UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460 

OFFICE OF CHEMICAL SAFETY AND

 POLLUTION PREVENTION

MEMORANDUM

DATE: September 30, 2010

SUBJECT: Crop Grouping – Part IX: Analysis of the USDA IR-4 Petition to Amend 

the Crop Group Regulation 40 CFR § 180.41 (c) (16) and Commodity 

Definitions [40 CFR 180.1 (g)] Related to the Crop Group 14 Tree Nuts. 

Part I. Analysis.

PC Code: NA DP Barcode: NA

Decision No.: NA Registration No.: NA

Petition No.: NA Regulatory Action: Crop Grouping 

Regulation

Risk Assessment Type: None Case No.: NA

TXR No.: NA CAS No.: NA

MRID No.: 474331-01 40 CFR: 180.41 (c) (16) and 180.1 (g)

FROM: Bernard A. Schneider, Ph.D., Senior Plant Physiologist

Chemistry and Exposure Branch 

Health Effects Division (7509P) 

THROUGH: William Donovan, Ph.D. and Michael Doherty, Ph.D., Chairpersons

HED Chemistry Science Advisory Council (ChemSAC)

Health Effects Division (7509P) 

TO: Barbara Madden, Minor Use Officer

Risk Integration, Minor Use, and Emergency Response Branch 

(RIMUERB) 

Registration Division (7505P)

cc: IR-4 Project, Bill Barney, Jerry Baron, Dan Kunkel, Debbie Carpenter, Van

Starner 
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ACTION REQUESTED:

William P. Barney, Crop Grouping Project Coordinator and Tracey Switek, 

USDA Interregional Research Project No. 4 (IR-4), State Agricultural Experiment 

Station, Rutgers University has submitted a petition (May 29, 2008) on behalf of the IR-4 

Project, and the Tree Nuts Workgroup of the International Crop Grouping Consulting 

Committee (ICGCC) to amend the Crop Group Regulation 40 CFR § 180.41 (c) (16) 

Crop Group 14, Tree Nut Group. 

The above-mentioned Tree nut crop group petition requested the following four 

proposals:

IR-4 Proposal 1: “Amend the existing crop group in 40 CFR 180.41 (c) (14) that 

consists of following 12 commodity entries:

1. Almond, Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb (Rosaceae)

2. Beechnut, Fagus spp. (Fagaceae)

3. Brazil nut, Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. (Lecythidaceae)

4. Butternut, Juglans cinerea L. (Juglandaceae)

5. Cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae)

6. Chestnut, Castanea spp. (Fagaceae))

7. Chinquapin, Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. (Fagaceae) 

8. Filbert (Hazelnut), Corylus spp. (Betulaceae)

9. Hickory nut, Carya spp. (Juglandaceae)

10. Macadamia nut, Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche (Proteaceae) 

11. Pecan, Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K.Koch (Juglandaceae)

12. Walnut, black and English, Juglans spp. (Juglandaceae);

To an expanded crop group that consists of following 32 commodity entries:

1. Almond, Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb (Rosaceae)

2. Beechnut, Fagus spp. (Fagaceae)

3. Betelnut, Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae (Palmae))

4. Brazil nut, Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. (Lecythidaceae)

5. Brazilian pine, Araucaria angustifolia ((Bertol.) Kuntze (Araucariaceae)

6. Bunya, Araucaria bidwillii Hook. (Araucariaceae) 

7. Bur oak, Quercus macrocarpa Michx. (Fagaceae)

8. Butternut, Juglans cinerea L. (Juglandaceae)

9. Cajou, Anacardium giganteum Hancock ex Engl. (Anacardiaceae)

10. Candlenut, Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd. (Euphorbiaceae) 

11. Cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae)

12. Castanha-do-maranhao, Pachira glabra Pasq. (Malvaceae)

13. Chestnut (Chinquapin), Castanea spp. (Fagaceae)

14. Coconut, Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae (Palmae))

15. Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae)
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16. Guiana chestnut, Pachira aquatic Aubl. (Malvaceae)

17. Hazelnut (Filbert), Corylus spp. (Betulaceae)

18. Heartnut, Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis (Makino) Rehder 

(Juglandaceae)

19. Hickory nut, Carya spp. (Juglandaceae)

20. Japanese horse-chestnut, Aesculus turbinata Blume (Sapindaceae)

21. Macadamia nut, Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche (Proteaceae) 

22. Monkey-pot, Lecythis pisonis Cambess. (Lecythidaceae)

23. Okari nut, Terminalia kaernbachii Warb. (Combretaceae)

24. Pachira nut, Pachira insignis (Sw.) Savigny (Malvaceae)

25. Pecan, Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K.Koch (Juglandaceae)

26. Pequi, Caryocar spp. (Caryocaraceae)

27. Pili nut, Canarium ovatum Engl. (Bursraceae)

28. Pine nut, Pinus edulis Engelm. (Pinaceae)

29. Pistachio, Pistacia vera L. (Anacardiaceae)

30. Sapucaia nut, Lecythis zabucaja Aubl. (Lecythidaceae)

31. Tropical almond, Terminalia catappa L. (Combretaceae)

32. Walnut, black, Juglans spp. (Juglandaceae) and Walnut, English, Juglans 

regia L. (Juglandaceae)

And all edible varieties and/or hybrids of Fagus species, Castanea species, Corylus

species, Carya species, Caryocar species, and Juglans species.”

IR-4 Proposal 2: Representative Commodities:

IR-4 recommends that the following commodities, Almond and Pecan, remain as 

representative commodities for the expanded group.

IR-4 Proposal 3. Crop Subgroups:

No crop subgroups are proposed for the Tree Nuts crop group. 

IR-4 Proposal 4. Crop Definitions:

No commodity definitions for the Tree Nuts are proposed. 

BACKGROUND:

The current Crop Group 14, Tree Nuts group published in 40 CFR 180.41 (14) 

includes 12 commodity entries in seven botanical families including Anacardiaceae, 

Betulaceae, Fagaceae, Juglandaceae, Lecythidaceae, Proteaceae, and Rosaceae. 

Almond and pecan were selected as representative commodities for this group. There 
4

have been 55 group tolerances established on tree nut crop group (Table 29) based on the 

residue data generated from the representative crops. 

Botanically, a nut is a hard indehiscent (not opening at maturity) one-seeded fruit. 

It is also defined as a hard shelled fruit or seed of which the kernel is eaten by humans. A 

nut is the seed of a tree. However, a nut in commerce and cuisine has a much less 

restrictive definition than a nut in botany. The term is applied to many seeds that are not 

true nuts. Any large kernel found within a shell and used in food may be regarded as a 

nut. For example, almond is the edible seed of a drupe, while the Brazil nut is the seed 

from a capsule. Candlenut and cashew nut are seeds. Pine nut is the seed of several 

species of pine, while the pistachio nut is the seed of a thin-shelled drupe. Peanuts can be 

disqualified from “nuts” because peanuts include two or three seeds in the indehiscent 

pod and are legume crops.

Nuts are highly nutritious with up to 30 percent protein and up to 70 percent oil. 

Chestnuts are unusual in that the major food reserve is starch (50 - 60 percent). Nuts are 

a good source of minerals, including calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium and potassium 

and also the vitamin B complex and vitamin E. Nuts have been found in archaeological 

sites dating back to before 10,000 BC. Several epidemiological studies have also 

revealed that people who consume nuts regularly are less likely to suffer from coronary 

heart disease. 

Since the tree nut crop group is a somewhat artificial crop group and because the 

various crops within the group come from diverse families, they are not expected to be 

susceptible to the same pests and diseases requiring the same pesticide treatment. In fact 

there are 18 different plant families represented in this proposed tree nut crop group. 

However, in practice, residues (expressed on the edible portion) in tree nuts from field 

use are often low or not detectable irrespective of the pesticide use, so a tree nut group 

tolerance can be achieved. Also, most are grown in similar orchard or plantations and 

maintained with similar cultural practices. U.S., Codex, and EU Tree nut crop group 

tolerances are summarized in Table 30). Many of these tolerances were based on residue 

data generated from the representative crops. The majority of these tolerances range 

from 0.01 to 0.5 ppm with one Codex tolerance established at 1 ppm for carbaryl.

Since this crop group was established in 1995, more species and varieties of tree 

nuts have become popular in commercial production and international trade. Tree nuts 

that were previously considered as orphan crops include tropical almond, betelnut, 

coconut, ginkgo, heartnut, bur oak, pili nut, pine nut and pistachio.

The Crop Group 14 proposal was generated at the USDA/IR-4 Crop Grouping 

Symposium in Washington, DC, October 2002 by the Temperate Tree and Small Fruit 

Workgroup Chaired by Van Starner of USDA, IR-4 and Co-Chaired by Craig Hunter, 

Canadian Horticultural Center, Rick Melnicoe, University of California Department of 

Environmental Toxicology, Dr. Richard Loranger and Chris Olinger, EPA, HED and 

John Wise, Michigan State University. It was further discussed and developed within the 
5

Tree Nut Workgroup of the International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC). 

This workgroup consists of 122 crop or regulatory experts from the US, NAFTA, EU, 

Asia, Middle East, Africa, and Latin America regions representing 24 countries. The 

Workgroup discussed and validated each of the proposed commodities and representative 

commodities. The crops in the existing tree nut crop group were all validated at the 

Symposium. It was proposed that “Filbert (hazelnut)” be changed to “Hazelnut (filbert)”. 

Additional tree nuts proposed at the Symposium included guana, nut-o-nogal, cajou, 

dalison, okari nut, bunya and candlenut. These additional tree nuts were also validated at 

the Symposium, except it was later determined that dalison should be considered as part 

of the tropical fruit group. Also, guana was not included in this submission since it 

apparently only grows in eastern Cuba and is a threatened species. Nut-o-nogal has been 

included with black walnut. 

The concept of having separate temperate and tropical/subtropical subgroups was 

not validated at the Symposium, so no subgroups are proposed in this submission. The 

Symposium also proposed crop definitions for the representative crops of almond and 

pecan, but due to the previously discussed diverse taxonomic nature of tree nuts, no crop 

definitions are proposed in this submission.

Another important aspect is the harmonization with the Codex crop classification. 

The Codex Classification of foods and animal feeds for Tree nut Group is also 

undergoing revision. The IR-4/EPA Crop Grouping Working Group and the 

International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC) are making every effort to 

collaborate with the revision of the Codex crop classification. The expanded Tree Nut 

Group and the representative commodities proposed in this petition would facilitate the 

harmonization of the U.S. and the Codex crop classification systems. Proposed additions 

to the Codex Classification including Brazilian pine, castanha-do-maranhao, Guiana 

chestnut and monkey-pot were also included in the petition.

Tree nuts presented to the ICGCC but not validated by the Workgroup include the 

Australian or Moreton Bay chestnut, canarium nut, shea nut, suari nut, African walnut 

and tallow tree. One additional tree nut validated is the pequi. Two proposed crops, 

purging nut and karanj were not accepted because of the poisonous nature of the nut or 

bean and because development of these crops is primarily for biofuels. One additional 

proposed crop kalamungay (Moringa oleifera) will also be considered to be added to a 

future tropical fruit crop group. Further work by the ICGCC also identified four more 

potential commodities to be proposed for the Tree nut group. They are the African nut 

tree [Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Heckel], dika nut [Irvingia gabonensis (AubryLecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill.], mongongo nut [Schinziophtyon rautanenii (Schinz) Radcl.-

Sm.], and the peach palm nut [.

The world total hectares for tree nuts (almond, betelnut, brazil nut, cashew, 

chestnut, coconut, hazelnut, pistachio, and walnut) reported by FAO (FAO 2009, Table 6) 

have increased from 17,420,730 hectares (ha) in 1997 to 19,961,492 ha in 2007, and the 

total production of these nuts has increased from 57,174,933 metric tons in 1997 to 

72,519,897 metric tons in 2007 (FAO 2007). 
6

Some “minor” tree nut commodities like the chestnut, pine nut, and okari nut are 

also becoming more popular. Some of these nuts don’t have large commercial 

production, and thus have little chance to be added to pest control products labels unless 

they are placed in the tree nut group. By being excluded from the crop groups, means 

that tolerances requested for these commodities would have to be established based on 

separate residue studies. Without a doubt the inclusion of these commodities in crop 

groups will benefit growers, consumers, save time and tax payer’s money on residue 

studies, save government agencies time in reviewing residue data, as well as facilitating 

the establishment of import tolerances. Many of these crops are of economic importance 

or have a great potential to be grown in larger scale in the future due to their nutritional 

value or medicinal value, or the increased market demand driven by both the growing 

ethnic populations and greater awareness of these crops by the non-ethnic population as a 

whole. The American cuisine has a distinct global nature that includes many orphan 

crops not yet in a crop group. 

HED RECOMMENDATIONS:

Each of the proposals and recommendations will be discussed below, followed by a 

series of other recommendations on terminology, database development, and 

harmonization with Codex. The EPA would like to commend the valuable and high 

quality input of the ICGCC, all its members, and the Committee Chairperson Bill Barney, 

USDA IR-4, as well as Dr. Yuen-Shaung Ng, Biologist, HED, Doug Dotson, Chemist, 

Susan Stanton, Roger Chesser, Andy Ertman, and Laura Nollen, Biologists, RD, EPA for 

their input and development of various databases in this report and Dr. Paul Schwartz, 

USDA, Office of Minor Use Pesticides for his advice and peer review of the analysis.

IR-4 Proposal 1:

1. “Amend the existing crop group in 40 CFR 180.41 (c) (14) that consists of following

12 commodity entries:

1. Beechnut, Fagus spp. (Fagaceae)

2. Brazil nut, Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. (Lecythidaceae)

3. Butternut, Juglans cinerea L. (Juglandaceae)

4. Cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae)

5. Almond, Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb (Rosaceae)

6. Chestnut, Castanea spp. (Fagaceae)

7. Chinquapin, Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. (Fagaceae) 

8. Filbert (Hazelnut), Corylus spp. (Betulaceae)

9. Hickory nut, Carya spp. (Juglandaceae)

10. Macadamia nut, Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche (Proteaceae) 

11. Pecan, Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K.Koch (Juglandaceae)

12. Walnut, black and English, Juglans spp. (Juglandaceae);

To an expanded crop group that consists of following 38 commodity entries:
7

1. African nut tree, Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Heckel, (Euphorbiaceae)

2. Almond, Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb (Rosaceae)

3. Beechnut, Fagus spp. (Fagaceae)

4. Betelnut, Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae (Palmae))

5. Brazil nut, Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. (Lecythidaceae)

6. Brazilian pine, Araucaria angustifolia ((Bertol.) Kuntze (Araucariaceae)

7. Bunya, Araucaria bidwillii Hook. (Araucariaceae) 

8. Bur oak, Quercus macrocarpa Michx. (Fagaceae)

9. Butternut, Juglans cinerea L. (Juglandaceae)

10. Cajou, Anacardium giganteum Hancock ex Engl. (Anacardiaceae)

11. Candlenut, Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd. (Euphorbiaceae) 

12. Cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae)

13. Castanha-do-maranhao, Pachira glabra Pasq. (Malvaceae)

14. Chestnut Castanea spp. (Fagacea)e

15. Chinquapin, Castanea spp. (Fagaceae)

16. Coconut, Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae (Palmae))

17. Dika nut, Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill (Irvingiaceae)

18. Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae)

19. Guiana chestnut, Pachira aquatic Aubl. (Malvaceae)

20. Hazelnut (Filbert), Corylus spp. (Betulaceae)

21. Heartnut, Juglans ailantifolia var. cordiformis (Makino) Rehder (Juglandaceae)

22. Hickory nut, Carya spp. (Juglandaceae)

23. Japanese horse-chestnut, Aesculus turbinata Blume (Sapindaceae)

24. Macadamia nut, Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche (Proteaceae) 

25. Monkey-pot, Lecythis pisonis Cambess. (Lecythidaceae)

26. Mongongo nut, Schinziophyton rautanenii (Schinz) Radcl.-Sm. (Euphorbiaceae)

27. Okari nut, Terminalia kaernbachii Warb. (Combretaceae)

28. Pachira nut, Pachira insignis (Sw.) Savigny (Malvaceae)

29. Peach palm nut, Bactris gasipaes Kunth var. gasipaes (Arecaceae (alt. Palmae))

30. Pecan, Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K.Koch (Juglandaceae)

31. Pequi, Caryocar spp. (Caryocaraceae)

32. Pili nut, Canarium ovatum Engl. (Bursraceae)

33. Pine nut, Pinus edulis Engelm. (Pinaceae)

34. Pistachio, Pistacia vera L. (Anacardiaceae)

35. Sapucaia nut, Lecythis zabucaja Aubl. (Lecythidaceae)

36. Tropical almond, Terminalia catappa L. (Combretaceae

37. Walnut, black, Juglans spp. (Juglandaceae)

38. Walnut, English, Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae)

And all edible varieties and/or hybrids of Fagus species, Castanea species, Corylus

species, Carya species, Caryocar species, and Juglans species.”
8

HED Recommendations for Proposal 1:

Based on similarities of the comparison of tree nuts cultural practices, edible food 

and animal feed portions, residue levels, geographical locations, processing, established 

tolerances, and for international harmonization purposes, I recommend that ChemSAC 

concur to amend the Tree Nut Crop Group 14 from twelve commodities to thirty – nine 

commodities. In fact there are 18 different plant families represented in this proposed 

tree nut crop group. Since the tree nut crop group is a somewhat artificial crop group and 

because the various crops within the group come from diverse families and they are all 

not expected to be susceptible to the same pests and diseases requiring the same pesticide 

treatment, but their harvesting, processing (hulling, drying), marketing, and nutritional 

value are very similar. However, in practice, residues (expressed on the edible portion) 

in tree nuts from field use are often low or not detectable irrespective of the pesticide use, 

so a tree nut group tolerance can be achieved. Also, most are grown in similar orchard or 

plantations and maintained with similar cultural practices. 

While USDA IR-4 also recommended adding betelnut to the Tree nut group, 

however, after analysis of this crop, I recommend ChemSAC concur not to add this 

commodity to this crop group. Betelnut is used mostly as a stimulant crop and is chewed 

during the day, so it does not have shared the traditional uses of the tree nut crops. Also, 

I recommend to delete Castanha-do-maranhao (Pachira glabra Pasq), because it is 

limited to Brazil and appears to have limited chance for further expansion.

There were no crop subgroups proposed by IR-4 for this crop group. HED is also 

recommending adding three other commodities that meet the tree nut criteria to the 

group. The three commodities are: coquito nut, monkey puzzle nut, and yellowhorn. 

These three nuts are available through commercial nursery catalog to grow in the U.S. 

and coquito nut is already available in the marketplace.

The members of this crop group have similar uses, and all are consumed after 

maturity or consumed cooked or roasted in various recipes including salads, meats, and 

cookies. Some of these tree nuts also have medicinal properties. Many of the tree nuts 

from the same botanical family with similar biological and cultural aspects suggests they 

should also encounter similar pest problems and hence have similar needs for pest control 

products in similar use patterns. All of these commodities except for betelnut were found 

to have similar characteristics and uses to become a member of the Tree nut group. 

The list of acceptable tree nuts and their scientific names for the thirty-nine

commodities were also updated and are listed below. 

“HED Proposed Tree Nut Crop Group 14 - 10”.

Commodities

African nut tree, Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Heckel

Almond, Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb

Beechnut, Fagus grandifolia Ehrh., F. sylvatica L., F. sylvatica L. subsp. sylvatica 

Brazil nut, Bertholletia excelsa Humb. & Bonpl.
9

Commodities

Brazilian pine, Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze

Bunya, Araucaria bidwillii Hook.

Bur Oak, Quercus macrocarpa Michx., Quercus spp.

Butternut, Juglans cinerea L.

Cajou, Anacardium giganteum Hance ex Engl.

Candlenut, Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd.

Cashew, Anacardium occidentale L.

Chestnut, Castanea crenata Siebold & Zucc., C. dentata (Marshall) Borkh., C. 

mollissima Blume, C. sativa Mill.

Chinquapin, Castanea pumila (L.) Mill., Castanea ozarkensis Ashe

Coconut, Cocos nucifera L

Coquito nut, Jubaea chilensis (Molina) Baill.

Dika nut, Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill.

Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba L.

Guiana chestnut, Pachira aquatica Aubl.

Hazelnut (Filbert), Corylus americana Marshall, C. avellana L., C. californica (A. 

DC.) Rose, C. chinensis Franch., Corylus spp.

Heartnut, Juglans ailantifolia Carrière var. cordiformis (Makino) Rehder, Juglans

ailantifolia Carrière

Hickory nut, Carya cathayensis Sarg., C. glabra (Mill.) Sweet, C. laciniosa (F. 

Michx.) W. P. C. Barton, C. myristiciformis (F. Michx.) Elliott, .C. ovata (Mill.) 

K. Koch, C. tomentosa (Lam.) Nutt.

Japanese horse-chestnut, Aesculus turbinata Blume

Macadamia nut, Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche, Macadamia

tetraphylla L.A.S. Johnson

Mongongo nut, Schinziophyton rautanenii (Schinz) Radcl.-Sm.

Monkey-pot, Lecythis pisonis Cambess.

Monkey puzzle nut, Araucaria araucana (Molina) K. Koch

Araucariaceae

Okari nut, Terminalia kaernbachii Warb.

Pachira nut, Pachira insignis (Sw.) Savigny

Peach palm nut, Bactris gasipaes Kunth var. gasipaes

Pecan, Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K.Koch

Pequi, Caryocar brasiliense Cambess., C. villosum (Aubl.) Pers, Caryocar

nuciferum L.

Pili nut, Canarium ovatum Engl., Canarium vulgare Leenh. Canarium indicum L.

Pine nut, Pinus edulis Engelm., P. koraiensis Siebold & Zucc., P. sibirica Du 

Tour, P. pumila (Pall.) Regel, .P. gerardiana Wall. ex D. Don, P. monophylla

Torr. & Frém., P. quadrifolia Parl. ex Sudw. .P. pinea L.

Pistachio, Pistacia vera L.

Sapucaia nut, Lecythis zabucaja Aubl.

Tropical almond, Terminalia catappa L.

Walnut, black, Juglans hindsii Jeps. ex R. E. Sm., J. microcarpa Berland., J. nigra

L.
10

Commodities

Walnut, English, Juglans regia L.

Yellowhorn, Xanthoceras sorbifolium Bunge Sapindaceae, 

Cultivars, varieties, and hybrids of these commodities 

HED Additional Recommendation for Proposal 1:

 HED also recommends that in the crop group table the term “all edible varieties 

and/or hybrids of Fagus species, Castanea species, Corylus species, Carya

species, Caryocar species, and Juglans species varieties and/or hybrids of 

these” should be changed to, “Cultivars, varieties, and hybrids, of these 

commodities” to avoid all confusion with terminology regarding whether they 

are cultivars, varieties, or hybrids of the any tree nut commodities. This is also 

consistent with the other revised crop groups completed to date.

 HED also recommends changing the preferred commodity name for filbert to 

hazelnut, since hazelnut is the commodity term used in international trade and 

the U.S. Hazelnut Growers Marketing Board since 1981 has changed their name 

from filbert to hazelnut even though filbert is the correct name for the tree and 

nut. The name is of French origin and the tree was likely first introduced into 

Oregon by early French settlers. Hazelnut is the name coined by the English 

and it was applied to the native species by early settlers. The EPA Food and 

Feed Commodity Vocabulary (http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/foodfeed) for 

filbert will be changed to hazelnut as the preferred commodity term in the next 

vocabulary update.

IR-4 Proposal 2:

“The following commodities, Almond and Pecan, should remain as representative 

commodities for the expanded group.

HED Recommendation for Proposal 2:

I recommend ChemSAC concur to retain almond and pecan, as representative 

commodities for the amended Tree Nut Crop Group 14. These representative 

commodities account for > 74 % of the harvested acres for the members of the amended 

Tree Nut Group, and are the two most widely grown tree nuts in the U.S. with the largest 

acreages and geographical distribution. The representative commodities are based on 

similarities in fruit (nut) and cultural practices and geographical locations, as well as their 

high production (both acres and yield) and consumption. A comparison of established 

tolerances on tree nut commodities also supports that residue levels will be similar 

between members of the crop group. 
11

IR-4 Proposal 3: “No subgroups are proposed for the Tree Nuts crop group.” 

HED Recommendation for Proposal 3:

I agree that the Tree nut crop group will not benefit from establishing any crop 

subgroup.

IR-4 Proposal 4: “No Tree Nut crop definitions are proposed.” 

HED Recommendation for Proposal 4 Commodity Definition for Tree Nuts:

I agree that commodity definitions are not needed for the tree nuts.

Additional HED Recommendations/Conclusions:

HED Recommendation 5:

Another important aspect of crop grouping is the harmonization effort with the 

Codex Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds. The current EPA crop group for Tree 

nut group 14 is very similar to the corresponding Codex Group 022, Tree Nuts, which 

consists of nineteen commodities including matches to the all the twenty-four 

commodities in the proposed amended EPA crop group 14. The differences are because 

several of the Codex commodities refer to another commodity in a similar manner to the 

EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary Lookup to Preferred Tolerance Terms, such 

as “Pignolia”, see Pine nuts. Several Codex names are equivalent to lookup terms in the 

EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary like filberts is hazelnuts. The thirty 

commodities listed by Codex are really nineteen individual commodities. The U.S. is 

proposing to add the following commodities: African tree nut, betelnut, Brazilian pine, 

bunya, bur oak, cajou, candlenut, castanha–do-maranhao, chinquapin, dika nut, ginkgo, 

Guiana chestnut, heartnut, monkey pot, monkey puzzle nut, okari nut, pachira nut, and 

pequi, that are not yet in the Codex system. 

Recently, Codex has been reviewing the list of commodities in a revised Tree nut 

group 022 (Secretariat, 2010) derived from the USDA IR-4 proposal and these will also 

be listed in Table 36 with the corresponding EPA commodity term. 

Note that the current Codex crop group does not have representative commodities. 

A revision of the Codex Classification is underway with consideration to include adding 

new commodities, creating subgroups, and selecting representative commodities. A 

revision of the Codex Classification is also underway with consideration to include 

adding new commodities, creating subgroups, and selecting representative commodities. 
12

The IR-4/EPA Crop Grouping Working Group and the International Crop Grouping 

Consulting Committee (ICGCC) are making effort to cooperate with the Codex revision 

effort. The expanded Tree nut group and the representative commodities proposed in this 

petition would facilitate the harmonization of the U.S. and the Codex crop classification 

systems. In the next proposed revision to the Codex Classification of Foods and Animal 

Feeds we would expect these changes to be considered as additions to their Tree nut 

group in the harmonization effort that Bill Barney, USDA IR - 4 is coordinating with the 

Codex delegation. Therefore, this proposal will not only increase harmonization with the 

NAFTA crop grouping system, but it more compatible with the international system of 

Codex. The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 placed increased emphasis on using 

Codex MRLs in setting tolerances for pesticides in the U.S. Note that the current Codex 

crop group does not have representative commodities. 

HED Recommendation 6:

The Health Effects Division Dry Matter database prepared by Dr’s. NG and 

Schneider. Yuen-Shaung NG and B. A. Schneider, was updated on July, 2010 in Table 40

for the Tree nut Group.

HED Recommendation 7:

Guidance for HED SOP 99.6 - “Classification of Food Forms with Respect to 

Level of Blending” issued August 20, 1999, and HED SOP 2000.1 – “Guidance for 

Translation of Field Trial Data from Representative Commodities in the Crop Group 

Regulation to Other Commodities in Each Crop Group/Subgroup” issued September 12, 

2000 can be updated to reflect the amendment to the Tree nut group 14.

HED Recommendation 8:

Guidance on expressing tolerance terminology for the Tree nut crop group 14 is 

discussed under the “Tolerance expression guidance section of this analysis.

HED Recommendation 9:

New lookup and preferred EPA terms for the members of the Tree Nut Crop 

Group are listed in the EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary section of this report 

and these terms will be to the updated EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary 

website (http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/foodfeed) when it is updated.. 
13

ANALYSIS OF THE USDA IR-4 PROPOSAL TO ESTABLISH AN AMENDED 

TREE NUT GROUP 14:

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PROPOSED COMMODITIES:

Tree nuts are members of several plant families including: Anacardiaceae (cajou, 

cashew, pistachio), Arecaceae/Palmae (betelnut, coconut, coquito nut, peach palm nut), 

Araucariaceae (Brazilian pine, bunya, monkey puzzle), Betulaceae (hazelnut), 

Bursraceae (pili nut), Caryocaraceae (pequi), Combretaceae (tropical almond, okari 

nut), Euphorbiaceae (African nut tree, candlenut, mongongo nut), Fagaceae (beechnut, 

bur oak, chestnut, chinquapin), Ginkgoaceae (Ginkgo), Irvingiaceae (dika nut),

Juglandaceae (butternut, heartnut, hickory nut, pecan, black walnut, English walnut), 

Lecythidaceae (Brazil nut, monkey pot, sapucaia nut), Malvaceae (Castanha-domaranhao, pachira nut, Guiana chestnut), Pinaceae (pine nut), Proteaceae (Macadamia 

nut), Rosaceae (almond), and the Sapindaceae (Japanese horse-chestnut, yellowhorn). 

What is A Tree Nut?

There are many different types of nuts in this crop group. The fruits of many 

hardwood trees have four layers: an outer skin, a soft layer high in sugars, a hard shell, 

and a seed. When we eat the soft layer it is called a fruit, but when we eat the seed we 

call it a nut. There is a wide assortment of edible nuts in the world with many countries 

having tree plantations to produce edible nuts and many are gathered in the wild from 

native stands.

Botanical Definition of a Tree Nut:

The botanical definition of nut a simple dry fruit (embryo) with one seed (rarely 

two) in which the ovary wall becomes very hard (stony or woody) at maturity, and where 

the seed remains unattached or unfused with the ovary wall. Nuts are all indehiscent (not 

opening at maturity). All the nuts in this group are grown on trees or shrubs. 

The U.S. FDA has published a list of tree nuts US Food and Drug Administration 

Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. This list includes all tree nuts that are 

required to be listed on food labels.

Common name Scientific name

Almond Prunus dulcis (Rosaceae)

Beech nut Fagus spp. (Fagaceae)

Brazil nut Bertholletia excelsa (Lecythidaceae)

Butternut Juglans cinerea (Juglandaceae) 

Cashew Anacardium occidentale, 
14

Common name Scientific name

(Anacardiaceae)

Chestnut (Chinese, American, European, Seguin) Castanea spp. (Fagaceae)

Chinquapin Castanea pumila (Fagaceae)

Coconut Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae (alt. 

Palmae))

Filbert/hazelnut Corylus spp. (Betulaceae)

Ginkgo nut Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae)

Hickory nut Carya spp. (Juglandaceae)

Macadamia nut/Bush nut Macadamia spp. (Proteaceae)

Pecan Carya illinoensis (Juglandaceae)

Pine nut/Pinon nut Pinus spp. (Pineaceae) 

Pili nut Canarium ovatum Engl. in A. DC. 

(Burseraceae)

Pistachio Pistacia vera L. (Anacardiaceae)

Walnut ( English, Persian, Black, Japanese, 

California), Heartnut, Butternut

Juglans spp. (Juglandaceae)

Culinary Definition of a Tree Nut:

A nut in cuisine is a much less restrictive category than a nut in botany, as the 

term is applied to many seeds that are not botanically true nuts. Any large, oily kernel 

found within a shell and used in food may be regarded as a nut. Pistachios are seeds 

enclosed in a tough fruit, which does not split open enough to release the seeds. Because 

nuts generally have a high oil content, they are a highly prized food and energy source. 

A large number of seeds are edible by humans and used in cooking, eaten raw, sprouted, 

or roasted as a snack food, or pressed for oil that is used in cookery and cosmetics. Nuts 

(or seeds generally) are also a significant source of nutrition for wildlife such as squirrels 

which store acorns and other nuts during the autumn to keep them from starving during 

the late autumn, all of winter, and early spring. Peanuts are not nuts but are a legume 

with the seeds in a mature pod. Nuts are among the most common food allergens. 

The following is a list of some fruits and seeds that are considered nuts in the culinary 

sense:

 Almonds and walnurs are the edible seeds of drupe fruits with the leathery 

"flesh" is removed at harvest.

 Brazil nut is the seed from a capsule.

 Candlenut is a seed and used for oil.

 Cashew nut is a seed.

 Coconut is a dry, fibrous drupe.

 Guiana chestnut is a nut.

 Horse-chestnut is an inedible capsule.
15

 Macadamia nut is a creamy white kernel. 

 Mongongo nut is a drupe.

 Peanut is a legume and a seed and not a nut at all but a pod similar to beans.

 Pine nut is the seed of several species of pine that are evergreen trees.

 Pistachio nut is the seed of a thin-shelled drupe.

The following is a list of nuts that have edible oils.

Nut oils are generally used in cooking for their flavor. They are also quite costly, 

because of the difficulty of extracting the oil and can spoil or go rancid quickly.

 Almond oil, used as an edible oil, but primarily in the manufacture of 

pharmaceutical drugs.

 Candlenut oil, used primarily as a skin care product.

 Cashew oil, somewhat comparable to olive oil. May have value for fighting dental 

cavities.

 Coconut oil, a major cooking oil, high in saturated fat, particularly used in baking

and cosmetics.

 Dika nut oil, used to make margarine, soap, and pharmaceuticals.

 Hazelnut oil, mainly used for its flavor. Also used in skin care, because of its 

slight astringent nature.

 Macadamia oil, strongly flavored, contains no trans fat, and a good balance of 

omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.

 Mongongo nut oil (or manketti oil), from the seeds of a tree which grows in South 

Africa. High in vitamin E and also used in skin care.

 Palm oil, the most widely produced tropical oil. Popular in West African and 

Brazilian cuisine.

 Pecan oil, valued as a food oil, but requiring fresh pecans for good quality oil

 Pine nut oil usually added to foods as a flavoring agent.

 Pistachio oil, strongly flavored oil, particularly for use in salads.

 Walnut oil, used for its flavor, and was used by Renaissance painters in oil paints. 

Nut butters:

Nut butters are a spreadable foodstuff made by crushing nuts. The result has a 

high fat content and can be spread like true butter, but is otherwise unrelated. Peanut 

butter while not a true nut is listed a culinary nut butter. Nut butters include:

 Almond butter

 Cashew butter

 Hazelnut butter

 Macadamia nut butter

 Peanut butter (not a nut it is a legume) 
16

 Pecan butter

 Pistachio butter

 Walnut butter

None of the almond, cashew, macadamia, peanut or pistachio are true nuts in a 

botanical sense. However, because they are considered nuts in a culinary sense, their 

crushed spreads are called nut butters. Nut and seed butters are rich in protein, fiber, 

and essential fatty acids and can be used to replace butter or margarine on bread or 

toast.

The following table gives some of the nutritional properties of a selection of nut butters 

compared to peanut butter a legume and not a nut: 

Tree Nut Butter Calories

(1 tbsp.)

Protein

(g)

Fat

(g)

Calcium

(mg)

Zinc

(mg)

Almond butter 101 2.4 9.5 43 0.5

Cashew butter 93 2.8 8 7 0.8

Hazelnut butter 94 2 9.5 N/A N/A

Peanut butter – natural

Not a tree nut.

94 3.8 8 7 0.4

ANATOMY OF A TREE NUT:

Figure 1. Cross Section of Tree Nuts with Black Walnut and Hickory Nut Being a 

Classic Example of a Tree Nut:

An example of a tree nut is black walnut and the cross section shows the outer 

protective layers and the nut shell: 
17

The soft layer of ripe walnuts is not eaten, because it stains our skin brown and it 

cannot be washed off. However, immature black walnuts, hull included, make excellent 

pickles. Black walnuts are mostly prized for making ice cream, and for topping sugar 

pies, cakes and rolls. They were widely planted by the native Indians. One of the largest 

nut plantations in the world was operated by the Mohawk near Caledon, Ontario before 

the arrival of European immigrants. 

A pictorial cross section of the hickory nut (below) without the outer hulls shows 

the different parts of the nut and the seed structure. The pericarp is the outer seed coating 

and the upper layer of the seed coat. Much of the edible kernel weight is made up of the 

cotyledons, which are about 4.1 to 16.6% of the whole fruit. The hypocotyl is the the 

part of the stem of a plant embryo or seedling that is below the seed leaves, and the 

radicle is the rudimentary root of an embryo.
18

The sugar-rich layer of a fruit encourages wildlife to eat it whole, and then 

defecate the seed far away from the original tree, where it can grow. However, it is not 

clear what would eat whole a fruit as large as a black walnut and the only known source 

of dissemination of black walnut seed is grey squirrels, which bury nuts for future food 

and will still miss some. 

Shagbark hickory (see below) was the most valued nut of the native Indians. It 

has almost no soft layer. The skin splits easily into 4 segments as soon as the seed is ripe. 

However, it only bears well at 3 - 5 year intervals, and is very slow growing. 
19

The American chestnut (see below) is a fine nut, but rarely found today because a 

fungus (Chestnut blight) kills most trees. There are hybrids of the chestnuts being 

developed to be chestnut blight tolerant. The chestnut has no soft layer and its outer skin 

has such sharp spines that squirrels can't eat it until the seeds are mature and the outer 

skin cracks open naturally. Any nuts that squirrels bury and don't find until spring grow 

into new chestnut trees. Chestnuts are traditionally roasted and eaten as a snack.
20

White oak is another kind of tree nut. Its outer layers are incomplete, and cover 

less than half the shell, so it is called an acorn (see below). Acorns are a valuable source 

of food for wildlife, especially jays and squirrels, and were ground to make flour by the 

native Indians but are rarely used today, but are extensively used in Korea.

The nuts of conifer trees grow in their cones (see below). Pine nuts are valued 

raw, for salads and granolas, and used extensively in Italian cuisine.
21

Our native North American nuts take time and effort to collect and prepare for 

eating. So most nuts that you buy in stores are from tropical species that grow where 

labor is very cheap, and from varieties that are selected and hybridized to minimize the 

cost of collection and processing. 

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Almond:

The almond is a small to medium sized tree with a spreading, open canopy, 

usually 10 - 15 feet in commercial orchards. Almond flowers are nearly identical to 

peach and other Prunus flowers in structure, but light pink or white in color, and fragrant. 

The entire fruit including the hull is a drupe; however, the hull dries and splits prior to 

harvest, revealing the pit of the fruit. It has a pubescent skin (exocarp), a fleshy but thin 

hull (mesocarp), and a distinct hardened shell (endocarp). The hull enlarges during 

growth and later becomes dry and leathery and dehisces at harvest. The mature endocarp 

(hardened shell) ranges from hard to papery. Horticulturally the almond is classified as a 

nut in which the edible seed (kernel) is the commercial product. The hull is similar to a 

peach skin. Fruiting begins in 3 - 4 yr old trees, with maximal production in 6 - 10 years. 

Unlike its short-lived cousin the peach, almond trees can produce for 50+ years. Thinning 

is unnecessary since a high proportion of flowers must set fruit for normal cropping.
22

Cashew

The cashew is a member of the Anacardiaceae family, along with mango, 

pistachio, poison ivy and poison oak. Anacardium contains eight species, native to 

tropical America, of which the cashew is by far the most important economically. 

Cashews are one of the few fruit crops normally grown from seed, and few improved 

cultivars exist, at least in commercial production. Cashew is a small to medium tree, 

generally single-trunk and spreading in habit, up to 40 ft in height but generally kept at 

10 - 20 ft in cultivation. In older trees the spread may be greater than height, with lower 

limbs bending to touch the ground. Flowering is similar to the close relative mango: both 

male and perfect flowers are borne in the same inflorescence. Individual flowers are 

borne terminally on panicles, generally at the beginning of the dry season. Flowering 

may occur over several weeks. The true botanical fruit is a nut, about 1" long, shaped 

like a small boxing glove, hanging below a fleshy, swollen peduncle called the cashew 

apple or pseudofruit (See below). Fruit are borne singly or in small clusters, and mature 

in 60 - 90 days. The nut shell has an inner and outer wall, separated by a honeycomb 

tissue infused with caustic oil. Cracking the nuts fresh results in the oil contaminating the 

kernel, so nuts are roasted to drive off oils before they are shelled. The nuts are about 22 

– 30 % kernel by weight, and kernels are difficult to extract whole compared to the other 

tree nuts.
23

Chestnut:

The American chestnut is now nearly extinct due to chestnut blight (Endothia 

parasitica), introduced into North America in the 1800's; the fungus girdles and kills 

trees. Trees planted outside the native range of mid-west and west coast can escape the 

disease and live to maturity. In the eastern U.S., this species is now an under story shrub, 

sprouting from the base of the tree and then dies back when the disease becomes severe. 

Nuts are relatively small (3 - 12 g), but have the best flavor of the four species. The 

Chinese chestnut is small, spreading trees in cultivation, reaching 40 - 50 ft in height. It is 

the most tolerant species in terms of chestnut blight. Nuts are medium-large sized (10 -

30 g). The European chestnut is a larger, straighter growing tree (to 100 ft), better for 

timber than others. The nut size is medium-large (10 - 25 g). The Japanese chestnut is a 

small tree to 40 ft often with multiple trunks, and has been cultivated by the Japanese for 

over 2000 years. It has the largest nuts of the Castanea spp. (30 g), but is bland, 

astringent, and difficult to remove the pellicle (kernel covering). The flowers are 

monoecious; borne in erect catkins (See below), borne laterally in leaf axils on current 

season's growth; borne near the base of distally borne catkins, which are bisexual. Each 

female flower contains usually three 3 free carpels, each of which can develop into nuts; 

and one – three nuts are found within each spiny "bur" (involucre). The bur splits into 2 -

4 valves at maturity, exposing the nuts. The nut is a fairly large, brown, and resembles a 

large, rounded acorn in some species. American chestnuts are the smallest, and Chinese 

and European the largest of the four species. The chestnut differs from other edible nuts 

in being high in starch and moisture content, low in oils (fat), and containing more than 

one nut per involucre. They are generally boiled or roasted to improve flavor and 

digestibility.

Chestnut picture ready for roasting:
24

Coconut:

Coconut trees are typically single-trunk palms, reaching up to 100 ft in height, but 

generally 20 - 50 ft in cultivation. Leaves are among the largest of any plant (up to 20 ft), 

with 200 or more leaflets, and borne in a spiral arrangement at the apex of the trunk. 

Leaf life span may be 3 years, and mature, healthy palms have about 30 leaves, forming a 

new one and dropping the oldest one each month. 

The coconut has separate male and female flowers which are borne in the same 

inflorescence, which is a compound spadix arising in the leaf axial. Flowers are offwhite to gray or yellow. Flowering occurs continuously, since each leaf axial produces 

one inflorescence, and new leaves are produced approximately monthly. The coconut 

fruits are large, dry drupes, ovoid in shape, up to 15" long and 12" wide. The exocarp or 

skin is green, yellow, or bronze-gold, turning to brown, depending on cultivar and 

maturity. The mesocarp is fibrous and dry at maturity; the product coir is derived from 

this layer. The endocarp is the hard shell enclosing the seed. Seeds are the largest of any 

plant, and have a thin brown seed coat. Seeds are filled with endosperm, which is solid 

and adheres to the seed coat, and also in liquid form, called "milk". Copra is derived 

from the solid endosperm.
25

Hazelnut:

Hazelnuts (filberts) are grown as large shrubs (10 - 15 ft) in Europe, but trained to a 

single trunk in the Pacific Northwest to facilitate mechanical harvest. Trees begin 

bearing when 3 - 4 years old, and can bear for up to 40 - 50 years. Trees commonly 

produce 20 - 25 lbs of dried nuts each. The fruit is a nut in clusters of 1 - 5; with a shape 

that varies from round to oval, to oblong, and resembles the appearance of an oak acorn. 

The pericarp is hard, loosely covering the smooth to shriveled kernel and the nuts are 

surrounded by a green, leafy husk (involucre), and abscise from the base of the husk in 

late August. 
26

Macadamia nut:

The macadamia nut is a medium sized, tropical evergreen tree, with spreading, full 

canopies, reaching widths of 30 ft and heights of 20 - 30 ft. The tree yields better when 

cross pollinated and flowering is not synchronized with trees having flowers, immature 

and mature nuts all at one time. Flowers are borne on long, fragrant racemes (4 - 8") of 

dozens of individual flowers, from lateral buds on 1-year wood. Flowering occurs in 

mid-winter and nuts are harvested 7 - 8 months later in July - November although some 

nuts mature more-or-less year round. Botanically the fruit is a drupe; the fleshy outer 

portion is removed to reveal the nut. Nuts number from 10 - 30 on crowded stalks, and 

are covered with thick, shiny green hulls (= mesocarp and exocarp), which are adherent 

to the shell (= endocarp). Nuts are round, with kernels enclosed in hard shells, with 

shelling percentages of 40 %. 
27

Pecan:

Pecans are large, long-lived trees (up to 200 years old) with upright, vase-shaped 

crowns when open-grown. Pecans are the largest orchard trees in the U.S. reaching 60 -

80 ft tall, and having densities as low as 10 - 15 trees per acre. The pecans are 

monoecious; male inflorescences are pendulous spikes commonly referred to as catkins 

which are 2 - 6" in length. The female inflorescences are also spikes, born terminally on 

current season's growth. Both male and female flowers are green in color, with 

individual flowers about 1/8" in size. Flowers are incomplete and both sexes lack petals 

and sepals. Nuts are borne in terminal clusters of 2 - 10 individuals terminally on current 

season's growth. The green, fleshy shuck is composed of bract and ovarian tissue (exoand mesocarp), and surrounds the nut until maturity. The shuck dehisces along 4 regular 

sutures, unlike walnuts which lack sutures. Nuts are ovoid, 1 - 2 inches long, containing 

a large embryo composed mostly of two cotyledons or kernels with nut sizes ranging 

from 27 - 100 nuts/lb; "good" size is considered 50 nuts/lb. Cotyledons are separated by 

a thin, papery central plate extending from the inner layer of the endocarp. 
28

Peach palm nut:

The peach palm nut is a palm with multiple trunks that grows 20 to 30 meters (66 

to 98 feet) tall. It is native to Central America and Southwestern Amazonian including 

Northern Bolivia, Southeastern Peru and Western Brazil. Stem diameter ranges from 15 

to 30 centimeters (6 to 12 inches). The crown contains 15 to 25 dark green pinnate 

fronds. Leaflets of the fronds grow at different angles. Long strands of inflorescences 

occur among the axils of the fronds. Separate tiny yellowish male and female flowers are 

contained within the same inflorescence. The fruit is a drupe that varies in shape and 

grows in clusters of 50 to 1,000. One stem can contain 5 to 6 clusters of fruit. Each fruit 

grows 2.5 to 5 centimeters (1 to 2 inches) long and weighs 10 to 250 grams (0.4 to 9 

ounces). The skin is thin, fibrous and red, purple, orange, yellow or green in color. The 

humid, starchy/oily pulp is yellow to orange in color. Most fruit contain a fibrous/oily, 

white, conical-shaped, 8 to 10 centimeter (3 to 4 inch) kernel. The flavor of the fruit is 

fruity to chestnut-like. The seed is nutty, oily and has a coconut-like flavor. The aroma 

of the fermented pulp smells like ripe peaches. A typical bunch weighs 1 to 25 kilograms 

(2 to 55 pounds). Wild-type fruit are rich in oils and domesticated fruit are rich in starch. 

Currently, the plant is also very important in both Latin American and world markets for 

its heart-of-palm.

Pine Nut:

Pine nuts are tall conifer trees, up to 12.2 m (40 ft), found in warm to cool 

temperate regions throughout North America, Europe and Asia, usually in dry areas. 

These pines have stout branches, and varying needles. Cones are near globose or broad 

ovate, compact until mature. Seeds are about 1.3 cm (1/2 in) long, elongated and angular. 

All species of pine have edible seeds, but only a few are considered large enough to be 

worth gathering or cultivating; the Korean Pine being the most widely traded.

Pistachio:

The pistachio is small to medium sized dioecious trees, obtaining heights of 20 ft 

but generally smaller in cultivation. Male and female flowers are borne on separate 

plants. Inflorescences of several hundred tiny, brownish-green flowers are borne laterally 

on 1-yr wood with the flowers lacking petals, and have up to 5 sepals. The inflorescence 

is a panicle in both cases with 13 primary branches, each bearing 1 terminal and 5 - 19 

lateral flowers. Most fruit set occurs from terminal flowers and fruit set averages about 

10%. Botanically, the fruit is a drupe but is marketed as a nut. The hull is thin and 

fleshy, pale tan in color with a red blush at maturity (See below). One unique feature of 

pistachios among other nut crops is that the endocarp (shell) splits naturally prior to 

maturity. The percentage of splitting ranges from 50 – 75 % in ‘Kerman' cultivars, and 

can be reduced by drought stress. Nuts with unsplit shells are removed and cracked 

mechanically. Pistachios produce heavy crops every-other-year, alternating with little or 

no crop in "off" years. 
29

Walnut:

The walnut is a medium to large tree (to 100 ft in nature, kept at 20 - 50 ft in 

cultivation with a spreading crown. The shuck of Persian walnut does not split into 4 

regular sections at maturity as it does in pecan and hickories and it splits irregularly. All 

walnuts are monoecious, bearing male and female reproductive organs on separate 

flowers on the same tree. Catkins (male inflorescences) are borne laterally on one-year 

wood, and pistillate flowers are borne terminally or laterally (newer cultivars) on current 

season's wood in spikes of typically 2 - 3 flowers. The fruit is a nut that is borne singly 

or in clusters of 2 - 3 on shoot tips. A green, fleshy shuck surrounds the nut, which splits 

irregularly at maturity. The shell is rough, wrinkled or furrowed, and thin (see below). 

Nuts are ovoid to round, 1⁄2 - 2 inch diameter, containing two kernels separated by a thin, 

papery central plate extending from the inner layer of the shell.
30

Nuts of the Persian walnut ‘Hartley' (left) and ‘Chandler' (right). Walnut kernels 

are the cotyledons of the embryo, as in pecan, but are more deeply furrowed and rounded 

than the pecan.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF TREE NUT CULTIVATION

Almond:

Almond and related species are native to the Mediterranean climate region of the 

Middle East from Pakistan eastward to Syria and Turkey. The almond and its close 

relative, the peach, probably evolved from the same ancestral species in south-central 

Asia. Almonds were domesticated at least by 3000 BC, and perhaps much earlier since 

wild almonds have been unearthed in Greek archeological sites dating to 8000 BC. The 

almond was spread along the shores of the Mediterranean in northern Africa and southern 

Europe by Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was brought to California in the 1700s by 

Spanish Padres who settled the Mission at Santa Barbara. Around the turn of the century, 

the industry started in California, due to development of superior cultivars in the late 

1800s. From then until about 1960, the industry grew at a moderate pace, but acreage 

and production have increased several-fold since then, making California the clear world 

leader in almond production. In 2007, there were over 615,000 acres of almonds in 

California, making it the most widely planted tree crop in the state.
31

Cashew:

Cashew is native to northeastern Brazil, in the area between the Atlantic rain forest 

and the Amazon rainforest. Indigenous Indians consumed the nut and the enlarged 

pedicel referred to as the “cashew apple” and they roasted the nuts to remove the toxic 

outer covering. The Portuguese introduced cashew to the west coast of India and east 

Africa in the 16th century, shortly after its discovery in 1578. It was planted in India 

initially to reduce erosion, and uses for the nut and pseudofruit, the cashew apple, were 

developed much later. Nut domestication predated the arrival of Europeans to Brazil, 

although international nut trade did not occur until the 1920s. India developed more 

refined methods for removing the caustic shell oil, and this country is given credit for 

developing the modern nut industry. 

Chestnut:

Native American chestnuts were found by Desoto’s expedition in 1520 as he 

traveled the Appalachian Mountains. The chestnuts have four important nut-bearing 

species and includes: the American chestnut that is now nearly extinct due to chestnut 

blight (Endothia parasitica), introduced into North America in the 1800's; this fungus 

girdles and kills trees. Trees planted outside the native range (Midwest and west coast) 

escape the disease and live to maturity. In the eastern U.S., this species is now an under 

story shrub, sprouting from the base then dying back when the disease becomes severe. 

Nuts are relatively small (3 - 12 g), but said to have the best flavor of the four species. 

The Chinese chestnut is now the most important species in terms of commercial 

production. They are small, spreading trees in cultivation, reaching 40 - 50 ft in height, 

and are the most tolerant species in terms of chestnut blight. Nuts are medium-large 

sized weighing 10 - 30 g. This is a larger, straighter growing tree (to 100 ft), better for 

timber than others. Nut size is medium-large (10 - 25 g); quality is variable among 

cultivars, from sweet to astringent, and is somewhat susceptible to chestnut blight. The 

Japanese chestnut is a small tree (to 40 ft), often with multiple trunks, cultivated by the 

Japanese for over 2000 years. It has the largest nuts of Castanea spp. (30 g), but they are 

bland, astringent, and difficult to remove the kernel covering, but are highly resistant to 

chestnut blight. There are hybrids of the chestnuts being developed to be chestnut blight 

tolerant. 

Chinquapin:

Chinquapins are a group of chestnut species distinguished by having only one nut 

per bur. Several species are native to the southeastern US. Taxonomically, these species 

are placed in the Balanocastanon section within the genus Castanea, whereas the 

chestnuts of commerce are in the Eucastanon section. Some of these species are the 

Allegany Chinquapin native to S.E. U.S. from Virginia south, the Ozark Chinquapin 

native to Arkansas and Missouri, and the Florida chinquapin native to Georgia, Florida, 

and Texas. These species are small shrubs or trees (6 - 15 ft) that resist blight by 

sprouting prolifically and bearing fruit at a young age. The nuts are small, but sweet and 

nutty flavored and excellent wildlife food.
32

Coconut:

The origin of the coconut palm is obscured by the ability of the fruit to disseminate 

the species naturally over distances of thousands of miles. Coconuts can float on the 

ocean for months and still germinate when beached, so they may have arisen anywhere 

between the eastern Indian and western Pacific oceans. Prior to the age of discovery, 

coconuts were dispersed from east Africa to the Pacific coast of Panama. Coconuts 

provided the only source of food and water on many of the atolls across the equatorial 

Pacific, and the natural distribution of coconut may have influenced the initial 

colonization of the region. It is clear that there were no coconut palms along the east 

coast of the Americas, western Africa, or the Caribbean prior to European exploration in 

the sixteenth century. Today, the coconut is distributed pan tropically, and even reaches 

extra-tropical areas such as southern Florida and the Bahamas. Coconut palms have been 

used since ancient times as a source of food, fiber, fuel, water, and shelter, and many of 

these uses are still important today. Coconut oil was one of the first, if not the first plant 

oil to be used by humans, and was the leading vegetable oil until 1962 when eclipsed by 

soybean oil. Unlike many tropical fruits, coconuts are still grown largely by small 

landholders instead of on large plantations, although plantations are becoming more 

popular.

Coquito nut:

When the Spanish explorers first entered central Chile in the early 16th century, 

they found literally millions of Coquito nut or Chilean wine palms spread over valleys 

and slopes throughout much of the coastal ranges. Isolated as this area was from the 

other Spanish colonies, the conquistadors quickly learned from the indigenous 

populations that these palms had a variety of valuable uses. The most important of these 

at the time was to produce large quantities of a sugary liquid from the collection of palm 

sap. This syrup could be used directly as a sweetener, a use that continues today, or 

allowed to ferment to produce an alcoholic beverage. It is this latter use that gave rise to 

the common name for the palm, although this use is rare today. The palm seeds are 

called coquito nuts are the edible nut, and the pinnately compound palm fronds were 

widely used by the indigenous peoples of central Chile as a thatch for constructing 

shelters.

Dika nut:

The dika nut is distributed throughout a vast swath of western tropical Africa, from 

Senegal to Angola, and is a part of the diet. Dika is a large, deciduous tree native to 

tropical West Africa and reaching up to 40 m (131 ft) in height. The trunk is often 

buttressed up to 3 m (9.8 ft) high, and may be more than 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter. In the 

southwestern corner of its range, from Nigeria to Angola, the fruits are eaten. However, 
33

in the main production areas from Senegal to Uganda, the major food by far is the seed. 

Despite so far international obscurity, dika is an important resource by providing food 

and income to rural communities in almost twenty countries. In several countries such as 

Cameroon, Nigeria, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea, for instance it is one of the most 

widely sold of all forest products. Millions count on it for cash during the harvest season. 

Throughout its native range the tree providing these valued fruits and seeds is among the 

most appreciated natural resources and when forests are cleared dikas are universally left 

untouched. In Africa the fruit is a tiny resource compared to the seed. Each year 

harvesters gather “dika nuts” by the thousands of tons. The hard round balls, which look 

something like smooth walnuts, must be cracked open to get to the edible part. The 

kernels found inside have the texture normal to nuts and can be eaten raw or roasted. 

Hazelnut:

The cultivated hazelnut is native to Europe and Asia Minor, preferring regions with 

mild, moist winters and cool summers. For this reason, most production is located near 

large bodies of water at mid latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere (along the Black Sea in 

Turkey, the Atlantic coast in France, the Willamette Valley in Oregon). Hazelnut 

production failed initially in the eastern U.S. due to eastern filbert blight (Anisogramma 

anomala) a fungal disease which attacks young shoots first, but later invades older wood, 

girdling and killing the trees and entire orchards. In the 1970's, it was found in the 

Pacific Northwest, where it threatens production. In 1983 the Oregon industry decided to 

adopt the name “hazelnut” for this crop rather than filbert to avoid confusion in the 

marketplace with other countries. 

Macadamia Nut:

Both species of macadamia nuts are native to the east coast of Australia, from rain 

forest-like climates; M. integrifolia is more tropical in its requirements than M. 

tetraphylla. The Hawaiian industry and tropical production is based on the former, 

whereas the small production in southern California is based on the latter. Nuts were 

brought to Hawaii and California in the late 1800's, but only the Hawaiians developed nut 

culture, whereas the Californians used it initially as an ornamental plant.

Pecan:

Pecan is the most important native North American orchard species in terms of 

acreage. Pecans were used by Indians at least 8000 years ago in Texas. Crows may have 

contributed to the selection and distribution process before man, since they select thinshelled nuts and can carry them several miles. Texas had over 600,000 A of native 

pecans. The first budded trees were produced in Louisiana in the mid-1800, and orchards 

were established throughout the native range, eastward and westward. The first 

commercial shipment of pecans originated in Georgia in 1917, when orchards were 
34

already producing high quality nuts graded according to size and color. Georgia has 

since been the leading producer of "improved pecans", although collection of pecans 

from wild trees in Texas and Oklahoma exceeds Georgia's production in some years.

Pine Nut:

While pine trees are common, less known perhaps is the fact that some members of 

the pine family also bear edible seeds or "nuts". Out of the 100 recognized species of 

true pines, only a `few produce nuts of sufficient quality and desirable flavor to make 

them worth eating. Pine nut varieties that have different names are from different species 

of Pine trees. Pine nuts from New Mexico called Pinon nuts are called Pinon or Piñon by 

Law in New Mexico. Pinon is a name derived from the Spanish word for pine nut. Pinon 

nuts come specifically from the pine tree species: Pinus edulis. They taste different from 

other varieties. The Pinon pine tree is a two-needled pine which grows wild in high 

desert mountain areas of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. These edible nuts 

are not to be confused with the "single needle" pine tree from Nevada. The Pinon nut 

grown primarily on Indian reservations in the Southwest United States is normally 

roasted in the shell. Their availability is rather scarce, and the Pinon nut must first be 

removed from the shell prior to consumption. Pine nut development in North America is 

modest in comparison with that in Europe. The Italian pine tree, with superior timber, is 

larger and grows faster than the stunted Pinon of the southwestern United States. Italian 

stone pine plantations are well established in Mediterranean Europe, while the American 

Pinon remains mostly neglected and uncultivated. Worldwide, approximately 100 

species of true pines are recognized; of these about a dozen in the Northern Hemisphere 

produce nuts of sufficiently high quality and desirable flavor to make them worth

gathering. The term “pine nut” denotes any of these edible nuts. Other distinctions are 

made depending upon the geographical are involved. The most common designation for 

nuts in Europe is “pignolia”, a term which refers to pine nuts of the Italian stone pine, 

grown for the most part in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and North Africa. Nuts of a different 

species called “pinion”, a name derived from the Spanish word for pine nut, are produced 

in the western United States. These Pinon nuts come mainly from the Pinon pine tree, a 

two-needled pine which grows wild in the states of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and 

Utah. The pine nut dates from a remote period in time when Hosea (14:8) was a Hebrew 

prophet who lived during the eighth century B.C. in Israel. Many Biblical scholars 

believe that this tree was the stone pine and the edible fruits referred to was the pine nut. 

The ancient Greeks and Romans appreciated the taste of the pine nuts. Archaeologists 

have found pine nuts among household foodstuffs in the ruins of Pompeii, destroyed by 

the violent eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. The Roman Legions carried pine nuts 

among their provisions, evidenced by pine nut shells uncovered in refuse dumps of 

Roman encampments in Britain which date from the middle of the first century.

Pistachio:

The pistachio is native to the Asia Minor area, from the islands of the 
35

Mediterranean in the west to India in the east. It probably developed in interior desert 

areas, since it requires long, hot summers for fruit maturation, is drought and salt tolerant, 

and yet has a high winter chilling requirement. The pistachio has been considered a 

delicacy since the beginning of recorded history, and has been cultivated for centuries 

throughout its native range. It was introduced to California in 1854, but commercial 

plantings did not develop until 1970 with only 21,000 A in 1979. Today, pistachios are 

grown primarily in California, although there is some production in Arizona, New 

Mexico, and western Texas.

Walnut:

Walnut (Juglans regia) has its origins in Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, and points 

eastward to the Himalayan Mountains. However, there are native Juglans in North, 

Central, and South America, Europe and Asia. Though native to Europe, it probably was 

not utilized there until improved forms were imported from Persia. Romans spread 

cultivation throughout southern Europe. The species came to the new world with English 

settlers and to California via missionaries. The settlers called them English walnuts to 

distinguish them from the Native American black walnut. Black walnuts are native to the 

eastern half of the U.S. and southern Ontario. Today, the English walnut production is 

almost entirely located in the San Joaquin/Sacramento valleys of California, where over 

5,000 growers and 52 processors make up a highly organized and productive industry. 

They are also grown in North, Central, and South America as well as China, 

The members of this crop group have similar uses, and all are consumed after 

maturity or consumed cooked or roasted in various recipes including salads, meats, and 

cookies. Some of these tree nuts also have medicinal properties. Many of the tree nuts 

from the same botanical family with similar biological and cultural aspects suggests they 

should also encounter similar pest problems and hence have similar needs for pest control 

products in similar use patterns. All of these commodities except for betel nut were 

found to have similar characteristics and uses to become a member of the Tree nut group. 

The most widely grown tree nuts in the U.S. almond and pecan with largest acreages and 

geographical distribution in the case of pecans will continue to be the representative 

commodities for the Tree nut crop group.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE TREE NUT CROPS

Understanding how the tree nut crops grow and develop is a key part of 

developing a pest control strategy for optimum nut yield and quality and a helpful 

reference for analysis of residue field trials by EPA scientists. Proper timing of pesticide 

applications, based on crop growth stage and pest growth cycle can improve a product’s 

efficacy and prevent crop injury and yield losses. Pesticide labels often use crop growth 

stages and codes to identify when to apply a pesticide, as well as the tree nuts. State 

Extension pest control recommendations and spray schedules are based on these distinct 

growth stages Tables 2 - 5. Rarely, if ever, will a grower need to apply treatments at all 
36

of the key growth stages shown for a tree nut because of pest scouting. The number, 

distribution, and content of needed treatments will vary between the major tree nut 

growing regions of the world and within any given region and are dependent on pest 

pressures which reduce the yield, quality, and marketability of the fruit. 

Some of the internationally recognized growth stages for the tree nuts are listed as 

BBCH Codes (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt and Chemical industry) and 

adapted from Ag Analytical Services (Tables 1 and 2 for almond). They are based on the 

principal growth stage such as leaf development and flowering and list a standard BBCH 

Code for each stage as well as a description of each code. The growth stages are essential 

for identifying the propose timings to scout pest problems for control of these pests and 

for applications of pesticides as part of an integrated pest management program (IPM). 

The BBCH does not have a separate list for tree nuts but the stone fruit growth stages are 

fairly similar and we were able to develop the growth stages for almonds. Growth stages 

for pecans, pistachio and walnut are listed in Tables 3, 4, and 5, respectively.

Table 1. Selected Principal Growth Stages for Tree Nut Group such as for 

Almond). BBCH Identification Codes (Adapted from Meir, 1994 and Serve-Ag 

Analytical Services, 2007). 

BBCH Code Principal Growth Stage General Description

00 Sprouting/Bud development Dormancy: leaf buds and the 

thicker inflorescence buds 

closed and covered by dark 

brown scales.

01 Sprouting/Bud development Beginning of bud swelling 

(leaf buds); light brown scales 

visible, scales with light 

colored edges. 

10 Leaf development First leaves separating: green 

scales slightly open, leaves 

emerging. 

19 Leaf development First leaves fully expanded.

31 Shoot development Beginning of shoot growth; 

axes of developing shoots 

visible.

39 Shoot development Shoots about 90% of final 

length. 

51 Inflorescence emergence Inflorescence buds swelling: 

buds closed, light brown scales 

visible. 

53 Inflorescence emergence Bud burst, scales separated, 

light green bud sections 

visible.

54 Inflorescence emergence Inflorescence enclosed by light 

green scales, if such scales are 
37

BBCH Code Principal Growth Stage General Description

formed, since not all cultivars 

form them. 

57 Inflorescence emergence Sepals open: petal tips visible; 

single flowers with white or 

pink petals (still closed).

59 Inflorescence emergence Most flowers with petals 

forming a hollow ball called 

popcorn stage.

60 Flowering First flowers open.

61 Flowering Beginning of flowering: about 

10% of flowers open

62 Flowering About 20% of flowers open

63 Flowering About 30% of flowers open

64 Flowering About 40% of flowers open

65 Flowering Full flowering: at least 50% of 

flowers open, first petals 

falling. 

67 Flowering Flowers fading: majority of 

petals fallen, ovary growing, 

first leaves unfolded.

69 Flowering End of flowering, all petals 

fallen.

71 Development of Fruit Ovary growing: fruit fall after 

flowering. 

72 Development of Fruit All petals fallen, end of 

flowering, first leaves fully 

expanded, shoots > 10 cm 

long, shuck fall stage.

75 Development of Fruit Fruit about half final size. Fruit 

growth interrupted, stone 

becomes hard and cannot 

easily be cut out. Stone 

hardening stage. 

76 Development of Fruit Fruit about 60% final size

77 Development of Fruit Fruit about 70% final size

78 Development of Fruit Fruit about 80% final size

79 Development of Fruit Fruits about 90% of final size.

81 Maturity of fruit Fruit at full size. Beginning of 

fruit coloring.

85 Maturity of fruit Coloring advanced.

87 Maturity of fruit Fruit ripe for picking

89 Maturity of fruit Fruit ripe for harvest and 

consumption, fruit has typical 

taste and firmness. Harvest 

stage.
38

BBCH Code Principal Growth Stage General Description

91 Senescence, beginning of dormancy Shoot growth completed; 

foliage still fully green. 

93 Senescence, beginning of dormancy Beginning of leaf fall.

95 Senescence, beginning of dormancy 50% of leaves discolored or 

fallen

97 Senescence, beginning of dormancy All leaves fallen.

Tree Nut Growing Season Growth Stages for Almond, Pecan, and Walnut:

The typical growth stages and timing for almonds are listed in Table 2, while the 

typical growth stages for pecan listed in Table 3, pistachio in Table 4, and walnut in 

Table 5. Most of the growth stages are fairly similar based on when nuts are maturing 

after bloom. 

Table 2. Typical Almond Growth Stages (Serve-Ag Analytical Services, 20070.

Crop Growth Stage J

A

N

F

E

B

M

A

R

A

P

R

M

A

Y

J

U

N

E

J

U

L

Y

A

U

G

S

E

P

T

O

C

T

N

O

V

D

E

C

Dormant X X X

Bloom – Petal fall X X

Post bloom X X

Shell hardening X

Hull split X

Table 3. Typical Pecan Growth Stages (www.tifton.uga.edu/uga.pecan, 

http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_h/h-618.pdf).

Crop Growth Stage J

A

N

F

E

B

M

A

R

A

P

R

M

A

Y

J

U

N

E

J

U

L

Y

A

U

G

S

E

P

T

O

C

T

N

O

V

D

E

C

Dormant X X X X

Bud break X X X

Pollination X

Nut elongation and expansion X X X

Shell hardening X X

Kernel development X X

Shuck split X
39

Pecans after maturing and harvesting begin another growth stage cycle. These 

growth stages are: 

(1). Dormant Stage: Pecan trees are dormant during the winter months, which is like a 

rest period for the tree. During dormancy, the tree doesn't appear to be growing, but 

many important things are happening. In order for pecan trees to produce pecans during 

the next year they need at least 200 chill hours during this period. (A chill hour is an hour 

where the temperature is between 32F and 45F).

(2). Bud-break and Pollination: During late April and early May, pecan trees pollinate. 

Pecan trees are monoecious, which means they have separate male structures (catkins,) 

and female flowers (pistillate). The catkins are long, golden tassels that produce pollen. 

The female flowers receive the pollen and initiate the nut growth. During this time, the 

pecan grower scouts the trees to make sure they are free of problems with insects and 

diseases.

(3). Nutlet Stage: In this stage the young pecans continue to grow in June and July and 

are called nutlets.

(4). Nut Fill Stage: Pecans mature during the nut-fill stage in September and early 

October. Some varieties of pecan trees produce many small clusters of pecans, and others 

produce fewer large clusters.

(5). Shuck-Split Stage: After a 200-day growing period, the pecan shuck opens, 

allowing the nut to drop.

Table 4 Typical Pistachio Growth Stages (Crane J.C., Bradley M., Nelson M, Growth of seeded 

and seedless pistachio nuts. J Am Soc Hort Sci. 1971. 96:80).

Crop Growth Stage J

A

N

F

E

B

M

A

R

A

P

R

M

A

Y

J

U

N

E

J

U

L

Y

A

U

G

S

E

P

T

O

C

T

N

O

V

D

E

C

Dormant X X X X

Bud swell - Bloom X

Shoot growth/foliage X

Hull expansion X

Shell hardening X

Nut fill X

Shell split X X

Nut maturation X
40

Table 5. Typical Walnut Growth Stages 

(http://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/html/em/em8907/#t2)

Crop Growth Stage J

A

N

F

E

B

M

A

R

A

P

R

M

A

Y

J

U

N

E

J

U

L

Y

A

U

G

S

E

P

T

O

C

T

N

O

V

D

E

C

Dormant X X X

Leaf growth X X

Bloom X X

Kernel growth X X

Husk split X X X

CLIMATE AND SOILS AFFECT TREE NUT ADAPTATION TO CERTAIN 

REGIONS:

Tree nuts vary some are northern temperate deciduous crop that needs a chill period 

for it to enter dormancy before producing the next crop in the summer and fall such as the 

chestnut and walnut and some prefer a Mediterranean climate like almonds and some are 

tropical such as the coconut. Specific climatic and soil preferences for the tree nuts are 

discussed below.

The African nut tree prefers a moist climates, and is often found in the rainforest. It 

seems to prefer forest edges and semi-deciduous moist forests, although it can be found 

in dry, wooded savanna regions as well. It is typically grown from seed, although the 

germination rate is poor. Clonal reproduction techniques are being investigated to make 

cultivation of this tree more desirable for farmers.

Almonds prefers a deep, loamy, well-drained soils, but will tolerate poor soils, and

requires a mild winters, and long, rainless, hot summers with low humidity. It is well 

adapted to mild winter and dry hot summer conditions. It is the earliest temperate tree 

crop to bloom. It must be cross pollinated in orchard conditions and need insect 

pollinators. 

Candlenut prefers a well drained soil with a pH of 6.0 – 6.5, and long hot summers. 

Cashews are ttolerant of sandy, poor soils, with a soil pH 4.5 - 6.5, but are intolerant 

of poor soil drainage. They are drought tolerant if soils are deep, and can grow in areas 

receiving only 30 - 50" of rain per year, but they have no cold tolerance. High rainfall 

and humidity favor diseases that destroy the flowers and reduce fruit set. 

The coconut is adaptable to many soil types, and can be grown inland provided 

adequate drainage and pH between 5.0 and 8.0. At below 1000 ft elevation, frost-free 

subtropical areas and climates with extended dry seasons provided irrigation, but grow 

best in areas with mean temperatures of 70 - 80° F. The crop needs 40 - 60" of water per 
41

year, and perform better in high humidity, supremely tolerant of hurricane force winds 

and driving rain, and rarely uprooted and it tolerate salt spray better than most crops, and 

can tolerate brief flooding associated with tropical storms. 

The hazelnut prefers a deep well drained soil with an optimum pH of 6.5.

Macadamia nuts prefer a deep, well-drained, soil with a pH of 5.5 to 6.5 are best, 

but trees are grown on a wide variety of soils. In Hawaii, they grow well on lava rock 

soils. Although tropical trees, macadamias tolerate mild freezing (28 - 32° F), and do not 

tolerate excessive heat. In Hawaii, cool ocean breezes allow cultivation at sea level, but 

inland in the tropics, trees must be grown at 1500 - 3500 ft. They have no chilling 

requirement, but a seasonal change in temperature may help to synchronize bloom.

Pecan trees prefer light to medium textured soils with a pH 5.5 - 6.5, but can be 

grown on soils with higher clay content and higher pH. Pecans perform equally well in 

arid and humid climates, provided with adequate soil water and disease management, but 

disease pressure is worse in humid climates. The commercial "pecan belt" is the tier of 

southern states stretching from Georgia to Arizona. Pecans form natural forests along 

river banks of the Mississippi valley in the south-central US, so a warm temperate 

climate is optimal for growth. Its cold hardiness is fair; but young trees may be killed 

outright by temperatures of -5 to 0°F. To reduce the potential for frost or freeze damage, 

select a site at a higher elevation or one on a gradual slope. Do not plant in low areas 

where cold air tends to settle; these areas are frequently referred to as frost pockets. Nuts 

do not "fill" properly in northern areas, due to inadequate temperatures for photosynthesis 

during the critical kernel growth period in autumn. Most pecan cultivars require growing 

seasons of 180 - 220 days with a variation of cultivars from 140 to 210 days. North 

Carolina is on the northern fringe of the commercial pecan-producing region of the 

United States. The limiting factor is the length of the growing season. The best area is 

the coastal plain, extending to the eastern edge of the piedmont. The selected site should 

have well-drained, deep soils (4 to 6 feet) with moderate soil-moisture-holding capacity. 

Pecan trees are native to river valley soils and have a relatively high water requirement. 

They do best on sandy loam soils but also can be grown on heavier soils such as clay 

loams if the soils are well drained. In areas where the soil is lighter and relatively dry, 

irrigation is required. 

Pine nuts are produced on many soil s with a pH ranging from 4 – 9, and they prefer 

a Mediterranean climate with rainfall ranging from 400 – 800 mm.

The pistachio produces best on deep, well-drained loams with high lime content and 

soil pH. Pistachios are more tolerant of alkaline (Na+) and saline soil than most tree 

crops. Soils with a history of Verticillium (poorly drained, old cotton land) should be 

avoided or fumigated prior to planting. They are truly Mediterranean in adaptation; they 

thrive in the hot, dry, desert-like conditions, such as the central California valley. Trees 

are highly disease prone, and rain or even high humidity during the spring and summer 

promotes diseases. Arid climates with rather cool, prolonged winters are needed for 
42

pistachios. Cold hardiness ranges around 5 - 15° F in mid-winter in California, but has 

been reported to reach 0° F in Iran.

The preferred soils for the tropical almond are sand, silt, or loams with an alkaline 

pH. It is most commonly found on coastal plain areas.

The preferred soils for walnuts are deep, well-drained silt loams with pH 6 to 8, as 

occur in central valleys of California. ‘Persian’ or ‘English’ walnuts are best adapted to 

Mediterranean climates, with dry, hot summers and mild winters, but cold hardiness is a 

major limiting factor for the walnut. In California, trees are considered cold hardy to 

temperatures 12 - 15° F. ‘Carpathian’ cultivars are far more cold hardy and quicker to 

acclimate than ‘Persian’ cultivars.

U.S./NAFTA AND WORLD PRODUCTION AND GEOGRAPHICAL 

DISTRIBUTION OF THE TREE NUT COMMODITIES: 

Proposed members of the Tree nut crop group find widespread distribution 

throughout the world. Table 6 provides a list of the hectares and production in metric 

tons from various countries that are members of the International Crop Grouping 

Consulting Committee (ICGCC) as countries that grow almond, betelnut, Brazil nut, 

cashew, chestnut, coconut, hazelnut, pistachio, and walnut. The world total hectares for 

almond, betelnut, Brazil nut, cashew, chestnut, coconut, hazelnut, pistachio, and walnut 

have increased from 17,420,730 ha in 1997 to 19,961,492 ha in 2007, and the total 

production of these nuts has increased from 57,174,933 metric tons in 1997 to 72,519,897 

metric tons in 2007 (FAO 2007). Some “minor” tree nut commodities like the chestnut, 

pine nut, and okari nut are also becoming more popular. Worldwide, coconut is the most 

harvested tree nut at 55.6 % of the hectares followed by cashew at 19.8 % and almond at 

8.9 %, and walnut at 3.6 %. The average yields for the tree nuts is 48 Mt/ha for Brazil 

nut, 5.5 Mt/ha for coconut, 3.4 Mt/ha for chestnut, 3.3 Mt/ha for walnut and 1.2 Mt/ha for 

almonds. Africa is the predominant tree nut producing regions for cashews, while Asia is 

the leading region for betelnut, chestnut, hazelnut, pistachio and coconut. Europe is the 

leading region for hectares harvested for almonds at 44.3 %. The United States grows 

approximately 14 % of the total world almond hectares, 1.8 % of the hazelnuts, 7.6 % for 

pistachio and 12 % for walnuts according to FAO. In production the U.S. leads the world 

in almond production (Mt/ha) at 50 % and is a leader in pistachio production at 21 % and 

walnuts at 16.8 %. Spain and Portugal each produce 30 – 40 % of the world’s pine nuts. 

Table 6. Major Tree Nut Production in 2007, updated June 23, 2009 (FAOSTAT 2009, 

http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/default.aspx.

Countries/Regions Almond, with 

shell

Betel nut

(arecanut)

Brazil nut, 

with shell

Cashew nut, 

with shell

Chestnut

Africa 438,407 ha

221,987 tonnes

No data

90 tonnes

No data

5,200 tonnes

1,670,350 ha

1,293,845 tonnes

100 ha

140 tonnes

Central America 0 ha No data No data 7,328 ha No data
43

Countries/Regions Almond, with 

shell

Betel nut

(arecanut)

Brazil nut, 

with shell

Cashew nut, 

with shell

Chestnut

0 tonnes No data No data 9,138 tonnes No data

Caribbean 7,395 ha

10,900 tonnes

No data

No data

No data

No data

5,900 ha

1025 tonnes

No data

No data

South America No data

No data

No data

No data

1,550 ha

69,281 tonnes

7395 ha

10,900 tonnes

40,190 ha

55,800 tonnes

Asia 279,794 ha

392,353 tonnes

811,986 ha

971,601 tonnes

No data

No data

537,835 ha

2,131,366 tonnes

238,405 ha

1,090,611

tonnes

Australia 15,000 ha

18,024 tonnes

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

Europe 789,931 ha

385,570 tonnes

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

87,153 ha

115,550 tonnes

United States 248,890 ha

1,043,266 tonnes

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

World Total - 2007 1,779,417 ha

2,072,100 tonnes

811,986 ha

971,691 tonnes

1,550 ha

74,431 tonnes

3,953,175 ha

3,578,399 tonnes

366,448 ha

1,262,101

tonnes

World Total - 1997 1,569,305 ha

1,563,990 tonnes

467,694 ha

583,623 tonnes

1,220 ha

51,506 tonnes

2,826,789 ha

1,334,327 tonnes

307,012 ha

790,348 tonnes

Note: This table reports only the tree nuts included on the FAO website.

Table 6. Major Tree Nuts Production in 2007 (continued):

Countries/Regions Coconut Hazelnut 

(Filbert) with 

shell 

Pistachio Walnut, with shell

Africa 667,681 ha

1,732,607 tonnes

100 ha

140 tonnes

16,510 ha

1,265 tonnes

9,975 ha

40,776 tonnes

Central America 199,595 ha

1,309,182 tonnes

No data

No data

36 ha

10 tonnes

57,509 ha

79,162 tonnes

Caribbean 514,938 ha

3,922,501 tonnes

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

South America 336,638 ha

3,255,055 tonnes

No data

No data

No data

No data

19,641 ha

35,525 tonnes

Asia 9,270,785 ha

52,614,784 tonnes

501,099 ha

617,244 tonnes

537,547 ha

396,950 tonnes

389,521 ha

952,700 tonnes

Australia No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

No data

22 tonnes

Europe No data

No data

100,858 ha

165,711 tonnes

88,500 ha

11,000 tonnes

155,785 ha

324,979 tonnes

United States No data

No data

11,370 ha

32,660tonnes

46,136 ha

108,598 tonnes

88,220 ha

290,300 tonnes

World Total- 2007 11,106,109 ha

61,504,133 tonnes

613,427 ha

815,755 tonnes

608,729 ha

517,823 tonnes

720,651 ha

1,723,464 tonnes

World Total- 1997 10,834,952 ha

50,537,192 tonnes

492,684 ha

635,068 tonnes

387,019 ha

544,102 tonnes

534,055 ha

1,134,777 tonnes

Note: This table reports only the tree nuts included on the FAO website.
44

In the U.S. tree nuts are widely consumed with the per capita consumption in 2007 

for the following tree nuts reported as almond at 1.20 lb followed by other tree nuts that 

combined data for Brazil nut, cashew, chestnut, and pine nuts at 1.10 lb, coconut 

consumption is at 0.58 lb, pecan at 0.43 lb, and both pistachio and walnut at 0.23 lb 

(Table 7). Consumption of almond and pistachio is increasing since 1997 while coconut, 

macadamia nut and pecan have not increased. With the beneficial effects of some nuts 

such as almonds, pistachio, and walnut lowering cholesterol consumption should increase 

in the future.

Table 7. Tree nuts on a shelled basis (lb/capita/year): Per capita consumption 

(USDA Economic Research Service, ERS, 2009.

Season* Almond Coconut

**

Hazelnut Macadamia 

nut

Pecan Pistachio Walnut Other 

Tree 

Nuts***

2007 1.20 0.58 0.04 0.10 0.43 0.23 0.23 1.10

2006 1.00 0.56 0.08 0.13 0.44 0.13 0.53 0.97

2005 0.62 0.57 0.02 0.13 0.44 0.19 0.42 0.88

2004 0.89 0.54 0.07 0.15 0.49 0.26 0.53 1.10

2003 1.12 0.59 0.06 0.12 0.46 0.19 0.50 1.00

1997 0.56 0.57 0.07 0.11 0.45 0.14 0.36 0.53

* Season begins in August of first year shown for almonds and walnuts, September 

for pistachios, October for pecans, and July for hazelnuts.

** Coconut is on a desiccated basis.

*** Other tree nuts include Brazil nut, cashew, chestnut, and pine nut.

Based on the USDA CSFII 1994 – 1996, 1998 survey, using two day individual 

consumption for determined tree nut consumption (g/day) is listed in Table 8. The 

highest consumption is for almond at 0.29 g/day, coconut oil at 0.404 g/day, walnut at 

0.189 g/day, and coconut dried at 0.116 g/day. The highest babyfood consumption is for 

coconut oil at 0.0974 d/day. The dietary value of some of the tree nuts, per 100 gram 

edible portion is listed in a separate report entitled Part 2 Dietary Value of the Tree nuts. 

Table 8. Consumption of the Tree Nuts Based on USDA CSFII 

1994 – 1996, 1998 survey.

COMMODITY CONSUMPTION (g/day) 

Almond 0.293

Almond, oil 0.000504

Brazil nut 0.0116

Butternut 0.0000000464

Cashew 0.0164

Chestnut 0.00410
45

COMMODITY CONSUMPTION (g/day) 

Coconut, dried 0.116

Coconut, meat 0.0255

Coconut, meat - babyfood 0.000181

Coconut, milk 0.0652

Coconut, oil 0.404

Coconut, oil - babyfood 0.0974

Hazelnut 0.0213

Macadamia nut 0.0182

Pecan 0.0906

Pine nut 0.0231

Pistachio 0.0649

Walnut 0.189

IMPORTS/EXPORTS OF THE TREE NUTS:

Despite the U.S. being a major producer of tree nuts (Table 9) significant amounts 

of some of the tree nuts are imported. The amount of a commodity can vary widely from 

year to year based on differences in U.S. production, weather effects, and consumer 

demand. There are no reported imports of almonds, betel nuts, walnuts, or any other tree 

nuts to the United States. 

The most widely imported tree nut to the U.S (Table 9 in 2008 is the cashew at 

120,504 MT, followed by coconut at 73,241 MT and then the pecan at 40,124 MT. In 

2008, over 10,585 MT of Brazil nuts was imported to the U.S (USDA Foreign 

Agriculture Trade Statistics, FATUS) with 48 % coming from Bolivia , 26 % from 

Brazil, and 23 % from Peru. Approximately, 120,505 MT of cashew was imported from 

Vietnam at 41.3 %, India at 33.3 % and Brazil at 17.9 %. Forty-six % of the chestnuts 

were imported from China followed by Italy at 40 % and South Korea at 10.7 %. 

Coconut meat imports came from Philippines (41.9 %), Thailand at 25.8 %, and 

Dominican Republic at 14.7 % and Mexico at 11.6 %. Of the 7,071 MT hazelnuts 

imported over 83 % were from Turkey followed by Italy at 6 % and Canada at 5 %. 

Macadamia nuts were imported from South Africa at 29.7 %, Australia at 28.7 % and 

Kenya at 11 % and Guatemala at 10 %. Almost all the 40,124 MT of pecans were 

imported from Mexico (99.3 %). Pistachio nuts were imported from Turkey at 35.2 %, 

Iran at 22.8 %, Italy at 14.0 %, Hong Kong at 10.9 %, and Canada at 6.5 %. Over 80 % 

of the pine nuts imported to the U.S. are from China. 

Table 9. U.S. Tree Nut Imports for 2007 - 2008. (USDA NASS, 2008 Fr Nt 1-3, 

USDA ERS, FTS – 2007, USDA FATUS, 2008).

Tree Nut 2007 (MT) 2008 (MT)

Brazil nut 13,262 10,584
46

Tree Nut 2007 (MT) 2008 (MT)

Cashew 135,500 120,504

Chestnut 4,056 4,145

Coconut, meat 79,550 73,241

Hazelnut 5,742 7,071

Macadamia nut 6,996 7,301

Pecan 37,483 40,124

Pistachio 947 700

According to the USDA ERS, U.S. imports of tree nuts during the 1990s and 

through the 2000s were up sharply from the 1970s and 1980s due to increased demand. 

Almost half the volume of tree nut imports (excluding coconut meat) was cashew nuts, 

followed by pecans (15 %) and Brazil nuts (6 %). In recent years, however, Vietnam has 

become a more visible player in the U.S. cashew market. Vietnam is now the top supplier 

of cashew nuts to the United States, accounting for over one-third of total import volume, 

up from less than 10 % in the mid- to late-1990s (Pollack and Perez, USDA ERS). 

The U.S. is also a major exporter of tree nut commodities (Table 10). In 2008, 

there were over 448,333 MT of almonds exported from the U.S. to Spain at 15 %, 

Germany and India at 11 %, Hong Kong at 8 %, followed by Japan, Canada, and United 

Arab Emirates al at 5 % (USDA Foreign Agriculture Trade Statistics, FATUS). 

Approximately 52,385 MT of pecans were exported in 2008 to Mexico at 37.8 %, Hong 

Kong at 30.3 %, Canada at 8.3 %, and United Kingdom and Netherlands at 5 %. For 

pistachios over 121,337 MT were exported with Belgium-Luxembourg at 18 %, Hong 

Kong at 12 %, China at 11 %, Netherlands at 10 % and both Germany and Canada at over 

6 %. Walnuts had over 195,047 MT exported from the U.S. to Spain at 14.9 %, Italy at 

12.6 %, Germany at 11.2 %, Turkey at 9.6 %, Japan and Canada both over 7 %, Mexico 

at 6.6 %, and South Korea at 5.8 %. 

Table 10. U.S. Tree Nut Exports for 2007 - 2008. (USDA NASS, 2008 Fr Nt 1-3, 

USDA ERS, FTS – 2008, USDA FATUS, 2008).

Tree Nut 2007 (MT) 2008 (MT)

Almond 411,264 448,333

Hazelnut 24,733 22,908

Pecan 35,759 52,385

Pistachio 75,133 121,337

Walnut 95,024 95,047

According to the USDA ERS, the U.S. leads the world in the production and export 

of tree nuts producing more than one-tenth of the world's tree nuts and about a quarter of 

world exports. Exports of tree nuts averaged over 40 % of U.S. tree nut supplies during 

the 2000s, up slightly from the 1990s and more than half the average share during the 

1980s. Almonds accounted for over 60 % of tree nut export volume in recent years, with 
47

pistachio over 16 %, and walnuts over 13 %, respectively, of total tree nut exports (Table 

10). The major export destinations for U.S. tree nuts are Spain, Germany, and the 

Netherlands in the European Union; Canada and Mexico; and Hong Kong, India, Japan, 

South Korea, Vietnam, China, and Taiwan (Pollack and Perez, USDA ERS).

The marketing season for exporting and importing tree nuts for 2008 – 2009 is 

shown in Table 11. Once the tree nut is harvested the season for exporting/importing 

seems to last a year for example almonds are exported from August - July and Brazil nuts 

are imported from January - December.

Table 11. The U.S. Export and Import Marketing Season for Tree Nuts (Shelled 

Basis) 2008 – 2009.

Commodity Export Import

Almond August – July -

Pistachio September - August -

Pecan October - September October - September

Walnut September - August -

Brazil nut - January - December

Cashew - January - December

Pine nut - January - December

U.S. TREE NUT PRODUCTION AND GEOGRAPHICAL PRODUCTION:

The tree nut production in the U.S. is based on the USDA 2007 Agricultural 

Statistics, FAO Statistics, 2008 USDA ERS 2008 Noncitrus Fruits Summary, USDA 

NASS Crop Production, 2008 2009, and the U.S. Agricultural Census, 2007: The planted 

acreages for the tree nuts in the United States are listed in Table 12 and according to the 

2007 AGCensus tree nuts (almond, hazelnut, macadamia, pecan, and walnut) were grown 

on over 1,849,539 A which was an increase of 136,807 A from 2002. Tree nut yields 

range from 300 lb/A for pecan to 3,650 lb/A for pistachios (Tables 12 and 13). Tree 

yields can vary from year to year because some of the trees have alternate bearing years. 

Tree nut bearing acres for 2002 - 2007.are shown in Table 14 and closely follow those 

state distribution from the total bearing plus nonbearing acres. The representative 

commodities for the tree nut group in 2007 comprise over 73.2 % of the total tree nut 

acres with almond at 42.7 % and pecan at 31.5 %. 
48

Table 12. U.S. Tree Nut Planted Acres in 2002 and 2007 and Yield/A for Each 

Crop. (USDA AG Census, 2002, 2007 (USDA NASS, 2008, USDA Agricultural 

Statistics, 2008, USDA, NASS, Noncitrus Fruits and Nuts Summary).

Commodity 2002 

Acreage 

U.S.

2007 

Acreage 

U.S.

2002 

Yield Per 

Acre (lbs)

2007 

Yield Per 

Acre (lbs)

Change in 

Acreage

(2002 - 2007)

Almond 696,635 790,245 2,000 2,260 + 93,310

Chestnut NA 3,355 3,000 3,000 –

5,500

-

Hazelnut 33,801 34,465 800 2,100 + 664

Macadamia nut 18,692 17,811 2,980 2,400 - 881

Pecan 545,344 581,809 1,500 1,500 + 36,465

Pistachio 125,569 154,103 3,650 3,650 + 28,534

Walnut, English 292,691 267,751 1,340 1,490 - 24,940

Total Reported 

Tree Nut Acres

1,712,732 1,849,539 - - + 136,807

Notes:

NA – data not available. 

Table 13. U.S. Tree Nut Yield Pounds Per Acre, 2002 - 2007. (USDA AG Census, 

2002, 2007 (USDA NASS, 2008, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2008, USDA, NASS, 

Noncitrus Fruits and Nuts Summary).

Tree Nut Yield Pounds Per Acre, U.S., 2002 - 2007

Year Almond Hazelnut Macadamia Pecan Pistachio Walnut

2002/03 2,000 523 2,980 NA 3,650 2,680

2003/04 1,890 1,053 2,980 NA 1,350 3,060 

2004/05 1,760 961 3,170 NA 3,730 3,040

2005/06 1,580 710 3,000 NA 2,700 3,300

2006/07 1,920 1,292 3,870 1,500 2,130 3,200

2007/08/ 2,260 1,008 2,400 672* 3,650 2,980

Pecan yields can range from 300 – 1,700 lb/a depending upon the age of the tree.

Almond bearing acres for 2007 was 615,000 with > 99% from California (Table 

14). Over 99% of the almonds in California are produced in the San Joaquin (80 %) and 

Sacramento Valleys (15 %). Other regions of the state account for <1% of the almond 

production. 

Table 14. U.S. Tree Nut Bearing Acres 2002-2007. (USDA AG Census, 2002, 2007 

(USDA NASS, 2008, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2008, USDA, NASS, Noncitrus 

Fruits and Nuts Summary).
49

Tree Nut Bearing Acreage, U.S., 2002 – 2007*

Year Almonds Hazelnut Walnut Macadamia Pistachios 

2002/03 545,000 29,200 210,000 17,800 83,000 

2003/04 550,000 28,000 213,000 17,800 88,000 

2004/05 570,000 28,400 214,000 17,800 93,000 

2005/06 580,000 28,300 215,000 18,000 105,000 

2006/07 585,000 28,200 216,000 15,000 112,000 

2007/08/ 615,000 28,100 267,751 16,732 117,044 

* Pecan bearing acres in 2007 is 266,081.

Over 54 % of the chestnut production is from four states: Michigan, Ohio, Oregon, 

and Florida (Table 15).

Table 15. U.S. Production of Chestnut (USDA AG Census, 2007 (USDA NASS, 2008, 

USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2008). 

STATE BEARING ACRES (A) STATE PERCENT OF 

TOTAL U.S. CHESTNUT 

ACRES

Michigan 492 23.7 %

Ohio 227 10.9 %

Oregon 207 10.0 %

Florida 203 9.8 %

Virginia 96 4.6 %

Pennsylvania 84 4.0 %

New York 55 2.7 %

Iowa 48 2.3 %

Washington 43 2.1 %

Total 2072

Hazelnut bearing acres were 31,900 with 98.5 % from Oregon and less than 1.5 % 

from Washington and Minnesota, 

Of the 16,732 A of macadamia nuts Hawaii had over 99 % of the bearing acres and 

California the rest.

Pecan bearing acres were from Texas at 29.7 %, Ohio at 24.6 % and Georgia at 20.2 

% and New Mexico at 7.1 % (Table 16). 
50

Table 16. U.S. Production of Pecans (USDA AG Census, 2007 (USDA NASS, 2008, 

USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2008). 

STATE BEARING ACRES (A) STATE PERCENT OF 

TOTAL U.S. PECAN 

ACRES

Texas 150,426 29.7 %

Ohio 124,553 24.6 %

Georgia 102,567 20.2 %

New Mexico 35,746 7.1 %

Alabama 16,055 3.2 %

Arizona 11,950 2.4 %

Mississippi 11,321 2.2 %

Missouri 11,117 2.2 %

Arkansas 8,598 1.7 %

Total 506,181

Pine nuts are mainly grown in the southwestern U.S. and 400 – 500 tons (363 - 454 

tonnes per year.

There were 117,044 bearing acres of pistachio harvested in 2007 with 98.1 % from 

California, 1.3 % from Arizona, and 0.4 % from New Mexico.

English walnuts had 267,751 A with California accounting for (98.8 % of the acres 

followed by Oregon at 0.5 % (Table 17). 

Table 17. U.S. Production of English Walnuts (USDA AG Census, 2007 (USDA 

NASS, 2008, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2008). 

STATE BEARING ACRES (A) STATE PERCENT OF 

TOTAL U.S. ENGLISH 

WALNUT ACRES

California 264,517 98.8 %

Oregon 1,336 0.5

Missouri 117 <0.1

Washington 108 <0.1

Virginia 102 <0.1

Total 267,751

Maps of the harvested acres for Almonds, pecans, and English walnuts are shown in 

the below Figures 1 – 3, respectively. Almonds and English walnuts are grown in EPA 

Residue Field Trial Region 10, while pecans are grown in Regions 2, 4, 6, and 8.
51

Figure 1. Map of US Almond Acres - 2007

Figure 2. Map of US Pecan Acres - 2007.
52

Figure 3. Map of US Walnut Acres - 2007.
53

Converting tree nut shelled weights calculations from the in-shelled weights and 

visa versa are shown in Table 18. These factors depending on how the production data is 

presented allow one to readily convert to shelled weights of the nuts. 

Table 18. Conversion of Tree Nut Shelled Weight from In-Shell Weight. USDA 

Agricultural Handbook 697. 

Tree Nut Commodity Shelled Weight from InShelled WeightIn-Shelled Equivalent 

from Shelled Weight

Almond 0.60 1.67

Brazil nut 0.50 2.00

Cashew 0.22 4.55

Chestnut 0.84 1.19

Hazelnut 0.40 2.50

Macadamia nut ( HI) 0.38 2.63

Pecan 0.50 2.00

Pistachio 0.43 2.50

Walnut, Black 0.17 5.88

Walnut, English 0.40 2.50
54

In 2007/08 almonds (Table 19) are the highest producing tree nut at 1,482,208,000 

lb, followed by walnut 320,325,000 lb, pecan 287,029,000 lb, pistachio 264,526,000 lb, 

hazelnut 43,998,000 lb and macadamia nut at 36,000,000 lb. 

Table 19. Production (Shelled Basis) of the Tree Nuts. (USDA AG Census, 2002, 

2007 (USDA NASS, 2008, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2008, USDA, NASS, 

Noncitrus Fruits and Nuts Summary).

Production (Shelled Basis) – All Tree Nuts

1,000 pounds

Season Almond Hazelnut Pecan Walnut Macadamia Pistachios

2002/03 1,146,415 34,192 223,534 323,296 53,000 162,702

2003/04 1,176,393 42,838 245,608 352,363 53,000 113,857

2004/05 1,113,806 43,591 204,746 364,280 56,500 194,254

2005/06 1,024,009 33,218 229,845 386,225 54,000 182,233

2006/07 1,205,662 50,520 207,980 352,533 58,000 176,454

2007/08 1,482,208 43,998 287,029 320,325 36,000 264,526

Except for macadamia nuts all the other nuts are all utilized greater than 60% 

(Table 20). The six year average utilization for almonds are 92 % with a range of 

utilization from 88 – 95 %, hazelnuts average 65 5 % with a range of 46 – 73 %, pecans 

are utilized at 62 % with a range of 35 – 62 %, walnuts average 81 % ranging from 75 –

87 %, macadamia nuts are utilized at 45 % for the same time period, and the pistachios at 

75 % with a range of 49 – 92 %. 

Table 20. Utilized Production (Shelled Basis) of the Tree Nuts. (USDA AG Census, 

2002, 2007 (USDA NASS, 2008, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2008, USDA, NASS, 

Noncitrus Fruits and Nuts Summary).

Utilized Production (Shelled Basis) – All Tree Nuts

1,000 pounds

Season Almond Hazelnut Pecan Walnut Macadamia Pistachios

2002/03 1,090,000 15,600 78,444 243,963 24,078 149,513 

2003/04 1,040,000 30,224 116,968 279,429 24,078 56,217 

2004/05 1,005,000 28,548 82,552 282,360 25,668 170,515 

2005/06 915,000 20,806 125,251 315,989 24,532 139,003 

2006/07 1,120,000 37,116 91,394 296,931 26,349 119,000 

2007/08 1,390,000 29,094 179,070 277,500 16,355 206,998 

The percent of the total produce sales for the tree nuts sold in U.S. grocery stores 

for the years 2005 – 2008 is shown in Table 21 (The Packer, Fairchild, 2007, 2008, and 

2009). Individual nuts in the grocery store data are not separated so the nuts sales include 

almond, Brazil nut, cashew, chestnut, hazelnut, peanut (not a tree nut), pecan, pistachio, 

and walnuts. Nut sales have declined from percent of total sales from 2005 – 2008 but 
55

are expected to increase in the future due to their nutritional benefits. The tree nut group 

accounts for > 0.3 % of the total produce sold in the U.S. 

Table 21. The Packer (Fairchild, 2007, 2008, 2009) List the Percent of the Total 

Grocery Store Produce Sales for the Tree Nuts Sold for the Years 2005 – 2008. 

Commodity Percent of 

Total Produce 

Sales – 2005 

and Pounds 

Sold in 2005

Percent of 

Total Produce 

Sales – 2006 

and Pounds 

Sold in 2006

Percent of Total 

Produce Sales –

2007 and 

Pounds Sold in 

2007

Percent of Total 

Produce Sales –

2008 and 

Pounds Sold in 

2008

Nuts* 0.4 % and 

37,296,902 lb

0.4 % and 

31,657,502 lb

0.3 % and 

27,279,571 lb

0.3 % and 

25,367, 487 lb

* Nuts sales include almond, Brazil nut, cashew, chestnut, hazelnut, peanut (not a tree 

nut), pecan, pistachio, and walnuts. 

Specific Tree Nut Crop Production and Cultural Practices:

African Nut Tree:

The African nut-tree is a large 20 - 50 m/164 ft, fast growing tree native to the 

secondary forests of West and Central Africa. It is deciduous and monoecious, flowering 

when the young leaves begin to appear. The small, white flowers are borne in loosely 

branched terminal panicles. The trunk of the tree typically grows very straight and 

cylindrical, and in parts of Africa poles are made from the trunks, which quickly take root 

when stuck in the ground and are used as living telegraph poles. Fruiting varies by 

country/climate, but fruits typically ripe anywhere from May - November depending on 

the region. In Southern Cameroon, however, fruits are harvested January – March. The 

fruit is an indehiscent drupe (20 g/0.7 oz) with 2 - 3 lobes, yellow when ripe and then 

turning black. It has a fleshy exocarp which covers a hard, woody endocarp. It is valued 

for the kernel inside the endocarp. There are typically 2 - 3 seeds per fruit, and extraction 

of the kernel is difficult. These are valued both as food and as a condiment (the dried, 

ground seeds are known as “njansang” throughout much of West and Central Africa and 

particularly Cameroon, which cultivates this tree and exports the nuts and nut products, 

and among emigrant populations from these areas now living in Europe. The oil from the 

nut is also valued for cosmetic use and as a drying oil in paints and varnishes. The light 

wood is prized as a substitute for balsa and is carved for many decorative and household 

uses. The tree is also important for planting in hedgerows, as a shade tree for other crops, 

such as coffee, and for soil improvement as it helps fix and return nutrients to the soil in 

which is it planted. It takes about 25 years for tree to produce nuts. The African tree nut 

is not grown in the U.S., but is primarily cultivated in Cameroon and Namibia, though 

grows throughout West and Central Africa. Cameroon exports the whole and ground 

kernels to other African countries and abroad, and is the second most economically 
56

valuable non-wood forest product traded in that country. In 1995 more than 172 t of the 

nuts were traded in the Cameroon.

Almond:

The almond is a small tree, growing to 7.6 m (25 ft), usually held under 6.1 m (20 

ft) by pruning when under cultivation. It is grown in California, and is native to warm 

temperate and Mediterranean areas of Europe, the Middle East, and Northern Africa. The 

leaves are simple, lanceolate and glabrous. The nuts are enclosed in a fleshy husk which 

becomes dry and fibrous and splits open allowing the nuts to drop out or be easily 

separated at maturity. The shell is porous to woody, and encloses the oblong, flattened 

kernel. The kernel is up to over an inch long and half as wide. Almonds are marketed 

both in the shell and as shelled kernels. The hull splits at maturity, and nuts physically 

separate from the tree at this point. Thickness and weight of mature hulls may differ 

between cultivars and four basic types of hull splitting are identified. They are: (i) 

vertical split opening on one side such as ‘Peerless’ variety; (ii) ventral and dorsal split 

such as ‘IKL’; (iii) four way split such as ‘California’ variety; and (iv) a dorsal split such 

as for’ Nonpareil’ variety. Trees are harvested when hulls of fruit in the interior of the 

canopy are open, since these split last. The seed coat turns brown during the drying-out 

process of maturation. Oil extracted from almond kernels is non-drying, and is obtained 

from both the bitter almond, not edible as a nut, and from sweet almond kernels. The oil 

from the two kinds appears identical. The oil is edible, but is used largely in the 

manufacture of certain pharmaceuticals. Bloom to harvest time takes 5 to 6 months with 

harvest ranging from August to October. Seeds are sown in nurseries and the seedlings 

transplanted after about one year. For special types, as in the U.S., scions are budded or 

grafted on to bitter or sweet almond, apricot, myrobalan, peach or plum seedlings. Trees 

are planted 6 – 8 m (19.6 - 26.2 ft) apart and irrigated, in spite of their relative drought 

tolerance. Trees should be pruned to a modified leader system. All types are self-sterile 

so cultivars or seedlings should be mixed. In the United States, production is 

concentrated in California with almonds being California’s sixth leading agricultural 

product and top agricultural export. The top almond cultivars in California are 

‘Nonpareil’, ‘Carmel’, ‘Mission’ (Texas), ‘Merced’, and ‘Price Cluster’ Worldwide, 

yield averages about 930 lbs/acre, but can reach 3500 - 4500 lbs/acre in some countries, 

while yields in California range from 1100 to 2000 lbs shelled kernels per acre. Almonds 

are cultivated and naturalized throughout the Mediterranean region and temperate Asia. 

Top producing countries include Spain (220,000 tonnes/242,440 tons), Syria, (119,648 

tonnes/131,852 tons), Italy (112,796 tonnes/124,301 tons), and Iran (108,677 

tonnes/119,762 tons). In California the almond hulls are used for livestock feeding the 

U.S the NAFTA Crop Production Region is 10, since all the almonds are produced in 

California. 

Beechnut:

Beechnut is a tall (30 - 40 m), deciduous, late-succession forest tree of spreading 

form, found in forests throughout temperate North America and Europe. It is notable for 
57

possessing extremely smooth grey bark. The monoecious flowers in the spring appear 

with leaves; staminate flowers in drooping heads, and pistillate flowers in small spikes. 

The nuts are triangular and develop in prickly burrs in the fall, and are collected for 

eating in small amounts and sometimes pressed into oil. Beechnuts are cultivated 

primarily as an ornamental and for timber. The nuts mature in late summer and fall to the 

ground, over a period of several weeks. It can be propagated readily from seeds sown in 

the fall. Beechnuts take up to 40 years to produce abundant seed and yields up to 

2800kg/ha were recorded in Michigan. Ornamental varieties are grafted onto seedling 

stock. It is not yet commercially cultivated for nuts because of low yields but it currently 

grows from New Jersey to Florida and west to south Illinois and Texas. Western Europe 

also grows beechnuts and it is native to temperate parts of Asia and throughout Europe. 

Beechnuts are grown in NAFTA Crop Production Regions 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

Betelnut

Betelnut is a tall palm with a straight and slender trunk, about 15.2 cm (6 in) in 

diameter, and grows to 9.4 - 30.2 m (30 - 100 ft) tall. It is native to the tropical Pacific, 

Asia, and parts of eastern Africa. Large leaves (1.2 - 1.8 m/4 - 6 ft) grow in a thick 

crown; the many leaf divisions are 0.3 - 0.6 m (1 - 2 ft) long each. The fruit is eggshaped, 3.8 - 6.4 cm (1.5 - 2.5 in) long, in the form of a seed within a thick fibrous husk 

surrounded by a fleshy covering. Betelnuts mature in 6 – 8 months after pollination. The 

nut and leaves are chewed in India and many Southeast Asian countries as a euphoric 

stimulant and breath freshener, and is a very important part of their culture. It is 

estimated that up to 10% of the world population chews betel nut. He plant has two 

fruiting stems that produce 150 – 250 fruit and one hundred fruits weigh 1.5 – 2.3 kg. 

One hectare with 1,000 palms will produce 450,000 – 750,000 fruit that is processed 

down to 15 – 25 cwt of dried betelnut nuts (seed). The harvest varies by region, usually 

taking place in a period sometime between August and March. It is propagated 

exclusively from seeds, and often gathered from 25 - 30 year old trees. They are good 

bearers of fruit for 30 – 75 years and can live to 100 years. The seeds are usually 

gathered in November, dried for several days, and then sown 15 - 22 cm apart. After 3 

months to 2 years, seedlings are transplanted to beds in between existing trees to replace 

old trees and at rates of 1,000 – 1,500 palms/ha. It prefers shade, and needs to be wellirrigated in the dry season, and prefers a soil pH of 6.3 – 6.5. There is no production in 

the U.S. In Guam 3,098.6 kg (6,825 lb) were harvested in 2002 and 5,182.9 kg (11,416 

lb) were harvested in 1998, while in the Northern Mariana Islands, 19,777.6 kg (43,563 

lb) were harvested in 2002 and 9,849.5 kg (21,695 lb) were harvested in 1998. Top 

producing countries in 2006 were India (483,100 tonnes/532,376 tons), China (150,000 

tonnes/165,300 tons), and Myanmar (57,000 tonnes/62,814 tons). Other producing 

countries are Bangladesh, Indonesia, Kenya, Malaysia, Maldives, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and 

Thailand. In total, 857,679 tonnes (945,162 tons) were produced worldwide in 2006 on 

706,392 hectares (1,744,788 acres) of land (FAOSTAT). 

Brazil nut:
58

A large tree, up to 45.7 m (150 ft) is a tropical evergreen, native to northern Brazil, 

where it forms forests along the Amazon and Rio Nigro Rivers. It has large leathery 

leaves, 0.6 m (2 ft) long and 15.2 cm (6 in) wide. The fruits are round, about 15.2 cm (6 

in) in diameter, with a hard shell near 1.3 cm (1/2 in) thick, which contains 18 to 24 of 

the 3-sided angular nuts. The shell of the individual nut is woody, rather thin, and 

completely filled with the white, creamy kernel. Large quantities of nuts are gathered 

from the trees for local consumption and export, but they are little cultivated. The 

industry is very economically important to Brazil. Bloom to harvest may take out to a 

year when the pod (nut) matures and drops to the ground, starting in late November and 

continue into early June. A large female long-tongued orchid bee pollinates the Brazil 

nut tree. If both the orchids and the bees are present, the fruit takes 14 months to mature 

after pollination of the flowers. Brazil nuts are not cultivated in North America. 

Brazilian pine:

The Brazilian pine is a large, dioecious conifer reaching 40 m (131 ft) tall, and 

prefers a well-drained, acidic soil. It is found only in the low mountains of southern 

Brazil and northeastern Argentina. It has thick, scale-like, triangular leaves, and bears an 

abundance of edible seeds in each of its large female cones. It is also critically 

endangered, due to habitat loss and from being widely gathered by local and native 

people for food. Seeds mature in autumn, 18 months after pollination and it is not 

produced in the U.S. It is native to parts of Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay and 3,400 

tonnes (3,747 tons) of seeds are collected annually in Brazil. 

Bunya:

The bunya is a tall (up to 45.7 m/150 ft) evergreen conifer with evenly spaced, 

horizontal branches arranged in regular tiers and whorled around a trunk that continues to 

the very tip of the tree. It is native only to areas of Queensland, Australia. Young trees 

are cone-shaped and symmetrical. Trees larger than 6.1 - 15.2 m (20 - 50 ft) lose the 

lower branches and develop distinctive dome-shaped crowns. Bunya has two kinds of 

leaves. The glossy juvenile leaves are narrow, 2.5 - 5.1 (1 -2 in) long, stiff and sharppointed. The woody mature leaves are oval and short. Mature female trees produce 

huge, spiny, pineapple-shaped cones up to 23 cm (9 in) long that can weigh up to 8.2 kg 

(18 lb) and contain many edible seeds that resemble pine nuts. It is an important food 

source to local native Aborigines in Australia. Bunya nuts are slow to germinate, taking 

an average of about six months, and it takes about one year to develop roots. The plant 

prefers moist soils and requires at least partial sun. It is also exclusively cultivated for 

ornamental purposes, and is not produced in the U.S. 

Bur Oak:
59

The bur oak is a large deciduous temperate climate, woodland tree native to North 

America from the East Coast to Midwest. The flowers are yellow-green catkins 

appearing in the spring. As with acorn nuts the cup encloses the bottom half of the nut. 

This species has the largest leaves and acorns of any oak and most palatable nut of all the 

oaks. It has been primarily cultivated for its value as an ornamental, as it is very hardy 

and can withstand a wide range of conditions. Oak fruit are non-fleshy indehiscent nuts 

called acorns. Oaks can take 20 – 30 years to mature and begin producing acorns. 

Average yields of oaks vary widely from 90 – 1620 kg/ha. In South Korea, the acorns

are collected in the wild and consumed as a cooked starch-gel, called “Muk”. The acorns 

mature in the fall. It prefers loamy to clay soils, and can tolerate semi-shade to full sun as 

well as it can tolerate drought, strong winds, and atmospheric pollution. Acorns must be 

soaked to remove the bitter tasting tannins prior to eating. Oaks are propagated by 

planting the acorns. There is no data on its production in the U.S. but it is an important 

wildlife food source. Other production regions include Canada, and Korea. Over 900 

tonnes (1,000 tons) were produced in South Korea in 2006 (MAF 2007).

Butternut:

The butternut tree is large, up to 30.5 m (100 ft), and is found from southern Canada 

to Georgia, and west to the Great Plains. The fruits are up to 5 in clusters, about 7.6 cm 

(3 in) long and ribbed, and the nut is oblong, ribbed, with a hard, woody, thick shell. The 

kernel is separated from the shell with difficulty. The fleshy husk which surrounds the 

nut is difficult to remove. Butternuts are not cultivated in the U.S., but are gathered from 

the wild. The taste is reported to be oily and sweet tasting with a rich, agreeable flavor. 

The seeds mature in October - November. Butternut requires a deep well-drained loam 

and a position sheltered from strong winds, and prefers a sandy soil with a pH of 6 to 7. 

Trees will come into bearing in 6 - 10 years from seed and fruiting is usually biennial. At 

least twenty-five commercial varieties have been developed. Production regions include 

the U.S and Canada, and are in the NAFTA Crop Production Regions 1, 2, 4, and 5.

Cajou:

The cajou is a very large tropical tree up to 45.7 m (150 ft), native to the Amazon 

region and the Guiana. It is propagated by seed and is sometimes available in local 

markets. It is not grown commercially in the U.S but is grown in Guyana, Suriname, 

Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, and Peru. 

Candlenut:

The candlenut is a medium sized (9 - 20 m) tropical tree, now found throughout 

much of the moist tropics but native to Malaysia, the Philippines, Polynesia, and other 

South Seas Islands. Flowers white or cream, occurring in 10 - 15 cm panicled cymes 

during April and May and is ready for harvest in the autumn. Fruit an indehiscent drupe 
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(5 – 7.5 cm) and is difficult to separate from the kernels. There are about 5 nuts in each 

fruit and are 2 – 4 cm round with a brittle shell. Valuable primarily for its useful, 

inedible oil but kernels are often eaten locally, despite the fact that raw and roasted 

kernels have varying levels of toxicity and may cause vomiting, abdominal cramping, and 

diarrhea. It will bear two heavy crops each year and is usually propagated from seed, 

requiring 3 – 4 months to germinate. Seedlings planted at rate of 300/hectare. It takes 4 

years to begin commercial production. Planting density varies from 150 – 300 trees/ha. . 

Once established, trees require little to no attention, and requires a hot, moist climate. 

The tree can yield up to 80 kg of nuts/tree/year which is equivalent to 4.5 – 15 t/year. It 

is cultivated in Hawaii and is found in China, Taiwan, India, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, 

Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, and 

Australia. The NAFTA Crop Production Region is 13.

Cashew:

The cashew tree is a large, spreading tropical evergreen, 9.1 - 17 m (30 - 50 ft) high 

and spreading outward up to 60 feet. Cashew are native to the tropical Americas but is 

now distributed throughout the tropics. The nuts are borne on a fleshy receptacle, 5.1 -

10.12 cm (2 - 4 in) long, called the apple, which is edible and used for eating fresh or in 

jams or jellies in the tropics (see Figure below). The whole nuts are removed from the 

apple and sun dried for two days. The nuts with surrounding tissues are 2.54 - 3.8 cm (1 -

11⁄2 in) long and kidney shaped. The shell has an oily outer layer, and a thin hard inner 

one. Between these layers is a honeycombed tissue, from which cashew oil is obtained. 

The kernels are difficult to separate from the shell because of the curved shape. After 

roasting the whole nut to extract the oil, shells are removed by hand or machine. The 

flowering period takes 2 - 3 months and the fruit will mature another two months. About 

3 - 4 months for main crop which is gathered off the ground. Cashew is propagated 

usually by seed, although sometimes by grafting or other asexual method. Seeds 

germinate poorly and are often planted several per hole and thinned later. Seedlings do 

not transplant well and should be planted 10 x 10 m and ultimately thinned to 20 x 20 m. 

Once established, little care is needed. They are planted 20 - 35 ft between trees and 

rows. Fruiting begins in the third yea and continues to bear for at least 30 years. Planting 

rates are 250 trees/ha. They are not commercially grown in the U.S. but are grown in 

southern Florida gardens. Cashew is cultivated in 32 countries worldwide, with a total of 

33,900 sq. km under cultivation and most. Average yields worldwide are about 600 

lbs/acre. The primary production countries in 2006 were Vietnam (941,600 

tonnes/1,037,643 tons), Nigeria (636,000 tonnes/700,872 tons), India (573,000 

tonnes/631,446 tons), Brazil (573,000 tonnes/631,446 tons), Indonesia (122,000 

tonnes/134,444 tons), and Tanzania (90,400 tonnes/99,621 tons). In total 3,103,450 

tonnes (3,420,002 tons) were produced worldwide in 2006 on 3,387,342 hectares 

(8,366,735 acres) of land. The EPA Crop Production Region is 13.

Castanha-do-maranhão:
61

The Castanha do-maranhão is medium-sized (9 - 18 m) tropical to subtropical tree 

that are native to Brazil. It has large and showy flowers, perfect and terminal, borne on 

long peduncles. Fruit is a capsule, longitudinally dehiscent, containing about 10 - 25 

edible, irregularly shaped seeds. Often confused in literature with P. aquatica, but the 

two are not synonymous. It will flower and fruit throughout the year in some places but 

principally in June through November in others. It can be propagated from seed, 

cuttings, or air layering. Seeds germinate quickly and are fast growing. Resistant to both 

drought and flooding, but prefers high levels of moisture and is usually found along 

rivers, sometimes submerged. Grows well in a variety of soil types, and requires full to 

partial sun and begins to fruit after 4 - 5 years. It is not cultivated in the U.S. but is in 

Brazil.

Chestnut:

The several chestnut species vary in height from approximately 30.5 m (100 ft) tall for 

the American to about 9 m (30 ft). Chestnuts are native to warm temperate regions of the 

Northern hemisphere, including North American, Europe, and Asia. The fruits are spilled 

burrs, fibrous as they mature, which partially open at maturity. They usually contain up 

to 3 angular nuts. The "shell" or covering of the kernel is rather thin and tough, leathery

rather than woody. A fungus disease, chestnut blight, has killed practically all large 

Native American chestnut trees in the U.S. The Chinese chestnut, resistant to the blight, 

is now planted somewhat frequently, and considerable quantities of European nuts are 

imported. It takes from 100 to 120 days from flowering to harvest with the nuts 

harvested from ground in August to October. Chestnuts prefer a good well-drained 

slightly acid loam but succeed in dry soils and in hot sunny sites. Trees require wide 

spacing to encourage low, broad crowns and exposure to sunshine, which increases nut 

production. Once established, it is very drought tolerant. Although it is very winterhardy, this species thrives in areas with hot summers: In the U.S it grows in Eastern U.S., 

California and maritime northwest U.S. Almost 162 hectares (400 acres) in California 

(1992) and over 810 hectares (2000 acres) have been established nationwide with most in 

the southeast. In 2006 the major production countries for chestnuts were China (850,000 

tonnes/936,700 tons), South Korea (76,447 tonnes/84,245 tons), Turkey (52,824 

tonnes/58,212 tons), Japan (23,100 tonnes/25,456 tons), and Greece (20,946 

tonnes/23082 tons). In total, 1,179,727 tonnes (1,300,059 tons) were produced 

worldwide in 2006 on 341,698 hectares (843,994 acres) of land (FAOSTAT). Chestnuts 

grow in NAFTA Crop Production Regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10 and 12.

Chinquapin:

Chinquapins, also spelled chinkapins are shrubs and small trees commonly found 

throughout the East, South, and Southeast. They are characterized by usually bearing one 

nut per bur and having burs that open into two halves like a clam shell. The Chinquapin 

is characterized as a large, spreading, smooth barked multi-stemmed shrub, 2 to 4 m tall; 

occasionally single stemmed and 5 to 8 m tall. Large trees up to 12.8 m tall are 
62

sometimes found, especially under human intervention when some of the competing trees 

have been removed. The Allegheny chinquapin is found in dry sandy woods and thickets 

from southern New Jersey and Pennsylvania to Kentucky and Missouri, south to Florida 

and Texas. This chinquapin has been widely recognized for its sweet, edible nut; a wood 

source for fuel, charcoal, fence post and railroad ties; and a coffee and chocolate 

substitute. In Georgia, bud break normally occurs during the last week of March or the 

first week of April. Flowering occurs after the first leaves have expanded. Two or three 

types of flowers and inflorescences are borne in the leaf axils of current season's growth. 

Unisexual male catkins appear near the bases of the shoots and bisexual catkins 

containing both male and female flowers are found nearer the terminal ends of the shoots. 

In Middle Georgia, pollen shed of the unisexual male catkins normally occurs during the 

first week of May. The pistillate flowers of the bisexual catkins are normally receptive 

during the second week of May, several days before the staminate flowers of these 

bisexual catkins shed pollen. Chinquapins are rarely self-fruitful and cross pollination is 

necessary to ensure a good nut crop. The Allegheny chinquapin is normally ready for 

harvesting in early September. Harvest must be promptly in order to gather nuts before 

birds and small mammals remove the entire crop. One single brown, lustrous, rounded 

nut is contained in each spiny green involucre (bur). The burs of chinquapin are normally 

no more than 1.4 to 4.6 cm in diameter and split into 2 valves at nut maturity. In contrast 

to other chestnut species, chinquapins normally remain attached to the bur at the hilum 

for several days after the bur has opened. Also, the burs and catkins do not abscise at 

harvest time, but remain attached until later in the fall or even until the following season. 

On each catkin, the more basal burs usually ripen before the more distal ones. These 

characteristics make chinquapins very difficult to harvest. The burs cannot be shaken or 

easily picked from the trees. Even at the peak of harvest, shaking a chinquapin branch 

will bring down only a small percentage of its crop, since half of the nuts are already 

gone, and the other half have not opened yet. Complicating the harvest and subsequent 

use is the fact that chinquapin are fall germinating. Often the radicle emerges while the 

nuts are still on the tree. Some of the chinquapin clones from isolated sites in Georgia 

bear nuts averaging 480/kg (fresh weight); however, the normal range is 800 to 1,320/kg. 

Yield extrapolations from a 6 row planting of 30 trees of Castanea pumila in southeastern 

Kentucky with a spacing of 3 m between trees and 6 m between rows would give 1,230 

kg/ha in the 12th year and 3,100 kg/ha in the 14th year. These yields are lower than 

expected due to fall germination and adherence of nuts in the bur. Yield was also

measured from a 7-year-old, closely-spaced (1 x 2 m) planting of seedlings in east central 

Ohio. The planting had reached crown closure, but had not yet suffered much branch 

loss due to shading. Individual tree yields varied considerably from nothing up to 1 kg or 

more. Average yield from trees in the middle of the planting was 5,000 ± 1,500 kg/ha. 

This yield equals or exceeds the level expected for other chestnuts because the prolific 

production of chinquapins compensates for their small size. 

Coconut:

The coconut palm is a monocotyledonous plant that may reach 30 m (100 ft) or 

more, with very large leaves arranged in a crown. It is found throughout the tropics. 
63

Coconut palms have two natural subgroups simply referred to as "Tall" and "Dwarf". 

Tall varieties are 25 m tall and dwarf varieties are 8 m tall. Most commercial plantings 

use high yielding, longer lived tall cultivars, and each region has its own selections. The 

divided leaves may grow up to 5 m (18 ft) long and the lanceolate leaflets up to 0.9 m (3 

ft) long. The fruits are produced in clusters near the growing tip. They vary in shape, but 

are generally near globose to oblong, up to a foot or more in length. The nut is encased 

in a thick, fibrous husk which is persistent and must be cut away to expose the nut. The 

shell is very hard and woody. When mature the edible, oily flesh or kernel adheres to the 

shell, with a hollow center which contains a liquid during growth. Coconut is one of the 

ten most useful trees in the world, and is economically important to many countries. The 

immature coconut or “water coconut” is used for its edible liquid and gelatinous flesh. 

The commercial coconut is 1 to 3 pounds in weight. The dried flesh or meat of the 

mature coconut is the copra of commerce, produced in great quantities mainly for its oil. 

Fruit set to maturity is 11 to 12 months. One mature bunch of coconuts can be harvested 

each month. Fully mature fruit require about one year to ripen, and are brown or black, 

depending on cultivar. The endosperm, from which the copra and oil are derived, is 

mature at 10 months after bloom. For coir production, fruit must be harvested about 1 

month before full maturity, since the mesocarp fiber turns brittle and dark at maturity. 

Water coconuts are harvested when about 7 months old after pollination, just after fruit 

reaches its full size and prior to mesocarp drying. Coconuts fall from trees when fully 

mature, and are easily collected from the ground. Dwarf varieties grow to 8 m and are 

spaced 6 – m apart. Tall varieties grow to 25 m tall and spaced 8 – 10 m apart which is 

160 palms/ha. Like most palms, coconuts are seed propagated and the seedlings are 

raised from fully mature fruits. Seeds planted in nursery to facilitate selection of best to 

put in field. Soil should be sandy or light loamy, free from water logging and away from 

heavy shade. Nursery beds should be raised and separated by shallow drains to carry 

away excessive water. About 16 weeks after nuts are planted; the shoot appears through 

the husk. At about 30 weeks, when 3 seed-leaves have developed, seedlings should be 

planted in permanent sites, at 70 - 150 trees/ha (28 - 61 trees/acre). Average yield is 

4457 lbs/acre. In the US in 2002 over 4,540,000 kg (10,000,000 lb) of coconuts were 

harvested from American Samoa, 235,535 kg (518,800 lb) from Puerto Rico, 9,434 kg 

(20,780 lb) from the Northern Mariana Islands, 1,603 kg (3,530 lb) in Guam, and 5,825 

kg (12,830 lb) in the Virgin Islands. Coconuts are also grown in Florida and Hawaii. 

Coconuts are cultivated throughout the tropics. Primary coconut producing countries in 

2006 were Indonesia (16,375,000 tonnes/18,045,250 tons), the Philippines (14,957,910 

tonnes/16,483,617 tons), and India (11,000,000 tonnes/12,122,000 tons). In total, 

worldwide production was 55,324,323 tonnes (60,967,404 tons) on 10,615,978 hectares 

(26,221,466 acres) of land (FAOSTAT). The NAFTA Crop Production Region 13. 

Coquito nut:

Coquito is a very large, hardy palm native to Chile and is the most southerly 

representative of the palm family in South America. The tree reaches up to 25 m (82 ft) in

height, with tough pinnate leaves arranged in a crown at the top. Thick, 4 - 6 foot (1.5 m) 

diameter trunks are dark gray and conspicuously marked with raised, diamond-shaped 
64

leaf scars. The leaves may reach 4.9 m (16 ft) in length each. Purple flowers are born on 

a 1.2 m (4 ft) long stalk arising from among the leaves. It is pollinated by wind and 

various insects. In the wild it is typically found along the sides of steep ravines at 

altitudes up to 1,400 m (4,600 ft). This palm is valued both for its sugary sap as well for 

its smooth, yellow to orange fleshy fruits known as coquito, 2.54 - 5 cm (1 -2 in) in 

diameter. Within the fruit are smooth, tan seeds which have a hard outer shell encasing 

an oily, edible white flesh which is consumed like a nut. The seeds are said to resemble a 

miniature coconut in appearance and taste. Although long cultivated and sought after for 

its sap the wild populations of these trees have declined greatly, as harvesting the sap 

requires the destruction of the slow growing tree, a practice that has recently been 

outlawed by the Chilean government. It is also cultivated as an ornamental in many other 

temperate climate countries, including the U.S. It is propagated by seed, which may take 

6 - 16 months to germinate. Does not like extreme heat and can tolerate temperatures 

down to -15 °C (5 °F), preferring cooler summers and a generally Mediterranean climate. 

It requires full sunlight and prefers a deep, well drained soil. Once established, the 

extensive root system can withstand long droughts. The fresh nuts are available locally 

in season. The dried nuts can be purchases over the internet and from specialty food 

stores and suppliers such as Frieda’s® and Melissa’s® specialties. It is cultivated in 

California (NAFTA Crop Production Regions 10, 11) as an ornamental and possible nut 

crop. They grow well in many parts of California and are hardy to about 20 F (USDA 

Zones 9-10A). Other production regions include Chile as a food source, and Britain, 

Italy, South Africa, and Switzerland for its ornamental value. There are now many 

Chilean nurseries cultivating palm seedlings, with an established goal to quintuple the 

existing populations of these trees over the next 30 years with an interest in nut 

production.

Dika Nut:

A large, deciduous tree native to tropical West Africa and reaching up to 40 m 

(131 ft) in height. The trunk is often buttressed up to 3 m (9.8 ft) high, and may be more 

than 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter. The bark is grayish and flakes away in plates. It has dark 

green, leathery, alternate leaves which are elliptical in shape and up to 15 cm (5.9 in) 

long by 6 cm (2.4 in) wide. The flowers are borne in panicle in the axes, and are small 

and greenish white. The fruit is green to yellow and 5 cm (1.9 in) by 7.5 cm (2.9 in) 

when mature, and has fibrous yellow fresh surrounding a large seed. Planting to harvest 

is 7 - 10 years if planted from seed; 3 - 4 years from air-layered seedlings. Prefers 

tropical lowlands and moist conditions, often found in the jungle. Does best with rainfall 

from 150 to 300 cm (59 to 118 in) annually and a mean temperature of 25 to 32 oC (77 to 

90 oF). Grows well in many kinds of soils but prefers well drained, acidic soil. If 

propagated from seed, seed should first be well dried at ambient temperature and then 

soaked overnight to aid in germination. May also be propagated by cuttings and bud 

grafting. Both the fruit and the seed kernel are highly valuable, both nutritiously and 

economically, throughout West Africa, although the kernel is far more widely used and 

traded. The fruit is similar to a mango, while the oil-bearing seed has many uses both in 

cooking and in industry. The kernel, when dried or after pressing for oil, can be stored 
65

for up to 1 year, while the oil can remain good for up to a decade. The wood is also 

extremely valuable and useful. It is cultivated to some extent, and is currently undergoing 

research to improve the breed for commercial-scale growth, but the vast majority of the 

fruit is still gathered from the wild. In recent years the two forms of this versatile plant 

have been proposed as separate species but acceptance has been incomplete. The eating 

type, which yields good fresh fruits, retains the original name Irvingia gabonensis. The 

“cooking type,” whose seeds are widely processed across West Africa, scientific name is 

Irvingia wombolu. It is not grown in the U.S but is found in West Africa, particularly 

Cameroon, Nigeria, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea. Uses include fruit, juice, jam, jelly, 

wine, thickener, condiment, cooking oil, confections, bread, meal, soap making, timber, 

and pharmaceuticals. 

Ginkgo:

Ginkgo is an ancient, deciduous tree up to 36.6 m (120 ft) tall. It is gymnosperms 

which are plants that lack flowers but produce seeds and are woody. The ginkgo is native 

to China and Japan, but is almost unknown in the wild although it is cultivated as an 

ornamental tree throughout much of the temperate world. It was introduced from Japan 

to Europe in 1730 and to the U.S in 1784. It prefers moist, deep, sandy soils in full sun, 

but is very adaptable to stressful situations, including poor soils, compacted soils, various 

soil pHs, heat, drought, winter, salt spray, and air pollution and is therefore very urban 

tolerant. It is propagated primarily by cuttings from male cultivars grafted onto seedling 

rootstock, but also sometimes propagated by seed. Males are cultivated preferentially for 

ornamental use, as many people find the smell of the fruit from the female tree offensive 

caused by butyric acid. Ginkgos are dioecious and females produce fruits after they are 

30 years old. The fruits resemble plums up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. The pulp is 

foul-smelling and the fruit contain one seed which is about 1.9 cm (3/4 in) in diameter. 

After the pulp is removed, the seeds or nuts are washed and sun-dried. They are harvested 

in the fall. Seed kernels have been used as a food and medicine for several thousand 

years. In U.S., ginkgos are mostly grown as ornamentals, whereas, in Japan and China, 

the nutmeat is enjoyed as an appetizer or cooked with meat. Over 4,535 tonnes (5,000 

tons) are produced annually in China (FAODOC), and over 1,360 tonnes (1,500 tons) 

were produced in South Korea in 2006 (MAF 2007).

Guiana chestnut:

The Guiana chestnut is a medium-sized (up to 23 m/75 ft) evergreen tree, native 

to the tropical Americas but cultivated also in parts of northern Africa and the West 

Indies. In California it grows from 10 – 15 ft tall with a spread of 8 – 10 ft. It is 

propagated by seed and grows along freshwater streams and in swamps. The five-petaled 

flowers, appear solitary in the upper axils, and are very showy with bright yellow-orange 

stamens while the fruit is a brown capsule, 3 - 4.5 cm, with a white fleshy mesocarp. 

Fruits mature from in four to five months March to August. It produces at eight years 

about 130 fruit and at 25 years 250 fruit/tree. The seeds (nuts) enlarge and burst from the 
66

pod and fall to the ground. They are harvested directly from the ground after they have 

fallen from the tree. The edible seed is a popular snack in the tree’s range, but it is best 

known in the form of a dwarfed ornamental. The nuts taste like peanuts after they are 

roasted. It is not produced in the U.S. but is found in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands 

as well as Mexico and South America. The NAFTA Crop Production Region 13.

Hazelnut

The hazelnut tree is small shrub about 4.6 m (15 ft) up to a tree size of 40 m tall, 

spreading and much branched. The tall trees are called tree hazels and the shrubs are 

bristle-husked shrub species. Hazelnuts are native to the temperate northern hemisphere. 

Oregon's Willamette Valley farmers have grown hazelnuts since 1858 when the nuts 

were called filberts, a term still used by many Oregonians. The nuts are nearly enclosed 

in a leafy involucre, but the apex is partially exposed. The shell is hard and woody. The 

kernel is free inside the shell, and separates freely when cracked. The inconspicuous 

female blossoms are exposed and pollinated in advance of the leafing out of the trees. 

They are valued for their nuts, which are eaten whole and used in a wide variety of 

products, from nut butter to liqueur. In addition to cultivated kinds, two species of 

Corylus, namely C. americana and C. cornuta are native in the U.S., and nuts from them 

are often harvested locally. The tree leafing to harvest is about four months. It prefers 

warm, sheltered locations, and is usually cultivated by layering or grafting as varieties do 

not breed true from seed. Planting trees is 5 - 7 m (16 - 23 ft) apart. Trees should be 

planted in late winter or early spring after danger of severe frost has passed. Tree should 

be trained to a central leader and will form hedgerows if this is not done. Suckers from 

roots are common and should be removed. Pollinizer placement was 8:1 (every 3rd tree 

in every 3rd row), but has been increased to 17:1 in many cases (every 6th tree in every 

3rd row) since pollen can travel about 60 ft. Tree spacing is generally triangular or 

square, with 10 - 20 ft between trees; this gives densities of 150 - 250 trees/acre. Vigor 

gradually declines over 5 yr periods, so every 5th row is severely pruned each 5 years to 

stimulate new productive wood; only thinning cuts are made. Yields are drastically 

reduced the year of pruning, since flower buds are removed, but trees yield high for 2 - 3 

years after pruning. Alternatively, trees can be lightly pruned every other year, preferably 

in the "on" year, to maintain more consistent yields. Yields will fluctuate between 1150 

and 1450 lb/acre since it is alternate bearing. In Europe, hazelnuts are generally none 

irrigated, being planted in areas with adequate rainfall and high humidity and maritime 

climates. The level of management in Turkey is low, with bushes planted in clumps, 

often on steep hillsides, and harvested by hand. In the Pacific Northwest, the deep, fertile 

soils of the Willamette Valley do not require irrigation. In 2006 the United States 

produced 41,000 tones (45,182 tons) of hazelnuts in the shell, on 11,462 hectares (28,311 

acres). The U.S. is the It was the third highest producer of hazelnuts in the world. 

(FAOSTAT). It is cultivated throughout Europe, and in parts of Asia and the Middle 

East. In 2006 the other top producing countries were Turkey (661,000 tonnes/728,422 

tons), Italy (142,109 tonnes/156,604 tons), and Spain (25,000 tonnes/27,550 tons). It is 

grown in NAFTA Crop Production Region 12 mostly in Oregon.
67

Heartnut:

The heartnut is a type of walnut tree, growing to 20 m, that is native to Japan and 

is notable for its heart-shaped kernels. It is deciduous and its flowers are yellow-green 

catkins which appear in the spring at the same times as the first leaves. The nuts are 

spherical, 3 - 5 cm, and produced in bunches of 4 - 10. They are surrounded by a green 

husk until they ripen, in autumn. They are also popular as an ornamental tree. Nuts are 

edible, and have an oily texture but are easily distinguished by their heart shape: Nuts 

ripen in September and October. Propagation is by grafting, transplant in early spring. It 

is produced in Japan and NAFTA Crop Production Regions 1, 2, 4, and 5.

Hickory nut:

The hickory nut is a large deciduous trees, up to 30.5 m (100 ft) or more, all 

native to parts of the eastern U.S and Canada. Fruits are generally near globose, 

glabrous, and somewhat ridged, and 2.5 - 3.8 cm (1 - 11⁄2 in) long, and have edible 

kernels. The nut is encased in a fleshy husk which becomes fibrous and opens as the nuts 

mature as the shells are hard and woody. The kernels do not separate from the shells 

readily. They are usually they not grown commercially for the nuts, but some quantities 

are harvested from native or ornamental trees. Limited quantities either in shell or as 

kernels are marketed. Mature nuts fall out of hulls while on the tree from September to 

December and timing from leaf bud opening to nut maturity is almost 150 days. 

Hickories are found in a variety of climates and soils throughout eastern North America, 

but all species prefer mid to high levels of humidity and rainfall, and require a frost-free 

period of at least 150 days. Hickories are grown in the central and Eastern U.S and the 

nutmeg hickory in the U.S. and northern Mexico. Other production regions for the pignut 

and shagbark hickory are Canada and Eastern Europe. The NAFTA Production Regions 

are 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Japanese horse-chestnut:

A deciduous tree growing from 20 - 35 m and native to Japan. It is hardy to zone 6 

and is frost tender. It is in flower in June and the seeds will ripen in September. The 

flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by 

bees. The plant prefers sandy, loamy, and clay soils and requires well-drained soil. The 

plant can grow in semi-shade, light woodland, or no shade. It is not related to the true 

chestnut (Castanea spp.). Nuts are ready to harvest in the autumn. Propagation is by 

seed and is cold tolerant when dormant, although frost can damage young growth and it 

requires moist soil. It is grown in Japan. 
68

Macadamia nut:

The macadamia nut tree is a tall (up to 20 m), with a width of 12 m or more, tropical 

evergreen, native to Australia but introduced to Hawaii, South America, and parts of 

Africa, where it is commercially cultivated. Flowers are a creamy white, lacking petals, 

and borne in groups of 3 - 4 in racemes. The period from bloom to maturity: is 8 to 10 

months. Peak harvest is in October as the ripe nuts will drop to the ground. Fruits are 

near globular, up to 3.8 cm (11⁄2 in) diameter. The outer covering or husk is leathery and 

separates readily from the shell of the nut. The shell is very hard, woody and thick and 

when the shell is cracked, the round kernel is free. Occasionally, 2 hemispherical kernels 

occur in a nut. The single kernels are about 1.3 cm (1/2 in) in diameter, and rich in 

flavor. Propagation is primarily by grafting (seeds easy to germinate but do not breed 

true), which can be difficult due to the hardness of the wood and is best done in the 

spring from February to April. They prefers a rainforest-type climate and must be warm 

and well irrigated when young, but are much more tolerant of adverse conditions when 

established. Cultivars grown in Hawaii include ‘Kakea’, ‘Kau’, ‘Keaau’, ‘Makai’, 

‘Mauka’, ‘Pahala’, and ‘Purvis’. The cultivars are distinguished by crown shape, and 

upright types, such as ‘Kau’ and ‘Keaau’, are being favored over more spreading types 

recently. In the 2005 - 2006 growing seasons, 7,290 hectares (18,000) acres were 

harvested in Hawaii for 27,210 tonnes (30,000 tons) (NASS). Yields average about 

3,000 pounds/acre. Macadamia are also grown in California. Most cultivars grown in 

California are derived from Macadamia tetraphylla. There is a small macadamia 

industry in San Diego County, CA. In San Diego County in 2006, there were 128 acres 

producing a total of 192 tons. The United States consumes the majority of the world’s 

macadamia nuts, importing an amount almost equal to domestic production. Macadamia 

nuts are also an economically important product in Australia, Hawaii, Guatemala, and 

parts of Africa with Australia producing more than a third of the world’s macadamia nuts 

in 2003/2004. It is produced in NAFTA Crop Production Region 10 and 13.

Mongongo nut:

The mongongo is a large 15 - 20 m (49 - 66 ft) tree native to dry upland areas of 

Southern Africa, particular around the Kalahari. It is dioecious and has small, white to 

yellow flowers are borne in loose, slender sprays. The bark is light grey to pale 

golden brown, and the light, yellowish wood is very useful for making boats, packing 

crates, and children’s toys. Flowering to maturity is from March to May. However,

this species is primarily valued for its fruit and, particularly, for the nut inside. The 

fruits are oval and about 3.5 x 2.5 cm (1.4 x 1 in) and drop from the tree while still 

green, ripening on the ground. This species is highly productive and one female tree 

has been known to produce up to 950 fruits in a year. The fruit has a fuzzy, inedible 

peel and a thin layer of sweet, edible pulp surrounding large, hard pit. Inside the pit are 

a soft inner shell and an edible kernel (1.2 g/0.04 oz) that is valued both for food and 

oil. The oil is used both for culinary purposes and as a skin cleanser and moisturizer 

in winter months. Mongongo is one of the most consumed nuts in Africa and in some 
69

areas, such as among the Bantu people or the Kung San Bushmen, it is considered a 

staple food. The fruit and kernels can both be stored for extended periods of time and 

still remain edible. While not appearing to be commercially cultivated; fruits are 

gathered from the wild, and it often found in large stands. Prefers hot, dry climates 

with little rainfall and does well in sandy soil and is highly drought-tolerant. It mainly 

grows on hills or sand dunes in and around the Kalahari. The nuts are difficult to 

obtain outside of the tree’s native range. The oil can be sometimes purchased in 

specialty shops or over the internet. It is not produced in the U.S. but is grown in 

Southern Tanzania, southern DRC, Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Malawi, 

Zimbabwe, Mozambique and northern South Africa. 

Monkey-pot:

The monkey-pot is a large tree, may be over 30.5 m (100 ft) high that is native to 

rainforests of Brazil. Upon flowering, the monkey pot tree becomes covered in 

thousands of small rose-purple flowers that attract bees. Fruit will ripen in 11 - 12 

months, and are shaped like a small pot, in which the seeds are found. When the fruit 

is ripe, it splits open and spills the seed across the forest floor. It flowers in September 

and October. It is propagated by seed, found in moist tropical rainforests. It is not

cultivated in the US, but is grown in Brazil and Peru. 

Monkey puzzle nut:

The monkey puzzle is a large, long-lived coniferous tree, native to Chile and 

Argentina and reaching up to 40 m (132 ft) in height and 9.1 m (30 ft) wide. The growth 

form is pyramidal with evenly spaced tiers of horizontal-spreading branches arranged in 

regular whorls about the trunk. The leaves are thick, tough and scale-like, triangular and 

sharply pointed, 3 - 4 cm (1.2 - 1.6 in) long. The leaves are hardy for many years and 

cover most of the tree except for the very oldest branches. This species is dioecious, and 

the female trees produce large (12 - 20 cm/4.7 - 7.9 in diameter) cones which hold up to 

200 seeds. The individual seeds are 3 - 4 cm (1.2 - 1.6 in) long and are soft, with a 

pleasant flavor much like a pine-nut. Since the cones drop, harvesting is easy. The tree 

however does not yield seeds until it is around 30-40 years old. Monkey puzzle is the 

national tree of Chile, and the seeds are extensively harvested there. In some areas of 

Chile the seeds are a staple food for native peoples, and are eaten raw or roasted, and will 

keep up to 9 months when stored in cool and dry conditions. This species is also an 

important timber tree, and is considered sacred by the indigenous people, and it is 

protected in the wild as an endangered species, but is grown outside of South America in 

Europe, North America, and Australia as a garden tree and recently in North America as 

a nut crop. In Chile, seeds are harvested February through May. The seed can be sown 

in a cold frame in February and will germinate in 1 - 2 months. The seedlings have 

delicate roots and must be carefully be transplanted to a pot. They should be placed in 

their final positions as soon as possible and protected from the cold their first winter if 

being grown in a temperate climateor they can be propagated by shoots. It grows very 
70

slowly. Prefers well drained, slightly acidic, volcanic soil but will tolerate almost any 

soil type provided drainage is good. Tolerates salt spray in a maritime climate well, but 

does not do well with air pollution. The tree can grow in North America along the 

coastal zone from coastal Virginia, down the Atlantic, west through Texas and up the 

Pacific coast to Washington and is grown in USDA Zones 6 – 10. It is also found in 

Canada, Vancouver and Victoria and on the Queen Charlotte Islands. Nuts are available 

in local markets in Chile. 

Okari Nut:

The okari nut is a tropical tree, 20 - 30 m tall, with large, spreading crown and grey 

bark, native to the Aru Islands, and the Solomon Islands, where it is widely cultivated. 

The twigs are often massive, hairy when young, with leaves clustered towards the tips. 

The fruit is a large, ellipsoid, slightly flattened drupe, coated with short reddish-brown 

hairs when young, red, fleshy, and glabrous when ripe, containing a massive woody, 

stone splitting on germination into two almost equal halves containing edible seed. 

The fruit is of great local importance, and said to have one of the best flavors of any 

tropical nut. The tree also has value for timber. It is usually grown in its native 

forests, often in a state of semi-cultivation. Grows in lowland rainforests and riverine 

forests up to 1,000 m (3,280 ft) altitude. Easily propagated by seed, but the seeds have 

short period of viability. It is not produced in the U.S. but there are wild populations 

in Irian Jaya, the Aru Islands, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, where it is 

cultivated. It has also been introduced in Queensland and Australia.

Pachira Nut:

The pachira nut is a medium tropical tree up to 20 m (65 ft), often confused with P. 

glabra and P. aquatica although they are not synonymous. It is native to the Caribbean,

and northern and western South America. Leaves are 25.4 cm (10 in) long, palmately

compound, and very dark green. Flowers are showy, with long red and white stamens. 

Fruit is a very large pod, up to 30.5 cm (12 in), brown, and shaped like a football. There 

are up to from 10 - 25 seeds per fruit with each seed being 2.5 cm in diameter. The 

seed is eaten whole, but little is known about its economic importance, although it is 

sometimes grown as an ornamental. It is propagated by seed, and adapted to swampy 

regions and shores of fresh water, but requires at least occasional drying. Grows in full 

sun to partial shade. It is not cultivated in the U.S. but is in the West Indies, Suriname, 

Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru. 

Peach palm nut:

The peach palm nut has multiple trunks that grows 20 to 30 meters (66 to 98 feet) 

tall. Native to Central America and Southwestern Amazonian including Northern 

Bolivia, Southeastern Peru and Western Brazil. Carbonized seeds of this palm date back 

4,000 years. Stem diameter ranges from 15 to 30 centimeters (6 to 12 inches). The 
71

crown contains 15 to 25 dark green pinnate fronds. Leaflets of the fronds grow at 

different angles. Long strands of inflorescences occur among the axils of the senescent 

fronds. Separate tiny yellowish male and female flowers are contained within the same 

inflorescence. Fruits take three to four months to mature after flowering. The fruit is a 

drupe that varies in shape and grows in clusters of 50 to 1,000. One stem can contain 5 to 

6 clusters of fruit. Each fruit grows 2.5 to 5 centimeters (1 to 2 inches) long and weighs 

10 to 250 grams (0.4 to 9 ounces). The skin is thin, fibrous and red, purple, orange, 

yellow or green in color. The humid, starchy/oily pulp is yellow to orange in color. Most 

fruit contain a fibrous/oily, white, conical-shaped, 8 to 10 centimeter (3 to 4 inch) kernel. 

The flavor of the fruit is fruity to chestnut-like. The seed is nutty, oily and has a coconutlike flavor. The aroma of the fermented pulp smells like ripe peaches. A typical bunch 

weighs 1 to 25 kilograms (2 to 55 pounds). Wild-type fruit are rich in oils and 

domesticated fruit are rich in starch. Currently, the plant is most important in both Latin 

American and world markets for its heart-of-palm. When it is grown for the hearts of 

palm it is grown in high density > 5,000 plants/A. This palm is the only domesticated 

palm in Tropical America. Flowering occurs year-round in many areas. In areas where 

the dry season is less pronounced, two flowering periods occur and fruiting occurs every 

six months. The fruiting season extends over a 2 to 4 month period. In Central Brazilian 

Amazonia, the main flowering season occurs from the mid-dry season in August and 

September, to the beginning of the rainy season in November. In Costa Rica, the main 

flowering season occurs from May to July. In Brazil, fruit ripen from late December to 

late March and in Costa Rica, fruit ripen from August to October. Fruit production 

occurs in 3 to 4 years from seed. Palms require hot, wet tropical lowlands with deep, 

fertile, well-drained soils, elevations of less than 1,000 meters (3,281 feet), abundant and 

well-distributed rainfall 2,000 to 5,000 millimeters (79 to 200 inches) per year), and 

average temperatures above 24 ° C (75 ° F). Tolerates low-fertility soils and short, 3 to 4 

month dry seasons in non-sandy soils. Does not yield well in dry conditions. Does not 

tolerate waterlogged soils. Propagation is mainly by seed. Seed should be obtained from 

healthy trees at the beginning of the harvest season. Pulp should be carefully removed, 

seeds should be cleaned and sowing should occur in appropriate substrates with sufficient 

irrigation. Seeds germinate in 30 to 90 days. Seedlings should be placed in moderate 

shade. When palms are grown for fruit, the spacing is 5 by 5 meters (16 by 16 feet) or 

400 plants per hectare. For heart-of-palm crops, plants should be grown in high density 

(> 5,000 plants per hectare), high input stands, where standard spacing is 1 by 2 meters (3 

by 7 feet). Because inflorescences develop in sequence on the stem, all bunches cannot 

be harvested at the same time. Fruit is harvested when the exocarp has 50% of its final 

color and the seed is mature. On spineless plants, fruit are collected by climbing the stem 

and lowering the fruit bunches to the ground with a rope or dropping them into a net. On 

spine-producing trees, poles with hooks or curved knives are used to cut the fruit bunch. 

Currently, the plant is under-utilized for its fruit. Fruit is sold in markets cooked, fresh 

by the bunch or minimally processed. Processing includes removing the fruit from the 

bunch, washing it, waxing it, sorting it, and packaging it. Fruit do not store well and 

deteriorate within 3 to 7 days. Heart-of-palm of this plant is the principal source of heartof-palm in both Latin American and world markets. The seed is consumed fresh or 

cooked. It has been grown in Florida since 1920. It is cultivated throughout Central and 

Northern South America; experimental crops are found in Africa, Asia and Oceania. In 
72

2000, the estimated production in the State of Amazonas, Brazil was 13,600 tonnes of 

fresh fruit. In 2002 Colombian production was approximately 49,000 tonnes and Costa 

Rican production was approximately 10,500 tonnes. The total Neotropical production 

area is greater than 43,000 hectares (106,255 acres). Total Neotropical production is 

estimated to be 120,000 tonnes. The NAFTA Crop Production Region 13.

Pecan:

The pecan is a large tree, up to 30.5 m (100 ft) in height, and with trunk diameter 

up to 1.9 m (6 ft). I t is considered the most valuable native tree nut species of the lower 

Mississippi Valley and westward through Texas, into California and in northern Mexico. 

The fruits are generally oval, up to 6.4 cm (21⁄2 in) long, and fairly smooth. The outer 

husk is fleshy early, becoming fibrous and splitting open at maturity. The shells are 

relatively thin, hard and woody. The kernel separates rather readily. Improved varieties 

are widely cultivated. In addition, large quantities are harvested from native trees. 

Bloom to harvest 5 to 6 months, harvested in mid-October. It is propagated by budding 

or grafting and it ranges from a warm temperate to subtropical climate. Trees are often 

planted at densities of 36 - 100 trees/acre, gradually removing alternate rows when 

crowding occurs, yielding final densities as low as 14 trees/acre. Trees are spaced at 56 x 

56 ft spacings, giving 14 trees/acre, are accomplished by planting at 40 x 40 ft, then 

removing alternate diagonal rows later. Tree require fairly large amounts of rainfall or 

irrigation, but can withstand dry periods due to a deep taproot. Some varieties lend 

themselves to dwarfing. It tales 5 – 9 years for the tree to begin its first significant 

harvest. The number of nuts/lb varies from 48 – 71 depending upon variety. The U.S. is 

the primary pecan producer in the world. North Carolina is on the northern fringe of the 

U.S. pecan production region. Pecans are separated into two categories based on 

intensity of cultivation: improved and native and seedling. Improved pecans are 

produced from superior cultivars in orchard settings, while native and seedling 

production occurs largely from wild-harvested native stands of trees in Oklahoma and 

Texas. There are over 1000 pecan cultivars documented in the literature, but only four 

make up over 50% of the orchard cultivation in the US:. 'Stuart', 'Desirable', 'Western', 

and ‘'Wichita'. Other production regions include Australia, Brazil, China, Israel, Mexico, 

Peru, and South Africa. The NAFTA Crop Production Regions are 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 

10, with 87 % in Regions 2, 4, 6, and 8. 

Pequi:

The pequi is a large evergreen tropical tree from 35 to 40 m (131 ft) native to dry 

tropical woodland for Brazil and French Guiana. Planting rates are 100 trees per hectare 

(40 trees per acre). Leaves trifoliate and large; fruit is oblong and approximately 6 cm 

(2.4 in) in length. The fruit has a thin skin and a sweet fleshy pulp which surrounds the 

spiny pit. Inside the pit is the nut, which is considered a delicacy. Both the fruit and 

inner kernel are eaten directly. The pequi is especially important to the indigenous 
73

people of the Brazil’s Cerrado region, and the fruit is a popular meal in several Brazilian 

states. It is not produced in the U.S. but is grown in Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia. It is a 

tree up to 35 m, occurring in humid forests. Flowers hermaphroditic and in small 

clusters. The large coconut-sized fruit, weighs about 3 kg and is 10-15 cm in diameter, is 

round or pear-shaped, and greyish-brown in color. It is covered with rust-coloured 

lenticels. The outer skin is leathery and about 1 mm thick. Pulp of the mesocarp is oily 

and sticky, holding 1 - 4 hard, woody, warty stones (nuts), with tasty reniform endocarp, 

which is eaten raw or roasted, and produces an edible oil. The wood is durable and used 

for boat-building. It is an effective healing balm if the oil of it's nuts are squeezed out 

right. it is a colourful tree, and very good for burning.

Pili nut:

The pili nut is grown in the Philippines and surrounding areas and grows to 20 –

25 m tall. The leaves, about 30.5 cm (1 ft) long, have 3 to 5 pairs of oval leaflets. The 

trees are dioecious, with flowers appearing in the axils of young leaves. Fruit is a drupe, 

oblong, black and appearing in clusters but is referred to as a nut. Each fruit is about 6.4 

cm (2 1⁄2 in) long and 2.3 – 3.8 cm diameter with a hard, thin, shell around the kernel. 

The dry nut weight varies with cultivar from 8.68 – 13.77 g depending upon the cultivar. 

Requires moist, fertile, well-drained soils and warm, tropical temperatures all year long 

with consistent rainfall. It is propagated from seed, although germination is often 

difficult. Trees begin bearing after 7 - 10 years. It takes from pollination to maturity 

about 10 months. Pili are cultivated exclusively in the Philippines, which exports them 

primarily to Taiwan, Hong Kong, Australia, and Guam. Hawaii has shown interest in 

growing pili nuts. Shoots and fruit pulp are also edible, and may be eaten locally or 

pressed for oil. The season to harvest is from May to October, peaking in July and 

August. It is not yet cultivated in the U.S. Approximately 4,900 tonnes (5,402 tons) 

were produced in 2005 and 50,000 trees have produced 3000 t of nuts (PCARRD.

Pine nut:

The pine nut is a tall, conifer trees, up to 12.2 m (40 ft), found in warm to cool 

temperate regions throughout North America, Europe and Asia and usually in dry areas. 

These pines have stout branches, and varying needles. Cones are near globose or broad 

ovate, compact until mature and weigh up to 300g and be 15 mm long. Cones can 

contain 120 hard shelled seeds each about 0.65 g. Seeds are about 1.3 cm (1/2 in) long, 

elongated and angular. It is propagated by seed or vegetatively by grafting. They are 

eaten directly, also used in confections under the name pignolia. The trees are not 

cultivated in the U.S., but gathered and sold in local markets. The U.S. also imports pine 

nuts from China and Italy, where they are cultivated commercially. All species of pines 

have edible seeds, but only a few are considered large enough to be worth gathering or 

cultivating; the Korean Pine being the most widely traded. After the fall frost, mature 

cones open and the nuts fall to ground. .Average production is from 600 – 1400 kg/ha 

and can reach 9,000 kg/ha of in shell nuts. It is mainly grown in the southwestern U.S., 
74

363-454 tonnes (400-500 tons) per year (AGMRC) and in NAFTA Crop Production 

Region 9. It is also produced in China, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. Production in South 

Korea in 2007 was 1,360 tonnes (1,500 tons) and in 2006 (MAF 2007). 

Pistachio:

The pistachio tree is small, up to 9 m (30 feet), and spreading. It is native to 

temperate Western Asia and the Middle East, but has been introduced and cultivated in 

many other subtropical areas. It is a deciduous plant that thrives in climates offering 

cool, wet winters and long, hot, dry summers. It is tolerant of a wide range of soils but 

produces best on well-drained, deep, light sandy loams with high lime content. Though 

of desert origin, mature trees in commercial production have a high water requirement. 

Pistachio trees are alternate bearing, producing a large crop one year and a smaller crop 

the next. Being wind pollinated, one male tree is planted for every 8 to 24 female trees, 

which produce the nuts. Pistachio trees are dioecious, meaning that there are separate 

male and female trees. The fruit is ovoid to oblong in shape, an inch or less long. It has 

an external, fleshy hull which loosens from the nut at maturity, but must be removed 

either by hand or mechanically. The nut has a thin, woody shell, which often partially 

splits when ripe. The kernel is small and smooth, rich flavored and green in internal 

color. An important crop in the U.S. and several Middle Eastern countries, and is popular 

as a snack and a flavoring. The time between blooms to maturity is about 5 months. The 

annual pistachio growing season begins in late March when buds formed the previous 

summer begin to swell. Bloom occurs in April, with foliage and shoots growth then 

emerging in early May. During May, the shells expand inside the hull. By June when the 

shells have reached full size, they begin to harden. However, the nuts within the shells 

have not yet developed; nut-fill typically occurs during July. Upon completion of nutfill, the enlarged nut causes the shell to split naturally. The hull, the protective covering 

over the shell, remains intact, but removes easily when pinched. The crop is ready for 

harvest when the nuts fall easily as the cluster is shaken. Harvest is timed to obtain the 

maximum number of split nuts, usually beginning in early to mid-September. It is 

propagated by seed or budding and is difficult to transplant. Rootstock seeds are 

germinated in January, grown for fifteen months in pots, and sold to growers for planting 

in orchards during early spring; budding is performed in midsummer. The young, 

nonbearing tree is trained to the adult tree shape for 5 to 7 years and begins producing 

small crops at 5 to 6 years. Requires a sheltered, warm growing location and moist, well 

draining soil. One male tree should be planted per seven or eight females to insure 

fertilization, and tree should be spaced at least 9 x 9 m, with irrigation. Most commercial 

orchards in California are planted to square or triangular arrangements with a variety of 

spacings, 11 to 30 ft between trees. Many growers use filler trees at spacings of 11 - 22 x 

22 - 24, removing every other row at 12 - 15 years. Training is open center or modified 

leader. Trees do not bear fully until 20 - 25 years old (although fruiting can begin as 

early as 7 years old), and have a fruiting life of up to 60 years In the U.S. it is produced 

in California and Arizona (NAFTA Crop Production Region 10). California entered the 

world pistachio market in 1976 with its first commercial crop of 1.5 million pounds 
75

grown on less than 1,500 acres. California pistachios are of the ‘Kerman’ variety. Other 

production regions include Iran, Turkey, and Pakistan. 

Sapucaia nut:

The sapucaia nut is a large tropical tree native to Brazil, closely related to the monkey 

pot. Trunk has well developed buttresses and deep fissures in the bark, and the fruit has a 

large woody shell (capsule), in the shape of a pot, which contains the seeds. When ripe,

the capsule splits open with a loud noise, attracting the attention of the local monkeys, 

who value the seeds as food. Sapucaia nut is considered to be superior in flavor to the 

Brazil nut, and was introduced to Trinidad as a possible commercial crop in the early 20th

century, although it did not meet with much success. It was sold at one time in New 

York under the name paradise nut. It requires a moist tropical climate. It is no

t cultivated in the U.S., but is in French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, Brazil,

and Equator.

Tropical almond:

The tropical almond is a large deciduous tree, 15 - 25 m tall, found in moist, coastal 

areas of tropical Southeast Asia. It has opposite, simple, obovate, leathery leaves that 

grow in whorls. Bark is brownish-grey and smooth; flowers are small, greenish white, 

and grow in spikes of 15 - 20 cm, which arise from the axils of the leaves. It is grown for 

its edible nut. The fruit is the size of a plum (2.5 cm wide by 2 – 6 cm long and weighing 

40 g) with tender skin and juicy edible pulp. The nutmeat is edible, fresh or roasted. It 

also yields edible oil and the meal is fed to pigs. In some place fruits are harvested 

constantly; while in India two harvests a year in spring (April - May) and in the fall 

(October – November). It is propagated from seeds, usually planted 25 cm apart, and 

germinates in about 20 days. Seedlings may be replanted after the following rainy season 

and it requires good drainage. Prefers coastal areas in the moist tropics, and although it is 

not yet grown on a commercial basis in the U.S. it will grow in southern Florida. It is 

native to Southeast Asia and is widely cultivated and naturalized in tropics. It can be 

produced in the NAFTA Crop Production Region 13.

Walnut, black:

Black walnut trees vary from small, up to 6 m (20 ft), to very large, near 45 m (150 ft) 

tall. In the U.S. they are widely distributed and are of several species and are the largest 

of the North America walnuts. Black walnut typically grows as scattered individual trees 

or in small groups throughout the central and eastern parts of the United States. Although 

it is found on a variety of sites, black walnut grows best on good sites in coves and welldrained bottoms in the Appalachians and the Midwest. Its natural range extends from 

western Vermont and Massachusetts west through New York to southern Ontario, central 

Michigan, southern Minnesota, eastern South Dakota and northeastern Nebraska; south to 
76

western Oklahoma and central Texas; excluding the Mississippi River Valley and Delta, 

it ranges east to northwestern Florida and Georgia. In all, the nuts are encased in a semipulpy husk, which does not separate from the nut readily. The nut shell is thick and very 

hard. The kernel does not separate from the shell readily. Only the American or Eastern 

black is in any cultivation, and commercial cultivation of that kind is limited. Substantial 

quantities of the latter are gathered from native trees and marketed, mainly after shelling. 

About 80% by weight of nut is shell. Ground shells are used in industry as an abrasive, 

and in oil and gas drillings. Shell produces a dark, staining liquid which often make 

harvesting difficult and messy. The nuts ripen in September and October. They are 

propagated on by grafting, transplant in early spring. Temperate climates and fertile, well 

draining soils, often in river plains and bottomlands. Seedlings emerge in April or May 

the first or second spring after the seed is planted. On deep, rich, moist soils in coves or 

well-drained bottom land, seedlings may grow 91 cm (36 in) the first year and even more 

the second growing season. Black walnuts begin bearing anywhere from 3 to 10 year 

after planting, depending on variety. Alternates heavy and light bearing years. The 

growing season within the range of black walnut ranges from 140 days in the north to 280 

days in western Florida annual precipitation is less than 640 mm (25 in) in northern 

Nebraska and 1780 mm. (70 in) or more in the Appalachians of Tennessee and North 

Carolina. Depending on latitude, black walnut flowers generally begin to appear about 

mid-April in the South and progressively later until early June in the northern part of the 

natural range. The large edible nut ripens in September or October of the same year and 

drops shortly after the leaves fall. Good seed crops are produced irregularly, perhaps 

twice in 5 years. Open-grown trees may produce some seed when only 4 to 6 years old, 

but large seed crops do not occur until the trees are 20 to 30 years old. At 10 years of 

age, a Midwest plantation produced 28 kg of hulled nuts per hectare (25 lbs/acre), and by 

age 12 production had increased to 112 kg/ha (100 lb/acre). Best seed production begins 

when the trees are about 30 years old and continues for another 100 years. Seed is 

disseminated only short distances by gravity and animals. Within black walnut's 

optimum range, the average annual temperature is about 13 C (55 F), the frost-free season 

is at least 170 days, and the average annual precipitation is at least 890 min (35 in). It is 

also cultivated in Europe for timber. Approximately 9,070 tonnes (10,000 tons) are 

harvested annually in the U.S. Other production regions for black walnut are Eastern 

Canada, Texas, and Mexico. It is grown in NAFTA Crop Production Region 5, EPA 

reports walnuts as black walnuts and English walnuts with 98% grown in Region 10.

Walnut, English:

This species is the principal walnut of commerce. The trees attain heights up to 

above 15 m (50 ft) unless restricted by pruning. It is native to the Balkans, Kyrgyzstan, 

and southwestern China, walnut is now grown in Europe, the U.S, South America, and 

China. Fruits are near globular to oblong, with a smooth surface, borne at the terminals 

of shoots. The husks surrounding the nuts are semi-fleshy and generally dehisce at 

maturity, allowing the nut to drop out or to be readily separated. The shell is hard but 

generally thin, and the kernel separates from it readily. About 50% by weight of nut is 

shell. Season for bloom to maturity is about 5 months. It is propagated by grafting, and 
77

requires a well drained, loamy, alluvial soil. Temperatures as low as -29 ̊ C can be 

tolerated. Carpathian walnut cultivars are cold hardy cultivars of J. regia which can be 

grown outside of California, in the Pacific Northwest or the mid-Atlantic and 

southeastern USA. ‘Cascade' has largest nuts with up to 56% percent kernel, and is rated 

#1 by the North American Nut Grower's Association. The Persian walnut cultivar 

‘Hartley' is an old, terminal bearing but productive cultivar, and as of the mid 1990's, was 

still the major cultivar in terms of acreage. It produces large nuts with light kernels and 

attractive shells. Other "Payne-type" cultivars popular in California are ‘Chandler', ‘Serr', 

‘Vina', ‘Ashley', ‘Tehama', ‘Pedro', ‘Sunland', and ‘Howard'. Yield averages over 3000 

lbs/acre. The spacing depends on variety and traditional orchards are usually planted at 

densities of 50 - 70 trees/acre initially, and thinned to 30 - 50 trees/acre (30 x 30') or 40 x 

40') as crowding occurs over time. Pollinizer cultivars are planted in solid rows (crosswind) at selected intervals, usually 10%. Hedgerow orchards of lateral bearing cultivars 

can be planted at higher densities (100 trees/acre) and do not require thinning of trees 

since regular hedging and topping maintains trees size. Walnuts begin bearing in 5 - 6 

years for some of the newer varieties. Flowering occurs in the spring from mid-April to 

mid-May depending upon the cultivar. The nut is harvestable 19 – 22 weeks after bloom. 

Many of the English walnuts can hybridize with other Juglans spp. The U.S was the 

second largest produces in 2006 of walnuts with 308,440 tonnes (339,901 tons) on 87,075 

hectares (215,075 acres). Other primary producing countries in 2006 included China, 

Iran, Turkey, and Turkey. Production in South Korea was 770 tonnes (850 tons) in 2006. 

The NAFTA Crop Production Region is 10.

Yellowhorn:

Yellowhorn is a deciduous small tree or tall shrub native to northern China, 

reaching 8 m (26.2 ft) in height. Leaves are alternate, 12-30 cm (4.7-11.8 in) long, 

pinnately divided with 9-17 leaflets that are sharply serrated. The tree produces large 

quantities of 2.5 cm (1 in), 5-parted white flowers in May with pink centers borne in 

heavy racemes. The tree is sometimes planted as an ornamental in temperate climates 

due to the stunning flower display, and its fruit is an edible leathery capsule containing a 

number of black ellipsoid seeds, about 1.5 cm (0.6 in) in diameter each, which resemble 

horse-chestnuts. When roasted, the seed kernel is said to taste like a macadamia nut and 

have a sweet flavor. The flowers and young leaves are also edible, and edible oil is 

produced from the nuts. It prefers a well drained soil in sunny location. However, it can 

be damaged by a late frost in the spring. It can begin flowering after only 2 - 3 years 

when the tree is only 0.6 m (2 ft) tall. It is available locally where it is grown mostly in 

Chuna and Korea and is sold in the U.S. both as an ornamental and tree nut crop. 
78

WORKER ACTIVITIES: (Adapted from USDA Almond, Pecan, Pistachio, Walnut, 

Crop Timelines and Crop Profiles (CA, AK, GA, KS, LA, NC, OR and Walnut 

Production Manual, Mosz, 2002) and Hazelnut (Oregon State University 

Extension Agent and the Nut Growers Society Proceedings).

Almond: 

In California, almonds begin blooming in mid-February and the orchards receive frost 

protection by close mowing or herbicide treatment of the orchard floor. Most 

activities in the almond orchard are mechanized. Hand activities that continue to 

occur are pest management monitoring, which occurs from February through August 

and is often conducted by a commercial pest management company, and pruning, 

which occurs between October and December, with much taking place soon after 

harvest. Worker activities that were once done by hand labor are now mostly 

mechanized, including harvesting and knocking mummies, which is the removal of 

unharvested nuts that remain on the tree. Mummy nuts are often removed from the 

trees with the same shakers used in harvest, but some hand poling still occurs, 

especially in younger trees that may be damaged by shakers. Commercial applicators 

and large growers are more likely than small growers to have closed-cab tractors.

Orchard floor preparation is also important for an efficient and successful harvest. 

Preparing the orchard floor, beginning before bloom and continuing until just before 

harvest, consists of mowing as the weeds get 6 to 8 inches high, spraying herbicides as 

needed, and removing debris before harvest. Discing to even out the high and low areas 

in the floor in cultivated orchards, also occurs before harvesting. 

Mechanical harvesting of almonds begins with a shaker, a tractor mounted 

apparatus that grips and shakes the trunk or limbs, causing the nuts to fall to the orchard 

floor. A mechanical shaker operator can shake between 70 and 150 trees in an hour. 

Occasionally, when economically feasible, the trees will be poled to knock additional 

nuts off the tree. This operation involves little contact with the tree and the person poling 

stands in the middle of the row, not directly under the tree. After the nuts fall to the 

orchard floor, they are allowed to dry for seven to fourteen days. Mechanical sweepers 

move the nuts into windrows, which are then gathered by a pickup machine. The 

mechanical sweepers and pickup machines both require a driver to sit outside to drive but 

there is no physical contact with the trees. For the sweepers, there is a rotating rake to 

bring the nuts into windrows, and a blower in back to blow the nuts from the tree row 

into the opposite middle. Workers may enter the field to rake any remaining nuts away 

from the trees, if there is a good price expected for the crop that year.

Irrigation practices influence other management techniques in an orchard and the 

pests likely to be present. Surface irrigation, typically flood and furrow irrigation 

systems, requires a relatively flat or slightly sloped orchard floor. Tillage is more likely 

to be used in fields with this type of irrigation. The spread of pests, such as weed seeds, 
79

may occur with surface irrigation. Sprinkler and localized irrigation systems, such as 

micro-sprinkler and drip, may be used in areas of low water supply or uneven terrain. 

Ants may become more of a problem as the use of localized irrigation increases because 

localized irrigation allows unsaturated areas to develop on the orchard floor. Many 

diseases, such as brown rot, almond scab, shot hole, and anthracnose, may be worse in 

areas with sprinkler irrigation systems if the water reaches the leaves or nuts. In most of 

the state drip, micro-sprinkler, or sprinkler irrigation systems are more likely to be used, 

whereas in the northern San Joaquin Valley, flood irrigation may be used more often 

because surface water is more readily available.

Pesticides may be applied from the ground or air but ground applications, which are 

more common, are usually done with an air blast sprayer. Typically between 24 and 60 

acres can be sprayed in a day, but the number of acres may vary from this range for 

several reasons. Variations in ground speed, coverage, and the number of gallons of 

pesticide used per acre will also affect the number of acres that can be sprayed in a day. 

Usually about 100 gallons of solution are applied per acre, with loads of about 500 

gallons per sprayer. Aerial applications are useful when there is not full foliage on the 

tree, such as in the dormant season, and to apply fungicides early in the spring. Aerial 

applications of insecticides may be used to manage the navel orangeworm since hull-split 

begins with the upper and outer portions of the tree. Aerial application may be done with 

a fixed wing airplane or helicopter, but helicopters are used more often for orchards 

because they can fly slower, providing better coverage of the trees.

The yearly activities for a farm worker in almonds are shown in Table 22. Scouting 

for pests is done from January through September. Insecticide may be applied almost 

the whole year while herbicides are used in January, July – August, and fungicides 

may be applied depending on the scouting reports every month except October.

Table 22. Typical Yearly Worker Field Activities for Almond Production (Mosz, 

2002).

Activity J

A

N

F

E

B

M

A

R

A

P

R

M

A

Y

J

U

N

E

J

U

L

Y

A

U

G

S

E

P

T

O

C

T

N

O

V

D

E

C

Pruning X

Fungicide applications X X X X X X X X X X X

Insecticide applications X X X X X X X X X X X

Herbicide applications X X X X X

Irrigation X X X X X

Scouting for pests X X X X X X X X X

Mowing X X X X X X X

Harvest X X X

Wildlife damage control X X X X X X X X X
80

Hazelnut:

The Hazelnut Production Calendar is prepared each year by the Oregon State 

Extension Agent (Table 23). It includes all worker activities as well as pest problems 

that may cause significant losses.

Table 23. Hazelnut Production Calendar (Adapted from Jeff Olsen, Oregon State 

University Extension Agent and the Nut Growers Society Proceedings. 

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Activity

X X X Pruning

X X Fertilizing

X X Moss and Lichen

X X Winter Moth

X X X X X X Flail to Control Weeds

X X X X X Cultivate

X X X X Weed Control

X X X X X

Sucker Control by 

herbicide

X X X X X X X Scouting for pests

X X Omnivorous Leafier

X Foliar Boron Application

X X X X Aphid Control

X X Leafroller Control

X X X X Obliquebanded Leafroller

X Sun Scald Protection

X X Filbertworm

X X Bacterial Blight Control

X Leaf and Soil Analysis

X X Pre-Harvest Care

X X Harvesting

X X X Eastern Filbert Blight

Hazelnuts must be pruned in January – February and December to assure maximum 

yields. An additional benefit of proper pruning will be less limb breakage from ice 
81

and snow. Nitrogen fertilizer should be applied as urea in March, coinciding with 

bud break. 

Moss and lichen growth must be controlled in March and November to prevent limb 

breakage due to heavy snow and ice buildup. The flail is used on orchard groundcover 

beginning in late April or early May, to chop the vegetation down to the surface of the 

soil. The flail also helps chop up leaves and small twigs in the spring as well as early 

drops of blank nuts before the harvest period. 

Some growers use herbicides to delay or kill growth in the alleys to reduce the 

number of times the orchard floor is flailed. Flails that are 8 to 9 feet wide and a 

tractor with at least 40 hp are commonly used. It's sometimes desirable to flail after 

harvest to mulch leaves and eliminate old crop nuts, which can attract rodents. Weed 

control is usually associated with the flailing program where herbicides are banded 

down the tree row. Sucker Control is done from April through August. Most 

growers use chemicals for the control of suckers, spraying when the suckers are six to 

nine inches tall, and can require three to four treatments per year. 

Pest problems include the omnivorous leaftier which hatch from over-wintering eggs in 

April and May and are carried into orchards by the wind on silken threads. Larvae 

feed on developing buds, often resulting in destruction of the terminal growth. This 

feeding results in malformed trees and a delay in overall tree growth. The key to 

control is early detection by scouting early and applying a preventive treatment. 

Heavy infestations of leafroller may result in yield reductions. Spraying is done in 

late April or early May to control this pest. The obliquebanded leafroller larvae feed 

on developing nuts resulting in stained, misshapen and aborted nuts. There are two 

generations a year, one in mid-June and the second generation of moths emerges in 

September. Filbertworm control is an annual problem and in many cases must be 

sprayed for each year. Treatment dates are usually close to July 10 and again about 

three weeks later. Filbert bacterial blight is a serious disease problem seen mostly in 

young trees up to six years in age. Eastern filbert blight causes small football shaped 

pustules that line up vertically on infected branches. There are two main scouting 

times for this pest late summer and winter. 

Before harvest one last flailing just before solid nuts begin to drop in early September 

will grind up blanks and twigs that have dropped and will put the orchard floor in a 

proper condition for harvesting. All commercially grown hazelnuts are harvested 

mechanically. Sweeping is the first process which should clean the tree row with air 

blast or mechanical fingers and deposit the nuts in a narrow windrow in the center of 

the row. A harvesting machine follows which lifts and separates the nuts from the 

leaves, twigs, etc. and deposits them in a tote box or trailer. Some growers use 

trailers with bottom drops that they open over drop pits. The nuts are conveyed out of 

the pit and into bulk trucks for delivery to the cleaning and drying plants. If totes are 

used, a third person follows on a fork lift tractor to move tote boxes out of the 

orchard. This type of operation can harvest around 15 acres of orchard per day. 
82

Peach Palm Nut:

Peach palm nut activities in Florida consist mostly of fertilizer applications, 

irrigations, and or scouting and treating for pests (Table 24). 

Table 24. Peach Palm Nut Production Calendar in Florida (Adapted fromJ. Crane. 

2006. Pejibaya (Peach Palm) Growing in the Florida Home Landscape. Univ FL 

IFAS Cooperative Extension Service Publication HS 1072).

Activity Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Fertilizer and add 

micronutrients/iron as needed

X X X X

Irrigation during dry periods X X X X X

Scout for insects and treat if 

necessary

X X X X X X X X X X X X

Scout for diseases and treat if 

necessary. 

X X X X X X X X X X X X

Pecan: 

In Arkansas, pecans are managed by removing competing trees and shrubs; thinning 

of pecan trees to retain trees with highest production, best nut quality and highest 

disease resistance; establishment of a cool season grass and legume ground cover 

under trees and fertilization. Most acreage of native pecans is harvested mechanically 

although significant production is hand harvested by small growers. Occasional 

pruning is performed in the dormant season. Preemergent herbicide applications are 

applied in early spring, primarily with tractor mounted spray equipment. 

Postemergence herbicide applications are made in early summer and occasionally 

after harvest primarily with tractor mounted sprayers although backpack sprayers are 

occasionally used. Row middles are mowed during the growing season. Insecticides 

and fungicides are applied from early spring up to harvest primarily with orchard 

blast sprayers. Management of weeds in native pecan groves consists of mowing the 

permanent ground cover and/or grazing by livestock. Weed control in pecan orchards 

with improved varieties is more intensive and is required for attainment of maximum 

yield. 
83

In Georgia pesticides may be applied from early April until late September (Table 

25). Insecticides and fungicides are typically applied throughout the season. Fungicide 

application usually ends in early August. Pesticides are applied with air blast sprayers 

mounted on a truck or pulled behind a truck or tractor in enclosed cabs. During the 

season, workers may be present in the orchard to apply pesticide, scout, or to pick up 

fallen limbs. Orchard workers do not come in contact with pecan foliage. Uncontrolled 

weeds interfere with tree growth and irrigation and harvesting, so a clean orchard floor 

makes it efficient for efficient harvest of nuts. Most operations use a tractor-mounted 

hydraulic tree shaker to dislodge nuts from the trees, and the fallen nuts are commonly 

windrowed and swept up from the ground by mechanical sweepers and harvesters and 

then the nuts are swept into rows on the ground for mechanical pickup. Bare soil or 

closely mowed grass makes this system possible. Herbicides are primarily used control 

weeds under the trees. 

Table 25. Typical Yearly Field Activities for Georgia Pecan Production 

(www.tifton.uga.edu/uga.pecan).

Activity J

A

N

F

E

B

M

A

R

A

P

R

M

A

Y

J

U

N

E

J

U

L

Y

A

U

G

S

E

P

T

O

C

T

N

O

V

D

E

C

Pruning X X X X

Plant trees X X

Fertilizer, Lime X X X X X X X X

Plant nuts X X

Fungicide applications X X X X X X

Insecticide applications X X X X

Herbicide applications X X X X X

Irrigation X X X X X

Scouting for pests X X X X X X X

Mowing X X X X X X X

Harvest X X X

Wildlife damage control X

In Kansas primary worker activities include irrigation, fertilizer application, 

pesticide sprays, pruning, thinning, and harvesting. Majority of pecan trees are harvested 

in this region with machine. However, hand-harvesting by knocking the pecans out of 

the tree with a pole and then picking the nuts off the orchard floor may serve as a 

complementary approach on a small scale. Pruning and tree thinning are very common 

management practices that prevent crowding of the pecan trees and enhance the 

production of high quality nuts. Generally, pecan orchard floor management in Kansas 

consists of mowing a permanent ground cover and/or grazing by livestock. Cool season 

grasses and legumes are often planted in pecan groves to increase forage production. n 

native pecan groves, vining weed species that can climb trees and compete within the 

tree’s canopy for light are serious crop limiting pests, and includes poison. In orchards of 
84

young trees, a six-foot, weed-free circle is often maintained around each tree. Weed 

pests include trumpet creeper, riverbank grape, Virginia creeper, and raccoon. 

In Louisiana pruning of pecan trees is performed in the dormant season. 

Postemergence herbicide applications are made in early summer and occasionally after 

harvest primarily with tractor mounted sprayers although backpack sprayers are 

occasionally used. Row-middles are mowed or grazed during the growing season. 

Insecticides and fungicides are applied from early spring up to harvest primarily with 

orchard blast. Mechanical tree shakers followed by a mechanical ground harvester are 

utilized by a majority of growers. A vegetation free strip prepared by using postemergence herbicide applications are made in late winter and early summer with tractor 

mounted sprayers although backpack sprayers are occasionally used. Row middles are 

mowed during the growing season. Insecticides and fungicides are applied from early 

spring up to harvest. Mechanical tree shakers followed by a mechanical ground harvester 

are utilized by a few growers. During the growing season there is very little orchard 

activity where workers come in contact with the foliage of the pecan trees since most 

tasks are mechanized or done in when pesticides are not applied. 

In North Carolina postemergence herbicide applications are made in late winter 

and early summer with tractor mounted sprayers although backpack sprayers are 

occasionally used. Row-middles are mowed during the growing season. Insecticides and 

fungicides are applied from early spring up to harvest. There is very little orchard 

activity during the growing season where workers come in contact with the foliage of the 

pecan trees in Texas and North Carolina. Pecan trees can grow and produce quality nuts 

for decades with minimal effort and expense. Some commercial pecan plantings in North 

Carolina are well over 75 years old and still very productive. In years when a full crop is 

obtained, North Carolina produces 5 to 6 million pounds of pecans annually. The level of 

production ranges from several trees in the backyard to commercial orchards with 20 

acres or more. 

Pistachio:

Pistachios need rapid processing upon harvest is crucial to resulting nut quality, 

so the industry works around the clock for the six to eight weeks of harvest. Mature 

pistachios require care throughout the year. During the growing season, April through 

October, they require fertilization, irrigation; weed control for the orchard floor, insect 

and bird protection for the nuts, and disease control for the foliage and roots (Table 26). 

During the dormant season, November through March, they require pruning to generate 

new fruiting wood and to maintain tree size. 

Table 26. Typical Yearly Worker Field Activities for Pistachio Production 

(Mosz, 2002).
85

Activity J

A

N

F

E

B

M

A

R

A

P

R

M

A

Y

J

U

N

E

J

U

L

Y

A

U

G

S

E

P

T

O

C

T

N

O

V

D

E

C

Pruning X X

Irrigation X X X X X X X

Scouting for pests X X X X X X X X X

Mowing X X X X X X

Fungicide applications X X X X X X X

Insecticide applications X X X X X X X X X

Herbicide applications X X X X

Harvest X X

Wildlife damage control X X X X X X

Walnut (Walnut Production Manual):

In California non-cultivation of orchard soils with herbicide-treated tree rows is 

common, and mechanized winter pruning is practiced and well suited to these sod 

orchard floor techniques with drip, micro, and sprinkler irrigation. Typical worker 

activities for walnuts are shown in Table 27. Irrigation is necessary in California walnut 

orchards to be economically feasible. A smooth orchard floor is necessary to facilitate 

harvest of walnuts that are shaken to the ground, swept into a windrow, and picked up 

with pickup machines. Some orchards are disked and rolled before harvest to insure a 

smooth, firm surface for harvest. Harvest takes place starting in late August and occurs 

through mid-November. Nuts are removed from the trees with a mechanical shaker, 

which is an apparatus that is driven into the orchard, clasps a trunk or limb and shakes, 

causing the nuts to fall off the tree. The shaker has a cab to prevent injury to the driver, 

and newer shakers have closed cabs that are air conditioned and air filtered. After the 

nuts drop, they are swept into windrows by a mechanical sweeper, a small piece of 

equipment that is not closed-cab. The sweeper has a rotating rake to bring the nuts into 

windrows, and a blower in back to move the nuts from the tree row into the middle of the 

adjacent windrow. Workers may enter the orchard to remove sticks from the nuts to 

make pick up easier. The pickup machine, or harvester, is not typically closed-cab. As 

the equipment picks up the nuts, debris and dust are blown out. Once the nuts drop, all 

harvest operations are completed within a day because nut quality decreases if left on the 

ground. Hand harvesting with poles may be used for walnut trees that are younger than 

eight years old. 

Walnut trees are hand pruned in the dormant season. Trees up to three years old 

are pruned from the ground, while older trees are pruned every two to three years by hand 

with a person standing on a hydraulic tower to reach the limbs of the tree. The trees may 

be trained into hedgerows, a row of trees grown close together as a unit, but this is not a 

common practice. Young trees, up to three years old, are pruned in the summer to train 

them. Other activities requiring hand labor also occur in the orchard such as in late 

March, insect traps, used to determine the level of pest infestation, are placed in the 
86

orchard. Hand hoeing weeds may occur in young orchards throughout the season as 

needed. The nuts are removed with mechanical shakers, the same equipment used for 

harvest, which enter the field to shake the trees after a heavy fog or light rain has made 

the walnuts overly heavy. Some areas rely on wind and rain throughout the winter to 

remove the nuts. The nuts are mowed to destroy them. Equipment operators are the only 

people in the orchard during this process (Van Steenwyk, 2001; Grant, 2001).

Although the use of tillage has declined in recent years, many growers still use 

tillage in the orchards to control weeds. Even in orchards that are typically not cultivated 

growers may occasionally use tillage to improve water penetration. Pesticides are 

applied from the ground or air. Ground applications are more common in part because 

they are less expensive and coverage of the trees is better, are usually done with an air 

blast sprayer, although herbicides are applied with a ground boom sprayer. The sprayers 

may be self-powered or pulled by a tractor, which may or may not have a closed cab. 

Typically between 24 and 60 acres can be sprayed in a day and the number of acres may 

vary from this range. Aerial applications are useful if soil conditions prohibit ground

machinery from entering the field, and aerial applications are able to cover a large area 

more quickly than ground sprayers. Aerial applications may also be necessary if the trees 

are too large to be completely covered from a ground application. In this case, both 

ground and aerial applications would be made to fully cover the trees. In 1999, 

approximately ten percent of total pesticide applications were applied aerially. 

Table 27. Typical Yearly Worker Field Activities for Walnut Production (Mosz, 

2002).

Activity J

A

N

F

E

B

M

A

R

A

P

R

M

A

Y

J

U

N

E

J

U

L

Y

A

U

G

S

E

P

T

O

C

T

N

O

V

D

E

C

Pruning X X

Irrigation X X X X X X

Scouting for pests X X X X X X X X X

Mowing X X X X X X X X

Fungicide applications X X X X X X X X X X

Insecticide applications X X X X X X

Herbicide applications

Harvest X X X X

Wildlife damage control X X X X X X X X

Pollination of Tree Nuts. (Adapted from Russell Goodman, 1994. Honeybee Pollination 

of Fruit Tree Crops. AG 20092).

Specific pollination requirements for the tree nuts are: 
87

Almonds are self-incompatible and require cross pollination. Pollinators such as 

honey bees are essential, especially since cool, wet weather can occur at the relatively 

early blooming period. 

Cashew trees are least partially self-fruitful, as single trees can bear many fruit. 

Various insects, flies and ants provide pollination. 

The chestnut is wind pollinated and insect to a lesser extent; most chestnuts are selfunfruitful, and some set burs parthenocarpically without pollination but pollinizers 

are necessary in most cases. 

Since coconuts are protandrous, they are believed to be largely cross pollinated. 

Dwarf cultivars, particularly the popular ornamentals, are largely self-pollinating as 

opposed to the ‘Tatwell’ cultivars of commerce which rarely pollinate themselves. 

Coconut trees are planted in rectangular or hexagonal arrangements, with separate rows 

of pollinizers and main cultivars, usually alternating with each other. Solid rows of 

pollinizers are used since trees are shaking harvested, and this makes it easier to harvest 

without mixing cultivars. Trees are trained to an open center shape in the first year.

Hazelnuts are monoecious, and the female flowers are borne in head-like 

inflorescences terminally on short shoots developing from lateral buds on 1-yr wood 

borne on current season's growth. Male catkins are borne from unmixed lateral buds on 

1-yr wood but most hazelnuts are self-unfruitful. The flowering habit is unusual because 

both male and female flowers are initiated the summer prior to harvest. Female flowers 

lack perianth and ovaries at the time of pollination in mid-January to mid-February; the 

pollen tube grows to the base of the style and becomes quiescent until 5 - 6 months later 

(June), when the ovary and ovule develop. Fertilization then takes place in July, and the 

nut rapidly develops, maturing by late August. 

Macadamia nuts need bees to pollinate the crop since cross-pollination is necessary 

for full production, but the degree of self-incompatibility varies. The tree spacing 

depends on growth habit of the cultivar and the use of filler trees. Final spacings of 30 to 

35 feet apart are typical. Closely spaced hedgerow orchards are sometimes used in 

Australia, with trees planted at 10 × 20 feet and later thinned to prevent overcrowding. 

Macadamias are trained to a central-leader framework over a period of several years, as 

they grow slowly.

Pecans the period of time over which pollen is shed commonly does not coincide 

with the period of female flower receptivity to pollen. So, pecans often require another 

cultivar for pollination since the timing of the male and female functions is different on a 

given tree. This condition is referred to as dichogamy and is common in trees in the 

Juglandaceaefamily. The two possible forms are protandry (means "first male"), where 

pollen shed begins before the female flower becomes receptive, and protogyny (means 

"first female") where the female flower becomes receptive before pollen shedding begins. 

A good pair of cultivars for cross pollination contains both a protandrous and a 

protogynous cultivar. In most cases, there is some overlap in the functional periods, 
88

allowing for some degree of self-pollination. Pollination requirements for pecan trees 

differ from all other tree fruit crops. Pecan trees are monoecious, which means that they 

have separate male structures, called catkins, and female flowers on the same tree. 

However, the time at which the male catkins release pollen is not the time at which the 

female flowers can be pollinated. Pecan trees are separated into two pollination groups 

referred to as Type I and Type II. Catkins on Type I trees release their pollen before the 

female flowers are receptive and catkins on Type II trees release their pollen after the 

female flowers are receptive. Because of this difference, both Type I and Type II pecan 

trees are required for pollination. To ensure maximum pollination and therefore, 

production, at least three varieties should be planted together. As a general rule, 10% of 

the trees should be pollinizers. In isolated orchards, two pollinizers are needed - one 

early and one late. Pecans, walnuts, and other members of the Juglandaceae are wind 

pollinated, and the pollen may travel for miles on a strong wind. The best month for 

planting new pecan trees is January. In order for the pecan nuts to be properly pollinated, 

at least three different varieties should be planted. Though they are only about five to 

seven feet tall when planted, pecan trees get very big over time, so they need to be spaced 

about 70 feet apart. About 6 - 9 trees are planted on one acre. Each year the tree will 

grow about 10 to 12 inches, and pecans will only develop on the new growth. It takes 

several years before pecan trees start producing pecans. Most new and improved 

varieties begin to produce pecans within five to six years, but older, traditional varieties 

take longer 

Pistachios are wind pollinated, and although bees may be attracted to male flowers for 

pollen, they are not attracted to females since they lack pollen, nectar, and petals. 

Pollinizers (males) are often planted in the center of a 3 x 3 square of females, 

yielding an 8:1 ratio, or sometimes ratios up to 24:1 are used. 

Walnuts are similar to pecans in that the time of pollen shedding does not always 

overlap well with the time of female flower receptivity to pollen. Although most walnuts 

are self-fertile, they sometimes require another cultivar for pollination since the timing of 

the functions of male and female flowers is different. As with most catkin-bearing 

species walnuts are wind pollinated. All walnut varieties will set a full crop of nuts when 

self pollinated, provided pollination takes place when the female flowers are receptive. 

Self-pollination means that the pollen comes from male flowers (catkins) of the same 

variety, but not necessarily the same tree. Inadequate pollination may occur because the 

catkins shed pollen either before or after the female flowers are receptive. In such cases, 

it is necessary to plant a pollinizer variety that sheds pollen during the peak period of 

female blossom receptivity of the main variety.

COMPARISON OF HARVESTING, PROCESSING, POSTHARVEST 

HANDLING, RAW AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY (RAC), EDIBLE 

PORTIONS, AND PROCESSED FOOD ITEMS FOR THE TREE NUTS:

Maturity and Harvesting of Tree Nuts:
89

Almond:

In California, trees are harvested by mechanical tree shakers. Young trees may be 

damaged by shakers, so are harvested by hand knocking in the first few years. Nuts 

are then left to dry on the ground for 1 - 2 weeks, then swept into windrows for 

harvesting. 

Cashew

The cashew apple and nut abscise from trees naturally when ripe. Maturation occurs 

over a period of several weeks during the dry season. Nuts are collected from the 

ground by hand. Frequent passes though the planting must be made if cashew apples 

are to be utilized, as they are highly perishable and the fruit must be dried in wet 

weather for 1 – 3 days. Rain at harvest may increase rot and stimulate nut 

germination. 

Chestnut:

Chestnuts are harvested by collecting from the ground after falling naturally. The 

nuts are removed from burs and dipped into hot water (68°C) for one hr to 

eliminate surface molds.

Coconut:

Coconuts are collected every 4 – 6 weeks throughout the year by cutting the 

bunches by a pole. Monkeys have been trained to harvest the coconuts too. Mature nuts 

must be dehusked before shipment to the fresh market. 

Hazelnut:

Hazelnuts are harvested by hand in most of Europe, but mechanized in the .U.S. The nuts 

drop naturally during a 6 week period beginning in September. Winds or helicopters 

can remove the last remaining nuts. The orchard floor is mowed closely, and kept 

free of debris to facilitate windrowing and sweeping of nuts. 

Macadamia nut:

Macadamia nuts are harvested largely by picking up by hand, although mechanical 

harvesters are being evaluated. Harvesting may extend over a 6 - 12 week period. Most 

of the crop is used for confectionery, but whole kernels are roasted and salted and sold in 

jars/cans, usually in "gourmet" sections of markets. Macadamias are considered to be 

among the finest table nuts in the world, but they contain high quantities of oil, and can 

be fattening.
90

Pecan:

The size of a pecan orchard will determine how an individual grower will harvest 

his or her pecans. Commercial growers with large orchards have special machines that 

shake, pick up, and process the pecans to prepare them for customers. Smaller orchards 

usually just pick the pecans up by hand. The pecans are separated from shucks, leaves 

and other debris, and then dried in forced-air heaters to a moisture content of 10 - 15%. 

Nuts can be stored for about 4 months at room temperature before becoming rancid, but 

last 1 - 2 yr when stored at 34 F. Pecans are harvested when the shuck opens, allowing 

the nuts to drop. Mechanical aids can be used to help speed nut fall. These devices range 

from a long pole used to shake small limbs to large commercial branch or trunk shakers 

that cause nuts to fall in a very short time. For small-scale operations, sheets can be 

spread under the tree to catch the falling nuts. Nuts also can be picked up with small, 

push-propelled harvesters ranging from 12 to 48 inches wide for small-scale plantings or 

large, commercial mechanical nut harvesters. Nuts harvested by hand should be picked 

up every other day to prevent the nuts from molding or being destroyed or removed by 

pests. 

Pistachio:

The nut skin changes from translucent to opaque, and the mesocarp becomes 

loosened from the shell when nuts are mature, and highest quality is obtained when 

harvest occurs within 7 - 10 days of this stage. Young trees (<10 yr) are too fragile to be 

harvested by trunk shakers, so are harvested by hand knocking onto canvas sheets, but 

mature trees are harvested by conventional shake-harvest equipment used for almonds. 

During harvest, the shells often become stained and blemished. Unless camouflaged, the 

pistachios appear unappetizing. United States importers sometimes employ a red 

vegetable dye to give the nuts visual appeal. The red color serves another purpose as 

well, since it appeals to consumers who are used to it and demand it. In California, 

however, pistachios are mechanically hulled and dried and most are not colored and left 

in the unblemished, natural state

Black walnut:

The best known use of black walnut is for its lumber and veneer. The wood is used 

for fine furniture of all kinds, interior paneling, specialty products, and gunstocks. The 

nuts of black walnut serve many purposes. The kernels provide food for wildlife and 

humans. Ground shells provide special products. During World War II, airplane pistons 

were cleaned with a "nut shell" blaster and this idea was carried into the auto industry; 

manufacturers used shells to deburr precision gears. Ground shell products are also used 

to clean jet engines, as additives to drilling mud for oil drilling operations, as filler in 

dynamite, as a nonslip agent in automobile tires, as an air-pressured propellant to strip 

paints, as a filter agent for scrubbers in smokestacks, and as a flour-like carrying agent in 

various insecticides. Black walnut, also called eastern black walnut and American 
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walnut, is one of the scarcest and most coveted native hardwoods. Small natural groves 

frequently found in mixed forests on moist alluvial soils have been heavily logged. The 

fine straight-grained wood made prize pieces of solid furniture and gunstocks. As the 

supply diminishes, the remaining quality black walnut is used primarily for veneer. The 

distinctive tasting nuts are in demand for baked goods and ice cream, but people must be 

quick to harvest them before the squirrels. The shells are ground for use in many 

products.

English walnut:

English walnuts are harvested at the beginning of shuck split, when the seed coat 

is a light tan color which is the market preference. The walnuts are harvested by using 

trunk or limb shakers depending on tree size. A windrow machine places the nuts into 

narrow rows to be picked up by a sweeper. Nuts are collected in large bins and taken to 

the processing plant. The process is similar to those used in pecan. 

Processing of the Tree Nuts (Adapted from Society of Ontario Nut Growers, 2009, 

Kadar, University California Publ. 3311, 1992, Fulbright, A Guide to Tree Nut 

Culture in North America, Volume I, 2007)

The tree nuts need to have their hulls removed and dried as soon as possible after 

harvest. The nuts should be dried to < 10 % moisture to avoid insect and disease loss. 

All of the tree nuts except chestnuts have a hard shell that will break or shatter under 

pressure to release the nut. Nut processors use rollers to crack the nut. The nuts are fist 

sized through screens so that all the nuts of one size can be cracked at once. This method 

works best for hazelnuts and walnuts. Heartnuts must be fed into a slightly curved 

rollers. Aspirators and blowers are used to collect and separate the nut meats from the 

shell. final sort is carried out to make sure shell fragments and spoiled nut meats are 

discarded. Dried nuts are stored in bins, silos, or other bulk storage. Nut meat may be 

pressed for oil extraction, while shelled are often used for boiler fuel. 

Shelling, processing and packaging of tree nuts are always in a changing state as 

technology makes processing more efficient. The approximate percentage of shell 

material that must be discarded varies from only 19% for chestnut to 78 % for black 

walnuts (Fulbright, 2003). Pistachio has 47 % shells, pecans are 48 %, almond is 49 %, 

while hazelnut is 53 % and English walnut is 55 %. The shelling process is broken down 

into three general operations: (1) cracking the shells, (2) separation of the kernel or 

kernel pieces from the shell, and (3) subsequent grading of the shelled products. Most 

hard shelled nuts must be preconditioned before cracking to increase moisture so the 

shells will crack earlier. Preconditioning involves soaking nuts in water, surface wetting 

and keeping the nut in high humidity, or by steam conditioning. After cracking the shell 

is separated from the edible kernel or meat, then the nuts will be graded by marketing 

standards into sizes and color and packaged. Marketing standards are discussed in the 

USDA Marketing Standards for Tree Nuts section of this analysis. Processing nuts for 
92

sale by cooking are discussed in the “Preparation and Cooking Methods for the Tree 

Nuts” section of this analysis. Additional processing consideration for some of the tree 

nuts are discussed below. 

Almond:

Almond fruits may be may be dried and hulled immediately, or stockpiled for 

fumigation against Navel orangeworm after harvest. The hulls are placed in piles to be 

hauled away for use as livestock feed for dairy cattle. Nuts are dried by forced hot air 

until their moisture content reaches 5 - 7%. Nuts are then dehulled and shelled. In-shell 

nuts can be stored in bins for weeks or months until final processing. Nuts are then 

shelled and sorted for size and appearance. Last, the nuts are bleached for color 

improvement, then salted, roasted, and/or flavored before packaging. 

Cashew:

The presence of caustic cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) in the shells makes cashew 

processing more difficult and hazardous than for other nut crops. After harvest, the nuts 

are dried in the sun or in simple tray driers and stored for processing later. The dried nuts 

can be stored for about two years at room temperature after reaching water contents of 5 

– 10 %. Nuts are rehydrated partially by soaking or storing in high humidity since this 

facilitates extraction of whole kernels and CNSL. Nuts are separated by size before 

roasting to ensure uniformity of the roasting process, and after roasting, nuts are shelled 

either by hand or in machines. 

Coconut:

Coconuts intended for copra or oil production are split open with a machete, 

discarding the milk, and exposing the endosperm to the sun to dry. Drying takes 2 - 5 

days in the sun, or can be done more quickly in kilns. Once dry, the copra is removed 

from the seeds with metal tools, and further dried to reach a water content of 5 - 6%. 

Coconut oil for is extracted mechanically by pressing, or chemically by the use of 

solvents. Coconut oil is used for cooking, to make candles, soaps, cosmetics, and in 

explosives. Whole coconuts can be stored for several weeks prior to dehusking and 

extracting copra. Fruit are kept dry, but stored at ambient temperatures. 

Hazelnut:

Hazelnuts are swept into windrows and harvested mechanically. Debris is blown 

from the nuts, which are washed in mild chlorine to reduce surface contamination, and 

bleached by exposure to SO2 to enhance appearance. Hazelnuts are dried to 8 - 10% 

moisture, permitting storage for up to one year at 36 - 40° F.

Chestnut:
93

The fresh chestnuts are 50 % moisture and can be stored for 8 weeks at 40°F, or 

dried to 10% moisture so they can be stored for a year. Dried nuts are re-hydrated by 

soaking or steaming prior to use; they become hard and inedible if stored long.

Dika Nut:

The fruits are harvested and split in half to remove the kernels. They are hest 

treated and then stored for use. 

Macadamia nut:

The macadamia nuts are dehulled mechanically and then dried to low water contents at < 

2 %. Nuts are cracked and sorted to remove off-color kernels and pieces of shell. 

Kernels are graded into two classes’ flotation; grade I kernels (> 72 % oil) float and grade 

II (< 72 % oil) sink.

Mongongo nut:

The mongongo is a highly nutritious nut and the fruit skin, which is not 

consumed: it is removed and discarded. The outer shell of the nut is very hard and 

difficult to crack. The nut kernel, which looks like a small hazelnut (except that it is 

skinless), and breaks easily into halves. The taste is similar to that of cashews or almonds 

that have been dry-roasted. With long roasting, the nut develops a flavor similar to an 

aged cheese. The flesh of the mongongo fruit was eaten whole and raw in the past, but 

now it is cooked in an iron cooking pot for 20 minutes. The nuts are roasted about 5 

minutes in a mixture of coals and a small pile of dry, loose sand; then they are cracked. 

They can be eaten whole, or pounded in a mortar, or mixed with a variety of vegetable or 

animal foods.

Pecan:

Pecans can be harvested when the shuck loosens from the shell, or when shucks 

split. Pecans are harvested with trunk or limb shakers, depending on tree age. Trunks or 

individual limbs are shaken, depending on tree size. A windrow machine consolidates 

nuts scattered on the ground into rows over which a sweeper is run to collect nuts. 

Leaves and other debris are separated from the nuts by blowers attached to the windrower 

and harvester. Once harvested, the nuts must to be dried to 8 to 10 % moisture, or to 3.5 

to 4.5 % for optimal long-term storage. For small-scale production, the nuts can be dried 

by placing them in porous burlap bags in a location with moderate ventilation and heat. 

Commercial dryers use forced air heated to approximately 100°F for optimal drying. 

Pecans, like any nut, have relatively high oil content and will spoil. For optimal storage, 

they can be held at 32°F for approximately one year. For longer storage periods, the nuts 

should be kept in a freezer. If pecans are sold in the shell, the price is determined by the 
94

variety, nut size, shell damage, and whether any of the shuck is still adhering to the shell. 

If the pecans are sold shelled, the price is usually determined by the percentage shell out, 

kernel color, development, insect damage, percentage of mold, and size. 

Peach plum nut:

Due to the spines, the fruit are usually harvested with long poles equipped with cutters. If 

possible, a soft landing for the falling fruit should be put in place prior to cutting. The 

peach palm nut should be boiled within 2 to 4 days of harvest. Before consumption, the 

fruit is boiled in water with added salt for about 1 to 3 hours to eliminate oxalate crystals 

and a trypsin inhibitor. Then, the outer peel is removed and the pulp eaten. The flavor 

varies with the carotenoid content and may be bland to a nutty or strong flavor. The nut 

pulp may be dipped in mayonnaise or cheese-dip and may also be mixed with cornmeal, 

eggs, and milk and fried. There is also a niche market demand for dry flour.

Pine nut:

During harvest, the cones of the tree are shaken to remove the kernel. Once 

removed, in commercial operations, they are dried further before being processed in a 

milling station to remove the kernel from its hard outer shell. The kernels and shells are 

separated by sifting; the testa, or thin skin which still covers the kernel, is then removed. 

Thereafter, the kernels are graded and sized. Superior, unblemished, shelled kernels, 

both large and small, are reserved for the export market; the remaining kernels are sold 

locally or utilized in prepared foods.

Pistachio:

Harvested fruit must be hulled and dried within 24 hr to avoid shell staining and aflatoxin 

contamination. Fruit are fed through machines that have 2 parallel, rubberized belts 

rotating at different speeds. Hulled nuts are floated and washed, and hulls are often 

composted and used for fertilizer. Nuts are dried in large forced-air driers to a moisture 

content of 5 %, and stored in large bins until roasting. Pistachios can be stored for 

months in a dried state.

English walnut:

The freshly harvested English walnuts are removed from hulls and dried in forced-air 

dryers at 100 - 110°F until 8 % moisture content is achieved. In-shell nuts are bleached 

and sold fresh, or shelled and marketed as kernels. The dried nuts can be stored for about 

4 months at room temperature before becoming rancid, but last 1 - 2 year when stored in 

the freezer.
95

Comparison of the Raw Agricultural Commodities (RAC) and Processed 

Commodities for the Tree Nuts (See Table 28).

The raw agricultural commodities (RAC) for the Tree nut group are similar except 

for chestnuts (Table 28). There are no processed items for humans but almond hulls are 

utilized in dairy and beef cattle diets. 

Table 28. Tree Nut Portion Analyzed for the Raw Agricultural Commodity (RAC) 

and the Processed Commodity (40 CFR Vol. 58, No. 187, 9/29/1993, pp. 50888 –

50893. Portion of Food Commodities Analyzed Pesticide Residues: Proposed Rule), 

and Table 1 Raw Agricultural and Processed Commodities Derived from Crops 

(EPA Residue Chemistry Guidelines OPPTS 860.1000).

Commodity Portion Analyzed (RAC), Use as a 

Feedstuff (F)

Processed Commodity 

and Use as a Feedstuff 

(F) 

Tree Nut group Analyze the whole commodity 

(kernel) after removing shell, husk,

or hull. 

Almond, hulls Analyze the whole commodity after 

removing the shell and nutmeat. 

Almond, hulls (F)

Chestnut Analyze the whole commodity with 

the skin after removing the shell and 

nutmeat.

Coconut Analyze the coconut (meat and 

liquid combined)

Copra (dried meat)

Oil

Other uses for the specific tree nut commodities are discussed under the section of 

this report for the preparation, cooking methods, uses, and marketing standards for 

members of the Tree nut group 14.

LIVESTOCK FEED ITEMS:

There only significant animal feed item associated with the Tree nut crop group 14 

(Table 28) is almond, hulls. Almond hulls are fed to beef and dairy cattle.

CROP ROTATIONS FOR THE TREE NUTS:

The members of the tree nut group are not rotated because of their long productive 

life spans at the same location most tree nut orchards or plantations. They also are 

extremely long-lived and productive once established. For example, pecans take 8 to 10 

years to produce their first crop; chestnuts mature in 40 to 80 years; English walnut may 

live > 100 years; hazelnuts take four years to mature and live < 40 years. Pecans are also 
96

long lived up to 200 years. Pine nuts are slow growing and take 10- 20 years to have 

filled cones and live for 50 to 70 years or more. Coconut palms can live 80 -100 years. 

The useful life of macadamia nut trees varies from 40 – 60 years. 

PEST PROBLEMS FOR THE TREE NUT CROPS: (Developed from USDA Crop 

Profiles from CA, NC, OR, TX, and WA Extension Bulletins and Research Literature, 

Hawaii, USDA Crop Profiles, State Extension Publications). 

There are several common pest problems that occur among the tree nuts. The most 

important pest problems associated with this group of commodities are insects and mites, 

plant diseases including postharvest diseases. The following information from USDA 

and Extension Bulletins provide lists of important insects, mite, diseases, viruses, weeds 

and vertebrate pest problems of the tree nuts (USDA Crop profiles 2008).

There are some common pest problems among tree nuts. The most important pest 

problems associated with this group of commodities are insects, mites, diseases, 

nematodes, weeds and vertebrate pests. The following are a list of important pest 

problems of some of the predominant North American tree nuts:

Almond: (California, USDA Crop Profiles, State Extension Publications):

Insect and mite pest problems include the Navel orangeworm (NOW), peach twig 

borer, pavement ant, southern fire ant, and the San Jose scale. The navel orangeworm 

attacks most softshell cultivars, or nuts with poor seal, feeding inside the nuts on the 

kernels. It destroys kernels and is associated with fungi responsible for aflatoxins. Peach 

twig borer (PTB) larvae mature inside nuts producing large amounts of frass 

(excretement) and webbing, and cause large economic damage. PTB damages almonds 

by feeding in rapidly growing shoots making it difficult to train young trees. Ants are 

significant pests of almond, particularly in central and southern areas of the San Joaquin 

Valley. San Jose scales suck plant juices from the inner bark by inserting their 

mouthparts into twigs and branches and heavily infested branches and fruit spurs will die. 

Borers such as peach tree borer American plum borer attack the trunk of healthy trees and 

can weaken trees. The oblique-banded leafroller larvae feed on leaves, buds and fruit, 

and the summer generation as almost mature larvae consume nut hulls prior to hull split 

causing nuts to shrivel and mold and allow the navel orangeworm to enter at points where 

hulls have been chewed. The two-spotted mite, Pacific mite, European red mite, brown 

almond mite can cause almost complete defoliation that exposes trees and fruit to 

sunburn, reduces fruit size and sugar, and can interfere with harvest. 

Diseases of almonds include brown rot, green fruit rot or jacket rot, anthracnose, 

scab, leaf blight, Alternaria leaf spot, leaf rust, Pseudomonas bacterial canker and blast, 

Armillaria root rot, crown gall, Phytophthora spp root and crown rot, Ceratocystis

canker, and Verticillium wilt. The brown rot is worse when rains or fog occur during 
97

bloom and the infected flowers wither and remain attached to the fruit spurs, and the 

fungus grows from the blossom into fruiting spurs or twigs to form cankers. Almost 

complete crop loss can be experienced on susceptible cultivars when rain persists during 

bloom. The green fruit and jacket rot are produced on dead or dying tissues of a number 

of plants as well as weed species common in almond orchards. Armillaria root rot 

invades the roots, crown, and basal trunk, eventually girdling the crown region and 

destroying the entire root system causing death of the tree. Phytophthora root rot 

organisms enter the tree either at the crown near the soil line, at the major roots or at the 

feeder roots. Infected trees may decline for several years or die within the same growing 

season in which the foliage symptoms first appear. Anthracnose disease spores are 

produced on all infected tissues during wet conditions and are disseminated by splashing 

water. Blossoms, leaves, and fruit can be infected and can cause death of the fruit. Leaf 

blight results in sudden death of leaves in almonds. Leaf rusts can cause severe 

defoliation in a short period of time if conditions are favorable. Bacterial canker and 

blast is expressed in almonds as either a canker or on buds and leaves. The Ceratocystis 

canker is transmitted by insects attracted to wounds and large cankers weaken diseased 

limbs and trunks and may lead to collapse of scaffolds or trees. Verticillium wilt is a 

soil-inhabiting fungus capable of parasitizing plants and attacks young almond trees less 

than 5 years old. 

Nematode pests include the lesion nematode, ring nematode, and root knot 

nematode that feed on plant roots and cause a lack of vigor, small leaves, dieback of 

twigs and a sparse root system, particularly the lack of small feeder roots. Root galls are 

an indication of root knot nematode. Ring nematodes spend their lives in soil feeding on 

root and they can reduce the fruit size and quantity with only slight apparent stunting in 

overall tree growth. 

The orchard floor weeds not only cause harvesting problems but can cause a 

multitude of other problems in almond orchards by reducing the growth of young trees 

because they compete for water, nutrients, and space, and may increase vertebrate and 

invertebrate and other pest problems, or may enhance the potential for disease such as 

crown rot or provide disease vector living material to infect the trees. There are over 15 –

30 species of grassy and broadleaf weeds that may infest orchard soils. Winter annual 

weeds may aggravate insect pest and disease problems and by spring will flower and set 

seed. By May, summer annuals begin to germinate, and must be managed so that they do 

not interfere with harvest. 

Vertebrate pests include ground squirrels and pocket gophers. California ground 

squirrels are responsible for significant damage in almond orchards throughout the state. 

California ground squirrels live in underground burrows and they are primarily 

herbivorous and can infest almond orchards. They easily climb trees and feed on nuts 

from set to maturity and through harvest. Adult squirrels often store seeds and nuts in 

their burrows, especially in the late summer and early fall. Ground squirrels cause 

damage by feeding on buds, blossoms, and nuts, gnawing on bark and irrigation lines, 

girdling the tree, and by creating burrows that interfere with orchard operations, such as 

irrigation, mowing, and harvest. Pocket gophers frequently live in orchards and feed 

primarily on succulent underground parts of herbaceous plants and create extensive 
98

burrows for living and feeding. They are active throughout the year and cause tree 

damage or death by girdling roots or crowns at or below the soil level. Birds such as 

crows, scrub jays, or yellow-billed magpies, can cause considerable damage to almonds 

by consuming nuts or removing the nuts for storage. 

Chinquapin:

The chinquapins are susceptible to several pests’ problems and include insects, 

mites, and diseases that attack other native and introduced chestnuts. Several insects 

including two chestnut weevils, a nut curculio, Asiatic oak weevil, Japanese beetle, 

yellownecked caterpillar, and the pinkstriped oakworm that feed on the flowers, fruit and 

foliage of chinquapin. Chinquapins are also susceptible to Phytophthora root rot. 

Native Allegheny chinquapins are prolific producers of sweet nuts but are small, 

difficult to harvest, and can germinate at harvest time, they have had so far limited 

potential as a large commercial crop, because of its small tree size, but production may be 

increased due to its useful characteristics to breed into the commercial chestnut species. 

These chinquapin characteristics can facilitate the development of high-density chestnut 

production systems with earlier and higher yields than is possible with existing chestnut 

cultivars. Nuts are eaten by a number of small mammals such as squirrels, rabbits, deer 

mice, and chipmunks. 

Coconut:

Coconuts need good weed control during establishment. Insects include palm 

weevil, scale insects, beetles, mites, and grasshoppers. Plant disease includes bud and 

stem rots, leaf blights, and various viruses such as foliar decay. 

Hazelnut: (Oregon, USDA Crop Profiles, State Extension Publications):

Hazelnut pests include insects such as moths, leafrollers, filbert bud mite, looper, 

mealybugs, aphids, weevils, scales, and caterpillars. Plant diseases are varied including

Eastern filbert blight (EFB), powdery mildews, stunt and blasts. The Eastern filbert 

blight can be extremely severe to the industry. Weeds are typically grassy and broadleaf 

weeds that will interfere with harvesting.

Macadamia nut: (Hawaii, USDA Crop Profiles, State Extension Publications):

There are several insect pests of macadamia nuts and include the southern green 

stinkbug and the tropical nut borer beetle which degrades nut quality by boring holes 

through the shell and laying eggs within the kernel. The southern green stinkbug is a 

sucking insect that feeds on succulent plant tissue, fruits and flowers. The stinkbug 
99

inserts its hollow needle-like mouthpart into the nut and injects saliva into the kernel. 

The koa seedworm moth and litchi fruit moth cause similar damage by boring into the 

husk and feed on the kernel and cause premature nut drop. Red-banded thrips may 

damage leaves and cause reduction of tree growth and vigor. For mites, the broad mite 

damage is most severe in wetter growing areas, and uses it’s piercing and sucking 

mouthparts to damage fruits, flowers and young leaves, and infested flowers will not set 

fruit. 

Plant diseases include the Macadamia quick decline (MQD), Macadamia root rot, 

raceme and blossom blights (Phytophthora capsici and Botrytis cinerea). Macadamia 

quick decline (MQD) may kill a tree two to three months after the appearance of initial 

foliage symptoms. Macadamia root rot fungus affects the roots and lower trunk of trees 

and trees that decline are usually 10 - 12 years old. 

Weed management is an important component in macadamia nut production 

because weeds compete for food, water, nutrients and sunlight. They also provide shelter 

for insect pests and their predators and can enhance or reduce insect damage. Weeds also 

can make rodent management more difficult and interfere with harvesting. Younger 

orchards are more vulnerable to weed competition than older orchards. Roof rats are also 

a major pest and they gnaw holes 1⁄4 - 1/2 inch in diameter through the shell and consume 

the kernel. 

Peach palm nut:

The trunk of peach palm nut is susceptible to attack by Phytophthora algae. 

Leaves may be attacked by Pestalotiopsis spp., Mycosphaerella sp. and Colletotrichum

spp. Fruit diseases are caused by Monilia sp. and Ceratocystis species. Insect pests 

include the sugar cane weevil (Metamasius hemipterus) and mites

Pecan: (Arkansas, Georgia, Kansas, Louisiana, North Carolina, Texas USDA Crop 

Profiles, State Extension Publications):

Pecans are subject to attack by more than 20 insects and mites. Insect pests of 

pecans include the pecan weevil; hickory shuckworm, black pecan aphid, black-margined 

aphid, and yellow hickory aphid, southern green stinkbug, pecan nut casebearer, pecan 

phylloxera, pecan leaf phylloxera, pecan leaf casebearer, pecan spittlebug, and alder 

spittlebug. The pecan nut casebearer larvae can destroy all the nuts in a cluster. A single 

larva may destroy two to three nuts before completing its life cycle. The hickory 

shuckworm feed internally in the immature nuts and cause them to drop. The pecan 

phylloxera attack pecans, leaf phylloxera, stem phylloxera and pecan phylloxera. They 

are contained in galls, abnormal swellings, on the leaves or stems and the stem 

infestations can weaken the shoots that will cause shoot death and premature defoliation. 

The spittlebug nymph sucks juices from the buds, young shoots, and nut clusters of the 

pecan tree and heavy feeding by these insects may kill terminal shoots and/or reduce nut 

size, resulting in a smaller crop. The pecan weevil attack pecans and hickory prior to 
100

shell hardening causing the nuts to drop. The nut curculio attack the immature nut with 

their snouts and cause sap bleeding and later premature nut drop. The yellow pecan 

aphid and black-margined aphid are similar in appearance and cause similar types of 

damage by feeding on the under surface of the leaves and secret honeydew which 

promotes black sooty mold growth. Both the honeydew and mold coating the leaf 

surface will interfere with photosynthesis efficiency. Both southern green stink bugs and 

leaf-footed bugs puncture nuts both before and after shell hardening. If they feed before 

shell hardening, the nuts fall prematurely and if the feeding occurs after shell hardening, 

then black spots develop on the nut kernel. Kernel feeding stink and plant bugs may be 

present in the orchard all year, but they typically do not cause significant damage until 

late August – September by feeding that causes nuts to drop prior to shell hardening. Fire 

ants attack orchard workers when grafting buds, mowing weeds, harvesting, and other 

operations. Ants also come to drip irrigation lines for moisture and cause damage to 

equipment and emitters. Walnut caterpillar larvae feed in groups on leaf tissues causing 

defoliation and severely affecting tree vigor, yield, and nut quality. Fall webworm feeds 

on pecan nuts and can completely defoliate trees. Dirty white webs enclosing a colony of 

caterpillars are the distinctive signs of fall webworm infestations. The pecan twig girdler 

girdles twigs and small branches in September. The pecan leaf scorch mite feed 

primarily along the midribs and veins on the underside of the leaves and can cause almost 

complete defoliation.

Plant diseases affecting pecans include pecan scab, downy spot, powdery mildew 

and zonate leaf spot. Pecan scab is a very destructive and widespread disease of pecans 

and can cause terminal to die and attacks both the leaves and the shuck and causes leaves 

to be smaller and deformed as well as affecting shucks which will fall prematurely, and 

later infections may cause the shucks not to release properly from the nut. Shuck decline 

also causes terminal death. that can be affected while others remain healthy. Vein spot 

lesions are very similar to those caused by pecan scab but tend to be linear rather than 

round. Downy spot attacks only pecan leaves, and infection reduces photosynthesis and 

may cause defoliation as well as reducing tree vigor and yield. The zonate leaf spot 

causes severe defoliation of pecan trees during July and August of rainy summers. 

Fungal leaf scorch is a major cause of premature defoliation of pecans in the southeast. 

Bunch disease of pecans is a disease that affects weak pecan trees and is caused by a 

mycoplasma-like organism that lowers yields and causes inferior nut quality while 

powdery mildew causes immature leaves to become distorted, and to form a white layer 

that reduces photosynthesis and/or causes early defoliation and nuts may also turn color. 

There are several nematodes that attack pecan roots. Weeds cause similar problems 

for all tree nuts because they reduce yield, quality and harbor pests. Weeds interfere with 

pecan production by competing for moisture and nutrients, producing chemicals that 

inhibit tree growth (allelopathy), and decreasing mechanical harvesting efficiency. The 

most commonly used system of orchard weed control is an herbicide strip in the tree row 

with mowed sod row middles. Vegetation management is particularly important for

mechanical harvesting. Weeds that are particularly troublesome in pecan production are 

poison ivy, trumpet creeper, riverbank grape, and Virginia creeper as well as perennial 

weeds such as bermudagrass. 
101

Other pests that may also be encountered in a pecan orchard include sapsuckers, 

squirrels, blue jays, crows, and deer. Sapsuckers are birds, similar to woodpeckers that 

peck holes in a ring pattern and frequently in concentric circles on the trunk and large 

branches of trees. Squirrels, crows, and blue jays will also enter the orchard to steal nuts. 

Deer can cause serious tree damage both by feeding on the new growth and by rubbing 

their antlers on younger trees during the fall. 

Pistachio (California, USDA Crop Profiles, State Extension Publications):

Many insects attack pistachios and include the navel orangeworm, small and large 

plant. The navel orangeworm deposit eggs on the outer hull of the developing pistachios, 

and upon hatching from eggs, the larvae will infest the nutmeat and produce excretement 

(frass) and webbing in the nut. Infested nuts are prime sites for Aspergillus mold 

infections, which produce aflatoxin contaminants. The obliquebanded leafroller attacks a 

wide range of nuts including almond, pistachio, and walnut. The over wintering larvae 

will feed on newly formed leaves and clusters and the primary damage is through 

defoliation. Western tussock moth in high populations can quickly defoliate orchards 

prior to fully leafing. Small plant bugs can reduce yields dramatically when high 

populations are present by damaging the nut before shell hardening. Large plant bugs 

like the red shouldered plant bug and green soldier bug can damage the crop throughout 

the growing season and by feeding early in nut development will result in nut abortion. 

Stored nut insects are also problems and include the Indian meal moth, navel 

orangeworm, red flour beetle, confused flour beetle, warehouse beetle, and the cigarette 

beetle. Mites include the citrus flat mite, Pacific mite, and the twospotted mite. The 

citrus flat mite feed in nut clusters and heavy pest pressure causes stems and nuts to 

shrivel and the damaged nuts have an increased tendency to remain on the tree after 

harvest and serve as an over wintering habitat for navel orangeworm. The two spotted 

mite when present can be very damaging, since as few as 2 to 3 mites per leaf can cause 

defoliation in pistachios, and when this occurs trees will not leaf out again until the 

following season. 

Plant disease of the pistachio include Botryosphaeria panicle and shoot blight, 

Botrytis shoot blight, Alternaria late blight, Phytophthora trunk and branch canker, and 

Verticillium wilt. Botryosphaeria panicle and shoot blight fungus will attack all current 

season growth and kills buds, shoots and fruit clusters. The disease grows throughout the 

season and can kill the nut-bearing clusters just before harvest. Botrytis shoot blight 

infections occur in early to mid-spring and are associated with cool, wet weather. The 

fungus invades the base of the young shoot, killing it. Alternaria late blight pathogen 

attacks leaves and fruit but the primary damage is to leaves, which shed early causing 

defoliation and orchards. Phytophthora trunk and branch canker may infect the 

rootstocks. Verticillium wilt is a widespread soil-borne fungus that survives in the soil 

for many years with or without the presence of susceptible hosts. It invades the small 

roots, colonizes the xylem elements, thereby disrupting the flow of water through the 

plant, and can lead to tree death with up to 100% tree loss can occur in plantings on 

susceptible rootstocks. 
102

Orchard floor weeds compete with trees for water and nutrients. They can 

increase vertebrate and insect problems and aid in the development of the diseases 

Alternaria and Botryosphaeria by increasing the humidity in the orchard. The orchard 

floor is usually cleaned shortly before harvest. Certain weeds such as yellow nutsedge, 

flax-leaf fleabane, mare’s tail will require multiple applications of herbicides. 

Various vertebrate pests such as ground squirrels and pocket gophers infest 

pistachio orchards. They easily climb tress and feed on nuts from fruit set through 

harvest while adult squirrels often store seeds and nuts in their burrows, leading to 

significant harvest losses. In addition, the extensive burrow and mound system creates 

problems for orchard operations especially during harvest and irrigation. Pocket gophers 

live almost entirely underground, creating extensive burrows for living and feeding on 

the roots or they can cause tree damage or death by girdling roots or crowns at or below 

the soil level and they also chew through underground irrigation systems and they are 

active throughout the year. 

Walnut, black (USDA State Extension Publications, 

http://walnutsweb.com/walnuts/Walnut+Tree+Diseases+and+Pests):

Black walnut is damaged by a number of insects. In southern Illinois over 300 

insect species are found on black walnut. Common defoliating insects are the walnut 

caterpillar and the fall webworm, and they are commonly found eating the leaves 

beginning in midsummer and continuing until September. Important boring insects are 

the ambrosia beetle, which may introduce a Fusarium fungus into the tree, causing 

dieback and resprouting from the base of the tree; the flatheaded apple tree borer, which 

feeds in the phloem and outer sapwood area as larvae and on the foliage as adults; the 

walnut curculio, which damages developing nuts when the larvae bore into them and 

cause great losses during the so-called "June drop" of black walnuts; and the walnut shoot 

moth, which damages the terminal buds in early spring when the larvae bore into the still 

unexpanded bud. Aphids suck the juices from leaves and deposit a sticky substance 

called "honey-dew" on the leaf surface that may turn black and prevent photosynthesis; 

and the walnut lace bug, which causes damage when the adults and nymphs suck the sap 

from the lower surfaces of walnut leaflets.

Black walnut is susceptible to only a few serious plant diseases, but their impact 

is significant. Walnut anthracnose is a leaf spot disease that begins during wet spring 

weather, although symptoms may not become visible until June or July. Target leafspot 

is responsible for premature defoliation. Important stem diseases caused by fungi are the 

Fusarium cankers and occur on the main stem where a branch will break off and leave an 

open wound.

Animals damage black walnut in several ways such as deer browse on buds and 

rub antlers against young trees. Mice and rabbits gnaw on the stems of young trees 
103

during the winter, and squirrels dig up and eat direct-seeded nuts and feed on green and 

mature nuts still on the trees. The yellow-bellied sapsucker drills holes through the bark 

during late winter or early spring. 

Walnut, English (California, USDA Crop Profiles, State Extension Publications):

The walnut has many insect pests such as the codling moth, navel orangeworm, 

walnut husk fly, walnut aphid, dusky-veined aphid, San Jose scale, walnut scale, frosted 

scale, European fruit Lecanium, fall webworm, and the redhumped caterpillar. The 

codling moth must be controlled in many early-blooming varieties because it causes moth 

larvae damage nuts by boring into nuts and destroying the kernels, rendering them 

worthless for commercial use. The navel orangeworm attacks a wide range of walnut 

varieties; feeding directly on the kernel inside the nut. The walnut husk fly is a direct 

pest of walnuts and attacks all varieties by feeding in the husk causes darkening of the 

shell, and shrivel and mold on the kernels. Aphids frequently build up to numbers 

adequate to cause stress on new leaf and walnut growth and heavy infestations can cause 

almost complete defoliation and sooty mold that causes severe sunburn on the nuts and 

reduce yields. Scale insects occasionally build up to numbers capable of reducing shoot 

and nut growth and large populations may result in the loss of fruiting wood and the 

production of small-sized walnuts. Soft scales suck plant juices from leaves and twigs 

and can reduce terminal growth and vigor interfering with photosynthesis resulting in 

smaller nuts and poor kernel quality. Larvae of the fall webworm feed inside silken tents 

skeletonizing leaves reducing photosynthesis and exposing nuts to sunburn. The 

redhumped caterpillar larvae feed on leaves and heavy populations can cause severe 

defoliation resulting in sunburned nuts and small nut size. There are also significant mite 

pests of walnuts such as the twospotted mite, Pacific mite, and the European red mite that 

can cause almost complete defoliation which exposes trees and nuts to sunburn, reduces 

nut size, and can interfere with harvest.

Plant diseases of walnut include the Armillaria root rot, crown gall, Phytophthora

root and crown rot, and walnut blight. The Armillaria root rot pathogen invades the 

roots, crown and basal trunk, eventually girdling the crown region and destroying the 

entire root system causing death of the tree. Although crown gall can affect established 

orchards, the disease is most damaging to young trees and if left unchecked, crown gall 

may progress around the crown weakening and eventually girdling the tree. About ten 

different Phytophthora species attack walnut trees, and enters the tree either at the crown 

near the soil line or at the major roots. The infected tree may decline for several years or 

die within the same growing season in which the foliage symptoms first appear. Walnut 

blight is a bacterium and major disease affecting leaves and nutlets of walnuts. Later, 

infected nutlets develop a dark lesion usually at the blossom end; most of these also drop 

and as nuts mature, lesions can develop anywhere on the husk surface causing kernels to 

shrivel or darken which renders them unmarketable.

Nematode pests of walnuts include the lesion nematode, ring nematode, and root 

knot nematode that feed on the roots. The extent of the damage caused by nematodes in 
104

walnuts depends largely on the density of the nematode population, soil conditions, and 

rootstock selection. Symptoms of a nematode infestation include lack of vigor, small 

leaves, dieback of twigs, and a sparse root system, particularly the lack of small feeder 

roots. 

Vertebrate pest of walnuts include ground squirrels that can cause major damage 

to the walnut orchard, and they are active in the spring, early summer and in the fall, with 

inactive periods during the summer and winter. They cause damage by feeding on buds, 

blossoms, and nuts, gnawing on bark and irrigation lines, girdling the tree, and by 

creating burrows that interfere with orchard operations,

Weed problems occur at harvest as well as causing a multitude of other problems 

in walnut orchards by reducing the growth of young trees because they compete for 

water, nutrients, and space. Weeds also increase water use, cause vertebrate and 

invertebrate and other pest problems, may enhance the potential for disease, and compete 

with the trees for nutrients and water. Weeds can also interfere with sprinkler irrigation 

and, when dry, create fire hazards. Young trees are especially sensitive than mature trees 

to weed competition and control measures. 

As noted above the current and proposed members of the Tree Nut Crop Group 

share many of the same pest problems that include insect, disease, weeds and vertebrate 

pest problems. 

COMPARISON OF POTENTIAL RESIDUE LEVELS IN THE TREE NUTS:

Magness, Markle, and Compton in 1971 classified food and feed crops based on 

predicting the potential for pesticide residues based on exposure of the edible parts to 

applied pesticides, which led to the development of the crop groups. The tree nuts fit into 

one class because they are all similar in the degree of exposure of applied pesticides. The 

edible seed is protected from pesticides applied during the growing season by the shell 

and other parts of the fruit. The seeds are encased in a fleshy or fibrous husk, or are 

essentially covered by such tissues during growth. The edible portions are additionally 

enclosed in woody or semi-woody shells which must be removed before consumption 

We expect that all proposed members of the tree nut crop group will have similar 

residue levels based on similarities of the raw agricultural commodities (RAC’s), cultural 

practices, and pest problems. The current Tree nut group 14 has been very successful in 

establishing 55 tolerances for the crop group (Table 29). Based on existing tolerances in 

40 CFR and the USDA FAS MRLdatabase, a comparison of these tolerances for the 

representative commodities is listed in Table 30 for the U.S., Codex MRL’s, and the 

European Union (EU). In several cases the U.S. tolerances are the higher or the same as 

those established in the EU and/or in Codex, in fact of the twenty-four tolerances that the 

U.S and the EU have the U.S. was higher ten times; the same level four times and lower 

four times. Comparison of the seven tolerances between the U.S. and Codex shows five 

tolerances are the same and two are higher than Codex. A comparison of established 
105

tolerances on tree nut commodities also supports that residue levels will be similar 

between members of the crop group (See Tables 31). The proposed representative 

commodities are the two highest tree nuts in acres and cover over 74 % of the total tree 

nut production in the U.S., and they also tend to be an equal or more conservative 

estimate of tolerances and potential residues. In general where there is a difference 

between the representative commodities almond tolerance levels are slightly higher than 

pecan (clofentezine, endosulfan, simazine). There are eighty-one tolerances for almond 

hulls and they are the only animal feed item for the Tree nut group (Table 32).

Table 29. Tolerances (ppm) Established on U.S. Tree Nut Crop Group 14. 

(FASONLINE; NG, 2009)

Chemical U.S. Tolerance

(ppm) 

CFR Citation

2,4-D 0.2 180.142

Acequinocyl 0.02 180.599

Acetamiprid 0.1 180.578

Azoxystrobin 0.02 180.507

Bifenazate 0.2 180.572

Bifenthrin 0.05 180.442

Boscalid 0.7 180.589

Carbaryl* 0.1 180.169

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 180.515

Cryolite (Fluorine 

compounds)**

10 180.145

Cyfluthrin and betacyfluthrin0.01 180.436

Cypermethrin and an 

isomer zetacypermethrin

0.05 180.418

Deltamethrin 0.1 180.435

Diflubenzuron 0.06 180.377

Diquat 0.02 180.226

Emamectin 0.02 180.505

Etoxazole 0.01 180.593

Fenbutatin-oxide 0.5 180.362

Fenpropathrin 0.1 180.466

Fenpyroximate 0.1 180.566

Flubendiamide 0.06 180.639

Flumioxazin 0.02 180.568

Glufosinate amrnonium 0.1 180.473

Glyphosate 1 180.364

Halosulfuron-methyl 0.05 180.479

Hexythiazox 0.3 180.448

Imidacloprid 0.05 180.472

Lambda-cyhalothrin and 

an isomer gammacyhalothrin

0.05 180.438
106

Chemical U.S. Tolerance

(ppm) 

CFR Citation

Metconazole 0.04 180.617

Methidathion 0.05 180.298

Methoxyfenozide 0.1 180.544

Metolachlor 0.1 180.368

Napropamide 0.1 180.328

Oryzalin 0.05 180.304

Oxyfluorfen 0.05 180.381

Paraquat 0.05 180.205

Pendimethalin 0.1 180.361

Penoxsulam 0.01 180.605

Propiconazole 0.1 180.434

Propylene oxide 300 180.491

Propylene oxide*** 10 180.491

Pyraclostrobin 0.04 180.582

Pyridaben 0.05 180.494

Pyriproxyfen 0.02 180.510

Rimsulfuron 0.01 180.478

Sethoxydim 0.2 180.412

Spinetoram 0.04 180.635

Spinosad 0.02 180.495

Spirodiclofen 0.1 180.608

Spirotetramat 0.25 180.641

Sulfuryl fluoride**** 3 180.575

Tebuconazole 0.05 180.474

Thiamethoxam 0.02 180.565

Trifloxystrobin 0.04 180.555

Trifluralin 0.05 180.207

 * Carbaryl - Nut, tree group 14, except walnut.

 ** Cryolite - Nut, tree, Group 14, postharvest.

 *** Propylene oxide - Nut, tree, group 14 (reaction prod. propylene chlorohydrin).

 **** Sulfuryl fluoride - Nut, tree, Group 14, postharvest.

Table 30 Tolerances (ppm) Established Internationally on the Tree Nuts Crop 

Group 14: (FASonline: mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of June, 2009)

Compound US (ppm) Codex (ppm) EU (ppm)

2,4-D 0.2 0.2 0.05

Acetamiprid 0.1 0.01

Acetamiprid 0.1 - 0.01

Azoxystrobin 0.02 - 0.1

Bifenazate 0.2 0.2 0.01

Bifenthrin 0.05 - 0.05

Boscalid 0.7 0.05 -

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 - 0.01

Chlorpyrifos 0.2 - 0.05

Cyfluthrin 0.01 - 0.02
107

Compound US (ppm) Codex (ppm) EU (ppm)

Etoxazole 0.01 - 0.02

Fenbutatin-oxide 0.5 - 0.05

Flumioxazin 0.02 - 0.05

GlufosinateAmmonium0.1 0.1 -

Glyphosate 1.0 - 0.1

Lambda-cyhalothrin 0.05 - 0.05

Methidathion 0.05 - 0.05

Methoxyfenozide 0.1 0.1 0.02

Metolachlor 0.1 - 0.05

Paraquat dichloride 0.05 0.05 0.02

Pendimethalin 0.1 - 0.05

Propiconazole 0.1 - 0.05

Pyraclostrobin 0.04 - 0.02

Rimsulfuron 0.01 0.05

Sulfuryl Fluoride 10.0 (post 

harvest)

3 -

Trifloxystrobin 0.04 0.02 0.02

Zeta-cypermethrin 0.05 - 0.05

Table 31. Tolerances (ppm) Established in U.S. on Specific Tree Nuts in the Tree 

Nut Crop Group 14 (Almond and Pecan are the Representative Commodities):

(ECFR, NG 2009)

Chemical CFR 

Citation

Almond Pecan Walnut Pistachio

2,4-D 180.142 - - - 0.05

Acequinocyl 180.599 - - - 0.02

Acetamiprid 180.578 - - - 0.1

Aldicarb 180.269 - 0.5 - -

Avermectin B1 

and its delta-8,9-

isomer

180.449 0.005 - 0.005 -

Azinphos-methyl 180.154 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3

Azoxystrobin 180.507 - 0.01 - 0.5

Benomyl 180.294 - - - 0.2

Bifenazate 180.572 - - - 0.2

Bifenthrin 180.442 - - - 0.05

Boscalid 180.589 - - - 0.7

Buprofezin 180.511 0.05 - - 0.05

Captan 180.103 0.25 - - -

Carbaryl 180.169 - - 1 0.1

Carbon disulfide 180.467 0.1 - - -

Carfentrazoneethyl180.515 - - - 0.1

Chlorothalonil 180.275 0.05 - - 0.2

Chlorpyrifos 180.342 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
108

Chemical CFR 

Citation

Almond Pecan Walnut Pistachio

Clofentezine 180.446 0.5 - 0.02 -

Crotoxyphos 180.330 - - 0.05 0.01

Cryolite (Fluorine 

compounds)

180.145 - - - 10 

(postharvest)

Cyfluthrin and 

beta-cyfluthrin

180.436 - - - 0.01

Cypermethrin and 

an isomer 

zetacypermethrin

180.418 - - - 0.05

Cyprodinil 180.532 0.02 - - 0.1

Cyprodinil 180.532 - - - -

Diazinon 180.153 0.5 - - -

Dicofol 180.163 - 0.1 0.1 -

Difenoconazole 180.475 0.05 - - -

Diflubenzuron 180.377 - - - 0.06

Dimethoate 

including its 

oxygen analog

180.204 - 0.1 - -

Diuron 180.106 - 0.05 0.05 -

Dodine 180.172 - 0.3 0.3 -

Emamectin 180.505 - - - 0.02

Endosulfan 180.182 0.3 0.2 0.2 -

Ethephon 180.300 - - 0.5 -

Ethylene oxide 180.151 - - 50 (black 

walnut)

-

Etoxazole 180.593 - - - 0.01

Fenarimol 180.421 - 0.02 - -

Fenbuconazole 180.480 0.05 0.05 - -

Fenbutatin-oxide 180.362 - - - 0.5

Fenhexamid 180.553 0.02 - - 0.02

Fenpropathrin 180.466 - - - 0.1

Fenpyroximate 180.566 - - - 0.1

Fenvalerate 180.379 0.2 0.2 0.2 -

Fluazifop-butyl 180.411 - 0.05 - -

Fludioxonil 180.516 - - - 0.1

Flumioxazin 180.568 0.02 - - 0.02

Forchlorfenuron 180.569 0.01 - - 0.01

Glufosinate 

amrnonium

180.473 - - - 0.1

Glyphosate 180.364 - - - 0.1

Halosulfuronmethyl180.479 - - -- 0.05

Hexythiazox 180.448 - - - 0.3

Imidacloprid 180.472 - 0.05 - 0.05

Inorganic bromide 

residues resulting 

from fumigation 

180.123 200 

(postharvest)

200 

(postharvest

200 

(postharvest

200 

(postharvest
109

Chemical CFR 

Citation

Almond Pecan Walnut Pistachio

with methyl 

bromide

Iprodione 180.399 0.3 - - -

Kresoxim-methyl 180.554 - 0.15 - -

Lambdacyhalothrin and an 

isomer gammacyhalothrin

180.438 - - - 0.05

Malathion 180.111 8 8 8 -

Maneb 180.110 0.1 - 0.05 -

Metalaxyl 180.408 0.5 - 0.5 -

Metconazole 180.617 - - - 0.04

Methomyl 180.253 - 0.1 - -

Methoxyfenozide 180.544 - - - 0.1

Methyl parathion 180.121 0.1 0.1 0.1 -

Myclobutanil 180.443 0.1 - -

Naled 180.215 0.5 - 0.5 -

Napropamide 180.328 - - - 0.1

Norflurazon 180.356 0.1 0.1 0.1 -

Oryzalin 180.304 - - - 0.05

Oxyfluorfen 180.381 - - - 0.05

Paraquat 180.205 - - - 0.05

Pendimethalin 180.361 - - - 0.1

Penoxsulam 180.605 - - - 0.01

Permethrin 180.378 - - 0.05 0.1

Phosalone 180.263 0.1 - - -

Phosmet 180.261 - - - 0.1

Phosphine 180.225 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Piperonyl butoxide 180.127 8 

(postharvest)

- 8 

(postharvest)

-

Propargite 180.259 0.1 - 0.1 -

Propiconazole 180.434 - - - 0.1

Pymetrozine 180.556 - 0.02 - -

Pyraclostrobin 180.582 - - - 0.7

Pyrethrins 180.128 1 

(postharvest)

- 1 

(postharvest)

-

Pyridaben 180.494 - - - 0.05

Pyrimethanil 180.518 0.2 - - 0.2

Pyriproxyfen 180.510 - - 0.02 0.02

Rimsulfuron 180.478 - - - 0.01

Sethoxydim 180.412 - - - 0.2

Simazine 180.213 0.25 0.2 0.2 -

Spinetoram 180.635 - - - 0.04

Spinosad 180.495 - - - 0.02

Spirodiclofen 180.608 - - - 0.1

Sulfuryl fluoride 180.575 - - - 3 

(postharvest)
110

Chemical CFR 

Citation

Almond Pecan Walnut Pistachio

Tebuconazole 180.474 - - - 0.05

Tebufenozide 180.482 - - 0.1 -

Tetraconazole 180.557 - 0.04 - -

Thiamethoxam 180.565 - - - 0.02

Thiophanatemethyl180.371 0.1 0.1 - 0.1

TPTH 

(Triphenyltin 

hydroxide (fentin 

hydroxide))

180.236 - 0.05 - -

Trifloxystrobin 180.555 0.04 - - 0.04

Trifloxysulfuron 180.591 0.02 - - -

Ziram 180.116 0.1 0.1 - -

Table 32. Tolerances (ppm) Established on the Tree Nut Crop Group 14 Animal 

Feed Item – Almond Hulls. (NG, 2009). 

Chemical Tolerance 

(ppm)

CFR Citation

2,4-D 0.1 180.142

Acequinocyl 2 180.599

Acetamiprid 5 180.578

Avermectin B1 and its delta-8,9-isomer 0.1 180.449

Azinphos-methyl 5 180.154

Azoxystrobin 4 180.507

Benomyl 1 180.294

Bifenazate 15 180.572

Bifenthrin 2 180.442

Boscalid 17 180.589

Buprofezin 2 180.511

Captan 75 180.103

Carbaryl 50 180.169

Carbon disulfide 0.1 180.467

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.2 180.515

Chlorothalonil 1 180.275

Chlorpyrifos 12 180.342

Clofentezine 5 180.446

Cyfluthrin and beta-cyfluthrin 0.5 180.436

Cypermethrin and an isomer 

zetacypermethrin

6 180.418

Cyprodinil 8 180.532

Deltamethrin 2.5 180.435

Diazinon 3 180.153

Difenoconazole 5 180.475

Diflubenzuron 6 180.377

Emamectin 0.2 180.505
111

Chemical Tolerance 

(ppm)

CFR Citation

Endosulfan 1 180.182

EPTC (S-Ethyl dipropylthiocarbamate) 0.1 180.117

Etoxazole 2 180.593

Fenbuconazole 1 180.480

Fenbutatin-oxide 80 180.362

Fenhexamid 2 180.553

Fenpropathrin 4.5 180.466

Fenpyroximate 3 180.566

Fenvalerate 15 180.379

Flubendiamide 9 180.639

Flumioxazin 0.7 180.568

Forchlorfenuron 0.01 180.569

Glufosinate amrnonium 0.5 180.473

Glyphosate 25 180.364

Hexythiazox 10 180.448

Imidacloprid 4 180.472

Iprodione 2 180.399

Lambda-cyhalothrin and an isomer gammacyhalothrin1.5 180.438

Malathion 50 180.111

Metalaxyl 10 180.408

Metconazole 4 180.617

Methidathion 6 180.298

Methoxyfenozide 25 180.544

Methyl parathion 3 180.121

Metolachlor 0.3 180.368

Myclobutanil 2 180.443

Naled 0.5 180.215

Napropamide 0.1 180.328

Norflurazon 1 180.356

Oryzalin 0.05 180.304

Oxyfluorfen 0.1 180.381

Paraquat 0.5 180.205

Pendimethalin 0.4 180.361

Penoxsulam 0.01 180.605

Permethrin 20 180.378

Phosmet 10 180.261

Propargite 55 180.259

Propiconazole 7 180.434

Pyraclostrobin 7 180.582

Pyridaben 4 180.494

Pyrimethanil 12 180.518

Pyriproxyfen 2 180.510

Rimsulfuron 0.09 180.478

Sethoxydim 2 180.412

Simazine 0.25 180.213

Spinetoram 2 180.635
112

Chemical Tolerance 

(ppm)

CFR Citation

Spinosad 2 180.495

Spirodiclofen 20 180.608

Spirotetramat 9 180.641

Tebuconazole 6 180.474

Tebufenozide 25 180.482

Thiamethoxam 1.2 180.565

Thiophanate-methyl 0.5 180.371

Trifloxystrobin 3 180.555

Trifloxysulfuron 0.01 180.591

Trifluralin 0.05 180.207

REQUIRED NUMBER OF CROP FIELD TRIALS FOR CROP GROUP 14 AND 

COMPARISON OF EPA CROP PRODUCTION REGIONS WITH THE NAFTA 

CROP PRODUCTION REGIONS:

A reevaluation of crop production data from the 2007 USDA Agricultural Census 

shows that the amended Tree nut crop group 14 will not require additional field trials 

even though the acreage for the group increased 639,119 A from 1991 to 2007 (EPA 

OPPTS 860.1500). However, the number of field trials for the group would remain the 

same because in 1991 almond and pecan consumption had a low dietary intake. This 

concept of dietary consumption will be reviewed sometime in the future as a guideline 

revision. If a crop group tolerance is pursued the number of field trials will still be 10 

(Table 33). Almonds have increased in acreage since 1991 by 362,245, pecan by 128,809, 

and pistachio by 128,809, and pistachio by 102,213. The only tree nut to decline in 

acreage from 1991 from 24,000 to 17,811 A was the macadamia nut. 

The current distribution of the crop filed trials for the representative commodities 

is listed in Table 34. Location of the field trial production regions for the proposed tree 

nut crops are listed in Table 35. The most common residue field trial region for the tree 

nut commodities is Region 10. 

Table 33. Required Number of Field Trials for Tree Nut Commodities to 

Establish the Tree Nut Crop Group 14. (40 CFR 180.41(14), [OPPTS 860.1500, 

Table 2). 

Representative 

Commodity

Number of Field Trials for 

Commodities if Not Part of 

the Crop Group

Number of Field Trials for 

Commodities as Part of the 

Crop Group

Almond 5 in current guidelines 5

Pecan 5 in current guidelines 5

Total 10 10

 Attachment 7. Methodology for Determining Number of Field Trials, in 

Appendix A of the EPA OPPTS 860.1500 Crop Field Trials. 
113

Table 34. EPA Crop Production Regions Suggested Distribution of the 

Tree Nut Crop Field Trials > 3 for Both the Representative Commodities and other 

Commodities in the Crop Group based on Current EPA Guidelines (OPPTS 

860.1500) 

Commodity Field 

Trials 

#

Region 

# 1

Region 

# 2

Region 

# 4

Region 

# 6

Region 

# 8

Region 

# 10

Region 

# 12

Region 

# 13

Almond* 5 5

Chestnut 3

Coconut 5 5

Hazelnut 3 3

Macadamia 

nut

 3 3

Pecan* 5 2 1 1 1

Pistachio 5 5

Walnut 5 5

Total 10 2 1 1 1 5 3

*Almond and pecan are the representative commodities for the Tree nut crop group. 

Table 35. EPA Crop Production Regions for the Tree Nut Crops. [Representative 

Commodities (*) for the Crop Group.

Commodity** 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Almond* 5

Beechnut X X X

Betelnut Guam

Brazil nut X

Brazilian pine X X X X

Bunya

Bur Oak X X X X X X X X

Butternut X X X X

Cajou

Candlenut X

Cashew X

Castanha-domaranhao

Chestnut X X X X X X X

Chinquapin

Coconut X

Coquito nut X

Dika nut

Gingko X X

Guiana chestnut

Hazelnut 3

Heartnut X X X X
114

Commodity** 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Hickory nut X X X X X

Japanese horsechestnutX

Macadamia nut X X

Monkey-pot

Monkey puzzle X X X

Okari nut

Pachira nut

Pecan* 2 X 1 X 1 1 X X

Pequi

Pili nut 

Pine nut X X X X

Pistachio X

Sapucaia nut

Tropical almond X

Walnut X

Yellowhorn X

 * Representative commodities are almond and pecan.

 ** Commodities that are not representative commodities have field trial regions 

generally based on the USDA Plants Database, 2006. 

Efforts to update the NAFTA regions may begin in 2010 - 2011. It would be a 

ChemSAC project. Any future conflict in testing between regions can generally be 

resolved by having the ChemSAC review the test protocol regions before residue trials 

are initiated and any differences can also be resolved by input from the International Crop 

Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC) as well as reviews by Canada, PMRA.

CODEX CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSED COMMODITIES AND EPA FOOD 

AND FEED COMMODITY VOCABULARY: (See Table 36 Comparisons of Tree 

Nut Crop Groups: Codex Group (022) and EPA Group (14). Data prepared by Dr’s. 

Yuen-Shaung NG, and Dr. Bernard A. Schneider, US EPA and USDA IR-4, 2004, 2009, 

2010).

Another important aspect of crop grouping is the harmonization effort with the 

Codex Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds. The current EPA crop group for Tree 

nut group 14 is very similar to the corresponding Codex Group 022, Tree Nuts, which 

consists of nineteen commodities including matches to the all the twenty-four 

commodities in the proposed amended EPA crop group 14. The differences are because 

several of the Codex commodities refer to another commodity in a similar manner to the 

EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary Lookup to Preferred Tolerance Terms, such 

as “Pignolia”, see Pine nuts. Several Codex names are equivalent to lookup terms in the 

EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary like filberts is hazelnuts. The thirty 

commodities listed by Codex are really nineteen individual commodities. The U.S. is 
115

proposing to add the following commodities: African tree nut, betelnut, Brazilian pine, 

bunya, bur oak, cajou, candlenut, castanha–do-maranhao, chinquapin, coquito nut, ginkgo, 

Guiana chestnut, heartnut, monkey pot, monkey puzzle, okari nut, pachira nut, pequi, and 

yellowhorn that are not yet in the Codex system. Recently, Codex has been reviewing 

the list of commodities in a revised Tree nut group 022 (Secretariat, 2010) derived from 

the USDA IR-4 proposal and these will also be listed in Table 34 with the corresponding 

EPA commodity term. 

Note that the current Codex crop group does not have representative commodities. 

A revision of the Codex Classification is underway with consideration to include adding 

new commodities, creating subgroups, and selecting representative commodities. A 

revision of the Codex Classification is underway with consideration to include adding 

new commodities, creating subgroups, and selecting representative commodities. The 

IR-4/EPA Crop Grouping Working Group and the International Crop Grouping 

Consulting Committee (ICGCC) are making every effort to cooperate with the Codex 

revision effort. The proposed revised Tree Nut Group was discussed within the ICGCC 

workgroup which includes representatives from the Codex Revision workgroup. The 

expanded Tree nut group and the representative commodities proposed in this petition 

would facilitate the harmonization of the U.S. and the Codex crop classification systems. 

In the next proposed revision to the Codex Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds we 

would expect these changes to be considered as additions to their Tree nut group in the 

harmonization effort that Bill Barney, USDA IR - 4 is coordinating with the Codex 

delegation. Therefore, this proposal will not only increase harmonization with the 

Canadian and NAFTA crop grouping system, but it is compatible with the international 

system of Codex. The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 placed increased emphasis 

on using Codex MRLs in setting tolerances for pesticides in the U.S. 

Table 36. Comparison of EPA Tree Nut Group 14 with Codex Tree Nut Group 022. 

(Based on Ng and Schneider, 2010). In the Codex Commodity Names the Current 

Codex Classification is in Bold and the ICGCC Commodities Being Considered are 

not Highlighted.

Codex 

Group #

Proposed Codex Commodity

Name

Codex Code 

No.

EPA Group 

No.

Proposed EPA.

Commodity

Name 

022 AFRICAN NUT TN 3100 14 AFRICAN NUT TREE

022 ALMONDS TN 0660 14 ALMOND

022 TROPICAL ALMOND TN 0677 14 ALMOND, TROPICAL

022 BEECH NUTS TN 0661 14 BEECHNUT

022 BETTEL NUT TN XXXX 14 BETELNUT

022 BRAZIL NUT TN 0662 14 BRAZIL NUT

022 BRAZILIAN PINE TN 3101 14 BRAZILIAN PINE

022 BUNYA TN 3101 14 BUNYA

022 OAK NUT TN 3107 14 BUR OAK

022 BUTTER NUT TN 0663 14 BUTTERNUT

022 CAJOU, SEE CASHEW NUT - 14 CAJOU

022 CANDLE NUT- TN 3103 14 CANDLENUT
116

Codex 

Group #

Proposed Codex Commodity

Name

Codex Code 

No.

EPA Group 

No.

Proposed EPA.

Commodity

Name 

022 CASHEW NUT TN 0295 14 CASHEW

022 CASTANHA-DOMARANH AO, SEE 

PACHIRA NUT

- 14 CASTANHA-DO-MARANH A, SEE 

PACHIRA NUT (Proposed) 

022 CHESTNUTS TN 0664 14 CHESTNUT

022 CHINQUAPIN, SEE CHESTNUTS TN 4683 14 CHINQUAPIN

022 COCONUT TN 0665 14 COCONUT

022 COQUITO NUT - 14 COQUITO NUT

022 DIKA NUT TN 3104 14 DIKA NUT

022 GINKGO TN 3105 14 GINKGO

022 GUIANA CHESTNUT, SEE 

PACHIRA NUT

- 14 GUIANA CHESTNUT

022 HAZELNUTS TN 0666 14 HAZELNUT

022 FILBERTS, SEE HAZELNUTS IN 4685 14 HAZELNUT

- HEARTNUT, SEE WALNUTS - 14 HEARTNUT

022 HICKORY NUTS TN 0667 14 HICKORY NUT

022 JAPANESE HORSECHESTNUTTN 0668 14 JAPANESE HORSE-CHESTNUT

022 MACADAMIA NUTS TN 0669 14 MACADAMIA NUT

- SEE SAPUCAIA NUT - 14 MONKEY POT

022 MONGONGO TN 3106 14 MONGONGO

022 QUEENSLAND NUTS, SEE 

MACADAMIA NUTS

TN 4695 14 NUT, MACADAMIA

022 BUSH NUTS, SEE MACADAMIA 

NUTS

- 14 NUT, MACADAMIA

022 TREE NUTS TN 0085 14 NUT, TREE, GROUP 14

022 OKARI NUT TN 3108 14 OKARI NUT

022 PACHIRA NUT TN 0670 14 PACHIRA NUT

- - - 14 PEACH PALM, NUT

022 PECANS TN 0672 14 PECAN

022 PEQUI SEED TN 3109 14 PEQUI

022 PILI NUTS TN 0674 14 PILI NUT

022 PINE NUTS TN 0673 14 PINE NUT

022 PISTACHIO NUT TN 0675 14 PISTACHIO

022 SAPUCAIA NUT TN 0676 14 SAPUCAIA NUT

022 WALNUTS TN 0678 14 WALNUT SEE WALNUT, ENGLISH AND 

WALNUT, BLACK

022 WALNUTS, BLACK, SEE 

WALNUTS

TN 4697 14 WALNUT, BLACK

022 WALNUTS, ENGLISH; 

WALNUTS, PERSIAN, SEE 

WALNUTS

TN 4600 14 WALNUT, ENGLISH

022 YELLOWHORN TN 0679 14 YELLOWHORN
117

PREPARATION, FOOD FORMS, COOKING METHODS, FOOD FORMS, 

SPECIFIC USES, MEDICINAL USES, FRUIT YIELDS, AND MARKETING 

STANDARDS FOR MEMBERS OF THE TREE NUT CROP GROUP:

Preparation and Cooking Methods for the Tree Nuts:

The thirty-two commodities in the proposed amended Tree nut crop group are all 

long living perennial dicots (flowering plants) that are deciduous small to large trees that 

produce an edible fruit called a nut or kernel. 

Most nuts sold to consumers are processed in some way such as cooking the kernels 

in oil or dry roasting followed by a coating of salt or other seasonings. Some nuts 

undergo blanching to remove skin or testa that covers the kernel before further cooking. 

Many nuts are cut into smaller pieces depending their end use such as for candy or bakery 

items. The two cooking methods that are done to the nut before it is published such as 

dry or oil roasting. Dry roasting uses radiant heat to the kernels while oil roasted nuts are 

immersed in hot oil such as peanut or palm oil. Additional nut coverings include salt, 

sugar, corn starch, cocoa, honey, corn syrup, and many other combinations. 

The members of this crop group have similar uses, and all are consumed fresh or 

consumed cooked or raw in various recipes including salads, oils, and stir fries. They can 

be used fresh or in a dehydrated form. Some of these tree nuts also have medicinal 

properties. Tree nuts have many food and nonfood uses. They also have ornamental 

landscape uses, plant extracts for medicinal uses, and uses as dyestuffs. Specific uses for 

some of the Tree nuts will be discussed below.

Ingredients Containing Tree Nuts

Following is a list of tree nuts and some ingredients that contain tree nuts:

 Almond - butter, paste (marzipan), flavoring, extract

 Brazil nut

 Cashews - butter, flavoring, extract

 Chestnuts (water chestnuts are OK, they're not nuts despite their name)

 Hazelnuts or filberts

 Hickory nuts

 Macadamia nuts, Queensland nuts

 Pecans

 Pine nuts, pinon, pignoli 

 Pistachios

 Walnuts

 Gianduja (chopped nuts mixed with chocolate)

 Nut-Nuts artificial nuts

 Nut Meal

 Mashuga nuts (pecans)

 Nougat
118

 Nut oils

 Nut paste

 Nutella

Specific Uses of Tree Nuts:

African Tree Nut:

These are valued both as food and as a condiment (the dried, ground seeds are 

known as “njansang”) throughout much of West and Central Africa and particularly 

Camaroon, which cultivates this tree and exports the nuts and nut products, and among 

emigrant populations from these areas now living in Europe. The seeds are available in 

local markets and in places where there is a large West African population. In 

preparation for cooking the fallen fruits are typically piled together and the pulp allowed 

to rot. The yellow nuts are then removed, boiled extensively, and cracked to reach the 

kernels inside. The kernels may then be pressed for oil or left to dry a long time in the sun 

before being eaten or crushed or ground for use as a seasoning and thickening agent in 

soups, stews, or fish-based dishes. Sometimes the crushed nuts are made into a sauce 

similar to peanut sauce. The whole nut and kernel store well for long period of time. The 

oil from the nut is also valued for cosmetic use and as a drying oil in paints and 

varnishes. The light wood is prized as a substitute for balsa and is carved for many 

decorative and household uses. The tree is also important for planting in hedgerows, as a 

shade tree for other crops, such as coffee, and for soil improvement as it helps fix and 

return nutrients to the soil in which is it planted. 

Almond:

Preparation for cooking the shells must be removed and nut is eaten raw or 

roasted, or processed into various food products. Direct eating, ground into flour, 

ingredient in confections, made into syrup, and processed into an almond milk substitute. 

The kernel is used either blanched or unblanched. Almond kernels are sliced or diced are 

used in pastry, ice cream, breakfast cereals, and vegetable mixtures. The kernels are 

ground in paste to be used in pastry and for making marzipan. Amaretto flavor is made 

from almond kernels. Almond oil is primarily monosaturated being 65 % oleic and 30 % 

linoleic which have long term storage stability. Almonds are the most widely-used nut 

for confectionery items like candy bars, cakes, toppings, etc. Much of the crop is roasted 

and flavored or salted and sold in cans; broken and small kernels go to confectionery or 

coated with chocolate. About 99% of almonds in the USA are shelled prior to sale, and 

1% sold in-shell.

Beechnut:

Removed easily from the shell and eaten raw, cooked, dried or roasted. It is used 

for beech nut oil popular in Europe for cooking and salad oil tasting similar to olive oil. 
119

Betelnut:

Betelnut is not cooked, and it is removed from hard shell and dried or ground into 

a powder or cured for chewing. Nuts are used in a preparation of fresh betel pepper 

leaves (Piper betle L.) smeared with lime or cloves and wrapped around the nut which is 

chewed for enjoyment. The seeds are cut into narrow pieces and rolled inside Betel 

Pepper leaf, rubbed over with lime and chewed by the natives. Black and red dyes are 

made from the nuts. 

Brazil nut:

Direct eating and oil, which extracted from the nuts and used by indigenous and 

rural people for cooking oil, lamps, soap, and livestock feed. Removed from shell and 

eaten raw, salted, or roasted.

Brazilian pine:

The Brazilian pine is eaten raw as a winter snack or boiled. Used as seeds, 

ornamental, beads, and for its wood.

Bunya:

Bunya is removed from shell and eaten raw, salted, or roasted. Seeds removed 

from cone, eaten whole or ground into a paste which is eaten raw or baked into a 

bread and for direct eating, ornamental, essential oils, wood, flour. 

Bur Oak:

Some nuts contain low enough tannin levels that they may be eaten raw; other 

nuts require soaking or over wintering to leach out tannins before they can be 

consumed. Some nuts contain low enough tannin levels that they may be eaten 

raw; other nuts require soaking or overwintering to leach out tannins before they 

can be consumed. Direct eating, baked goods, cooking, coffee substitute, 

ornamental, and wood. 

Butternut:

Seed can be eaten raw or ground into a powder and used with cereal flours in 

making cakes, biscuits, muffins, bread, sweets, and ice cream. Is also occasionally 

pressed for oil or pickled (unripe fruit). The timber is used in woodworking and the 

shells are used in dye.
120

Cajou:

Cajou fruit can be eaten fresh, while the nut is roasted and eaten. A drink is also 

produced from the apples. preparation for cooking: False fruit may be eaten raw; nuts 

are removed from hull and roasted. Fruit is eaten fresh, nut is roasted and eaten. A drink 

is also produced from the apples. 

Candlenut:

Candlenut is mostly used for oil for illumination, soap making, and varnishes. 

Preparation for cooking involves removing the nut from shell and roasted, often 

combined with sea salt and hot peppers or a relish to form a condiment. The kernels 

when roasted and cooked are considered edible. It is also used for flavoring, seeds, 

beads, lipids, folklore and as a mammal poisons. 

Cashew:

Cashews are high in protein and is used for cooking is shelled, salted, and then 

roasted. The nutmeat is eaten directly or used in stir fried foods. The “cashew apple 

which is the swollen peduncle of the fruit ”is used fresh or in jams, jellies, and juice, and 

the oil is used for industrial purposes in paints, varnishes and inks.

Castanha-do-maranhão: 

Removed from pod; eaten raw, boiled, roasted, or fried. Seeds; boiled, fried, roasted, or 

ground to make a hot drink. 

Chestnut:

The chestnuts are eaten raw, or more commonly after boiling or roasting. Major 

uses are candies, stuffing for Thanksgiving turkeys, and in Italy, they are ground to fine 

flour for confectionery; in fact, prior to maize introduction to Europe, Chestnut honey is 

also available. Italian polenta was made from chestnut flour (polenta is like Italian grits). 

It is served raw, boiled, roasted, cooked with meat, pureed, ground into flour, and 

candied. To prepare for cooking chestnuts are scored to release steam and roasted in the 

oven or over a fire, then peeled. 

Coconut:
121

Coconuts are used to derive a number of products: Copra is the dried endosperm 

or "white meat" of coconut, commonly seen in cakes and candies. The coconut meat may 

be eaten raw, dried, or processed for consumption. It is dried to 2.5 % moisture content, 

shredded, and used in cakes, candies, and other confections. Coconut “water” may be 

drained from nut and drunk, fermented, or used in cooking. Coconut water is obtained 

from immature coconuts, providing a welcome source of fresh, sterile water in hot, 

tropical environments. Oil is extracted from dried coconut meat. Apical buds eaten raw, 

picked, or canned. Sap and nectar is collected and drunk or fermented. The sap from the 

cut end of an inflorescence produces up to a gallon per day of brown liquid, rich in sugars 

and vitamin C. It can be boiled down into a brown sugar called "jaggery", used as a 

sugar substitute in many areas. Left to ferment, the sap makes an alcoholic toddy, and 

later vinegar; "arrack" is made by distilling the toddy, and is a common, potent alcoholic 

spirit. Mainly oil used in cooking fats soaps and is also used in confections and cookery. 

Production of coconut oil in 2002 was slightly more than olive oil production, and 

coconut cake the residue left after pressing oil from copra, used as livestock feed. The 

coir is the fiber from the husk, used as packing material, rope, matting, fuel, and in 

potting mixes. 

Coquito nut:

The seed kernel is eaten as a nut, made into sweetmeats, or pressed to produce 

edible cooking oil, or used in confections. The sap taken from felled trees is cooked into 

sugary syrup or “palm honey”, or may be fermented into wine often called Chilean wine 

palm. and the fruits may be candied. To harvest the sap, the crown of leaves is cut off, 

after which the sap begins to flow. This will continue for several months, provided a thin 

slice is shaved off the top each morning, until the tree is exhausted. Individual trees can 

yield up to 90 gallons. The sap is high in sucrose and other simple sugars. The fruits are 

harvested as they ripen or fall to the ground. The nuts will keep for months in cool, dry 

storage. 

Dika nut:

Common throughout West Africa but not well known beyond except as a 

nutritional supplement/weight loss drug. Preparation for cooking is to remove the flesh 

of the fruit is used for fresh eating, jams, jellies, juices, and to produce a high quality 

wine. Whole nuts are dried, stored, and ground into a paste before using in soups stews, 

and other dishes. Dika is an important ingredient in ogbono soup, a regional staple food, 

in which it serves both to thicken and to enhance flavor. The kernel, when ground, is an 

extremely effective thickener and is used to make many traditional dishes more 

gelatinous as well as to add flavor. The seeds may be pressed for oil, which is used in 

cooking and to make margarine. Dika kernels when ground has also been used as a 

cheap chocolate substitute and in the making of bread called dika bread. 
122

Ginkgo:

Canned or dried seeds are boiled and used in soups. Seeds are boiled or roasted. 

The kernel is removed from surrounding fruit and shell, and roasted or canned. Canned 

or dried seeds are boiled and used in soups. Seeds are boiled or roasted. Leaves are used 

in traditional Chinese medicine. 

Guiana chestnut:

Preparation for cooking includes removed from shell and eaten raw, boiled, fried, or 

roasted for direct eating, and used for ornamental, wood. Flavor is similar to 

chestnuts, and the roasted seeds can be ground to make a hot drink similar to hot 

chocolate. 

Hazelnut:

Removed from shell and roasted, eaten raw, ground into a paste, or processed in any 

of several hazelnut flavored products. Removed from shell and roasted, eaten raw, 

ground into a paste, or processed in any of several hazelnut flavored products. It is used 

in direct eating, confections, liqueur, nut butter, flavoring, baking, ornamental, and wood. 

Most of the crop is utilized immediately for the holiday market from Halloween, 

Thanksgiving, and through Christmas. Premium nuts are sold in-shell, and exported; 

currently this is only 5 - 10% of the market, but growing. Over 90 % are sold as in 

shelled. A large portion of the crop is cracked and kernels are used for cereals, 

confectionery, mostly in baked goods and in canned mixed nuts. Hazelnut oil has a fatty 

acid composition similar to olive oil. The oil content ranges from 60 – 72 %. 

Heartnut:

Removed from hull and eaten raw or used in cooking.

Hickory nut:

For preparation for cooking it is removed from shell with difficulty and eaten raw 

or roasted. It is used for direct eating, and used in ice cream, cookies and candies.

Japanese horse-chestnut:
123

For preparation for cooking it is removed from the shell and soaked in water to 

leach out toxic saponins, then cooked or dried and ground into flour. It is also grown as 

an ornamental crop. 

Macadamia nut:

The macadamia nut is removed from the shell with extreme difficulty, and eaten 

raw, roasted, or processed for consumption for oil and nut butter. It is also processed for 

use in confections and bakery items. It is a gourmet nut that is roasted , unsalted or 

salted, flavored or covered with chocolate. The extracted cooking oil is similar to olive 

oil in its healthy monosaturated fat content. 

Monkey pot:

Seeds are shelled, and then eaten raw, roasted or boiled. Reputedly has a 

walnut/almond-like flavor. 

Mongongo:

Mongongo is prepared for cooking by boiled fresh or dried and then boiled to 

remove the tough skin. The flesh is then eaten or made into an apple-sauce like 

concoction. Some Bushmen remove the flesh from the fresh fruit and dry it for later 

consumption. The shell around the kernel is extremely hard and to get to the nutritious 

nut the pit must be roasted and dried for a long time, usually by burying in hot sand near 

a fire until it can be cracked open. Alternatively, some people collect the pits from 

elephant dung as elephants love the sweet fruit and the trip through the digestive tract 

leaves the pit weak enough to be cracked open with a rock. The nutmeat is eaten whole, 

or pounded and added as an ingredient to various other dishes. 

Okari nut:

Okari nut is used for direct eating; rarely for timber as it is more valuable as a food 

source.

Pachira nut:

Seed removed from fruit and eaten raw or roasted, and is used for direct eating.

Peach palm nut:
124

The peach palm is not consumed fresh because the raw fruit is caustic. It is, however, 

cooked and consumed as a breakfast item or snack with mayonnaise or sauce. 

The cooking process involves boiling, peeling, halving and pitting the fruit. The fruit is

also preserved or dried. Cooked fruit are used in stews, pureed for making certain

dishes, or fermented to make a drink called chichi or chincha.. Fruit are processed into

flour by cooking the bunch, cutting the fruit into small pieces, removing the seeds

, drying the pulp and peel, and grinding the dried material. Some attempts have been 

made to freeze, dry, or can the fruit. The seed is consumed fresh or cooked. 

Pecan:

For direct eating, confections, ice cream, cookery, charcoal, fuel, wood. 

Preparation for cooking include removed from shell and eaten raw, roasted, or processed. 

Over 90 % of the pecans are used for the baking (breads, brownies, muffins, pies), 

breakfast cereals, candy, (pralines, caramel turtles), and dairy industries (ice cream, 

frozen yogurt, cheese and cheese spreads). 

Pequi:

Fruit and kernel are both eaten whole or pressed for oil. The fruit is also 

fermented into liquor. The nut must be removed from shell and eaten raw, roasted, or 

processed for other consumption. In preparation for cooking the fruit is peeled and pulp 

is carefully eaten, avoiding the sharp spines around the pit. The pit is then cracked open 

to extract the kernel, which can be dried in the sun and fried with oil, or pressed for its 

own.

Pili nut:

In preparing for cooking the kernel is removed from shell and eaten raw, roasted, 

or processed for consumption in other products. Shoots may be used raw in salad, and 

fruit pulp can be boiled and eaten like sweet potatoes. Use is also for direct eating (nut, 

fruit pulp, shoots), oil, in confections, baking (especially in traditional Chinese “moon 

cakes”), soap, gum, resin.

Pine nut:

Preparation for cooking is to remove seeds from cone and eaten raw, roasted, or 

pressed for oil. It is used for direct eating, oil, confections, and pesto. They can be used 

in stuffing’s, stews, sauces, vegetables, soups, stews, cakes, and puddings, and a major 

component of pesto sauces. They are also coated with chocolate and eaten as a sweet. 

Pistachio:
125

Pistachios are used for direct eating, or in ice cream, confections, flavoring, and in 

dyes. They are roasted; salted, greenish seeds are eaten raw and are an ingredient in ice 

creams, cakes and nougat candies. To prepare for cooking they are removed from shell 

and eaten raw, roasted, or processed into confections. Pistachios are marketed primarily 

as in-shell nuts, due to the ease with which nuts can be opened without cracking. This 

accounts for 80 % of pistachio utilization. The remaining 20% is marketed as shelled 

nuts, which are also sold fresh, or processed into candies, baked goods, and ice cream. 

Pistachio nuts that receive the red color on their shells to cover blemishes. The outer 

husks in India can be used to dye and tan clothing. A limited amount of oil is used for 

cooking or for cosmetics. 

Sapucaia nut:

Direct eating of nut, sap as a drink. May also be used in confections and for cooking 

oil, though no data could be found indicating the extent of this use. Preparation for 

cooking: Seed are removed from shell and eaten. Sap may be drained from the 

tree to make a drink. 

Tropical almond:

Preparation for cooking: Kernel is extracted from shell with difficulty and eaten 

raw or roasted. Direct eating, pressed for oil. The nutmeat and oil extracted for 

cooking purposes and as a salad oil in Europe. The sun dried kernels yields a 

semi drying cooking oil that is used as an almond oil substitute. 

Walnut, black:

In preparation for cooking they are removed from shell with difficulty, eaten raw, 

roasted, or processed for consumption. They are used for direct eating, oil, bakery 

products, ice cream and candies. They are generally more expensive then the English 

walnut based on availability. Also used as an ornamental tree and for its fine-grain wood 

as a timber product.

Walnut, English:

Walnuts are removed from shell with difficulty, eaten raw, and used in baked 

goods, roasted, or processed for consumption into oil for cooking or confections. It also 

has ornamental, wood stain, timber. Walnut oil has the heart healthy omega 3 oil that can 

improve the high density lipoproteins (HDL) and decrease low density lipoproteins 

(LDL). 
126

Yellowhorn: 

Yellowhorn has its black seeds are usually roasted and the kernel is then eaten, 

but it also may be eaten raw. he seeds may also be pressed for oil. 

MEDICINAL USES OF TREE NUTS: 

There are several medicinal uses of the tree nuts stone and they are discussed below for 

each of the nuts.

African Tree Nut:

All parts of the tree are used for many ailments in traditional medicine throughout the 

tree’s range. The bark particularly is made into a decoction or tea that is drunk to relieve 

everything from insomnia to diarrhea. 

Almond:

Shown to reduce LDL cholesterol, reduce LDL:HDL ratio, and increase HDLcholesterol. Also often claimed to have cancer preventing properties

Almond, Tropical:

Leaves are used in a variety of folk remedies over the range of the tree, most 

commonly to treat dysentery ad sickle cell anemia.

Beechnut:

Creosote made from beech wood is used internally and externally as a medicine 

for various human and animal disorders

Betelnut:

Commonly used a stimulant and an astringent, in addition to many folk remedies.

Brazil nut:

Sometimes recommended as a preventative for prostate cancer due to the high 

selenium content
127

Bur Oak:

Bark may be used as a tonic and astringent.

Butternut:

Butternut was used by various native North American Indian tribes as a laxative 

and tonic remedy to treat a variety of conditions.

Candlenut:

Used as purgative and laxative-stimulant.

Cashew:

Anacardic acids found in cashews are lethal to gram-positive bacteria. Cashew is 

also used in folk-remedies as an antifungal and as antivenom for snakebites

Castanha-do-maranhao:

The bark is used to treat stomach problems and headaches and is taken to “fortify 

the blood

Coconut:

Used in folk remedies for a range of maladies.

Dika nut:

Various traditional remedies; recently a study was announced that dika nut 

performed well as an appetite suppressant, which has led to a craze of buying dika 

supplements for weight loss in the U.S. and abroad. It also has uses for relief of 

dysentery.

Ginkgo:
128

Ginkgo has been claimed to enhance memory and attention, and is of interest as 

potential treatment of Alzhiemer’s disease. Also of importance in traditional Chinese 

Medicine for various uses, including as an aphrodisiac.

Monkey puzzle:

The resin is used in the treatment of ulcers and wounds in traditional medicines. 

Peach palm nut:

Fruit is used as an aphrodisiac.

Pecan:

Contains antioxidants, and can help lower high cholesterol. Also may help reduce 

the risk of gallstones in women.

Pine nut:

Oil contains antioxidants and may be used for suppressing appetite.

Pistachio:

May reduce risk of heart disease and calm acute stress reactions. May be used for 

abdominal pain, bruises and dysentery. 

Walnut, English:

Used in many English folk remedies.

USDA MARKETING STANDARDS FOR TREE NUTS:

The USDA Agricultural Marketing Service (USDA AMS 1966, 1977, 1981, and 

1997) has established standards for marketing many of the tree nuts. For almonds in the 

shell the U.S. grades are U.S. Grades 1 and 2 and mixed. For U.S. grade no. 1 the 

almond shells should be similar varietal characteristics free from foreign materials and 

shells clean uniform in color free from damage, discoloration, adhering hulls, and broken 

shells. Must be free of damage caused by insects, mold, and brown spot. Mixed grades 

include two or more varietal types. For U.S. standards for shelled almonds also should be 

similar varieties, whole clean and well dried, no rancidity, insect injury, foreign material, 

split broken kernels, free mold. Whole kernel size/oz should range from 16 – 18 for large 

down to 50 and smaller. Brazil nut standards must have clean shells and kernels that are 

free from rancidity, mold, decay, and insect damage. Size classification for extra large 
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must pass through a round opening 78/64 inch in diameter and count should not exceed 

45 nuts/ pound. Medium sized Brazil nuts count varies from 51 to 65 nuts/lb. Hazelnut 

standards are similar to other nuts having free from mold and insect damage and 

discoloration. There are two varieties round and long type with sizes from small to 

jumbo. The round nut shape is preferred for the market. Mixed nuts in the shell include 

almonds, Brazil, hazelnut, pecan, and walnut each having a minimum size requirement. 

Coconut standards are for size, freedom from blemishes, free from fiber, and wet or 

moldy eyes. Informal grades are based on size and weight, mature U.S. dehusked are 

sold into 34 – 36 kg woven plastic or burlap sacks containing 40 – 50 coconuts, plastic 

mesh bags of 12 coconuts with 20 – 25 film-wrapped coconuts weighing 17 – 18 kg. 

Pecan sizes vary from small to oversize with small having 96 – 120 nuts/lb and oversize 

55 or less nuts/lb. Kernel skin color varies from light to dark amber. Shelled pecan 

halves vary in size such as mammoth is 250 or less and small is 651 – 750 numbers of 

halves per pound. Pistachio nuts like all other nuts must be free from insect and mold 

damage, and stains on the shells. Colossal size is less than 18 nuts per ounce and small is 

more than 30 nuts/oz. U.S. standard grades for walnuts apply to English walnuts and not 

black walnuts. Walnut sizes can vary from mammoth pass through a round opening 

96/64 in diameter to baby size at nuts passing through a 74/64 in diameter hole. Shelled 

walnuts have tolerances for color ranging from extra light to amber as well as size 

tolerances for halves and/or pieces. The kernels must be well dried and free of insect, 

mold or rancidity

AVAILABILITY AND STORAGE LIFE OF THE TREE NUT CROP GROUP 

MEMBERS IN THE MARKETPLACE:

Tree nuts are widely available in the marketplace both from domestic production 

and imports. The marketing season and peak production periods for the U.S. tree nuts in 

the marketplace are shown in Table 37 

Table 37. Marketing Season for U.S. Tree Nuts (USDA NASS Ag Handbook 729. 

2006).

Tree Nut Marketing Season

Almond August 5 – November 15

Hazelnut October 1 – November 30

Macadamia nut July 1 – June 30

Pecan October 1 – March 31

Pistachio September 30 – January 30

Walnut September 15 – November 10

The availability of each commodity is as follows:

African Tree Nut:
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The seeds are available in local markets and in places where there is a large West 

African population

Almond:

Common throughout North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. 

Betelnut:

Widespread in India and across South Asia in shops and marketplaces. Can be found in 

the U.S. in Asian specialty stores.

Brazil nut:

Imported in large quantities to the U.S. and Western Europe, and are widely 

available in grocery stores and markets. Direct eating and oil, which extracted from the 

nuts and used by indigenous and rural people for cooking oil, lamps, soap, and livestock 

feed.

Cashew:

Cashews are commonly available in the U.S. and in most parts of the world in 

grocery or specialty stores

Chestnut:

Available in much of Europe and Central and Southeast Asia. Often found in the 

U.S. in supermarkets, especially around the holidays

Coconut:

Available throughout most of the world.

Gingko:

China and Japan. In the U.S., ginkgo nuts can be found in Asian specialty stores.

Hazelnut:

Hazelnut and hazelnut products are common in stores throughout North America, 

Europe, and parts of the Middle East.
131

Macadamia Nut:

Common in North America, Australia, and Europe in grocery and specialty stores. 

Okari Nut:

Common in local markets during the fruiting season.

Peach Palm:

Due to the strong flavor, the fruit is harvested and commercialized before full 

ripeness. A fresh bunch of nuts is worth $1.00 to $3.00 US dollars in the market. In 

Costa Rica, the San José market is supplied with fruit/nuts year-round. Fruit is sold in 

markets cooked, fresh by the bunch or minimally processed. Processing includes 

removing the fruit from the bunch, washing it, waxing it, sorting it, and packaging it. 

Fruit do not store well and deteriorate within 3 to 7 days. 

Pecan:

Common in the U.S. and Europe; available throughout much of the world. 

Pequi:

No data, but may be available in local markets. 

Pili Nut:

Locally in the Philippines, as well as parts of China and in Guam.

Pine Nut:

Pine nuts are available much of North America, Europe, Asia, and the Middle 

East.

Pistachio:

Common in North America, South America, Europe, Northern Africa, Asia, and 

the Middle East. 

Tropical almond:

The nut mostly gathered locally in the Pacific island region. May be bought in 

supermarkets in the island nation of Vanuatu.
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Walnut, black:

Mainly local collection and some local sale. 

Walnut, English:

Common in most of the developed world.

Storage Life of Tree Nuts:

The tree nuts have relatively long storage lives (Table 38). Almonds and hazelnuts 

can be stored for months either in-shell or shelled if dry, or very long periods when 

frozen (years). Commercially, nuts for long-term storage are fumigated for navel orange 

worm and kept at temps below 40o F. Chestnut, macadamia nut, pine nuts and pistachios 

can be stored up to a year. Pistachios can be stored up to three years frozen.

Table 38. Approximate Storage Life of Tree Nuts in Commercial Storage

(Adapted Hardenburg, et al., 1986, Kays, 2003).

Tree Nut In Shell 

(Months)

10°C

Shelled 

(Months) 

10°C

Shelled, 

Vacuum

Packaged 

(Years)

0 to 4.5°C 

Frozen 

(Years) 

-18°C

Almond 15 - 30 4 - 6 1 - 2 > 1

Chestnut 12 - 1 1 - 2

Hazelnut 15 - 30 6 1 1 - 2

Macadamia nut 12 - - -

Pecan 6 4 - 6 1 - 2 1 - 2

Pine nut 12 - - -

Pistachio 12 15 1 - 2 3

Black Walnut - 8 - -

English Walnut 6 -12 6 1 - 3 1 - 2

CHANGES TO EPA DATABASES NEEDED FROM REVISIONS TO THE TREE 

NUT CROP GROUP:

The revisions to the amended Tree nut Crop Group 14 will affect the need to 

update many Risk Assessment Models, Residue Chemistry Guidelines, OPP databases, 

and/or HED Standard Operating Procedures (SOP).
133

The affected EPA databases may include the following:

(1) Risk Assessment Models - The terminology in the Food Exposure Modules 

of our current Risk assessment Models from DEEM-FCID, LIFELINE, and CARES will 

need to be updated to reflect new terminology and the new Crop Group terminology.

(2) EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1000, Background), 

Table 1 Raw Agricultural and Processed Commodities and Feedstuffs Derived from 

Crops and EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1000, Background), 

EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1500, Crop Field Trials), Table 5 

Suggested Distribution of Field Trials by Region for Crops Requiring > 3 trials and Table 

6 Regional Distribution of Crop Production. 

Any differences between the EPA and NAFTA Crop Production Regions after the 

NAFTA Regions are updated will be addressed by the ICCGR Workgroup or by the EPA 

HED ChemSAC with attendance by Canada, PMRA and Mexico. The EPA Residue 

Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1500, Crop Field Trials) Table 5 Suggested 

Distribution of Field Trials by Region for Crops Requiring > 3 trials and Table 6 

Regional Distribution of Crop Production will be updated to reflect more recent crop 

production information. There is currently no conflict with Canada.

(3) Health Effects Division Standard Operating Procedures: HED SOP 99.3 -–

“Translation of Monitoring Data” issued March 26, 1999. This policy provides 

guidance on translating pesticide monitoring data from one commodity to other similar 

commodities. Most of the monitoring data is from the USDA Pesticide Data Program 

(PDP) or the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The policy is based on the crop

groupings in the 40 CFR 180.41.

There are no entries for any of the tree nuts for translating pesticide monitoring 

data from one commodity to other similar commodities. The policy does not have to be 

updated at this time, since it will be still be applicable to the whole crop group.

(4) HED SOP 99.6 - “Classification of Food Forms with Respect to Level of 

Blending” issued August 20, 1999. This SOP provides rationale and guidance to HED 

on revised criteria for inputting residue values and pesticide usage information into acute 

dietary exposure and risk assessments based on commodities. These revisions permit the 

Agency to more fully utilize data generated by the USDA Pesticide Data Program.

Some of the Tree Nut Crop Group members are included in the HED SOP 99.6. 

See Table 39 below. Members of Crop Group 14 are considered partially blended (PB) 

commodities, since they have a small scale mixing or co-mingling of many small to 

medium sized items or units occurs. The tree nuts are all partially blended except for the 

ones that have oil such as walnut oil which is blended. The tree nuts can be can be 
134

uncooked, cooked, baked, boiled, pasteurized, or frozen. Other members not in the 

original SOP will need to be added to the HED SOP 99.6

TABLE 39. Classification of Food Forms with Respect to Level of Blending for the 

Tree Fruit Crop Group. (HED SOP 99.6, April 20, 1999). 

COMMODITY FOOD FORM CLASSIFICATION

Almond 11 - Uncooked PB – Partially blended

Almond 12 – Cooked: NFS PB – Partially blended

Almond 13 - Baked PB – Partially blended

Almond 14 – Boiled PB – Partially blended

Almond 18 - Dried PB – Partially blended

Almond 41 – Frozen: NFS PB – Partially blended

Brazil nut 11 - Uncooked PB – Partially blended

Brazil nut 13 - Baked PB – Partially blended

Brazil nut 14 – Boiled PB – Partially blended

Brazil nut 16 - Pasteurized PB – Partially blended

Cashew 11 - Uncooked PB – Partially blended

Cashew 13 - Baked PB – Partially blended

Cashew 14 – Boiled PB – Partially blended

Chestnut 12 – Cooked: NFS PB – Partially blended

Chestnut 13 - Baked PB – Partially blended

Ginkgo - PB – Partially blended

Hickory nut 11 - Uncooked PB – Partially blended

Pecan 11 - Uncooked PB – Partially blended

Pecan 13 - Baked PB – Partially blended

Pecan 14 – Boiled PB – Partially blended

Walnut 11 - Uncooked PB – Partially blended

Walnut 12 – Cooked: NFS PB – Partially blended

Walnut 13 - Baked PB – Partially blended

Walnut, oil Walnut oil B – Blended

(5) HED SOP 2000.1 – “Guidance for Translation of Field Trial Data from 

Representative Commodities in the Crop Group Regulation to Other Commodities 

in Each Crop Group/Subgroup” issued September 12, 2000.

There is guidance in the SOP for the current Tree nut Crop Group, but not for the 

additional proposed commodities, so the current Crop group 12 will be listed below 

followed by a listing of the proposed Tree nut group below:

Current Crop Group 14: Tree Nuts

Representative Commodities: Almond and Pecan
135

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Almond Almond

Beechnut Almond

Brazil nut Pecan

Butternut Pecan

Cashew Pecan

Chestnut Almond

Chinquapin Almond

Filbert (Hazelnut), Pecan

Hickory nut Pecan

Macadamia nut Pecan

Pecan Pecan

Walnut, black and English Pecan

Proposed Crop Group 14-10: Tree Nut

Representative Commodities: Almond and Pecan

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

African tree nut Pecan

Almond Almond

Beechnut Almond

Brazil nut Pecan

Brazilian pine Almond

Bunya Almond

Bur oak Pecan

Butternut Pecan

Cajou Pecan

Candlenut Almond

Cashew Pecan

Castanha-do-maranhao Pecan

Chestnut Almond

Chinquapin Almond

Coconut Pecan

Coquito nut Pecan

Dika nut Pecan

Guiana chestnut Pecan

Ginkgo Almond

Hazelnut Pecan

Heartnut Pecan

Hickory nut Pecan

Japanese horse-chestnut Pecan
136

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Macadamia nut Pecan

Mongongo nut Pecan

Monkey-pot Pecan

Monkey puzzle Almond

Okari nut Almond

Pachira nut Pecan

Peach palm nut Almond

Pecan Pecan

Pequi Almond

Pili nut Almond

Pine nut Almond

Pistachio Almond

Sapucaia nut Pecan

Tropical almond Almond

Walnut, black Pecan

Walnut, English Pecan

Yellowhorn Almond

(6) HED Dry Matter Database will be updated to add Table 40 below:

Table 40. Health Effects Division Dry Matter and Seeding Rate Database. 

Tree Nut Crop Group. Prepared by Dr’s. NG and B. A. Schneider. June 2009.

Commodity % Dry Matter

Acorn, flour 93.9

Acorn, raw 50.0

African nut tree 95.8

Almond 94.3, 95.7, 96.0

Almond, flour 96.8

Almond, hulls 90.0

Brazil nut 96.7, 97.0

Chestnut 49.9, 51.3

Coconut 49.1, 49.9, 53.1

Coconut, copra 91.0

Coconut, dried 96.8

Coconut, oil 0.00

Dika nut 87.2

Ginkgo nut 45.9

Hazelnut 94.6, 94.8, 95.0

Hickory nut 97.1
137

Commodity % Dry Matter

Macadamia nut 97.1, 98.4

Monkey pot 60.0

Peach palm nut 18.0

Pecan, dried 95.0, 95.2, 96.5, 96.8

Pecan, flour 89.3

Pili nut 91.1, 97.1

Pine nut 94.0.

Pistachio 94.1, 96.0

Almond, tropical 94.0, 97.3

Walnut, Black 97.3

Walnut, English 95.6, 96.0

COMMODITY DEFINITIONS [(40 CFR § 180.1(g)]:

There are no commodity definitions for the tree nuts in 40 CFR ' 180.1(g) and 

none are proposed in the amendment to the crop group. :

TOLERANCE EXPRESSION GUIDANCE:

Until the Federal Register Notice is issued revising the Crop Group Regulation to 

establish the amended Tree Nut Crop Group 14 the commodities approved for the crop 

group will have to be listed as separate commodities at the same tolerance level. When 

ChemSAC approves the Tree Nut crop Group 14, the Risk Integration, Minor Use, and 

Emergency Response Branch (RIMUERB) of the Registration Division can immediately 

implement the amended Crop Group with new tolerance expressions located in the 

Section F submissions. The three tolerance expression examples will provide an 

expedited way to establish tolerances in or on Tree nut group commodities, especially for 

new reduced risk pesticides, without requiring additional residue data for all the crops 

noted. This will create a practice in the United States which is already formalized in 

Canada and promote international harmonization. The tolerance expression examples for 

guidance purposes for use by RIMUERB and HED reviewers are listed below:

Example 1. What is the tolerance expression for the amended Tree Nut Crop Group 14?

Answer to Example 1:

“The tolerance expression for the amended Tree Nut Crop Group 14 will be “Nut, 

tree, group 14 - 10.”
138

Example 2. How will the Crop group appear in the Federal Register for the 

proposed crop group regulation [40CFR 180.41(c)]? This example is for the Field and 

External Affairs Division (FEAD) and Registration Division (RD) use in preparing the 

new Federal Register Regulation. The example follows the same format as the current 

Crop Grouping Regulation Federal Register Notice (FR 60, No.95, 5/17/95, 26626 -

26643

Answer to Example 2:

“Crop Group 14 - 10: Tree Nut Crop Group”.

(i) Representative commodities. Almond and pecan.

(ii) Table. The following Table 1 lists all the commodities listed in Crop 

Group 14 and identifies the related crop subgroups and includes cultivars, varieties and/or 

hybrids of these commodities.

The scientific names of the thirty-nine commodities were also updated and are listed 

below. 

“HED Corrected Proposed Tree Nut Crop Group 14 - 10”.

Commodities

African nut tree, Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Heckel

Almond, Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb

Beechnut, Fagus grandifolia Ehrh., F. sylvatica L., F. sylvatica L. 

subsp. sylvatica 

Brazil nut, Bertholletia excelsa Humb. & Bonpl.

Brazilian pine, Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze

Bunya, Araucaria bidwillii Hook.

Bur Oak, Quercus macrocarpa Michx., Quercus spp.

Butternut, Juglans cinerea L.

Cajou, Anacardium giganteum Hance ex Engl.

Candlenut, Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd.

Cashew, Anacardium occidentale L.

Chestnut, Castanea crenata Siebold & Zucc., C. dentata (Marshall) 

Borkh., C. mollissima Blume, C. sativa Mill.

Chinquapin, Castanea pumila (L.) Mill., Castanea ozarkensis Ashe

Coconut, Cocos nucifera L.

Coquito nut, Jubaea chilensis (Molina) Baill.

Dika nut, Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill.

Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba L.

Guiana chestnut, Pachira aquatica Aubl.

Hazelnut (Filbert), Corylus americana Marshall, C. avellana L., C. 

californica (A. DC.) Rose, C. chinensis Franch., Corylus spp.

Heartnut, Juglans ailantifolia Carrière var. cordiformis (Makino) 

Rehder, Juglans ailantifolia Carrière

Hickory nut, Carya cathayensis Sarg., C. glabra (Mill.) Sweet, C. 
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Commodities

laciniosa (F. Michx.) W. P. C. Barton, C. myristiciformis (F. Michx.) 

Elliott, .C. ovata (Mill.) K. Koch, C. tomentosa (Lam.) Nutt.

Japanese horse-chestnut, Aesculus turbinata Blume

Macadamia nut, Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche, 

Macadamia tetraphylla L.A.S. Johnson

Mongongo nut, Schinziophyton rautanenii (Schinz) Radcl.-Sm.

Monkey-pot, Lecythis pisonis Cambess.

Monkey puzzle nut, Araucaria araucana (Molina) K. Koch

Okari nut, Terminalia kaernbachii Warb.

Pachira nut, Pachira insignis (Sw.) Savigny

Peach palm nut, Bactris gasipaes Kunth var. gasipaes

Pecan, Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K.Koch

Pequi, Caryocar brasiliense Cambess., C. villosum (Aubl.) Pers, 

Caryocar nuciferum L.

Pili nut, Canarium ovatum Engl., Canarium vulgare Leenh.

Canarium indicum L.

Pine nut, Pinus edulis Engelm., P. koraiensis Siebold & Zucc., P. 

sibirica Du Tour, P. pumila (Pall.) Regel, .P. gerardiana Wall. ex D. 

Don, P. monophylla Torr. & Frém., P. quadrifolia Parl. ex Sudw. .P. 

pinea L.

Pistachio, Pistacia vera L.

Sapucaia nut, Lecythis zabucaja Aubl.

Tropical almond, Terminalia catappa L.

Walnut, black, Juglans hindsii Jeps. ex R. E. Sm., J. microcarpa

Berland.,

J. nigra L.

Walnut, English, Juglans regia L.

Yellowhorn, Xanthoceras sorbifolium Bunge

Cultivars, varieties, and hybrids of these commodities 

Example 3: How will I express the tolerances on an interim basis until the 

Federal Register Notice is final for the Tree Nut group 14 – 10 or 14 – 11 depending 

when the FR Notice is published, for example at a tolerance level of 1.5 ppm? This 

example will be useful for the Registration Division (RD) and Health Effects Division 

(HED) to prepare tolerance tables. All the new proposed commodities will have to be 

listed separately from the crop group tolerance and at the same level as the crop group.

Answer to Example 3:

Commodity Parts per million 

(ppm)

African nut tree 1.5

Almond 1.5

Beechnut 1.5
140

Commodity Parts per million 

(ppm)

Bunya 1.5

Butternut 1.5

Cajou. 1.5

Candlenut 1.5

Cashew 1.5

Chestnut 1.5

Chinquapin 1.5

Coconut 1.5

Dika nut 1.5

Ginkgo 1.5

Guiana chestnut 1.5

Hazelnut 1.5

Heartnut 1.5

Japanese horse-chestnut 1.5

Monkey-pot 1.5

Nut, Brazil 1.5

Nut, coquito 1.5

Nut, hickory 1.5

Nut, macadamia 1.5

Nut, mongongo 1.5

Nut, monkey puzzle 1.5

Nut, okari 1.5

Nut, pachira 1.5

Nut, peach palm 1.5

Nut, pine 1.5

Nut, sapucaia 1.5

Oak, bur 1.5

Pecan 1.5

Pequi L. 1.5

Pine, Brazilian 1.5

Pistachio 1.5

Tropical almond 1.5

Walnut, black 1.5

Walnut, English 1.5

Yellowhorn 1.5

Cultivars, varieties and/or hybrids of those above commodities 
141

EPA FOOD AND FEED COMMODITY VOCABULARY FOR THE TREE NUT 

CROP GROUP:

The following terms for the tree nut commodities will be incorporated to the EPA 

Food and Feed Commodity Database (http://www.epa.govopp/foodfeed). Table 41 

below is identical to the current Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary format. A search 

of the lookup terms will link to the EPA preferred tolerance/commodity term, and the 

Base crop/animal term is the specific crop animal terms associated with the preferred 

term. Until the Federal Register Notice for the Crop Group is final, the Crop Group 

designation on each term will be listed as no crop group and given the crop group 99 for 

the present. 

Table 41. EPA FOOD AND FEED COMMODITY VOCABULARY

SEARCH OR LOOKUP 

TERM FOR TREE NUT 

COMMODITIES

PREFERRED 

TOLERANCE TERM

BASE 

CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

African Nut-Tree; African oilnut-tree; African wood-oil nuttree; afrikanisches Mahagon 

bois jasanga; erimado; essang; 

essessang; ezang; menguela; 

muawa; munguella; okwe

African Nut-Tree African Nut-Tree

Almond; Amandier; Almendro; 

bitter almond; almond, bitter; 

sweet almond; Almond, sweet; 

bian tao; amandier commun; 

Mandel; Mandelbaum; 

Bittermandelbaum; amendo; 

amendoeira; amêndoa-amarga;

amêndoa-doce

Almond Almond

Almond, tropical; Tropical 

almond; Badamier; Kamani; Olive 

bark tree; Indian almond; Malabaralmond; Almendro; indischer 

Mandelbaum; Katappenbaum; 

amendoeira-da-Índia; amendoeira; 

chapéu-de-sol; almendro de la 

India; sea-almond; tropicalalmond; badam, badamier

Almond, tropical Almond, tropical

Beechnut; Beech nut; American 

beech; hêtre américain; Beech, 

American; European beech; Beech, 

European; common beech; Beech, 

Beechnut Beechnut
142

SEARCH OR LOOKUP 

TERM FOR TREE NUT 

COMMODITIES

PREFERRED 

TOLERANCE TERM

BASE 

CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

common

Betelnut; Betel palm; Palm, betel; 

Pan; Nioi-Pekela; Indian-nut; 

Areca; Areca-nut; Areca-nut palm; 

Catechu; Pinang; Areca palm;

betelnut palm; pinang; aréquier;

noix d'arec; Betelpalme; supari;

arequeira; areca, bonga

Betelnut Betelnut

Brazilian pine; Pine, Brazilian; 

Brazilian-pine; candelabra-tree;

Parana-pine; pinheiro-do-Brasil; 

pinheiro-do-Paraná

Pine, Brazilian Pine, Brazilian

Buny: bunya-bunya; bunya-pine; 

bunya-bunya tree; false monkey 

puzzle tree

Bunya Bunya

Butternut; white walnut; noyer 

cendré; Butternußbaum; nogal 

ceniciento

Butternut Butternut

Cajou; anacardier géant; Caja acu Cajou Cajou

Candlenut; candleberry; candlenuttree; Indian-walnut; lumbangtree;

varnishtree; noyer de bancoul;

noyer des Moluques;

Lichtnußbaum; noz-da-Índia

nogueira-brasileira; nogueira-daÍndia; nogueira-deiguape;calumbán; camirio; lumbán, 

kukui

Candlenut Candlenut

Cashew; Cajuil; Cashew apple; 

Cashew nut; anacardier; 

Acajubaum; Kaschubaum; 

Nierenbaum; cajú; cajueiro; 

anacardo; marañón

Cashew Cashew

Castanha-do-maranhão; French 

peanut; Guinea peanut; money 

tree; lucky tree; maní francés; 

árbol de dinero; árbol de la suerte; 

castanha-da-praia; cacau-domaranhão; mamorana amendoimde-árvore; cacau selvage

Castanha-do-maranhão Castanha-domaranhão

Chestnut; American chestnut; 

Chestnut, American; châtaignier 

d'Amérique; amerikanische 

Kastanie; Chinese chestnut; 

Chestnut, Chinese; Chinese hairy 

chestnut; châtaignier de Chine; li; 

chinesische Kastanie; shinaguri;

Chestnut Chestnut
143

SEARCH OR LOOKUP 

TERM FOR TREE NUT 

COMMODITIES

PREFERRED 

TOLERANCE TERM

BASE 

CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

castaño chino; European chestnut; 

Spanish chestnut; sweet chestnut; 

châtaignier commun; Eßkastanie;

Marone; castanheiro-comum; 

astaño común; regoldo; Japanese 

chestnut; ri ben li; châtaignier du 

Japon; japanische Kastanie; kuri, 

castanheiro-do-Japão; castaño del 

Japón

Guiana chestnut; Money-tree; 

Guiana-chestnut; Malabarchestnut; provision-tree; saba nut; 

châtaigner sauvage; castaño de 

agua; castaño de la Guayana; 

Guyana chestnut; Provision tree

Chestnut, Guiana Chestnut, Guianat

Chinquapin; Allegheny chinkapin; 

chinkapin; dwarf chestnut; golden 

chinquapin; bush chestnut

Chinquapin Chinquapin

Coconut; Coconut oil; Coco palm; 

coconut palm; water coconut; 

copra; khopra; nariyal; cocotier; 

Kokospalme; khopar; coqueiro; 

coco-da-bahia; coco-da-praia; 

coqueiro-da-bahia; coqueiro-dapraia; cocotero; cokernut

Coconut Coconut

Ginkgo; Ginkgo nut; Maidenhair 

tree; Icho; Ya-chiao-tzu; ginkgo 

nut; Ginnan; Pai-kua; ginkgo 

biloba; noyer du Japon; 

Ginkgobaum; nogueira-do-Japão

Ginkgo Ginkgo

Hazelnut; Cobnut; Filbert; 

European filbert; Filbert, 

European; European hazel; 

Avellana; cobnut; giant filbert; 

hazel, avelinier; coudrier; noisetier; 

noisetier franc; noisetier tubuleux;

gewöhnliche Hasel; Haselnuß; 

Haselstrauch; Lambertnuß; 

Lambertshasel; aveleira; avellano;

avellano de Lambert; American 

hazelnut; Hazelnut, American; 

American filbert; California 

hazelnut; Western hazel; Beaked 

filbert; Beaked hazelnut

Hazelnut Hazelnut

Heartnut; Hime-gurumi; Japanese 

walnut; Siebold walnut; noyer du 

Japon; onogurumi; herzfrüchtige 

Heartnut Heartnut
144

SEARCH OR LOOKUP 

TERM FOR TREE NUT 

COMMODITIES

PREFERRED 

TOLERANCE TERM

BASE 

CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

Walnuß; himegurumi

Japanese horse-chestnut; Horsechestnut, JapaneseHorse-chestnut, Japanese Horse-chestnut, 

Japanese

Monkey-pot; castanha-desapucaia; sapucaiaMonkey-pot Monkey-pot

Brazil nut: Nut, Brazil; Brazilnut; 

creamnut; Paranut; Brazilnut-tree;

noyer de Para; noyer du Brésil;

Paranußbaum; castanha-do-Brasil;

castanha-do-Pará; castaña del 

Brasil; castaño de Pará; nuez del 

Brasil

Nut, Brazil Nut, Brazil

Coquito nut; coquito palm, nut, 

coquito; Chilean cocopalm; 

Chilean wine palm; honey palm; 

little cokernut; syrup palm; 

cocotier du Chili; Honigpalme; 

coco de Chile; palmera coquito 

Nut, coquito Coquito

Dika nut Nut, dika; Dika; wild 

mango; African mango; bush 

mango; etima; odika; árbol 

chocolate; African wild mango; 

chocolatier; dika du Gabon; 

dikabread tree; Dikanuß; dikanut 

tree; irvingia; manguier sauvage; 

ogbono; rainy season bush mango; 

sweet bush mango.

Nut, Dika Dika

Hickory nut; Nut, hickory; Pignut 

hickory; pignut; red hickory; 

redheart hickory; small-fruited 

hickory; sweet pignut; broom 

hickory; Shagbark hickory; 

scalybark hickory; shellbark 

hickory; upland hickory; carya 

blanc; caryer ovale; noyer blanc;

noyer tender; 

Schuppenrindenhickory; caria 

blanca; Shellbark hickory; big 

shellbark; kingnut; shagbark 

hickory; Mockernut hickory; bigbud hickory; mockernut; 

squarenut; white-heart hickory; 

Nutmeg hickory; nogal

Nut, hickory Nut, hickory

Macadamia nut; Nut, macadamia; 

Queenslandnut; Bushnut; 

Australian nut; Bopplenut; 

Bauplenut; smooth-shell 

Nut, macadamia Nut, macadamia
145

SEARCH OR LOOKUP 

TERM FOR TREE NUT 

COMMODITIES

PREFERRED 

TOLERANCE TERM

BASE 

CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

Queensland-nut; ao zhou jian guo; 

macadamier; noix du Queensland; 

glattschalige Macadamia; 

Macadamianuß; macadamia; 

nogueira-do-havaí; Nuez-demacadamia; rough-shelled 

macadamia; macadamia-nut;

Queensland-nut; rough-shell 

Queensland-nut; si ye ao zhou jian 

guo; macadamier; Macadamianuß; 

rauhschalige Macadamia; nogal de 

Australia; nuez australiana

Mongongo, mongongo, fruit;

mongongo nut; Nut, 

mongongo; manketti nut; 

manketti; mongongo; mangetti; 

mugongo; mungomo; 

omunkhete

Nut, mongongo Mongongo

Monkey puzzle nut; puzzle, 

monkey; Chilean pine; monkey 

puzzle tree; araucária-do-Chile

Nut, monkey puzzle Nut, monkey puzzle

Okari nut; okari-nut Nut, Okari Nut, Okari

Pachira Nut; Nut, pachira; wild 

chestnut

Nut, pachira Nut, pachira

Peach palm nut; Nut, peach palm; 

Palm, peach; pejibaye; palmier 

pêche; parépou; Pfirsichpalme; 

pupunha; gachipaes; masato; 

chonta; pijuayo; pejivalle, piva, 

cachipay, bobi, cachipaes, 

chontaduro; popunha

Nut, peach palm Peach palm

Pili nut; pilinut; Pilinußbaum; nuez 

pili

Nut, pili Nut, pili

Pine nut; Nut, pine; Siberian pine; 

Korean pine; Chinese pinenut; pin 

de Corée; Korea-Kiefer; 

channamu; Italian stone pine; 

parasol pine; pignolia-nut pine; 

stone pine; umbrella pine; pin 

parasol; pin pignon; Pinie; 

Schirmkeifer; Chilgoza Pine; 

chilghoza pine; Gerard’s pine; 

Gerard’s Kiefer; Single-leaf 

pinyon; one-leaf pinyon; 

einnadlige Weymouthskiefer; 

piñón

Nut, pine Nut, Pine
146

SEARCH OR LOOKUP 

TERM FOR TREE NUT 

COMMODITIES

PREFERRED 

TOLERANCE TERM

BASE 

CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

Sapucaia nut; Nut, Sapucaia; 

monkeynut; paradise-nut; 

sapucaia-nut; canari macaque; 

Paradiesnuß; nuez del paraíso

Nut, Sapucaia Nut, Sapucaia

Bur Oak; Oak, bur; Acorn; Burr 

oak; Mossy cup oak

Oak, bur Oak, bur

Pecan; Black hickory; Pecana; 

Nogal americano; Nogal pecanero; 

mei guo shan he tao; pacanier; 

Hickorynußbaum; Pekannußbaum; 

nogueira-peca; nogueira-japonêsa; 

nogueira-pecã; noz-japonêsa; nozpecã; pecã; pecana; pecanero

Pecan Pecan

Pequi; pequia; almendra de Brasil; 

Souari; sawari nut

Pequi Pequi

Pistachio; pistache nut; pistachio 

nut; Nut, pistachio; pistacia nut; 

green almond; pistachier cultivé;

Pistazie; Pistazienbaum;

pisutachio; alfóncigo; pistachero

Pistachio Pistachio

Walnut, black; Eastern black 

walnut; noyer noir d'Amérique; 

schwarze Walnuß; nogueira-preta; 

nogal Americano; nogal negro; 

Walnut, Northern California black; 

Hinds’ black walnut; Hand’s black 

walnut; Hinds' black walnut; 

Hinds' walnut; northern California 

black walnut; northern California 

walnut; kalifornische Walnuß; 

Nut-o-Nogal; Walnut, Texas black

Walnut, black Walnut, black

English walnut; Walnut, English; 

California walnut; Persian walnut; 

Madeira nut; Nogal, Carpathian 

walnut; Nogal comum; hu-tao; 

noyer commun, echte Walnuß; 

nogueira-comum; nogueiraeuropéia; nogal común; nogal 

europeo; nogal ingles

Walnut, English Walnut, English

Yellowhorn; Yellow-horn; 

Popcorn Shrub; Chinese 

flowering chestnut

Yellowhorn Yellowhorn

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APPENDIX II – Some Types of Tree Nut Products Available in the Marketplace.

Brazil Nuts:

25 Pound Cases Brazil Nuts (In Shell). Brazil Nuts, imported from South America. This is a very 

nutritious nut with a very hard shell.
161

25 Pound Cases Raw Brazil Nuts (No Shell) Another naturally healthy nut, Brazil Nuts are high in 

protein, calcium, iron, zinc, and are one of the best natural dietary sources of selenium.

25 Pound Cases Roasted Brazil Nuts (Salted) Another healthy nut high in protein, calcium, iron 

and zinc.

20 Pound Cases Dark Chocolate Covered Brazil Nuts Brazils roasted, then triple dipped and 

layered in dark chocolate.

25 Pound Cases Roasted Brazil Nuts (Unsalted) The smaller the Brazil Nut kernel the richer and 

tastier the flavor. These are sized, are roasted and, are packed with protein.

25 Pound Cases Brazil Nut Pieces All natural raw brazil nut pieces for snacking, baking, and 

cooking. Packed with selenium.

Chestnuts:

Fresh Chestnuts Chestnuts roasting on an open fire...Traditional fresh chestnut have 

unforgettable smell of fresh roasting chestnuts.

Dried Chestnuts Traditional Dried Chestnuts, imported from Italy. These chestnuts must be 

prepared before they are consumed. For chestnut based recipes, boiled, or even candied. They can 

also be ground into chestnut flour. To use: boil for 45 minutes or until tender and use as directed in 

recipes. 
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Hazelnuts (Filberts)

Hazelnuts / Filberts (In Shell) Harvested at just the right time, these Jumbo Hazelnuts are from 

Oregon. Loaded with nutrition filberts can be eaten whole, ground, flaked or made into butter or oil.

Raw Hazelnuts / Filberts (No Shell) Natural hazelnuts (filberts) are high in protein and low in 

fat. 

Roasted Hazelnuts / Filberts (Salted) The largest hazelnuts from Oregon roasted and lightly 

salted with skin on.

Blanched Hazelnuts

Blanched hazelnuts from Turkey

Organic Hazelnuts (Raw, No Shell)These fresh organic hazelnuts are certified organic by CCOF. 

They contain no additives or preservatives and are grown without pesticides.

Dark Chocolate Covered Hazelnuts Dark chocolate covered hazelnuts.

Hazelnut Flour Natural filbert flour is great for baking. An alternative for standard wheat 

flour.
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Milk Chocolate Hazelnuts Milk chocolate covered hazelnuts

Hickory Nuts:

Ozark in shell hickory 5 lb box- In 2008 the harvest was outstanding of shag and shell 

bark nuts. These are large hickory nuts.

.

Pistachios:

Turkish Pistachios (Antep)

These are the most popular Turkish pistachios. Antep Turkish Pistachios, the closest to the supreme 

Iranian variety, are the smallest pistachio and a little harder to open than the California, but pack 

the most punch. These roasted and salted nuts are the sweetest pistachios.

Roasted Pistachios (Salted and unsalted No Shell)

Roasted, no shell, with and without salt California pistachios. Good for baking, salads or on ice 

cream!

Raw Pistachios (No shell)

Naturally raw with no shell California pistachios. For those who like as many nutrients as possible

Red Pistachios Pistachios are an excellent and rich tasting nut that is high in potassium. 
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Toffee Chocolate Pistachios:

Pistachios, encrusted in a toffee shell, and then coated in layers of the finest milk or semi-sweet 

chocolate

Turkish Pistachios (Siirt)

Roasted and salted Turkish Pistachios are have some of the most exotic and tantalizing taste found 

only in this imported nut.

Ginger Soy Pistachios Crispy and fresh roasted pistachios seasoned with a ginger and soy flavor.

Chili Lime Pistachios Pistachios flavored with that spicy and citrus taste of chili and lime.

Turkish Pistachios (Antep, Unsalted) Imported Turkish pistachios roasted in the shell but with 

no salt.

Turkish Pistachios (Raw, No Shell) Raw Antep kernels out of the shell.
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Pistachio Flour All natural pistachio flour. Use in baking, cooking, or breads.

Dark Chocolate Covered Pistachios Roasted pistachio kernels smothered in delicious dark 

chocolate

Habanero Pistachios We searched high and low for the best tasting flavored pistachios that pack 

the most heat. These habanero pistachios will surely satisfy your heat seeking taste buds!

Chili Lemon Pistachios

Chili Lemon Pistachios have spicy heat of chili mixed with the refreshing taste of lemon.

Garlic Onion Pistachios California pistachios are flavored with real crushed garlic and onion.

Hickory Pistachios These hickory flavored pistachios are perfectly seasoned. California pistachios 

with smoked flavor.