# U n i t e d S t a t e s C o u r t o f A pp e a l s
For the Eig hth Circu it

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No . 1 8 -2 9 75

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Un i t ed St at es o f Am eri ca

Pl a i nt i ff - Ap p el la n t

v

.

Dy l an An t h o n y

Dav i s

D ef en d a n t - Ap p el lee

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Ap p eal fro m

Un i t ed St at es Di s t ri ct Co u rt fo r t h e No rt h ern Di s t ri ct o f Io wa - Si o u x Ci t y

_

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Su bm i t t ed : Sep tem

ber 2 7, 2 0 19
Fi l ed : No v em

b er 2 7 , 2 01 9

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Befo re SM ITH, Ch i ef J u d g e, W OLLM AN an d ERICKSON, Ci rcu i t J u dg es

.

_ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _

ERICKSON, Ci rcu i t J u dg e.

Defen d an t / Ap p el lee D y l an Dav i s was i n d i ct e d o n fo u r co un t s o f co n t ro l l ed

s u b s t an ce an d fi rearm o ffen s es i n t he Un it ed St at es Di s t r i ct Co u rt fo r t h e No rt h ern

Di s t ri ct o f Io w a aft er p o li ce d i s co v ered m ari ju an a an d m et h am

p h et am i n e i n a ren t al

car i n wh i ch Dav i s was a pas s en g er. Th e d i s t ri ct co u rt g ran t ed Dav i s ’ s m o t i o n tos u p p res s ev i d en ce fo u nd i n s i d e t h e car, fi nd i n g Dav i s w a s det ai ned wi t h o ut

reas on ab l e s u s p ici o n b efo re an u n l awfu l p r e t e x t u a l i n v en t ory

. Th e Un it ed St at es

ap p eal s th e d is t ri ct co u rt ’ s o rd er g ran t i n g Dav i s ’ s m o t i o n t o s up p res s. W e h av e ju ri s d i ct i o n u n d er 18 U.S.C. § 3 7 3 1

. Becau s e we fi n d D a v i s h a d n o reas o n ab l e

ex p ect at i o n o f p ri v acy

i n t h e v eh icl e, we rev ers e.

I . Ba ck g ro und

At 9 :1 7 p .m

. o n No v em

ber 2 9

, 2 0 1 7

, Serg ean t M i ch ael Ko b er (“ Sg t

. Ko b er”)

o f t h e Io w a St at e Pat ro l i n i t i at ed a traffi c s t o p of a s p o rt s u t i li t y v eh i cl e (“ SUV”) n ear

On awa, Io wa fo r sp e e d i ng

. Acco m p an y i n g Sg t

. K o b er was a ci v i l i an “ ri d e al o n g.”
Sg t

. Ko b er ap p ro ach ed t h e d ri v er’ s s id e o f t h e SUV an d fo u n d t wo m en i n si d e: No ah

Po p e, t h e d ri v er, an d Dy lan Dav i s , wh o was ap paren t l y as leep i n t h e p as s en g er s eat

. Sg t

. Ko b er i n fo rm ed Po p e an d Dav i s t h at h e h ad s t o p p ed t h e v eh i cl e fo r s p eed i n g an d

as k ed b o t h m en fo r t hei r l i cen s es an d t h e v eh i cl e reg i s t rat io n

.

Po p e t o l d Sg t

. Ko b er t h at t h ey d id n o t hav e a reg i s t r a t i o n fo r t he v eh i cl e
b ecau s e i t was a ren t al car. Po p e al s o rep o rt ed t h at t h e ren t al ag reem en t was n o t i n

t h ei r p os s es s i o n an d t h at a fri en d ren ted t he car fo r t h em i n G eo rg i a. Th e car was d u e

t o b e ret u rn ed t h e n ex t d ay an d n ei t her m an was li st ed o n t h e ren t al ag reem en t

. As

Po p e ru m m ag ed t h ro u g h h i s b ack p ack i n an at t em p t to l o cat e h i s d ri v er’ s li cen s e, Sg t

. Ko b er s aw s ev eral s m al l b ag gi es i n Po p e’ s back p ack

. Sg t

. Ko b er o b s erv ed th at Po p e

was n erv ou s , s h ak y , an d b reat hi n g h eav i ly an d s u s p ect ed t hat h e was t ry i n g t o h i d e

a b ag g i e f

r o m v i e w

. By n ow Dav i s was awak e bu t d i d n o t ap p ear t o b e n erv o u s

. Dav i s d i d n o t h av e a d ri v er’ s l i cen s e b u t l at er wro t e i d en t i fy i n g i n fo rm at i o n o n a

p i ece o f p ap er.

Sg t

. Ko b er n ot i ced a l o ng g u n cas e i n t he b ack o f t h e SUV an d as k ed wh at was

i n s i d e. Dav i s res p o n d e d

, a “ n i n e-m i l l i m et er,” an d g av e Sg t

. Ko b er p erm i s s i o n to

ex am i n e t h e weap o n

. Sg t

. Ko b er o p en ed t h e cas e an d o b s erv ed a l o ad ed p i s t o l

.

-2

-W h en as k ed wh y h e was t rav el i n g wi t h a l o ad ed weap o n , Dav i s s ai d h e d i d n o t wan t

t o l eav e i t i n h i s o wn car at h o m e. Sg t

. Ko b er t o ok t h e p i s t o l, Po p e’ s dri v er’ s l i cen s e,

an d Dav i s ’ s i n fo rm at i o n t o h i s p at ro l v eh i cl e t o req u es t a ch eck o n each i t em fro m
d i s p at ch . Ret ri ev in g t h es e i t em s an d ex am i n in g t h e g u n t o o k ab o u t t en m i n u t es . It

t o o k d is p at ch an ad d it i o n al s i x m i n u t es t o p ro v i d e Sg t . Ko b er wi t h v eri fi cat i o n s

.

As t h ey wai t ed fo r d is p at ch Sg t

. Ko b er t o l d t h e “ ri d e al o n g” th at he su s p ect ed

Po p e an d Dav i s w ere ei t h er t raffi ck i n g d ru g s or ro b b i n g b an k s

. He al s o s ai d t h at h e

wo u l d h av e t h e ren t al co m p a n y t o w t h e v eh i cl e s o h e co u ld p erfo rm an i n v en t o ry

s earch of t h e SUV. Sg t

. K o ber cal l ed th e ren t al co m p an y fo r i n fo rm at io n o n t h e SUV

an d t o s eek a t o w req u es t

. H i s fi rs t cal l t o t h e ren tal co m p an y wen t u n an s wered

. A

few m in u t es l at er Sg t

. Ko b er was ab l e t o reach an au t o m at ed ph o n e s y s t em an d was
d i rect ed t o a rep res en t at iv e. Th i s rep res en t at i v e t o o k s o m e i n i t i al i n fo rm at i o n , t h en

p l aced Sg t

. Ko b er on ho l d

. A ft er h o l d i n g , an o t her rep res en t at i v e p i ck ed u p , g av e Sg t

. Ko b er i n fo rm at i o n ab o u t t h e ren t al ag reem en t

, an d req u es t ed t h e v eh i cl e b e t o wed

. It to o k t en m i n u tes fo r Sg t. Ko b er t o fi n i s h h i s cal l t o t he ren t al co m p an y

.

Sg t

. Ko b er is s u ed Po p e a s p eed i n g t i ck et an d i n fo rm ed Po p e an d Dav i s t h at t h e

car wo u l d b e t o wed at t h e req u es t of t h e ren t al co m p an y

. Sg t

. Ko ber as k ed Po p e an d

Dav is to ex i t t h e SUV an d

, wi t h an ot h er o ffi cer, b eg an t o i n v en t o ry t h e v eh i cl e. Sg t

. Ko b er fo un d a g l as s p i p e wi t h m et h am p h et am i n e res i d u e u n d er t h e dri v er’ s s eat

. He

p l aced Po p e an d Dav i s u n d er arres t an d c o nt i n u ed t h e s earch

, wh i ch u n co v ered

m et h am p h et am i ne, m ari

j uan a, an d m o re p arap h ern al ia.

A fed eral g r a n d ju r y i nd i ct ed Dav i s o n fo u r co u n t s rel at ed t o t h e arres t : (1 ) co n s p i racy to d i s t ri bu t e a co n t ro l l ed s ub s tan ce i n v i o l at i on o f 2 1 U.S.C. § §

8 4 1 (a)(1 ), 8 4 1 (b )(1 )(A), an d 84 6 ; (2 ) p o s s es s i on wi t h i n t en t t o d i s t ri b u t e a co n t ro l l ed

s u b s t an ce i n v io l at i o n o f 2 1 U .S

. C. § § 8 41 (a)(1 ), 8 4 1 (b )(1 )(A), an d 1 8 U.S.C. § 2;
(3 ) p os s es s i o n o f a fi rearm i n fu rt h eran ce o f d ru g t raffi ck i n g i n v i o l at i o n of 1 8 U.S.C.

-3

-§ § 2

, 9 2 4(c)(1 )(A) an d 9 2 4 (a)(2 ); an d (4 ) u n l awfu l t ran s p o rt o f fi rearm s in vi o l at i o n

o f 1 8 U.S.C. § § 2 , 9 22 (g )(3 ), an d 9 2 4 (a)(2 ).

Dav i s m o v ed t o s up p res s ev i d en ce fo un d i n t h e ren t al car. Th e d i s tri ct co u rt

g ran t ed th e m o t i on , fi n d in g Dav i s was u n co n s t i t u t i on al l y s ei zed wh en t h e t raffi c s t o p

was ex t en d ed wi t h o u t reas o n ab l e s us p ici o n an d th e v eh i cl e was s earch ed pu rs u an t to

an u n l awfu l p ret ex t u al i n v en t o ry

. Th e Un i t ed S t a t es ap p eal s t h e o rd er g ran t i n g

s u p p res s i o n , arg u i n g Dav i s lack s s t an d i n g t o ch al len g e t h e SUV s earch an d Sg t

. Ko b er h ad p ro bab l e cau s e to s earch t h e v e h i c l e b efo re t he in v en t o ry

. T h e Un i t ed

St at es d o es n o t ap p eal t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt ’ s fi nd i n g th at t h e i nv en t ory was p ret ex t u al

. Becau s e we fi nd D av i s l a c k s s t a n d i n g , we n eed n o t reach t h e i s s u e o f w h et h er Sg t

. Ko b er h ad p ro bab l e cau s e t o s earch t h e SUV b efo re t h e i n v en t o ry

.

I I . Di s cus s i o n

“ On ap p eal fro m

a g ran t o f a m o t i o n t o s u p p res s , we rev i ew a d i s t ri ct co urt ’ s

fi nd i n g s o f f

a c t fo r cl ear erro r an d i t s l eg al co n cl u s io n s d e n o v o .” Un i t ed St at es v.

Ho rt o n , 8 6 3 F.3 d 1 0 4 1, 1 0 4 6 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 17 ) (cl ean ed u p ).

Th e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t p ro h i b i t s u n reas on ab le s earch es an d s ei zu res

. U.S.

Co n s t

. am en d

. IV. Fo u rt h Am en d m en t ri gh t s are p ers o nal an d m ay n ot b e a s s ert ed

v i cari o u s l y

. Al d erm an v

. Un i t ed St at es , 39 4 U.S. 16 5

, 1 7 4 (1 9 6 9). On l y t h o s e wi th

a reas o n ab l e ex p ect at io n of p ri v acy i n t h e p l ace s earch ed m a y b r i n g a Fo u rt h

Am en d m en t ch al len g e. M i nn es o t a v

. C art er, 5 2 5 U.S. 8 3

, 8 8 (1 9 9 8 ). A p as s en g er
wh o as s ert s “ n ei t h er a p ro p ert y n o r a p o s s es s o ry i n t eres t ” i n a v eh i cl e l ack s a

reas on ab l e ex p ect at i o n o f p ri v acy i n t h at v eh i cl e. Rak as v

. Il l i n o i s , 43 9 U.S. 1 2 8

, 1 4 8
(1 9 7 8). Ev en wh ere a s earch i s u n l awfu l

, a p as sen g er wi t h o ut s u ch an i nt eres t i n t h e

v eh icl e n o rm al l y can n o t ch al len g e i t s s earch or s u pp res s res ul t i n g ev i den ce. Un i t ed

St at es v . An g u i an o , 7 9 5 F.3 d 8 7 3 , 8 7 8 -7 9 (8 th Ci r. 2 01 5 ).

-4

-W h en Sg t

. Ko b er s t o p ped t h e SUV, Dav i s was i n t h e pas s en ger seat as l eep an d

d i d n o t h av e a d ri ver’ s l icen s e. He n ev er as s ert ed th at h e d ro ve o r was p erm i t t ed to

d ri v e o r ex erci s e co n tro l o v er t h e SUV. As a p as s en g er wi t h o u t a p ro p ert y o r

p o s s es s o ry i nt eres t

, D av i s di d n o t hav e a reas o n ab l e ex p ect at i o n o f pri v acy i n t h e

v eh icl e.

Th at s ai d

, D av i s m ay s t i l l ch al l en g e th e s earch i f he was u n reas o n ab l y s ei zed

d u ri n g t h e t raffi c s t o p an d t h e s ei zu re cau s ed an u n l awfu l s earch

. Th e di s t ri ct co u rt

fo u n d Sg t

. Ko ber l ack ed reas o n ab l e s u s p i ci on to ex t en d t h e s t o p

. Th e d i s t ri ct co u rt

h el d t h i s u n co n s t i t u t i o n al s ei zu re al l owed Dav i s t o ch al l en g e t h e SUV search o n

Fo u rt h A m en d m en t g r o u n d s

. “ W e rev i ew d e no v o t he q ues t i o n wh et her p art i cu l ar

fact s ad d u p t o reas on ab l e s u s p i ci o n .” Un i t ed St at es v

. Li nk o u s, 2 8 5 F.3 d 71 6

, 7 2 0
(8 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 2 ) (cl ean ed u p ).

A p as s en g er m ay s u p p res s ev i d en ce fo u n d i n a v eh icl e wh en an u n reas o n ab l y

ex t en d ed t raffi c s t o p cau ses t h e s earch

. Un i t ed St at es v

. Peral ez, 5 2 6 F.3 d 11 1 5

, 1 1 2 1
(8 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 8 ) (cl ean ed u p); s ee al s o Bren d l i n v

. Cal i fo rn i a, 55 1 U

. S. 2 4 9, 25 1

, 2 6 3
(2 0 0 7 ) ( h o l d i n g a p as s en g er can b e u n reas o n ab l y s ei zed d u ri n g a traffi c st o p ). A

t raffi c s t o p i s co n s t i t u t i o nal l y l i m i t ed t o t h e ti m e req u i red t o co m p let e i ts p u rp o s e b ut

m ay b e ex t en d ed d u e t o an o ffi cer’ s reas o n ab l e su s p i ci o n o f cri m i n al act i vi t y

. Un i t ed

S t a t e s v

. Ri l ey , 68 4 F.3 d 7 5 8

, 7 6 3

, 76 5 (8 t h Ci r. 20 1 2) (cl ean ed u p ). A reas o n ab l e

s u s p i ci o n i s “ s o m e m in im al

, o b ject i v e ju s t i fi cat io n ” fo r s u s p ici o n bey o n d an

“ i n ch o at e h u n ch .” Un i t ed St at es v

. Fu s e, 3 9 1 F.3 d 9 24

, 9 2 9 (8 t h Ci r. 20 0 4) (cl ean ed

u p ). W e ev al u at e wh et h er p o l ice h ad reas o nab l e s us p ici o n t o ex t en d a t raffi c s t o p
b as ed on t h e t o t al it y o f t he ci rcu m s t an ces

. U n i t ed St at es v

. Qu in t ero -Fel i x, 7 1 4 F.3 d

5 6 3 , 5 6 7 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 3 ) (cl ean ed u p ).

Dav i s as k s us t o co m

p are t h i s cas e t o U n i t ed St at es v

. Peral ez, wh ere we fo u n d

an u n reas o n ab l e s ei zu re aft er an o ffi cer ex t en d ed an o t h erwi s e-ro u t i n e traffi c s t o p to

rep eat ed l y q ues ti o n o ccu p an t s ab o u t d r u g t raffi ck in g an d wal k a can i n e aro u n d t h e

-5

-v e h i cl e. 5 2 6 F.3 d at 1 1 1 7 -1 9

. In Peral ez, t h e o ffi cer ex t en d ed a s t o p b ey o n d i t s

o ri g i nal p u rp o se wi th o u t an y i n d i cat i o n o f cri m i n al act i v i t y . Id

. at 1 1 1 7

. Th i s s t o p

i s eas i l y d i s t i n g u i s h ab l e an d i n v o lv es t rad i t i o nal b a s e s o f reas o n ab l e s u s p i ci o n ju s t ify i ng an ex t en s i o n

.

W e h av e fo u nd a co m

b i nat i o n o f n erv o u s b eh av i o r an d s us p i ci o u s t rav el p l an s

creat es a reas o n ab l e s u s pi ci o n ju s ti fy in g a t raffi c s t o p ’ s ex t en s io n

. Ri l ey , 6 8 4 F.3 d

at 7 6 3-6 4

. In t he pro t ect i v e v eh i cl e s earch co n t ex t

, we h av e al s o fo un d an occu p an t ’ s

fu rt iv e m o vem en t creat es reas on ab l e s u s p i ci on

. Un i t ed St at es v

. M o rg an , 7 2 9 F.3 d

1 0 8 6

, 1 0 9 0 (8 th Ci r. 2 0 1 3 ). W e h av e fu rt h er fo u n d a t h i r d -p art y v eh i cl e o wn er’ s
ab s en ce co n t ri b u t es t o a fi n d i n g o f reas o n ab l e s us p ici o n. Un i ted St at es v

. Ol i v e r aM en d ez, 4 8 4 F.3 d 5 0 5, 5 1 0 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 7 ). Li k e i n t h os e cas es , Po pe’ s n erv o u s n es s , h i s ap p a r e n t a t t e m

p t t o co n ceal a b ag g ie, an d t h e ren t er’ s ab sen ce were l i k el y

s u ffi ci en t t o ju s ti fy ex ten d i n g t h e s t o p

.

W i t h i n ten m i nu t es o f en c o u n t eri n g Po p e an d Dav i s , Sg t

. Ko b er o b s erv ed

b eh av i o r ju s ti fy i n g s u s p i ci o n

. Po p e h ad s ev eral s m al l b ag g i es in h i s b ack p ack , o n e

o f wh i ch h e ap p eared to t ry hi di n g fro m Sg t. Ko b er. Po p e w a s ex t rem el y n erv o u s

. Nei t h er Po p e n or Dav i s was l is t ed o n t h e SUV’ s ren t al ag reem en t

, an d t h e ren t er was

n o t p res en t

. On t h o s e fact o rs al o n e Sg t . Ko b er l i k el y h ad m o re t h an a h un ch Dav i s

was i n v o lv ed i n d ru g traffi ck i n g , b u t t h e p res en ce o f t h e l o ad ed pi s t o l co n vi n ces u s

t h at Sg t. K o b er’ s s u s p i ci o n was reas o n ab le an d t he s t o p was n o t u nl awfu l l y ex t en d ed

.

Trav el i n g i n a v eh i cl e wi t h a l o ad ed fi rearm i s u n l awfu l i n Io w a. Io wa Co d e § 7 24 .4 (1 ) (2 0 17 ). Aft er fi n di n g t h e p is t o l Sg t. K o b er l i k el y h ad p ro b ab l e cau s e to

s earch t h e SUV fo r ev i d en ce o f cri m i nal act i v i t y an d h e had

, at a m i n im u m , m et t h e

l o wer t h res h o l d o f reas o n ab l e s u s p i ci on t o ex t en d t h e t raffi c s t op

. We fi n d i t

s i gn i fi can t t h at i n ad d i t io n t o o t h er i n di ci a o f d ru g t raffi ck i ng

— bag g ies

, n erv o u s n es s ,

an d t he u n cert ai n ren tal si t u at i o n

— Sg t

. Ko b er o b s erv ed a vi o lat i o n o f Io wa l aw an d

a s tro n g i n d i cat o r o f d ru g t r a f fi ck i n g wh en h e fo u n d t h e lo ad ed p i st o l

. Dav is ’ s

-6

-ex p lan at i o n fo r tak i n g t h e g u n wi t h h i m i n a ren tal car acro s s t h e co u n t ry m ad e l i t t l e

s en s e an d p ro v i ded an o b

ject i ve ju s t i fi cat i o n fo r s u s p i ci o n

. Sg t

. Ko b er m ay h av e h ad

p ro b ab l e cau s e t o s e arch t he v eh i cl e aft er fi n di n g t h e gu n , o r t o arres t Dav i s fo r

v i o l at i n g t h e Io wa weap o ns s t at u t e. See Un it ed St at es v

. Bro wn , 2 1 7 F.3 d 6 0 5

, 6 0 7

- 0 8 (8 t h Ci r. 20 00 ) (fi n d i ng pro bab l e cau s e u n d er s i m i l ar ci rcu m s t an ces ). W e d o n ot

reach th e i s s u e o f pro b ab l e cau s e b e c a u s e ex t en d i n g th e t raffi c s to p was ju s t i fi ed

u n d er t h e l ower s t an d ard of reas o n ab l e s u s p i ci on

.

Th ere is n o p er s e ru l e ab o u t t h e p erm i s s i b le len g t h of a t raffi c s t op ex t en d ed

b y reas o n ab l e s u s p ici o n b as ed o n t h e m ere p as s ag e o f t im e. In s t ead

, we fi n d Sg t

. Ko b er res p o n ded t o o bject i v e b as es o f s u sp i ci o n in a reas on a b l e m an ner g i v en t h e

s p eci fi c ci rcu m s t an ces o f th i s p a r t i cu l ar s t o p. Reas o n ab l e d el ay s p rev en t ed Sg t

. Ko b er fro m i m

m ed iat el y v eri fy i n g t h e p as s en g ers ’ i n fo rm at i o n an d t h e st at u s es o f t h e

g u n an d SUV t o s at i s fy th o s e su s p i ci o n s. Un der d i fferen t ci rcu m st an ces a d el ay o f

t h i s l en g t h o r sh o rt er co u ld b e u n reas o n ab l e. Gi v en t he b as es of s u s p i ci o n i n t h i s

p art i cu l ar cas e an d t h e reas o n ab l e t i m e an d effo rt req u i r e d t o i n v es t i g at e t h em , we

fi nd Sg t . Ko ber l awfu l l y

ex t en d ed t h i s s t o p b as ed o n reas on ab le s us p ici o n.

Becau s e Sg t. Ko b er act ed o n a reas o n ab l e su s p i ci o n t o ex t en d th e t raffi c s t o p,

Dav is was n o t un r e a s o n a b l y s ei zed i n v i o l at io n of t h e Fo u rt h A m en d m en t

. Th i s

l eav es Dav i s wi t h ou t s t an di ng t o ch al l en g e th e p ret ex tu al i n v en t o ry s earch

. Becau s e

Dav is l ack s a reas o n ab l e ex p ect at i on o f p ri v acy i n t h e SUV as a p as s en g er, h e can n ot

as s ert a Fo urt h Am en d m en t ch al l en g e t o t h e v eh i cl e s earch

.

I I I . Co ncl us i o n

Fo r t h e fo reg o i n g reas o n s , we rev ers e t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt ’ s o r d e r g r a n t i n g t h e

m o ti o n t o s u p p res s

.

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