Effective Learning 

Interventions for Developing 

ECQs

NOVEMBER 2015

United StateS Office Of PerSOnnel ManageMent

OPM.GOV
1 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................3

DEFINITIONS......................................................................................................................................4

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT MATRIX..................................................................................................6

RESEARCH SUMMARIES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING INTERVENTIONS BY ECQ COMPETENCY..................18

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: CREATIVITY/INNOVATION..................................................................................18

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: EXTERNAL AWARENESS .....................................................................................21

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: FLEXIBILITY ....................................................................................................23

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: RESILIENCE.....................................................................................................26

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: STRATEGIC THINKING........................................................................................28

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: VISION..........................................................................................................31

ECQ 2: LEADING PEOPLE: CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................33

ECQ 2: LEADING PEOPLE: LEVERAGING DIVERSITY......................................................................................36

ECQ 2: LEADING PEOPLE: DEVELOPING OTHERS.........................................................................................39

ECQ 2: LEADING PEOPLE: TEAM BUILDING ...............................................................................................41

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: ACCOUNTABILITY ..............................................................................................44

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: CUSTOMER SERVICE...........................................................................................46

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: DECISIVENESS ..................................................................................................49

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: ENTREPRENEURSHIP ..........................................................................................52

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: PROBLEM SOLVING ...........................................................................................55

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: TECHNICAL CREDIBILITY ......................................................................................58

ECQ 4: BUSINESS ACUMEN: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT, HUMAN CAPITAL MANAGEMENT, TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT

........................................................................................................................................................60

ECQ 5: BUILDING COALITIONS: PARTNERING ............................................................................................62

ECQ 5: BUILDING COALITIONS: POLITICAL SAVVY.......................................................................................64

ECQ 5: BUILDING COALITIONS: INFLUENCING/NEGOTIATING ........................................................................67

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: INTERPERSONAL SKILLS ...............................................................................70

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: WRITTEN COMMUNICATION ........................................................................72

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: ORAL COMMUNICATION .............................................................................74

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: INTEGRITY/HONESTY..................................................................................76

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: CONTINUAL LEARNING................................................................................79

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: PUBLIC SERVICE MOTIVATION ......................................................................81

MEASURING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF YOUR LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM..........................83

APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................................85
2 

DEFINITIONS OF LEADER DEVELOPMENT LEARNING ACTIVITIES ........................................................85

ENDNOTES.......................................................................................................................................89

SOURCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS............................................................................................108
3 

INTRODUCTION

The best leadership development programs are those that enhance management capacity 

and organizational performance while maximizing the return on investment for the Federal 

government. Leadership is challenging in any environment, but leading in the Federal 

Government comes with unique challenges that require leaders to react with speed and 

competence in high-pressure situations. The learning and development function within 

organizations must respond by moving leadership development beyond the classroom into 

actual crisis situations, through training activities such as action learning, simulations, 

service learning and multi-source feedback.

The U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM), in partnership with researchers from 

George Mason University (GMU), conducted a thorough review of leadership development 

efforts to create this report, Effective Learning Interventions for Developing Executive 

Core Qualifications (ECQs) This report has four specific objectives:

• To help agencies make strategic data driven training decisions;

• To promote increased efficiencies by informing the design, development and 

implementation of new leadership development programs with theoreticallygrounded research; 

• To increase training innovation, rigor, and effectiveness within Federal leadership 

development programs; and

• To provide a helpful data-driven approach for evaluating the potential effectiveness 

of Commercial off the Shelf (COTS) development solutions offered by external 

vendors. 

Study Methodology

A GMU team of researchers – Dr. Steven Zaccaro, Rachel Feyre, and Samantha Holland – 

reviewed empirical and conceptual studies in the literature, ranging from randomized 

experiments to summaries of anecdotes from case studies. They also reviewed studies 

where researchers provided their own summaries of the existing literature.1 

Recommendations were derived from an integrated consideration of the research. 

Key Themes and Conclusions

The following key themes and trends emerged consistently throughout the research and 

benchmarking interviews of Federal agencies: 

• Effective leadership development emerges from a combination of multiple 

developmental experiences, and

• Leadership development is unique to the particular leader and should not rest on 

the use of a single approach for all. For example, work experiences that present 

challenges and learning to some leaders are more effective when paired with 

feedback, especially for interpersonal and business leadership skill development.2

Likewise, action learning projects become more effective for some leaders’ growth 

when they include facilitators or coaches, and are paired with opportunities for selfreflection.3 
4 

To grow as leaders, individuals should assess their needs and use the development 

recommendations in this report to establish a comprehensive leader development plan that 

integrates a range of interventions most suited to them and to a specific competency. 

Practitioners can use this report to inform the learning interventions in their leadership 

and executive development programs. For a fully comprehensive view of leadership 

development options, use this report in addition to resources available on OPM’s Training 

and Development Policy Wiki (https://www.opm.gov/wiki/training/Index.aspx). You 

should also consult with your agency Chief Learning Officer and Training and Development 

office for additional development guidance, options and strategies.

DEFINITIONS

Throughout this report, the researchers address five classes of leadership development 

interventions and learning activities specific to each. The five classes are: 

Instructor-led (e.g., degree programs, courses, seminars, workshops, case presentations 

and discussions, distance learning, passive computer-based instruction)

This type of training is facilitated by an instructor either online or in a classroom setting. 

Instructor-led training allows for learners and instructors or facilitators to interact and 

discuss the training material, either individually or in a group setting. 

Experiential activities (e.g., on-the-job training, action learning, service learning, team 

projects, simulations and games, scenario planning)

Experiential activities are developmental tasks that occur in immersive environments and 

allow learners to naturally generate questions. These questions are optimally answered at the 

time they are generated. The key to experiential activities is hands-on learning and 

conversation; either virtually or in face-to-face interaction.

Developmental relationships (e.g., coaching, mentoring, networking, supervisor support, 

peer-to-peer learning partners, shadowing)

Developmental relationships are either formal or informal and involve one individual taking 

an active interest in and initiating actions to advance another’s development. They are the 

kinds of relationships that serve as key sources of assessment, challenge, and support.

Assessments and feedback (e.g., multisource and 360-degree feedback, self-assessments, 

assessment tools, developmental assessment centers)

Multisource feedback is a process of acquiring performance feedback from multiple rates and 

sources, including a leader's superiors, peers, and subordinates. Leaders also provide selfratings. Feedback intensive programs include not only assessments of performance, but of 

leader personality, skills, and other dispositions. Such feedback is intended to foster greater 

self-understanding and facilitate the construction of effective individualized development 

plans.

Self-development (e.g. individual development plans, self-guided learning activities)

Self-development is any self-initiated and proactive learning process where learners are 

responsible for (a) assessing their own strengths and developmental needs, (b) designing and 
5 

completing their instructional curriculum, and (c) evaluating their own learning progress. 

(e.g., individualized development plans, self-guided learning activities).

The research suggests the most effective leadership development programs will likely be 

those that combine and integrate learning activities from one or more of these classes. 

Definitions of the specific learning activities used throughout this report are listed in the 

Appendix. 
6 

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT MATRIX

This report includes a Leadership Development Matrix, a “quick reference guide” of the 

summaries within the report. This shortened version of the report lists a range of 

leadership development activities that best develop each of the twenty-two (22) core 

leadership competencies and six (6) fundamental competencies within the Executive 

Core Qualifications (ECQs). Individuals can use this matrix in day-to-day operations and 

discussions with current and aspiring leaders. For detailed research on why these 

particular interventions were recommended please review the report in its entirety. 
7 

Leadership Development Matrix: Quick Reference Guide of Recommended Developmental 

Activities for each ECQ Competency 

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

ECQ 1: Leading 

Change: Creativity 

and Innovation

• Engage in action learning projects with leaders from different 

functional areas within the organization. Projects should focus 

on development of new ideas, policies, and other activities that 

require creative and innovative thinking. Action learning

projects should include feedback mechanisms, and mentoring. 

• Engage in a developmental assignment that entails such activities 

as brainstorming and refining new policies, leading a policy 

launch effort, assessing implications of new technologies on 

organizational processes, or turning around a failing policy or 

process. Such assignments should be paired with feedback 

mechanisms and mentoring.

ECQ 1: Leading 

Change: External 

Awareness

• Engage in scenario planning exercises involving future

organizational scenarios designed in consideration of key 

stakeholders, numerous external trends (political, economic, 

societal, technological, legal, environmental, and industry), and 

the uncertainties of the future. 

• Utilize a mentor who can serve as a source of additional 

information regarding the industry and its external strategic 

environment. 

• Work on a developmental assignment or job rotation outside the 

organization, or one that requires the leader to work with others 

from different organizations to set up a new policy or strategic 

direction. 

ECQ 1: Leading 

Change: Flexibility

• Engage in job rotations where the leader experiences different 

work environments and learns new perspectives.

• Engage in multiple developmental assignments that differ 

significantly in the challenges they present to the leader. Each 

assignment should require the leader to work with new and 

different frames of reference. 

• Work with leadership and peer coaches who promote 

considerably different ways and perspectives for understanding 

work problems. 

• Participate in leader development workshops that utilize 

complex work simulations featuring active learning, significant 

variety in experienced problems, and structured feedback and 

guidance. 
8 

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

ECQ 1: Leading 

Change: Resilience

• Engage in structured training programs that emphasize stress 

management tools and stressor-coping mechanisms.

• Work with a coach to identify and develop solutions to stressinducing work problems. Such coaching should be paired with 

multi-source feedback. 

ECQ 1: Leading 

Change: Strategic 

Thinking

• Engage in developmental assignments that involve setting new 

directions, working on strategic formulation projects, and 

leading change. 

• Participate in a variety of strategically-oriented experiential

exercises, including (a) active learning projects that have a 

strategic focus; (b) group dialogue of strategic case discussions, 

and (c) strategic business games and simulations. 

• Attend courses and workshops that provide models of strategic 

thinking, and pair these models with experiential exercises. 

• Utilize a mentor who can guide the leader's cognitive 

development of more strategic frames of reference.

ECQ 1: Leading 

Change: Vision

• Engage in developmental assignments that entail long term 

planning and development of new directions for the 

organization. 

• Participate in team-based workshops involving action learning

projects that create cross-functional exposure and include 

exercises aimed at future trends of the organization. 

• Engage in scenario planning with team members to create a 

shared vision towards the future. 
9 

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

ECQ 2: Leading 

People: Conflict 

Management

• Engage in developmental assignments that entail working in 

situations likely to be significantly conflict-laden (e.g., dealing 

with a problem employee, serving as a negotiator or mediator, 

working with people from different cultures, and leading groups 

with diverse members). 

• Participate in and/or lead an action learning project with teams 

composed of members from different functional areas and with 

different perspectives

• Work with a leadership coach who helps identify leadership 

problem areas that can contribute to poor conflict management. 

Construct a leader development plan to address these areas. 

Coaching should be combined with conflict management 

workshops, and development/action learning assignments.

• Attend workshops that provide insight into conflict management 

styles and conflict resolution strategies. Such workshops should 

include not only lectures, but discussions around conflict 

management case studies and role play exercises.

ECQ 2: Leading 

People: 

Leveraging 

Diversity

• Engage in developmental assignments that entail working with 

groups containing members from diverse backgrounds and 

perspectives. Such assignments should be paired with feedback

providers. 

• Engage in service learning assignments paired with feedback and 

coaching. 

• Participate in extended workshops that utilize behavioral 

modeling, role plays, cultural assimilators, and reflective 

discussions to foster greater appreciation for diversity. Such 

course work should be paired with mentoring and action 

learning projects. 
10

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

ECQ 2: Leading 

People: 

Developing Others

• Participate in a coaching relationship. The coaching should focus 

specifically on: skills in providing feedback and opportunities to 

subordinates; active listening techniques; and the use of openended questions to encourage communication.

• Engage in a mentoring assignment – such assignments should be 

paired with peer and leadership coaching. 

• Attend workshops that focus on active listening, providing 

feedback, and helping subordinates construct individual 

development plans.

• Engage in a formal self-development intervention that requires 

diagnosis of self-learning needs, construction of a self-learning 

curriculum, and evaluation of learning gains. Practicing this 

intervention can foster general skills for developing others.

• Solicit multisource feedback from supervisors, peers, and 

subordinates – focusing on skills in developing others, including: 

active listening; providing feedback; and assigning 

developmental activities. Such feedback should be paired with 

coaching.

ECQ 2:Leading 

People: Team 

Building

• Lead a team-based action learning project. The action-learning 

project should also include feedback mechanisms, and 

mentoring. 

• Participate in coaching with multi-source feedback. These 

coaching exercises should focus on team management strategies, 

such as the use of team charters and team process facilitation, to

motivate team members and increase team commitment. Such 

coaching should also be paired with multi-source feedback to 

increase the self-awareness of the team building skills that need 

improvement. 

• Engage as a team lead in challenge exercises, adventure learning 

exercises, and team-based simulations. Feedback should be 

included to ensure that leaders grasp the purpose of these 

exercises and so their team's sense of cohesion will continue 

when they return to the organization.
11

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

ECQ 3: Results 

Driven: 

Accountability

• Establish a coaching relationship that emphasizes the 

importance of concrete goal establishment and responsibility for 

goal completion. Such coaching can also focus on delegation as 

well as time and project management skills. Coaching should 

include multisource feedback that focuses on these skills. 

• Establish peer coaching relationships to foster a climate of 

shared responsibility and accountability. Peer coaches create a 

higher level of self-awareness and reflection as well as a greater 

awareness of others’ responsibilities and needs.

• Take workshops and courses on time/project management skills, 

and performance management strategies. These workshops

should include role play exercises that utilize scenarios

displaying low accountability by peers and subordinates.

ECQ 3: Results 

Driven: Customer 

Service

• Engage in an action learning project that focuses on improving 

internal and external customer service systems and processes. 

This project should be paired with self-reflection or personal 

growth programs to foster greater self-awareness 

• Take part in a coaching program that centers on growing selfawareness and on improving recognition and balance of client 

needs against the leader’s own needs and constraints. This 

coaching should include guidance on how to set attainable goals 

towards the final product and on developing the leader’s 

planning techniques

• Take an interpersonal skills workshop that includes role playing

exercises reflecting both typical and non-typical internal 

customer service situations.
12

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

ECQ 3: Results 

Driven: 

Decisiveness

• Participate in workshops and courses that offer simulation-based 

training exercises requiring multiple complex decisions. Such 

exercises need to reflect novel and ill-defined situations leaders 

are likely to encounter on the job. Offer opportunities to work 

through appropriate solutions. Opportunities should be 

interactive in nature and accompanied by feedback and 

guidance.

• Engage in an action learning project that focuses on solving 

multiple problems within a constrained time period. This will 

serve to foster decision-making under time pressure, and 

enhance comfort with decision-making in situations where 

information is limited and a comprehensive evaluation of the 

problem scenario is not feasible. These projects can be paired 

with coaching and job assignments to reinforce learning gains. 

• Take on a developmental assignment that requires a solution to 

an ill-defined problem or one that has been outstanding in the 

organization for some time. Such assignments should be paired 

with feedback from supervisors, mentors, coaches, and/or other 

learning partners. 

ECQ 3: Results 

Driven: 

Entrepreneurship

• Participate in workshops or courses that focus on 

entrepreneurship. The requirements of the class or workshop 

should include the leader’s completion of a formal business plan 

for a new venture and its presentation to others. This program 

should be paired with catalytic coaching, where 

coaches/instructors encourage leaders to engage in more 

entrepreneurial thinking. 

• Engage in an action learning project that includes the 

exploration of new ventures and opportunities. Such projects 

should be paired with coaching and mentoring. 

• Engage in a developmental assignment that entails such activities 

as exploring, designing, and developing new ventures (e.g., 

policy, service-related tools and products). Such assignments 

should also be coupled with coaching, or mentoring for expert 

support and advice. 
13

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

ECQ 3: Results 

Driven: Problem 

Solving

• Engage in problem-solving learning experiences with coworkers. 

The intent is to help each other better understand problem 

approaches and solutions.

• Participate in a workshop where external case studies are 

presented and discussed. These case studies should provide 

examples of the kinds of problems a leader is expected to 

confront in their leadership environment.

• Participate in a simulation exercise where leaders have the 

opportunity to work through realistic problem scenarios. 

• Engage in an action learning project that entails working on 

existing problems within the sponsoring organization. Such 

projects should be paired with feedback mechanisms and 

coaching opportunities.

• Engage in developmental assignments that entail opportunities to 

work on problems that are ill defined or reoccurring within the 

organization. Such assignments should be paired with feedback

mechanisms and coaching opportunities.

ECQ 3: Results 

Driven: Technical 

Credibility

• Take formal courses or workshops on specific topics and areas 

enabling leaders to develop technical competence required for 

their jobs. Such courses should be followed by job 

responsibilities or assignments enabling learners to practice the 

acquired skills.

• Develop a mentoring relationship with a senior (i.e., more 

technically expert) employee in the organization. The mentor

should encourage open communication and be available to 

answer technical questions.

• Engage in job rotations that entail work tasks utilizing targeted 

technical skills.

ECQ 4: Business 

Acumen:

• Financial 

Management 

• Human Capital 

Management

• Technology 

Management 

• Take formal courses or workshops on specific topics and areas 

relating to the leaders’ needs to develop business acumen. Such 

courses should be followed by job assignments that allow 

acquired skills to be practiced.

• Develop a mentoring relationship with a senior (i.e., more 

technically expert) employee in your organization. The mentor

should encourage open communication and be available to 

answer technical questions.

• Engage in job rotations with work tasks enabling the 

development of skills in financial management, human capital 

management, or technology management.
14

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

ECQ 5: Building 

Coalitions: 

Partnering

• Engage in action learning projects with a team of leaders from 

different functional and organizational areas. The project should

involve extensive collaboration.

• Engage in job assignments that entail working on crossfunctional and cross-boundary teams.

• Develop a mentoring relationship with a more established and 

senior leader in the organization. The mentor should provide 

access to a wider professional network, especially to "brokers" 

who can facilitate connections to other professional networks. 

The organization should help match mentors to the appropriate 

mentees.

• Join and participate in professional societies and organizations 

that foster networking opportunities among its members.

ECQ 5: Building 

Coalitions: Political 

Savvy

• Take a workshop on organizational political dynamics that 

includes case studies of successful political climate navigation. 

The course should involve interactive and role play exercises and 

simulations in which leaders need to evaluate political 

acceptance of decisions in several decision contexts.

• Attend a workshop or forum of senior employees who share 

common experiences working within the organization. The 

sessions should provide opportunities for interaction and 

engagement between speakers and attendees. 

• Develop a mentoring relationship with a more senior employee 

in the organization, who can provide insight into organizational 

political dynamics.

• Engage in developmental assignments that require navigation of 

different organizational areas and levels of management to 

reach successful solutions. Such assignments should be paired 

with mentoring and/or coaching.
15

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

ECQ 5: Building 

Coalitions: 

Influencing/ 

Negotiating

• Engage in simulations in which leaders are required to influence 

another person’s opinion or to negotiate a position. This 

simulation should be paired with feedback that evaluates the 

leader’s performance and provides recommendations for 

improved strategies.

• Engage in a role-play activity in which opinion influence or 

negotiation is a key component. This exercise should be paired 

with instructive feedback and facilitation.

• Take a workshop that presents case studies of negotiation 

situations and learning on the negotiation strategies applied in 

the case studies. The workshop should provide a direct 

comparison between different cases to highlight underlying 

principles of influencing and negotiation.

• Engage in developmental assignments in which leaders must 

influence peers working on the same project or peers from 

whom they need to engender support. Ideally this exercise 

should be paired with coaching to help leaders uncover 

successful strategies.

Fundamental 

competency: 

Interpersonal Skills

• Take workshops that include behavior modeling or role-play

exercises. Modeling exercises should target specific 

interpersonal skills with modeled skill displays and sustained 

practice with feedback. Role plays should be paired with feedback

by trained facilitators. Workshops should be paired with 

coaching to extend the lessons learned to the actual behavior on 

the job.

• Complete multisource or 360-degree assessments that evaluate 

interpersonal skills. Work with a coach to develop a learning 

plan to address identified gaps. 
16

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

Fundamental 

competency:

Oral 

Communication 

• Attend a workshop that covers techniques and strategies for 

effective communication. This introduction should be paired 

with interactive activities such as behavior modeling or 

leadership simulations allowing leaders to apply learning from

the workshop into practical action. 

• Take on a developmental assignment offering the opportunity to 

present or communicate to areas of the organization with whom 

the leader normally does not interact. 

• Enter a coaching relationship focused on the development of 

oral communication skills. This relationship should be founded 

on a skills audit and assessment, or in multisource feedback

results, informing a development plan to which the relationship 

aligns.

Fundamental 

competency: 

Written 

Communication 

• Participate in a writing workshop, or a course on written 

communication skills. This learning should be interactive in 

nature and allow for group discussion as well as direct 

instructor feedback on participant writing samples

• Make use of learning partners and peer coaches to solicit 

feedback on written communications.

Fundamental 

competency:

Integrity/Honesty

• Develop a mentor relationship with a senior employee early on 

in the leader’s career, in which the senior employee serves as a 

role model for ethical conduct. This mentoring relationship 

should be paired with a formalized organizational ‘code of 

ethics’ that clearly reinforces a climate of integrity.

• Attend a workshop that provides heuristical decision-making 

tools on which leaders may rely in addressing challenging 

ethical situations in the workplace. These decision-making tools 

will particularly help guide appropriate action in times of 

uncertainty. 

• Take a course or workshop that includes case studies involving 

poor ethical conduct. The discussion should examine the ethical 

failures involved in the case studies, potential causes for the 

failure, and solutions, or prevention or mitigation strategies that 

could have been applied.

• Engage in a service learning project with an organization to 

enhance contact with and understanding of the community in 

which the organization exists.
17

ECQ Competency Recommended Leadership Development Activities

Fundamental 

competency:

Continual Learning 

• Engage in self-development skills training. This training should 

be two-fold: identification of skills development needs, and 

ways to effectively set developmental goals for those skills. This

activity may be conducted through multi-source feedback – 

including both a skills evaluation as well as a formative 

evaluation – so the leader understands why specific 

developmental activities will be effective. Organizational 

support is also important to encourage these self-developmental 

activities. 

• Participate in an assessment (e.g. 360, personality) and in a 

coaching relationship that can facilitate self-development efforts. 

Multi-source feedback from supervisors, peers, and subordinates 

can be used as part of coaching to identify self-learning 

objectives. 

Fundamental 

competency: 

Public Service 

Motivation 

• Engage in service learning activities, where leaders apply skills 

learned in the classroom to actual problems in the community. 

• Engage in behavioral modeling paired with mentoring. The 

behavioral modeling should involve the active demonstration of

the organization’s public service values. Leaders should use 

mentors for support and as experts who embody and model 

organizational values. 
18

RESEARCH SUMMARIES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING 

INTERVENTIONS BY ECQ COMPETENCY

∗

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: CREATIVITY/INNOVATION 

Definition: 

Develops new insights into situations; questions conventional approaches; encourages new 

ideas and innovations; designs and implements new or cutting edge programs/processes. 

Summary of Literature:

Research shows interventions that successfully promote growth in creative thinking and 

innovation skills should include specific forms of action learning, paired with feedback and 

mentoring. Action learning teams are effective in helping learners address complex 

organizational problems and develop innovative solutions.

24 To optimize learning 

effectiveness, different functional stakeholders should comprise these teams to ensure a 

range of diverse perspectives.25 One important study concludes action learning 

assignments should: (a) involve teams composed of leaders from different functional areas 

within organizations; (b) focus on emerging problems requiring innovative solutions; and 

(c) be paired with feedback from peers, coaches, and/or mentors.26 

Specific forms of individual developmental assignments have also been associated with 

growth in creative thinking and innovation skills. One study indicates the following are

particularly helpful in fostering effective Leading Change development: (1) assignments 

providing leaders responsibility for finalizing and implementing new products, and (2) 

assignments enabling leaders to serve in a variety of project roles related to organizational 

change (e.g., technical liaisons for new product implementation, participants on 

"technology monitoring panels" that assess implications of new organizational technology,

members of strategy planning sessions).27 Another study establishes a correlation between 

the degree of challenge in developmental assignments (e.g., based upon higher-level and 

responsibilities, and tasks that involve product launches or personnel changes) correlated 

to individual growth in the development of change creation skills.28 

According to several researchers, the effectiveness of action learning and developmental 

assignments as tools for developing innovation skills strongly depends upon several paired 

interventions, including feedback, coaching, and mentoring. For example, one study found 

that a company's learning climate, which included feedback and a formal mentoring 

program, explained 20-26% of the variance in different measures of innovation.29 A 

review of the relevant literature identified feedback as an important driver of several 

 

∗ All definitions of ECQ competencies in the following section are taken from the United States Office of 

Personnel Management's Guide to Senior Executive Service Qualifications (2010, Appendix A).
19

innovative thinking processes, including idea development, revision, and refinement.30 In 

contrast, other researchers argue developmental assignments with very high levels of 

challenge may actually diminish returns by impairing learning; however, these researchers

also found the provision of feedback mitigated such diminishing returns.31 Such feedback 

should be provided by not only project facilitators but also coaches and mentors.32 Other 

research especially emphasizes the importance of feedback in action learning, suggesting 

that without feedback, "action learning would be no different from a normal day on the 

job.”33 

Developmental Recommendations

• Engage in action learning projects with leaders from different functional areas within 

the organization. Projects should focus on development of new ideas, policies, and other 

activities that require creative and innovative thinking. Action learning projects should 

include feedback mechanisms and mentoring. 

• Engage in a developmental assignment that entails such activities as brainstorming and 

refining new policies, leading a policy launch effort, assessing implications of new 

technologies on organizational processes, or turning around a failing policy or process. 

Such assignments should be paired with feedback mechanisms and mentoring.

Related References

Conger, J., & Toegel, G. (2002). Action learning and multi-rater feedback as leadership 

development interventions: Popular but poorly deployed. Journal of Change 

Management, 3(4), 332-348. 

DeRue, D.S., Wellman, N. (2009). Developing leaders via experience: The role of 

developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability. Journal of 

Applied Psychology, 94(4), 859-875. DOI: 10.1037/a0015317.

Froiland, P. (1994). Action learning: Taming real problems in real time. Training, 31(1), 27-

34. 

Kuhn, J.S. (2010). Using action learning to develop the cognitive dimensions of strategic 

innovation: Program design, methodological, and person-environment 

considerations. Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: Sciences and 

Engineering, 70: 2010.

Ligon, G.S., Wallace, J.H., & Osburn, H.K. (2011). Experiential development and mentoring 

processes for leaders for innovation. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 

13(3), 297-317. 

Marsick, V. J. (1993). Experienced-based learning: Executive learning outside the 

classroom. Journal of Management Development, 9(4), 50-60. 

Marsick, V. J., & O'Neil, J. (1999). The many faces of action learning, Management Learning, 

30(2), 159-176. 

Mayfield, M. and Mayfield, J. (2004), “The effects of leader communication on worker 

innovation”, American Business Review, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 46-51.

Mayfield, M., & Mayfield, J. (2008). Leadership techniques for nurturing worker garden 

variety creativity. Journal of Management Development, 27(9), 976-986.
20

Mumford, A. (1995). Managers developing others through action learning, Industrial and 

Commercial Training, 27, 19 - 27

Mumford, M.D., Hunter, S.T., Eubanks, D.L., Bedell, K.E., & Murphy, S.T. (2007). Developing 

leaders for creative efforts: A domain-based approach to leadership development. 

Human Resource Management Review, 17, 402-417. 

doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.08.002.

Noel, J. L. and Charan, R. (1988) Leadership Development at GE’s Crotonville, Human 

Resource Management 27(4): 433–47. 

Shipton, H., Fay, D., West, M., Patterson, M., & Birdi, K. (2008). Managing People to Promote 

Innovation. Creativity and Innovation Management, 14(2), 118-128. 

doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8691.2005.00332.x

Yip, J., & Wilson, M. S. (2010). Learning from experience. In E. Van Velsor, C. D. McCauley, & 

M. Ruderman (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership 

Development (3rd ed.) (pp. 63-95). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 
21

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: EXTERNAL AWARENESS 

Definition:

Understands and keeps up-to-date on local, national, and international policies and trends 

that affect the organization and shape stakeholders’ views; is aware of the organization’s 

impact on the external environment. 

Summary of Literature: 

Research suggests interventions that successfully promote external awareness include 

specific forms of scenario planning, paired with mentoring and cross-boundary

developmental assignments. For example, one study found scenario planning was related to

changed thinking and improved decision-making about the future .34 Additionally, these

learning interventions provided value in helping learners grow external awareness skills

through concentration and analysis of emerging external forces that impact their

organizations.35 Accordingly, Pierre Wack, described by some as the "undisputed 'father' of 

modern scenario planning,"36 noted that in generating scenarios, "scanning the business 

environment and crystallizing the findings in a set of scenarios means dealing with a world 

outside the corporation."37 

Researchers have found that this approach in scenario planning encouraged leaders to shift 

thinking from inside the organization to what might happen in the future outside the 

organization.

38 One study reviewed various outcomes of scenario planning and found the 

processes prompting executives to “think the unthinkable” in making decisions39

contributed directly to their organizations’ ability to prepare for and adapt to the outside 

environment.40 Researchers indicate scenario planning interventions facilitate the 

development of external awareness skills by encouraging leaders to change their 

perspectives and thinking by holistically viewing their organization, customers, and market

as a part of a system.41

Research has also identified mentoring as an effective tool to increase a leader’s external 

awareness. Mentors provide leaders a valuable means to obtain information about the 

public and government sectors, as well to provide both expert advice and perspective into 

strategic dynamics occurring in these sectors.

42 One study examined the interactions 

between mentors and their protégés, and found that mentors frequently discussed 

strategic knowledge acquisition as well as the mentor’s background in relation to the 

problem.43 Mentors help increase protégées’ awareness of evolving environmental trends, 

and help protégées anticipate and ascertain the impact and dynamics of these trends.44 

Developmental assignments that entail working across organizational boundaries can also 

foster growth in a leader's external awareness.45 A job rotation to another organization is 

an example of such an assignment.
22

Developmental Recommendations

• Engage in scenario planning exercises involving future organizational scenarios 

designed in consideration of key stakeholders, numerous external trends (political, 

economic, societal, technological, legal, environmental, and industry), and the 

uncertainties of the future. 

• Utilize a mentor who can serve as a source of additional information regarding the 

public/government sector and its external strategic environment. 

• Work on a developmental assignment or job rotation that brings you to another 

organization, or requires you to work with others from different organizations to set up 

a new policy or strategic direction.

Related References

Chandler, J., & Cockle, P. (1982). Techniques of scenario planning. London: McGraw-Hill.

Chermack, T.J., & Swanson, R.A. (2008). Scenario planning: Human resource development's 

strategic learning tool. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10(2), 129-146.

Chermack, T. J., & Lynham, S. A. (2002). Definitions and outcome variables of scenario 

planning. Human Resource Development Review, 1, 366-383.

Chermack, T.J., Lynham, S.A., Ruona, W.E.A. (2001). A review of scenario planning 

literature. Futures Research Quarterly, 17(2), 7-31. 

De Geus, A. (1988). Planning as learning. Harvard Business Review, 66(2), 70-74. 

Kahn, H. (1984). Thinking about the unthinkable in the 1980’s. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Lewis, P., & Jacobs, T. O. (1992). Individual differences in strategic leadership capacity: A 

constructive/developmental view. In R. L. Phillips & J. G. Hunt (Eds.), Strategic 

leadership: A multi-organizational-level perspective. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. 

McWhorter, R. R., Lynham, S. A., & Porter, D. E. (2008). Scenario planning as developing 

leadership capability and capacity. Advances in the developing Human Resources, 10

(2), 258-28

Reiter, E. (2008). The development of a leadership mentoring system to enhance the 

advancement of protégés: A phenomenological study. Unpublished dissertation, 

University of Phoenix.

Shoemaker, P.J.H. (1995). Scenario planning: A tool for strategic thinking. Sloan 

Management, Review, 37(2), 25-40. 

Wack, P. (1985). Scenarios: Shooting the rapids. Harvard Business Review, 63(6), 139-150.
23

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: FLEXIBILITY

Definition:

Is open to change and new information; rapidly adapts to new information, changing 

conditions, or unexpected obstacles. 

Summary of Literature: 

Research has established a number of key developmental interventions for the significant 

enhancement of a leader’s flexibility and adaptability, including the following: job 

rotations; developmental assignments; self-development; coaching; and the use of problemsolving simulations that present participants with a significant variety of challenges to 

solve. These interventions each help promote a leader’s tendency and ability to consider 

multiple perspectives and to apply a greater breadth in behavioral strategies.46 In 

particular, job rotations can foster greater awareness of different perspectives if the jobs 

differ significantly with regard to the leadership challenges posed by each job. In one 

survey of business leaders, 31% of the leaders reported they had developed adaptability 

and flexibility after participating in a job rotation.47 

Researchers also identified developmental assignments as valuable techniques for 

developing flexibility in a leader. Such assignments can be effective in developing 

adaptability skills when they help leaders to recognize limitations in their current ways of 

thinking, and to consider new information and perspectives.48 Examples of such 

developmental assignments include: those that facilitate novel changes, such as starting 

something new in the organization; managing reorganization; and fixing problems from a 

predecessor.49 Again, the effectiveness of these assignments strongly relates to the variety 

of experiences provided to the participating leaders (i.e., the quantity and variety of a 

leader's developmental assignments positively correlated with subsequent degrees of 

displayed adaptability and flexibility).50

Properly-structured self-development can also foster growth in leader flexibility. One study

found that managers who reported a number of different experiences in their self-learning 

contracts (similar to an Individual Development Plan (IDP)) exhibited greater flexibility in 

adaptability exercises.51 The key is the degree of experiential variety in their selfdevelopment portfolio.

52 

Research has also identified coaching as an effective strategy to develop flexibility. 

Specifically, coaching helps leaders gain greater self-awareness and explore a wider range 

of perspectives.53 One study found that, over a three-month period, executive coaching 

increased self-reported managerial flexibility.54 Another argued that in order for leaders to 

become flexible, they needed to "develop a repertoire of responses to deal with changing 

circumstances" and become more comfortable with change; this developmental need 

frequently is identified as a coaching objective. 55 Researchers have also found that a peer 

coaching experience enabled leaders to, in the words of one participant, examine “different 
24

scenarios and different ways of approaching the management of staff performance” – a key 

to displaying flexibility skills.

56

The use of work simulations with certain features – such as active or error management 

training, adaptive guidance, and experiential variety – has also been linked to development 

of adaptive thinking skills and flexibility.57 Active learning entails providing participants 

with a degree of control over the pace and direction of their learning. Error management 

training can be useful in developing adaptive expertise, especially when paired with: (a) 

strategies for reducing negative emotions from experiencing errors; (b) significant variety 

in the nature of the problem scenarios experiences by participants; and (c) different forms 

of feedback and guidance that help participants navigate and learn from complex 

simulations.58

Developmental Recommendations 

• Engage in job rotations where the leader experiences different work environments and 

learns new perspectives.

• Engage in multiple developmental assignments that differ significantly in the challenges 

they present to the leader. Each assignment should require the leader to work with new 

and different frames of reference. 

• Work with leadership and peer coaches who promote a considerable number of 

different ways and perspectives for understanding work problems. 

• Participate in leader development workshops that utilize complex work simulations 

featuring active learning, significant variety in experienced problems, and structured 

feedback and guidance. 

Related References

Banks, D. (2006). Stretch experiences and leader development: The relationships among work 

experience, individual differences, contextual variables, and leader adaptability.

Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: Sciences and Engineering, 67, 3493.

Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2008). Active learning: Effects of core training design 

elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability. Journal of Applied 

Psychology, 93, 296-316.

Campion, M.A., Cheraskin, L., Stevens, M.J. (1994). Career-related antecedents and 

outcomes of job rotation. Academy of Management Journal, 37(6), 1518- 1542. 

Diedrich, R. C. (1996). An iterative approach to executive coaching. Consulting Psychology 

Journal: Practice and Research, 48(2), 61-66. doi:10.1037/1061-4087.48.2.61

Ely, K., Boyce, L.A., Nelson, J.K., Zaccaro, S.J., Hernez-Broome, G., & Whyman, W. (2010). 

Evaluating leadership coaching: A review and integrated framework. The Leadership 

Quarterly, 21, 585-599.

Ely, K., Zaccaro, S. J., & Conjar, E. A. (2009). Leadership development: Training design 

strategies for growing adaptability in leaders. In C. Cooper & R. Burke (Eds.), The 

peak performing organization (pp. 175–196). London: Routledge.
25

Horn, Z. N. J., (2008). Linking developmental stretch assignments with adaptive outcomes: 

The importance of cognitive frame complexity. Unpublished dissertation, George 

Mason University.

Jones, R.A., Rafferty, A.E., & Griffin, M.A. (2006). The Executive Coaching Trend: Towards 

More Flexible Executives. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 27, 584-

596.

Ladyshewsky, R.K. (2007). A strategic approach for integrating theory to practice in 

leadership development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(5), 

426-443, DOI 10.1108/01437730710761733. 

Langkamer, K. (2008). Development of a nomological net surrounding leader development.

Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: Sciences and Engineering, 69(03), 

1995

Nelson, J. K., Zaccaro, S. J., & Herman, J. L. (2010). Strategic information provision and 

experiential variety as tools for developing adaptive leadership skills. Consulting 

Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 62, 131-142.

Ohlott, P. J. (2004). Job assignments. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for 

Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 151–182). San 

Francisco: Wiley. 

Zaccaro, S. J., & Banks, D. (2004). Leader visioning and adaptability: Bridging the gap 

between research and practice on developing the ability to manage change. Human 

Resource Management Journal, 43, 367-380.
26

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: RESILIENCE

Definition:

Deals effectively with pressure; remains optimistic and persistent, even under adversity. 

Recovers quickly from setbacks.

Summary of Literature: 

Research suggests formal workshops that provide stress management tools, along with 

leadership coaching, can facilitate growth in leader resilience. For example, one study 

tested the utility of a work-based resilience training workshop conducted for 22 hours over 

11 weeks.59 Topics included relaxation and stress reduction techniques, skills in building 

social support, mindfulness, cognitive defusion ("changing [one's] relationship with 

thoughts"60), and stress-targeting physical activity. Learning activities entailed 

presentations and discussions, experiential activities, structured self-learning and practice 

exercises, and self-reflection periods. Using a pre-post design, researchers in this study

found participants experienced significant improvements in stress levels, positive 

emotions, environmental mastery, and personal growth. Other researchers analyzed the 

effectiveness of a similar 35-hour structured resilience skills training program by 

evaluating government executives randomly assigned to training and control groups; these 

researchers found the training groups exhibited higher post-training scores in resilience, 

self-esteem, interpersonal relations, and locus of control – with improvements on most of 

these measures maintained 10 weeks after training. 61 Additional studies have also 

provided evidence for the utility of similarly-structured training programs.

62

Researchers have also found that targeted coaching can increase leader resilience. One 

study contrasted executives who received coaching with a control group, and found that 

coaching resulted in higher resilience scores, less-reported depression, and higher 

perceptions of workplace well-being.63 Personal life coaching was also found to lead to

reduced anxiety, as well as enhanced hardiness and personal insight, in a sample of 

professionals and managers.64 These findings were supported by other researchers who

found that coaching provided leaders with greater skills for "acting in a balanced way."65

Coaching, paired with 360-degree feedback, can especially help leaders identify areas of 

improvement for specific skills.

66 

Developmental Recommendations

• Engage in structured training programs that emphasize stress management tools and 

stressor-coping mechanisms.

• Work with a coach to identify and develop solutions to stress-inducing work problems. 

Such coaching should be paired with multi-source feedback. 
27

Related References

Brett, J.F., Atwater, L.E. (2001). 360 feedback: Accuracy, reactions, and perceptions of 

usefulness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86 (5), 930-942. DOI: 10.1037//0021-

9010.86.5.930.

Burton, N.W., Pakenham, K.I., & Brown, W.J. (2010). Feasibility and effectiveness of 

psychosocial resilience training: A pilot study of the READY program. Psychology, 

Health and Medicine, 15(3), 266-277.

Drew, G. (2009). A “360” degree view for individual leadership development. Journal of 

Management Development, 28(7), 581-592. DOI 10.1108/02621710910972698.

Evers, W. J., Brouwers, A., & Tomic, W. (2006). A quasiexperimental study on management 

coaching effectiveness. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 58, 174 

–182.

Grant, A.M., Curtayne, L., & Burton, G. (2009). Executive Coaching Enhances Goal 

Attainment, 

Resilience and Workplace Well-Being: A Randomized Controlled Study. The Journal 

of Positive Psychology, 4, 396-407. 

Grant, A. M. (2008). Personal life coaching for coaches-in-training enhances goal 

attainment, insight and learning. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, 

Research and Practice, 1(1), 54-70.

Maddi, S.R., Kahn, S., & Maddi, K.L. (1998). The effectiveness of hardiness training. 

Consulting 

Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 50(2), 78-86.

Steensma, H., Heijer, M., & Stallen, V. (2006). Research note: Effects of resilience training on 

the reduction of stress and depression among Dutch workers. International 

Quarterly of Communication Health Education, 27(2), 145-159.

Waite, P.J. & Richardson, G.E. (2004). Determining the efficacy of resiliency training in the 

work site. Journal of Allied Health, 33(3), 178-183.
28

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: STRATEGIC THINKING

Definition: 

Formulates objectives and priorities, and implements plans consistent with long-term 

interests of the organization in a global environment. Capitalizes on opportunities and 

manages risks. 

Summary of Literature: 

Research suggests the following developmental interventions can help grow leader 

strategic thinking skills: developmental assignments and action learning projects; scenario 

planning; strategic business simulations; and mentoring. Such interventions should require 

leaders to establish new directions and participate in different kinds of long term planning 

projects, both as an individual leader and as part of a strategy team.

67 In one study, a group 

of interviewed healthcare CEOs indicated the following experiences facilitated growth in 

strategic thinking skills: "strategic planning"; "spearheading a major growth initiative"; 

and "dealing with a threat to organizational survival."68 Other researchers have found that

leaders who participated in assignments with high degrees of challenge (e.g., involving

"working across boundaries," "unfamiliar responsibilities," and "high levels of 

responsibilities") was reported significant improvement in strategic leadership skills.69 

Accumulated work experiences(the diversity of positions that have resulted in a variety of 

skill sets), including serving as a lead strategist on large scale projects, has also been 

associated with displayed competency in strategic thinking.70 

Action learning projects with a strategic thinking focus have also been linked to growth in

individual strategic thinking skills. For example, participants in such projects have 

reported positive gains within the context of an MBA capstone course where a CEO brings 

to the class a strategic problem, and participants work in teams work to find solutions.71 

Also, leaders from two major corporations who participated in strategy-focused active 

learning projects reported: greater commitment to strategic assignments; greater 

confidence in leading change; and pursuit of more-strategic projects.72 Action learning 

projects, entailing scenario planning with longer time horizons, can particularly foster 

strategic thinking.

73 

Several studies have touted the value of strategy-focused business simulations, in the 

context of formal workshops, as a tool for growing strategic thinking skills. One such study 

investigated the merits of three different business games on a set of managerial skills, and 

found “decision making under ambiguity” and “information processing” to be the 

competencies most improved by these exercises.74 In another study, managers ranked 

“Building Strategic Performance” was second out of 11 most highly-improved leadership 

competency areas after participating in a 28-week formal course that included strategic 

thinking as part of the curriculum; similarly, supervisors participating in this course ranked 

the same competency as their most-improved competency area.

75 A number of other 
29

researchers have offered evidence for the value of strategically-oriented case studies and 

business simulations to develop strategic thinking.

76

Strategic simulations should be paired with mentoring to encourage post-intervention skill 

retention and strengthening.77 Strategically-oriented mentors can also help protégées 

develop the more-complex frames of reference necessary for strategic thinking.78

Developmental Recommendations

• Engage in developmental assignments that involve setting new directions, working on 

strategic formulation projects, and leading change. 

• Participate in a variety of strategically-oriented experiential exercises, including: (a) 

active learning projects that have a strategic focus; (b) group dialogue of strategic case 

discussions; and (c) strategic business games and simulations. 

• Attend courses and workshops that provide models of strategic thinking, and pair these 

models with experiential exercises. 

• Utilize a mentor who can guide the leader's cognitive development of more strategic 

frames of reference.

Related References

Chermack, T. J. (2011). Scenario planning in organizations: How to create, use, and assess 

scenarios. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Chermack, T. J., & Lynham, S. A. (2002). Definitions and outcome variables of scenario 

planning. Human Resource Development Review, 1, 366-383.

Chermack, T.J., & Swanson, R.A. (2008). Scenario planning: Human resource development's 

strategic learning tool. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10(2), 129-146.

DeRue, D.S., Wellman, N. (2009). Developing leaders via experience: The role of 

developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability. Journal of 

Applied Psychology, 94(4), 859-875. DOI: 10.1037/a0015317.

Dragoni, L., Oh, I., Vankatwyk, P., & Tesluk, P.E. (2011). Developing executive leaders: The 

relative contribution of cognitive ability, personality, and the accumulation of work 

experience in predicting strategic thinking competency. Personnel Psychology, 64(4), 

829-864.

Gosen, J., & Washbush, J. (2004). A review of scholarship on assessing experiential learning 

effectiveness. Simulation and Gaming, 35, 270-293.

Hayes, J. (2007). Evaluating a leadership development program. Organization Development 

Journal, 25(4), 89- 94. 

Knotts, U. S., Jr., & Keys, J. B. (1990). The role of management games and simulations in 

education and research. Simulation and Gaming, 28, 377-394.

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

McWhorter, R. R., Lynham, S. A., & Porter, D. E. (2008). Scenario planning as developing 

leadership capability and capacity. Advances in the developing Human Resources, 10

(2), 258-28.
30

Ohlott, P. J. (2004). Job assignments. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for 

Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 151–182). San 

Francisco: Wiley. 

Partridge, S.E. & Sculli, D. (1982). Management skills and business games. Simulation & 

Games, 13(2), 165-77.

Parks, D., & Lindstrom, G. (1995). Achieving higher levels of learning in the business policy 

and strategy course through integration of a business simulation. Journal of 

Management Education, 19, 219-227.

Poisson-de Haro, S., & Turgut, G., (2012). Expanded strategy simulations: developing better 

managers. Journal of Management Development, 31, 209 - 220

Rashford, N.S., & de Figueiredo, J.N. (2011). The live in-class CEO intervention: A capstone 

experiential technique for leadership development. Journal of Management 

Education, (5), 620-647.

Trim, P.R.J. (2003). Human resource management development and strategic management 

enhanced by simulation exercises. Journal of Management Development, 23(4), 399-

413.

van der Heijden, K. (2005). Scenarios: the art of strategic conversation (2nd. edition). 

Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.

Wack, P. (1985). Scenarios: Shooting the rapids. Harvard Business Review, 63(6), 139-150.

Wheatley, W., Hornaday, R. and Hunt, T. (1988). Developing strategic management goal 

setting skills. Simulation and Games, 19, 173-85.

Whetten, D.A. and Clark, S.C. (1996). An integrated model for teaching management skills. 

Journal of Management Education, 20, 152-81.

Wolfe, J. (1997). The effectiveness of business games in strategic management course work. 

Simulation & Gaming, 28, 360-76.
31

ECQ 1: LEADING CHANGE: VISION 

Definition:

Takes a long-term view and builds a shared vision with others; acts as a catalyst for 

organizational change. Influences others to translate vision into action.

Summary of Literature: 

Visioning skills involve strategic perspective, external awareness, creativity, and cognitive 

flexibility. Leaders can grow visioning skills by engaging in developmental assignments 

that involve strategic planning and a long term focus, and by working on action learning 

projects with the same features. A recent review of the action learning literature reported

the results of two unpublished dissertations79 that supported the use of action learning 

assignments to grow elements of visionary leadership.80 Research has also suggested the 

value of scenario planning, with its emphasis on the contemplation of alternative futures, 

on the enhancement of leader visioning skills.81 

Developmental Recommendations

• Engage in developmental assignments that entail long term planning and the

development of new directions for your organization. 

• Participate in team-based workshops, involving action learning projects that create 

cross-functional exposure and that include exercises aimed at identifying and preparing 

for future trends of the organization. 

• Engage in scenario planning with team members to create a shared vision towards the 

future. 

Related References

Chermack, T. J. (2011). Scenario planning in organizations: How to create, use, and assess 

scenarios. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Chermack, T. J., & Lynham, S. A. (2002). Definitions and outcome variables of scenario 

planning. Human Resource Development Review, 1, 366-383.

Chermack, T.J., & Swanson, R.A. (2008). Scenario planning: Human resource development's 

strategic learning tool. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10(2), 129-146.

Kim, S. J. (2003). An examination of action learning as a method for developmental 

transformational leadership behaviors and characteristics. Unpublished doctoral 

dissertation, George Washington University.

Lee, T.B. (2005). A case study of an action learning program with regard to leadership 

behaviors and characteristics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George 

Washington University.

Marquardt, M.J., Leonard, H.S., Freedman, A.M., & Hill, C.C. (2009). Action learning for 

developing leaders and organizations: Principles, strategies, and cases. Washington, 

D.C.: American Psychological Association.
32

McWhorter, R. R., Lynham, S. A., & Porter, D. E. (2008). Scenario planning as developing 

leadership capability and capacity. Advances in the developing Human Resources, 10

(2), 258-28

van der Heijden, K. (2005). Scenarios: the art of strategic conversation (2nd. edition). 

Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.

Wack, P. (1985). Scenarios: Shooting the rapids. Harvard Business Review, 63(6), 139-150.
33

ECQ 2: LEADING PEOPLE: CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Definition: 

Encourages creative tension and differences of opinions. Anticipates and takes steps to prevent 

counter-productive confrontations. Manages and resolves conflicts and disagreements in a 

constructive manner. 

Summary of Literature: 

Research supports the use of developmental assignments, coaching, action learning projects, 

and formal workshops to develop conflict management skills. Development assignments can 

be useful for learning conflict management in many ways, including: dealing with a 

problem employee; serving as a negotiator or mediator; working with people from 

different cultures; and leading groups with diverse members.82 One study found the degree 

of developmental challenge in assignments such as "managing diversity" correlated to a 

significant increase in a leader’s interpersonal skills, which facilitated conflict management; 

however, the researchers in this study also found such assignments need to be paired with 

feedback to facilitate transfer.

83 Such feedback can come from supervisors, peers, 

subordinates, or other supportive learning partners such as mentors and coaches. 

Studies have also supported the use of coaching to further the development of conflict 

management skills, or other interpersonal skills that would also improve conflict 

management.

84 Coaches can use assessment tools to identify the degree to which leaders 

require development in conflict management, help leaders establish a leader development 

plan to facilitate skill growth, and coach them through the conduct of the plan.85 One study 

found nursing managers experienced significant improvements in their conflict 

management skills after using such a design and a coaching model specifically tailored to 

conflict management.86 Other researchers have observed the success of programs, 

combining coaching with additional interventions such as workshops and experiential 

learning exercises, for generating significant improvements in individuals’ conflict 

management and resolution skills.

87 

Team-based action learning projects can foster growth in conflict management skills 

because they require members to collaborate and reach a consensus around different 

perspectives and ideas.88 Indeed, several studies have supported the utility of such projects 

to develop these skills.89 Workshops are also an established intervention used to develop 

conflict management skills – one study reported leadership improvement from a workshop 

that focused on perceptual distortions as a source of conflict in work-related interpersonal 

activities; this workshop included lectures, case studies, and role play exercises.90 
34

Developmental Recommendations 

• Engage in developmental assignments involving situations likely to involve conflict

(e.g., dealing with a problem employee, serving as a negotiator or mediator, working 

with people from different cultures, and leading groups with diverse members). 

• Participate in and/or lead an action learning project with teams composed of members 

from different functional areas and with different perspectives. 

• Work with a leadership coach who helps identify leadership problem areas that can 

contribute to poor conflict management. Construct a leader development plan to 

address these areas. Coaching should be combined with conflict management 

workshops, and development/action learning assignments.

• Attend workshops that provide insight into conflict management styles and conflict 

resolution strategies. Such workshops should include not only lectures, but discussions 

around conflict management case studies and role play exercises. 

Related References

Baron, L., & Morin, L. (2009). The Coach-Coachee Relationship in Executive Coaching: A

 Field Study. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20, 85-106. 

Brinkert, R. (2011). Conflict coaching training for nurse managers: a case study of a twohospital health system. Journal of Nursing Management, 19, 80–91,

De Meuse, K. P., Dai, G., & Lee, R. J. (2009). Evaluating the effectiveness of executive 

coaching: Beyond ROI? Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research, and 

Practice, 2, 117-134.

DeRue, D.S., Wellman, N. (2009). Developing leaders via experience: The role of 

developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability. Journal of 

Applied Psychology, 94(4), 859-875. DOI: 10.1037/a0015317.

Hii, A. (2000). The impact of action learning on the conflict-handling styles of managers in a 

Malaysian firm. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George Washington University.

Kilburg, R.R. (1997). Coaching and executive character: Core problems and basic

approaches. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 49(4), 281-299.

Kram, K. E., & Ting, S. (2006). Coaching for emotional competence. In S. Ting and P. Scisco 

(Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (pp. 

179-202). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

Ladyshewsky, R.K. (2007). A strategic approach for integrating theory to practice in

leadership development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(5), 

426-443, DOI 10.1108/01437730710761733. 

Marquardt, M.J., Leonard, H.S., Freedman, A.M., & Hill, C.C. (2009). Action learning for 

developing leaders and organizations: Principles, strategies, and cases. Washington, 

D.C.: American Psychological Association.

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

Ohlott, P. J. (2004). Job assignments. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for 

Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 151–182). San 

Francisco: Wiley.
35

Rappe, C., & Zwick, T. (2007). Developing leadership competence of production unit 

managers. Journal of Management Development, 26(4), 312-330.]

Raudenbush, L., Marquardt, M. J., & Walls, T. (2003). Growing leaders at the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture: A case study of leadership development using action 

learning. Proceedings of the 2003 Annual AHRD Conference. Minneapolis, MN: AHRD 

Publications.

Ray, E.B., & Ray, G.B. (1986). Teaching conflict management skills in corporate training: A 

perspective-taking approach. Communication Education, 35(3), 288-290.

Ting, S., & Hart, E. W. (2004). Formal coaching. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), 

The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 

116-150). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

Ting, S., & Riddle, D. (2006). A framework for leadership development coaching. In S. Ting 

and P. Scisco (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Coaching (pp. 

34-62). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. 
36

ECQ 2: LEADING PEOPLE: LEVERAGING DIVERSITY

Definition: 

Fosters an inclusive workplace where diversity and individual differences are valued and 

leveraged to achieve the vision and mission of the organization.

Summary of Literature: 

Research supports the use of several experiential learning activities, including 

developmental assignments and service learning, to increase the leader’s ability to foster an 

inclusive workplace. One type of developmental assignment, dealing with diversity, where 

the leader directs people from different cultures, genders, or racial or ethnic backgrounds

is especially appropriate for the development of this skill.

91 By being placed in charge of 

groups and/or projects composed of people from varying backgrounds, "leaders are 

challenged to move beyond their own beliefs and perspectives to understand personal, 

business, and workplace issues from perspectives that may differ greatly from, and 

sometimes even conflict with their own.”92 Such assignments need to be paired with 

feedback from supervisors, peers, and subordinates to be fully effective.93 Also, reflective 

practice has been identified as a particularly important element of such learning 

activities.

94

Service Learning, or "a form of experiential learning in which learners are asked to 

participate in learning activities connected to community service,"95 has also been used to 

develop greater awareness of diversity in potential leaders.

96 One supporting study 

described a service learning intervention paired with 360-degree feedback and individual 

coaching.97 Participants worked on a team project advised by a team coach. The 

researchers found this type of activity promoted several individual learning outcomes 

relating to the useful leveraging of diversity, including increased awareness of values such 

as respect and tolerance, a greater tendency to listen "more consciously than before to 

people from other cultural backgrounds," as well as an "enhanced ability to understand 

things from other’s point of view."98

Research has also supported the use of behavioral modeling and cultural assimilators in 

developing a leader’s ability to leverage the individual differences in the organization. One 

study examining the use of a combination of these techniques found that participants 

learned more about cross-cultural experiences, performed better in the role-play 

assessment, and had better reactions towards the training than those who received only 

one or none of these training approaches.

99 Another study summarized an extensive 

formal instructional program that included a module on diversity, paired with mentoring 

and action learning assignments; after completion of the program, participants reported 

"gaining a greater appreciation for diversity – especially diversity of personality, work 

types, and personal style."100 Other researchers have verified the success of similar formal 

instructional programs that produced comparable growth in diversity values.101 These 

studies suggest that formal instruction and workshops can be successful in developing 
37

leaders who can display inclusive leadership across different groups and cultures when 

these learning solutions: (a) teach diversity values, including providing examples and role 

plays of leadership that effectively reflects such values, and (b) pair such instruction with 

mentoring and action learning.

Developmental Recommendations

• Engage in developmental assignments that include working with groups containing

members from diverse backgrounds and perspectives. Such assignments should be 

paired with feedback providers. 

• Engage in service learning assignments paired with feedback and coaching. 

• Participate in extended workshops that utilize behavioral modeling, role plays, cultural 

assimilators, and reflective discussions to foster greater appreciation for diversity. Such 

course work should be paired with mentoring and action learning projects. 

Related References

Cress, C.M., Yamashita, M., Duarte, R., & Burns, H. (2010). A transnational comparison of 

service-learning as a tool for leadership development. International Journal of 

Organizational Analysis, 18(2), 228-244. DOI 10.1108/19348831011046281. 

DeRue, D.S., Wellman, N. (2009). Developing leaders via experience: The role of 

developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability. Journal of 

Applied Psychology, 94(4), 859-875. DOI: 10.1037/a0015317.

Harrison, J. K. (1992). Individual and Combined Effects of Behavior Modeling and the 

Cultural 

Assimilator in Cross-Cultural Management Training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 

77, 952-962.

Hornsby, E. E., Morrow-Jones, H. A., & Ballam, D. A. (2011). Leadership development for 

women faculty at the Ohio State University: The President's and Provost's 

Leadership Initiative. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 14(1) 96–112.

Kiemele, J. (2009). Culturally proficient leadership: Intercultural sensitivity among 

elementary school principles. Unpublished dissertation, Arizona State University. 

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

Ohlott, P. J. (2004). Job assignments. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for 

Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 151–182). San 

Francisco: Wiley. 

Pless, N. M., Maak, T., Stahl, G. K. (2011). Developing responsible global leaders through 

international service-learning programs: The Ulysses experience. Academy of 

Management Learning & Education, 10, 237–260.

Smith, K. J. (2009). Teaching the acceptance of diversity: An anti-bias initiative education 

initiative that empowers student leaders to be agents of change. Unpublished 

dissertation, Boston College. 

Wiese, N. M., & Sherman, D. J. (2011). Integrating marketing and environmental studies 

through an interdisciplinary, experiential, service-learning approach. Journal of 

Marketing Education, 33, 41-56.
38

Smith, P. A. C. (2001). Action learning and reflective practice in project environments that 

are related to leadership development. Management Learning, 32(1), 31- 48. 
39

ECQ 2: LEADING PEOPLE: DEVELOPING OTHERS

Definition: 

Develops the ability of others to perform and contribute to the organization by providing 

ongoing feedback and by providing opportunities to learn through formal and informal 

methods.

Summary of Literature: 

Research has supported the use of coaching (especially peer-coaching), mentoring, 

structured self-development, and multisource feedback to increase a leader’s ability to 

develop others. After engaging in peer coaching sessions, one leader stated he “was able to 

improve the quality of feedback that I give my subordinates on their project work through 

asking open ended questions, actively listening, paraphrasing and initiating action on their 

concerns,”102 and the research establishes the essential value of these cited behaviors in the 

effective development of others. In another case study, a middle level manager who 

received coaching, focused on developing others, subsequently improved his success in

encouraging subordinates to learn while performing their job tasks, instead of requiring his 

full direction.

103 Self-coaching paired with observations, and journaling may also be 

effective for increasing a leader’s ability to develop others.104 Indeed, in a study of 

managers from the government of British Columbia, "developing others" emerged as an

important theme for self-coaching.105

Similarly, research has documented the value of mentoring (paired with peer coaching) as 

a successful intervention to grow skills for developing others – both for leaders to receiving

mentoring on the improvement of their skills and to provide mentoring to others. For 

example, several research studies have documented the effectiveness of mentoring training 

and peer coaching interventions to improve the listening and questioning skills that 

contribute to developing others.106 One such study examined a British government

program where individuals participated in mentoring skills workshops before providing 

mentoring to their protégées; researchers concluded the workshops enhanced the skills of 

the mentors to develop others (including active listening and provision of feedback) and 

also positively impacted the learning of the protégées who received improved 

mentoring.

107

Additionally, self-development interventions can indirectly enhance skills for developing 

others, and research identifies the following best practices for such interventions: 

diagnosis of learning needs and objectives; construction an effective self-learning 

curriculum tailored to identified needs and objectives; and the monitoring and evaluation 

of learning gains.108 

Moreover, research has also identified the benefits of multisource feedback for the 

enhancement of the leader’s ability to develop others.109 
40

Developmental Recommendations

• Participate in a coaching relationship. The coaching should focus specifically on: skills 

in providing feedback and opportunities to subordinates; active listening techniques; 

and the use of open-ended questions to encourage communication.

• Engage in a mentoring assignment – such assignments should be paired with peer and 

leadership coaching. 

• Attend workshops that focus on active listening, providing feedback and helping 

subordinates construct personal development plans.

• Engage in a formal self-development intervention that entails diagnosis of self-learning 

needs, construction of a self-learning curriculum, and evaluation of learning gains. 

Solicit multisource feedback from supervisors, peers, and subordinates, focusing on 

skills in developing others, including: active listening; providing feedback; and 

assigning developmental activities. Such feedback should be paired with coaching. 

Related References

Brett, J.F., Atwater, L.E. (2001). 360 feedback: Accuracy, reactions, and perceptions of 

usefulness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86 (5), 930-942. DOI: 10.1037//0021-

9010.86.5.930.

Diedrich, R. C. (1996). An iterative approach to executive coaching. Consulting Psychology 

Journal: Practice and Research, 48(2), 61-66. doi:10.1037/1061-4087.48.2.61

Ladyshewsky, R.K. (2007). A strategic approach for integrating theory to practice in

Leadership development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(5),

426-443. 

Orvis, K., & Ratwani, K. L. (2010). Leader self-development: A contemporary context for 

leader development evaluation. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 657–674

Ratwani, K. L., Zaccaro, S. J., Garven, S., & Geller, D. S. (2010). The role of developmental 

social networks in effective leader self-learning processes. In M. G. Rothstein, & R. G. 

Burke (Eds.), Self-management and leadership development (pp. 395-426). London: 

Edward Elgar.

Robinson, J. (2011). Mentoring and coaching school leaders: A phenomenological study of 

adaptive expertise for school administrators. Unpublished dissertation, University of 

Phoenix. 

Solansky, S.T. (2010). The evaluation of two key leadership development program

components: Leadership skills assessment and leadership mentoring. The 

Leadership Quarterly, 21, 675-681.

Stead, V. (2005). Mentoring: a model for leadership development: International Journal of 

Training and Development, 9(3), 170- 184. 

Stewart, H.B. (1976). A self-coaching program for leadership development. Unpublished 

dissertation, University of British Columbia.

van Rensburg, T., & Prideaux, G. (2005). Turning professionals into managers using

multisource feedback. Journal of Management Development, 25(6), 561-571.
41

ECQ 2: LEADING PEOPLE: TEAM BUILDING

Definition: 

Inspires and fosters team commitment, spirit, pride, and trust. Facilitates cooperation, and 

motivates team members to accomplish group goals.

Summary of Literature: 

Research supports the use of action learning projects in developing team building skills.

110

Because such projects require cooperation and accomplishment of group goals, leaders can

gain team building skills and practice by adopting leadership roles within them. 

Researchers in one study found that leaders who engaged in action learning projects 

reported learning more about team building – with novice leaders exhibiting greater gains 

than experienced leaders, according to evaluation data 8 and 12 months after the projects 

were completed.

111 Other researchers have reported similar results on the effectiveness of 

action learning to foster team building skills.

112

Action learning in the form of outdoor challenge courses (e.g., rock-climbing, rope courses) 

has also demonstrated utility in developing team building skills, including those relating to 

increasing team spirit, trust, and harmony.113 A study that compared experiential outdoor 

team building interventions with either more-traditional team building interventions, or no 

interventions at all, found that individuals who completed outdoor experiential programs 

reported higher mean scores on a number of scales related to team effectiveness than those 

who completed traditional team building interventions; both interventions produced 

better scores than the no-intervention condition.114 

Research also supports simulations as a useful tool in fostering team building skills. An

example of this development method involves team-based simulation exercises where 

executives are firefighters for a day.115 Using this method, leaders had numerous 

experiences, such as being lowered from a high-rise building, being confined to small 

spaces, and participating in search and rescue exercises. These exercises helped foster 

trust, teamwork, and confidence among team members. A novice leader's team building 

skills in such exercises can be fostered when (a) he or she is put in to a leadership role, 

and/or (b) such exercises provide specific team building tactics to participants.

Research has also provided supporting evidence for the inclusion of coaching and multisource feedback in team-building development programs.116 For example, leaders who 

participated in a peer coaching program reported subsequent improvements in “leading 

and facilitating teams.”117 Other studies have reported similar findings, with one showing 

that leaders improved their effectiveness in conferring more-frequently with their teams 

and guiding members towards new opportunities or tasks, after participating in a 

leadership development workshop and coaching session.

118 Additionally, coaching is often 

complemented by multisource feedback, focusing learning on the perceptions of team 

building skills by subordinates and others.

119 One research study found that leaders
42

became more interested in building effective teams and increasing the trust of their 

members, after receiving feedback from their coworkers, supervisors, and peers.

120 

Developmental Recommendations

• Lead a team-based action learning project. The action-learning project should also 

include feedback mechanisms, and mentoring. 

• Participate in coaching with multi-source feedback. These coaching exercises should 

focus on team management strategies such as the use of team charters and team 

process facilitation, to motivate team members and increase team commitment. Such 

coaching should also be paired with multi-source feedback to increase the selfawareness of the team building skills that need improvement. 

• Engage as a leader of teams in challenge courses, adventure learning exercises, and 

team-based simulations. Feedback should be included to ensure leaders grasp the 

purpose of these exercises, and their team's sense of cohesion will continue when they 

return to the organization. 

Related References

Davey, C. L., Powell, J. A., Powell, J. E., & Cooper, I. (2002). Action learning in a medium-sized 

construction company. Building Research & Information, 30, 5-15.

Diedrich, R. C. (1996). An iterative approach to executive coaching. Consulting Psychology 

Journal: Practice and Research, 48(2), 61-66. doi:10.1037/1061-4087.48.2.61.

Froiland, P. (1994). Action learning: Taming real problems in real time. Training, 31(1), 27- 

34. 

Grant, A.M., Curtayne, L., & Burton, G. (2009). Executive Coaching Enhances Goal

Attainment, Resilience and Workplace Well-Being: A Randomized Controlled Study.

The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 396-407. 

Hirst, G., Mann, L., Bain, P., Pirola-Merlo, A., Richver, A. (2004). Learning to lead: The 

development and testing of a model of leadership learning. The Leadership 

Quarterly, 15, 311-327.

Ladyshewsky, R.K. (2007). A strategic approach for integrating theory to practice in

leadership development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(5),

426-443, DOI 10.1108/01437730710761733. 

Leigh, J. M., Shapiro, E. R., & Penney, S. H. (2010). Developing diverse, collaborative leaders: 

An empirical program evaluation. Journal of leadership and Organizational Studies, 

17, 370-379.

Marquardt, M., & Carter, T. (1998). Action learning and research at George Washington 

University. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 11(2), 59-71.

Marquardt, Seng, & Goodson (2010). Team development via action leaning. Advances in 

Developing Human Resources, 12, 241-259.

Munns, K. M. (1995). The effects of team building interventions. University of Wisconsin, 

Unpublished dissertation.

Pfeifer, G., & Cline, P. (2011). Wharton Leadership Digest (November-December, 2011)

http://wlp.wharton.upenn.edu/LeadershipDigest/training-with-the-fdny.cfm.

Smith, P. A. C. (2001). Action learning and reflective practice in project environments that
43

are related to leadership development. Management Learning, 32(1), 31- 48. 

Teire, J. (1994). Using the outdoors. In Mumford, A. (Ed.). Handbook of Management 

Development. New York: Gower, p. 258-275.

Van Rensburg, T., & Prideaux, G. (2005). Turning professionals into managers using

multisource feedback. Journal of Management Development, 25(6), 561-571.
44

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: ACCOUNTABILITY 

Definition: 

Holds self and others accountable for measurable high-quality, timely, and cost-effective 

results. Determines objectives, sets priorities, and delegates work. Accepts responsibility for 

mistakes. Complies with established control systems and rules.

Summary of Literature: 

Research has suggested coaching interventions targeting accountability can be effective in 

fostering accountability skills, especially when coaching: (a) is peer-to-peer, and (b)

facilitates increased self-awareness and heightened responsibility toward co-workers in 

the organization. The utility of coaching is further enhanced with multi-source feedback. 

For example, a study of peer coaching and 360-feedback systems within a large 

organization found these interventions “led to what some participants referred to as 

'accountability.'” Meaning the coaching process created a safe space where participants 

could accept responsibility.

121 

Goals-based coaching can particularly help foster accountability as such coaching requires 

participants to set goals and determine how to meet those goals. When such coaching was 

provided to Army leaders, researchers found participants' “level of engagement or buy-in 

to coaching” correlated to gains in a number of skills related to accountability, such as 

mission planning, time management, and use of daily progress reports.122

Workshops that specifically target accountability skills (e.g., project management skills, 

time management, and addressing performance problems) can also foster growth in this 

competency.123 Such workshops should include role play exercises presenting participants 

with various scenarios requiring them to address the accountability issues and behavior of 

individuals. 

Developmental Recommendations

• Establish a coaching relationship that emphasizes the importance of concrete goal 

setting and responsibility for goal completion. Such coaching can also focus on 

delegation as well as time and project management skills. Coaching should include 

multisource feedback that focuses on these skills. 

• Establish peer-coaching relationships to foster a climate of shared responsibility and 

accountability. Peer coaches create a higher level of self-awareness and reflection as 

well as a greater awareness of others’ responsibilities and needs.

• Take workshops and courses on time management/project management skills, and 

performance management strategies. These workshops should include role play 

exercises that utilize scenarios displaying low accountability by peers and subordinates.
45

Related References

Bowles, S., Cunningham, C. J. L., De La Rosa, G. M., & Picano, J. (2007). Coaching leaders in 

middle and executive management: goals, performance, and buy-in. Leadership & 

Organization Development Journal, 28, 388−408.

Ladyshewsky, R.K. (2007). A strategic approach for integrating theory to practice in 

leadership development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(5), 

426-443, DOI 10.1108/01437730710761733. 

Simmonds, D., & Tsui, O. (2010). Effective design of a global leadership programme. 

Human Resource Development International, 13, 519-540.

Thorsell, J. (2007). Innovation in learning: How the Danish leadership institute developed 

2,200 managers from Fujitsu services from 13 different countries. Management 

Decision, 45(10), 1667-1676. DOI 10.1108/00251740710838022. 
46

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: CUSTOMER SERVICE 

Definition: 

Anticipates and meets the needs of both internal and external customers. Delivers highquality products and services; is committed to continuous improvement

Summary of Literature: 

Research has identified a number of useful training strategies for the development of

different components of customer service acumen in employees. Skill components of client 

and customer service include self-awareness.

124 Higher self-awareness fosters more 

realistic assessments of how one's behavior may be perceived by customers. Competent 

customer service also requires an ability to determine necessary actions and resources 

needed to satisfy customer requirements.125 Emotion regulation skills also contribute to 

effective customer service.126 Finally, this competency also fundamentally rests on the 

value of service to others. These skill (and value) components can be developed through

action learning paired with reflection127, coaching128, and role play exercises.

129 

Several studies have documented the effectiveness of certain action learning projects – 

focused on improving customer delivery systems – in foster a heightened service 

orientation.130 For example, researchers have examined the use of action learning projects 

in the Department of Commerce that targeted the customer service component of the 

ECQs.131 Participants in the program and their supervisors reported “significant 

development of their chosen leadership competencies.”132 A case study of action learning 

projects by nursing teams in a hospital found the projects “helped to identify points within 

a patient's journey through care where collaboration could improve services and the 

outcomes for patients.”133 Leader involvement in an action learning assignment has also 

been found to be associated with higher rankings of subsequent effectiveness by 

customers.134 

Effective coaching can increase self-awareness, active listening, and other “people 

management” skills that contribute to effective customer service. In one study of a twoweek coaching program that focused on such skills, 94% of executives reported improved 

performance in the handling of their internal customers; as noted by one of the 

participants: "My coach has helped me improve my customer relationships. I’m now able to

better keep my customers aware of conflicting priorities and more effectively manage

expectations.”135

As part of a leader development program for Fujitsu Services, one researcher described the 

successful use of role play exercises that were “designed after extensive interviews with 

managers around the different types of performance management situations they are 

confronted with, e.g. (demanding customers, variable performance, high performers with 

an attitude, evading accountability, not stepping up to responsibilities).”136 Role play

exercises coupled with feedback and coaching can foster development of customer service 
47

skills. Use of such exercises with service learning programs can strengthen these skills 

further.

Developmental Recommendations

• Engage in an action learning project that focuses on improving internal and external 

customer service systems and processes. This project should be paired with selfreflection to foster greater self-awareness 

• Take part in a coaching program that centers on growing self-awareness, and on 

improving recognition and balance of client needs against the leader’s own needs and 

constraints. This coaching should include guidance on how to set attainable goals 

towards the final product and on developing the leader’s planning techniques.

• Take an interpersonal skills workshop that includes role playing exercises reflecting 

both typical and atypical internal customer service situations. 

Related References

Church, A.H., & Waclawski, J. (2008). Establishing successful client relationships. In J.W. 

Jerry, & W.C. Borman (Eds), The I/O consultant: advice and insights for building a 

successful career (pp. 205-213). Washington, DC: American Psychological 

Association. 

Dexter, B., Prince, C. (2007). Turning managers into leaders: Assessing the organizational 

impact of leadership development. Strategic Change, 16, 217-226. DOI: 

10.1002/jsc.796. 

Harris, K.J., & Bonn, M. A. (2000). Training techniques and tools: Evidence from the food 

service industry. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 24, 320-335.

Hirst, G., Mann, L., Bain, P., Pirola-Merlo, A., Richver, A. (2004). Learning to lead: The 

development and testing of a model of leadership learning. The Leadership 

Quarterly, 15, 311-327.

Hochschild, A.R. (1979). Emotion work, feeling rules, and social structure. The American 

Journal of Sociology, 85, 551-75.

Kombarakaran, F.A. Yang, J.A., Baker, M.N., & Fernandes, P.B. (2008). Executive coaching: It 

works! Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60(1), 78-90. DOI: 

10.1037/1065-9293.60.1.78. 

Lee, Y., Kim, Y., Son, M. H., & Lee. D. (2011). Do emotions play a mediating role in the 

relationship between owner leadership styles and manager customer orientation, 

and performance in service environment? International Journal of Hospitality 

Management, 30, 942– 952.

Leonard, H. S., & Lang, F. (2010). Leadership development via action learning. Advances in 

Developing Human Resources, 12(2) 225–240.

Mirchandani, K. (2012). Learning racial hierarchies: Communication skills training in 

transnational customer service work. Journal of Workplace Learning, 24, 338 - 350

Smith, P. A. C. (2001). Action learning and reflective practice in project environments that 

are related to leadership development. Management Learning, 32(1), 31- 48. 
48

Thorsell, J. (2007). Innovation in learning: How the Danish leadership institute developed 

2,200 managers from Fujitsu services from 13 different countries. Management 

Decision, 45(10), 1667-1676. DOI 10.1108/00251740710838022. 

Young, S., Nixon, E., Hinge, D., McFadyen, J., Wright, V., Lambert, P., Pilkington, C. &

Newsome, C. (2010). Action learning: a tool for the development of strategic skills 

for Nurse Consultants? Journal of Nursing Management 18, 105–110
49

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: DECISIVENESS 

Definition: 

Makes well-informed, effective, and timely decisions, even when data are limited or 

solutions produce unpleasant consequences; perceives the impact and implications of 

decisions. 

Summary of Literature: 

Research demonstrates the particular effectiveness of a number of training tactics for 

developing decisiveness, including simulations, action learning projects, and developmental 

assignments. These approaches each provide employees with simulated situations enabling 

them to practice and consequently improve their confidence and speed in decision-making

relevant to their actual jobs. For example, the Wildland Fire Leadership Development 

Program provides participants with five courses on decision-making, based upon 

simulations created as a result of the real-life disastrous response to the July 6, 1994 South 

Canyon wildfire near Glenwood Springs, Colorado, where numerous firefighters lost their 

lives.

137 Courses use experiential learning, including "tactical decision simulations" and 

"role and computer simulation of fire combat".

138 In these simulations, participants

confront relevant firefighting situations they will likely encounter in their work, and they 

consider and learn successful responses informed by case studies from the South Canyon 

incident. Participants also engage in "staff rides," involving facilitated visits to historical fire 

combat sites; these staff rides are intended to: 

Offer analysis of firefighting strategies and decisions in several fire zones. 

The purpose, in the program’s words, is to “put participants in the shoes of 

the decision makers on a historical incident in order to learn for the future.” 

These staff rides are intended to build the “decision-making skills of leaders” 

by analyzing “fireground decisions made by leaders of the past in concert 

with an on-scene study of the actual terrain.” While walking the terrain, 

participants evaluate what decisions they would have taken had they been in 

the shoes of the incident commander.

139

The course work, decision simulations, and accompanying staff rides are intended to 

provide knowledge and practice of decision making processes particularly in stressful 

circumstances. Through such activities, participants develop more confident, systematic 

responses in parallel real-life contexts – an effect the authors assert will extend directly to 

typical business environments as well.

In more traditional contexts, action learning exercises have also been shown to develop 

decisiveness.140 Such exercises should provide participants with opportunities to make a 

series of critical decisions in situations that are ambiguous in terms of presenting obvious 

choices. Action learning also needs to be appropriately facilitated and coached to be 

effective, and should be paired with self-reflection exercises.141 In an example of action 
50

learning in the United States Department of Agriculture where one learning objective was 

“increased skills related to decisiveness,” participants completed individual action 

assignments, but met regularly as a group to discuss assignments and lessons learned; 

follow-up interviews and assessments with participants reflected participant growth in 

several leadership competencies, including decisiveness.142 

Decision-making skills can also emerge from developmental assignments that place 

individuals in novel and ill-defined contexts filled with "opportunities to work on illdefined or recurring problems, or to make decisions that require broad input from across 

the organization or decisions that groups have avoided addressing."143 Two examples of 

such developmental assignments are to: (a) "represent your group on a task force that 

prioritizes projects across groups," and (b) "investigate and make decisions about whether 

to continue providing resources to a project that continues to underperform.”144

Researchers have offered evidence for the utility of such assignments on business skills 

such as decision-making on resource allocations and business operations, but only when

feedback was made available. 145 Thus, developmental assignments for the growth of

decision-making skills should include clear feedback mechanisms from supervisors, 

mentors, coaches, and/or other learning partners. 

Developmental Recommendations

• Participate in workshops and courses that offer simulation-based training exercises 

requiring multiple complex decisions. Such exercises need to reflect novel and illdefined situations the leader is likely to encounter on the job, accompanied by

opportunities to work through appropriate solutions. These exercises should be 

interactive in nature and accompanied by feedback and guidance. 

• Engage in an action learning project that focuses on solving multiple problems within a 

constrained time period. This will serve to foster decision-making under time pressure, 

and enhance comfort with decision-making in situations where information is limited 

and a comprehensive evaluation of the problem scenario is not feasible. These projects 

can be paired with coaching and job assignments to reinforce learning gains. 

• Take on a developmental assignment that requires a solution to an ill-defined problem 

or one that has been outstanding in the organization for some time. Such assignments 

should be paired with feedback from supervisors, mentors, coaches, and/or other 

learning partners. 

Related References

Leonard, H. S., & Lang, F. (2010). Leadership development via action learning. Advances in 

Developing Human Resources, 12(2) 225–240.

DeRue, D.S., Wellman, N. (2009). Developing leaders via experience: The role of 

developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability. Journal of 

Applied Psychology, 94(4), 859-875. DOI: 10.1037/a0015317.

Marquardt, M.J., Leonard, H.S., Freedman, A.M., & Hill, C.C. (2009). Action learning for 

developing leaders and organizations: Principles, strategies, and cases. Washington, 

D.C.: American Psychological Association.
51

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

McMahon, G., & and Archer, A. (Eds.). (2010). 101 coaching strategies and techniques 

(essential coaching skills and knowledge). New York: Routledge. 

Smith, P. A. C. (2001). Action learning and reflective practice in project environments that 

are related to leadership development. Management Learning, 32(1), 31- 48. 

Useem, M., Cook, J., & Sutton, L. (2005). Developing leaders for decision making under 

stress: Wildland firefighters in the south canyon fire and its aftermath. Academy of 

Management Learning & Education, 4, 461–485.

Waddill, D., Banks, S., & Marsh, C. (2010). The future of action learning. Advances in 

Developing Human Resources, 12, 260-279
52

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Definition: 

Identifies opportunities to develop and market new products and services within or 

outside of the organization. Is willing to take risks; initiates actions that involve a 

deliberate risk to achieve a recognized benefit or advantage. 

Summary of Literature: 

Research has suggested that entrepreneurship skills can be enhanced through action 

learning projects that entail the development of plans for new ventures or businesses.146

This developmental activity is most effective when linked with coursework on leadership 

and entrepreneurial principles.147 For example: 

In an action-learning project designed to explore new venture opportunities, 

there would be classroom sessions about entrepreneurial or new venture 

leadership capabilities, feedback to participants about their own capabilities 

in this regard, and then project recommendations which identify the specific 

leadership challenges of the venture and suggested actions.148

In a study of such a program for 21 entrepreneurs, participants took a 14-week course that 

included modules on entrepreneurship and the development of a new business plan. 

Analyses of data collected from participants indicated that “experiential learning activities 

developed the entrepreneurial competencies of the women and, in turn, increased their 

self-confidence.”149 In another study, researchers made similar findings on the value of a 

course-based approach to developing entrepreneurship, although the specific course did 

not contain an action learning project. Instead, the intensive 3-week course was “designed 

to encourage students to prepare themselves for entrepreneurship and to provide 

instruction in the basic entrepreneurial activities”; it also included interviews and 

discussions with "prominent entrepreneurs."150 The researchers in this study found that

79% of 892 course participants reported enhancement to their thinking or planning to 

start a new business; of the 129 students who actually started a business within a short 

time following the course, “[76%] rated the course as having a ‘large’ or ‘very large’ effect 

upon their decisions to start their ventures, while only 4.3% felt the course had little or no 

effect."151 The researchers concluded, “the entrepreneurship course played an important 

role in the individual decisions to embark on new ventures.”152 

Research has also found additional enhancement of entrepreneurial abilities from the 

pairing of coaching with classes. For example, in a five-week course for entrepreneurs 

designed to enable them to become more customer-focused and aggressive in a 

competitive market, participants were required to complete a formal business plan for a 

new venture and present it to a group of individuals.153 This assignment was paired with 
53

“catalytic coaching,” where coaches enable leaders to encourage more entrepreneurial 

thinking within their functions. This type of coaching: 

Involved pushing managers to move from an iterative focus to a platform 

focus. Most managers, when asked to think about new business 

opportunities, tend to start close to home with iterative, relatively small 

changes to products or services. It takes a push from a coach who 

aggressively challenges this “close to home” mentality, typically found in the 

ideation phase.154

The results of this program indicated that "catalytic coaching and the business planning 

process were the two most important educational tools for the development of skills for 

new business opportunities.155

Developmental assignments may also play a role in developing entrepreneurial skills. 

Researchers have suggested several change creation assignments that reflect 

entrepreneurship, such as "launching a new product, project, or system" to grow 

entrepreneurship skills.

156 For Federal government employees, such assignments can entail 

the design of new policies and services. The assignments may also involve the development 

of new opportunities, as well as service-related tools and products linked to an agency's 

mission. 

Developmental Recommendations

• Participate in workshops or courses that focus on entrepreneurship. The requirements 

of the class or workshop should include the leader’s completion of a formal business 

plan for a new venture and its presentation to others. This program should be paired 

with catalytic coaching, where coaches/instructors encourage leaders to engage in 

more entrepreneurial thinking. 

• Engage in an action learning project that includes the exploration of new ventures and 

opportunities. Such projects should be paired with coaching and mentoring.

• Engage in a developmental assignment that entails such activities as exploring, 

designing, and developing new ventures (e.g., policy and service-related tools and 

products). Such assignments should also be coupled with coaching, or mentoring for 

expert support and advice. 

Related References

Boni, A., Weingart, L. R., & Evenson, S. (2009). Innovation in an academic setting: 

Designing and leading a business through market-focused, interdisciplinary teams. 

Academy of Management Learning and Education, 8, 407-417.

Clark, B. W., Davis, C. H., & Harnish, V. C. (1984). Do courses in entrepreneurship aid in new 

venture creation. Journal of Small Business Management, 22, 26-31.

Conger, J., & Toegel, G. (2002). Action learning and multi-rater feedback as leadership 

development interventions: Popular but poorly deployed. Journal of Change 

Management, 3(4), 332-348. 
54

Guerrero, V. (2008). Women and leadership: Examining the impact of entrepreneurial 

education on leadership self-efficacy. Unpublished dissertation, Pepperdine 

University.

Ohlott, P. J. (2004). Job assignments. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for 

Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 151–182). San 

Francisco: Wiley. 

Phan, P. H., Siegel, D. S. & Wright, M. (2009). New developments in technology 

management education: Background issues, program initiatives, and a research 

agenda. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 8, 324-336.

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

Thornberry, N.E. (2002). Corporate entrepreneurship: teaching managers to be

entrepreneurs. Journal of Management Development, 22(4), 329-344.
55

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: PROBLEM SOLVING 

Definition: 

Identifies and analyzes problems; weighs relevance and accuracy of information; generates 

and evaluates alternative solutions; makes recommendations.

Summary of Literature: 

Research establishes the effectiveness of a number of specific approaches for the 

development of an employee’s problem-solving competency, including the following: 

action learning (AL); formal workshop training with case studies, simulations, and

developmental assignments; and individualized coaching. Action learning projects can be 

particularly effective in developing and practicing problem-solving skills.157 Researchers 

have noted that “AL is an ideal problem-solving process when there is no known solution, 

or when the solution is uncertain but the problem goals are clear and specific.”158 By 

working though problems in teams, leaders learn how others use problem-solving 

processes, and researchers emphasize the importance of including a coach or facilitator in 

this process. Specifically, researches note that “without an AL team coach to challenge 'the 

way we have always worked,” team members are likely to slip into old and familiar 

problem-solving habits without duly considering whether a new or different approach 

might work better.”159 A number of other research and case studies support the use of 

action learning to grow problem-solving skills.

160 

Additionally, researchers have identified the success of workshops and seminars, applying 

case study reasoning and instruction, in fostering problem-solving skills particularly 

relevant to addressing the ill-defined and novel problems frequently confronted by 

leaders.

161 In one controlled experiment, case discussions were found to facilitate gains in 

certain problem solving processes.162 In another study that used an alternate case-based 

approach, an online forum for learners to share problems from their past experiences both 

enhanced learners’ understanding of their own problems and aided others in their 

problem-solving processes.163

Similarly, simulations have also been cited as a strategy to improve leader problem-solving 

skills.

164 Effective leadership simulations offer problem scenarios applicable to 

participants’ actual work problems, and enable participants to test and practice different 

problem-solving strategies. Simulations have also been found to help in the significant 

development of problem-based mental models useful for problem-solving. A mental model 

is an explanation of someone’s thought process about how something works in the real 

world. 165 

Developmental assignments also provide opportunities for the enhancement of problemsolving skills, with the most effective assignments involving “ill-defined or recurring 

problems.”166 These assignments force leaders to hone their problem-solving skills by

generating solutions in situations where they cannot rely on pre-existing or routine
56

answers. To optimize this learning approach, researchers recommend pairing a variety of 

coaching strategies, including: coaching, centered on general problem-solving skills167; 

reframing168; structured thinking169; mind mapping170; and feedback.

171

Developmental Recommendations 

• Engage in problem-solving learning experiences with co-workers. The intent is to help 

each other better understand problem approaches and solutions. 

• Participate in a workshop where external case studies are presented and discussed.

These case studies should provide examples of the kinds of problems a leader is 

expected to confront in their leadership environment.

• Participate in a simulation exercise where leaders have the opportunity to work 

through realistic problem scenarios. 

• Engage in an action learning project that entails working on existing problems within 

the sponsoring organization. Such projects should be paired with feedback mechanisms 

and coaching opportunities.

• Engage in developmental assignments that entail opportunities to work on problems 

that are ill-defined or recurring within the organization. Such assignments should be 

paired with feedback mechanisms and coaching opportunities.

Related References

Allen, M. T. (2008). Skill acquisition in the complex ill-defined domain of leadership: The role 

of discussion, guidance, and case frequency in case methods of instruction. 

Unpublished dissertation, University of Oklahoma. 

Conger, J., & Toegel, G. (2002). Action learning and multi-rater feedback as leadership 

development interventions: Popular but poorly deployed. Journal of Change 

Management, 3(4), 332-348. 

DeRue, D.S., Wellman, N. (2009). Developing leaders via experience: The role of 

developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability. Journal of 

Applied Psychology, 94(4), 859-875. DOI: 10.1037/a0015317.

Feinstein, A.H., Mann, S., & Corsun, D.L. (2002). Charting the experiential territory: 

clarifying definitions and uses of computer simulations, games and role play. 

Journal of Management Development, 21(10), 732-44.

Froiland, P. (1994). Action learning: Taming real problems in real time. Training, 31(1), 27-

34. 

Hsu, S. (2004). Using case discussion on the web to develop student teacher problem 

solving skills. Teaching and Teacher Education, 681-692.

Jones, G., & Gorell, R. (2009). 50 top tools for coaching: A complete toolkit for developing and 

empowering people. London: Kogan Page Limited.

Keys, B., & Wolfe, J. (1990). The role of management games and simulations in education 

and research. Journal of Management, 16, 307-336.

Leonard, H. S., & Lang, F. (2010). Leadership development via action learning. Advances in 

Developing Human Resources, 12(2) 225–240.
57

Lisk, T. C., Kaplancali, U. T. & Riggio, R. E. (2012). Leadership in multiplayer online gaming 

environments. Simulation and Gaming, 43, 133-149.

March, A.L. (2011). The Relationship Between Systems-Change Coaching and Levels of 

Implementation and Fidelity of Problem-Solving/Response to Intervention (PS/RtI).

Unpublished dissertation, University of South Florida.

Marquardt, M.J., Leonard, H.S., Freedman, A.M., & Hill, C.C. (2009). Action learning for 

developing leaders and organizations: Principles, strategies, and cases. Washington, 

D.C.: American Psychological Association.

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

McMahon, G., & Archer, A. (Eds.). (2010). 101 coaching strategies and techniques (essential 

coaching skills and knowledge). New York: Routledge. 

McCoy, R. L. (2009). The impact of a simulation based leader development training program 

on transformational and transactional leadership behavior. Unpublished dissertation, 

University of San Diego. 

Pfeifer, G., & Cline, P. (2011). Wharton Leadership Digest (November-December, 2011). 

http://wlp.wharton.upenn.edu/LeadershipDigest/training-with-the-fdny.cfm 
58

ECQ 3: RESULTS DRIVEN: TECHNICAL CREDIBILITY 

Definition: 

Understands and appropriately applies procedures, requirements, regulations, and policies 

related to specialized expertise. 

Summary of Literature: 

The specialized and knowledge-based nature of technical credibility suggests that formal 

course work, followed by “stamping-in assignments,” may be the most appropriate

strategies for development of technical credibility. Such course work can be in the form of 

formal courses or workshops. The technical skills taught in these settings should be 

practiced through on-the-job assignments specifically structured to provide opportunities 

for leaders to “stamp in” or fully integrate newly-acquired skills into their work flow.

Learners may also foster technical skills through mentoring relationships with more senior 

individuals, considered experts in their particular technical fields.

172 Such mentors can 

serve as technical role models, and be available for technical questions from junior leaders. 

A recent qualitative study illustrated how mentors can help protégés learn about new 

technological advances in a particular field.173 Another study found that use of a mentor 

helped novice school leaders gain knowledge about “technical issues such as school 

policies, procedures, and programs.”174 

Job rotations can also be instrumental for enhancing technical knowledge, providing 

participants exposure to new technical skills and opportunities to practice those skills. In 

one study of the job rotation histories of 255 employees of a pharmaceutical company, 

participants reported the rotations improved 17 of 19 assessed skills in “administrative, 

technical, and business categories.”175 

Developmental Recommendations

• Take formal courses or workshops on specific topics and areas enabling leaders to 

develop technical competence required for their job. Such courses should be followed 

by job responsibilities or assignments enabling leaders to practice the acquired skills. 

• Develop a mentoring relationship with a senior (i.e., more technically expert) employee 

in your organization. Your mentor should encourage open communication and be 

available to answer technical questions. 

• Engage in job rotations that entail work tasks utilizing targeted technical skills.

Related References
59

Campion, M.A., Cheraskin, L., Stevens, M.J. (1994). Career-related antecedents and 

outcomes of job rotation. Academy of Management Journal, 37(6), 1518- 1542. 

Reiter, E. (2008). The development of a leadership mentoring system to enhance the 

advancement of protégés: A phenomenological study. Unpublished dissertation, 

University of Phoenix.

Vladovic, K. (2009). The effects of mentoring on building and sustaining effective leadership 

practice of an urban school administrator. Retrieved from Dissertations and Theses: 

Full Text.
60

ECQ 4: BUSINESS ACUMEN: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT, HUMAN CAPITAL 

MANAGEMENT, TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT 

Definitions: 

Financial Management – Understands the organization’s financial processes. Prepares, 

justifies, and administers the program budget. Oversees procurement and contracting to 

achieve desired results. Monitors expenditures and uses cost-benefit thinking to set 

priorities. 

Human Capital Management – Builds and manages the workforce based on 

organizational goals, budget considerations, and staffing needs. Ensures that employees are 

appropriately recruited, selected, appraised, and rewarded; takes action to address 

performance problems. Manages a multi-sector workforce and a variety of work situations. 

Technology Management – Keeps up-to-date on technological developments. Makes 

effective use of technology to achieve results. Ensures access to and security of technology 

systems. 

Summary of Literature: 

Similar to technical credibility, the competencies that make up business acumen – financial

management, human capital management, and technology management – are all grounded 

in specialized knowledge and expertise. Therefore, the development of these specialized 

competencies occurs mostly through the same developmental activities as those listed 

under "Technical Credibility" section of this report: (a) formal coursework in specialized 

areas of financial management, human capital management, and technology management; 

(b) mentoring from more senior “subject matter experts”; and (c) job rotations into 

assignments entailing either financial management, human capital management, or 

technology management. Please see studies summarized under “Technical Credibility” (pg.

49) for research supporting these developmental interventions.

Developmental Recommendations

• Take formal courses or workshops on specific topics and areas relating to the leader’s 

needs to develop business acumen. Such courses should be followed by job assignments 

that allow acquired skills to be practiced.

• Develop a mentoring relationship with a senior (i.e., more technically expert) employee 

in your organization. Your mentor should encourage open communication and be 

available to answer technical questions.

• Engage in job rotations with work tasks enabling the development of skills in financial 

management, human capital management, or technology management. 
61

Related References

Campion, M.A., Cheraskin, L., Stevens, M.J. (1994). Career-related antecedents and 

outcomes of job rotation. Academy of Management Journal, 37(6), 1518- 1542. 

Reiter, E. (2008). The development of a leadership mentoring system to enhance the 

advancement of protégés: A phenomenological study. Unpublished dissertation, 

University of Phoenix.

Vladovic, K. (2009). The effects of mentoring on building and sustaining effective leadership 

practice of an urban school administrator. Retrieved from Dissertations and Theses: 

Full Text.
62

ECQ 5: BUILDING COALITIONS: PARTNERING 

Definition: 

Develops networks and builds alliances, collaborates across boundaries to build strategic 

relationships and achieve common goals. 

Summary of Literature: 

Research suggests that partnering and networking skills can be developed from action 

learning, cross-functional developmental assignments, and mentoring. Action learning

projects bring together multiple leaders from different functional areas.176 Research has 

shown that such projects become effective ways of creating work-related networks. In one 

study, interviews with senior executive participants who worked on an action learning 

project indicated that opportunities to network were one of the major outcomes of the 

project.177 A study of 22 public managers found that confidence from participating in an 

action learning program “was seen as a key factor in new leading managers breaking out of 

their comfortable working circles and creating or expanding networks.”178 In another 

study, researchers found a program that included action learning “was most effective in 

promoting behaviors around networking, performance meritocracy and commitment179 (in 

this study “performance meritocracy” referred to such behaviors as “proactively 

addressing performance concerns and developing top performers” (p. 524))180. Similar 

findings of the effects of action learning on networking have been reported in other 

research studies.181

Mentoring provides an opportunity to foster partnering, especially when mentors act as 

“brokers,”182 linking junior leaders to other professional contacts.183 Mentors provide 

bridges to other networks, and also help protégée develop skills to navigate new 

professional networks.184 For example, in one study of mentoring, a protégé noted ‘‘[my

mentor provided] great access to upper level employees. It was a great networking 

experience.”185 A meta-analysis of mentoring effects clearly demonstrated that the support 

provided by mentors – including coaching and sponsoring – facilitated several partnering

behaviors and outcomes.186 Researchers emphasize the critical importance of identifying 

mentors who are similar to the protégé on key work-related qualities because "mentors 

who are similar to their protégés in terms of educational background, departmental 

affiliation, or functional area may be better able to provide appropriate technical guidance, 

help the protégé engage in networking activities, and recommend the protégé for learning 

opportunities, all of which typify instrumental support."187

Developmental Recommendations

• Engage in action learning projects with a team of leaders from different functional and 

organizational areas. The project should involve extensive collaboration.

• Engage in job assignments that entail working on cross-functional and cross-boundary 

teams.
63

• Develop a mentoring relationship with a more established and senior leader in your 

organization. The mentor should provide access to a wider professional network, 

especially to "brokers" who can facilitate connections to other professional networks. 

The organization should help match mentors to the appropriate mentees.

• Join and participate in professional societies and organizations that foster networking 

opportunities among its members. 

Related References

Bartol, K.M. & Zhang, X. (2007). Networks and leadership development: Building linkages 

for capacity acquisition and capital accrual Human Resource Management Review, 

17, 388-401. doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.08.00.

Blackler, F., & Kennedy, A. (2004). The design and evaluation of a leadership programme 

for experienced chief executives from the public sector. Management Learning, 

35(2), 181-203.

Burt, R. S. 1992. Structural holes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 

Burt, R. S. 2000. The network structure of social capital. Research in Organizational 

Behavior, 22: 345-423. 

Clarke, J., Thorpe, R., Anderson, L., & Gold. J. (2006). It’s all action, it’s all learning: Action 

learning in SMEs. Journal of European Industrial Training 30, 441–55.

Clutterbuck, D. (1998), Learning Alliances. London: IPD.

de Tormes Eby, L. T., Allen, T. D., Hoffman, B. J., Baranik, L. E., Sauer, J. B., Baldwin, S., 

Morrison, M. A., Kinkade, K. M., Maher, C. P., Curtis, S., & Evans, S. C. (2012, July 16). 

An interdisciplinary meta-analysis of the potential antecedents, correlates, and 

consequences of protégé perceptions of mentoring. Psychological Bulletin. Advance 

online publication. doi:10.1037/a0029279. 

Dexter, B., Prince, C. (2007). Turning managers into leaders: Assessing the organizational 

impact of leadership development. Strategic Change, 16, 217-226. DOI: 

10.1002/jsc.796. 

Eby, L. T., & Lockwood, A. (2005). Protégés’ and mentors’ reactions to participating in 

formal mentoring programs: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Vocational 

Behavior, 67, 441–458.

Froiland, P. (1994). Action learning: Taming real problems in real time. Training, 31(1), 27-

34. 

Gibson, S. K. (2008). The developmental relationships of women leaders in career 

transition: Implications for leader development. Advances in Developing Human 

Resources, 10, 651-670.

Simmonds, D., & Tsui, O. (2010). Effective design of a global leadership programme. 

Human Resource Development International, 13, 519-540.

Stead, V. (2005). Mentoring: a model for leadership development: International Journal of 

Training and Development, 9(3), 170- 184. 
64

ECQ 5: BUILDING COALITIONS: POLITICAL SAVVY 

Definition: 

Identifies the internal and external politics that impact the work of the organization. 

Perceives organizational and political reality and acts accordingly. 

Summary of Literature: 

The leadership development literature suggests a number of successful approaches for the 

development of political savvy, including the following: interactive role play exercises; case 

study analysis; mentoring; and development assignments. Role-playing can effectively help 

participants take different perspectives and practice politically-effective interactions.

188 

Case studies, highlighting political dynamics of historical events, can be very helpful to 

develop political awareness.189 In one study – using a quasi-experimental design 

assessment – researchers found a politically-oriented, case-based course significantly 

increased participants’ skills in analyzing feasibility and impact of different political 

decisions.190

Mentors can also help in building the political savvy of protégés by sharing a wider 

perspective an organization’s political environment.

191 One researcher recently noted that 

“an important component of mentoring support is helping the protégé learn to navigate the 

political and strategic landscape of the organization.”192 Workshops that bring together 

such mentors to share their perspectives of political dynamics can also be effective.193 The 

process of mentoring can help protégés gain a broader understanding of organizational 

systems and the actors/issues that need to be considered in making decisions, and 

researchers have reported such learning gains in interviews with mentors and protégés; 

for example, in one study, a protégé noted “the program . . . gave me an opportunity to seek 

out and become much more informed about things that were going on within (the 

company) that were not in my immediate line of business.”194

Developmental assignments are also an effective way to grow political savvy, particularly 

when an assignment entails navigation of different political dynamics and working with 

politically-powerful individuals. Such assignments include “presenting a proposal to top 

management,” “performing a corporate staff job,” “serving on a cross-functional team,” 

“dealing with a business crisis,” and “facilitating the development of a new vision or 

mission statement.” 195 These types of assignments often require learners to have 

awareness of and to apply skills to navigate significant political risks; therefore, these 

assignments provide opportunities for the development and practice of political savvy. 

Such assignments should be complemented with learning partners and coaches who can

help mitigate risks, remove disincentives for learners to take these assignments and

provide effective support and feedback.196 
65

Developmental Recommendations 

• Take a workshop on organizational political dynamics that includes case studies of 

successful political climate navigation. This course should involve interactive and role 

play exercises and simulations in which you need to evaluate political acceptance of 

decisions in several decision contexts.

• Attend a workshop or forum of senior employees who share common experiences 

working within the organization. The sessions should provide opportunities for 

interaction and engagement between speakers and attendees. 

• Develop a mentoring relationship with a more senior employee in your organization, 

who can provide insight into organizational political dynamics. 

• Engage in developmental assignments that require navigation of different 

organizational areas and levels of management to reach successful solutions. Such 

assignments should be paired with mentoring and/or coaching.

Related References

Adams, S.M, & Zanzi, A. (2005). Developing political intelligence for making feasible 

decisions. Journal of Management Development, 25(4), 350-367.

Beech, N. and Brockbank, A. (1999), Power/knowledge and psychosocial dynamics in 

mentoring. Management Learning, 30(1), 7–25.

Clutterbuck, D. (1998), Learning Alliances. London: IPD.

Dexter, B., Prince, C. (2007). Turning managers into leaders: Assessing the organizational 

impact of leadership development. Strategic Change, 16, 217-226. DOI: 

10.1002/jsc.796. 

DeRue, D.S., Wellman, N. (2009). Developing leaders via experience: The role of 

developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability. Journal of 

Applied Psychology, 94(4), 859-875. DOI: 10.1037/a0015317.

Eby, L. T. (2011). Mentoring. In S. Zedeck (Ed), APA handbook of industrial and 

organizational psychology, Vol 2 (pp. 505-525). Washington, DC, US: American 

Psychological Association

Eby, L. T., & Lockwood, A. (2005). Protégés’ and mentors’ reactions to participating in 

formal mentoring programs: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Vocational 

Behavior, 67, 441–458.

Ferris, G.R., Anthony, W.P., Kolodinsky, R.W., Gilmore, D.C., & Harvey, M.G. (2002). 

Development of political skill. In Wankel, C. and DeFillippi, R. (Eds). Rethinking 

Management Education for the 21st Century. Greenwich, CT: Information Age 

Publishing, 3-25.

Ferris, G.R., Perrewe, P.L., Anthony, W.P. and Gilmore, D.C. (2000), “Political skill at work”.

Organizational Dynamics, 28, 25-37.

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

McMahon, G., & Archer, A. (Eds.). (2010). 101 coaching strategies and techniques (essential 

coaching skills and knowledge). New York: Routledge. 

Ohlott, P. J. (2004). Job assignments. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for 
66

Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 151–182). San 

Francisco: Wiley. 

Perrewe, P.L., Ferris, G.R., Frink, D.D., & Anthony, W.P. (2000). Political skill: an antidote for 

workplace stressors. Academy of Management Executive, 14(3), 115-23.

Stead, V. (2005). Mentoring: a model for leadership development: International Journal of 

Training and Development, 9(3), 170- 184. 

Yip, J., & Wison, M. S. (2010). Learning from experience. In E. Van Velsor, C. D. McCauley, & 

M. Ruderman (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership 

Development (3rd ed.) (pp. 63-95). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 
67

ECQ 5: BUILDING COALITIONS: INFLUENCING/NEGOTIATING 

Definition: 

Persuades others; builds consensus through give and take; gains cooperation from others 

to obtain information and accomplish goals. 

Summary of Literature: 

Some of the most common techniques for developing influencing and negotiation skills 

include: business simulations; role play; case study based workshops; and developmental 

assignments. Business simulations and role plays that involve actual negotiations among 

participants can provide opportunities to learn and practice different influence strategies 

in different contexts.197 Researchers have noted by participating in such simulations, 

“students are accumulating a set of negotiation experiences that they might be able to draw 

upon later.”198 In one experiment, researchers concluded an experiential training protocol, 

involving active practice negotiations, had a greater impact than more passive didactic 

training; participants in the experiential training condition developed conceptual frames 

about negotiation that more closely represented experienced negotiators.199 

Case discussions that help learners transfer lessons from specific cases to actual 

negotiation contexts have also been shown to be successful in developing influencing and 

negotiation skills. Researchers have argued that such case studies should involve 

comparisons of different negotiation examples reflecting similar underlying principles – 

i.e., “analogical learning.”200 The awareness and understanding that comes from such 

comparisons then transfers more readily to other negotiation problems. Indeed, in one 

study, people who had the opportunity to compare case studies performed better at 

transferring principles to actual negotiation situations than those who did not compare 

case studies.201 Other studies have also provided evidence supporting this approach to 

negotiation skills training.

202

Developmental assignments and coaching often significantly help foster influencing and 

negotiation competencies. Particularly helpful assignments or projects include those that 

(a) require an employee to work across different areas within an organization, and/or (b)

involve influencing others’ opinions (at the learner’s level).203 Such assignments should be 

accompanied by coaching or other forms of developmental relationships that focus on

emotion awareness/management 204 and “global constructive thinking.”205 

Developmental Recommendations

• Engage in simulations in which you are required to influence another person’s opinion 

or to negotiate a position. This simulation should be paired with feedback that 

evaluates the leader’s performance and provides recommendations for improved 

strategies.
68

• Engage in a role-play activity in which opinion influence or negotiation is a key 

component. This exercise should be paired with instructive feedback and facilitation.

• Take a workshop that presents case studies of negotiation situations and learning on

the negotiation strategies applied in the case studies. The workshop should provide a 

direct comparison between different cases to highlight underlying principles of 

influencing and negotiation.

• Engage in developmental assignments in which leaders must influence peers working 

on the same project or peers from whom they need to engender support. Ideally this 

exercise should be paired with coaching to help leaders uncover successful strategies. 

Related References

Cerni, T., Curtis, G. J., & Colmar, S. H. (2010). Executive coaching can enhance 

transformational leadership. International Coaching Psychology Review, 5, 81-85.

Fortgang, R. S. (2000). Taking stock: An analysis of negotiation pedagogy across four 

professional fields. Negotiation Journal, 16, 325–338.

Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general role 

for analogical encoding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 393–408.

Gillespie, J. J., Thompson, L. L., Lowenstein, J. and Gentner. D. (1999). Lessons from 

analogical reasoning in the teaching of negotiation. Negotiation Journal, 15, 363–

372.

Kram, K. E., & Ting, S. (2006). Coaching for emotional competence. In S. Ting and P. Scisco 

(Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (pp. 

179-202). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2000). The challenge of learning. Negotiation Journal, 16,

399–408.

Loewenstein, J., Thompson, L., & Gentner, D.. (1999). Analogical encoding facilitates 

knowledge transfer in negotiation. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 6, 586–597.

Loewenstein, J., Thompson, L., & Gentner, D. (2003). Analogical learning in negotiation 

teams: Comparing cases promotes learning and transfer. Academy of Management: 

Learning and Education, 2, 119–127.

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

Moran, S., Bereby-Meyer, Y., and Bazerman, M. (2008). Stretching the effectiveness of 

analogical training in negotiations: Teaching diverse principles for creating value. 

Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 1, 99–134.

Nadler, J., Thompson, L., & Van Boven, L. (2003). Learning negotiation skills: Four models of 

knowledge creation and transfer. Management Science, 49(4), 529–540.

Susskind, L. E., & Corburn, J. (2000). Using simulations to teach negotiation: Pedagogical 

theory and practice. In M. Wheeler (ed), Teaching negotiation: Ideas and innovations. 

Cambridge, MA: PON Books.

Thompson, L., Gentner, D., & Loewenstein, J. (2000). Avoiding missed opportunities in 

managerial life: Analogical training more powerful than individual case training. 

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 8, 60–75.
69

Van Boven, L. & Thompson, L. (2003). A look into the mind of the negotiator: Mental models 

in negotiation. Group Processes in Intergroup Relations 6: 387–404.
70

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: INTERPERSONAL SKILLS 

Definition: 

Treats others with courtesy, sensitivity, and respect. Considers and responds appropriately 

to the needs and feelings of different people in different situations. 

Summary of Literature: 

Research has suggested workshops that include behavioral modeling and role play, and are 

paired with multisource feedback and coaching, can be effective in developing 

interpersonal skills.

206 In behavior modeling exercises, employees observe successful 

interpersonal interactions by models, and are given opportunities to practice observed 

behaviors and receive feedback from observers.

207 Role play exercises entail two or more 

participants enacting particular roles in carefully structured interpersonal scenarios.

208 An 

experimental study of the effects of behavioral modeling with 62 middle-level managers 

found that managers receiving a modeling intervention displayed greater interpersonal 

skills four months after training than managers who did not receive such training.209 A 

meta-analysis of research on behavioral modeling confirmed its utility for growing 

interpersonal skills.210 Research on developing transformational leadership, which includes 

interpersonal skills, has demonstrated the effectiveness of role in fostering such skills.

211 

Several studies have found that leader interpersonal skills can also be developed through 

combinations of multisource feedback and coaching.212 One such study of the effectiveness 

of a 12-session, six-month executive coaching program within a large multinational 

corporation found almost all of the participants reported “coaching . . . refined their people 

skills by increasing their insight into how colleagues perceive their actions and 

decisions.”213 Coaches who observed behavioral changes commented that participants 

“became more open communicator[s], better able to listen and ask probing questions to 

ascertain others’ concerns, rather than to arbitrarily make unilateral decisions.”214 

Developmental Recommendations 

• Take workshops that include behavior modeling or role-play exercises. Modeling 

exercises should target specific interpersonal skills with modeled skill displays and 

sustained practice with feedback. Role plays should be paired with feedback by trained 

facilitators. Workshops should be paired with coaching to extend the lessons learned to 

the actual behavior on the job.

• Complete multisource or 360-degree assessments that evaluate interpersonal skills. 

Work with a coach to develop a learning plan to address identified gaps. 
71

Related References

Barling, J., Weber, T., & Kelloway, K.E. (1996). Effects of transformational leadership 

training on attitudinal and financial outcomes: A field experiment. Journal of Applied 

Psychology, 81(6), 827-832.

Burnaska , Robert F. (1976). The effects of behavior modeling training upon managers' 

behaviors and employees' perceptions. Personnel Psychology, 29(3), 329-335.

Cherniss, C., Grimm, L. G., & Liautaud, J. P. (2010). Process-designed training: A new 

approach for helping leaders develop emotional and social competence. Journal of 

Managerial Development, 29, 413-431.

Conger, J. (1993). The brave new world of leadership training. Organizational Dynamics, 46-

58.

Goodstone, M.S., & Diamante, T. (1998). Organizational use of therapeutic change: 

Strengthening multisource feedback systems through interdisciplinary coaching.

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 50(3), 152-163.

Hausser, D., Blaiwes, A.S., Weller, D., & Spencer, G. (1974). Applications of computer-assisted 

instruction to interpersonal skill training (Tech. Rep. 74-C-0100-1). Orlando, FL: 

NAVTRAEQUIPCEN.

Hunt, J., & Baruch, Y. (2003). Developing top managers: The impact of interpersonal skills 

training. Journal of Management Development, 22(8), 729 - 752.

Kelloway, E.K., Barling, J., & Helleur, J. (2000). Enhancing transformational leadership: The 

roles of training and feedback. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 

21(3), 145-149.

Kombarakaran, F.A. Yang, J.A., Baker, M.N., & Fernandes, P.B. (2008). Executive coaching: It 

works! Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60(1), 78-90. DOI: 

10.1037/1065-9293.60.1.78. 

London, M. (2002). Leadership development: Paths to self-insight and professional growth. 

Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

McGurk, P. (2010). Outcomes of management and leadership development. Journal of 

Management Development, 29(5), 457-470. DOI 10.1108/02621711011039222.

Thach, E.C. (2002). The impact of executive coaching and 360 feedback on leadership 

effectiveness. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 23(4), 205-214. 
72

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 

Definition: 

Writes in a clear, concise, organized, and convincing manner for the intended audience. 

Summary of Literature: 

Research suggests that formal workshops and peer coaching can be used to enhance 

leaders' writing skills. One study found the most effective workshop format to be one 

emphasizing in-class peer and instructor review of participant writing samples as the basis 

for instruction.215 This interactive structure allows for specialized feedback to each 

participant so that they can see how more generalized writing techniques apply to his/her 

own writing. Such interactive approaches have been validated by several other studies.

216 

While workshops are supported as the primary approaches for written communication 

development, peer coaching can provide reinforcement of skills gained from such 

coursework. One study that reported peer coaching paired with multisource feedback as 

part of a broader development initiative designed at improving self-awareness and 

communication can indeed strengthen written communication skills.

217 Through increased 

awareness of how others read their writing, participants are better able to notice when 

their written communications are not being interpreted correctly by the target audience. 

Developmental Recommendations 

• Participate in a writing workshop, or a course on written communication skills. This 

learning should be interactive in nature and allow for group discussion as well as direct 

instructor feedback on participant writing samples. 

• Make use of learning partners and peer coaches to solicit feedback on written 

communications.

Related References

Allio, R.J. (2005). Leadership development: Teaching versus learning. Management Decision, 

43(7/8), 1071-1077.

Berkhof, M., van Rijssen, H. J., Schellart, A. J. M., Anema, J. R., & van der Beek, A. J. (2011). 

Effective training strategies for teaching communication skills to physicians: An 

overview of systematic reviews. Patient Education and Counseling, 84(2), 152-162. 

Carbone, K.R. (2009). Evaluation of a leadership development program: Investigating the 

impact and key factors facilitating or impeding success. Retrieved from Dissertations 

and Theses: Full Text.

Drotar, D. (2000). Training professional psychologists to write and publish: the utility of a 

writers’ workshop seminar. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31(4), 

453-457.
73

Ely, K., Boyce, L.A., Nelson, J.K., Zaccaro, S.J., Hernez-Broome, G., & Whyman, W. (2010). 

Evaluating leadership coaching: A review and integrated framework. The Leadership 

Quarterly, 21, 585-599.

Galer-Unit, R., & Tappe, M. K. (2006). Developing effective written communication and 

advocacy skills in entry-level health educators through writing-intensive program 

planning methods courses. Health Promotion Practice, 7, 110-116.

Jones, G., & Gorell, R. (2009). 50 top tools for coaching: A complete toolkit for developing and 

empowering people. London: Kogan Page Limited.

Ladyshewsky, R.K. (2007). A strategic approach for integrating theory to practice in 

leadership development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(5), 

426-443, DOI 10.1108/01437730710761733. 

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

Stewart, H.B. (1976). A self-coaching program for leadership development. Unpublished 

dissertation, University of British Columbia.
74

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: ORAL COMMUNICATION 

Definition: 

Makes clear and convincing oral presentations. Listens effectively; clarifies information as 

needed. 

Summary of Literature: 

Research suggests that leaders’ oral communications skills can be developed from 

workshops, certain development assignments, and coaching – with each of these learning 

interventions placing an emphasis on practice and repetition. In the workshop/classroom 

setting, training can start with a formal agenda that outlines techniques known to be 

particularly effective in high quality communications.218 By presenting these strategies in a 

formal setting, participants can focus on understanding the basic principles at hand. To 

practice these strategies, leadership simulations 219 or behavioral modeling220 are 

recommended as specific activities that actively reinforce presented information. Postworkshop support can also help participants effectively transition techniques learned in 

the formal instructional setting into on-the-job performance.221 

Coaching can be also used to help employees identify their specific problem areas in oral 

communication, and provide suggestions on solutions for addressing those issues.222 One 

specific brand of coaching uses a leader’s communication skills audit and skills inventory as 

a basis for a development plan; the coach’s role is to assist in the construction and 

completion of that plan.223 Alternatively, a coaching relationship can begin with the results 

of a multisource feedback assessment that targets oral communication and presentation 

skills.

224 

Developmental Recommendations 

• Attend a workshop that covers techniques and strategies for effective communication. 

This workshop should be paired with interactive activities such as behavior modeling 

or leadership simulations allowing leaders to apply learning from the workshop into

practical action. 

• Take on a developmental assignment offering the opportunity to present or 

communicate to areas of your organization with which you normally do not interact. 

• Enter a coaching relationship focused on the development of oral communication skills. 

This relationship should be founded on a skills audit and assessment, or multisource 

feedback results, informing a development plan to which the relationship aligns.

Related References

Allio, R.J. (2005). Leadership development: Teaching versus learning. Management Decision, 

43(7/8), 1071-1077.
75

Campbell, D.J., Dardis, G., & Campbell, K.M. (2003). Enhancing incremental influence: A 

focused approach to leadership development. Journal of Leadership and 

Organizational Studies, 10(1), 29- 44. 

Carbone, K.R. (2009). Evaluation of a leadership development program: Investigating the 

impact and key factors facilitating or impeding success. Retrieved from Dissertations 

and Theses: Full Text.

Ely, K., Boyce, L.A., Nelson, J.K., Zaccaro, S.J., Hernez-Broome, G., & Whyman, W. (2010). 

Evaluating leadership coaching: A review and integrated framework. The Leadership 

Quarterly, 21, 585-599.

Frese, M., Beimel, S., & Schoenborn, S. (2003). Action training for charismatic leadership: 

two evaluations of studies of a commercial training module on inspirational 

communication of a vision. Personnel Psychology, 56(5), 671-97.

Hooijberg, R., & Lane, N. (2009). Using multisource feedback in coaching effectively in 

executive education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 8, 483-493.

Jones, G., & Gorell, R. (2009). 50 top tools for coaching: A complete toolkit for developing and 

empowering people. London: Kogan Page Limited.

Kombarakaran, F.A. Yang, J.A., Baker, M.N., & Fernandes, P.B. (2008). Executive coaching: It 

works! Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60(1), 78-90. DOI: 

10.1037/1065-9293.60.1.78. 

Ladyshewsky, R.K. (2007). A strategic approach for integrating theory to practice in 

leadership development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(5), 

426-443, DOI 10.1108/01437730710761733. 

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

McMahon, G., & and Archer, A. (Eds.). (2010). 101 coaching strategies and techniques 

(essential coaching skills and knowledge). New York: Routledge. 

Standifer, R.L., Thiault, P., Pin, R. (2010). Leadership development in an electronic frontier: 

Connecting theory to experiential software through supplemental materials. Journal 

of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 17(2), 167-176. DOI: 

0.1177/1548051810366714. 

Stewart, H.B. (1976). A self-coaching program for leadership development. Unpublished 

dissertation, University of British Columbia.

Wales, S. (2003). Why coaching?. Journal of Change Management, 3(3), 275-83.

Zorica , Jane A. (1988). The design, implementation, and evaluation of a model training 

program to teach oral communication skills to line supervisors (Doctoral 

Dissertation). Retrieved from PsycINFO. (49(6-B),2405)
76

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: INTEGRITY/HONESTY 

Definition: 

Behaves in an honest, fair, and ethical manner. Shows consistency in words and actions. 

Models high standards of ethics. 

Summary of Literature: 

According to the literature, programs that effectively develop integrity and ethics in 

individuals include a focus on the establishment of ethical organizational climates, 

reinforced by role-modeling and service learning assignments. For example, a case study 

on the United States Military Academy (USMA) in West Point provides a framework 

identifying important components for effective organizational and individual ethics 

training.225 Specifically USMA's ethics training starts before recruits join the Academy

through the use of realistic job previews and organizational communications to highlight 

expectations of honesty and integrity. This approach coupled with an overtly ethical 

climate has reinforce employee ethical orientation.226 This research has also concluded the 

organizations may optimize the effectiveness of ethical communications by through the use 

of simply-phrased and unequivocal messages (e.g., a short but explicit honor code 

statement227). 

Role models play a crucial role in the development of ethical competencies, especially early 

in employees’ careers (at West Point, cadets are immediately matched with mentors from 

whom they can model their own behavior).228 Similarly, trust in leaders breeds an ethical 

climate so researchers encourage the use of developmental assignments – requiring hightrust relationships for accomplishment of tasks – to enhance honest and ethical 

behavior.229

Responsibility is another trait related to integrity and honesty – responsibility not just to 

one’s organization but also to the broader community in which one is a member, and 

service learning programs can be used to enhance this connection.230 These programs have 

two parts: (1) a formal instructional portion in which participants learn about a specific 

problem in the community, and (2) an active community service portion in which they go 

out into the community and enact change. These programs depend largely on experiential 

learning processes where participants derive the greatest learning impact through active 

engagement and interaction with the community. 

Researchers have determined the success of other components of ethical training programs 

that target individuals’ use of inappropriate rationalization during ethical decisionmaking.231 For example, some programs provide “rule of thumb” heuristical decisionmaking – providing learners a simple guide on how to act in potentially murky situations

by overriding inappropriate rationalization processes.

232 Another approach relies on the 

use of case studies to present real situations where poor ethical decisions were made, with 

the goal of exploring more appropriate and the ethical responses; this strategy enables 
77

participants to examine ethical lapses and learn appropriate solutions and methods to 

address situations they may encounter in their jobs.233

Developmental Recommendations

• Develop a mentor relationship with a senior employee early on in the leader’s career,

in which the senior employee serves as a role model for ethical conduct. This mentoring

relationship should be paired with a formalized organizational ‘code of ethics’ that 

clearly reinforces a climate of integrity

• Take a workshop that provides heuristical decision-making tools on which leaders may 

rely in addressing challenging ethical situations in the workplace. These decisionmaking tools will particularly help guide appropriate action in times of uncertainty. 

• Take a course or workshop that includes case-studies involving poor ethical conduct. 

This discussion should examine the ethical failures involved in the case studies, 

potential causes for the failure, and solutions, or prevention or mitigation strategies 

that could have been applied. 

• Engage in a service-learning project with an organization to enhance contact with and 

understanding of the community in which your organization exists.

Related References

Anand, V., Ashforth, B. E., & Joshi, M. (2004). Business as usual: The acceptance and 

perpetuation of corruption in organizations. Academy of Management Executive, 18,

39–53.

Cress, C.M., Yamashita, M., Duarte, R., & Burns, H. (2010). A transnational comparison of 

service-learning as a tool for leadership development. International Journal of 

Organizational Analysis, 18(2), 228-244. DOI 10.1108/19348831011046281. 

Driscoll, D., & Hoffman, W. M. (1999). Gaining the ethical edge: Procedures for delivering 

values-driven management. Long Range Planning, 32, 179–189.

Ferrell, O.C., Fraedrich, J., & Ferrell, L. (2008), Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and 

Cases, 7th ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Hayes, J. (2007). Evaluating a leadership development program. Organization Development 

Journal, 25(4), 89- 94. 

Jaw, B., & Liu, W. (2003). Promoting organizational learning and self-renewal in Taiwanese 

companies: The role of HRM. Human Resource Management, 42, 223–241.

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

Pless, N. M., Maak, T., Stahl, G. K. (2011). Developing responsible global leaders through 

international service-learning programs: The Ulysses experience. Academy of 

Management Learning & Education, 10, 237–260.

Shamir, B., Eilam, G. (2005). “What’s your story?” A life-stories approach to authentic 

leadership development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 395-417. 

doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.005. 

Stewart, H.B. (1976). A self-coaching program for leadership development. Unpublished 

dissertation, University of British Columbia.
78

Trevino, L.K., & Nelson, K.A. (2007), Managing Business Ethics: Straight Talk About How to 

Do It Right, 4th ed., Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Valentine, S., & Barnett, T. (2007). Perceived Organizational Ethics and the Ethical 

Decisions of Sales and Marketing Personnel. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales 

Management, 27, 4

(Fall), 359–367.

Van Velsor, E., & Ascalon, E. (2006). The role and impact of leadership development in 

supporting ethical action in organisations. Journal of Management Development, 27, 

187-195.

Vega, G. (2007). Teaching business ethics through service learning metaprojects. Journal of 

Management Education, 31, 647-678.
79

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: CONTINUAL LEARNING

Definition: 

Assesses and recognizes own strengths and weaknesses; pursues self-development. 

Summary of Literature:

Research suggests that continual learning can be facilitated by multisource feedback, 

coaching, and instructions in self-development practices. One study found that multisource 

feedback changed the attitudes of leaders, and motivated subsequent leadership selfdevelopment.

234 Such feedback has also been shown to increase leader self-awareness and 

encourage improvement of identified skill gaps.

235 In turn, self-awareness and motivation 

become key drivers of continuous learning and self-development. 236 In some instances, 

leaders can seek coaching to learn specific skills, and researchers have found that leaders 

who were paired with an executive coach were more likely to set specific goals and to 

solicit feedback than those who did not receive coaches.237 Coaching can also help provide

leaders with motivation to continually self-improve.238

Self-development skills training has also been found to increase a leader’s tendency to 

engage in continuous learning and to seek new opportunities to master new knowledge.239 

Such training should focus on skills in self-assessment, establishing self-learning objectives, 

self-learning monitoring, and self-learning evaluation.240 One study found that when 

leaders were trained on self-development activities, they were more likely to engage in 

continuous learning.

241 When leaders are educated on the purpose and benefits of selfdevelopment, they are more motivated to participate in self-development activities.242 

Developmental Recommendations 

• Engage in self-development skills training. This training should be two-fold: 

identification of skills development needs, and ways to effectively developmental goals 

for those skills. This activity may be conducted through multi-source feedback—

including both a skills as well as a formative—so the leader understands why specific 

developmental activities will be effective. Organizational support is also important to 

encourage these self-developmental activities.

• Participate in a coaching relationship that can facilitate self-development efforts. Multisource feedback from supervisors, peers, and subordinates can be used as part of 

coaching to identify self-learning objectives. 

Related References

Boyce, L., Zaccaro, S. J. & Wisecarver, M., (2010) Propensity for self-development of 

leadership 

attributes: Understanding, predicting, and supporting performance of leader selfdevelopment. Leadership Quarterly, 21,159-178.
80

Brett, J.F., Atwater, L.E. (2001). 360 feedback: Accuracy, reactions, and perceptions of 

usefulness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86 (5), 930-942. DOI: 10.1037//0021-

9010.86.5.930.

Drew, G. (2009). A “360” degree view for individual leadership development. Journal of 

Management Development, 28(7), 581-592. DOI 10.1108/02621710910972698.

Langkamer, K. (2008) Development of a nomological net surrounding leader development. 

Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: Sciences and Engineering, 69:1995.

London, M. (2002). Leadership development: Paths to self-insight and professional growth. 

Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Marquardt, M.J., Leonard, H.S., Freedman, A.M., & Hill, C.C. (2009). Action learning for 

developing leaders and organizations: Principles, strategies, and cases. Washington, 

D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Orvis, K., & Ratwani , K. (2010). Leader self-development: A contemporary context for 

 Leader development evaluation. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(4), 657-674.

Smither, J.W., London, M., Flautt, R., Vargas, Y., & Kucine, I. (2003). Can Working With an 

Executive Coach Improve Multisource Feedback Ratings Over Time? A QuasiExperimental Field Study. Personnel Psychology, 56, 23-44.

Solansky, S.T. (2010). The evaluation of two key leadership development program

components: Leadership skills assessment and leadership mentoring. The 

Leadership Quarterly, 21, 675-681.

Van Rensburg, T., & Prideaux, G. (2005). Turning professionals into managers using

multisource feedback. Journal of Management Development, 25(6), 561-571.
81

FUNDAMENTAL COMPETENCIES: PUBLIC SERVICE MOTIVATION

Definition: 

Shows a commitment to serve the public. Ensures that actions meet public needs; aligns 

organizational objectives and practices with public interests.

Summary of Literature: 

Several studies have highlighted the effectiveness of service learning for leaders to enhance 

their commitment and meaningful contributions to public service.243 For example, one such 

study described a successful service learning project in which students received training on 

management ethics skills, and interacted with various members of the public.244 Another 

study found that participants in service learning projects indicated that such experiences 

increased their “commitment to civic responsibility, view of themselves as active citizens, 

and their desire to become community leaders.”245 

Researchers have suggested public service orientation as an element of a leader's values 

can be enhanced through modeling and the use of mentors.

246 Researchers have also found 

in organizations with a public service mission or focus (such as Federal agencies), “active 

modeling of the values desired by the organization, championed by organizationally 

significant individuals . . . reinforces the desired values on an ongoing basis.”247 Thus, 

assignments that entail exposure to such individuals can be a useful means of increasing 

public service values and motivation.

Developmental Recommendations 

• Engage in service learning activities, where leaders apply skills learned in the 

classroom to actual problems in the community. 

• Engage in behavioral modeling paired with mentoring. The behavioral modeling should 

involve the active demonstration of the organization’s public service values. Leaders 

should use mentors for support and as experts who embody and model organizational 

values. 

Related References

Campbell, D.J., Dardis, G., & Campbell, K.M. (2003). Enhancing incremental influence: A 

focused approach to leadership development. Journal of Leadership and 

Organizational Studies, 10(1), 29- 44. 

Cherniss, C., Grimm, L. G., & Liautaud, J. P. (2010). Process-designed training: A new

approach for helping leaders develop emotional and social competence. Journal of

Managerial Development, 29, 413-431.

Cress, C.M., Yamashita, M., Duarte, R., & Burns, H. (2010). A transnational comparison of 
82

service-learning as a tool for leadership development. International Journal of 

Organizational Analysis, 18(2), 228-244. DOI 10.1108/19348831011046281. 

Maynard-Moody, Steven, and Michael Musheno. (2003). Cops, Teachers, Counselors: Stories 

from the Front Lines of Public Service. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Partnership for Public Service. 2008. Getting On Board: A Model for Integrating and

Engaging New Employees. 

http://www.ourpublicservice.org/OPS/publications/viewcontentdetails.php?id=12

8 

Vega, G. (2007). Teaching business ethics through service learning metaprojects. Journal of 

Management Education, 31, 647-678.

Vinzant, Janet C. 1998. Where Values Collide: Motivation and Role Conflict in Child and

Adult Protective Services. American Review of Public Administration 28(4), 347–66.
83

MEASURING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF YOUR LEADERSHIP 

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

To ensure the effectiveness of leadership development programs and to document and 

track cost savings/avoidance, organizations must be able to measure the organizational 

outcomes of those programs. Unfortunately, although organizations commonly invest in 

development programs, organizations seldom have accurate or meaningful insight into the 

effectiveness and value of their development programs, aligned to organizational needs 

and priorities. 

Before investing time and resources in creating or enhancing a leadership development 

program, agencies should conduct a thorough needs assessment. The purpose of a needs 

assessment is to identify organizational performance gaps and the knowledge, skills, and 

abilities of employees required to close those gaps. Successful needs assessments also 

maximize the overall accuracy of the development program evaluation. The following 

represents four critical components of an effective needs assessment: 

• Identification of critical organizational challenges that drive the need for 

leadership development.

• Identification of targets for leadership development and leadership needs 

relating to a client’s business challenges.

• Identification of change required to solve a business problem or to meet an 

organizational challenge.

• Identification of specific, measurable outcomes of leadership development, 

including the level of mastery desired for these outcomes.

Especially during times involving constrained budgets, agencies should prioritize effective 

program evaluation to ensure optimal allocation of resources (time and money) and return 

on investment. Organizations commonly measure program effectiveness only by gathering 

data through assessments of individual executive learning, and this limited method 

typically allows organizations to measure only participant learning and behaviors. To 

properly evaluate development programs, agencies should consider the following 

additional metrics and assessment tools:

• Comparisons of expectations and benefits

• Interviews or open-ended questionnaires

• Employee engagement/satisfaction

• 360-degree retests

• Quality of the agency’s products and services

• Benchmarking with other executive development programs

• Retention of leadership talent

Organizations that most accurately measure the impact of developmental efforts use both 

qualitative and quantitative metrics and focus on the individual as well as the organization. 
84

For additional information regarding program evaluation, please see the GAO 2012 

Designing Evaluations248 report available on OPM’s online Federal Training and 

Development Wiki at (http://www.opm.gov/WIKI/training/MainPage.ashx). The OPM wiki 

is a collaborative website dedicated solely to Federal learning and development content. 

Agencies are able to share creative ideas and training tools that will assist them in 

developing and implementing programs in new, more efficient, and fiscally-responsible 

ways. Additional information is available in OPM’s Training Evaluation Field Guide249

designed to assist agency training representatives in evaluating training effectiveness and 

in demonstrating training value to stakeholders and decision-makers. 
85

APPENDIX

DEFINITIONS OF LEADER DEVELOPMENT LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Interventions/ Activities Definitions/Descriptions

Instructor-led This type of training is facilitated by an instructor either online 

or in a classroom setting. Instructor-led training allows for 

learners and instructors or facilitators to interact and discuss 

the training material, either individually or in a group setting.

Structured training 

programs; Formal course 

work; skills workshops; 

Web-based training

Structured learning activities involve instructor led 

presentations of leadership theories, models, principles 

and skills. Students are provided with lectures, 

demonstrations, and exercises to foster knowledge and 

skill acquisition. These types of learning activities are 

usually a precursor to more active learning exercises.4 

Case discussion Case discussions, or the case method approach, present 

learners with descriptions of organizational and leadership 

problems and the effective (or ineffective) solution 

strategies used by the actors in the case scenario. Learners 

analyze and discuss the case in groups to form 

understanding of the issues involved in particular cases, 

learn appropriate solution strategies, and develop relevant 

skills.5

Experiential Variety Experiential variety involves providing learners with 

multiple, carefully structured practice problem scenarios 

that vary significantly in the kinds of solutions that need to 

be generated for success.6

Cultural assimilator A cultural assimilator is a computer-based training 

intervention in which a learner receives a series of 

intercultural vignettes and is asked to respond to forced 

choice questions about cultural nuances and differences. 

Responses are followed by automatic feedback.7 

Experiential Activities Experiential activities are developmental tasks that occur in 

immersive environments and allow learners to naturally 

generate questions. These questions are optimally answered at 

the time they are generated. The key to experiential activities is 

hands-on learning and conversation; either virtually or in faceto-face interaction.
86

Interventions/ Activities Definitions/Descriptions

Action learning; Active 

learning

Action learning and active learning are a self-directed 

approach to learning in which individuals and teams 

develop and present solutions to actual organizational 

problems.8

Outdoor Challenge 

Exercises; Personal 

growth programs

Outdoor challenge exercises involve groups of learners 

participating in physically oriented team exercises. These 

exercises are designed to encourage growth in team trust, 

team communication, and interpersonal cooperation. 

Personal growth programs focus more decision making and 

self-exploration exercises that are intended to foster 

greater self-awareness.

9 

Service Learning Service learning involves active learning projects and 

exercises where the central tasks and problems have a 

form of community service as their primary focus.10

Scenario planning In scenario planning, learners consider and develop 

multiple future strategic alternatives for organizations. 

These alternative scenarios are then used as the basis for 

collective discussions, decision-making, and organizational 

learning.11

Error Management 

Training

In error management training, learners engage in active 

learning where they are encouraged to experiment with 

different solutions, and learn from the errors they make in 

their problem solving.12 

Simulations; Games Simulations and games present learners with realistic 

problem scenarios that require them to play roles in 

generating solutions. They typically include constrained 

problem environments with specific parameters for 

solution generation.13

Behavioral modeling; Role 

modeling, Role-play

Modeling is a training approach that involves emulating the 

use of targeted behaviors and skills in defined contexts. In 

modeling exercises, learners are shown displays of 

effective targeted behaviors, and provided practice 

opportunities with feedback.14
87

Interventions/ Activities Definitions/Descriptions

Developmental (Stretch; 

Challenging) assignments

A development assignment is one that is designed to 

stretch a learner beyond existing skills, to challenge the 

learner to expand and grow these skills in order to meet 

more complex leadership performance requirements.15

Job Rotation In a job rotation, learners are reassigned to alternative 

organizational positions in order to learn about different 

functional areas and acquire new job knowledge and 

skills.16

"Stamping-in" 

assignments

Stamping-in assignments provide opportunities for 

learners to practice skills gained in formal courses and 

workshops.17

Developmental 

Relationships

Developmental relationships are either formal or informal and 

involve one individual taking an active interest in and initiating 

actions to advance another’s development. They are the kinds of

relationships that serve as key sources of assessment, challenge, 

and support.

Coaching Coaching involves an interaction between a coach and a 

leader that focuses on fostering the leader's selfunderstanding, the preparation of an individual 

developmental plan, and guidance and support in fulfilling 

that plan.18 

Networking Networking involves the formation of learning 

partnerships, where learners acquire sources of social 

support for their developmental efforts. These partners 

provide advice about appropriate learning activities, and 

feedback about these activities. Networks can also provide 

support for career development and upward job mobility.19

Mentoring Mentoring is a process in which a more experienced and 

senior member of an organization provides developmental 

support and career advice to a less experienced and more 

junior protégé. Mentors may also help protégés gain a 

better understanding of complex organizational and 

strategic environments.20 
88

Interventions/ Activities Definitions/Descriptions

Adaptive Guidance Adaptive guidance involves the provision of information to 

learners about their most appropriate developmental 

strategies and learning directions.21

Assessments & Feedback Multisource feedback is a process of acquiring performance 

feedback from multiple rates and sources, including a leader's 

superiors, peers, and subordinates. Leaders also provide selfratings. Feedback intensive programs include not only 

assessments of performance, but of leader personality, skills, 

and other dispositions. Such feedback is intended to foster 

greater self-understanding and facilitate the construction of 

effective individualized development plans.

Self-development Self-development is any self-initiated and proactive learning 

process where learners are responsible for (a) assessing their 

own strengths and developmental needs, (b) designing and 

completing their instructional curriculum, and (c) evaluating 

their own learning progress.23
89

ENDNOTES

1Campbell, D.J., Dardis, G., & Campbell, K.M. (2003). Enhancing incremental influence: A 

focused approach to leadership development. Journal of Leadership and Organizational 

Studies, 10(1), 29- 44. Day, D.V. (2001). Leadership development: A review in context. 

Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 581-613. 

2DeRue, D.S., Wellman, N. (2009). Developing leaders via experience: The role of 

developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability. Journal of 

Applied Psychology, 94(4), 859-875. DOI: 10.1037/a0015317. 

3Leonard, H. S., & Lang, F. (2010). Leadership development via action learning. Advances in 

Developing Human Resources, 12(2) 225–240.

4 Allio, R.J. (2005). Leadership development: Teaching versus learning. Management 

Decision, 43(7/8), 1071-1077. 

5 Hsu, S. (2004). Using case discussion on the web to develop student teacher problem 

solving skills. Teaching and Teacher Education, 681-692

6 Ely, K., Zaccaro, S. J., & Conjar, E. A. (2009). Leadership development: Training design 

strategies for growing adaptability in leaders. In C. Cooper & R. Burke (Eds.), The peak 

performing organization (pp. 175–196). London: Routledge. Nelson, J. K., Zaccaro, S. J., 

& Herman, J. L. (2010). Strategic information provision and experiential variety as tools 

for developing adaptive leadership skills. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and 

Research, 62, 131-142.

7 Harrison, J. K. (1992). Individual and combined effects of behavior modeling and the 

cultural assimilator in cross-cultural management training. Journal of Applied 

Psychology, 77, 952-962.

8 Conger, J., & Toegel, G. (2002). Action learning and multi-rater feedback as leadership 

development interventions: Popular but poorly deployed. Journal of Change 

Management, 3(4), 332-348. Pedler, M. (ed.) (1991) Action Learning in Practice (2nd 

Ed). Brookfield, VT: Gower.

9 Froiland, P. (1994). Action learning: Taming real problems in real time. Training, 31(1), 

27-34. McCauley, C. D. (2001). Leader training and development. In S. J. Zaccaro & R. J. 

Klimoski (Eds.), The nature of organizational leadership: Understanding the performance 

imperatives confronting today's leaders (pp. 347-383). San Francisco, CA, US: JosseyBass. 
90

10 Wiese, N. M., & Sherman, D. J. (2011). Integrating marketing and environmental studies 

through an interdisciplinary, experiential, service-learning approach. Journal of 

Marketing Education, 33, 41-56.

11 Chermack, T. J., & Lynham, S. A. (2002). Definitions and outcome variables of scenario 

planning. Human Resource Development Review, 1, 366-383.

12Keith, N., & Frese, M. (2008, p. 60). Effectiveness of error management training: A metaanalysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 59-69. 

13 Thornton, G.C., & Cleveland, J. N. (1990). Developing managerial talent through 

simulation. American Psychologist, 45, 190-199. 

14 Taylor, P., Russ-Eft, D. F., & Chan, D. W. L., (2005) A meta-analytical review of behavior 

modeling training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 692-709.

15 Ohlott, P. J. (2004, p. 134). Job assignments. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The 

Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 151–

182). San Francisco: Wiley.

16Campion, M.A., Cheraskin, L., Stevens, M.J. (1994). Career-related antecedents and 

outcomes of job rotation. Academy of Management Journal, 37(6), 1518- 1542. 

17 Zaccaro, S. J., & Banks, D. (2004). Leader visioning and adaptability: Bridging the gap 

between research and practice on developing the ability to manage change. Human 

Resource Management Journal, 43, 367-380. 

18 Kombarakaran, F.A. Yang, J.A., Baker, M.N., & Fernandes, P.B. (2008). Executive coaching: 

It works! Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60(1), 78-90. DOI: 

10.1037/1065-9293.60.1.78. Ting, S., & Hart, E. W. (2004). Formal coaching. In C. D. 

McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of 

leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 116-150). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

19 Higgins, M. C., & Kram, K. E. (2001). Reconceptualizing mentoring at work: A 

developmental network perspective. Academy of Management Review, 26, 264-288. 

McCauley, C. D, & Douglas, C. A. (2004). Developmental relationships. In C. D. McCauley 

& E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership 

development (2nd Ed., p. 85-115). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Rock, A.D & Garvan, 

T.N. (2006). Reconceptualizing developmental relationships. Human Resource 

Development Review, 5(3), 330-35. Bartol, K.M. & Zhang, X. (2007). Networks and 

leadership development: Building linkages for capacity acquisition and capital accrual 

Human Resource Management Review, 17, 388-401. doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.08.00.

20 Ragins, B. R., & Cotton, J. L. (1999). Mentor functions and outcomes: A comparison of men 

and women in formal and informal mentoring relationships. Journal of Applied 

Psychology, 84, 529–550. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.529. Lewis, P., & Jacobs, T. O. 

(1992). Individual differences in strategic leadership capacity: A 
91

constructive/developmental view. In R. L. Phillips & J. G. Hunt (Eds.), Strategic 

leadership: A multiorganizational-level perspective. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

21 Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002). Adaptive guidance: Enhancing self-regulation, 

knowledge, and performance in technology-based training. Personnel Psychology, 55,

267-307.

22 King, S. N., & Santana, L. C. (2010). Feedback-intensive programs. In E. Van Veslor, C. D. 

McCauley, & M. N. Ruderman (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of 

leadership development (pp. 97-123). San Francisco, Jossey-Bass. 

23 Boyce, L., Zaccaro, S. J. & Wisecarver, M., (2010) Propensity for self-development of 

leadership attributes: Understanding, predicting, and supporting performance of leader 

self-development. Leadership Quarterly, 21,159-178. Langkamer, K. (2008) 

Development of a nomological net surrounding leader self-development. Dissertation 

Abstracts International Section B: Sciences and Engineering, 69:1995.

24Froiland, 1994, op. cit.

25Mumford, M.D., Hunter, S.T., Eubanks, D.L., Bedell, K.E., & Murphy, S.T. (2007). Developing 

leaders for creative efforts: A domain-based approach to leadership development. 

Human Resource Management Review, 17, 402-417. doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.08.002. 

26Mumford, et al., 2007, op. cit. Noel, J. L. and Charan, R. (1988) Leadership development at 

GE’s Crotonville. Human Resource Management 27(4): 433–47. 

27Mumford, et al., 2007, op. cit., p. 407.

28DeRue & Wellman, 2009, op. cit.

29Shipton, H., Fay, D., West, M., Patterson, M., & Birdi, K. (2008). Managing people to 

promote innovation. Creativity and Innovation Management, 14(2), 118-128. 

doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8691.2005.00332.x

30Mumford, et al., 2007, op. cit. 

31 DeRue & Wellman, 2009, op. cit.

32Ligon, Wallace, & Osburn, 2011

33Conger and Toegel, 2002, op. cit., p. 336)

34Chermack and Lynham, 2002, op. cit.

35Chandler, J., & Cockle, P. (1982). Techniques of scenario planning. London: McGraw-Hill.

Wack, P. (1985). Scenarios: Shooting the rapids. Harvard Business Review, 63(6), 139-

150.
92

36Chermack , T.J., & Swanson, R.A. (2008, p. 137). Scenario planning: Human resource 

development's strategic learning tool. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10(2), 

129-146.

37Wack, 1985, op. cit., p. 140.

38Chermack & Swanson, 2008, op. cit. Chermack, T.J., Lynham, S.A., Ruona, W.E.A. (2001). A 

review of scenario planning literature. Futures Research Quarterly, 17(2), 7-31. 

McWhorter, R. R., Lynham, S. A., & Porter, D. E. (2008). Scenario planning as developing 

leadership capability and capacity. Advances in the developing Human Resources, 10 (2), 

258-28.

39Kahn, H. (1984). Thinking about the unthinkable in the 1980’s. New York: Simon &

Schuster. cited in McWorter, et al., 2008, op. cit., p. 259.

40McWorter, et al., 2008, op. cit., 

41Chermack, et al., 2001, op. cit.

42Lewis & Jacobs, 1992, op. cit. Reiter, E. (2008). The development of a leadership mentoring 

system to enhance the advancement of protégés: A phenomenological study. Unpublished 

dissertation, University of Phoenix.

43Reiter, 2008, op. cit.

44Lewis & Jacobs, 1992, op. cit.

45Ohlott, 2004, op. cit.

46Hooijberg, R. (1996). A multidirectional approach toward leadership: an extension of the 

concept of behavioral complexity. Human Relations, 49, 917-947. Nelson, Zaccaro, & 

Herman, 2010, op. cit.

47Campion, Cheraskin, and Stevens, 1994, op. cit.

48Zaccaro & Banks, (2004, op. cit.

49Ohlott, 2004, op. cit.

50Banks, D. (2006). Stretch experiences and leader development: The relationships among 

work experience, individual differences, contextual variables, and leader adaptability. 

Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: Sciences and Engineering, 67, 3493.Horn, 

Z. N. J., (2008). Linking developmental stretch assignments with adaptive outcomes: The 

importance of cognitive frame complexity. Unpublished dissertation, George Mason 

University.

51Langkamer, 2008, op. cit.
93

52Nelson, Zaccaro, & Herman, 2010, op. cit.

53Jones, R.A., Rafferty, A.E., & Griffin, M.A. (2006). The Executive coaching trend: Towards 

more flexible executives. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 27, 584-596. 

Diedrich, R. C. (1996). An iterative approach to executive coaching. Consulting 

Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 48(2), 61-66. doi:10.1037/1061-

4087.48.2.61. Ely, K., Boyce, L.A., Nelson, J.K., Zaccaro, S.J., Hernez-Broome, G., & 

Whyman, W. (2010). Evaluating leadership coaching: A review and integrated 

framework. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 585-599.

54Jones, et al., 2006, op. cit.

55Ely, et al., 2010, op. cit., p. 590

56Ladyshewsky, R.K. (2007, p. 436). A strategic approach for integrating theory to practice 

in leadership development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(5), 

426-443, DOI 10.1108/01437730710761733. 

57Ely, et al., 2009, op. cit.

58Bell & Kozlowski, 2002, op. cit. Ely, et al., 2009, op. cit. Nelson, et al., 2010, op. cit.

59Burton, N.W., Pakenham, K.I., & Brown, W.J. (2010). Feasibility and effectiveness of 

psychosocial resilience training: A pilot study of the READY program. Psychology, Health 

and Medicine, 15(3), 266-277.

60Burton, et al., 2010, op. cit. p. 268.

61Waite, P.J. & Richardson, G.E. (2004). Determining the efficacy of resiliency training in the 

work site. Journal of Allied Health, 33(3), 178-183.

62Maddi, S.R., Kahn, S., & Maddi, K.L. (1998). The effectiveness of hardiness training. 

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 50(2), 78-86. Steensma, H., Heijer, 

M., & Stallen, V. (2006). Research note: Effects of resilience training on the reduction of 

stress and depression among Dutch workers. International Quarterly of Communication 

Health Education, 27(2), 145-159.

63Grant, A.M., Curtayne, L., & Burton, G. (2009). Executive coaching enhances goal 

attainment, resilience and workplace well-being: A randomized controlled study. The 

Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 396-407. 

64Grant, A. M. (2008). Personal life coaching for coaches-in-training enhances goal 

attainment, insight and learning. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research 

and Practice, 1(1), 54-70.
94

65Evers, W. J., Brouwers, A., & Tomic, W. (2006, p. 177). A quasiexperimental study on 

management coaching effectiveness. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and 

Research, 58, 174 –182.

66Grant, 2008, op. cit.

67Ohlott, 2004, op. cit. McCauley, 2006, op. cit.

68Goldman, E. F. (2005, p. 123). Becoming an expert strategic thinker: The learning journey 

of Healthcare CEOs. George Washington University, unpublished dissertation.

69DeRue & Wellman, 2009, op. cit., p. 860.

70Dragoni , L., Oh, I., Vankatwyk, P., & Tesluk, P.E. (2011). Developing executive leaders: 

The relative contribution of cognitive ability, personality, and the accumulation of work 

experience in predicting strategic thinking competency. Personnel Psychology, 64(4), 

829-864.

71Rashford , N.S., & de Figueiredo, J.N. (2011). The live in-class CEO intervention: A 

capstone experiential technique for leadership development. Journal of Management 

Education, (5), 620-647.Pfeifer, G., & Cline, P. (2011). Wharton Leadership Digest 

(November-December, 2011). 

http://wlp.wharton.upenn.edu/LeadershipDigest/training-with-the-fdny.cfm

72Gitsham,M. (2012),"Experiential learning for leadership and sustainability at IBM and 

HSBC", Journal of Management Development, 31(3), 298 - 307. 

http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02621711211208925

73Chermack and Lynham, 2002, op. cit. McWhorter, et al., 2008, op. cit.; Wack, 1985, op. cit.

Chermack, T. J. (2011). Scenario planning in organizations: How to create, use, and 

assess scenarios. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. van der Heijden, K. (2005). 

Scenarios: the art of strategic conversation (2nd. edition). Chichester, England: John 

Wiley & Sons.

74Partridge, S.E. & Sculli, D. (1982). Management skills and business games. Simulation & 

Games, 13(2), 165-77.

75Hayes, J. (2007, p. P92). Evaluating a leadership development program. Organization 

Development Journal, 25(4), 89- 94. 

76Gosen, J., & Washbush, J. (2004). A review of scholarship on assessing experiential 

learning effectiveness. Simulation and Gaming, 35, 270-293. Knotts, U. S., Jr., & Keys, J. 

B. (1990). The role of management games and simulations in education and research. 

Simulation and Gaming, 28, 377-394. Parks, D., & Lindstrom, G. (1995). Achieving 

higher levels of learning in the business policy and strategy course through integration 

of a business simulation. Journal of Management Education, 19, 219-227. Poisson-de 

Haro, S., & Turgut, G., (2012). Expanded strategy simulations: developing better 
95

managers. Journal of Management Development, 31, 209 - 220. Wheatley, W., 

Hornaday, R. and Hunt, T. (1988). Developing strategic management goal setting skills. 

Simulation and Games, 19, 173-85. Wolfe, J. (1997). The effectiveness of business games 

in strategic management course work. Simulation & Gaming, 28, 360-76.

77Trim, P.R.J. (2003). Human resource management development and strategic 

management enhanced by simulation exercises. Journal of Management Development, 

23(4), 399-413.

78Lewis & Jacobs, 1992, op. cit.

79Kim, S. J. (2003). An examination of action learning as a method for developmental 

transformational leadership behaviors and characteristics. Unpublished doctoral 

dissertation, George Washington University. Lee, T.B. (2005). A case study of an action 

learning program with regard to leadership behaviors and characteristics. Unpublished 

doctoral dissertation, George Washington University.

80Marquardt, M.J., Leonard, H.S., Freedman, A.M., & Hill, C.C. (2009). Action learning for 

developing leaders and organizations: Principles, strategies, and cases. Washington, D.C.: 

American Psychological Association.

81Chermack & Lynham, 2002, op. cit. McWhorter, et al., 2008, op. cit. Wack, 1985, op. cit. 

82Ohlott, 2004, op. cit. McCauley, 2006, op. cit.

83DeRue & Wellman, 2009, op. cit., p. 860.

84Baron, L., & Morin, L. (2009). The Coach-coachee relationship in executive coaching: A 

field study. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20, 85-106. De Meuse, K. P., Dai, G., 

& Lee, R. J. (2009). Evaluating the effectiveness of executive coaching: Beyond ROI? 

Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research, and Practice, 2, 117-134.

85Baron & Morin, 2009, op. cit. Kilburg, R.R. (1997). Coaching and executive character: Core

problems and basic approaches. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 

49(4), 281-299. Kram, K. E., & Ting, S. (2006). Coaching for emotional competence. In S. 

Ting and P. Scisco (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership 

development (pp. 179-202). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ting, S., & Hart, E. W. 

(2004). Formal coaching. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for 

Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 116-150). San 

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ting, S., & Riddle, D. (2006). A framework for leadership 

development coaching. In S. Ting and P. Scisco (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership 

Handbook of Coaching (pp. 34-62). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. 

86Brinkert, R. (2011). Conflict coaching training for nurse managers: a case study of a twohospital health system. Journal of Nursing Management, 19, 80–91,
96

87Rappe, C., & Zwick, T. (2007). Developing leadership competence of production unit 

managers. Journal of Management Development, 26(4), 312-330. Ladyshewsky, 2007, op. 

cit. Freedman, A. M., &Perry, J. A. (2010). Executive consulting under pressure: a case 

study. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research , 62,(3), 189–202

88Marquardt, et al., 2009, op. cit.

89Marquardt, et al., 2009, op. cit. Hii, A. (2000). The impact of action learning on the 

conflict-handling styles of managers in a Malaysian firm. Unpublished doctoral 

dissertation, George Washington University. Raudenbush, L., Marquardt, M. J., & Walls, 

T. (2003). Growing leaders at the U.S. Department of Agriculture: A case study of 

leadership development using action learning. Proceedings of the 2003 Annual AHRD 

Conference. Minneapolis, MN: AHRD Publications.

90Ray, E.B., & Ray, G.B. (1986). Teaching conflict management skills in corporate training: A 

perspective-taking approach. Communication Education, 35(3), 288-290.

91Ohlott, 2004, op. cit.

92Ohlott, 2004, op. cit., p. 161; see McCauley, 2006, op. cit., pp. 28-29, for some examples of 

such assignments)

93DeRue and Wellman, 2009, op. cit.

94Kiemele, J. (2009). Culturally proficient leadership: Intercultural sensitivity among 

elementary school principles. Unpublished dissertation, Arizona State University. Smith, 

P. A. C. (2001). Action learning and reflective practice in project environments that are 

related to leadership development. Management Learning, 32(1), 31- 48. 

95Wiese, N. M., & Sherman, D. J. (2011, p. 43). Integrating marketing and environmental 

studies through an interdisciplinary, experiential, service-learning approach. Journal of 

Marketing Education, 33, 41-56.

96Cress, C.M., Yamashita, M., Duarte, R., & Burns, H. (2010). A transnational comparison of 

service-learning as a tool for leadership development. International Journal of 

Organizational Analysis, 18(2), 228-244. DOI 10.1108/19348831011046281. 

97Pless, N. M., Maak, T., Stahl, G. K. (2011). Developing responsible global leaders through 

international service-learning programs: The Ulysses experience. Academy of 

Management Learning & Education, 10, 237–260.

98Pless, Maak, & Stahl, 2011, op. cit., p. 246)

99Harrison, 1992, op. cit.

100Hornsby, E. E., Morrow-Jones, H. A., & Ballam, D. A. (2011, p. 103). Leadership 

development for women faculty at the Ohio State University: The President's and 
97

Provost's Leadership Initiative. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 14(1) 96–

112.

101Smith, K. J. (2009). Teaching the acceptance of diversity: An anti-bias initiative education 

initiative that empowers student leaders to be agents of change. Unpublished 

dissertation, Boston College. 

102Ladyshewsky, 2007, op. cit., p. 435.

103Diedrich, 1996, op. cit.

104Stewart, H.B. (1976). A self-coaching program for leadership development. Unpublished 

dissertation, University of British Columbia.

105Stewart, 1976, op. cit., p. 80)

106Robinson, J. (2011). Mentoring and coaching school leaders: A phenomenological study 

of adaptive expertise for school administrators. Unpublished dissertation, University of 

Phoenix. Stead, V. (2005). Mentoring: a model for leadership development: 

International Journal of Training and Development, 9(3), 170- 184. 

107Stead, 2005, op. cit.

108Orvis, K., & Ratwani , K. (2010). Leader self-development: A contemporary context for 

leader development evaluation. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(4), 657-674. Ratwani, K. 

L., Zaccaro, S. J., Garven, S., & Geller, D. S. (2010). The role of developmental social 

networks in effective leader self-learning processes. In M. G. Rothstein, & R. G. Burke 

(Eds.), Self-management and leadership development (pp. 395-426). London: Edward 

Elgar.

109Van Rensburg, T., & Prideaux, G. (2005). Turning professionals into managers using 

multisource feedback. Journal of Management Development, 25(6), 561-571.

110Dexter, B., Prince, C. (2007). Turning managers into leaders: Assessing the organizational 

impact of leadership development. Strategic Change, 16, 217-226. DOI: 10.1002/jsc.796. 

Froiland, 1994, op. cit. Marquardt, M. Seng, N. C., & Goodson, H. (2010). Team 

development via action leaning. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12, 241-259. 

Hirst, G., Mann, L., Bain, P., Pirola-Merlo, A., Richver, A. (2004). Learning to lead: The 

development and testing of a model of leadership learning. The Leadership Quarterly, 

15, 311-327.

111 Hirst, et al., 2004, op. cit.

112Davey, C. L., Powell, J. A., Powell, J. E., & Cooper, I. (2002). Action learning in a mediumsized construction company. Building Research & Information, 30, 5-15. Leigh, J. M., 

Shapiro, E. R., & Penney, S. H. (2010). Developing diverse, collaborative leaders: An 

empirical program evaluation. Journal of leadership and Organizational Studies, 17, 370-
98

379. Marquardt, M., & Carter, T. (1998). Action learning and research at George 

Washington University. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 11(2), 59-71.

113Froiland, 1994, op. cit. Munns, K. M. (1995). The effects of team building interventions. 

University of Wisconsin, Unpublished dissertation. Pfeifer, G., & Cline, P. (2011). 

Firefighters for a Day: Training with the New York City Fire Department. Wharton 

Leadership Digest (November-December, 2011), 

http://wlp.wharton.upenn.edu/LeadershipDigest/training-with-the-fdny.cfm. Teire, J. 

(1994). Using the outdoors. In Mumford, A. (Ed.). Handbook of Management 

Development. New York: Gower, p. 258-275.

114Munns, 1995, op. cit.

115Pfeifer and Cline, 2011, op. cit.

116Diedrich, 1996, op. cit. Grant, et al., 2009, op. cit. Ladyshewsky, 2007, op. cit. van 

Rensburg & Prideaux, 2005, op. cit.

117Ladyshewsky, 2007, op. cit., p. 435

118Diedrich, 1996, op. cit. Grant, et al., 2009, op. cit.

119Diedrich, 1996, op. cit. Ladyshewski, 2007, op. cit.

120Van Rensburg & Prideaus, 2005, op. cit.

121Ladyshewsky, 2007, op. cit., p. 438.

122Bowles, S., Cunningham, C. J. L., De La Rosa, G. M., & Picano, J. (2007, p. 396). Coaching 

leaders in middle and executive management: goals, performance, and buy-in. 

Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 28, 388−408.

123Simmonds, D., & Tsui, O. (2010). Effective design of a global leadership programme. 

Human Resource Development International, 13, 519-540. Thorsell, J. (2007). 

Innovation in learning: How the Danish leadership institute developed 2,200 managers 

from Fujitsu services from 13 different countries. Management Decision, 45(10), 1667-

1676. DOI 10.1108/00251740710838022. 

124Church, A.H., & Waclawski, J. (2008). Establishing successful client relationships. In J.W. 

Jerry, & W.C. Borman (Eds), The I/O consultant: advice and insights for building a 

successful career (pp. 205-213). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

125Church & Waclawski, 2008, op. cit.

126Hochschild, A.R. (1979). Emotion work, feeling rules, and social structure. The American 

Journal of Sociology, 85, 551-75. Lee, Y., Kim, Y., Son, M. H., & Lee. D. (2011). Do 

emotions play a mediating role in the relationship between owner leadership styles and 

manager customer orientation, and performance in service environment? International 
99

Journal of Hospitality Management, 30, 942– 952. Mirchandani, K. (2012). Learning 

racial hierarchies: Communication skills training in transnational customer service 

work. Journal of Workplace Learning, 24, 338 - 350.

127Dexter & Prince, 2007, op. cit. Leonard & Lang, 2010, op. cit.

128Kombarakaran et al, 2008, op. cit.

129Mirchandani, 2012, op. cit. Thorsell, 2007, op. cit.

130Dexter & Prince, 2007, op. cit. Leonard & Lang, 2010, op. cit. Young, S., Nixon, E., Hinge, 

D., McFadyen, J., Wright, V., Lambert, P., Pilkington, C. & Newsome, C. (2010). Action 

learning: a tool for the development of strategic skills for Nurse Consultants? Journal of 

Nursing Management 18, 105–110. Hirst et al., 2004, op. cit.

131Leonard & Lang, 2010, op. cit. 

132Leonard & Lang, 2010, op. cit., p. 232

133Young, et al., 2010, op. cit., p. 108

134Hirst et al., 2004, op. cit.

135Kombarakaran et al., 1998, op. cit., p. 83

136Thorsell, op. cit., 2007, p. 1673)

137Useem, M., Cook, J., & Sutton, L. (2005). Developing leaders for decision making under 

stress: Wildland firefighters in the south canyon fire and its aftermath. Academy of 

Management Learning & Education, 4, 461–485.

138Useem, Cook, & Sutton, 2005, op. cit., p. 478

139Useem, Cook, & Sutton, 2005, op. cit., p. 478

140Waddill, D., Banks, S., & Marsh, C. (2010). The future of action learning. Advances in 

Developing Human Resources, 12, 260-279

141(Marquardt, et al., 2009, op. cit. McMahon, G., & and Archer, A. (Eds.). (2010). 101 

coaching strategies and techniques (essential coaching skills and knowledge). New York: 

Routledge. Smith, 2001, op. cit.

142Leonard and Lang, 2010, op. cit.

143McCauley, 2006, op. cit., p. 45

144McCauley, 2006, op. cit., p. 45
100

145DeRue, & Wellman, 2009, op. cit.

146Conger & Toegel, 2002, op. cit. Guerrero, V. (2008). Women and leadership: Examining 

the impact of entrepreneurial education on leadership self-efficacy. Unpublished 

dissertation, Pepperdine University.

147Conger & Toegel, 2002, op. cit.

148Conger & Toegel, 2002, op. cit., p. 336):

149Guerrero, 2008, op. cit., p. xi)

150Clark, B. W., Davis, C. H., & Harnish, V. C. (1984, p. 27). Do courses in entrepreneurship 

aid in new venture creation. Journal of Small Business Management, 22, 26-31.

151Clark, Davis, and Harnish, 1984, op. cit., p. 29.

152Clark, Davis, and Harnish, 1984, op. cit., p. 29.

153Thornberry, N.E. (2002). Corporate entrepreneurship: teaching managers to be 

entrepreneurs. Journal of Management Development, 22(4), 329-344.

154Thornberry, 2002. op. cit., p.342.

155Thornberry, 2002. op. cit., p.342.

156Ohlott, 2004, op. cit., p. 157. See also McCauley, 2006, op. cit.

157Conger and Toegel, 2002, op. cit. Froiland, 1994, op. cit. Marquardt, et al., 2009, op. cit.

158Marquardt, et al., 2009, op. cit., p. 23.

159Marquardt, et al., 2009, op. cit., p. 24.

160Froiland, 1994, op. cit. Marquardt, et al., 2009, op. cit. Leonard and Lang, 2009, op. cit.

161Allen, M. T. (2008). Skill acquisition in the complex ill-defined domain of leadership: The 

role of discussion, guidance, and case frequency in case methods of instruction. 

Unpublished dissertation, University of Oklahoma. 

162Allen, 2008, op. cit.

163Hsu, 2004, op. cit.

164Feinstein, A.H., Mann, S., & Corsun, D.L. (2002). Charting the experiential territory: 

clarifying definitions and uses of computer simulations, games and role play. Journal of 

Management Development, 21(10), 732-44. Keys, B., & Wolfe, J. (1990). The role of 

management games and simulations in education and research. Journal of Management, 
101

16, 307-336. Lisk, T. C., Kaplancali, U. T. & Riggio, R. E. (2012). Leadership in 

multiplayer online gaming environments. Simulation and Gaming, 43, 133-149. McCoy, 

R. L. (2009). The impact of a simulation based leader development training program on 

transformational and transactional leadership behavior. Unpublished dissertation, 

University of San Diego. Pfeifer & Cline, 2011, op. cit.

165Scherpereel, C. M. (2005). Changing mental models. Business simulation exercises. 

Simulation and Gaming, 36, 388-403. DOI: 10.1177/1046878104270005

166McCauley, 2006, op. cit., p. 45.

167March, A.L. (2011). The Relationship Between Systems-Change Coaching and Levels of 

Implementation and Fidelity of Problem-Solving/Response to Intervention (PS/RtI).

Unpublished dissertation, University of South Florida.

168Jones & Gorrel, 2009, op. cit.

169McMahon & Archer, 2010, op. cit.

170Jones & Gorrel, 2009, op. cit. McMahon & Marcher, 2010, op. cit.

171DeRue & Wellman, 2009, op cit.

172Reiter, 2008, op. cit. Vladovic, K. (2009). The effects of mentoring on building and 

sustaining effective leadership practice of an urban school administrator. Unpublished 

dissertation, University of Southern California. 

173Reiter, 2008, op. cit.

174Vladovic, 2009, op. cit., p. 190.

175Campion, Cheraskin, and Stevens, 1994, op. cit., p. 1536.

176Froiland, 1994, op. cit.

177 Blackler, F., & Kennedy, A. (2004). The design and evaluation of a leadership programme 

for experienced chief executives from the public sector. Management Learning, 35(2), 

181-203.

178Dexter and Prince, 2007, op. cit., p. 223.

179Simmonds & Tsui, 2010, op. cit., p. 529.

180Simmonds & Tsui, 2010, op. cit., p. 529.

181Clarke, J., Thorpe, R., Anderson, L., & Gold. J. (2006). It’s all action, it’s all learning: Action 

learning in SMEs. Journal of European Industrial Training 30, 441–55.
102

182Burt, R. S. (1992). Structural holes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Burt, R. S. 

(2000, p. 354). The network structure of social capital. Research in Organizational 

Behavior, 22: 345-423. 

183Bartol & Zhang, 2007, op. cit.

184Clutterbuck, D. (1998), Learning alliances. London: IPD. Gibson, S. K. (2008). The 

developmental relationships of women leaders in career transition: Implications for 

leader development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10, 651-670. Stead, 

2005, op. cit.

185Eby, L. T., & Lockwood, A. (2004, p. 449). Protégés’ and mentors’ reactions to 

participating in formal mentoring programs: A qualitative investigation. Journal of 

Vocational Behavior, 67, 441–458.

186de Tormes Eby, L. T., Allen, T. D., Hoffman, B. J., Baranik, L. E., Sauer, J. B., Baldwin, S., 

Morrison, M. A., Kinkade, K. M., Maher, C. P., Curtis, S., & Evans, S. C. (2012). An 

interdisciplinary meta-analysis of the potential antecedents, correlates, and 

consequences of protégé perceptions of mentoring. Psychological Bulletin. Advance 

online publication. doi:10.1037/a0029279 

187de Tormes Eby et al., 2012, op. cit., p. 20, italics added.

188Ferris, G.R., Anthony, W.P., Kolodinsky, R.W., Gilmore, D.C., & Harvey, M.G. (2002). 

Development of political skill. In Wankel, C. and DeFillippi, R. (Eds). Rethinking 

Management Education for the 21st Century. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing, 

3-25. Ferris, G.R., Perrewe, P.L., Anthony, W.P. and Gilmore, D.C. (2000), “Political skill at 

work”. Organizational Dynamics, 28, 25-37. Perrewe, P.L., Ferris, G.R., Frink, D.D., & 

Anthony, W.P. (2000). Political skill: an antidote for workplace stressors. Academy of 

Management Executive, 14(3), 115-23.

189Adams, S.M, & Zanzi, A. (2005). Developing political intelligence for making feasible 

decisions. Journal of Management Development, 25(4), 350-367.

190Adams & Zanzi, 2005, op. cit.

191Beech, N. and Brockbank, A. (1999), Power/knowledge and psychosocial dynamics in 

mentoring. Management Learning, 30(1), 7–25.

192Eby, L. T. (2011, p. 509). Mentoring. In S. Zedeck (Ed), APA handbook of industrial and 

organizational psychology, Vol 2 (pp. 505-525). Washington, DC, US: American 

Psychological Association

193Stead, 2005, op. cit.

194Eby and Lockwood, 2004, op. cit., p. 448.
103

195Ohlott, 2004, op. cit., p. 157

196DeRue & Wellman, 2009, op. cit. Ohlott, 2004, op. cit. Yip, J., & Wison, M. S. (2010).

Learning from experience. In E. Van Velsor, C. D. McCauley, & M. Ruderman (Eds.), The 

Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development (3rd ed.) (pp. 63-

95). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

197Fortgang, R., S. (2000), Taking stock: An analysis of negotiation pedagogy across four 

professional fields. Negotiation Journal, 16(4), 325-338. Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. 

(2000). The challenge of learning. Negotiation Journal, 16, 399–408. Susskind, L. E., & 

Corburn, J. (2000). Using simulations to teach negotiation: Pedagogical theory and 

practice. In M. Wheeler (ed), Teaching negotiation: Ideas and innovations. Cambridge, 

MA: PON Books.

198Loewenstein & Thompson, 2000, op. cit., p. 403.

199van Boven, L. & Thompson, L. (2003). A look into the mind of the negotiator: Mental 

models in negotiation. Group Processes in Intergroup Relations 6: 387–404.

200Loewenstein & Thompson, 2000, op. cit., p. 406)

201Thompson, L., D. Gentner, and J. Loewenstein. (2000). Avoiding missed opportunities in 

managerial life: Analogical training more powerful than individual case training. 

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 8, 60–75.

202Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general 

role for analogical encoding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 393–408. 

Gillespie, J. J., L. L. Thompson, J. Loewenstein, and D. Gentner. (1999). Lessons from 

analogical reasoning in the teaching of negotiation. Negotiation Journal, 15, 363–372. 

Loewenstein, J., L. Thompson, and D. Gentner. (1999). Analogical encoding facilitates 

knowledge transfer in negotiation. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 6, 586–597. 

Loewenstein, J., Thompson, L., & Gentner, D. (2003). Analogical learning in negotiation 

teams: Comparing cases promotes learning and transfer. Academy of Management: 

Learning and Education, 2, 119–127. Moran, S., Y. Bereby-Meyer, and M. Bazerman. 

(2008). Stretching the effectiveness of analogical training in negotiations: Teaching 

diverse principles for creating value. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 1, 

99–134. Nadler, J., Thompson, L., & Van Boven, L. (2003). Learning negotiation skills: 

Four models of knowledge creation and transfer. Management Science, 49(4), 529–540.

203McCauley, 2006, op. cit.

204Kram & Ting, 2006, op. cit.

205Cerni, T., Curtis, G.J., & Colmar, S.H. (2010, p. 82). Executive Coaching Can Enhance 

Transformational Leadership. International Coaching Psychology Review, 5, 81 – 85.
104

206Barling, J., Weber, T., & Kelloway, K.E. (1996). Effects of transformational leadership 

training on attitudinal and financial outcomes: A field experiment. Journal of Applied 

Psychology, 81(6), 827-832. Goodstone, M.S., & Diamante, T. (1998). Organizational use 

of therapeutic change: Strengthening multisource feedback systems through 

interdisciplinary coaching. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 50(3),

152-163. London, M. (2002). Leadership development: Paths to self-insight and 

professional growth. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Taylor, P., Russ-Eft, D. 

F., & Chan, D. W. L., (2005) A meta-analytical review of behavior modeling training. 

Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 692-709. Thach, E.C. (2002). The impact of executive 

coaching and 360 feedback on leadership effectiveness. Leadership and Organization 

Development Journal, 23(4), 205-214. 

207Taylor, et al., 2005, op. cit.

208Feinstein, et al., 2002, op. cit.

209Burnaska , Robert F. (1976). The effects of behavior modeling training upon managers' 

behaviors and employees' perceptions. Personnel Psychology, 29(3), 329-335.

210Taylor, et al., 2005, op. cit.

211Barling, et al., 1996, op. cit. Kelloway, E.K., Barling, J., & Helleur, J. (2000). Enhancing 

transformational leadership: The roles of training and feedback. Leadership and 

Organization Development Journal, 21(3), 145-149.

212Kombarakaran et al., 2008, op. cit. Smither, J.W., London, M., Flautt, R., Vargas, Y., & 

Kucine, I. (2003). Can working with an executive coach improve multisource feedback 

ratings over time? A quasi-experimental field study. Personnel Psychology, 56, 23-44. 

Thach, 2002, op. cit.

213Kombarakaran et al., 2008, op. cit., p. 83

214Kombarakaran et al., 2008, op. cit., p. 81

215Drotar, D. (2000). Training professional psychologists to write and publish: the utility of 

a writers’ workshop seminar. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31(4), 

453-457.

216Allio, 2005, op. cit. Berkhof, M., van Rijssen, H. J., Schellart, A. J. M., Anema, J. R., & van der 

Beek, A. J. (2011). Effective training strategies for teaching communication skills to 

physicians: An overview of systematic reviews. Patient Education and Counseling, 84(2), 

152-162. doi: 10.1016/j.pec.2010.06.010. Carbone, K.R. (2009). Evaluation of a 

leadership development program: Investigating the impact and key factors facilitating or 

impeding success. Unpublished dissertation, Rutgers: The State University of New 

Jersey. Galer-Unit, R., & Tappe, M. K. (2006). Developing effective written 

communication and advocacy skills in entry-level health educators through writingintensive program planning methods courses. Health Promotion Practice, 7, 110-116.
105

217Ladyshewsky, et al., 2007, op. cit.

218Allio, 2005, op. cit.

219Standifer, R.L., Thiault, P., Pin, R. (2010). Leadership development in an electronic 

frontier: Connecting theory to experiential software through supplemental materials. 

Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 17(2), 167-176. DOI: 

0.1177/1548051810366714. 

220Zorica , Jane A. (1988). The design, implementation, and evaluation of a model training 

program to teach oral communication skills to line supervisors. Unpublished dissertation, 

University of Pittsburgh. 

221Carbone, 2009, op. cit.

222Kombarakaran et al., 2008, op. cit. McMahon & Archer, 2010, op. cit. Wales, S. (2003). 

Why coaching?. Journal of Change Management, 3(3), 275-83.

223Jones & Gorrell, 2009, op. cit.

224Hooijberg, R., & Lane, N. (2009). Using multisource feedback in coaching effectively in 

executive education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 8, 483-493. 

Ladyshewsky, 2007, op. cit.

225Offstein, E. H., & Dufresne, R. L. (2007). Building strong ethics and promoting positive 

character development: The influence of HRM at the United States Military Academy at 

West Point. Human Resource Management, 46, 95-114.

226Ferrell, O.C., Fraedrich, J., & Ferrell, L. (2008), Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making 

and Cases, 7th ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Trevino, L.K., & Nelson, K.A. (2007), 

Managing Business Ethics: Straight Talk About How to Do It Right, 4th ed., Hoboken, NJ: 

Wiley. Valentine, S., & Barnett, T. (2007). Perceived organizational ethics and the ethical 

decisions of sales and marketing personnel. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales 

Management, 27, 4, 359–367.

227Driscoll, D., & Hoffman, W. M. (1999). Gaining the ethical edge: Procedures for delivering 

values-driven management. Long Range Planning, 32, 179–189.

228Offstein & Dufresne, 2007, op. cit.

229McCauley, 2006, op. cit.

230Pless, Maak, & Stahl, 2011, op. cit. Vega, G. (2007). Teaching business ethics through 

service learning metaprojects. Journal of Management Education, 31, 647-678. Cress, et 

al., 2010, op. cit.
106

231Anand, V., Ashforth, B. E., & Joshi, M. (2004). Business as usual: The acceptance and 

perpetuation of corruption in organizations. Academy of Management Executive, 18, 39–

53.

232Offstein & Dufresne, 2007, op. cit.

233Offstein & Dufresne, 2007, op. cit. Jaw, B., & Liu, W. (2003). Promoting organizational 

learning and self-renewal in Taiwanese companies: The role of HRM. Human Resource 

Management, 42, 223–241.

234Van Rensburg & Prideaux, 2005, op. cit.

235Drew, G. (2009). A “360” degree view for individual leadership development. Journal of 

Management Development, 28(7), 581-592. DOI 10.1108/02621710910972698.

236Boyce, Zaccaro, & Wisecarver, 2010, op. cit.

237Smither, et al., 2003, op. cit.

238London, 2002, op. cit.

239Orvis & Ratwani, 2010, op. cit.

240Church, A. H., & Rotolo, C. T. (2010). The role of the individual in self-assessment for 

leadership development. In M. G. Rothstein, & R. G. Burke (Eds.), Self-management and 

leadership development (pp. 25-61). London: Edward Elgar. Ratwani, et al., 2010, op. 

cit.

241Langkamer, 2008, op. cit.

242Boyce et al., 2010, op. cit.

243Cress, et al., 2010, op. cit.

244Vega, 2007, op. cit.

245Cress, et al., 2010, op. cit.

246Campbell, et al., 2003, op. cit.

247Campbell, et al., 2003, op. cit., p. 35

248U.S. Government Accountability Office (2012). Designing evaluations. Washington DC: 

GAO 

249U.S. Office of Personnel Management (2011). Training evaluation field guide. Washington

DC: OPM
107

250U.S. Office of Personnel Management (2012). Executive development best practices guide.

WashingtonDC: OPM
108

SOURCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS 

Adams, S.M, & Zanzi, A. (2005). Developing political intelligence for making feasible 

decisions. Journal of Management Development, 25(4), 350-367.

Allen, M. T. (2008). Skill acquisition in the complex ill-defined domain of leadership: The role 

of discussion, guidance, and case frequency in case methods of instruction. 

Unpublished dissertation, University of Oklahoma. 

Allio, R.J. (2005). Leadership development: Teaching versus learning. Management Decision, 

43(7/8), 1071-1077.

Anand, V., Ashforth, B. E., & Joshi, M. (2004). Business as usual: The acceptance and 

perpetuation of corruption in organizations. Academy of Management Executive, 18,

39–53.

Banks, D. (2006). Stretch experiences and leader development: The relationships among 

work experience, individual differences, contextual variables, and leader 

adaptability. Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: Sciences and Engineering, 

67, 3493.

Barling, J., Weber, T., & Kelloway, K.E. (1996). Effects of transformational leadership 

training on attitudinal and financial outcomes: A field experiment. Journal of Applied 

Psychology, 81(6), 827-832.

Baron, L., & Morin, L. (2009). The Coach-coachee relationship in executive coaching: A field 

study. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20, 85-106. 

Bartol, K.M. & Zhang, X. (2007). Networks and leadership development: Building linkages 

for capacity acquisition and capital accrual Human Resource Management Review, 

17, 388-401. doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.08.00.

Beech, N. and Brockbank, A. (1999), Power/knowledge and psychosocial dynamics in 

mentoring. Management Learning, 30(1), 7–25.

Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002). Adaptive guidance: Enhancing self-regulation, 

knowledge, and performance in technology-based training. Personnel Psychology, 55,

267-307.

Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2008). Active learning: Effects of core training design 

elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability. Journal of Applied 

Psychology, 93, 296-316.

Berkhof, M., van Rijssen, H. J., Schellart, A. J. M., Anema, J. R., & van der Beek, A. J. (2011). 

Effective training strategies for teaching communication skills to physicians: An 

overview of systematic reviews. Patient Education and Counseling, 84(2), 152-162.

doi: 10.1016/j.pec.2010.06.010

Blackler, F., & Kennedy, A. (2004). The design and evaluation of a leadership programme 

for experienced chief executives from the public sector. Management Learning, 

35(2), 181-203.

Boni, A., Weingart, L. R., & Evenson, S. (2009). Innovation in an academic setting: 

Designing and leading a business through market-focused, interdisciplinary teams. 

Academy of Management Learning and Education, 8, 407-417.
109

Bowles, S., Cunningham, C. J. L., De La Rosa, G. M., & Picano, J. (2007). Coaching leaders in 

middle and executive management: goals, performance, and buy-in. Leadership & 

Organization Development Journal, 28, 388−408.

Boyce, L., Zaccaro, S. J. & Wisecarver, M., (2010) Propensity for self-development of 

leadership attributes: Understanding, predicting, and supporting performance of 

leader self-development. Leadership Quarterly, 21,159-178.

Brett, J.F., Atwater, L.E. (2001). 360 feedback: Accuracy, reactions, and perceptions of 

usefulness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86 (5), 930-942. DOI: 10.1037//0021-

9010.86.5.930.

Brinkert, R. (2011). Conflict coaching training for nurse managers: a case study of a twohospital health system. Journal of Nursing Management, 19, 80–91,

Burnaska , Robert F. (1976). The effects of behavior modeling training upon managers' 

behaviors and employees' perceptions. Personnel Psychology, 29(3), 329-335.

Burnside, R.M., & Guthrie, V.A. (1992). Training for action: A new approach to executive 

development. Report No. 153, Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC.

Burt, R. S. 1992. Structural holes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 

Burt, R. S. 2000. The network structure of social capital. Research in Organizational 

Behavior, 22: 345-423. 

Burton, N.W., Pakenham, K.I., & Brown, W.J. (2010). Feasibility and effectiveness of 

psychosocial resilience training: A pilot study of the READY program. Psychology, 

Health and Medicine, 15(3), 266-277.

Butler, J.L., & Keys, J.B. (1973). A comparative study of simulation and traditional methods 

of supervisory training in human resource development. In T.B. Green & D.F. Ray 

(eds.), Proceedings of the Academy of Management: 302-305. Boston, MA: Academy 

of Management.

Cacioppe, R. (1998). An integrated model and approach for the design of effective 

leadership development programs. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 

19(1), 44.

Cacioppe, R. (1998). Leaders developing leaders: An effective way to enhance leadership 

development programs. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 19(4), 194. 

Campbell, D.J., Dardis, G., & Campbell, K.M. (2003). Enhancing incremental influence: A 

focused approach to leadership development. Journal of Leadership and 

Organizational Studies, 10(1), 29- 44. 

Campion, M.A., Cheraskin, L., Stevens, M.J. (1994). Career-related antecedents and 

outcomes of job rotation. Academy of Management Journal, 37(6), 1518- 1542. 

Carbone, K.R. (2009). Evaluation of a leadership development program: Investigating the 

impact and key factors facilitating or impeding success. Unpublished dissertation, 

Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey. Center for Creative Leadership (2007). 

Bryan Leadership Development Initiative. 

www.ccl.org/leadership/pdf/aboutCCL/BLDIimpactstudy.pdf

Cerni, T., Curtis, G.J., & Colmar, S.H. (2010). Executive Coaching Can Enhance 

Transformational Leadership. International Coaching Psychology Review, 5, 81 – 85.

Chandler, J., & Cockle, P. (1982). Techniques of scenario planning. London: McGraw-Hill.

Chermack, T. J. (2011). Scenario planning in organizations: How to create, use, and assess 

scenarios. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
110

Chermack, T. J., & Lynham, S. A. (2002). Definitions and outcome variables of scenario 

planning. Human Resource Development Review, 1, 366-383.

Chermack, T.J., Lynham, S.A., Ruona, W.E.A. (2001). A review of scenario planning 

literature. Futures Research Quarterly, 17(2), 7-31. 

Chermack , T.J., & Swanson, R.A. (2008). Scenario planning: Human resource 

development's strategic learning tool. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 

10(2), 129-146.

Cherniss, C., Grimm, L. G., & Liautaud, J. P. (2010). Process-designed training: A new 

approach for helping leaders develop emotional and social competence. Journal of 

Managerial Development, 29, 413-431.

Church, A. H., & Rotolo, C. T. (2010). The role of the individual in self-assessment for 

leadership development. In M. G. Rothstein, & R. G. Burke (Eds.), Self-management 

and leadership development (pp. 25-61). London: Edward Elgar.

Church, A.H., & Waclawski, J. (2008). Establishing successful client relationships. In J.W. 

Jerry, & W.C. Borman (Eds), The I/O consultant: advice and insights for building a 

successful career (pp. 205-213). Washington, DC: American Psychological 

Association.

Clark, B. W., Davis, C. H., & Harnish, V. C. (1984). Do courses in entrepreneurship aid in new 

venture creation. Journal of Small Business Management, 22, 26-31.

Clarke, J., Thorpe, R., Anderson, L., & Gold. J. (2006). It’s all action, it’s all learning: Action 

learning in SMEs. Journal of European Industrial Training 30, 441–55.

Clutterbuck, D. (1998), Learning alliances. London: IPD.

Conger, J. (1993). The brave new world of leadership training. Organizational Dynamics, 46-

58.

Conger, J., & Toegel, G. (2002). Action learning and multi-rater feedback as leadership 

development interventions: Popular but poorly deployed. Journal of Change 

Management, 3(4), 332-348. 

Cress, C.M., Yamashita, M., Duarte, R., & Burns, H. (2010). A transnational comparison of 

service-learning as a tool for leadership development. International Journal of 

Organizational Analysis, 18(2), 228-244. DOI 10.1108/19348831011046281. 

Davey, C. L., Powell, J. A., Powell, J. E., & Cooper, I. (2002). Action learning in a medium-sized 

construction company. Building Research & Information, 30, 5-15.

Day, D.V. (2001). Leadership development: A review in context. Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 

581-613. 

De Geus, A. (1988). Planning as learning. Harvard Business Review, 66(2), 70-74.

De Meuse, K. P., Dai, G., & Lee, R. J. (2009). Evaluating the effectiveness of executive 

coaching: Beyond ROI? Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research, and 

Practice, 2, 117-134.

DePater, I., Van Vianen, A. E. M., Bechtoldt, M. N., & Klehe, U. (2009). Employees' challenging 

job experiences and supervisor ratings of promotability. Personnel Psychology, 62,

297-325.

DeRue, D.S., Wellman, N. (2009). Developing leaders via experience: The role of 

developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability. Journal of 

Applied Psychology, 94(4), 859-875. DOI: 10.1037/a0015317.

de Tormes Eby, L. T., Allen, T. D., Hoffman, B. J., Baranik, L. E., Sauer, J. B., Baldwin, S., 

Morrison, M. A., Kinkade, K. M., Maher, C. P., Curtis, S., & Evans, S. C. (2012, July 16). 
111

An interdisciplinary meta-analysis of the potential antecedents, correlates, and 

consequences of protégé perceptions of mentoring. Psychological Bulletin. Advance 

online publication. doi:10.1037/a0029279 

Dexter, B., Prince, C. (2007). Turning managers into leaders: Assessing the organizational 

impact of leadership development. Strategic Change, 16, 217-226. DOI: 

10.1002/jsc.796. 

Diedrich, R. C. (1996). An iterative approach to executive coaching. Consulting Psychology 

Journal: Practice and Research, 48(2), 61-66. doi:10.1037/1061-4087.48.2.61

Dragoni , L., Oh, I., Vankatwyk, P., & Tesluk, P.E. (2011). Developing executive leaders: The 

relative contribution of cognitive ability, personality, and the accumulation of work 

experience in predicting strategic thinking competency. Personnel Psychology, 64(4), 

829-864.

Drew, G. (2009). A “360” degree view for individual leadership development. Journal of 

Management Development, 28(7), 581-592. DOI 10.1108/02621710910972698.

Driscoll, D., & Hoffman, W. M. (1999). Gaining the ethical edge: Procedures for delivering 

values-driven management. Long Range Planning, 32, 179–189.

Drotar, D. (2000). Training professional psychologists to write and publish: the utility of a 

writers’ workshop seminar. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31(4), 

453-457.

Eby, L. T. (2011). Mentoring. In S. Zedeck (Ed), APA handbook of industrial and 

organizational psychology, Vol 2 (pp. 505-525). Washington, DC, US: American 

Psychological Association

Eby, L. T., & Lockwood, A. (2005). Protégés’ and mentors’ reactions to participating in 

formal mentoring programs: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Vocational 

Behavior, 67, 441–458.

Ely, K., Boyce, L.A., Nelson, J.K., Zaccaro, S.J., Hernez-Broome, G., & Whyman, W. (2010). 

Evaluating leadership coaching: A review and integrated framework. The Leadership 

Quarterly, 21, 585-599.

Ely, K., Zaccaro, S. J., & Conjar, E. A. (2009). Leadership development: Training design 

strategies for growing adaptability in leaders. In C. Cooper & R. Burke (Eds.), The 

peak performing organization (pp. 175–196). London: Routledge.

Evers, W. J., Brouwers, A., & Tomic, W. (2006). A quasiexperimental study on management 

coaching effectiveness. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 58, 174 

–182.

Feinstein, A.H., Mann, S., & Corsun, D.L. (2002). Charting the experiential territory: 

clarifying definitions and uses of computer simulations, games and role play. 

Journal of Management Development, 21(10), 732-44.

Ferrell, O.C., Fraedrich, J., & Ferrell, L. (2008), Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and 

Cases, 7th ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Ferris, G.R., Anthony, W.P., Kolodinsky, R.W., Gilmore, D.C., & Harvey, M.G. (2002). 

Development of political skill. In Wankel, C. and DeFillippi, R. (Eds). Rethinking 

Management Education for the 21st Century. Greenwich, CT: Information Age 

Publishing, 3-25.

Ferris, G.R., Perrewe, P.L., Anthony, W.P. and Gilmore, D.C. (2000), “Political skill at work”.

Organizational Dynamics, 28, 25-37.
112

Fortgang, R., S. (2000), Taking stock: An analysis of negotiation pedagogy across four 

professional fields. Negotiation Journal, 16(4), 325-338. 

Frese, M., Beimel, S., & Schoenborn, S. (2003). Action training for charismatic leadership: 

two evaluations of studies of a commercial training module on inspirational 

communication of a vision. Personnel Psychology, 56(5), 671-97.

Froiland, P. (1994). Action learning: Taming real problems in real time. Training, 31(1), 27-

34. 

Galer-Unit, R., & Tappe, M. K. (2006). Developing effective written communication and 

advocacy skills in entry-level health educators through writing-intensive program 

planning methods courses. Health Promotion Practice, 7, 110-116. 

Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general role 

for analogical encoding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 393–408.

Gibson, S. K. (2008). The developmental relationships of women leaders in career 

transition: Implications for leader development. Advances in Developing Human 

Resources, 10, 651-670.

Gillespie, J. J., L. L. Thompson, J. Loewenstein, and D. Gentner. (1999). Lessons from 

analogical reasoning in the teaching of negotiation. Negotiation Journal, 15, 363–

372.

Gitsham, M. (2012),"Experiential learning for leadership and sustainability at IBM and 

HSBC", Journal of Management Development, 31(3), 298 - 307. 

http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02621711211208925

Goldman, E. F. (2005). Becoming an expert strategic thinker: The learning journey of 

Healthcare CEOs. George Washington University, unpublished dissertation.

Goodstone, M.S., & Diamante, T. (1998). Organizational use of therapeutic change: 

Strengthening multisource feedback systems through interdisciplinary coaching.

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 50(3), 152-163.

Gosen, J., & Washbush, J. (2004). A review of scholarship on assessing experiential learning 

effectiveness. Simulation and Gaming, 35, 270-293.

Grant, A.M., Curtayne, L., & Burton, G. (2009). Executive coaching enhances goal attainment, 

resilience and workplace well-being: A randomized controlled study. The Journal of 

Positive Psychology, 4, 396-407. 

Grant, A. M. (2008). Personal life coaching for coaches-in-training enhances goal 

attainment, insight and learning. Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, 

Research and Practice, 1(1), 54-70.

Government Accountability Office (2012). Designing evaluations. Washington DC: GAO.

Guerrero, V. (2008). Women and leadership: Examining the impact of entrepreneurial 

education on leadership self-efficacy. Unpublished dissertation, Pepperdine 

University.

Harris, B.M. (1985). Supervisory Behavior in Education, 3rd ed.. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 

Prentice-Hall.

Harris, K.J., & Bonn, M. A. (2000). Training techniques and tools: Evidence from the food 

service industry. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 24, 320-335. 

Harrison, J. K. (1992). Individual and Combined Effects of Behavior Modeling and the 

Cultural Assimilator in Cross-Cultural Management Training. Journal of Applied 

Psychology, 77, 952-962
113

Hausser, D., Blaiwes, A.S., Weller, D., & Spencer, G. (1974). Applications of computer-assisted 

instruction to interpersonal skill training (Tech. Rep. 74-C-0100-1). Orlando, FL: 

NAVTRAEQUIPCEN.

Hayes, J. (2007). Evaluating a leadership development program. Organization Development 

Journal, 25(4), 89- 94. 

Hershey, G.L. (1985). Supervising Office Systems Personnel: Strategies for Professional 

Management of the Automated Office. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. JMD 23,4 

370.

Hii, A. (2000). The impact of action learning on the conflict-handling styles of managers in 

a Malaysian firm. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George Washington University.

Hirst, G., Mann, L., Bain, P., Pirola-Merlo, A., Richver, A. (2004). Learning to lead: The 

development and testing of a model of leadership learning. The Leadership 

Quarterly, 15, 311-327.

Hochschild, A.R. (1979). Emotion work, feeling rules, and social structure. The American 

Journal of Sociology, 85, 551-75.

Hooijberg, R. (1996). A multidirectional approach toward leadership: an extension of the 

concept of behavioral complexity. Human Relations, 49, 917-947. 

Hooijberg, R., & Lane, N. (2009). Using multisource feedback in coaching effectively in 

executive education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 8, 483-493.

Horn, Z. N. J., (2008). Linking developmental stretch assignments with adaptive outcomes: 

The importance of cognitive frame complexity. Unpublished dissertation, George 

Mason University.

Hornsby, E. E., Morrow-Jones, H. A., & Ballam, D. A. (2011). Leadership development for 

women faculty at the Ohio State University: The President's and Provost's 

Leadership Initiative. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 14(1) 96–112.

Hsu, S. (2004). Using case discussion on the web to develop student teacher problem 

solving skills. Teaching and Teacher Education, 681-692.

Hunt, J., & Baruch, Y. (2003). Developing top managers: The impact of interpersonal skills 

training. Journal of Management Development, 22(8), 729 - 752.

Jaw, B., & Liu, W. (2003). Promoting organizational learning and self-renewal in Taiwanese 

companies: The role of HRM. Human Resource Management, 42, 223–241.

Johnson, M. (1980). Speaking from experience: Mentors—the key to development and 

growth. Training and Development Journal, 34(7), 56-57.

Jones, R.A., Rafferty, A.E., & Griffin, M.A. (2006). The Executive coaching trend: Towards 

more flexible executives. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 27, 584-

596.

Jones, G., & Gorell, R. (2009). 50 top tools for coaching: A complete toolkit for developing and 

empowering people. London: Kogan Page Limited.

Kahn, H. (1984). Thinking about the unthinkable in the 1980’s. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Keith, N., & Frese, M. (2008). Effectiveness of error management training: A meta-analysis. 

Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 59-69. 

Kelloway, E.K., Barling, J., & Helleur, J. (2000). Enhancing transformational leadership: The 

roles of training and feedback. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 

21(3), 145-149.

Keys, B., & Wolfe, J. (1990). The role of management games and simulations in education 

and research. Journal of Management, 16, 307-336.
114

Kiemele, J. (2009). Culturally proficient leadership: Intercultural sensitivity among 

elementary school principles. Unpublished dissertation, Arizona State University.

Kilburg, R.R. (1997). Coaching and executive character: Core problems and basic 

approaches. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 49(4), 281-299.

Kim, S. J. (2003). An examination of action learning as a method for developmental 

transformational leadership behaviors and characteristics. Unpublished doctoral 

dissertation, George Washington University.

King, S. N., & Santana, L. C. (2010). Feedback-intensive programs. In E. Van Veslor, C. D. 

McCauley, & M. N. Ruderman (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of 

leadership development (pp. 97-123). San Francisco, Jossey-Bass. 

Knotts, U. S., Jr., & Keys, J. B. (1990). The role of management games and simulations in 

education and research. Simulation and Gaming, 28, 377-394.

Kombarakaran, F.A. Yang, J.A., Baker, M.N., & Fernandes, P.B. (2008). Executive coaching: It 

works! Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60(1), 78-90. DOI: 

10.1037/1065-9293.60.1.78. 

Kram, K. E., & Ting, S. (2006). Coaching for emotional competence. In S. Ting and P. Scisco 

(Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (pp. 

179-202). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

Kuhn, J.S. (2010). Using action learning to develop the cognitive dimensions of strategic 

innovation: Program design, methodological, and person-environment 

considerations. Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: Sciences and 

Engineering, 70: 2010.

Ladyshewsky, R.K. (2007). A strategic approach for integrating theory to practice in 

leadership development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(5), 

426-443, DOI 10.1108/01437730710761733. 

Langkamer, K. (2008) Development of a nomological net surrounding leader selfdevelopment. Dissertation Abstracts International Section B: Sciences and 

Engineering, 69:1995.

Lee, T.B. (2005). A case study of an action learning program with regard to leadership 

behaviors and characteristics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George 

Washington University.

Lee, Y., Kim, Y., Son, M. H., & Lee. D. (2011). Do emotions play a mediating role in the 

relationship between owner leadership styles and manager customer orientation, 

and performance in service environment? International Journal of Hospitality 

Management, 30, 942– 952.

Leigh, J. M., Shapiro, E. R., & Penney, S. H. (2010). Developing diverse, collaborative leaders: 

An empirical program evaluation. Journal of leadership and Organizational Studies, 

17, 370-379.

Leonard, H. S., & Lang, F. (2010). Leadership development via action learning. Advances in 

Developing Human Resources, 12(2) 225–240.

Lewis, P., & Jacobs, T. O. (1992). Individual differences in strategic leadership capacity: A 

constructive/developmental view. In R. L. Phillips & J. G. Hunt (Eds.), Strategic 

leadership: A multiorganizational-level perspective. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

Ligon, G.S., Wallace, J.H., & Osburn, H.K. (2011). Experiential development and mentoring 

processes for leaders for innovation. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 

13(3), 297-317. 
115

Lisk, T. C., Kaplancali, U. T. & Riggio, R. E. (2012). Leadership in multiplayer online gaming 

environments. Simulation and Gaming, 43, 133-149.

Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2000). The challenge of learning. Negotiation Journal, 16,

399–408.

Loewenstein, J., L. Thompson, and D. Gentner. (1999). Analogical encoding facilitates 

knowledge transfer in negotiation. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 6, 586–597.

Loewenstein, J., Thompson, L., & Gentner, D. (2003). Analogical learning in negotiation 

teams: Comparing cases promotes learning and transfer. Academy of Management: 

Learning and Education, 2, 119–127.

London, M. (2002). Leadership development: Paths to self-insight and professional growth. 

Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Maddi, S.R., Kahn, S., & Maddi, K.L. (1998). The effectiveness of hardiness training. 

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 50(2), 78-86.

March, A.L. (2011). The Relationship Between Systems-Change Coaching and Levels of 

Implementation and Fidelity of Problem-Solving/Response to Intervention (PS/RtI).

Unpublished dissertation, University of South Florida.

Marquardt, M., & Carter, T. (1998). Action learning and research at George Washington 

University. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 11(2), 59-71.

Marquardt, M.J., Leonard, H.S., Freedman, A.M., & Hill, C.C. (2009). Action learning for 

developing leaders and organizations: Principles, strategies, and cases. Washington, 

D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Marquardt, M. Seng, N. C., & Goodson, H. (2010). Team development via action leaning. 

Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12, 241-259.

Marsick, V. J. (1993). Experienced-based learning: Executive learning outside the 

classroom. Journal of Management Development, 9(4), 50-60. 

Marsick, V. J., & O'Neil, J. (1999). The many faces of action learning, Management Learning, 

30(2), 159-176 

Mayfield, M. and Mayfield, J. (2004), “The effects of leader communication on worker 

innovation”, American Business Review, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 46-51.

Maynard-Moody, Steven, and Michael Musheno. (2003). Cops, Teachers, Counselors: Stories 

from the Front Lines of Public Service. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 

McCauley, C. D. (2001). Leader training and development. In S. J. Zaccaro & R. J. Klimoski 

(Eds.), The nature of organizational leadership: Understanding the performance 

imperatives confronting today's leaders (pp. 347-383). San Francisco, CA, US: JosseyBass. 

McCauley, C.D. (2006). Developmental assignments: Creating learning experiences without 

changing jobs. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

McCauley, C. D, & Douglas, C. A. (2004). Developmental relationships. In C. D. McCauley & E. 

Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership 

development (2nd Ed., p. 85-115). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

McCoy, R. L. (2009). The impact of a simulation based leader development training program 

on transformational and transactional leadership behavior. Unpublished 

dissertation, University of San Diego. 

McGurk, P. (2010). Outcomes of management and leadership development. Journal of 

Management Development, 29(5), 457-470. DOI 10.1108/02621711011039222.
116

McMahon, G., & and Archer, A. (Eds.). (2010). 101 coaching strategies and techniques 

(essential coaching skills and knowledge). New York: Routledge. 

McWhorter, R. R., Lynham, S. A., & Porter, D. E. (2008). Scenario planning as developing 

leadership capability and capacity. Advances in the developing Human Resources, 10

(2), 258-28. 

Mirchandani, K. (2012). Learning racial hierarchies: Communication skills training in 

transnational customer service work. Journal of Workplace Learning, 24, 338 - 350

Moran, S., Y. Bereby-Meyer, and M. Bazerman. (2008). Stretching the effectiveness of 

analogical training in negotiations: Teaching diverse principles for creating value. 

Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 1, 99–134.

Mumford, A. (1995). Managers developing others through action learning, Industrial and 

Commercial Training, 27, 19 - 27

Mumford, M.D., Hunter, S.T., Eubanks, D.L., Bedell, K.E., & Murphy, S.T. (2007). Developing 

leaders for creative efforts: A domain-based approach to leadership development. 

Human Resource Management Review, 17, 402-417. 

doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.08.002. 

Mumford, M. D., Marks, M. A., Zaccaro, S. J., Connelly, M. S., & Reiter-Palmon, R. (2000). 

Development of leadership skills: Experience, timing, and growth. Leadership 

Quarterly, 11, 87-114.

Munns, K. M. (1995). The effects of team building interventions. University of Wisconsin, 

Unpublished dissertation.

Nadler, J., Thompson, L., & Van Boven, L. (2003). Learning negotiation skills: Four models of 

knowledge creation and transfer. Management Science, 49(4), 529–540.

Nelson, J. K., Zaccaro, S. J., & Herman, J. L. (2010). Strategic information provision and 

experiential variety as tools for developing adaptive leadership skills. Consulting 

Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 62, 131-142.

Noel, J. L. and Charan, R. (1988) Leadership development at GE’s Crotonville. Human 

Resource Management 27(4): 433–47. 

Office of Personnel Management (2010). A guide to senior executive service qualifications. 

Washington DC: OPM.

Office of Personnel Management (2011). Federal training evaluation field guide. 

Washington DC: OPM. 

Office of Personnel Management (2012). Executive development best practices guide. 

Washington DC: OPM.

Offstein, E. H., & Dufresne, R. L. (2007). Building strong ethics and promoting positive 

character development: The influence of HRM at the United States Military Academy 

at West Point. Human Resource Management, 46, 95-114.

Ohlott, P. J. (2004). Job assignments. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The Center for 

Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 151–182). San 

Francisco: Wiley. 

Orvis, K., & Ratwani , K. (2010). Leader self-development: A contemporary context for 

leader development evaluation. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(4), 657-674.

Partnership for Public Service. 2008. Getting On Board: A Model for Integrating and 

Engaging New Employees. 
117

http://www.ourpublicservice.org/OPS/publications/viewcontentdetails.php?id=12

8 

Partridge, S.E. & Sculli, D. (1982). Management skills and business games. Simulation & 

Games, 13(2), 165-77.

Parks, D., & Lindstrom, G. (1995). Achieving higher levels of learning in the business policy 

and strategy course through integration of a business simulation. Journal of 

Management Education, 19, 219-227.

Pedler, M. (ed.) (1991) Action Learning in Practice (2nd Ed). Brookfield, VT: Gower.

Perrewe, P.L., Ferris, G.R., Frink, D.D., & Anthony, W.P. (2000). Political skill: an antidote for 

workplace stressors. Academy of Management Executive, 14(3), 115-23.

Phan, P. H., Siegel, D. S. & Wright, M. (2009). New developments in technology 

management education: Background issues, program initiatives, and a research 

agenda. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 8, 324-336.

Pless, N. M., Maak, T., Stahl, G. K. (2011). Developing responsible global leaders through 

international service-learning programs: The Ulysses experience. Academy of 

Management Learning & Education, 10, 237–260.

Poisson-de Haro, S., & Turgut, G., (2012). Expanded strategy simulations: developing better 

managers. Journal of Management Development, 31, 209 - 220

Quinn, R.E., Faerman, S.R., Thompson, M.P., & McGrath, M.R. (1996). Becoming a master 

manager: A competency framework. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Ragins, B. R., & Cotton, J. L. (1999). Mentor functions and outcomes: A comparison of men 

and women in formal and informal mentoring relationships. Journal of Applied 

Psychology, 84, 529–550. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.529. 

Rappe, C., & Zwick, T. (2007). Developing leadership competence of production unit 

managers. Journal of Management Development, 26(4), 312-330

Rashford , N.S., & de Figueiredo, J.N. (2011). The live in-class CEO intervention: A capstone 

experiential technique for leadership development. Journal of Management 

Education, (5), 620-647.Pfeifer, G., & Cline, P. (2011). Wharton Leadership Digest 

(November-December, 2011). 

http://wlp.wharton.upenn.edu/LeadershipDigest/training-with-the-fdny.cfm

Ratwani, K. L., Zaccaro, S. J., Garven, S., & Geller, D. S. (2010). The role of developmental 

social networks in effective leader self-learning processes. In M. G. Rothstein, & R. G. 

Burke (Eds.), Self-management and leadership development (pp. 395-426). London: 

Edward Elgar.

Raudenbush, L., Marquardt, M. J., & Walls, T. (2003). Growing leaders at the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture: A case study of leadership development using action 

learning. Proceedings of the 2003 Annual AHRD Conference. Minneapolis, MN: 

AHRD Publications.

Ray, E.B., & Ray, G.B. (1986). Teaching conflict management skills in corporate training: A 

perspective-taking approach. Communication Education, 35(3), 288-290.

Reiter, E. (2008). The development of a leadership mentoring system to enhance the 

advancement of protégés: A phenomenological study. Unpublished dissertation, 

University of Phoenix.

Robinson, J. (2011). Mentoring and coaching school leaders: A phenomenological study of 

adaptive expertise for school administrators. Unpublished dissertation, University of 

Phoenix. 
118

Rock, A.D & Garvan, T.N. (2006). Reconceptualizing developmental relationships. Human 

Resource Development Review, 5(3), 330-35.Scherpereel, C. M. (2005). Changing 

mental models. Business simulation exercises. Simulation and Gaming, 36, 388-403. 

DOI: 10.1177/1046878104270005

Shamir, B., Eilam, G. (2005). “What’s your story?” A life-stories approach to authentic 

leadership development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 395-417. 

doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.005. 

Shipton, H., Fay, D., West, M., Patterson, M., & Birdi, K. (2008). Managing people to promote 

innovation. Creativity and Innovation Management, 14(2), 118-128. 

doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8691.2005.00332.x Shoemaker, P.J.H. (1995). Scenario 

planning: A tool for strategic thinking. Sloan Management, Review, 37(2), 25-40. 

Simmonds, D., & Tsui, O. (2010). Effective design of a global leadership programme. 

Human Resource Development International, 13, 519-540.

Solansky, S.T. (2010). The evaluation of two key leadership development program 

components: Leadership skills assessment and leadership mentoring. The 

Leadership Quarterly, 21, 675-681.

Smith, K. J. (2009). Teaching the acceptance of diversity: An anti-bias initiative education 

initiative that empowers student leaders to be agents of change. Unpublished 

dissertation, Boston College.

Smith, P. A. C. (2001). Action learning and reflective practice in project environments that 

are related to leadership development. Management Learning, 32(1), 31- 48. 

Smither, J.W., London, M., Flautt, R., Vargas, Y., & Kucine, I. (2003). Can Working With an 

Executive Coach Improve Multisource Feedback Ratings Over Time? A QuasiExperimental Field Study. Personnel Psychology, 56, 23-44.

Standifer, R.L., Thiault, P., Pin, R. (2010). Leadership development in an electronic frontier: 

Connecting theory to experiential software through supplemental materials. Journal 

of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 17(2), 167-176. DOI: 

0.1177/1548051810366714. 

Stead, V. (2005). Mentoring: a model for leadership development: International Journal of 

Training and Development, 9(3), 170- 184. 

Steensma, H., Heijer, M., & Stallen, V. (2006). Research note: Effects of resilience training on 

the reduction of stress and depression among Dutch workers. International 

Quarterly of Communication Health Education, 27(2), 145-159.

Stewart, H.B. (1976). A self-coaching program for leadership development. Unpublished 

dissertation, University of British Columbia.

Susskind, L. E., & Corburn, J. (2000). Using simulations to teach negotiation: Pedagogical 

theory and practice. In M. Wheeler (ed), Teaching negotiation: Ideas and innovations. 

Cambridge, MA: PON Books.

Taylor, P., Russ-Eft, D. F., & Chan, D. W. L., (2005) A meta-analytical review of behavior 

modeling training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 692-709.

Thach, E.C. (2002). The impact of executive coaching and 360 feedback on leadership 

effectiveness. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 23(4), 205-214. 

Thompson, L., D. Gentner, and J. Loewenstein. (2000). Avoiding missed opportunities in 

managerial life: Analogical training more powerful than individual case training. 

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 8, 60–75.
119

Thornberry, N.E. (2002). Corporate entrepreneurship: teaching managers to be 

entrepreneurs. Journal of Management Development, 22(4), 329-344.

Thornton, G.C., & Cleveland, J. N. (1990). Developing managerial talent through simulation. 

American Psychologist, 45, 190-199

Thorsell, J. (2007). Innovation in learning: How the Danish leadership institute developed 

2,200 managers from Fujitsu services from 13 different countries. Management 

Decision, 45(10), 1667-1676. DOI 10.1108/00251740710838022. 

Teire, J. (1994). Using the outdoors. In Mumford, A. (Ed.). Handbook of Management 

Development. New York: Gower, p. 258-275.

Ting, S., & Hart, E. W. (2004). Formal coaching. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), 

The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (2nd ed., pp. 

116-150). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

Ting, S., & Riddle, D. (2006). A framework for leadership development coaching. In S. Ting 

and P. Scisco (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Coaching (pp. 

34-62). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. 

Trevino, L.K., & Nelson, K.A. (2007), Managing Business Ethics: Straight Talk About How to 

Do It Right, 4th ed., Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Trim, P.R.J. (2003). Human resource management development and strategic management 

enhanced by simulation exercises. Journal of Management Development, 23(4), 399-

413.

Useem, M., Cook, J., & Sutton, L. (2005). Developing leaders for decision making under 

stress: Wildland firefighters in the south canyon fire and its aftermath. Academy of 

Management Learning & Education, 4, 461–485.

Valentine, S., & Barnett, T. (2007). Perceived organizational ethics and the ethical decisions 

of sales and marketing personnel. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 

27, 4, 359–367.

van Boven, L. & Thompson, L. (2003). A look into the mind of the negotiator: Mental models 

in negotiation. Group Processes in Intergroup Relations 6: 387–404.

van der Heijden, K. (2005). Scenarios: the art of strategic conversation (2nd. edition). 

Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.

Van Rensburg, T., & Prideaux, G. (2005). Turning professionals into managers using 

multisource feedback. Journal of Management Development, 25(6), 561-571.

Van Velsor, E., & Ascalon, E. (2006). The role and impact of leadership development in 

supporting ethical action in organisations. Journal of Management Development, 27, 

187-195. 

Vega, G. (2007). Teaching business ethics through service learning metaprojects. Journal of 

Management Education, 31, 647-678.

Vinzant, Janet C. 1998. Where Values Collide: Motivation and Role Conflict in Child and 

Adult Protective Services. American Review of Public Administration 28(4), 347–66. 

Vladovic, K. (2009). The effects of mentoring on building and sustaining effective leadership 

practice of an urban school administrator. Unpublished dissertation, University of 

Southern California. Wack, P. (1985). Scenarios: Shooting the rapids. Harvard 

Business Review, 63(6), 139-150.

Waddill, D., Banks, S., & Marsh, C. (2010). The future of action learning. Advances in 

Developing Human Resources, 12, 260-279
120

Wagner, R.J., Baldwin, T.T., & Roland, C.C. (1991). Outdoor training: Revolution or fad? 

Training & Development Journal, 45(3), 50-57.

Waite, P.J. & Richardson, G.E. (2004). Determining the efficacy of resiliency training in the 

work site. Journal of Allied Health, 33(3), 178-183.

Wales, S. (2003). Why coaching?. Journal of Change Management, 3(3), 275-83.

Westbrook, M. (2012). Building an architecture for leadership development. Public 

Manager, 41, 60-63.

Wheatley, W., Hornaday, R. and Hunt, T. (1988). Developing strategic management goal 

setting skills. Simulation and Games, 19, 173-85.

Whetten, D.A. and Clark, S.C. (1996). An integrated model for teaching management skills. 

Journal of Management Education, 20, 152-81.

Wiese, N. M., & Sherman, D. J. (2011). Integrating marketing and environmental studies 

through an interdisciplinary, experiential, service-learning approach. Journal of 

Marketing Education, 33, 41-56.

Wildland Fire Leadership Development Program. (2004). www.fireleadership.gov. 

Wolfe, J. (1997). The effectiveness of business games in strategic management course work. 

Simulation & Gaming, 28, 360-76.

Yip, J., & Wison, M. S. (2010). Learning from experience. In E. Van Velsor, C. D. McCauley, & 

M. Ruderman (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership 

Development (3rd ed.) (pp. 63-95). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

Young, S., Nixon, E., Hinge, D., McFadyen, J., Wright, V., Lambert, P., Pilkington, C. & 

Newsome, C. (2010). Action learning: a tool for the development of strategic skills 

for Nurse Consultants? Journal of Nursing Management 18, 105–110

Zaccaro, S. J., & Banks, D. (2004). Leader visioning and adaptability: Bridging the gap 

between research and practice on developing the ability to manage change. Human 

Resource Management Journal, 43, 367-380. 

Zaccaro, S.J., Klimoski, R.J. (2001). The nature of organizational leadership: Understanding 

the performance imperatives confronting today’s leaders. John Wiley & Sons.

Zorica , Jane A. (1988). The design, implementation, and evaluation of a model training 

program to teach oral communication skills to line supervisors. Unpublished 

dissertation, University of Pittsburgh. 
ES-02349-ECQ-11/2015

U.S. Office of Personnel Management

Employee Services

1900 E Street, NW, Washington, DC 20415

OPM.GOV