Technical Support Document for U.S. EPA’s Proposed Rule for Numeric Nutrient Criteria,

Volume 2 Coastal Waters

App endix A. 

# Appendix A: A Review o f Reference

Conditions i n Florida’s Coastal Waters

November 30 , 2012Technical Support Document for U.S. EPA’s Proposed Rule for Numeric Nutrient Criteria,

Volume 2 Coastal Waters



### Contents

1. Introduction

....................................................................................................................... A-1

2. Coastal Systems

................................................................................................................. A-2

2.1. Physical Characteristics

................................................................................................ A-2

2.1.1. Impaired Coastal Waters

.................................................................................. A-9

2.2. Resident Biological Communities

................................................................................ A-9

2.2.1. Northwest Panhandle

....................................................................................... A-9

2.2.2. West Gulf Coast

............................................................................................. A-10

2.2.3. Atlantic Coast

................................................................................................. A-12

2.3. Status of Neighboring Estuarine Systems

.................................................................. A-13

2.3.1. Northwest Panhandle

..................................................................................... A-13

2.3.2. West Gulf Coast

............................................................................................. A-14

2.3.3. Atlantic Coast

................................................................................................. A-16

3. Summary of Regional Trends

........................................................................................ A-17

4. References

........................................................................................................................ A-19

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### Figures

Figure A -1. Coastal regions and their segments for the purpose of deriving numeric

nutrient criteria for Florida’s coastal waters

............................................................ A-2

Figure A

- 2. Northwest Gulf Coast area map

.............................................................................. A-3

Figure A -3. Northern Gulf of Mexico summer surface current climatology (Johnson 2008)

........................................................................................................................ A-4

Figure A -4. Northern Gulf of Mexico non-summer surface current climatology (Johnson 2008)

........................................................................................................................ A-4

Figure A -5. Area map of Florida’s west Gulf Coast

................................................................... A-6

Figure A -6. Area map of Florida’s Atlantic Coast

..................................................................... A-8

Figure A -7. 1998-2009 chlorophyll RS a values (mg/m 3 ) for Florida’s three defined coastal regions

................................................................................................................... A-19



### Tables

Table A -1. WBIDs with EPA-approved 303(d) listings along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts

of Florida

................................................................................................................. A-9

Table A -2. Average annual surface and bottom concentrations of phosphate and nitrate (as mg/L) at the 33, 82, and 164 ft (10, 25, and 50 m) isob aths (adapted from Vargo et al. 2008). Each value is the average of monthly measurements (±SD).

.................................................................................................................... A-15

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### Abbreviations and Acronyms

DO dissolved oxygen

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

ft feet

ft 2 square feet

g gram

HAB harmful algal bloom

km kilometer

km 2 square kilometer

L liter

m meter

m 2 square meter
mg/L milligrams per liter

mi mile

mi 2 square mile

μM micromole

NH 4 ammonium

ng nanogram

NO 3 ni trate

PO 4 phosphate

TN total nitrogen

TP total phosphorus

WBID water bo dy identification number

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### 1. **Introduction**

The objective of this document is to provide a thorough summary of the best available information concerning the state of water quality conditions in Florida’s coastal waters. Currently, Florida coastal waters have few nutrient (TN, T P, chlorophyll a ) field data available,

as sparse observations have been collected on the n orthwest Gulf Coast and Atlantic Coast.

There are also no actual measurements of nutrients for many coastal areas

, and a deficient

number of existing assessments to determine whether co a stal impairments currently exist

. Despite a lack of information regarding impaired coastal waters in Florida’s I mpaired W aters
Rule and monitoring programs, high rates of nutrient transport have occasionally been linked to

Florida’s growing human population, various industries, and agriculture (Lapointe et al. 2005; Lapointe and Bedford 2007; Vargo et al. 2008). Given the variability of coastal water quality

data available in Florida , information on neighboring estuar ine systems was also collected to
establ ish multiple lines of evidence on the reference condition of thes e waters and whether there is any reasonable indicat ion of water quality degradation with respect to nutrients. Thus, known conditions in neighboring estuarine waters can inform the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) of the reference conditions in nearby coastal segments.

For this review, coastal waters are defined by EPA as marine waters up to three nautical miles

fr om shore, but exclude estuaries that are generally semi

- enclosed waters connected to the open

sea , defined at the upstream limit by average salinity equal to 2.7 practical salinity units

, and at the seaward margin by the natural limits of the semi

- enclosed basin

. Florida coastal waters have been organized into three regions ( Figure A -1) : Atlantic Coast (between Biscayne Bay and the Georgia State b order), West Florida Shelf (between Anclote Bay and Rookery Bay), and Florida Panhandle ( between Alabama State border and St. Joseph Bay). The information collected for

each coastal region can help EPA deduce whether the numeric criteria derived under a reference condition approach will not only be protective of water quality in these areas, but also of their designated uses . While no conclusions will be made in this review, the accumulation of available information will help EPA determine reference conditions for these waters.

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Figure A-1 . Coastal regions and their segments for the purpose of deriving numeric nutrient criteria for Florida’s

coastal waters



### 2. **Coastal Systems**

**2.1. Physical**  **C haracteristics** 

Coastal systems receive nutrients from several major inputs including rivers, groundwater, and atmospheric deposition. The fate and transport of landward nutrients to coastal systems is a dynamic and complex process. Several forcing mechanisms such as winds, tides, freshwater inflow, and ocean currents affect the spatial and temporal nature of physical exchange between

the nearshore and coastal environments (Hubertz et al. 2005). T here are biogeochemical

considerations that can dictate the transformation of nutrient constituents as they move along the

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freshwater to marine continuum (Jickells 1998 ). Human modifications between the sea and

interio r water bodies, and control of freshwater releases, can also affect mixing and residence

time of water constituents.

Northwest Coast

The n orthwest Gulf Coast includes the coastal portions from St. Joseph Bay to the Florida/Alabama border at Perdido Bay. Neighboring bays include Perdido , Pensacola, Choctawhatchee, St. Andrews, and St. Joseph b ay s ( FMRI 2002) ( Figure A -2 ). The majority of the region is separated from contact with the mainland and bays by barrier islands that line the Panhandle. There is a lack of open mixing between the water in the bays and the greater coastal areas in this region, due to few natural openings to the Gulf of Mexico (Livingston 2001).

Figure A-2

. Northwest Gulf Coast area map

W ind appears to be a major factor in circulation and salinity in the nearby shallow Gulf estuaries. Currents in the northwest Gulf Coast change seasonally. In the summer (June to August), winds typically blow surface currents north, toward the shore; in non-summer months, winds blow the currents west/southwest ( Figure A-3 and Figure A-4) (Johnson 2008).

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Figure A-3 . Northern Gulf of Mexico summer surface current climatology (Johnson 2008)

Figure A-4 . Northern Gulf of Mexic o non

- summer surface current climatology (Johnson 2008)

River flow patterns are an important feature of stratification and salinity distribution, also impacting color, turbidity, and primary productivity in these locations. The major sources of

freshwater surface flow into the Gulf come from Perdido Bay , Pensacola Bay , Choctawhatchee Bay , St. Andrews Bay , and St. Joseph Bay watersheds. In these areas, urbanization has contributed to the degradation of aquatic conditions, from sources such as stormwater runoff and sewage leakage. This has led to higher TN and TP in the water column , especially because of the lack of flushing in these estuarine systems (Livingston 2001). While there is historical evidence of biological imbalance of faunal commun ities and high phytoplankton productivity in the estuaries, there is little evidence of these effects in the neighboring coastal waters.

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West Gulf Coast

The w est Gulf Coast is on Florida’s western central coast along the Gulf of Mexico. The stretch

of coastal waters includes areas outside of St. Joseph Sound, Clearwater Harbor

, Tampa Bay, Sarasota, Charlot te Harbor, and Rookery Bay ( Figure A-5 ). Barrier islands stretch 60 miles (mi ) (97 kilometers [ km] ) along the shoreline, from Tampa Bay to Charlotte Harbor (SWFWMD 2000). The barrier islands are com posed of Miocene limestone beneath Holocene and

Pleistocene sediments (Davis et al. 2003).

In general, waters in the West Florida Shelf are oligotrophic (Vargo et al. 2008). During the

summer , the gulf currents flow from the south in the lower portions of the w est G ulf Coast, and from the north in the upper portions (See Figure A-3). During non-summer months, the current flows from the north along the entire w est G ulf C oast (see Figure A-4 ) (Johnson 2008). Along southwest Florida, l and bas ed nutrient discharges have been historically linked to the development of harmful algal blooms (HABs)

, primarily macroalgae (or seaweeds) that have grown with expanding urbanization of the watershed, discharges from the Peace and

Caloosahatchee rivers, runoff from treated sewage used in agriculture, drainage from the Everglades Agricultural Area, and sewage leachate . A st udy performed by Lapoint e and Bedford (2007) found that drifts of rhodophyte blooms off of Lee County’s coastal waters are linked to land based nutrient pollution. Blooms such as these affect the composition of the water column a considerable distance offshore, highlighting the m obility of their negative ecological impacts. Lapointe and Bedford (2007) showed nitrogen and phosphorus pollution extending 16 mi (26 km) offshore of Lee County from elevated nutrient loading during the fall of 2004, after a drift macroalgal community was hed ashore in July and August. Between August and October, ammonium (NH 4 ) concentrations on coastal reefs increased from less than or equal to 0.0028 to 0.0183 milligrams per liter [mg/L] as nitrogen (0.20 to 1.31 μ M ) and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) increased from 0.009 to 0.028 mg/L as phosphorus (0.30 to 0.92 μ M ) (Lapointe and Bedford 2007). 1

In addition to macroalgae, blooms of Karenia brevis (also known as red tides) frequently occur on the west Gulf Coast and have been known to last for months (Vargo et al. 2008). Blooms are thought to initiate in offshore waters and get blown toward shore by wind and ocean currents. The West Florida Shelf experiences slope

- shelf upwelling that is persistent, intermittent or event

related. The upwelling allows blo oms to occur any time of the year, but the majority occurs in the late summer and fall. This area of the shelf also experiences fronts, where nutrient regimes and light conditions often favor phytoplankton accumulation and growth. It only takes 2– 8 weeks for blooms to grow to fish-killing proportions (1–2.5x10 5 cell s /L) once initial growth occurs (Tester and Steidinger 1997). In both estuaries and coastal waters off the southwest coast of Florida, blooms of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa (a widely distributed species) and associated high levels of its toxi n microcystin have raised concerns ( Lapointe et al . 2005 ). These toxins have threatened designated use of these waters by calling into question the safety of the water for drinking, recreation, and fishing ( Burns 2008 ).

1 The authors reported concentrations in M (moles) or μM in the literature (in parenthes e s).

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Figure A-5

. Area map of Florida’s w est Gulf Coast

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Atlantic Coast
Figure A -6 shows a map of Florida’s Atlantic Coast. Florida’s northern Atlantic Coast is separated from the mainland by a barrier island system consisting of numerous small bays and lagoons, and three inlets (St. Augustine, Matanzas, and Ponce de Leon) (FDEP 2005). Tidal exchange, wind patterns, and freshwater inflow are all cited as major drivers of mixing between estuaries and the Atlantic Ocean in this region (SJRWMD 2003). In a study using radioactive isotopes, Moore (1996) found that groundwater fluxes to the coastal ocean could be comparable to those of the region’ s rivers and can also be a significant contributing factor to coastal water quality (Moore 1996). The literature reviewed for this document did not provide evidence that there were nutrient related impacts in the offshore coastal waters adjacent to estuaries in

northeast Flori da.

The east coast of Florida is impacted by algal blooms that originate on the west coast. Gulf of Mexico blooms of the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve are occasionally carried around the Florida peninsula by the Loop Current and northward by the Gulf St ream (Van Dolah 2000) . The first reported case of this was documented by Murphy et al. (1975). That bloom was attributed to an unusual Loop Current pattern that carried the organisms detected in late September 1972 in

southwest Florida waters (Murphy et al . 1975) . All samples collected from sites from Ft. Lauderdale to Cape Canaveral contained G. breve except those from the Ft. Pierce, Vero Beach, and Cape Canaveral areas (Murphy et al. 1975).

Phaeophyte Dictyota spp., calcareous chlorophyte Halimeda spp., and cyanobacterium Lyngbya spp. blooms have occurred on oligotrophic coral reefs in the offshore areas of Dade and Broward counties. On northern coral reefs off Palm Beach County, blooms of the chlorophytes Codium spp. and Caulerpa spp. have been recurring since 1990. Data collected from water column

mo nitoring of dissolved inorganic and organic nutrients, and algal t issue for carbon

- nitrogen

phosphorus ratios suggests that the taxonomic shifts seen in the macroalgal blooms we re related to nitrogen-phosphorus ratio availability. For example, in a study conducted by Lapointe et al. (2010), nitrogen -phosphorus tissue ratios (35:1 –70:1) in Dade and Broward counties we re higher

than that of Palm Beach County (33:1). The differences in nitrogen -phosphorus ratio s are attributed to “natural patterns in geological substrata as well as anthropogenic nutrient enrichment of the watershed” (Collier et al. 2008; Lapointe et al. 2010 ).

Between 2002 and 2004, Tichenor (2003, 2004 ) characterized Lyngbya blooms along the Gul f Stream Reef, southeast of Boyton Beach Inlet. The authors observed significant impacts to the reef ecosystem during and after the Lyngbya blooms including: the colonization of sponges and corals by algal filaments, the exclusion of reef fish, and structural damage to corals from the physical burden of algal colonization that eventually resulted in exposed areas and scoured bottoms. Further investigation into possible causes of the blooms found that discharges from th e Delray ocean outfall (1.2 mi [1.9 km] up-current of the Gulf Stream Reef ) were strongly correlated to the occurrence and intensity of the blooms (Tichenor 2004 ).

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Figure A-6

. Area map of Florida’s Atlantic Coast

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- approved 303(d) listings along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of Florida

WBID Estuary Date Listed Impairment

8106 Indian River 9/2/2009 DO 8010 Choctawhatchee/St. Andrews 5/12/2010 DO

8037 Waccasassa 9/2/2009 Nutrients and chlorophyll a

8115 Indian River 9/2/2009 DO

8110 Indian River 9/2/2009 DO

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Subsequent studies suggested a more direct link between land-based anthropogenic nutrient inputs and HABs. Lapointe et al. (2005), for example, determined through isotope analysis that nitrogen from wastewater contributed more heavily to blooms of Caulerpa branchypus in

southeastern Florida than nitrogen from natural upwelling. A similar study by Lapointe and Bedford (2010) used isotope analysis to determine that C. branchypus blooms impacting coral reefs in southeast Florida were disproportionately enriched by land-based nutrients. Carr et al. (2000) observed that effluent from nearby ocean outfalls was quickly diluted and distributed over a wide area and unlikely to enhance C. branchypus growth in the region.

**2.1.1. Impaired Coastal Waters** 

Within Florida’s three coastal regions, there are six coastal

, Class III marine water body identification numbers ( WBID s) that are verified as impaired on FDEP ’s 303(d) list of impaired

waters approved by EPA (see Table A-1 ). Of these six WBIDs, five (WBIDs 8010, 8106, 8108, 8110, and 8115 ) are impaired for dissolved oxygen ( DO ). The remaining WBID (8037), which is not an EPA coastal segment, is impaired for nutrients and chlorophyll a

.



### 2.2. **Resident Biological Communities**

**2.2.1. Northwest Panhandle** 
Coral/Hardbottom Community : There are e xtensive areas of low

- lying carbonate reef platforms

in the West Florida Shelf that provide substrate for sessile benthos, including sponges, corals, tunicates, gorgonians, hydroids, bryozoans, attached bivalves, crinoids, and ophioroids (FMRI 2002).

Invertebrates : A survey of the West Florida shelf conducted in the 1970s found nematodes were the most abundant meiobenthic group. Harpacticoid copepods were relatively abundant. Other invertebrates were turbellarian, gastrotrichs, priapulids, crustacean larvae, polych eate larvae, kinorynchs, tardigrads, coelentorates, and halacarid mites (Alexander et al. 1977). On the basis of a

1977

– 1978 survey by Dames & Moore (1979) , meiobenthos were found to generally decrease with depth, with the greatest mean densities at depths less than 130 feet (ft) (40 meters [m]).

The two dominant invertebrate species in the northwest G ulf C oast are Tellina versicolor and

Crassinella martin icensis ; farther east, the species are more variable. Species richness generally

decreases with greater depths. Maximum abundances are generally observed during fall, which indicates spawning in the spring or summer (Dames & Moore 1979).

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There are two species of sc allops in the northwest G ulf C oast area

— calico scallops ( Argopecten gibbus ) and bay scallops ( A. irridians ) (FMRI 2002).

Fish : K ing mackerel ( Scomberomorus cavalla ) and Atlantic Spanish mackerel ( S. maculatus ) are migratory species found in this region during summer (Sutherland and Fable 1980).

Two stations al ong the Gulf Coast Shelf were sampled by trawl during May and June of 2000.

The fish collected at these stations included deepbody boarfish ( Antigonia capros ), bullseye grenadier ( Bathygadus macrops ), thickbeard grenadier ( Coryphaenoides zaniophorus )

, tadpole whiptail ( Squalogadus modificatus )

, and a rmored searobin ( Peristedion miniatum ). The dominant species caught a re not commercially important species , but are captured as by- catch (Powell et al. 2003). Important commercial fisheries in the coastal area include shrimp trawl, blue crab trap/pot, stone crab trap/pot, and menhaden (NOAA 2009).

Birds and Mammals : A variety of birds can be found along the northwest coast of Florida. Species that are around the Choctawhatchee Bay in Okaloosa County include American robins, yellow

- bellied sapsuckers, yellow -rumped warblers, tufted titmice, finches, western tanagers,pelicans, herons, bald eagles, ospreys, gulls, terns, egrets, blue jays, northern mockingbirds, redheaded woodpeckers, brown thrashers, northern cardinals, cormorants, sparrows, catbirds, raptors, flycatchers, nuthatches, wrens, white-winged dove, purple martins, rose- breasted grosbeaks, veer ie s, green herons, gannets, and snowy plovers (Choctawhatchee Audubon Society No date) . Black skimmers ( Rhynchops niger ) and least terns ( Sterna antillarum ) have also been found to nest along the northwest Gulf Coast of Florida (Gore 1991).

A population of bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncates ) lives in the coastal waters of northwestern Florida. The population estimate in 1993 was 4,191 and has not been estimated

since (NOAA 2009).

**2.2.2. West Gulf Coast** 

Seagrasses : Dawes (1985) found that the most abundant seagrass species in the Anclote Key area was turtle grass ( Thalassia testudinum ). Lush populations of this species occurred in the open

waters between A nclote Key and the mainland. Generally, turtle grass is found in areas with stable salinities ranging from 25 to 40 percent at depths of 1.6–33 ft (0.5– 10 m) (Dawes 1985).

The second most abundant species around Anclote Key was man a tee grass ( Syringodium f

iliforme ). This seagrass most commonly grows in dense beds at salinities of 20 to 40 practical salinity units and depths of 1.6–33 ft (0.5–10 m), although it can be found at depths of 33–66 ft (10–20 m) (Dawes 1985). Shoal grass ( Halodule wrightii ) is more tolerant of low salinities and

can surv ive in salinities down to 10 percent; it is one of the first species to establish on the sand shoals, and is commonly found in shallow waters of 0.7 ft (0.2 m) (Dawes 1985). Star grass ( Halophila engelmanni ) is commonly found growing among turtle grass and manatee grass, however it is often over looked due to its small size of 2–3 in (5–8 centimeters) (Dawes 1985). Wigeon grass ( Ruppia maritime ) is only found in salinities lower than 15 practical salinity units

, and therefore does not grow in open ocean waters. It is commonly found near the mouth of the

Anclote River (Dawes 1985). Between 1957 and 1973 there were drastic changes to the seagrass beds along the barrier island of Anclote Key, just north of St. Petersburg. Aerial photos from

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1973 showed the seagrass bed that was on the seaward side of the island entirely disappeared

. T he exact timing and the cause for the change is unknown (Hine et al. 1987).

Coral/Hardbottom Community : Coral populations were studied in the southern portion of the

w est G ulf Coast, approximately 1,000 ft (300 m) offshore of Collier County, in waters no deeper than 30 ft (9 m). F our species of stony corals were found: Siderastrea siderea, Solenastrea hyades, Oculina robusta, and Phyllangia americana. S. siderea was the most dominant species observed in the study area. Two octocoral species were identified in the study area, Lept ogorgia virgulata and L. hebes , found in low abundance (Makowski and Keyes 2011).

Invertebrates : Sponges comprise the majority of benthic invertebrate species identifie d in the

west Gulf Coast . Species include Cliona delitrix, C. langae, C. celata, Siphonodictyon coralliphagum, Anthosigmella varians (which are all bioeroding species), Cinachyra sp., Holopsamma helwigi, and Leucetta barbata (which are nonbioeroding species) (Makowski and Keyes 2011).

Other benthic invertebrates (i.e., anemone, annelids, arthropods, barnacles, and bivalves) comprise less than 0.1 percent of the reported cover (Makowski and Keyes 2011). Bay s callops ( A. irradians ) are found along the coast of Anclote Estuary, which is at the northern end of the

w est Gulf C oast area. The average scallop densities for the 20 sample sites were consistently less than 5 per 6,500 square feet (ft 2 ) ( 600 square meters [ m 2 ]) in 1995 and 1996. Densities never exceeded 27 adult scallops at any station. In order to reduce pressure on low-density populations of bay scallops, Florida Marine Fisheries Commission eliminated recreational fisheries south of

the Suwannee Ri ver in 1995, including the w est G ulf C oast (Arnold et al. 1998).

Fish : A 1994–1997 fish assemblage study conducted off the weste rn coast of Florida found

111 species, represent ing 38 families. The majority (79 –84% ) of the species caught were pinfish ( Lagodon rhomboides )

, round sardinella ( Sardinella aurita )

, round scad ( Decapterus punctatus )

, Tomtate grunt ( Haemulon aurolineatum )

, silver jenny ( Eucinostomus spp.)

, s caled s ardine ( Harengula jaguana )

, and Atlantic bumper ( Chloroscombrus chrysurus ). The f ish were most influenced by bottom- type differences (Pierce and Mahmoudi 2001).

There is a recreational fishery of king mackerel ( S. cavalla ) off the west

- central coast of Florida. Interviews conducted during 19 seasonal tournaments in April–May and October–November 2004 and 2005 found that positive catch rates of king mackerel were influenced by chlorophyll a levels and season. Intermediate water clarity also led to higher catch rates. The red tide bloom of

K. brevis decreased catch rates, which were attributed to decreased water quality (Wall et al. 2009).

In the southern portion of the w est G ulf Coast, off Collier County, pelagic and benthic fish species include : gag groupers ( Mycteroperca microlepis ), juvenile grunts ( Haemulon sp.), common snook ( Centropomus undecimalis ), file fish of the Moacanthidae family, leopard searobins ( Prionotus scitulus ), gray snappers ( Lutjanus griseus ), yellowtail snapper ( Ocyurus chrysurus ), porkfish ( Anisotremus virginicus ), Atlantic spadefish ( Chaetodipterus faber ), black groupers ( Mycterperca bonaci ), the bridled goby ( Coryphopterus glaucofraenum ), goliath groupers ( Epinephelus itajara ), lookdowns ( Selene vomer ), sheepshead seabreams ( Archosargun probatocephalus ), lizardfish ( Syndous sp.), belted sandfish ( Serranus subligaruis ), nurse sharks

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( Ginglymostoma cirratum ), and polka-dot batfish ( Ogcocephalus radiatus ) (Makowski and Keyes 2011).

Birds and Mammals : The whooping c rane ( Grus americana ) was reduced to 21 individuals in 1941/1942. To reintroduce the whooping c ran e into wild populations, t he Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuge along Florida’s western coast was selected as a wintering ground. Between 2001 and 2005, 71 birds were released to the Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuge wintering site (Urbanek et a l. 2010).

**2.2.3. Atlantic Coast** 

Seagrasses : Six species of seagrasses commonly found in south Florida are turtle grass, manatee grass, shoal grass, paddle grass ( H. decipiens ), star grass , and widgeon grass (Fourqurean et al. 2002). Turtle grass is often dominant in areas of stable salinity, stable sediments , and high light availability while shoal grass and manatee grass are more often found in slightly deeper or more frequently disturbed areas (Fourqurean et al. 2002). In contrast, Halophila species are generall y restricted to low light environments (Fourqurean et al. 2002). Specific information on the current areal extent of seagrass species in south Florida is lacking (Fourqurean et al. 2002). Duarte (1991) found that seagrasses are capable of occupying areas f rom mean sea level down to a depth of 295 ft (90 m).

Nutrient availability was also posited as a determining factor in turtle grass distribution (Fourqurean et al. 2002).

Invertebrates : Lindeman et al. (2009) reported that over 533 species of invertebrates have been identified along the east Florida coast including sponges, polychaetes, echinoderms, crabs, and shrimp. The authors also found that disturbances to nearshore hardbottom habitat (found especially in the central and southern areas of the Atlantic coast) could affect the abundance of invertebrates (sponges, corals, crabs, shrimp, worms, gastropods, bivalves), which can alter the nearshore food web (Lindeman et al. 2009). Chronic turbidity along the coast could affect the fitness and survival of susp ension feeders , and reduced visibility could affect predator

- prey interactions (Lindeman et al. 2009).

Oyster beds are located near the Halifax River and Tolomato

- Matanzas estuaries to the north (FDEP 2010b). Oysters are typically regarded as a primary sensitive aquatic resource , though no functional relationship has been found between nutrient levels and oysters (FDEP 2010b, 2010c).

Fish : Approximately 257 species of fish have been identified in nearshore hardbottom habitats along the central and southern Atlantic Coast (Lindeman et al. 2009).

D redge

- and

- fill activities resulted in burial of nearshore bottom habitat at Carlin Park ( 1.2 mi [2 km] south of Jupiter Inlet) which lowered the abundance of species and individuals (Lindeman and Snyder 1999). Fish populations have also been affected by phytoplankton blooms (Murphy et al. 1975). Atlantic Spadefish, common prior to the 2002 cyanobacterial bloom, were no longer present. The authors also sugge st the decline of the local lobster fishery due to bloom impacts on mating and laying eggs (Tichenor 2003, 2004 ).

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Reptiles and Amphibians : Nearshore hardbottom habitat off the central and southern Atlantic

coast of Florida appears to provide intermediate l ife stage habitat for juvenile marine turtles, particular ly green, loggerhead, and hawksbill turtles, whose residency is approxim ately 2 to

5 years

. Marine turtle species experience indirect effects from poor water quality due to impacts to their food resources (Lindeman et al. 2009). Food sources that could be affected include mollusks and crustaceans (key food sources for loggerheads), sponges (a common food source for hawksbills), and macroalgae (a primary food source for green turtles) (Lindeman et al. 2009).

Birds and Mammals : The Florida Atlantic Coast is home to many species of birds. Species of pelagic birds found in the area include northern gannets, magnificent frigate birds, and jaegers (Space Coast Audubon Society 2001). Species found closer to shore include sanderlings, willets, red knots, ruddy turnstones, black-bellied plovers, piping plovers, laughing gulls, ring- billed gulls, herring gulls, great black-backed gulls, Caspian terns, royal terns, sandwich terns, common terns, Foster’s terns and least turns (Space Coast Audubon Society 2001).

The Atlantic Coast is home to the West Indian manatee ( Trichechus manatus ). These large, slowmoving mammals feed primarily on seagrass es and many migrate between warmer areas during the winter (northern Biscayne Bay to Port Everglades, Florida) and cooler areas in the summer (lower [northern] St. Johns River to Brunswick, Georgia ). A small percentage (12%) remains in one localized area year round (Deutsch et al. 2000). Humans represent the primary threat to manatee populations via direct effects, such as the hazards presented by watercraft collisions, and indirect effects, such as impacts to water quality and the effects of increasing coastal development (Deutsch et al. 2000).



### 2.3. **Status of Neighboring Estuarine Systems** 

**2.3.1. Northwest Panhandle** 

There are several impairments in estuarine waters adjacent to the northwest Gulf Coast ( USEPA 2005) . A complete list of Class II and Class III marine WBIDs listed for a nutrient

- related

parameter includ ed o n Florida’s CWA section 303(d) list approved by EPA in these estuarine

systems are described in detail in Volume 1 of the TSD, Appendix A. Estuarine waters adjacent

to t he n orthwest Gulf Coast are usually described as having low turbidity and su pportin g healthy and relatively sizable seagrass coverage . Many of these areas also remain less heavily developed compared to other coastal areas in Florida, possibly attributed to the large abundance of state conservation land and managed aquatic preserves (Livingston 2001). There have been reports of

increased stormwater runoff into the estuaries from coastal development and freshwater inputs. Climatic events increase freshwater input into areas such as Pensacola Bay, stimulating an increase in phytoplankton biomass (Hagy et al. 2006).

A mass mortality of blacktip sharks ( Carcharhinus limbatus ) and Atlantic sharpnose sharks ( Rhizoprionodon terraenovae ) occurred in northwest Florida in October 2000 in conjunction

with a red tide bloom of K. brevis

. Flewelling et al. (2010) analyzed brevetoxin concentrations in the tissues of six sharpnose sharks and three blacktip sharks collected in the northwest G ulf Coast region during two red tides in October 2000 and September 2005. Brevetoxin

concentrations r an ging from 31 to 1,057 nanograms (ng) of Brevetoxin -3 (PbTx-3) equivalents

per gram ( g) of tissue were found in the muscles, liver, gill, kidney, brain, and gastrointestinal

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tissues of the specimen s collected. Cell counts of K. brevis collected in the water ranged between 300,000 to 19,900,000 cells/L (Flewelling et al. 2010)

.

Unusual mortalit ies of dolphins along the Florida Panhandle have coincided with K. brevis blooms. Between August 1999 and May 2000, the death of 152 dolphins was attributed to

K. brevis (NOAA 2009)

. Later, b etween March 10 and April 13, 2004, 107 bottlenose dolphins

and hundreds of fish and marine invertebrates were found dead along the Florida Panhandle. Analyses of the dolphin tissues found high levels of brevetoxin ( Flewelling e t al. 2005; NOAA 2004). Between September 2005 and April 2006, 90 bottlenose dolphin strandings occurred along the Florida Panhandle, also associated with a K. brevis bloom, which occurred in September 2005. Brevetoxin was found in the tissues of the stran ded dolphins (NOAA 2009)

.

Vegetation damage from coastal development and storms can lead to an increase in future nutrient exports to coastal waters , which is an issue that is expected to worsen with the expanding coastal development . For example, the moni toring program in St. Jo seph Bay recorded an increase in microalgae cover over the last several years that is associated with nutrient loadings from stormwater runoff. According to their water quality monitoring program, primarily focused on nutrients, there has been a slight increase in TN and TP in St. Jo seph Bay between December 2000 and May 2006 (FDEP 2008).

Major uses of the s tate p reserves in the northwest are recreational fishing, boating, diving, swimming, and commercial navigation. Currently, these uses are being met in coastal waters, despite some evidence of nutrient pollution in the neighboring estuaries (FDEP 1991). The northwest coastal region contains many aquatic preserves and s tate conserved lands that extend

3 mi (4.8 km) out from the coast, such as the Apalachicola Bay, St. Andrews Bay, and St. Joseph Bay state aquatic preserves, which are also designated as Outstanding Florida Water site s. 2 As of July 1, 2011, all management activities, research, and monitoring in the Apalachicola, St.

An drews, and St. Jo seph bays has ended due to state budgetary concerns (FDEP 2011).

Given the current status of these estuaries and the relatively small amount of anthropogenic

alteration in the northwest panhandle region compared to other regions in the s tate , a reference condition approach using recent data would appear to support designated uses.

**2.3.2. West Gulf**  **Coast**

In cont rast to the n orthwest, the estuarine regions adjacent to the west Gulf Coast display greater variation in water quality across several systems. These differences cause the applicability of a

reference condition approach in coastal waters to vary according to more specific locations. Variable land uses and their proximity to surface waters cause differences among regions’

es tuarine and coastal water quality (CHNEP 2009).

The main source of nitrogen to nearshore coastal waters is from estuarine flux. Sampling

between 1998 and 2001 showed extremely low nitrate (NO 3 ) levels . Levels were slightly higher

at the 82 ft (25 m) isobaths in 1998, which was an u pwelling year (see Table A -2 ). Surface

nitrate levels ranged from 0.0001 to 0.0022 mg/L as nitrogen (0.01 to 0.16 μM), while bottom

le vels ranged from 0.0004 to 0.0015 mg/L as nitrogen ( 0.03 to 0.11 μM ) at 33 ft (10 m )

, 0.0003 to

2 Section 62

- 302.700, F.A.C.

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- 14Table A -2. Average annual surface and bottom concentrations of phosphate and nitrate (as mg /L) at the 33, 82, and 164 ft (10, 25, and 50 m ) isobaths ( adapted from Vargo et al. 2008). Each value is the average of monthly measurements (±SD).

Phosphate ( mg/L as phosph orus) Nitrate (mg/L as nitrogen)

33 ft (10 m) 82 ft (25 m) 164 ft (50 m) 33 ft (10 m) 82 ft (25 m) 164 ft (50 m)

1998 a Surface (SD) 0.009 (± 0.005) 0.001 ( ± 0.001) 0.001 ( ± 0.002) 0.0008 ( ± 0.001) 0.0014 ( ± 0.0017) 0.0018 ( ± 0.0029)

Bottom (SD) 0.010 ( ± 0.005) 0.003 ( ± 0.004) 0.007 ( ± 0.006) 0.001 ( ± 0.0014) 0.0077 ( ± 0.010) 0.0385 ( ± 0.0496)

1999 Surface
(SD) 0.007 ( ± 0.004) 0.002 ( ± 0.000) 0.001 ( ± 0.001) 0.0006 ( ± 0.0008) 0.0001 ( ± 0.0003) 0.0001 ( ± 0.0003)

Bottom (SD) 0.007 ( ± 0.004) 0.002 ( ± 0.001) 0.003 ( ± 0.002) 0.0004 ( ± 0.0006) 0.0003 ( ± 0.0004) 0.0014 ( ± 0.0027)

2000 Surface
(SD) 0.005 ( ± 0.006) 0.002 ( ± 0.004) 0.001 ( ± 0.001) 0.0022 ( ± 0.0071) 0.001 ( ± 0.0022) 0.0007 ( ± 0.001)

Bottom (SD) 0.004 ( ± 0.003) 0.002 ( ± 0.001) 0.002 ( ± 0.002) 0.0015 ( ± 0.0048) 0.0008 ( ± 0.0017) 0.0027 ( ± 0.0031)

2001 a Surface (SD) 0.003 ( ± 0.000) 0.001 ( ± 0.001) 0.001 ( ± 0.001) 0.0018 ( ± 0.0042) 0.0001 ( ± 0.0003) 0.0001 ( ± 0.0004)

Bottom (SD) 0.004 ( ± 0.003) 0.001 ( ± 0.001) 0.005 ( ± 0.009) 0.0014 ( ± 0.0035) 0.0004 ( ± 0.0007) 0.001 ( ± 0.0035)

Note : ft = feet; L = liter; m = meter; SD = standard deviation

a Values for these years consist of measurements made from June through December Technical Support Document for U.S. EPA’s Proposed Rule for Numeric Nutrient Criteria,

Volume 2 Coastal Waters

0.0077 mg/L as nitrogen (0.02 to 0.55 μM) at 82 ft (25 m), and 0.001 to 0.0385 mg/L as nitrogen (0.08 to 2.75 μM) at 164 ft (50 m) (Vargo et al. 2008). 3

Under normal conditions approximately 24.0 kg/day dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) (1.71 x 10 6 moles per day) are delivered to the west

- central coast and estuaries through surface runoff (Hu et al. 2006). Another source of nitrogen is submarine groundwater dis charges. The submarine groundwater discharges in Tampa Bay deliver almost 35 percent as much DIN as all of the rivers in north and central Florida that drain into the Gulf of Mexico combined (Hu et al. 2006).

Under normal conditions approximately 26 kg/day (0.83 x 10 6 moles ) dissolved inorganic phosphorus are delivered to the west

- central coast and estuaries via surface runoff (Hu et al. 2006). Phosphate (PO 4 ) levels ranged from 0.001 to 0.009 mg/L as phosphorus (0.02 to

0.29 μM) for surface waters between 1998 and 2001. For bottom waters, phosphate levels ranged

from 0.004 to 0.010 mg/L as phosphorus (0.12 to 0.32 μM) at 33 ft (10 m)

, 0.001 to 0.003 mg/L as phosphorus (0.04 to 0.10 μM) at 82 ft (25 m), and 0.002 to 0.007 mg/L as phosphorus (0.08 to

0.22 μM) at 164 ft (50 m) (Vargo et al. 2008). 4

A year -long red tide that started in January 2005 off of the w est Gulf Coast in Tampa Bay, Charlotte Harbor, and Sarasota Bay , covered the entire inner shelf by September 2005. On

December 28 –29, 2004, the bloom was approximately 420 square miles (mi 2 ) (1,100 square kilometers [ km 2 ]) , and grew to 2,760 mi 2 (7,140 km 2 ) by January 21, 2005. Samples taken in January found high (10 5 –10 6 cells/L) and very high (>10 6 cells/L) concentrations of K. brevis

3 The authors reported concentrations in M (moles) or μM in the literature (in parenthes e s).

4 The authors reported concentrations in M (moles) or μM in the literature (in parenthes e s).

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near the 100–130 ft ( 30–40 m) isobaths, and nil to low concentrations nearshore. The b loom caused hypoxic zones lead ing to extensive mortalities among the benthic communities, fish, turtles, birds, manatees, and other marine mammals (Hu et al. 2006). This area of the Gulf of Mexico has had numerous reports of blooms over the past 120 years, most caused by K. brevis

.

Increased freshwater discharge from the Shark River and other rivers along the southwest Florida

coast is responsible for the increase in nutrients that enhance diatom growth and trigger summer to fall diatom blooms along the inner shelf (Jurado et al. 2007). For example, a study that examined dated sediment determined that an increase in phytoplankton pigments in areas around Charlotte Harbor signified an increase in diatom production and cyanobacterial populations over time (Turner et al. 2006). Turner et al. (2006) found that indicators of phytoplankton growth in sediment cores change d with the nitrogen loading to the watershed and suggested bloom

occurrence has increased over time . These higher n itrogen loadings have been identified as a contributor to hypoxia and the growth of harmful blooms (Turner et al. 2006). Charlotte Harbor National Estuary Program found decreasing trends for chlorophyll a in the Tidal Caloosahatchee,

Lower Charlotte Harbor , and Lemon Bay areas (CHNEP 2009).

During the 1998‒2005 period, Upper Charlotte Harbor, Pine Island Sound, Estero Bay, and Lemon Bay exceeded the annual mean chlorophyll a threshold of 11 μg/L (Impaired Waters Rule, Section 62-303.353, F.A.C.) (Duffey et al. 2007).

Given the state of impairment of neighboring estuaries, coastal segments in the southwest are expected to be more prone to nutrient impairment than the Florida Panhandle and Atlantic Coast regions . While it is evident that impairments for estuaries are not directly applicable to coastal waters, the bloom information and comparisons of annual mean c hlorophyll RS a concentrations among regions support the contention that the southwest coast has the hi ghest chlorophyll a concentrations and is more susceptible to bloom events compared to the Florida Panhandle and Atlantic Coast regions

. Because monitoring information and data are lacking, the source of the blooms and the extent to which nutrients impair coastal waters adjacent to impaired estuaries

remain unknown. T here still is a general lack of monitoring information and data in coastal

waters , causing the source of these blooms to be ambiguous.

**2.3.3. Atlantic Coast** 

Reference conditions along Florida’s Atlantic Coast, with regard to nutrients, are not as thoroughly studied as inland and estuarine waters. Although nutrient related impacts have been specifically investigated in some regions such as the Southeast Florida Reef Tract, there i s generally very little information on nutrient pollution in the greater coastal areas. F or some of Florida’s Atlantic coastal waters it can be difficult to directly assess the impact of nutrient pollution on designated uses. In areas where site- specific i nformation regarding nutrient concentrations and related impacts is not available, an assessment of inflowing waters is provided.

Information concerning nutrient impairment of coastal waters varies along Florida’s Atlantic

Coast . In the northeast, there is a paucity of information concerning nutrient pollution. In the southeast, impairments are more thoroughly documented in coastal waters.

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Northea st
A complete list of Class II and Class III marine WBIDs listed for a nutrient

- related parameter on Florida’s CWA section 303(d) list approved by EPA in this region can be found in Volume 1 of the TSD, Appendix A.

Several studies have documented possible nutrient related impacts in streams and estuaries along the northeast coast and suggest ed that water quality has worsened over time. For example,

DeVivo et al. (2009) found that DO and clarity in the Nassau River w ere good overall and chlorophyll a levels were considered fair

, based on the East/Gulf Coast criteria outlined in EPA’s

National Co astal Assessment II Report ( USEPA 2005 ). A recent sampling effort by FDEP (2010a ) showed that 20 percent of rivers and 87 percent of st reams sampled in the Nassau

St. Marys watershed were below the s tate DO threshold of 5 mg/L . Similarly, Mosquito Lagoon, a portion of Indian River Lagoon, was initially ranked as good after the 2007 EPA water quality assessment, but more recently, increases in chlorophyll a concentrations have been observed (FDEP 2006 ; USEPA 2007). N ortheastern Fl orida is predicted to experience intense population growth and development, which has the potential to cause nutrient related impacts to worsen (FHDC 2011; Haydt and Frazel 2003 ).

Barile (2004) reported the first annual record of inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in the littoral area of the barrier island system adjacent to Brevard and Indian

River count ies . Concentrations of SRP ranged from 0.004 to 0.015 mg/L as phosphorus (0.13 to

0.50 μM ) with a mean of 0.008 mg/L as phosphorus (0.25 μM) . SRP measurements taken after

rains in March and December at the Wabasso

- Ambersand Beach site ( which is down-gradient from residential homes with septic tanks) were significantly higher and almo st double (0.013–

0.015 mg/L as phosphorus [0.42–0.50 μM] ) the mean SRP values (Barile 2004). Nitrogenphosphorus ratios of water column inorganic nutrients for the littoral waters of the barrier islands adjacent to Brevard and Indi an River count ies were si gnificantly lower ( 8:1) than the Redfield ratios for balanced growth of phytoplankton (16:1) and marine macrophytes ( approximately 30:1). Ambient inorganic phosphorus concentrations were found to be elevated with respect to bioavailable inorganic nitrogen concentrations. The ambient mean DIN for all sites and seasons

was 0.0294 mg/L as nitrogen (2.10 μM), which is higher than the reported approximately

0.014 mg/L as nitrogen (1.0 μM ) threshold to support and saturate growth of K. brevis

, the dominant red tide organism (Barile 2004). 5



### 3. **Summary of Regional Trends** 

Harmful Algal Blooms: P arts of all coastal regions in Florida have experienced a rise in the frequency and duration of HABs. In general, nutrient pollution from developed coastal ha bitats has led to increasing blooms in Florida coastal areas. Both the northwest and the southwest coastal regions have been impacted by cyanobacterial HABs from 2000 to 2009, leading to cases of neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. Coastal studies confirm both nitrogen and phosphorus inputs need to be controlled when non-nitrogen fixing HABs (such as K. brevis ) occur with nitrogen fixing cyanobacterial species (Paerl et al. 2009 ). Cyanotoxins have been noted to invade surface drinking water supplies, kill seagrasses , and close recreationally valuable areas along the Gulf

C oast ( Paerl et al. 2009 ).

5 The authors reported concentrations in M (moles) or μM in the literature (in parenthese s).

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Bloom frequency, duration, and intensity in Florida’s southwest region has increased over time (Burns 2008; Thomas and Rumbold 2006). Nitrogen and phosphorus pollution causes increased growth and productivity of Lyngbya , a species of cyanobacteria or blue- green algae, resulting in the degradation of coastal aquatic ecosystems. Trends and reports by Paerl et al. (2008) and Sharp et al. (2009) confirm that the introduction of nutrients into marine environments can increase the prevalence of HABs. Lyngbya blooms have been linked to both human health and ecological concerns, such as smothered corals and seagrasses (Burns 2008; Paerl et al. 2008). Several studies examined the diversity, distribution, and abundance of L yngb ya off nearshore

waters in s outh Florida areas, including Tampa Bay and Sanibel Island, and the Atlantic Coast (Arthur et al. 2009; Paerl et al. 2008; Sharp et al. 2009) . Persist ent blooms were detected in the Indian River Lagoon and off Sanibel Island. On Sanibel Island, Lyngbya had a great impact on seagrasses by overgrowing shoots and smothering benthic organisms (Paerl et al. 2009). The results of a bioassay study demonstrated that primary production of Lyngbya significantly increased when chelated iron chloride and chelated iron chloride with nitrogen and phosphorus were added over four days (Arthur et al. 2009). These blooms negatively impact designated uses;

tufts of Lyngbya float to the surface, becoming mats with malodorous, toxic properties that float

onto beaches. Blooms of Lyngbya are associated with nutrient inputs from development and recreational activities, and nutrients in groundwater (Paerl et al. 2009). Less is known about the frequency of these blooms over time, as studies are more recent and there is currently no s tate monitoring program for HABs. W hile it is evident that these blooms exist off the coastal regions identified by EPA, there is a lack of information to determine any change in their occurrence

over time with respect to nutrient pollution.

Th e Gulf of Mexico Alliance developed water quality priorities to ensure healthy beaches and safe seafood along the entire Gulf Coast. The organization aims to reduce the risk of HABs by improving the “ability to detect, track, forecast, and mitigate HAB movement and their effe cts along the Gulf Coast.” Th e Gulf of Mexico Alliance also aims to improve monitoring efforts to support management decisions (GOM A 2011b). To address nutrient problems, the Gulf of

Mexico Alliance is implementing regional nutrient characterization studies to evaluate the response of an ecosystem to nutrients. They will also support nutrient criteria development and

nutrient reductio n strategies (GOMA 2011a).

Chlorophyll RS a : EPA collected data for all of the coastal regions in which criteria will be

derived by satellite. After analysis of the data, EPA observed a lack of an upward trend in chlorophyll RS a in the 1998–2009 data set used to derive criteria ( Figure A-7). Because there has

been no observed trend of a continuous increase in chlorophyll RS a concentrations over this

ref erence period, reference conditions based on recent data appear to be reflective of water quality that supports designated uses. D espite several instances of bloom conditions, it still appears chlorophyll RS a concentrations in these coast al regions have st ayed approximately constant over time, if not slightly declining in more recent years

.

A

- 185

4.5

4

3.5

3 Southwest

Coast
2.5 Northwest

Coast 2 Atlantic Coast

1.5

1

0.5

0Geometric Mean for ChlorophyllRS(mg m-3)

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Technical Support Document for U.S. EPA’s Proposed Rule for Numeric Nutrient Criteria,

Volume 2 Coastal Waters

F i gure A-7. 1998

- 2009 chlorophyll RS a values (mg/m 3 ) for Florida’s three defined coastal regions



### 4. **Refere nces** 
Alexander, J.E., T.T. White, K.E. Turgeon, and A.W. Blizzard. 1977. Baseline Monitoring Studies, Mississippi , Alabama, Florida Outer Continental Shelf, 1975–1976 Volume III:

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Arnold, W.S., D.C. Marelli, C.P. Bray, and M.M. Harrison. 1998. Recruitment of bay scallops Argopect en irradians in Floridan Gulf of Mexico waters: S cales of coherence. Marine Ecology Progress Series 170:143-157.

Arthur, K.E., V.J. Paul, H.W. Paerl, J.M. O’Neil, J. Joyner, T. Meickle. 2009. Effects of nutrient enrichment of cyanobacteriam Lyngbya sp. on growth, secondary metabolite concentration and feeing by the specialist grazer Stylocheilus striatus

. Marine Ecology Progress Series 394:101–110.

Barile, P.J. 2004. Evidence of anthropogenic nitrogen enrichment of the littoral waters of east

centra l Florida. Journal of Coastal Research 20(4):1237-1245.

Burns, J. 2008. Toxic cyanobacteria in Florida waters. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 619:127–137. http://www. epa.gov/cyano_habs_symposium/monograph/Ch05.pdf

. Accessed December

2011.

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Carr, G.B., P.A. Davis, R.E. Fergen, and F. Bloetscher. 2000. Water quality impacts of long- term effluent disposal strategies in Southeast Florida. Water

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CHNEP. 2009. Comparison of Water Quality Results from Fixed Station and Random Sampling Monitoring Programs in the Charlotte Harbor and Estero Bay Aquatic Preserves: 2001–

2007 . Charlotte Harbor National Estuary Program. Fort Meyers, F L.

Choctawhat chee Audubon Society. No date. Birding Sites Okaloosa County, Northwest Florida

. Choctawhatchee Audubon Society. http://www.choctawhatcheeaudubon.org/Birding_Map.pdf . Accessed August 2011.

Collier, C., R. Ruzicka, K. Banks, L. Barbieri, J. Beal, D. Bingham, J. Bohnsack, S. Brooke,

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B. Riegl, R. Spieler, J. Walczak, B. Walker, and D. Warrick. 2008. The s tate of c oral r eef

e cosystems of s outheast Florida. In The State o f Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008 . National Oceanic and Atmospheric

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Dames & Moore. 1979. Final Report: Mississippi, Alabama, Florida Outer Continental Shelf Baseline Environmental Survey . MAFLA, 1977/78. Prepared for U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. Contract AA550- CT7 -34. Dames & Moore. New Orleans, LA. http://invertebrates.si.edu/boem/reports/MAFLA_vol2.pdf . Accessed August 2011.

Davis, R.A., K.E. Yale, J.M. Pekala, and M.V. Hamilton. 2003. Barrier island stratigraphy and Holocene history of west- central Florida. Marine Geology 200:103-123.

Dawes, C.J. 1985. Seagrass community at Anclote Key. In Geology of the Barrier Island and

Marsh -dominated Coast, West-Central Florida: Field Trip Guidebook for 1985 Annual Meeting, Geological Society of America , ed. R.A. Davis, A.C. Hine, and D.F. Belknap. Geological Society of America, Tampa, FL.

Deutsch, C.J., J.P. Reid, R.K. Bonde, D.E. Easton, H.I. Kochman, and T.J. O’Shea. 2000. Seasonal Movements, Migratory Behavior, and Site Fidelity of West Indian Manatees along the Atlantic Coast of the United States as Determined by Radio- telemetry. Final Report . Florida Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, U.S. Geological Survey and University of Florida. Gainesville, FL. http://aquaticcommons.org/1067/1/OCRDeutsch,_C.J._2000(2).pdf . Accessed August

2011.

DeVivo, J.C., P.H. Flournoy, and K.A. Smith. 2009. Assessment of Coastal W ater Q uality at Timucuan Ecological and Historic Pre serve . Natural Resource Report

NPS/SECN/NRR —2009/108. National Park Service, Fort Collins, CO.

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Duarte, C.M. 1991. Seagrass depth limits. Aquatic Botany 40(4):363-377.

Duffey. R,R.E. Leary, and J Ott. Sept, 2007. Charlotte Harbor and Estero Bay Aquatic Preserves: Water Quality Status and Trends for 1998-2005 . Charlotte Harbor National Estuary Program

, Fort Meyers, F L.

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FL. http://tlhdwf2.dep.state.fl.us/basin411/uppereast/status/UEC.pdf . Accessed August

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FDEP. 2010c. Draft Site

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in the Tolomato

- Matanza s Estuary

. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. http://publicfiles.dep.state.fl.us/dear/sas/nutrient/estuarine/bunnell/tolomato_ matanzas_es tuary.pdf . Accessed May 2011.

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Flewelling, L.J., D.H. Adams, J.P. Naar, K.E. Atwood, A.A. Granholm, S.N. O'Dea, and J.H. Landsberg. 2010. Brevetoxins in sharks and rays (Chondrichthyes, Elasmobranchii) from

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FMRI. 2002. An Ecosystem Model of the West Florida Shelf for Use in Fisheries Management and Ecological Research: Volume II. Model Construction, ed. T.A. Okey and B. Mahmoudi. Florida Marine Research Institute. St. Petersburg, FL. http://www.safmc.net/Portals/0/EMFoodWeb/WFSmod el.pdf . Accessed July 2011.

Fourqurean, J.W., M.J. Durako, M.O. Hall, and L.N. Hefty. 2002. Seagrass d istribution in south

Florida : A mul ti -a gency coordinated monitoring program. In Linkages Between Ecosystems in the South Florida Hydroscape: The River of Grass Continues , ed. J.W.

Porter and K.G. Porter.

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