Literature Review of Measured TCE Concentrations in Indoor Air

(Version 1, November 12, 2013)

Introduction

On October 28, 2013, EPA requested Versar to conduct a literature review of reported indoor air 

concentrations of TCE. This effort focused on TCE's use as a degreaser by consumers in residential 

settings and as a clear protective coating spray by arts and crafts hobbyists. Additionally, literature 

search efforts were focused only on inhalation exposure pathways. 

Methodology

Versar’s literature search efforts relied primarily on Google & Google Scholar, using word 

combinations such as TCE with residential, air, indoor air, concentration, exposure, inhalation, and 

consumer product. Moreover, special emphasis was given to summary review documents that 

compiled findings from multiple peer-reviewed sources.

Results

[Lit. Search Summary Matrix] - Qualitative Summary

A total of 37 articles were identified and reviewed for this effort. A 'Qualitative' summary of the 

literature review efforts are provided in [Lit. Search Summary Matrix]. This matrix table lists 

(vertically) all the articles that were reviewed and it also lists (horizontally) the media and exposure 

routes of TCE. 'Check marks' indicate the type of data available for TCE for each article reviewed. 

Finally, a 'Notes' column provides some additional details for each article reviewed.

[Indoor Air Stats & QC] - Quantitative Summary

A 'Quantitative' summary of the reported TCE concentrations are provided for each article in 

[Indoor Air Stats & QC]. This matrix table lists (vertically) all the articles that were reviewed and 

lists (horizontally) the descriptive statistics, and analytical data summary for TCE concentrations. 

Numerical estimates (if available) are summarized for each article in this matrix table. Finally, a 

brief description of the sampling methodology along with QA/QC procedures are provided for each 

article.

Article Summaries

The individual article review sheets are on the number tabs with each number indexed to the 

number in the “Sheet Name” column on the summary sheets (Column A). Each individual article 

review sheet is organized into approximately three major areas, as follows:

 1. Overview Area – this is the information in rows 1 – 6 on each review sheet

 2. Data Categories – this is the data contained in rows 7 – 31

 3. IA/PA data – this is the data starting in row 32 

Overview Area

The overview area contains a summary of the article reviewed, including:

 • The electronic filename, 

 • The title and authors,

 • The abstract, and

 • The citation.
Data Categories

The data categories contains the data displayed on each of the summary sheets. The summary 

checkmarks in [Lit. Search Summary] are tabulated in Column A between rows 8 and 25, with 

“x”s representing data availability in the respective article. The data included in [Indoor Air 

Stats & QC] that are summarized in the table on each individual review sheet (columns A-F, 

rows 8-25), also based on the data found in the article during our review. The "Notes" column 

in [Lit. Search Summary Matrix] contains a one or two sentence description of the purpose of 

the study described in and/or the type of data presented in the article. The methods area (cell 

C29, summarized in column U in the “Indoor Air Stats & QC” matrix table) contains a very 

brief summary of the methods used in the study and/or data presented in the article.

IA/PA Data Summary

The area of each review spreadsheet contains notes and/or data taken from the article relative 

to indoor air (IA) or personal air (PA). The data in this area are primarily used to summarize 

the statistics and methods reported on the “Indoor Air Stats & QC” matrix table.
Sheet Name

Authors & Date 

(PDF file name) TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor airTCE personal airTCE in soilTCE in water supplyTCE in ground water supplyTCE in surface water supplyTCE in breathTCE in bloodTCE in urineConsumer productVapor intrusionInhalation exposureDermal exposureIngestion exposureAir modelingPBPK modelingLit review / summary

Notes

1 Adgate etal 2004a.pdf    

SHIELD study elementary school children Minneapolis, MN TCE 

measurements in school air

2 Adgate etal 2004b.pdf  

Minnesota Children’s Pesticide Exposure Study; 6-day average VOC 

concentrations in residential air, Table 4

3 Clayton et al 1999.pdf       Summary/Analysis of NHEXAS data

4 Kinney et al 2002.pdf   

TEACH (Toxic Exposure Assessment, a Columbia/Harvard) Study, innercity neighborhoods in NYC 

5 Lindstrom & Pleil 1996.pdf   

2-day study of residential microenvironmental TCE concentrations in 

Illinios due to groundwater contamination

6 Wu & Schaum 2000.pdf      

General population TCE exposure assessment with some reported 

media concentrations

7 Gordon et al., 1999.pdf    Summary of sampling methods and analysis of NHEXAS data

8 Weisel et al., 2008.pdf 

Indoor VOC concentrations (TCE) in NJ homes. Comparison with values 

measured in other studies

9 EPA 2001a.PDF         Summary of exposure/media data. Exposure assessment

10 Fitzpatrick & Fitzgerald 2002.pdf 

Study of relationshp between TCE concentrations in GW and SVI as 

influenced by building construction, soil types, depth to GW, etc.

11 Yauck etal 2004.pdf This paper examines increased cogenital heart defects due to TCE 

exposure. This paper does not contain useful concentration data.

12 EPA 1993.pdf  TCE ground water concentrations at Superfund sites.

13 Loh etal 2006.pdf Contains non-residential measured data

14 Yu etal 2009.pdf  

Model evaluation for SVI, model predictions for indoor air based on 

conceptual scenarios

15 EPA 2000.pdf   No useful indoor air concentration data

16 Zhu etal 2005.pdf  

VOCs levels measured in indoor and outdoor air at 75 randomly 

selected houses, Ottawa Canada, winter of 2002/2003. 

17 Hers etal 2001.pdf  

Summary of SVI mechanisms and relevant parameters, including 

emissions, building characteristics. 

18 Martin & Imbrigiotta 1994.pdf 

Summary of ground water plume at the Picatinny Arsenal, NJ. No 

useful indoor air concentration data.

19 Xu and Weisel 2005.pdf   Did not study TCE

20 Wormuth etal 2007.pdf    

Review of European exposure assessment practices, legislation, and 

case studies

21 Chiu etal 2006.pdf Discussion of scientific issues related to TCE risk assessment

22 Scott and Chiu 2006.pdf Epidemiology study

23 Sohn, McKone, Blancato 2004.pdf   PBPK modeling study; dose reconstruction

24 Daniels etal 2000.pdf     Uncertainties associated with modeling TCE expsoure

25 Kerger at al., 2000.pdf  No new TCE data

26 McKone & Knezovich 1991.pdf 

Experimental TCE transfer efficiency measurements. No 

residential/indoor air measurements.

27 ATSDR 1997.pdf          

Literature review of data for use in assessing exposure to TCE. No 

original data.

28 ATSDR 2013.pdf          

Literature review of data for use in assessing exposure to TCE. No 

original data.

29 EPA 2011a.pdf                   TCE Literature review of data in support of IRIS. No original data.

30 CARB 1990.pdf     

Lit. review for use by CA Dept of Health Services in its determina-tion of 

whether TCE should be identified as toxic air contaminant.

31 EPA 2011b.pdf   *** Very nice summary of indoor air measurement literature ***

32 EPA 2012.pdf      TCE TSCA Risk Assessment for degreaser and Arts/Crafts Uses.

33 EPA 2001b.PDF  Simulated TCE Exposure scenarios

34 Cronin etal 1996  TCE PBPK modeling study

35 Shah & Singh, 1988  Database of VOC measurements.

36 McHugh etal, 2004  

Analysis of the correlation between ground water and indoor air 

concentrations, estimated attenuation factors

37 Jia etal 2008 VOC sampling study conducted in Southeast Michigan in 1999

* A = Highly relevant; B = Moderately relevant; C = Marginally relevant

1 Adgate, J. L., T. R. Church, A. D. Ryan, G. Ramachandran, A. L. Fredrickson, T. H. Stock, M. T. Morandi, and K. Sexton. 2004. Outdoor, Indoor, and Personal Exposure to Vocs in Children. Environ Health Perspect, 112(14), 1386-1392.

2 Adgate, J. L., L. E. Eberly, C. Stroebel, E. D. Pellizzari, and K. Sexton. 2004. Personal, Indoor, and Outdoor Voc Exposures in a Probability Sample of Children. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol, 14(S1), S4-S13.

3 Clayton, C. A., E. D. Pellizzari, R. W. Whitmore, R. L. Perritt, and J. J. Quackenboss. 1999. National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS): Distributions and Associations of Lead, Arsenic, and Volatile Organic Compounds in EPA Region 5. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol, 9(5), 381-392.

4 Kinney, P. L., S. N. Chillrud, S. Ramstrom, J. Ross, and J. D. Spengler. 2002. Exposures to Multiple Air Toxics in New York City. Environ Health Perspect, 110 Suppl 4, 539-546.

5 Lindstrom, A. B., and J. D. Pleil. 1996. A Methodological Approach for Exposure Assessment Studies in Residences Using Volatile Organic-Compound-Contaminated Water. J Air Waste Manage Assoc, 46(11), 1058-1066.

6 Wu, C., and J. Schaum. 2000. Exposure Assessment of Trichloroethylene. Environ Health Perspect, 108 Suppl 2, 359-363.

7 Gordon, S. M., P. J. Callahan, M. G. Nishioka, M. C. Brinkman, M. K. O'Rourke, M. D. Lebowitz, and D. J. Moschandreas. 1999. Residential Environmental Measurements in the National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS) Pilot Study in Arizona: Preliminary Results for Pesticides and Vocs. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol, 9(5), 456-470.

8 Weisel, C. P., S. Alimokhtari, and P. F. Sanders. 2008. Indoor Air Voc Concentrations in Suburban and Rural New Jersey. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(22), 8231-8238.

9 EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2001a. Trichloroethylene Health Risk Assessment: Synthesis and Characterization. EPA/600/P-01/002A. Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC.

10 Fitzpatrick, N. A., and J. J. Fitzgerald. 2002. An Evaluation of Vapor Intrusion into Buildings through a Study of Field Data. Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal, 11(4), 603-623.

11 Yauck, J. S., M. E. Malloy, K. Blair, P. M. Simpson, and D. G. McCarver. 2004. Proximity of Residence to Trichloroethylene-Emitting Sites and Increased Risk of Offspring Congenital Heart Defects among Older Women. Birth Defects Research Part A: Clinical and Molecular Teratology, 70(10), 808-814.

12 EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1993. Evaluation of the Likelihood of Dnapl Presence at Npl Sites. EPA/540R-93-073. Hazardous Site Control Division, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington, DC. http://www.epa.gov/superfund/policy/remedy/pdfs/540r-93073-s.pdf.

13 Loh, M. M., E. A. Houseman, G. M. Gray, J. I. Levy, J. D. Spengler, and D. H. Bennett. 2006. Measured Concentrations of Vocs in Several Non-Residential Microenvironments in the United States. Environmental Science & Technology, 40(22), 6903-6911.

14 Yu, S., A. J. A. Unger, and B. Parker. 2009. Simulating the Fate and Transport of TCE from Groundwater to Indoor Air. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 107(3-4), 140-161.

15 EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2000. National Air Toxics Program: The Integrated Urban Strategy, Report to Congress. EPA-453/R-99-007. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC. http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/urban/natprpt.pdf.

16 Zhu, J., R. Newhook, L. Marro, and C. C. Chan. 2005. Selected Volatile Organic Compounds in Residential Air in the City of Ottawa, Canada. Environmental Science & Technology, 39(11), 3964-3971.

Bibliography
Sheet Name

Authors & Date 

(PDF file name) TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor airTCE personal airTCE in soilTCE in water supplyTCE in ground water supplyTCE in surface water supplyTCE in breathTCE in bloodTCE in urineConsumer productVapor intrusionInhalation exposureDermal exposureIngestion exposureAir modelingPBPK modelingLit review / summary

Notes

17 Hers, I., R. Zapf-Gilje, L. Li, and J. Atwater. 2001. The Use of Indoor Air Measurements to Evaluate Intrusion of Subsurface Voc Vapors into Buildings. J Air Waste Manage Assoc, 51(9), 1318-1331.

18 Martin, M., and T. E. Imbrogiotta. 1994. Case Study on the Contamination of Ground Water with Trichloroethylene at the Building 24 Site at Picatinny Aresenal, New Jersey. In Symposium on Natural Attenuation of Ground Water (EPA/600/R-94/162) (pp. 109-115). Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/300038JE.pdf.

19 Xu, X., and C. P. Weisel. 2005. Human Respiratory Uptake of Chloroform and Haloketones During Showering. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol, 15(1), 6-16.

20 Wormuth, M., E. Demou, M. Scheringer, and K. Hungerbühler. 2007. Assessments of Direct Human Exposure-the Approach of Eu Risk Assessments Compared to Scenario-Based Risk Assessment. Risk Analysis, 27(4), 979-990.

21 Chiu, W. A., J. C. Caldwell, N. Keshava, and C. S. Scott. 2006. Key Scientific Issues in the Health Risk Assessment of Trichloroethylene. Environ Health Perspect, 114(9), 1445-1449.

22 Scott, C. S., and W. A. Chiu. 2006. Trichloroethylene Cancer Epidemiology: A Consideration of Select Issues. Environ Health Perspect, 114(9), 1471-1478.

23 Sohn, M. D., T. E. McKone, and J. N. Blancato. 2004. Reconstructing Population Exposures from Dose Biomarkers: Inhalation of Trichloroethylene (TCE) as a Case Study. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol, 14(3), 204-213.

24 Daniels, J. I., K. T. Bogen, and L. C. Hall. 2000. Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in Exposure to Characterize Risk: Case Study Involving Trichloroethylene Groundwater Contamination at Beale Air Force Base in California. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 123(1-4), 273-298.

25 Kerger, B. D., C. E. Schmidt, and D. J. Paustenbach. 2000. Assessment of Airborne Exposure to Trihalomethanes from Tap Water in Residential Showers and Baths. Risk Analysis, 20(5), 637-652.

26 McKone, T. E., and J. P. Knezovich. 1991. The Transfer of Trichloroethyene (TCE) from a Shower to Indoor Air: Experimental Measurements and Their Implications. J Air Waste Manage Assoc, 41(6), 832-837.

27 ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 1997. Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene. Division of Toxicology, Toxicology Information Branch, Atlanta, GA. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp19.pdf.

28 ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 2013. Addendum to the Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene. Division of Toxicology and Human Health Sciences, Atlanta, GA. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tce_addendum.pdf.

29 EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2011b. Toxicological Review of Trichloroethylene (Cas No. 79-01-6). EPA/635/R-09/011F. Integrated Risk Information System, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC. http://www.epa.gov/iris/supdocs/0199index.html.

30 CARB (California Air Resources Board). 1990. Technical Support Document; Proposed Identification of Trichloroethylene as a Toxic Air Contaminant. Part A: Exposure Assessment. Stationary Source Division, Sacramento, CA.

31 EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2011b. Background Indoor Air Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds in North American Residences (1990-2005): A Compilation of Statistics for Assessing Vapor Intrusion. EPA 530-R-10-001. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington, DC. http://www.epa.gov/oswer/vaporintrusion/documents/oswer-vapor-intrusion-background-Report-062411.pdf.

32 EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2012. Draft TSCA Workplan Chemical Risk Assessment for Trichloroethylene : Degreaser and Arts/Crafts Uses. Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, Washington, DC. http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/TSCA_Workplan_Chemical_Risk_Assessment_of_DCM.pdf.

33 EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2001b. Sources, Emission and Exposure for Trichloroethylene (TCE) and Related Chemicals. EPA/600/R-00/099 National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC.

34 Cronin, W. J., E. J. Oswald, M. L. Shelley, J. W. Fisher, and C. D. Flemming. 1995. A Trichloroethylene Risk Assessment Using a Monte Carlo Analysis of Parameter Uncertainty in Conjunction with Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling. Risk Analysis, 15(5), 555-565.

35 Shah, J. J., and H. B. Singh. 1988. Distribution of Volatile Organic Chemicals in Outdoor and Indoor Air: A National Vocs Data Base. Environmental Science & Technology, 22(12), 1381-1388.

36 McHugh, T. E., J. A. Connor, and F. Ahmad. 2004. An Empirical Analysis of the Groundwater-to-Indoor-Air Exposure Pathway: The Role of Background Concentrations in Indoor Air. Environmental Forensics, 5(1), 33-44.

37 Jia, C., S. Batterman, and C. Godwin. 2008. Vocs in Industrial, Urban and Suburban Neighborhoods, Part 1: Indoor and Outdoor Concentrations, Variation, and Risk Drivers. Atmospheric Environment, 42(9), 2083-2100.
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Authors & Date 

(PDF file name) Number of measurements

Minimum detection limit (MDL)Percent above MDLArithmetic meanArithmetic std. dev.Geometric meanGeometric std. dev.Minimum25th percentile50th percentile75th percentileMaximumBlanksSpikesDuplicates

Methods 

(including QA/QC)

1

Adgate etal 2004a.pdf, 

Winter Study 93 82.8 0.3 10%

Passive monitors (OVM Model 3520) analyzed by gas 

chromatograph/mass spectrometer

1

Adgate etal 2004a.pdf, 

Spring Study 101 0.2 89 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.7 1.1 Yes Yes

Passive monitors (OVM Model 3520) analyzed by gas 

chromatograph/mass spectrometer

2

Adgate etal 2004b.pdf, 

Winter Study 284 0.2 94 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.4 Yes Yes Passive monitors (OVM Model 3520) analyzed by gas 

chromatograph/mass spectrometer

2

Adgate etal 2004b.pdf, 

Spring Study 101 0.2 89 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.7 1.1 Yes Yes Passive monitors (OVM Model 3520) analyzed by gas 

chromatograph/mass spectrometer

3 Clayton et al 1999.pdf 386 39.4 5.27 0.63

Analytical Methods not reported, see Pellizzari et al. (1995

4 Kinney et al 2002.pdf 36 0.15 1.26 3.59 0.15 Yes 10%

Personal samples, battery operated pump, VOC thermal desorption 

tube (multi-sorbent "Air toxics" tubes, TO-17)

4 Kinney et al 2002.pdf 38 0.15 0.32 0.52 0 Yes 10% Personal samples, battery operated pump, VOC thermal desorption 

tube (multi-sorbent "Air toxics" tubes, TO-17)

5 Lindstrom & Pleil 1996.pdf 2 0.91 100 21.8 16.6 37.4 Yes

TO-14 (modified)

6 Wu & Schaum 2000.pdf Review of ambient air data and modeling results, in support of TCE 

exposure assessments

7 Gordon et al., 1999.pdf 185 1.02 1 <1.8 <1.8 Yes Yes Yes

Analysis with GC/MS for the air, soil, and dust extracts (Model HP 

5971 GC/MS; Hewlett Packard)

8 Weisel et al., 2008.pdf 100 2.7/1.1 8 <1.1 <1.1 <2.7 <2.7 13 Yes Yes Yes

SUMMA Canisters with flow controller, TO-15

9 EPA 2001a.PDF

Outdoor air samples, SUMMA Canisters with flow controller, TO-15. 

No indoor air samples

10 Fitzpatrick & Fitzgerald 2002.pdf Reports 4 measured indoor concentrations due to SVI, none are 

residential

11 Yauck etal 2004.pdf This paper examines increased cogenital heart defects due to TCE 

exposure. This paper does not contain useful concentration data.

12 EPA 1993.pdf Summary of ground water concentrations (ranges) at 310 superfund 

sites. No useful air concentrations

13 Loh etal 2006.pdf Measured in non-residential microenvironments. No residential 

measurements.

14 Yu etal 2009.pdf Model evaluation for SVI. Conceptual model perditions for indoor 

concentrations, but no measurement data.

15 EPA 2000.pdf Summary of HAP emissions, efforts, studies, etc. No useful indoor air 

concentration data.

16 Zhu etal 2005.pdf 75 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.08 Yes Yes Yes

Thermal desorption tubes were used to collect samples. Analysis by 

GC/MS.

17 Hers etal 2001.pdf Summary of SVI mechanisms and relevant parameters, including 

emissions, building characteristics. No useful indoor air 

18 Martin & Imbrigiotta 1994.pdf Summary of ground water plume at the Picatinny Arsenal, NJ. No 

useful indoor air concentration data.

19 Xu and Weisel 2005.pdf Did not study TCE

20 Wormuth etal 2007.pdf No useful indoor air concentration data.
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Authors & Date 

(PDF file name) Number of measurements

Minimum detection limit (MDL)Percent above MDLArithmetic meanArithmetic std. dev.Geometric meanGeometric std. dev.Minimum25th percentile50th percentile75th percentileMaximumBlanksSpikesDuplicates

Methods 

(including QA/QC)

21 Chiu etal 2006.pdf No useful indoor air concentration data.

22 Scott and Chiu 2006.pdf No useful indoor air concentration data.

23 Sohn, McKone, Blancato 2004.pdf No useful indoor air concentration data.

24 Daniels etal 2000.pdf No useful indoor air concentration data.

25 Kerger at al., 2000.pdf Yes Yes Yes

No original TCE data (THM data). Air samples gathered in SUMMA 

canisters; analyzed per EPA Method TO-14

26 McKone & Knezovich 1991.pdf Paper summarizes the results of laboratory measurements of TCE 

transfer efficiency. No residential/indoor air measurements.

27 ATSDR 1997.pdf Report summarizes the literature data for use in assessing exposure 

to TCE. No original data.

28 ATSDR 2013.pdf Update to previous report; summarizes the literature data for use in 

assessing exposure to TCE. No original data.
Back to Summary

Back to Stats

Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

x

x

x

Notes

DATA CATEGORIES
Personal VOC Concs

Location

Sample Methods

Home Samples

pg 1387

pg 1387

MDL

School Samples

pg 1387

pg 1387

Outdoor

IA/PA Data Summary
Outdoor, Indoor, and Personal Exposure to VOCs in Children

John L. Adgate,1 Timothy R. Church,1 Andrew D. Ryan,1 Gurumurthy Ramachandran,1 Ann L. Fredrickson,1

Thomas H. Stock,2 Maria T. Morandi,2 and Ken Sexton3

We measured volatile organic compound (VOC) exposures in multiple locations for a diverse population of 

children who attended two inner-city schools in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Fifteen common VOCs were measured 

at four locations: outdoors (O), indoors at school (S), indoors at home (H), and in personal samples (P). 

Concentrations of most VOCs followed the general pattern O ≈ S < P ≤ H across the measured 

microenvironments. The S and O environments had the smallest and H the largest influence on personal 

exposure to most compounds. A time-weighted model of P exposure using all measured microenvironments and 

time–activity data provided little additional explanatory power beyond that provided by using the H 

measurement alone. Although H and P concentrations of most VOCs measured in this study were similar to or 

lower than levels measured in recent personal monitoring studies of adults and children in the United States, pdichlorobenzene was the notable exception to this pattern, with upper-bound exposures more than 100 times 

greater than those found in other studies of children. Median and upper-bound H and P exposures were well 

above health benchmarks for several compounds, so outdoor measurements likely underestimate long-term 

health risks from children’s exposure to these compounds. Key words: air pollution, elementary school children, 

ethnicity, health risk, race, SHIELD study. Environ Health Perspect 112:1386–1392 (2004). 

Environ Health Perspect 112:1386–1392 (2004). Available via http://dx.doi.org/ [Online 15 July 2004]

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

SHIELD study elementary school children Minneapolis, MN TCE measurements in school air

Adgate etal 2004a.pdf
Minnesota

Inner-city schools in Minneapolis

Passive monitors (OVM Model 3520). All extracts were analyzed by gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer with 

a Hewlett-Packard (HP) 5890 Series II Plus gas chromatograph with an HP 5972 mass spectrometer detector, HP 

18593B autosampler, Vectra 486 computer with EnvironQuant ChemStation software, and NBS75K Spectra 

Library (all from Hewlett Packard, Palo Alto, CA), using an RTX-1/60 m/0.25 μm inner diameter/1 mm film 

48 hours, Continuous (one sample)

OVM Model 3520, 3M Corp -- Charcoal-based passive diffusion monitors, 

https://www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/validated/1005/1005.html

http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en_US/3M-PPE-Safety-Solutions/Personal-Protective-Equipment/Products/Product

Not Reported

Same method as home

School days, passive monitor, uncapped at beginning of day, capped at end of school day, 

5 school days, appoximately 31 hours total

5 randomly selected classrooms

Same method as home

Outdoor air collected outdoors at school

Continuous, starting Monday Morning, ending Friday afternoon at each school (~103 hours)
Winter Study Spring Study

93 Number of measurments 88

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

82.8 Percent above MDL 73.7

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

0.3 50th percentile 0.2

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

10% Duplicates 10%

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary
Personal VOC Concs Figure 1

Individual VOCs Table 2

Results

p 1389, Table 2

% Detect 10th 50th 90th % Detect 10

Personal 90.3 0.1 0.3 0.8 72.7 0.1

Home 82.8 0.1 0.3 0.9 73.7 0.1

Outdoors 62.5 0 0.3 1 80 0.1

School 72.9 0.1 0.2 0.8 55.6 0

ment/Products/Product-Catalog/~/3M-Organic-Vapor-Monitor-3520-with-Backup-Section-5-Case?N=4294930398+5011378&Nr=AND(hrc

School

TCE, Spring, μg/m3 (N=88)

(Jan 24 - Feb 18, 2000) (Apr 9 - May 12, 2000)

Passive monitors (OVM Model 3520) analyzed by gas 

chromatograph/mass spectrometer

TCE, Winter, μg/m3 (N=93)

50 90

0.2 0.8

0.2 1.7

0.2 0.7

0.1 0.3

930398+5011378&Nr=AND(hrcy_id%3AGSDCL4N0KBgs_VQ7TVCV6T7_N2RL3FHWVK_GPD0K8BC31gv)&rt=d

CE, Spring, μg/m3 (N=88)

(Apr 9 - May 12, 2000)
Back to Summary

Back to Stats

Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES
Probable exposed population

Location

Samplling period: 6 day continuous sampl take between May and Sept 1997 

Indoor Sample deployed in room where family spent most of their time

Children between ages of 3 and 12

Personal sample child's day pack during the day and beside bed at night

Outdoor location not discussed

MDL

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
Personal, Indoor, and Outdoor VOC Exposures in a Probability Sample of Children

John l. Adgate, Lynn E. Eberly, Charles Stroebel, Edo D. Pellizzari and Ken Sexton

As part ofthe Minnesota Children’s Pesticide Exposure Study we measured volatile organic compound (VOC) 

concentrations in a probability sample of households with children. The 6-day average concentrations for 10 

common VOCs were obtained in urban and nonurban residences twice during this multiphase study: screeningphase indoor measurements were collected in 284 households, and in the intensive-phase matched outdoor (O), 

indoor (I), and personal (P) measurements were collected in a subset (N1⁄472) oft he screened households. 

Screening-phase households with smokers had significantly higher concentrations ofbe nzene and styrene 

compared to nonsmoking households; households with an attached garage had significantly higher levels of 

benzene, chloroform, styrene, and m/p- and o-xylene compared to households without an attached garage; and 

nonurban residences, which had a greater prevalence ofs mokers and attached garages, had significantly higher 

1,1,1-trichloroethane, styrene, and toluene and significantly lower tetrachloroethylene concentrations 

compared to urban households. The screening-phase weighted distributions estimate the mean and variability in 

indoor VOC concentrations for more than 45,000 households with children in the census tracts sampled. Overall, 

median indoor concentrations of most VOCs measured in this study were similar to or lower than indoor levels 

measured previously in the United States. Intensive-phase outdoor VOC concentrations were generally lower 

than other major metropolitan areas, but urban concentrations were significantly higher than nonurban 

concentrations for all compounds except 1,1,1-trichloroethylene. A consistent pattern of P4I4O was observed for 

nine of 10 VOCs, with 1,1,1-trichloroethylene (I4P4O) being the only exception to this pattern. For most children, 

the indoor at-home microevironment was strongly associated with personal exposure after controlling for 

important covariates, but the ratio of median to upper bound exposures was smaller than that observed in 

studies of adults. There are relatively little data on VOC exposures in children, so these results are useful for 

estimating the central tendency and

Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology (2004) 14, S4–S13

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Adgate etal 2004b.pdf
Minnesota Children’s Pesticide Exposure Study; 6-day average VOC concentrations in residential air, Table 4

xposed population

Minnesota

Detailed description of study design in Adgate J.L., Clayton C.A., Quackenboss J.J., Thomas K.W., Whitmore R.W., 

Pellizzari E.D., Lioy P.J., Shubat P., Stroebel C., Freeman N.C., and Sexton K. Measurement of multi-pollutant and 

multi-pathway exposures in a probability-based sample of children: practical strategies for effective field studies. 

J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2000a: 10: 650–661.

eriod: 6 day continuous sampl take between May and Sept 1997 

ple deployed in room where family spent most of their time

tween ages of 3 and 12

mple child's day pack during the day and beside bed at night

cation not discussed

OVM Model 3520, 3M Corp -- Charcoal-based passive diffusion monitors, 

https://www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/validated/1005/1005.html

http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en_US/3M-PPE-Safety-Solutions/Personal-Protective-Equipment/Products/Product

Not Reported

VOCs were extracted from the monitors with 1.5ml ofa cetone/carbon disulfide (2:1 v/v), containing 

octafluorotoluene (PFT), hexafluorobenzene (PFB), and bromopentafluorobenzene (BFB) as internal standards at 

a concentration of5 mg/ml. The sample extract (1 ml) was injected into a fused silica capillary column (60m 

0.32mm i.d. DB-5) programmed from 01C (3min) to 1501C at 41C/min.
Screening Intensive

284 Number of measurments 101

0.2 Minimum detection limit (MDL) 0.2

94 Percent above MDL 89

0.7 Arithmetic mean 0.6

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

0.4 25th percentile 0.4

0.5 50th percentile 0.6

0.8 75th percentile 0.7

1.4 Maximum 1.1

Yes Blanks Yes

NR Spikes NR

Stat & QC Summary
Yes Duplicates Yes

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

N MDL, μg/m3 % > MDL Mean, μg/m3Mean SE Mean 95% CI 25th 50th

Screening Personal

Screening Indoor 284 0.2 94 0.7 0 0.6-0.7 0.4 0.5

Screening Outdoors

Intensive Personal 72 0.2 92 0.8 0.1 0.6-1.0 0.4 0.6

Intensive Indoor 101 0.2 89 0.6 0 0.6-0.6 0.4 0.6

Intensive Outdoors 100 0.2 70 0.6 < 0.1 NA 0.3 0.6

Percentile Concentrations, μg/

Passive monitors (OVM Model 3520) analyzed 

by gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer

75th 95th

0.8 1.4

0.8 1.9

0.7 1.1

0.7 1.1

entile Concentrations, μg/m3
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x

x

x

x

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
Probability Sampling Design

Location

Methods

MDL
National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS): distributions and associations of lead, arsenic and 

volatile organic compounds in EPA Region 5

C.A. Clatyton, E.D. Pellizzari, R.W. Whitmore, R.L. Perritt, and J.J. Quackenboss 

The National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS) Phase I field study conducted in EPA Region 5 

provides extensive exposure data on approximately 250 study participants selected via probability sampling. 

Associated environmental media and biomarker (blood, urine) concentration data were also obtained to aid in 

the understanding of relationships ofthe exposures to both contaminant sources and doses. Distributional 

parameters for arsenic (As), lead (Pb), and four volatile organic compounds (VOCs)-benzene, chloroform, 

tetrachloroethylene, and trichloroethylene-were estimated for each of the relevant media using weighted data 

analysis techniques. Inter-media associations were investigated through correlation analysis, and longitudinal 

correlations and models were used to investigate longitudinal patterns. Solid food appeared to be a major 

contributor to urine As levels, while Pb levels in household (HH) dust, personal air, and beverages all were 

significantly associated with blood Pb levels. Relatively high (>0.50) longitudinal correlations were observed for 

tap water Pb and As, as compared to only moderate longitudinal correlations for the personal air VOCs.

Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology (1999) 9, 381-392 

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Food

Summary/Analysis of NHEXAS data

Clayton et al 1999.pdf
Sampling Design

Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin

Details on the study design and its rationale are given in Pellizzari et al. (1995). Pellizzari E., Lioy P., Quackenboss 

I., Whitmore R., Clayton A., Freeman N., Waldman I., Thomas K., Rodes C., and Wilcosky T. Population-based 

exposure measurements in EPA Region 5: a Phase I field study in support of the National Human Exposure 

Assessment Survey. Exp. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 1995: 5 (3): 327-358.

Not Reported, see Pellizzari et al. (1995
386 Number of measurments

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL)

39 Percent above MDL

5.3 Arithmetic mean

NR Arithmetic std. dev.

NR Geometric mean

NR Geometric std. dev.

NR Minimum

NR 25th percentile

0.6 50th percentile

NR 75th percentile

NR Maximum

NR Blanks

NR Spikes

NR Duplicates

NR Internal audits

NR External audits

Stat & QC Summary

Analytical Methods not reported, see Pellizzari 

et al. (1995
N MDL, μg/m3% > MDL Mean, μg/m3 50th 90th

Personal Air, μg/m3 386 39.4 5.27 0.63 5.98

Indoor Air, μg/m3 402 36.1 3.84 0.56 2.28

Outdoor Air, μg/m3 97 0.32 1.11 0.32 1.57

Percentile Concentirations, μg/m3

ntirations, μg/m3
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x

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x

DATA CATEGORIES
Location

Outdoor Sample

Outdoor samples were taken in 3 consecutive 48 hr periods each week

Subject-based monitoring of personal air and home-based indoor air, same 3 consecutive 48 hr sampling periods

5 subjects monitored simultaneously each week

15 VOCs, PM2.5, black carbon, 28 particle trace elements, 2 aldehydes

Sampling Methods

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
Exposures to Multiple Air Toxics in New York City

Patrick L. Kinney, Steven N. Chillrud, Sonja Ramstrom, James Ross, and John D. Spengler

Efforts to assess health risks associated with exposures to multiple urban air toxics have been hampered by the 

lack of exposure data for people living in urban areas. The TEACH (Toxic Exposure Assessment, a 

Columbia/Harvard) study was designed to characterize levels of and factors influencing personal exposures to 

urban air toxics among high school students living in inner-city neighborhoods of New York City and Los Angeles, 

California. This present article reports methods and data for the New York City phase of TEACH, focusing on the 

relationships between personal, indoor, and outdoor concentrations in winter and summer among a group of 46 

high school students from the A. Philip Randolph Academy, a public high school located in the West Central 

Harlem section of New York City. Air pollutants monitored included a suite of 17 volatile organic compounds 

(VOCs) and aldehydes, particulate matter with a mass median aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 μm (PM2.5), black 

carbon, and a suite of 28 particle-associated trace elements. Sequential 48-hr ambient samples also were 

collected over 8 weeks in each season at an urban fixed site and an upwind, nonurban fixed site. Personal, 

indoor, and outdoor concentrations of particle elements were generally similar, suggesting that ambient sources 

may have driven indoor and personal exposures for most elements. More varied relationships among personal, 

home indoor, and home outdoor concentrations were observed for VOCs and aldehydes. For formaldehyde and 

acetaldehyde, and several VOCs, indoor concentrations far exceeded outdoor levels and appeared to dominate 

personal exposures. Strong seasonal differences in indoor to outdoor concentration ratios were observed for 

these compounds, reflecting the influence of home air exchange rates. For other VOCs, especially those related 

to motor vehicle exhaust, more consistent indoor, outdoor, and personal concentrations were observed, 

suggesting that ambient concentrations

may have been the driving force for personal exposures to some VOCs. These results demonstrate exposures to 

a wide range of air toxic pollutants among young people attending school in inner-city New York. 

Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol 110, Supplement 4

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Kinney et al 2002.pdf
Lit review / summary

TEACH (Toxic Exposure Assessment, a Columbia/Harvard) Study, inner-city neighborhoods in NYC 

Inner City Neighborhoods, New York City

Winter and Summer, 1999

2 sites: Roof of 7-story school; roof of 3-story Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades NY

mples were taken in 3 consecutive 48 hr periods each week

ed monitoring of personal air and home-based indoor air, same 3 consecutive 48 hr sampling periods

monitored simultaneously each week

M2.5, black carbon, 28 particle trace elements, 2 aldehydes

Personal samples, battery operated pump, VOC thermal desorption tube (multi-sorbent "Air toxics" tubes, TO-17)
Winter Summer

36 Number of measurments 38

0.15 Minimum detection limit (MDL) 0.15

NR Percent above MDL NR

1.26 Arithmetic mean 0.32

3.59 Arithmetic std. dev. 0.52

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

0.15 50th percentile 0

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

Yes Blanks Yes

Stat & QC Summary
NR Spikes NR

10% Duplicates 10%

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

N MDL % > MDL Mean SD

Personal Air, μg/m3 Winter 36 0.15 2.62 8.3

Personal Air, μg/m3 Summer 40 0.15 0.51 0.93

Indoor Air, μg/m3 Winter 36 0.15 1.26 3.59

Indoor Air, μg/m3 Summer 38 0.15 0.32 0.52

Outdoor Air, μg/m3 Winter 36 0.15 0.36 0.26

Outdoor Air, μg/m3 Summer 31 0.15 0.24 0.31

Personal samples, battery operated pump, VOC 

thermal desorption tube (multi-sorbent "Air toxics" 

tubes, TO-17)


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Abstract

Citation:

x

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
Location

Indoor samples

10-minute integrated shower sample

grab samples at 5 and 9.9 minutes

Sampling Methods

IA/PA Data Summary
A Methodological Approach for Exposure Assessment Studies in Residences Using Volatile Organic CompoundContaminated Water

Andrew B. Lindstrom and Joachim D. Pleil

This paper presents a methodological approach for assessing total exposures to volatile organic compounds 

(VOCs) in residences using contaminated water supplies. This approach is founded on assessment of ingestion, 

inhalation, and dermal exposures; both long-term (i.e., 12 to 24 hr) lowlevel exposures and short-term (i.e., =10 

min) high-level exposures are considered. The methodology is based on the collection of water samples to 

establish the identity of the contaminants, maximum source terms, and possible dermal and ingestion 

exposures; integrated whole-air samples are collected to assess long- and short-term inhalation exposures; 

whole-air grab samples are used to confirm peak and typical inhalation exposures; and alveolar breath samples 

are used to confirm exposures and to estimate contaminant concentrations in the blood of the test subjects. 

While we do not suggest that this methodology should supersede any current investigative approach, this 

material is primarily offered as a consolidated reference to the many people or organizations who might 

contemplate a study of this type. Application of this investigative protocol should provide detailed exposure 

assessment information, while it supplies critical real world data for risk assessment specialists, toxicologists, 

and modeling experts. Data from a recent field study assessing exposures to trichloroethylene are presented to 

illustrate the utility and some of the limitations of this strategy.

J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 46: 1058-1066

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

2-day study of residential microenvironmental TCE concentrations in Illinios due to groundwater contamination

Lindstrom & Pleil 1996.pdf
Single Family Residence in Rockford, IL

ntegrated shower sample

es at 5 and 9.9 minutes

Grab samples, TO-14 (modified)
Shower Living Room

2 Number of measurments 2

0.91 Minimum detection limit (MDL) 0.91

100 Percent above MDL 0

21.8 Arithmetic mean <MDL

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

16.6 Minimum <MDL

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

37.4 Maximum <MDL

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

Yes Duplicates Yes

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

TO-14 (modified)
N MDL Mean Sample 1 Sample 2

Shower, μg/m3 5 min Grab 2 0.91 16.6 NC 16.6

Shower, μg/m3 9.9 min Grab 2 0.91 36.9 36.3 37.4

Shower, μg/m3 Integrated 2 1.34 21.8 22.8 20.7

Living Room, μg/m3 Grab 2 0.91 <MDL <MDL <MDL

Living Room, μg/m3 Integrated 1.34 <MDL <MDL <MDL

Outdoor Air, μg/m3 Grab 0.91 <MDL <MDL <MDL

NC = not collected
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x

x

x

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
REVIEW ARTICLE 

IA/PA Data Summary
Exposure Assessment of Trichloroethylene

Chieh Wu and John Schaum

This article reviews exposure information available for trichloroethylene (TCE) and assesses the magnitude of 

human exposure. The primary sources releasing TCE into the environment are metal cleaning and degreasing 

operations. Releases occur into all media but mostly into the air due to its volatility. It is also moderately soluble 

in water and can leach from soils into groundwater. TCE has commonly been found in ambient air, surface water, 

and groundwaters. The 1998 air levels in pg/M3 across 115 monitors can be summarized as follows: range = 0.01-

3.9, mean = 0.88. A California survey of large water utilities in 1984 found a median concentration of 3.0 pg/L. 

General population exposure to TCE occurs primarily by inhalation and water ingestion. Typical average daily 

intakes have been estimated as 11-33 pg/day for inhalation and 2-20 pg/day for ingestion. A small portion of the 

population is expected to have elevated exposures as a result of one or more of these pathways: inhalation 

exposures to workers involved in degreasing operations, ingestion and inhalation exposures occurring in homes 

with private wells located near disposal/contamination sites, and inhalation exposures to consumers using TCE 

products in areas of poor ventilation. More current and more extensive data on TCE levels in indoor air, water, 

and soil are needed to better characterize the distribution of background exposures in the general population 

and elevated exposures in special subpopulations. 

Key words: exposure assessment, TCE, trichloroethylene. 

Environ Health Perspect 108 (suppl 2):359-363 (2000).

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

General population TCE exposure assessment with some reported media concentrations

Contains model OA concentrations

Wu & Schaum 2000.pdf
Summary of TCE air emissions

Summary of AIRs ambient air TCE concentrations between 1985-1998, summarized by year, and land use (e.g., 

urban rural, agricultural, etc.)

Modeled ambient air concentrations

General US population exposure assessment

Summary of measured blood concentrations (US, 1988-1994)
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

Review of ambient air data and modeling results, in 

support of TCE exposure assessments
support of TCE exposure assessments
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x

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES
Location

Air Samples

Analysis Methods

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
Residential environmental measurements in the National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS) pilot 

study in Arizona: preliminary results for pesticides and VOCs 

Sydney M. Gordon, Patrick J. Callahan, Marcia G. Nishioka, Marielle C. Brinkman, Kary Kay O'Rourke, Michael D. 

Lebowitz and Demetrios J. Moschandreas

A major objective of the National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS) performed in Arizona was to 

conduct residential environmental and biomarker measurements of selected pesticides (chlorpyrifos, diazinon), 

volatile organic compounds (VOCs; benzene, toluene, trichloroethene, formaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene), and 

metals for total human exposure assessments. Both personal (e.g., blood, urine, dermal wipes, 24 h duplicate 

diet) and microenvironmental (e.g., indoor and outdoor air, house dust, foundation soil) samples were collected 

in each home in order to describe individual exposure via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal pathways, and to 

extrapolate trends to larger populations. This paper is a preliminary report of only the microenvironmental and 

dermal wipe data obtained for the target pesticides and VOCs, and provides comparisons with results from 

similar studies. Evaluations of total exposure from all sources and pathways will be addressed in future papers. 

The pesticides and VOCs all showed log-normal distributions of concentrations in the Arizona population 

sampled, and in most cases were detected with sufficient frequency to allow unequivocal description of the 

concentration by media at the 90th, 75th, and 50th (median) percentiles. Those combinations of pollutant and 

media, in which a large fraction of the measurements were below the detection limit of the analysis method 

used, included trichloroethene, 1,3-butadiene, and formaldehyde in outdoor air; chlorpyrifos and diazinon in 

outdoor air; and diazinon in dermal and window sill wipes. In general, indoor air concentrations were higher than 

outdoor air concentrations for all VOCs and pesticides investigated, and VOC levels were in good agreement with 

levels reported in other studies. In addition,the agreement obtained between co-located VOC samplers indicated 

that the low-cost diffusional badges used to measure concentrations are probably adequate for usein future 

monitoring studies. For the pesticides, the median levels found in indoor samples agreed well with other studies, 

although the levels corresponding to the upper 0.1 - 1% of the population were considerably higher than levels 

reported elsewhere, with indoor air levels as high as 3.3 and 20.5 0181g/m3 for chlorpyrifos and diazinon, 

respectively. These data showed excellent correlation (Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients of 0.998 

and 0.998, respectively) between chlorpyrifos in indoor air and in the corresponding dermal wipes, and relatively 

poor correlation between chlorpyrifos in dust (μg/g or μg/m2) and dermal wipes (Pearson=0.055 μg/g and 0.015 

μg/m2; Spearman=0.644 μg/g and 0.578 μg/m2). These data suggest the importance of dermal penetration of 

semi-volatiles as a route of residential human exposure.

Keywords: dermal wipes, exposure,foundation soil, house dust, indoor air, National Human Exposure Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology (1999) 9, 456-470 

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Gordon et al., 1999.pdf
Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Summary of sampling methods and analysis of NHEXAS data

Arizona

polyurethane foam (PUF; 25 mmx76 mm) sorbent

4 l/min with a personal sampler pump (Model 224-PCXR8, SKC)

Outdoor air was sampled to give an integrated 24-h sample over a 3-day period

indoor air was sampled for an integrated 12-h period over 3 days

personal air was sampled to give an integrated 8-h sample over a 1¬day period. 

Indoor and outdoor passive samples, a specially constructed galvanized steel stand was used to mount one OVM 

3500 sampler badge (forthe VOCs). Two large-diameter galvanized steel protective funnels were inverted and 

attached to the crossbar so that they were about 45 cm (18 in.) apart

Analysis with GC/MS for the air, soil, and dust extracts (Model HP 5971 GC/MS; Hewlett Packard)
## Number of measurments NR

1 Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

1 Percent above MDL NR

<1.8Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

<1.875th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

Yes Blanks NR

Yes Spikes NR

Yes Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

N %>MDL MDL Mean 75th Percentile 90th Percentile

Indoor Air, μg/m3 Passive 185 1 1.02 <1.8 <1.8 <1.8

Outdoor Air, μg/m3 Passive 68 0 1.02 <1.8 <1.8 <1.8

Analysis with GC/MS for the air, soil, and dust 

extracts (Model HP 5971 GC/MS; Hewlett Packard)

90th Percentile
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x

?

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
Location

Indoor samples

grab samples at 5 and 9.9 minutes

Sampling Methods
Indoor Air VOC Concentrations in Suburban and Rural New Jersey

Clifford P. Weisel, Shahnaz Alimokhtari, and Paul F. Sanders

Indoor VOC air concentrations of many compounds are higher than outdoor concentrations due to indoor 

sources. However, most studies have measured residential indoor air in urban centers so the typical indoor air 

levels in suburban and rural regions have not been well characterized. Indoor VOC air concentrations were 

measured in 100 homes in suburban and rural areas in NJ to provide background levels for investigations of the 

impact from subsurface contamination sources. Of the 57 target compounds, 23 were not detected in any of the 

homes, and 14 compounds were detected in at least 50% of the homes with detection limits of ∼1 μg/m3. The 

common compounds identified included aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons from mobile sources, halogenated 

hydrocarbons commonly used in consumer products or from chlorinated drinking water, acetone and 2-

butanone emitted from cosmetic products, and Freons. Typical concentrations were in the low μg/m3 range, 

though values of tens, hundreds or even thousands of μg/m3 were measured in individual homes in which 

activitiesrelatedto specificsources ofVOCs were reported. Compounds with known similar sources were highly 

correlated. The levels observed are consistent with concentrations found in the air of urban homes.

Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 8231–8238 

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Indoor VOC concentrations (TCE) in NJ homes. Comparison with values measured in other studies

Weisel et al., 2008.pdf
100 homes in suburban and rural NJ

Nomimal 24 hr

sampled in breathing zone (3-ft)

SUMMA Canisters with flow controller, TO-15
100 Number of measurments NR

2.7/1.1 Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

8 Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

<1.1 Minimum NR

<1.1 25th percentile NR

<2.7 50th percentile NR

<2.7 75th percentile NR

13 Maximum

NR

Yes Blanks NR

Yes Spikes NR

Yes Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

SUMMA Canisters with flow controller, TO-15
N MDL for 1st 48 MDL for 2nd 52 25th Percentile' 50th Percentile'

Indoor Air, μg/m3 1008 2.7 1.1 <1.1 <2.7

75th Percentile' 90th Percentile' 95th Percentile' Min Max Mean

<2.7 <2.7 2.74 <1.1 13
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Title

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x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
IA/PA Data Summary
Trichloroethylene Health Risk Assessment: Synthesis and Characterization

USEPA

This assessment presents EPA’s most current evaluation of the potential health risks from exposure to TCE 

(trichloroethylene). TCE exposure is associated with several adverse health effects, including neurotoxicity, 

immunotoxicity, developmental toxicity, liver toxicity, kidney toxicity, endocrine effects, and several forms of 

cancer. Mechanistic research indicates that TCE-induced carcinogenesis is complex, involving multiple 

carcinogenic metabolites acting through multiple modes of action. Under EPA’s proposed (1996) cancer 

guidelines, TCE can be characterized as “highly likely to produce cancer in humans.” For effects other than 

cancer, an oral RfD of 3×10–4 mg/kg-d was based on critical effects in the liver, kidney, and developing fetus. An 

inhalation RfC of 4×10–2 mg/m3 was based on critical effects in the central nervous system, liver, and endocrine 

system. Several cancer slope factors were developed, with most between 2×10–2 and 4×10–1 per mg/kg-d. 

Several sources of uncertainty have been identified and quantified. The mechanistic information suggests some 

risk factors that may make some populations more sensitive. There are suggestions that TCE could affect 

children and adults differently. In addition, several chemicals have the potential to alter TCE’s metabolism and 

clearance and subsequent toxicity; conversely, TCE exposure can augment the toxicity of other chemicals. 

Widespread environmental exposure to some of TCE’s metabolites makes it important to consider the 

cumulative effect of TCE along with other environmental contaminants.

United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC 20460 

EPA/600/P-01/002A, August 2001, External Review Draft

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Summary of exposure/media data. Exposure assessment

EPA 2001a.PDF
Section 2.3: TCE has been detected in the air throughout the United States. Ambient air measurement data can 

be obtained from the Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS)27, which contains about 1,200 

measurements from 25 States during 1985–1998. Air levels in 1998 can be summarized as follows: 

range=0.01–3.9 μg/m3, mean=0.88, median=0.32, 90th percentile=1.76.

Section 2.3: TCE has been reported in rainwater, surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and seawater. 

ATSDR reports that TCE is the most frequently reported organic contaminant in groundwater and has estimated 

that between 9% and 34% of drinking water supply sources have some TCE contamination. Most municipal 

water supplies that do not use contaminated groundwater, however, are in compliance with the maximum 

contaminant level of 5 μg/L. TCE has been reported in marine sediments, marine invertebrates, marine 

mammals, foods, human milk, and human urine and blood. The food with the highest reported mean 
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary
Year Study/Location N MDL Mean Median

Outdoor Air, μg/m3 1988 AIRS, 25 states 1200 0.88 0.32

Outdoor Air, μg/m3 1990 MODELED, EPA CEP 0.37

Outdoor Air, μg/m3 1990 AIRS, 8 States, 59 monitoring stations 1.84

Drinking water ATSDR 9 - 34% have TCE

Outdoor Air, μg/m3 1998 AIRS 0.8

Outdoor air samples, SUMMA Canisters with flow 

controller, TO-15. No indoor air samples

90th Percentile Maximum

1.76

32
Back to Summary

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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

y

Reports Attenuation coefficients

Reports 4 measured indoor concentrations due to SVI, none are residential

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
An Evaluation of Vapor Intrusion Into Buildings through a Study of Field Data

Nancy A. Fitzpatrick & John J. Fitzgerald

A systematic examination of cases on file with the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection was 

undertaken to identify a universe of sites with volatile organic compound (VOC) contamination in groundwater 

in close proximity to buildings. Such locations were grouped according to site variables, such as contaminants of 

concern and concentrations in various media; soil type; depth to groundwater; distance to building; and building 

construction. Indoor air, soil gas, and/or groundwater field data collected from these sites was then assembled 

and used to: (1) evaluate available transport models which describe the intrusion of vapors into buildings and 

predict indoor air contaminant concentrations resulting from the volatilization of VOCs in the subsurface; (2) 

examine the validity of established regulatory criteria; (3) identify specific trends and field conditions which 

appear to most influence vapor phase contaminant migration and intrusion processes; and (4) evaluate the 

possibility of vapor migration being inhibited by a “freshwater lens”. 

Soil and Sediment Contamination, 11(4):603-623 (2002)

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Study of relationshp between TCE concentrations in GW and SVI as influenced by building construction, soil 

types, depth to GW, etc.

enuation coefficients

measured indoor concentrations due to SVI, none are residential

Fitzpatrick & Fitzgerald 2002.pdf
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

Reports 4 measured indoor concentrations 

due to SVI, none are residential
Back to Summary

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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

DATA CATEGORIES
Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
Proximity of Residence to Trichloroethylene-Emitting Sites and Increased Risk of Offspring Congenital Heart 

Defects among Older Women

Jennifer S. Yauck, Marsha E. Malloy, Kathleen Blair, Pippa M. Simpson, and D. Gail McCarver

Previous studies suggest that trichloroethylene (TCE) is a selective cardiac teratogen. We tested the hypothesis 

that the odds of maternal residence close to TCE-emitting sites would be greater among infants with congenital 

heart defects (CHDs) than among infants without CHDs. METHODS: We conducted a case-control study of 4025 

infants, identified from hospital and birth records, born from 1997 to 1999 to Milwaukee, Wisconsin mothers. A 

geographic information system was used to calculate distances between maternal residences and TCE sites. We 

used classification tree analysis to determine appropriate values by which to dichotomously categorize mothers 

by TCE exposure (exposed: residence within 1.32 miles of at least one TCE site) and age (older: 38 years), and 

logistic regression to test for CHD risk factors. RESULTS: The proportion of mothers who were both older and had 

presumed TCE exposure was more than six-fold greater among case infants than among control infants (3.3% 

[8/245] versus 0.5% [19/3780]). When adjusted for other variables, CHD risk was over three-fold greater among 

infants of older, exposed mothers compared to infants of older, nonexposed mothers (adjusted OR, 3.2; 95% CI, 

1.2– 8.7). Older maternal age, alcohol use, chronic hypertension, and preexisting diabetes were each associated 

with CHDs (adjusted ORs, 1.9, 2.1, 2.8, 4.1; 95% CIs, 1.1–3.5, 1.1– 4.2, 1.2– 6.7, 1.5–11.2, respectively), but 

residence close to TCE sites alone was not. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that maternal age and TCE 

exposure interact to increase CHD risk, although the mechanism by which this occurs is unknown. A prospective 

study is underway to confirm this finding

Key words: trichloroethylene; congenital heart defects; maternal age; ethanol; diabetes; hypertension; 

Birth Defects Research (Part A) 70:808–814 (2004)

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Yauck etal 2004.pdf
This paper examines increased cogenital heart defects due to TCE exposure. This paper does not contain useful 

concentration data.

This paper examines increased cogenital heart defects due to TCE exposure. This paper does not contain useful 

concentration data.
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

This paper examines increased cogenital 

heart defects due to TCE exposure. This 

paper does not contain useful concentration 
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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

X

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary

Evaluation of the Likelihood of DNAPL Presence at NPL Sites

USEPA

This document presents the results of a survey undertaken by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s 

(EPA’s) Office of Emergency and Remedial Response (Superfund). The survey was designed to estimate the 

proportion of National Priorities List (NPL) sites where Dense Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPLs) may be 

present. Earlier studies by OERR suggested that DNAPLs may be more common at hazardous waste sites than 

previously thought, and may act as a continuing source of contamination thus reducing the ability of pump-andtreat systems to attain cleanup goals within expected timeframes (Evaluation of Ground Water Extraction 

Remedies, Phase II, EPA 9355.4-05). This study represents the first systematic nation-wide review of NPL sites 

designed to estimate the extent of subsurface DNAPL contamination.

Key words: trichloroethylene; congenital heart defects; maternal age; ethanol; diabetes; hypertension; 

geographic

USEPA, EPA 540-R-93-073; PB93-963343 September 1993

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

TCE ground water concentrations at Superfund sites.

TCE ground water concentrations at Superfund sites.

Presents a summay of ground water concentrations (ranges) at 310 superfund sites (Table 3-6)

EPA 1993.pdf
No useful air concentrations
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

Summary of ground water concentrations 

(ranges) at 310 superfund sites. No useful air 

concentrations
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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
Measured in the following non-residential microenvironments

IA/PA Data Summary
Measured Concentrations of VOCs in Several Non-Residential Microenvironments in the United States

MIRANDA M. LOH, E. ANDRES HOUSEMAN, GEORGE M. GRAY, JONATHAN I.LEVY, JOHN D.SPENGLER, AND

DEBORAH H. BENNETT

Individuals spend about 25% of their time in non-residential indoor microenvironments. For some of these 

microenvironments, particularly stores and restaurants, exposures to volatile organic compounds (VOCs), have 

not been well characterized. In the Boston Exposure Assessment in Microenvironments (BEAM) study, sampling 

using scripted activities was conducted in stores, restaurants, and transportation in the summer of 2003 and 

winters of 2004 and 2005. A suite of VOCs including hydrocarbons, several chlorinated compounds, and 

aldehydes was analyzed. Nine store types were sampled using a composite design to enable a greater number of 

stores to be visited. Stores had higher concentrations of formaldehyde, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes, and 

styrene than other microenvironments, particularly in certain store types. Geometric mean formaldehyde levels 

were highest in the housewares stores, at 53 íg/m3 (95% CI ) 43, 66). Geometric mean toluene levels were 

highest in multipurpose stores, at 76 íg/m3 (95% CI ) 50, 118). The levels observed in stores were several times 

higher than levels found in transportation microenvironments, and indicate strong indoor sources. In contrast, 

benzene did not have significantly higher levels in stores than typically found outdoors. Concentrations of 

formaldehyde and benzene, ethylbenzene, xylenes, and styrene were strongly influenced by the presence of 

smoking in the dining Microenvironment. Chloroform levels were higher in restaurants than in other 

microenvironments, with a geometric mean of 1.1 íg/m3 (95% CI ) 0.7, 1.8). The VOC concentrations found in 

stores and restaurants in this study are a potentially important source of exposure for sensitive individuals or 

Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40, 6903-6911

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Loh etal 2006.pdf
Contains non-residential measured data

n the following non-residential microenvironments

hardware

multipurpose

grocery 

drug stores

sporting goods 

furniture stores

housewares stores 

department stores

electronics

dining nonsmoking

dining smoking

transportation
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR External audits NR

geometric max CV

mean

trichloroethene 0.43 0.33 0.57 115 3.69 2.58 5.94

Measured in non-residential microenvironments. 

No residential measurements.

Stores

95% CI 95% CI

geometric max CV

mean

0.23 0.08 0.63 118 10.29 2.8 215

Dining

95% CI 95% CI
Back to Summary

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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
Location

IA/PA Data Summary
Simulating the fate and transport of TCE from groundwater to indoor air

Soonyoung Yu, Andre J.A. Unger, Beth Parker

This work provides an exploratory analysis on the relative importance of various factors controlling the fate and 

transport of volatile organic contaminants (in this case, TCE) from a DNAPL source zone located below the water 

table and into the indoor air. The analysis is conducted using the multi-phase compositional model CompFlow 

Bio, with the base scenario problem geometry reminiscent of a field experiment conducted by Rivett [Rivett, 

M.O., (1995), Soil–gas signatures from volatile chlorinated solvents: Borden field experiments. Groundwater, 

33(1), 84–98.] at the Borden aquifer where groundwater was observed to transport a contaminant plume a 

substantial distance without vertical mass transport of the contaminant across the capillary fringe and into the 

vadose zone. Results for the base scenario model indicate that the structure of the permeability field was largely 

responsible for deflecting the groundwater plume upward towards the capillary fringe, permitting aqueous 

phase diffusion to transport the TCE into the vadose zone. Alternative permeability realizations, generated as 

part of a Monte Carlo simulation process, at times deflected the groundwater plume downwards causing the 

extended thickness of the saturated zone to insulate the vadose zone from exposure to the TCE by upward 

diffusive transport. Comparison of attenuation coefficients calculated using the CompFlow Bio and Johnson and 

Ettinger [Johnson, P.C. and Ettinger, R.A., (1991), Heuristic model for predicting the intrusion rate of 

contaminant vapors into buildings. Environmental Science and Technology, 25, 1445–1452.] heuristic model 

exhibited fortuitous agreement for the base scenario problem geometry, with this agreement diverging for the 

alternative permeability realizations as well as when parameters such as the foundation slab fracture aperture, 

the indoor air pressure drop, the capillary fringe thickness, and the infiltration rate were varied over typical 

Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 107 (2009) 140–161

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Yu etal 2009.pdf
Model evaluation for SVI, model predictions for indoor air based on conceptual scenarios

Model evaluation for SVI

Conceptual

Model predicted indoor air concentrations for conceptual cases
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR External audits NR

Model evaluation for SVI. Conceptual model 

perditions for indoor concentrations, but no 

measurement data.
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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
IA/PA Data Summary
NATIONAL AIR TOXICS PROGRAM: THE INTEGRATED URBAN STRATEGY, Report to Congress

On July 19, 1999, we published a notice in the Federal Register entitled “National Air Toxics Program: The 

Integrated Urban Air Strategy” (Strategy) that outlined the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) plans 

for addressing cumulative health risks in urban areas1. The Strategy presented our plan for future actions to 

reduce emissions of air toxics and improve our understanding of the health risks posed by toxics in urban areas.

The Strategy presents a framework for further reducing HAP emissions from all types of

sources found in urban areas, including major industrial sources, smaller stationary sources, and

cars and trucks. Air toxics can pose special threats in urban areas because of the large number of

people and the variety of sources that emit HAP. Individually, some of these sources may not emit large amounts 

of toxic pollutants. However, all of these pollution sources combined can potentially pose significant health 

threats. We are also concerned about the impact of toxics emissions on minority and low income communities 

which are often located close to industrial and commercial urbanized areas. Accordingly, there are three goals 

for the Strategy:

1. Reduce, by 75 percent, the incidence of cancer associated with air toxics from both large and small 

industrial/commercial sources.

2. Substantially reduce noncancer health risks (e.g., birth defects and reproductive effects) associated with air 

toxics from small industrial/commercial sources.

3. Address disproportionate impacts of air toxics hazards across urban areas, such as those in areas known as 

“hot spots,” and minority and low-income communities in urban areas.

USEPA EPA-453/R-99-007 July 2000

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

EPA 2000.pdf
No useful indoor air concentration data

Summary of HAP efforts, studies, etc

No useful indoor air concentration data

Summary of HAP emmissions, efforts, studies, etc
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR External audits NR

Summary of HAP emmissions, efforts, studies, etc. No useful indoor air concentration data.

Summary of HAP emissions, efforts, studies, 

etc. No useful indoor air concentration data.
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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
Location

Methods

MDL

IA/PA Data Summary
Selected Volatile Organic Compounds in Residential Air in the City of Ottawa, Canada

IPING ZHU, RON NEWHOOK, LEONORA MARRO, AND CECILIA C . CHAN

Airborne levels of selected volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) that are priorities for exposure assessment under 

the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) 1999 were measured in both indoor air and outdoor air of 75 

residential houses, in the city of Ottawa, Canada, during the winter of 2002/2003. The houses were randomly 

selected using Ottawa 2001 population census data. VOCs were collected on adsorbent tubes and measured by 

thermal desorption GC/MS. Among 37 chemicals monitored, 17 were detected with a frequency greater than 

80% in indoor air; 9 were between 30% and 80%; 7 were between 1% and 30%; and 4 were not detected. 

Concentrations of VOCs in both indoor and outdoor air are presented. Virtually all of the target VOCs were 

detected more frequently and were present at significantly higher levels, in indoor air than in outdoor air. As an 

indication of the contribution of indoor levels of these chemicals, ratios of the concentration found in indoor air 

to outdoor air (I/O) and the indoor source strength expressed in estimated emission rate per house are also 

presented. Compared with earlier published studies including a 1991/1992 Canadian national survey of VOCs in 

residential air, levels of target analytes in indoor air in this study were lower for a number of chemicals, 

indicating a possible trend toward decreased inhalation exposure to these chemicals in residential environments. 

This study has yielded up-to-date information on levels of a variety of priority airborne chemicals in residential 

air, which is being used to estimate current exposure to these substances as input to health risk assessments and 

Environ. Sci. Technol. 2005, 39, 3964-3971

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

VOCs levels measured in indoor and outdoor air at 75 randomly selected houses, Ottawa Canada, winter of 

2002/2003. 

Zhu etal 2005.pdf
Ottawa, Canada

Battery operated Gilian 5 personal samplers (Sensidyne, Florida) were used for collecting indoor air, while mass 

flow controlled pumps were used for outdoor samples. Thermal desorption tubes (Air Toxics, Supelco) used for 

the study were the standard 3 1/2 in. long stainless steel tubes with brass caps and Teflon ferrules on both ends. 

The tubes were packed with Carbopack B and Carboxen 1000 adsorbent material. An Agilent gas chromatograph 

(model 6890) coupled with an Agilent mass spectrometer (model 5973N) (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA) 

was used to analyze the target chemicals. The analytical column for separating targets was SP-624 (60 m, 

0.25mmi.d., 250 ímfilm thickness) (Supelco). The targets in the thermal desorption tubes were released to the 

GC/MS through a Perkin-Elmer Turbomatrix thermal desorber with an autosampler and an internal standard 

assembly (Perkin-Elmer, Inc., Norwalk, CT). 

Reported
75 Number of measurments NR

0.02 Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

0.06 Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

0.01 50th percentile NR

0.08 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

Yes Blanks NR

Yes Spikes NR

Yes Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

Thermal desorption tubes were used to 
Summary of HAP emmissions, efforts, studies, etc. No useful indoor air concentration data.

N MDL, μg/m3% > MDL Mean, μg/m3 50th 75th

Indoor Air, μg/m3 75 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.08

Outdoor Air, μg/m3

Percentile Concentirations, μg/m3

Thermal desorption tubes were used to 

collect samples. Analysis by GC/MS.

90th

0.19

ntirations, μg/m3
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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary

The Use of Indoor Air Measurements To Evaluate Intrusion of Subsurface VOC Vapors into Buildings

Ian Hers, Reidar Zapf-Gilje, Loretta Li and Jim Atwater

The implementation of a risk-based corrective action approach often requires consideration of soil vapor 

migration into buildings and potential inhalation exposure and risk to human health. Due to the uncertainty 

associated with models for this pathway, there may be a desire to analyze indoor air samples to validate model 

predictions, and this approach is followed on a somewhat frequent basis at sites where risks are considered 

potentially significant. Indoor air testing can be problematic for a number of reasons. Soil vapor intrusion into 

buildings is complex, highly dependent on site-specific conditions, and may vary over time, complicating the 

interpretation of indoor air measurements when the goal is to deduce the subsurface-derived component. An 

extensive survey of indoor air quality data sets highlights the variability in indoor volatile organic compound 

(VOC) concentrations and numerous sources that can lead to elevated VOC levels. The contribution from soil 

vapor is likely to be small relative to VOCs from other sources for most sites. In light of these challenges, we 

discuss how studies that use indoor air testing to assess subsurface risks could be improved. To provide added 

perspective, we conclude by comparing indoor air concentrations and risks arising from subsurface VOCs, 

predicted using standard model equations for soil vapor fate and intrusion into buildings, to those associated 

J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 51:1318-1331

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10473289.2001.10464356

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Summary of SVI mechanisms and relevant parameters, including emissions, building characteristics. 

Hers etal 2001.pdf
Summary of SVI mechanisms and relevant parameters, including emissions, building characteristics. No useful indoor air mea
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

Summary of SVI mechanisms and relevant parameters, 

including emissions, building characteristics. No useful 

indoor air measurements.
o useful indoor air measurements.

N Median Mean Maximum 90th Percentile

Lory AFB, Colorado 0.17 0.5 2.6

Redfields, CO <0.26 0.59 50 6.8

Denver, CO 16

Health Canada 0.5 165

EPA TEAM Study

Fall 1981 13 47

Summer 1982 6.3 59

Winter 1983 4.6 7

Feb 1984 7.8 50

May 1984 6.4 11

June 1984 3.8 4

US National Survey 0.7 5

Tennessee Houses 0.5 6

90th Percentile
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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

IA/PA Data Summary

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
Contamination of Ground Water with Trichloroethylene at the Building 24 Site at Picatinny Aresenal, New Jersey

Mary Martin and Thomas E. Imbrigiotta

Ground water at the Building 24 site at Picatinny Arsenal in Morris County, New Jersey, is contaminated with 

trichloroethylene (TCE). Estimated average linear ground-water flow velocities are 0.3 to 1.0 m/d, and estimated 

travel time from the source area to Green Pond Brook is 2 y to 5 y. The total mass of dissolved TCE within the 

130,000-m2 plume area is estimated to be 970 kg. About 65 percent of the mass is in areas where TCE 

concentrations exceed 10,000 mg/L, whereas about 30 percent is in areas where TCE concentrations are 1,000 

to 10,000 mg/L. The average flux of TCE discharged to Green Pond Brook from the plume area, estimated from 

measured TCE concentrations in samples of water from the unconfined aquifer and measured base-flow 

discharge in Green Pond Brook, is 1 to 2 mg/s. Biotransformation is the most important mechanism by which 

Symposium on Natural Attenuation of Ground Water, 2004. USEPA: EPA/600/R-94/162, pp109

http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/300038JE.pdf

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Summary of ground water plume at the Picatinny Arsenal, NJ. No useful indoor air concentration data.

Summary of ground water plume at the Picatinny Arsenl, NJ. No useful indoor air concentration data.

Martin & Imbrigiotta 1994.pdf
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum

NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

Summary of ground water plume at the 

Picatinny Arsenal, NJ. No useful indoor air 

concentration data.
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Title

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Abstract

Citation:

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
IA/PA Data Summary
Human respiratory uptake of chloroform and haloketones during showering

XU XU AND CLIFFORD P. WEISEL

Inhalation is an important exposure route for volatile water contaminants, including disinfection by-products 

(DBPs). A controlled human study was conducted on six subjects to determine the respiratory uptake of 

haloketones (HKs) and chloroform, a reference compound, during showering. Breath and air concentrations ofth 

e DBPs were measured using gas chromatography and electron capture detector during and following the 

inhalation exposures. A lower percentage oft he HKs (10%) is released from shower water to air than that ofc 

hloroform (56%) under the experiment conditions due to the lower volatility ofth e HKs. Breath concentrations 

ofth e DBPs were elevated during the inhalation exposure, while breath concentrations decreased rapidly after 

the exposure. Approximately 85–90% oft he inhaled HKs were absorbed, whereas only 70% oft he inhaled 

chloroform was absorbed for the experiment conditions used. The respiratory uptake ofth e DBPs was estimated 

using a linear one-compartment model coupled with a plug flow stream model for the shower system. The 

internal dose of chloroform normalized to its water concentration was approximately four times that of the HKs 

after a 30-min inhalation exposure. Approximately 0.3–0.4% oft he absorbed HKs and 2–9% oft he absorbed 

chloroform were expired through lung excretion after the 30-min exposure. The inhalation exposure from a 

typical 10–15min shower contributes significantly to the total dose for chloroform in

chlorinated drinking water but only to a moderate extent for HKs.

Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology (2005) 15, 6–16

www.nature.com/jea

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Did not study TCE

Xu and Weisel 2005.pdf
Did not study TCE
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

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NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

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NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

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NR Maximum

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NR Blanks NR

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NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

Did not study TCE

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x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
IA/PA Data Summary
Assessments of Direct Human Exposure—The Approach of EU Risk Assessments Compared to Scenario-Based 

Risk Assessment

Matthias Wormuth, Evangelia Demou, Martin Scheringer, and Konrad Hungerbuhler

The awareness of potential risks emerging from the use of chemicals in all parts of daily life has increased the 

need for risk assessments that are able to cover a high number of exposure situations and thereby ensure the 

safety of workers and consumers. In the European Union (EU), the practice of risk assessments for chemicals is 

laid down in a Technical Guidance Document; it is designed to consider environmental and human occupational 

and residential exposure. Almost 70 EU risk assessment reports (RARs) have been finalized for high-productionvolume chemicals during the last decade. In the present study, we analyze the assessment of occupational and 

consumer exposure to trichloroethylene and phthalates presented in six EU RARs. Exposure scenarios in these six 

RARs were compared to scenarios used in applications of the scenario-based risk assessment approach to the 

same set of chemicals. We find that scenarios used in the selected EU RARs to represent typical exposure 

situations in occupational or private use of chemicals and products do not necessarily represent worst-case 

conditions. This can be due to the use of outdated information on technical equipment and conditions in 

workplaces or omission of pathways that can cause consumer exposure. Considering the need for exposure and 

risk assessments under the new chemicals legislation of the EU, we suggest that a transparent process of 

collecting data on exposure situations and of generating representative exposure scenarios is implemented to 

improve the accuracy of risk assessments. Also, the data sets used to assess human exposure should be 

harmonized, summarized in a transparent fashion, and made accessible for all risk assessors and the public.

Risk Analysis, Vol. 27, No. 4, 2007

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Review of European exposure assessment practices, legislation, and case studies

Wormuth etal 2007.pdf

NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary
No useful indoor air concentration data.
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Citation:

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
IA/PA Data Summary
Key Scientific Issues in the Health Risk Assessment of Trichloroethylene

Weihsueh A. Chiu, Jane C. Caldwell, Nagalakshmi Keshava, and Cheryl Siegel Scott

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a common environmental contaminant at hazardous waste sites and in ambient and 

indoor air. Assessing the human health risks of TCE is challenging because of its inherently complex metabolism 

and toxicity and the widely varying perspectives on a number of critical scientific issues. Because of this 

complexity, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) drew upon scientific input and expertise from a 

wide range of groups and individuals in developing its 2001 draft health risk assessment of TCE. This scientific 

outreach, which was aimed at engaging a diversity of perspectives rather than developing consensus, culminated 

in 2000 with 16 state-of-the-science articles published together as an Environmental Health Perspectives 

supplement. Since that time, a substantial amount of new scientific research has been published that is relevant 

to assessing TCE health risks. Moreover, a number of difficult or controversial scientific issues remain unresolved 

and are the subject of a scientific consultation with the National Academy of Sciences coordinated by the White 

House Office of Science and Technology Policy and co-sponsored by a number of federal agencies, including the 

U.S. EPA. The articles included in this minimonograph provide a scientific update on the most prominent of these 

issues: the pharmacokinetics of TCE and its metabolites, mode(s) of action and effects of TCE metabolites, the 

role of peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor in TCE toxicity, and TCE cancer epidemiology. Key words: 

epidemiology, mode of action, peroxisome proliferators, pharmacokinetics, trichloroethylene, risk assessment.

doi:10.1289/ehp.8690 available via http://dx.doi.org/ [Online 9 May 2006]

Environ Health Perspect. 2006 September; 114(9): 1445–1449.

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Discussion of scientific issues related to TCE risk assessment

Chiu etal 2006.pdf
No useful indoor air concentration data.
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

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NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

No useful indoor air concentration data.

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Citation:

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
IA/PA Data Summary
Trichloroethylene Cancer Epidemiology: A Consideration of Select Issues

Cheryl Siegel Scott and Weihsueh A. Chiu

A large body of epidemiologic evidence exists for exploring causal associations between cancer and 

trichloroethylene (TCE) exposure. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2001 draft TCE health risk 

assessment concluded that epidemiologic studies, on the whole, support associations between TCE exposure 

and excess risk of kidney cancer, liver cancer, and lymphomas, and, to a lesser extent, cervical cancer and 

prostate cancer. As part of a mini-monograph on key issues in the health risk assessment of TCE, this article 

reviews recently published scientific literature examining cancer and TCE exposure and identifies four issues that 

are key to interpreting the larger body of epidemiologic evidence: a) relative sensitivity of cancer incidence and 

mortality data; b) different classifications of lymphomas, including non-Hodgkin lymphoma; c) differences in data 

and methods for assigning TCE exposure status; and d) different methods employed for causal inferences, 

including statistical or meta-analysis approaches. The recent epidemiologic studies substantially expand the 

epidemiologic database, with seven new studies available on kidney cancer and somewhat fewer studies 

available that examine possible associations at other sites. Overall, recently published studies appear to provide 

further support for the kidney, liver, and lymphatic systems as targets of TCE toxicity, suggesting, as do previous 

studies, modestly elevated (typically 1.5–2.0) site-specific relative risks, given exposure conditions in these 

studies. However, a number of challenging issues need to be considered before drawing causal conclusions 

about TCE exposure and cancer from these data. Key words: cancer, drinking water exposures, epidemiology, 

Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 114, No. 9, September 2006

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Epidemiology study

Scott and Chiu 2006.pdf
No useful indoor air concentration data.
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

No useful indoor air concentration data.
No useful indoor air concentration data.
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Title

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Citation:

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
IA/PA Data Summary
Reconstructing population exposures from dose biomarkers: inhalation of trichloroethylene (TCE) as a case study

MICHAEL D. SOHN, THOMAS E. MCKONE, AND JERRY N. BLANCATO

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling is a well-established toxicological tool designed to relate 

exposure to a target tissue dose. The emergence of federal andstate programs for environmental health tracking 

andt he availability of exposure monitoring through biomarkers creates the opportunity to apply PBPK models to 

estimate exposures to environmental contaminants from urine, blood, and tissue samples. However, 

reconstructing exposures for large populations is complicatedby often having too few biomarker samples, large 

uncertainties about exposures, andlarge interindividual variability. In this paper, we use an illustrative case study 

to identify some of these difficulties, and for a process for confronting them by reconstructing population-scale 

exposures using Bayesian inference. The application consists of interpreting biomarker data from eight adult 

males with controlled exposures to trichloroethylene (TCE) as if the biomarkers were random samples from a 

large population with unknown exposure conditions. The TCE concentrations in blood from the individuals fell 

into two distinctly different groups even though the individuals were simultaneously in a single exposure 

chamber. We successfully reconstructedthe exposure scenarios for both subgroupsFalthough the reconstruction 

of one subgroup is different than what is believed to be the true experimental conditions. We were however 

unable to predict with high certainty the concentration of TCE in air.

Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology (2004) 14, 204–213

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

PBPK modeling study; dose reconstruction

Sohn, McKone, Blancato 2004.pdf
No useful indoor air concentration data.
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

No useful indoor air concentration data.
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Title

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Citation:

x

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x

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DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
IA/PA Data Summary
ANALYSIS OF UNCERTAINTY AND VARIABILITY IN EXPOSURE TO CHARACTERIZE RISK: CASE STUDY INVOLVING 

TRICHLOROETHYLENE GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION AT BEALE AIR FORCE BASE IN CALIFORNIA

J. I. DANIELS, K. T. BOGEN and L. C. HALL

Quantitative assessments of potential human-health consequences from contaminants in environmental media 

routinely involve conservative deterministic, screening-level calculations of exposure and risk. Because these 

calculations generally are based on multiple upper-bound point estimates of input parameters, particularly for 

exposure attributes, they can yield results for decision makers that actually overstate the need for costly 

remediation. Alternatively, quantifying uncertainty and variability in exposure can provide a more informative 

and quantitative characterization of health risk. To illustrate, uncertainty and variability in exposure were 

analyzed for a hypothetical population at a specific site in California where there is trichloroethylene (TCE) 

contaminated ground water and a potential for its residential use. When uncertainty and variability in exposure 

were addressed jointly, the 95th-percentile upper-bound value of individual excess lifetime cancer risk was a 

factor approaching 10 lower than the most conservative deterministic estimate. Also, the probability of more 

than zero additional cases of cancer can be estimated, and in this case study it is less than 0.5 for a prospective 

residential population of up to 26,900 individuals present for any 7.6-y interval of a 70-y time period. Clearly, this 

probabilistic approach can provide reasonable and equitable risk-acceptability criteria for contaminated sites.

Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 123: 273–298, 2000.

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Uncertainties associated with modeling TCE expsoure

Daniels etal 2000.pdf
No useful indoor air concentration data.
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

No useful indoor air concentration data.
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Title

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Abstract

Citation:

X

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
IA/PA Data Summary
Assessment of Airborne Exposure to Trihalomethanes from Tap Water in Residential Showers and Baths

B. D. Kerger, C. E. Schmidt, and D. J. Paustenbach

This study evaluates airborne concentrations of common trihalomethane (1'HM) compounds in bathrooms 

during showering and bathing in homes supplied with chlorinated tap water. Three homes in an urban area were 

selected, each having three bedrooms, a füll bath, and approximately 1,000 square feet of living area. THMs 

were concurrently measured in tap water and air in the shower/bath enciosure and the bathroom vanity area 

using Summa can-isters. Chloroform (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), and chiorodibromomethane 

(CDBM) were quantified using U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Method TO-14. Air samples were 

collected prior to, during, and after the water-use event for 16 shower and 7 bath events. Flow rate and 

temperature were measured, but not controlled. The in¬crease in average airbome concentration (± standard 

error) during showers (expressed as g/m3 in shower enciosure or bathroom air per .&gfL in water) was 3.3 ± 0.4 

for TCM, 1.8 ± 0.3 for BDCM, and 0.5 ± 0.1 for CDBM (n = 12), and during baths was 1.2 ± 0.4 for TCM, 0.59 ± 

0.21 for BDCM, and 0.15 ± 0.05 for CDBM (n = 4). The relative contribution of each chemical to the airborne 

concentrations was consistent for all shower and bath events, with apparent release ofTCM > BDCM> CDBM. 

The resuits are therefore consistent with their relative concentration in tap water and their vapor pressures. 

When the shower findings for TCM are normahzed for water concentration, flow rate, shower volume, and 

duration, the average exposure concentrations in these urban residences are about 30% lower than those 

reported by other investigators using EPA analytical methods. This difference is likely attrib-utable primarily to 

greater air exchange rates in residential showerlbath stalls compared to more "airtight" laboratory shower 

chambers. This appears to be the first field study to thor-oughly evaluate THM exposures from residential 

Risk Analysis, Vol 20, No 5, 2000

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Kerger at al., 2000.pdf
No new TCE data

THM data reported, but no original TCE data. Air samples were gathered in SUMMA canisters and analyzed per 

EPA Method TO-14
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

Yes Blanks NR

Yes Spikes NR

Yes Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR External audits NR

No original TCE data (THM data). Air 

samples gathered in SUMMA canisters; 

analyzed per EPA Method TO-14
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Citation:

X

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary

The Transfer of Trichloroethyene (TCE) from a Shower to Indoor Air: Experimental Measurements and Their 

Implications

Thomas E. McKone and John P. Knezovich

Experiments were performed to measure the transfer of trlchloroethylene (TCE), a volatile organic compound 

(VOC), from tap water In showers to Indoor air. In these experiments, the loss of TCE from tap water in the 

shower is based on the difference between Influent and effluent concentrations. We have developed and 

previously published a three-compartment model, which we use to simulate the 24-h concentration history of 

VOCs in the shower, bathroom, and remaining household volumes resulting from the use of contaminated tap 

water. An important input to this model is the transfer efficiency of the VOC from water to air. The experiments 

reveal that the transfer efficiency of TCE from shower water to air has an arithmetic mean value of 61 percent 

and an arithmetic standard deviation of 9 percent. Analysis of the results shows that there Is no statistically 

significant difference between the transfer efficiency measured with hot (37°C) or cold (22°C) shower water and 

that there Is no statistically significant change In transfer efficiency with time during a 20-mln shower. The 

implications for exposure assessment are considered.

J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 41: 832-837

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Experimental TCE transfer efficiency measurements. No residential/indoor air measurements.

McKone & Knezovich 1991.pdf
Paper summarizes the results of laboratory measurements of TCE transfer efficiency. No residential/indoor air 

measurements.
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

Paper summarizes the results of laboratory 

measurements of TCE transfer efficiency. No 

residential/indoor air measurements.
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Title

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DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR TRICHLOROETHYLENE

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and 

Disease Registry

TRICHLOROETHYLENE

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease 

Registry. Toxicological Profile for Trichlorothylene. September 1997

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Literature review of data for use in assessing exposure to TCE. No original data.

Report summarizes the literature data for use in assessing exposure to TCE. No original data.

A survey of indoor air showed median concentrations of trichloroethylene as high as 27 μg / m3 (5.0 ppb) in a 

North Carolina office building; 0.74 μg / m3 (0.14 ppb) in a Washington, DC, school; and 0.82 μg / m3 (0.15 ppb) 

in a Washington, DC, home for the elderly (Hartwell et al. 1985). The level of trichloroethylene in the air of an 

indoor university laboratory was 0.008 ppm (8.0 ppb) (Nicoara et al. 1994). Based on the properties of 

trichloroethylene and a three-compartment model, the levels of trichloroethylene in indoor air have been 

estimated (McKone 1987). If the tap water contained 1 mg/L, the air in the shower during use was estimated to 

be 3.3 ppm, while in the rest of the house it was estimated to be 0.02 ppm during the day (7 am-l 1 pm) and 

ATSDR 1997.pdf
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

Report summarizes the literature data for 

use in assessing exposure to TCE. No original 

data.
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IA/PA Data Summary

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes

ADDENDUM TO THE TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR TRICHLOROETHYLENE

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Division of Toxicology and Human Health Sciences, Atlanta, 

GA 30333 Toxicological profiles are developed in response to the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) 

of 1986 which amended the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 

(CERCLA or Superfund). CERCLA mandates that the Administrator of ATSDR prepare toxicological profiles on 

substances on the CERCLA Priority List of Hazardous Substances and that the profiles be revised “no less often 

than once every three years”. CERCLA further states that the Administrator will “establish and maintain 

inventory of literature, research, and studies on the health effects of toxic substances” [Title 42, Chapter 103, 

Subchapter I, § 9604 (i)(1)(B)]. The purpose of this addendum is to provide, to the public and federal, state, and 

local agencies a non-peer reviewed supplement of the scientific data that were published in the open 

peerreviewed literature since the release of the profile in 1997. Chapter numbers in this addendum coincide 

with the Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene (1997). This document should be used in conjunction with the 

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Division of Toxicology and Human Health Sciences, 

ADDENDUM TO THE TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR TRICHLOROETHYLENE. January 2013

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Literature review of data for use in assessing exposure to TCE. No original data.

Update to previous report; summarizes the literature data for use in assessing exposure to TCE. No original data.

ATSDR 2013.pdf
The U.S. EPA reports the annual mean concentrations of trichloroethylene measured at approximately 300 

locations across the United States between 1998 and 2008. Annual mean trichloroethylene concentrations at 

most of these locations were between 0.01 and 0.3 ppb. Some locations had annual mean levels as high as 

0.7–3.4 ppb (EPA 2011f). McCarthy et al. (2006) have estimated the upper limit for the remote background 

concentration of trichloroethylene in North America to be 0.02 μg/m3.

The mean and median concentrations of trichloroethylene in air samples collected at 25 sites

across Minnesota between 1991 and 1998 were 0.43 and 0.21 μg/m3 (0.08 and 0.04 ppb),

respectively (Pratt et al. 2000). Gordon et al. (1999) detected trichloroethylene in the indoor air of two out of 

185 homes in Arizona with a maximum concentration of 24 μg/m3 (4.39 ppb). Weisel et al. (2008) detected 

trichloroethylene in the air of 8 out of 100 homes located in both suburban and rural areas of New Jersey with 

maximum and 95th percentile values of 13 and 2.74 μg/m3 (2.38 and 0.50 ppb), respectively

Loh et al. (2006) measured geometric mean and maximum trichloroethylene concentrations of 0.43 and 115 

μg/m3 (0.08 and 21.1 ppb), respectively, in the air of over 100 stores in the greater Boston, Massachusetts area 

and 0.23 and 118 μg/m3 (0.04 and 21.6 ppb), respectively, in the air of 20 dining establishments in the same 

region. Martin et al. (2007) measured the concentrations of trichloroethylene at buildings located near an 

industrial facility in Clark County, Georgia. Levels in indoor were 0.92 μg/m3 (0.17 ppb) at an elementary school, 

0.59–1.85 μg/m3 (0.11–0.34 ppb) at a local business, and 0.21–4.66 μg/m3 (0.04–0.85 ppb) in three homes. 

Levels measured in outdoor air at these same locations were 0.72 μg/m3 (0.13 ppb), 1.30–4.59 μg/m3 

(0.24–0.84 ppb), and 0.03–0.05 μg/m3 (0.005–0.009 ppb), respectively.

Mean concentrations of trichloroethylene measured during the Minnesota Children’s Pesticide Exposure Study 

(MCPES) were 0.8 μg/m3 (0.15 ppb) in 73 personal air samples, 0.6 μg/m3 (0.11 ppb) in 101 indoor air samples, 

and 0.6 μg/m3 (0.11 ppb) in 100 outdoor air samples collected from households with children (Adgate et al. 

2004a). During the School Health

Initiative: Environment, Learning, Disease (SHIELD) study, the concentrations of trichloroethylene were 

measured in the outdoor home air, indoor school air, indoor home air, and personal air of 113 children from two 

inner-city schools in Minneapolis, Minnesota (Adgate et al. 2004b). Median concentrations of trichloroethylene 

in each of these sampling groups during both summer and winter were between 0.1 and 0.3 μg/m3 (0.02–0.05 

ppb). The mean concentrations of trichloroethylene measured in the winter during the Toxic Exposure 

Assessment, Columbia/Harvard (TEACH) study were 0.36 μg/m3 (0.07 ppb) in home outdoor air, 1.26 μg/m3 

(0.23 ppb) in home indoor air, and 2.62 μg/m3 (0.48 ppb) in personal air associated with 36 students from west 

central Harlem in New York City (Kinney et al. 2002). Trichloroethylene concentrations measured in the summer 

were 0.24 μg/m3 (0.04 ppb) in home outdoor air, 0.32 μg/m3 (0.06 ppb) in home indoor air, and 0.51 μg/m3 

(0.09 ppb) in personal air associated with 31–40 students from the same area. Clayton et al. (1999) reported 

mean trichloroethylene levels of 5.27 μg/m3 (0.96 ppb) in 386 personal air samples, 2.84 μg/m3

(0.52 ppb) in 402 indoor air samples, and 1.11 μg/m3 (0.20 ppb) in 97 outdoor air samples collected in EPA 

(0.16 and 0.31 ppb), respectively, in the indoor air of four large buildings at the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) Ames Research Center at the southern end of San Francisco Bay. The levels were 

attributed to vapor intrusion from underlying contaminated groundwater. Some elevated outdoor air levels of 

trichloroethylene reported are associated with waste disposal sites. Average trichloroethylene levels of 

0.08–2.43 ppb were detected in ambient air at six landfill sites in New Jersey; the maximum concentration was 

12.3 ppb (Harkov et al. 1985).

Sapkota et al. (2005) measured median and maximum trichloroethylene concentrations of 3.11 and 6.89 μg/m3 

(0.57 and 1.26 ppb), respectively, in the indoor air of a tollbooth at the Baltimore Harbor Toll Plaza and 0.06 and 

0.56 μg/m3 (0.01 and 0.10 ppb), respectively, in the air outside the tollbooth.
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

Update to previous report; summarizes the 

literature data for use in assessing exposure 

to TCE. No original data.
Back to Summary

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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

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DATA CATEGORIES
Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
TOXICOLOGICAL REVIEW OF TRICHLOROETHYLENE (CAS No. 79-01-6) In Support of Summary Information on the 

Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

There is substantial potential for human exposure to trichloroethylene (TCE), as it has a widespread presence in 

ambient air, indoor air, soil, and groundwater. At the same time, humans are likely to be exposed to a variety of 

compounds that are either metabolites of TCE or which have common metabolites or targets of toxicity. Once 

exposed, humans, as well as laboratory animal species, rapidly absorb TCE, which is then distributed to tissues 

via systemic circulation, extensively metabolized, and then excreted primarily in breath as unchanged TCE or 

carbon dioxide, or in urine as metabolites.

For cancer, the inhalation unit risk is 2 × 10-2 per ppm [4 × 10-6 per μg/m3], based on human kidney cancer risks 

reported by Charbotel et al. (2006) and adjusted, using human epidemiologic data, for potential risk for NHL and 

liver cancer. The oral unit risk for cancer is 5 × 10-2 per mg/kg/day, resulting from physiologically based 

pharmacokinetic model-based route-to-route extrapolation of the inhalation unit risk based on the human 

kidney cancer risks reported in Charbotel et al. (2006) and adjusted, using human epidemiologic data, for 

potential risk for NHL and liver cancer. There is high confidence in these unit risks for cancer, as they are based 

on good quality human data, as well as being similar to unit risk estimates based on multiple rodent bioassays. 

There is both sufficient weight of evidence to conclude that TCE operates through a mutagenic mode of action 

for kidney tumors and a lack of TCE-specific quantitative data on early-life susceptibility. Generally, the 

application of age-dependent adjustment factors (ADAFs) is recommended when assessing cancer risks for a 

carcinogen with a mutagenic mode of action. However, because the ADAF adjustment applies only to the kidney 

cancer component of the total risk, it is likely to have a minimal impact on the total cancer risk except when 

EPA/635/R-09/011F September 2011

www.epa.gov/iris

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

EPA 2011a.pdf
TCE Literature review of data in support of IRIS. No original data.

TCE Literature review of data in support of IRIS. No original data.
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

TCE Literature review of data in support of 

IRIS. No original data.
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Title

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Abstract

Citation:

x

x

x

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IA/PA Data Summary

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
Technical Support Document; Proposed Identification of Trichloroethylene as a Toxic Air Contaminant

California Air Resources Board

State of Californial, Air Resources Board, Stationary Source Division. Technical Support Document, Proposed 

Identification of Trichloroethylene as a Toxic Air Contaminant. August 1990.

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Lit. review for use by CA Dept of Health Services in its determina-tion of whether TCE should be identified as 

toxic air contaminant.

TCE Literature review -- no original data.

CARB 1990.pdf
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

TCE Literature review -- no original data.
Back to Summary

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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

DATA CATEGORIES
x

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
Background Indoor Air Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds in North American Residences 

(1990–2005): A Compilation of Statistics for Assessing Vapor Intrusion

USEPA

Indoor air typically contains volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) from consumer products, building materials, and 

outdoor (ambient) air. Indoor air concentrations resulting from these sources are commonly referred to as 

“background” when assessing the potential for intrusion of subsurface contaminant vapors into the indoor air of 

overlying buildings. Any indoor air sample collected for site-specific assessment of subsurface vapor intrusion is 

likely to detect chemicals from these other sources. In many cases, the compounds detected in indoor air may 

be the same as those present in contaminated soil or groundwater that may enter the building through 

subsurface vapor intrusion. The presence of indoor and outdoor sources of VOCs can often make it challenging 

to assess the contribution of vapor intrusion to indoor air concentrations because it is often difficult to 

distinguish background from subsurface contaminant contributions.

This technical report presents a summary of indoor air studies that measured background concentrations of 

VOCs in the indoor air of thousands of North American residences and an evaluation and compilation of the 

statistical information reported in these studies. The objective of this compilation is to illustrate the ranges and 

variability of VOC concentrations in indoor air resulting from sources other than vapor intrusion. Similar 

compilations have been previously published, but these have been based on generally older data or limited 

statistical information.

The compilation of statistical information developed for this technical report is based on 15 indoor air studies 

conducted between 1990 and 2005. These were selected from a total of 18 indoor air quality studies conducted 

between 1981 and 2005, which reported summary statistics for distribution of indoor air concentrations 

measured in residences that are not expected or known to be located over contaminated soil or groundwater or 

that have effective vapor intrusion mitigation systems in place. The information compiled for this technical 

report includes percentiles (e.g., 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and 95th percentiles), number of samples, percent 

EPA 530-R-10-001 June 2011

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

EPA 2011b.pdf
Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

*** Very nice summary of indoor air measurement literature ***

No useful indoor data
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

No useful indoor data
Back to Summary

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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

x

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES
x

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
TSCA Workplan Chemical Risk Assessment for Trichloroethylene: Degreaser and Arts/Crafts Uses

USEPA

Trichloroethylene (TCE) was identified for risk assessment as part of the United States (US) Environmental 

Protection Agency’s (EPA)’s Existing Chemicals Management Program. The US EPA reviewed readily available 

information on TCE including uses, physical and chemistry properties, fate, exposure potential, and associated 

hazards to humans and the environment.

TCE is a volatile organic compound (VOC) that is produced or imported into the US in large quantities (>250 

million lbs (lbs) per year) and has multiple uses. The majority, roughly 84 percent, of TCE is used as an 

intermediate chemical for manufacturing refrigerant chemicals, but no emission information was available 

because it is processed in a closed system. Much of the remaining ~15 percent is used as a solvent for metals 

degreasing, leaving a relatively small percentage to account for all other uses, including its use in consumer 

products.

This assessment is focused on TCE’s use as a degreaser in small commercial settings1 and by consumers in 

residential settings and its use as a clear protective coating spray by arts and crafts hobbyists. Due to TCE’s high 

volatility, all exposures were evaluated for the inhalation exposure pathway only. The US EPA recognizes that 

dermal exposure can occur, but this exposure pathway is considered less significant and was not considered 

within the scope of this risk assessment.

For the exposure assessment, OPPT reviewed available data from three separate sources (i.e., National 

Emissions Inventory [NEI], Toxics Release Inventory [TRI], and the North American Industry Classification System 

[NAICS]) and developed estimates for exposures for the small commercial degreaser use. There were no reliable 

data regarding the hobbyist scenarios, so OPPT estimated hobbyist exposures using a standard exposure 

assessment modeling approach (i.e., EPA’s Exposure and Fate Assessment Screening Tool [E-FAST], Consumer 

Exposure Module [CEM]).

Modeling and evaluation were used to develop exposure estimates for the following exposure scenarios: small 

commercial degreaser worker; consumer/hobbyist degreaser user; and consumer/hobbyist clear protective 

United States Environmental Protection, Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention. TSCA Workplan 

Chemical Risk Assessment for Trichloroethylene: Degreaser and Arts/Crafts Uses. December, 2012.

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

EPA 2012.pdf
Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

TCE TSCA Risk Assessment for degreaser and Arts/Crafts Uses.

No useful indoor data
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

No useful indoor data
Back to Summary

Back to Stats

Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

DATA CATEGORIES
Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
SOURCES, EMISSION AND EXPOSURE FOR TRICHLOROETHYLENE (TCE) AND RELATED CHEMICALS

EPA/600/R-00/099 March 2001

This report is an exposure assessment of Trichloroethylene (TCE), its metabolites, and other chemical 

compounds known to produce identical metabolites. In addition to TCE, other parent compounds considered 

here are 1,1,1-trichloroethane (methyl chloroform), tetrachloroethylene (PCE or PERC), 1,2-dichloroethylene (cis-

, trans-, and mixed isomers), 1,1,1,2-tetrachloroethane, and 1,1-dichloroethane. The metabolites are chloral, 

chloral hydrate, monochloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, and dichloro-vinyl cysteine 

(DCVC). Although listed here, no information was found for the metabolite, DCVC. 

The parent compounds are used in many diverse manufacturing industries such as food processing, textiles, 

wood products, furniture and fixtures, paper, printing and publishing, chemicals, petroleum, rubber, leather, 

stone and clay, primary metals, fabricated metals, industrial machinery, electronics, and transportation 

equipment. They are primarily used as solvents, carriers, or extractants; in dry cleaning of textiles; in metal 

cleaning and degreasing; in textile manufacturing; as insulating fluids/coolants; and as chemical intermediates. 

The metabolites have more restricted uses in industry as chemical intermediates, herbicides, and 

pharmaceuticals.

The major routes of exposure for these chemicals are inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. The following 

paragraphs summarize available information concerning the general population, occupational, and consumer 

exposure to these chemicals. A summary of the potential exposure pathways and potential exposed populations 

for each chemical is presented in Table A-1. Although inhalation seems to be the dominant route of exposure for 

most of the chemicals, exposure can also occur through the ingestion of contaminated foods and drinking water 

and through dermal contact (spills). Using media levels of the chemicals considered here, one may predict the 

EPA/600/R-00/099 March 2001

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

EPA 2001b.PDF
Simulated TCE Exposure scenarios

No original indoor air data 
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

No original indoor air data 
Back to Summary

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Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes
IA/PA Data Summary
A Trichloroethylene Risk Assessment Using a Monte Carlo Analysis of Parameter Uncertainty in Conjunction with 

Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling

Cronin, W. J., Oswald, E. J., Shelley, M. L., Fisher, J. W. and Flemming, C. D.

A Monte Carlo simulation is incorporated into a risk assessment for trichloroethylene (TCE) using physiologicallybased pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling coupled with the linearized multistage model to derive human 

carcinogenic risk extrapolations. The Monte Carlo technique incorporates physiological parameter variability to 

produce a statistically derived range of risk estimates which quantifies specific uncertainties associated with 

PBPK risk assessment approaches. Both inhalation and ingestion exposure routes are addressed. Simulated 

exposure scenarios were consistent with those used by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in their TCE 

risk assessment. Mean values of physiological parameters were gathered from the literature for both mice 

(carcinogenic bioassay subjects) and for humans. Realistic physiological value distributions were assumed using 

existing data on variability. Mouse cancer bioassay data were correlated to total TCE metabolized and areaunder-the-curve (blood concentration) trichloroacetic acid (TCA) as determined by a mouse PBPK model. These 

internal dose metrics were used in a linearized multistage model analysis to determine dose metric values 

corresponding to 10-6 lifetime excess cancer risk. Using a human PBPK model, these metabolized doses were 

then extrapolated to equivalent human exposures (inhalation and ingestion). The Monte Carlo iterations with 

varying mouse and human physiological parameters produced a range of human exposure concentrations 

Cronin, W. J., Oswald, E. J., Shelley, M. L., Fisher, J. W. and Flemming, C. D. (1995), A Trichloroethylene Risk 

Assessment Using a Monte Carlo Analysis of Parameter Uncertainty in Conjunction with Physiologically-Based 

Pharmacokinetic Modeling. Risk Analysis, 15: 555–565. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1995.tb00752.x

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1995.tb00752.x/abstract

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

TCE PBPK modeling study

Cronin etal 1996
No original indoor air data 
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

No original indoor air data 
No original indoor air data 
Back to Summary

Back to Stats

Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

DATA CATEGORIES
x

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
Distribution of volatile organic chemicals in outdoor and indoor air: a national VOCs data base

Jitendra J. Shah , Hanwant B. Singh

The release of many volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) into the ambient environment is a necessary outcome of 

their use. Many of these chemicals are implicated in the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and threaten 

to alter the climate of the earth ( 1 ) . Others are suspected of causing human cancer. The association between 

human cancer and exposure to synthetic chemicals is a matter of active debate and concern (2-5). A Surgeon 

General's report states, "Toxic chemicals are adding to the disease burden of the United States in a significant 

although as yet not precisely defined way" (6).

Determining human exposure to a complex array of chemicals is a key factor in quantifying the relationship 

between environmental factors and human disease. Because people may spend as much as 80-90% of their time 

indoors (7), and because new energy conservation methods could lead to a deterioration of indoor air quality, 

we need to characterize both outdoor and indoor air environments.

Monitoring activities have intensified over the last two decades in the United States. in an because of the public 

awareness and fear of cancer. These activities have generated a significant body of VOC data widely scattered in 

scientific journals and reports. Critics charge that too few chemicals are monitored, the data generated are of 

varying and often questionable quality, and the results are not readily available to users. At least part of the 

problem stems from the complexity of the air mixture and the sophistication that is requid for ultratrace analysis 

of organic chemicals.

In 1980, EPA recognized the need to organize the available data into a single, cohesive format so their quantity, 

quality, and significance could be assessed. A VOC national ambient data base was first prepared in the early 

1980s and published by EPA (8). In 1986, when the data base needed to be expanded to include the large 

amount of ambient VOC data published since 1980, EPA contracted to upgrade and expand the earlier study (9). 

Concurrently, powerful personal computers (PCs) that could be conveniently used for such data bases became 

available. As a result of this study, outdoor as well as indoor data are now available in a unified form for FCs and 

can be used to screen for many environmental problems, including exposure to VOCs. Here we present a first 

Environ. Sci. Technol., 1988, 22 (12), pp 1381–1388

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es00177a001?journalCode=esthag

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Shah & Singh, 1988
Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Database of VOC measurements.

No original indoor air data 
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

Stat & QC Summary
NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

No original indoor air data 
Back to Summary

Back to Stats

Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

x

x

DATA CATEGORIES

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
An Empirical Analysis of the Groundwater-to-Indoor-Air Exposure Pathway: The Role of Background 

Concentrations in Indoor Air

To further our understanding of the groundwater-to-indoor-air exposure pathway, a database of 270 paired 

groundwater and indoor air measurements of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from 31 sites has been 

compiled and analyzed. Using regression analyses, these data have been analyzed to (1) detect evidence of 

indoor air impacts from dissolved petroleum hydrocarbons or chlorinated solvents in underlying groundwater, 

(2) estimate the true attenuation factor for volatilization from groundwater to indoor air, and (3) assess the 

utility of popular groundwater-to-indoor-air transport models for evaluating this exposure pathway. Key findings 

include the following: (1) > 95% of the indoor air concentrations fall within or below the range of national 

background indoor air values; (2) there is no correlation between petroleum constituent concentrations 

measured in groundwater and the concentrations of these VOCs in indoor air of overlying structures; and (3) for 

chlorinated solvent cases, a correlation between groundwater and overlying indoor air is observed; however, the 

average true attenuation factor, after correcting for background, is approximately 6.9 × 10−5, well below the 

default 1 × 10−3 value used by USEPA Vapor Intrusion Guidance to determine groundwater screening levels.

Environmental Forensics, 5:33-44, 2004

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15275920490424024#.UnksXietzS8

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

Analysis of the correlation between ground water and indoor air concentrations, estimated attenuation factors

No original indoor air data 

McHugh etal, 2004
NR Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

NR Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

NR Maximum NR

NR Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

NR Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

Stat & QC Summary

No original indoor air data 
Back to Summary

Back to Stats

Title

and Authors

Abstract

Citation:

DATA CATEGORIES
Location

VOC sampling used passive thermal desorpon

Collected samples were analyzed for 98 target compounds, including aromatic, halogenated, aliphatic, carbonyl and terpenoi

Subject-based monitoring of personal air and home-based indoor air, same 3 consecutive 48 hr sampling periods

5 subjects monitored simultaneously each week

15 VOCs, PM2.5, black carbon, 28 particle trace elements, 2 aldehydes

Sampling Methods

Notes

IA/PA Data Summary
VOCs in industrial, urban and suburban neighborhoods, Part 1: Indoor and outdoor concentrations, variation, 

and risk drivers

Chunrong Jia, Stuart Batterman, Christopher Godwin

Information regarding indoor and ambient concentrations and exposures of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 

is limited in terms of the number and types of compounds measured, the spatial and temporal variation of 

concentrations, and the significance of indoor and outdoor emission sources. This study characterizes a wide 

range of VOCs across three communities that represent a gradient of population density and industrial activity. 

Monitoring was conducted in two seasons inside and outside of 159 residences in industrial, urban and suburban 

cities located in southeast Michigan, USA. Passive samplers were deployed at each location, and analyzed for 98 

compounds. Outdoors, 46 different VOCs were detected. Benzene, toluene, p,m-xylene and carbon tetrachloride 

had the highest concentrations (medians from 1 to 2 μg m−3). Concentraons were elevated in winter in the 

suburban community, and levels were the highest in the industrial community. Indoors, 53 VOCs were detected, 

and benzene, toluene, p,m-xylene, n-heptane, α-pinene and d-limonene had the highest concentrations 

(medians from 1 to 17 μg m−3). Seasonal changes were small or inconsistent. Median indoor levels among the 

three communities generally followed outdoor rankings. Indoor/outdoor ratios varied from 1 to 10 for most 

compounds, but up to 100 for several compounds, e.g., d-limonene. Over a quarter of residences had benzene, 

naphthalene, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride at levels giving a chronic lifetime cancer risk above 10−5 and 

sometimes much higher; outdoors, these compounds gave risks exceeding 10−6. The study idenfies a number 

of indoor emission sources associated with specific and sometimes very high VOC exposures, reports on several 

VOCs that have not been measured in previous indoor and outdoor studies, and shows the importance of both 

indoor and outdoor sources. Measured concentrations were at an intermediate level with respect to recent 

measurements elsewhere in the US, suggesting that study results are broadly representative.

Keywords

Indoor air; Ambient air; Benzene; Exposure; Emissions; Risk; Naphthalene; Seasonality; Volatile organic 

Atmospheric Environment, Volume 42, Issue 9, March 2008, Pages 2083–2100

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231007011028

TCE in indoor air

TCE in outdoor air

TCE personal air

TCE in soil

TCE in water supply

TCE in ground water

TCE in surface water

TCE in breath

TCE in blood

TCE in urine

Consumer product

Vapor intrusion

Inhalation exposure

Dermal exposure

Ingestion exposure

Air modeling

Jia etal 2008
PBPK modeling

Lit review / summary

VOC sampling study conducted in Southeast Michigan in 1999

Southeast Michigan

Winter and Summer, 1999

ng used passive thermal desorpontube samplers, which obtained a 2Lsampling volume over the sampling period (Baerman

amples were analyzed for 98 target compounds, including aromatic, halogenated, aliphatic, carbonyl and terpenoid compounds, using an 

ed monitoring of personal air and home-based indoor air, same 3 consecutive 48 hr sampling periods

monitored simultaneously each week

M2.5, black carbon, 28 particle trace elements, 2 aldehydes

Personal samples, battery operated pump, VOC thermal desorption tube (multi-sorbent "Air toxics" tubes, TO-17)
226 Number of measurments NR

NR Minimum detection limit (MDL) NR

NR Percent above MDL NR

0.03 Arithmetic mean NR

NR Arithmetic std. dev. NR

NR Geometric mean NR

NR Geometric std. dev. NR

NR Minimum NR

NR 25th percentile NR

NR 50th percentile NR

NR 75th percentile NR

0.23 Maximum NR

Stat & QC Summary
Yes Blanks NR

NR Spikes NR

Yes Duplicates NR

NR Internal audits NR

NR External audits NR

 (Baermanet al., 2002).

d compounds, using an automated thermal desorption–gas chromatography– mass spectrometry (ATD–GC–MS) system.

N=

Compound DF Ave Med Max

TCE 49 0.03 0 0.23

Personal samples, battery operated pump, 

VOC thermal desorption tube (multi-sorbent 

"Air toxics" tubes, TO-17)

226

All seasons

GC–MS) system.

Ave Med Ave Med Ave Med Ave Med Ave

0.01 0 0.05 0.04 0.01 0 0.05 0.05 0.01

Winter

29

Spring

40

Summer

40

Winter

42

Summer

30

Med Ave Med

0 0.04 0.04

Spring

40

Fall

45