live on Southeast Food; Nursery

Sparisoma rubripinne the blades. Parrotfish are able to change sex.

Scup Eat small fish, crustaceans, and sometimes Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Stenotomus chrysops seagrass blades. Southeast Refuge;

Spawning

Sea bream Commonly found over mud bottoms in mangrove Southeast Food; Nursery;

Archosargus rhomboidalis sloughs and on vegetated sand bottoms. Feed on Refuge

small bivalves, crustaceans, and plant material.

Sheepshead Flat front teeth that protrude beyond the lips Southeast Food; Nursery;

Archosargus probatocephalus make these fish look like sheep. Refuge

Shiner perch Food; Nursery;

Cymatogaster aggregata Refuge

Silver perch Found in coastal waters over sandy and muddy Southeast Food; Nursery;

Bairdiella chrysoura bottoms. Moves to wetland nursery and feeding Refuge

areas in estuaries during summer.

Silverstripe halfbeak Related to the flying fish. Although they do not Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Hyporhamphus unifasciatus glide through the air, they feed on the surface. Southeast; Refuge

Pacific

Snook Staying close to shore, these sport fish eat Southeast; Nursery;

Centropomidae crustaceans and small fish. Gulf Coast Spawning

Spot Pan-sized drum, popular with bridge and pier anglers. Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Leiostomus xanthurus Southeast; Refuge

Gulf Coast

Spotfin mojarra Jaws extend into a short tube used to suck worms Gulf Coast Food; Nursery;

Eucinostomus argenteus and other invertebrates from the bottom. Refuge

Spotted seatrout Juveniles live in shallow, grassy areas including Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Cynoscion nebulosus seagrasses and salt marshes. Southeast; Refuge;

Gulf Coast Spawning

Striped mullet Live over shallow, muddy bottoms and eat by Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Mugil cephalus scooping mouthfuls of mud and digesting tiny Southeast; Refuge

plants as the mud passes through the gut. Pacific;

Gulf Coast

Striped seaperch Often living and feeding in coastal wetlands, perch Pacific Food; Nursery;

Embiotoca lateralis rear their young among aquatic vegetation. Refuge

Southern puffer Eat crustaceans and other fish and prefer protected Northeast; Food

Sphoeroides nephelus coastal waters. Southeast;

Gulf Coast

Southern stingray Burrow in sand during the day and forage in Southeast; Food

Dasyatis americana seagrass beds at night. Eat bivalves, worms, crabs, Gulf Coast

shrimp, and small fish.

Summer flounder Juveniles and adults live in the creeks within salt Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Paralichthys dentatus marshes and seagrass beds. Southeast Refuge

Surf smelt Important food for larger sport fish. Young live Pacific; Alaska Food; Refuge

Hypomesus pretiosus offshore and adults move back inshore to feed

among seagrass beds.

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

38
Tarpon Prefer warm, shallow water. Can survive at low Southeast; Nursery

Megalops atlanticus oxygen levels. Feed at night on small fish Gulf Coast

crustaceans.

Tautog This sport fish has strong jaws and sturdy teeth Northeast; Food; Nursery

Tautoga to eat barnacles and mussels. Southeast Refuge;

Spawning

Topsmelt Common in bays, muddy and rocky areas, and Pacific; Alaska Food; Refuge

Atherinops affinis kelp beds. Adults feed on small animals suspended

in water.

Weakfish Juveniles live in shallow, grassy areas including Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Cynoscion regalis seagrasses and salt marshes. Southeast; Refuge

Gulf Coast

Winter flounder Usually spend winters burrowed in the mud and Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Pleuronectes americanus are more active in the spring and fall. Southeast Refuge

Fish Found in Salt Marshes

Alewife Adults live in saltwater and migrate to freshwater Northeast Nursery

Alosa pseudoharengus streams to spawn in wetlands and quiet waters.

Eat shrimp and small fish.

Arrow goby Feed mostly on invertebrates or algae. Females lay Pacific Nursery

Clevelandia ios eggs over vegetation and males fertilize and

guard eggs.

Atlantic croaker Visit salt marshes when weather is warm to eat Southeast Nursery

Micropogonias undulatus small shrimp, crabs, mollusks and worms.

Atlantic menhaden Support a large fishing industry and are used for Northeast; Nursery

Brevoortia tyrannus fish meal and oil. Southeast

Atlantic silverside Eat shrimp, squid, and marine worms. Eaten by Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Menidia menidia striped bass and trout. Southeast Refuge;

Spawning

Bay anchovy More commonly found in shallow tidal wetlands Northeast; Nursery

Anchoa mitchilli with muddy bottoms with salty to fresh water. Southeast;

Gulf Coast

Bay scallop Attach to salt marsh blades as juveniles before Southeast Nursery

Argopecten irradians settling on the bottom.

Blue crab Young crabs and molting adults depend on seagrass Southeast; Nursery; Refuge

Callinectes sapidus beds and coastal marshes for food and refuge from Gulf Coast

predators.

Bluefish Feed on smaller fish in eelgrass beds. Bluefish Northeast Spawning

Pomatomus saltatrix travel in schools and prefer warm water. Popular

sport fish.

Brown shrimp Shrimp production has been linked to amount of Southeast; Nursery; Refuge

Penaeus aztecus wetland and amount of edge between wetland and Gulf Coast

open water.

California mussel Should not be eaten if they are in polluted waters Northeast; Nursery

Mytilus californianus because filter feeders concentrate pollutants in their Southeast;

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

39
Coho salmon Born in freshwater, juveniles spend time in salt Pacific; Nursery; Refuge

Oncorhynchus kisutch marshes to adjust to saltwater before entering the Alaska

open ocean.

Chinook salmon Juveniles spend up to six months in salt marshes Pacific; Food; Nursery;

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha to feed and adjust to saltwater before entering Alaska Refuge

the ocean.

Daggerblade grass shrimp Are eaten by many marine sport and commercial fish. Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Palaemonetes pugio Southeast; Refuge

Gulf Coast

Diamond killifish Important prey for larger fish that live in salt Southeast; Food; Nursery

Adinia xenica marshes and mangroves. Gulf Coast Refuge

Dungeness crab Larvae hitchhike on jellyfish or ride tidal currents Pacific; Nursery

Cancer magister to get from spawning grounds to salt marshes and Alaska

seagrass beds, where they settle among vegetation

to grow to adulthood.

Eastern oyster Filter feeders with two hard shells for protection. Southeast Food; Nursery;

Crassostrea virginica Produce pearls when a grain of sand or tiny irritant Spawning

is lodged in the body because oysters coat the

irritant with layers of calcium carbonate.

Leopard shark Eat crabs, shrimp, other fish, and fish eggs. These Pacific Food

Triakis semifasciata commercial and sport fish are sold fresh and frozen.

Mummichog Live in saltwater marshes and tidal creeks. Northeast Food; Refuge

Fundulus heteroclitus Can breathe air when out of water.

Northern anchovy Eat small crustaceans and fish larvae and in turn are Pacific Food; Refuge

Engraulis mordax important food source for larger fish and birds.

Multi-million dollar commercial fishery developed

after the decline of Pacific sardine fishery in the

1940s.

Pacific herring Spawn in salt marsh vegetation. Fertilized eggs Pacific Nursery;

Clupea pallasi attach to marsh grasses, eelgrass, and algae. Spawning

Pacific staghorn sculpin Small, smooth, largeheaded fish that are very Pacific Nursery

Leptocottus armatus sensitive to pollution.

Pink shrimp Shrimp production has been linked to amount Southeast; Nursery; Refuge

Penaeus duorarum of wetland and amount of edge between wetland Gulf Coast

and open water.

Red drum Live in marshes during a few months in the Northeast; Nursery

Sciaenops ocellatus summer to take advantage of abundant food Southeast

and warmth.

Saltmarsh topminnow Important prey for larger fish. Loss of salt marsh Gulf Coast Food; Nursery;

Fundulus jenkinsi habitat may lead to future listing as endangered. Refuge;

Spawning

Sand seatrout Prefer shallow, grassy areas including seagrasses Southeast Nursery;

Cynoscion arenarius and salt marshes. Eat grass shrimp and small fish. Spawning

Silver perch Found in coastal waters over sandy and muddy Northeast; Nursery

Bairdiella chrysoura bottoms. Move to wetland nursery and feeding Southeast

areas in estuaries during summer.

Silverstripe halfbeak Feed on small fish and invertebrates in salt Northeast; Food

Hyporhamphus unifasciatus marshes during high tide. Southeast;

Pacific

Spot Juveniles often stay in the estuarine wetlands Northeast; Nursery

Leiostomus xanthurus throughout the year, eating worms, small crustaceans, Southeast

and organic detritus.

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

40
Spotfin mojarra Live in marshes during a few months in the Northeast; Nursery

Eucinostomus argenteus summer to take advantage of abundant food Southeast

and warmth.

Starry flounder Will change coloration to blend in with the bottom. Gulf Coast; Nursery

Platichthys stellatus Pacific

Striped bass Popular commercial and sport fish that live in Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Morone saxatilis coastal waters and bays, but may enter rivers in Southeast; Spawning

the spring to spawn. Gulf Coast;

Pacific

Striped killifish Important prey for larger sport fish. Northeast Food

Fundulus majali

Striped mullet Live over shallow, muddy bottoms. Scoop Southeast Nursery

Mugil cephalus mouthfuls of mud and digest tiny plants as the

mud passes through the gut.

Threespine stickleback Inhabit vegetated areas, usually over mud or sand. Northeast; Nursery

Gasterosteus aculeatus Eat worms, crustaceans, aquatic insects, drowned Southeast;

aerial insects, and small fish; has also been reported Pacific

to eat their own young.

Topsmelt Bottom grazing fish that can withstand high salinity. Pacific Nursery

Atherinops affinis

White perch Game fish that lives in brackish coastal waters. Northeast; Nursery

Morone americana Southeast

White shrimp Shrimp production has been linked to amount of Southeast; Nursery; Refuge

Penaeus sertiferus wetland and amount of edge between wetland and Gulf Coast

open water.

Winter flounder Also called halibut, flatfish and blackback. Northeast; Spawning

Pleuronectes americanus Usually spend winters burrowed in the mud. Southeast

Fish Found in Mangrove Wetlands

American eel Migrate from freshwater to the saltwater Sargasso Sea Southeast Food; Refuge

Anguilla rostrata to spawn. Juveniles return to grow up in freshwater

wetlands.

Atlantic stingray These small, tropical rays live in shallow coastal Southeast; Food

Dasyatis sabina waters and eat small crustaceans and invertebrates Gulf Coast

found in mangroves.

Common snook Staying close to shore, these sport fish eat Southeast Nursery

Centropomus undecimalis crustaceans and small fish.

Crabs Soil and roots provide detritus for food and habitat. Southeast Food; Refuge

Aratus spp., Callinectes spp Aratus is able to climb mangrove trees.

Dwarf herring Swims in schools. Important food for many larger Southeast Food; Refuge

Jenkinsia lamprotaenia fish and squids.

Dwarf seahorse Found in mangroves, seagrasses, and floating Southeast Food; Refuge

Hippocampus zosterae vegetation.

Eastern oyster Filter feeders with two hard shells for protection. Southeast Food;

Crassostrea virginica Oysters attach themselves to the bottom and Spawning

cannot move.

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

41
Goldspotted killifish Important food for larger fish. Some commercial uses. Southeast Food; Refuge

Floridichthys carpio

Gray Snapper Commercially and recreationally important fish. Southeast Food; Nursery

Lutjanus griseus Juveniles seek shelter in mangrove swamps and

seagrass beds.

Ladyfish Spawn in the open sea, but juveniles seek refuge Southeast Nursery

Elops saurus and food in mangroves.

Mangrove rivulus Live in salt marshes and mangroves, sometimes Southeast Food; Refuge

Rivulus marmoratus seek shelter in crab burrows. Can survive at low

oxygen levels. May be listed as endangered

in the future.

Mussels Wetland plants and detritus are food and habitat Southeast Food; Refuge

Brachiodontes spp. for these filter feeders.

Red drum These commercially and recreationally important Southeast Food; Nursery

Siaenops ocellatus bottom feeders eat crabs and shrimp.

Redear sardine Marketed fresh or canned. Southeast Food; Refuge

Harengula humeralis

Sailfin molly Live in ponds, lakes, sloughs, coastal waters, Northeast; Food; Refuge

Poecilia latipinna and quiet, vegetated backwaters of streams. Southeast

Eat mostly algae.

Sheepshead Flat front teeth protrude beyond the lips making these Southeast Food; Nursery

Archosargus probatocephalus fish look like sheep. Eat small fish and other

animals that eat wetland detritus.

Shrimp Important commercial and recreational fishery, Southeast; Food; Nursery;

Penaeus spp. especially in the Gulf Coast. Young shrimp migrate Gulf Coast Refuge

to estuarine wetlands and live on the bottom

where they find food and refuge from predators.

Silver jenny Prefer shallow waters, especially mangrove-lined Southeast Refuge

Eucinostomus gula lagoons or creeks. Marketed fresh.

Spotfin mojarra Jaws extend to form a short tube used to suck Southeast Food; Refuge

Eucinostomus argenteus worms and other invertebrates from the bottom.

Spotted seatrout These popular recreational and commercial Southeast Food; Nursery

Cynoscion nebulosus fish prefer shallow, vegetated areas.

Striped anchovy Commonly found in shallow tidal wetlands with Southeast; Food; Refuge

Anchoa hepsetus muddy bottoms with salty to fresh water. Gulf Coast

Tarpon Prefer warm shallow waters and can survive at Southeast Nursery

Megalops atlanticus. low oxygen levels. Feed at night on small

fish and crustaceans.

Fish Found in Tidal Freshwater Marshes

Alligator gar Use swim bladders to gulp surface air when oxygen Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Lepisosteus spatula in water is low. Can live in drying pools and Southeast Spawning

out of water, if moist, for 24 hours. Spawn in

shallows among wetland plants.

American eel Migrate from freshwater to the saltwater Sargasso Sea Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Anguilla rostrata to spawn. Adults die after spawning, and juveniles Southeast Refuge

return to grow up in freshwater wetlands.

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

42
Atlantic croaker Frequent shallow water wetlands when weather is Northeast; Nursery

Micropogonias undulatus warm. Eat small shrimp, crabs, mollusks, and worms. Southeast;

Gulf Coast

Atlantic menhaden Support a large fishing industry and are used Northeast; Nursery

Brevoortia tyrannus for fish meal and oil. Southeast

Banded killifish Bait for sport fishing; food for larger commercial Southeast Food;

Fundulus diaphanus or sport fish and wading birds. Spawning

Bay anchovy Marshes provide food for juveniles and adults in Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Anchoa mitchilli the spring, refuge for adults in winter, and a Southeast; Refuge

nursery in summer. Gulf Coast

Black crappie Males build nests in shallow marshes. Southeast; Food; Nursery

Pomoxis nigromaculatus Great Lakes

Pacific

Black drum Juveniles use estuarine wetlands. Eat crustaceans, Northeast; Nursery

Pogonias cromis mollusks, and fish. Southeast

Blueback herring Return to the streams where they were hatched to Northeast; Nursery

Alosa aestivalis spawn. Juveniles stay in wetland nurseries until Southeast

the fall, when they move out to sea.

Bluegill Live in shallow water marshes. Males create nests Southeast; Food; Nursery

Lepomis macrochirus for eggs and protect eggs until they hatch. Great Lakes

Bowfin Prefer dense vegetation and clear water within Northeast; Food; Nursery

Amia calva marshes, swamps, and sluggish creeks. Build nests Southeast

in wetland vegetation.

Brown shrimp Important commercial and recreational fishery, Northeast; Nursery

Penaeus aztecus especially in the Gulf Coast. Young shrimp migrate Southeast;

to estuarine wetlands and live on the bottom Gulf Coast

where they find food and refuge.

Chain pickerel Hide among aquatic plants and logs and wait Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Esox niger for prey to approach. Eggs are scattered in Southeast; Spawning

wetland plants. Gulf Coast

Channel catfish Often served in supermarkets and restaurants. Great Lakes Food

Ictalurus punctatus Locate plant seeds, insects, crawfish, fish, and

other prey on the bottom through smell and touch.

Common snook Staying close to shore, these sport fish eat Gulf Coast Nursery

Centropomus undecimalis crustaceans and small fish.

Eastern mosquitofish Originally from the southeast United States, these Throughout U.S. Food; Nursery;

Gambusia holbrooki eat mosquitos. Can survive in stagnant waters Refuge;

that mosquitos prefer. Also eat the young Spawning

of native fish.

Eastern silvery minnow Lay eggs over vegetation in quiet backwaters about Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Hybognathus regius six inches deep. Southeast Refuge;

Spawning

Hogchoker Important food for larger fish. Northeast; Nursery; Refuge

Trinectes maculatus Southeast

Largemouth bass Popular sport fish. Males create nests and guard Southeast; Food; Nursery

Micropterus salmoides eggs. Adults eat other fish, frogs, ducklings, Great Lakes

and small mammals.

Mummichog Bait for sport fishing and food for larger fish Northeast; Food;

Fundulus heteroclitus and wading birds. Southeast Spawning

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

43
Pacific lamprey Migrate from open ocean to freshwater tidal Pacific Spawning

Lampetra tridentata marshes and pools to spawn. Parasitic adults

attach to other fish or whales to draw blood

and other fluids for food.

Pacific salmon Juveniles seek refuge in tidal freshwater marshes Pacific; Nursery;

Oncorhynchus spp. before travelling to the open ocean as adults. Alaska Refuge

Pink shrimp Important commercial and recreational fishery, Northeast: Nursery

Penaeus duorarum especially in the Gulf Coast. Young shrimp migrate Southeast; Gulf Coast

to estuarine wetlands and live on the bottom

where they find food and refuge.

Silver perch Use marshes as nursery and feeding areas in Southeast Nursery

Bairdiella chrysoura estuaries during summer. Eat crustaceans,

worms and fish.

Spot Pan-sized drum that are popular with bridge Northeast; Nursery

Leiostomus xanthurus and pier anglers. Southeast;

Gulf Coast

Spottail shiner Often sold as bait fish, many shiners prefer slow, Northeast: Food; Nursery;

Notropis hudsonius vegetated waters of ponds, swamps, and marshes. Southeast Refuge;

Spawning

Spotted seatrout These popular recreational and commercial fish Southeast Nursery

Cynoscion nebulosus prefer shallow, grassy areas including

freshwater marshes.

Striped bass Spend their whole lives in the estuary, but migrate Northeast; Food; Nursery

Morone saxatilis to freshwater to spawn. Recent declines have led Southeast;

to restrictions on commercial and recreational fishing. Gulf Coast;

Was successfully introduced into the western U.S. Pacific

Sturgeon Eggs are prized as caviar. Sturgeon are migratory Northeast; Nursery;

Acipenser spp. and are among the largest freshwater fish. Southeast; Spawning

White sturgeon on the West Coast can be as long Pacific

 as 4 meters.

Summer flounder Sold fresh and frozen. Exported fresh to Japan Northeast; Nursery

Paralichthys dentatus for sashimi. Southeast

Tarpon Prefer warm, shallow waters and can survive at Gulf Coast Nursery

Megalops atlanticus low oxygen levels. Feed at night on small

fish and crustaceans.

Warmouth Popular sport fish. Eat other fish, crawfish and insects. Southeast; Food; Nursery

Lepomis gulosus Males built nests and guard eggs until they hatch. Great Lakes

Prefer thick aquatic vegetation.

White shrimp Important commercial and recreational fishery, Northeast; Nursery

Penaeus sertiferus especially in the Gulf Coast. Young shrimp migrate Southeast;

to estuarine wetlands and live on the bottom Gulf Coast

where they find food and refuge.

Fish Found in Non-tidal Freshwater Marsh

Black bullhead Commercial and game fish that live in ponds, Great Lakes Food

Ameiurus melas marshes, and backwaters. Eat insects and - Big Rivers

crustaceans when young. Adults eat clams, snails,

plant material and fish.

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

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Black crappie Build nests in shallow wetlands near vegetation. Northeast; Food; Nursery

Pomoxis nigromaculatus Females can lay up to 188,000 eggs. Southeast;

Great Lakes

Bluegill Live in shallow water marshes and fens among Northeast; Food;

Lepomis macrochirus wetland plants. Males create nests for eggs and Southeast; Nursery

protect eggs until they hatch.

Brook silverside Leap to catch food, avoid predators and in spawning Great Lakes - Spawning

Labidesthes sicculus rituals. Eggs are fertilized within the female’s body, Gulf Coast

then released onto vegetation.

Brook Trout Popular sport fish that prefer small streams, ponds, Northeast Food

Salvelinus fontinalis and fens.

Brown bullhead Found in marshy areas of slow moving creeks, Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Ameiurus nebulosus lakes, and ponds. Pairs prepare nests under Southeast; Spawning

the cover of vegetation. Great Lakes

Brown Trout Lives in small creeks, rivers, lakes, and fens. Northeast; Food

Salmo trutt

Channel catfish Often the catfish found at supermarkets and Throughout U.S. Food

Ictalurus punctatus restaurants. Locates plant seeds, insects, crawfish,

fish, and other prey through smell and touch.

Common carp Undesirable nuisance species whose introduction into Throughout U.S. Food; Nursery;

Cyprinus carpio this country from Asia was an ecological and Spawning

commercial blunder. While searching for food,

carp rip up aquatic vegetation and muddy the water,

making conditions less desirable for native fish.

Herrings Return to the streams where they were hatched Northeast; Nursery

Clupeidae to spawn. Juveniles stay in wetland nurseries until Southeast;

the fall, when they move out to sea. Great Lakes

Killifish Found in fens and other wetland habitats, these Throughout U.S. Food; Refuge

Cyprinodontidae important bait fish are food for larger fish.

Largemouth bass Males create nests and guard eggs. Adults eat other Northeast; Food; Nursery

Micropterus salmoides fish, frogs, ducklings, and small mammals. Southeast;

Great Lakes

Minnows Minnows are important food to larger fish. Used Great Lakes Food; Refuge

Cyprinidae by anglers as bait and in laboratory bioassays to

test pollution levels of industrial discharge.

Muskellunge Often found in heavily vegetated areas of lakes Throughout U.S. Food;

Esox masquinongy and large rivers. Scatter eggs near aquatic vegetation. Spawning

Northern Pike Spawn in shallow, vegetated areas where they are Throughout U.S. Food;

Esox lucius most vulnerable to being caught. Spawning

Pumpkinseed Thrive in farm ponds and within marsh plants along Great Lakes Food; Nursery;

Lepomis gibbosus the edges of larger ponds and lakes. Breed in shallow Spawning

water and eat insects, snails, clams, and small fish.

Smallmouth bass These popular sport fish can be found in fens and Throughout U.S. Food

Micropterus dolomieu other non-tidal freshwater marshes.

Spotted gar Rare fish that live in quiet, clear pools, marshes, and Great Lakes Food; Nursery;

Lepisosteus oculatus backwaters. Eat a variety of fish and crustaceans. Gulf Coast Spawning

Walleye Very sensitive to pollution. Visit marshes during Northeast; Food

Stizostedion vitreum cooler parts of the year and at night to feed, but Great Lakes

move to deeper water when warm.

White bass Can be found in shallow and deep portions of lakes. Great Lakes Food;

Morone chrysops Broadcast eggs in shallow water. Important Gulf Coast Spawning

commercial and sport fish.

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White crappie Prefer aquatic vegetation and woody debris for cover. Great Lakes Food;

Pomoxis annularis Eat small fish, insects, and crustaceans. Spawning

Yellow bullhead Eat plant matter, crayfish, aquatic insects, mollusks, Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Ameiurus natalis and fish. Males and females make nests in wetland Southeast; Spawning

plants. Great Lakes

Yellow perch Tolerant of acidic water. Eggs produced in long, Northeast; Food;

Perca flavescens sticky strings that stick to marsh plants or settle Southeast; Spawning

to the bottom. Great Lakes

Fish Found in Forested Wetlands

Alewife Commercially important fish that migrate up Northeast; Spawning

Alosa pseudoharengus rivers and small streams to spawn in quiet streamside Great Lakes

forests and other wetlands.

American eel Migrates thousands of miles from freshwater to Eastern Food

Anguilla rostrata the deep, saltwater Sargasso Sea to spawn. Region

Atlantic needlefish Eat small fish and take advantage of food sources Northeast; Food

Strongylura marina on forested floodplains. Southeast;

Gulf Coast

Black crappie Build nests near vegetation in pocosins and other Northeast; Nursery;

Pomoxis nigromaculatus wetlands. Males build nests and guard eggs. Southeast; Spawning

Great Lakes

Bluegill Live in shallow water marshes among wetland plants Northeast;. Nursery;

Lepomis macrochirus Males create nests for eggs and protect them Southeast; Spawning

until they hatch. Great Lakes

Bowfin Males prepare nests among swamp plants, tearing Eastern U.S. Nursery;

Amia calva out vegetation and making a trench among roots. Spawning

Fry attach to vegetation for a week with an adhesive

organ on the snout.

Chain pickerel Prefer cover of aquatic plants and debris, especially Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Esox niger in stream-side swamps. Lie in wait for prey in Southeast; Spawning

vegetation. Spawn over vegetation and are Gulf Coast

well-adapted to the acidic water of pocosins.

Channel catfish Bottom feeders that use long whiskers on their Throughout U.S. Nursery;

Lctalurus punctatus snouts for finding prey and recognizing mates. Spawning

Chinook salmon Young salmon grow stronger on abundant food Pacific; Alaska Nursery

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha resources in protected floodplain wetlands.

Some species seek refuge in backwaters from fast water

of winter floods.

Crawfish In floodplains of streams, crawfish burrow into the Southeast; Nursery;

Procambarus spp. mud to reach subsurface water. They emerge during Gulf Coast Spawning

floods to take advantage of abundant food resources.

Darters Live in clear, swift-moving rivers and may use Northeast; Nursery;

Etheostoma spp. forested river-side wetlands for spawning and Southeast; Spawning

nursery areas. Gulf Coast

Eastern mosquitofish Introduced throughout the country to eat mosquitos. Throughout U.S. Nursery;

Gambusia holbrooki Survives in stagnant waters that mosquitos prefer. Spawning

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use

46
Eastern mudminnow Live in quiet streams, sloughs, swamps, and other Northeast; Food; Nursery;

Umbra pygmaea wetlands. Found most often among dense vegetation. Southeast Refuge

Eat insect larvae and worms.

Flier Prefer warm waters with plants, such as swamps Southeast; Nursery;

Centrarchus macropterus and pocosins. Males build nests and guard the eggs. Gulf Coast Spawning

Eat insects and crustaceans.

Freshwater drum These sport fish feed on insects, crayfish and fish. Great Lakes Nursery;

Aplodinotus grunniens Feed in wetlands at night. Males make drumming Gulf Coast Spawning

sounds during reproduction.

Gars Air bladder can be used to breathe oxygen from Southeast; Nursery;

Lepisosteus spp. the air. This allows gars to take advantage of food Gulf Coast Spawning

and protection from predators in stagnant backwaters

with low oxygen levels.

Gizzard shad Young shad are important food for game fish, but Northeast; Nursery;

Dorosoma cepedianum as they grow they compete with these fish for space, Southeast Spawning

and can become a nuisance.

Hickory shad Adults return to the streams where they were Southeast; Nursery;

Alosa mediocris hatched to spawn. Juveniles stay in wetland Great Lakes Spawning

nurseries until the fall, when they move out to sea.

Killifish Important bait fish and food for larger fish, killifish Southeast; Food; Nursery;

Cyprinodontidae can withstand wide fluctuations in temperature Gulf Coast Refuge;

and oxygen. Also are useful for mosquito control. Spawning

Lake chubsucker Spawn over vegetation. Young travel in schools with Southeast Food;

Erimyzon sucetta juvenile largemouth bass and other fish. Spawning

Largemouth bass Popular sport fish. Males create nests and guard eggs. Throughout U.S. Nursery;

Micropterus salmoides Adults eat other fish, frogs, ducklings and small Spawning

mammals.

Paddlefish Strain small organisms out of the water. Great Lakes Nursery

Polyodon spathula Commercially important, particularly the Gulf Coast

 eggs which are used for caviar.

Pirate perch Prefersswamps, backwaters, creeks, and other areas Southeast; Food; Nursery;

Aphredoderus sayanus with slow water, soft bottoms, and aquatic vegetation. Gulf Coast; Refuge;

Hide in vegetation during the day and emerge at Great Lakes Spawning

night to feed on insects and crustaceans. Can survive

low oxygen.

Redfin pickerel Prefer backwater ponds, pocosins, and flooded Southeast Food; Nursery;

Esox americanus americanus swamps. Eats small fish, frogs and invertebrates. Spawning

Use wetland vegetation to lie in wait for prey

and to lay eggs.

Shovelnose sturgeon Live in bottom of stream channels and in pools and Great Lakes; Food; Nursery

Scaphirhynchus platorynchus backwater wetlands of large, slow-moving rivers. Southwest

Are endangered.

Suckers Suckers are specialized to suck and scrape algae, Gulf Coast Nursery;

Catostomidae invertebrates, and detritus from the bottom. Spawning

Warmouth Popular sport fish. Males built nests and guard eggs Southeast; Nursery;

Lepmois gulosus until they hatch. Prefer thick aquatic vegetation in Gulf Coast Spawning

slow streams, ponds, lakes and pocosins.

White bass Spawn by broadcasting eggs in shallow water that Great Lakes; Nursery;

Morone chrysops settle on the bottom. Important commercial and Gulf Coast Spawning

Yellow bass Game fish that live in ponds, lakes and backwaters Great Lakes; Nursery;

Morone mississippiensis of small to large rivers. Southeast; Spawning

Southwest

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47
48

Yellow bullhead Eat plant matter, crayfish, aquatic insects, mullusks, Southeast; Nursery;

Ameiruss natalis and fish. Make nest among plants, logs or roots. Gulf Coast Spawning

Yellow perch Tolerant of acidic waters and found in pocosins. Southeast Food; Nursery;

Perca flavescens Lay eggs in aquatic vegetation and eat small fish, Refuge;

inscets, crayfish and other inverebrates living in Spawning

forested wetlands.

Fish Species Interesting Facts Regions Use