Importation of Japanese Unshu Orange, Citrus reticulata

Blanco var. Unshu, Fruit into the Continental United States 

A Pathway-initiated Risk Analysis

April 23, 2013

Version 5

Agency Contact:

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27606
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 ii

Executive Summary

The Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory of the United States Department of 

Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine, 

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST) did a qualitative 

assessment of the plant pest risk associated with the importation of commercially produced and 

packed fresh Unshu orange fruit, Citrus reticulata Blanco, from Japan into the continental 

United States. This document updates a 1995 assessment, which was the basis for a program 

authorizing the importation into non-citrus-producing states of fruit from Kyushu Island, and 

later Honshu Island (to citrus-producing areas with further requirements). We assumed 

commercial field production here, and that post-harvest measures will include culling, cleaning

(removing foreign matter), washing with detergent and brushing, dipping with chemicals such as 

chlorine and/or other disinfectants, and waxing. 

Based on information from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) of Japan

and our review of the scientific literature, we found more than 350 pests associated with Citrus

sp. in Japan. We identified 26 arthropod pests of quarantine significance that could follow the 

Unshu orange fruit pathway but we did not further analyze them because they are targeted for 

inspection or treatment or both, and thus are highly unlikely to follow the pathway. They

included one mite, eight mealybugs, three soft scales, thirteen armored scales, and one tephritid 

fruit fly. The previous analysis for these pests recommended retaining the official work plan and 

adding a pre-clearance systems approach with mitigation options. It also stated that “probabilities 

for all pests surviving post-harvest treatments [were] reduced to probit-9 security with official 

preclearance programs” (PPQ, 1995). Because all those organisms are targeted for inspection or 

treatment or both, the mitigated risk is Low.

The pathogen “Candidatus Liberobacter asiaticus" Jagoueix et al. 1994, although a quarantine 

pest that may follow the pathway, is highly unlikely to be introduced into the United States via 

fruit for consumption. Because of this, we rated it Negligible risk and did not further analyze it.

Phytosanitary risk is reduced using mitigation measures designed to eliminate, reduce, or prevent 

the presence of pests in shipments of commodities primarily in the country of origin. The 

appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest depends on the risk posed by that pest. 

We describe risk mitigation options for these pests, but risk management will be decided upon 

during the risk management phase.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 iii

Table of Contents

Executive Summary...................................................................................................................... ii

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Background...............................................................................................................1

1.2. Regulatory Authority ................................................................................................1

1.3. Systems Approach/Standard Post-Harvest Processing Measures.............................2

2. Risk Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action.............................................................................3

2.2. Assessment of Weediness Potential..........................................................................3

2.3. Previous Pest Risk Assessments...............................................................................4

2.4. Current Status and Pest Interceptions.......................................................................4

2.5. Pest Categorization ...................................................................................................4

2.6. Analysis of Quarantine Pests..................................................................................46

2.7. Pest Risk Potential/Conclusion...............................................................................54

3. Risk Management Options..................................................................................................... 54

3.1. Measures for Pest Risk Reduction ..........................................................................54

3.2. Phytosanitary Options.............................................................................................55

3.3. Oversight.................................................................................................................59

3.4. Conclusions.............................................................................................................60

4. APHIS Contributors and Reviewers..................................................................................... 61

5. References................................................................................................................................ 61

6. Appendices............................................................................................................................... 81

Appendix A. Production areas of Unshu oranges in Japan............................................81

Appendix B. Pests Intercepted on Citrus spp. and C. reticulata from Japan ................82

Appendix C. Unshu production areas and spray calendar (2007) for Japan..................84

Appendix D. Monitoring for citrus canker in the Shizuoka Prefecture .........................86
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 1

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

This document was prepared by the Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory of the 

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology, USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), in response to a request to evaluate the 

risks associated with the importation of commercially produced fresh Unshu oranges from Japan 

into the continental United States.

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) provides guidance for conducting pest risk 

analyses. The methods used here are consistent with guidelines provided by the IPPC, 

specifically the International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) on ‘Pest Risk 

Analysis for Quarantine Pests, Including Analysis of Environmental Risks and Living Modified 

Organisms’ (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #11). The use of biological and phytosanitary terms is consistent 

with the ‘Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms and the Compendium of Phytosanitary Terms’ (IPPC, 

2009: ISPM #5). 

Three stages of pest risk analysis are described in international standards: Stage 1, Initiation, 

Stage 2, Risk Assessment, and Stage 3, Risk Management. This document satisfies the 

requirements of Stages 1 and 2.

This is a qualitative risk analysis; estimates of risk are expressed in terms of High, Medium, and 

Low pest risk potentials based on the combined ratings for specified risk elements (PPQ, 2000)

related to the probability and consequences of importing this Unshu orange commodity from 

Japan. For the purposes of this assessment High, Medium, and Low probabilities will be defined 

as:

High: More likely to occur than not to occur

Medium: As likely to occur as not to occur

Low: Less likely to occur than not to occur

Ample amounts of scientific information regarding field control and monitoring programs are 

available for most pests identified in this risk assessment, particularly the pathogens. This 

information let us characterize the risk that harvested fruit will be infested or infected.

The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest depends on the risk posed by that 

pest. Identification of appropriate sanitary and phytosanitary measures to mitigate the risk, if any, 

for this pest is undertaken as part of Stage 3 (Risk Management). Other than listing possible 

mitigation options for the pests of concern, we did not discuss risk management in this 

document.

1.2. Regulatory Authority

Under Title IV of the Agricultural Risk Protection Act of 2000, also known as the Plant 

Protection Act (7 U.S.C. § 7701-7786, 2000.), the USDA has broad authority to regulate the 

importation and interstate movement of organisms that may directly or indirectly injure, damage, 

or cause disease in plants. This Act repeals 11 previous laws and replaces them with one 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 2

statutory framework that enables the USDA to prohibit or restrict imports, exports, or interstate 

movements of plant pests, plants, plant products, noxious weeds, biological control agents, and 

means of conveyance. In a final rule published in the Federal Register on August 14, 2000 (7 

U.S.C. § 7701-7786, 2000) the Secretary of Agriculture delegated to the Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service (APHIS) the authority to carry out the Plant Protection Act.

Quarantine 19 (7 CFR § 319, 2008) prohibits the importation of citrus plants or plant parts 

except fruit into the United States. Quarantine 28 (7 CFR § 319. 28, 2008) further promulgates a 

general prohibition against the importation of citrus fruit from countries where citrus canker 

disease occurs, but allows importation, under strict mitigation measures, of citrus fruit from 

certain countries, e.g., Japan, where citrus canker is present.

1.3. Systems Approach/Standard Post-Harvest Processing Measures

The current regulations governing Japanese Unshu oranges contain three parts that serve as a 

“systems approach” to remove arthropods from the pathway (7 CFR § 319.28, 2008). The 

effectiveness of the prior program may be evaluated by post-1995 levels of pest interception for 

organisms on the current or previous (PERAL, 1995) lists.

First, the commodity must be from an area that meets the requirements of §319.56–5 for freedom 

from fruit flies. Trapping for the citrus fruit fly from Kyushu Island must be conducted as 

prescribed by the Japanese Government's Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture. If fruit flies are detected, then shipping will be suspended from 

the export area until negative trapping shows the problem. To be eligible for importation into 

Arizona, California, Florida, Hawaii, Louisiana, or Texas, each shipment of oranges grown on 

Honshu Island or Shikoku Island, Japan, must be fumigated with methyl bromide after harvest 

and prior to exportation to the United States. (7 CFR § 319.56, 2008; 7 CFR § 319.28, 2008). 

Production areas are shown below (Appendix A).

Second, mandatory inspection is directed at the mealybugs Planococcus kraunhiae, P. lilacinus, 

and Pseudococcus cryptus, and the armored scale, Unaspis yanonensis. Harvested fruit is culled 

in packinghouses using manual and/or optical scanners. Upon detection, an effective methyl

bromide treatment is required (Importation of Unshu Oranges from Japan, 2002; 7 CFR § 319. 

28, 2008,). See the risk mitigation options section for more details. This mitigation should be 

effective not only for the pests listed above but also for soft scales and other mealybugs. 

Third, in the packinghouse, fruit is immersed, rinsed, mechanically scrubbed with a brush, 

pressure rinsed, and waxed. Fruit is washed in detergent and in disinfectant with 200 ppm 

chlorine (Cl) and/or sodium orthophenylphenate (SOPP). The fruit is also chemically treated 

(Thiabendazole (TBZ), Imazalil) to control fungal and bacterial growth. Finally, the fruit is dried 

and waxed.
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2. Risk Assessment 

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action

This commodity-based, pathway-initiated pest risk assessment accompanies a request for USDA 

authorization to allow the importation of Unshu orange fruit grown in Japan into the continental 

United States. The importation of Unshu orange fruit from Japan provides a potential pathway

for the introduction of plant pests. To prevent the introduction into the United States of citrus 

canker disease (Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri), sweet orange scab (Elsinoe australis Bitancourt 

and Jenkins), and the bacterial disease “Cancrosis A,” the importation of all fruits and peel of all 

genera, species, and varieties of the subfamilies Aurantioideae, Rutoideae, and Toddalioideae of 

the botanical family Rutaceae from Japan into the United States is regulated in 7 CFR § 319.28 

(2008). Currently, the entry of Unshu oranges from Japan into the United States is regulated 

under 7 CFR § 319.56 (2008); the government of Japan seeks a change in this Federal 

Regulation.

2.2. Assessment of Weediness Potential 

We found no evidence that Citrus species have significant potential as weeds (Table 1). 

Table 1. Weediness potential of Citrus reticulata.

Plant Species:Citrus reticulata Blanco (Rutaceae) 

Synonym: Citrus nobilis Swingle (NGRP, 2008)

Common Names: Clementine, mandarin, tangerine, mikan, ponkan, satsuma 

Phase 1: Citrus reticulata Blanco is grown in Arizona, California, and Florida (NASS, 

2007; USDA-NRCS, 2009).

Phase 2: Weediness Potential

Is Citrus reticulata listed in:

NO Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm et al., 1979)

NO World's Worst Weeds (Holm et al., 1977)

NO Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate Noxious Weeds; Exotic Weeds 

for Federal Noxious Weed Act (Gunn and Ritchie, 1982)

NO Economically Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977)

NO Weed Science Society of America list (WSSA, 1989)

YES Do any references in the scientific literature indicate potential weediness (e.g., 

AGRICOLA, CAB, Biological Abstracts, AGRIS). Randall (2002) listed the 

species with the following status: C. reticulata: weed, naturalized, garden 

escape, cultivation escape, casual alien (USDA-NRCS, 2009)

Phase 3: Conclusion

Various species of Citrus, including C. sinensis, C. x paradisi, C. limon, and C. reticulata

are grown throughout the United States. Citrus reticulata is prevalent in the United States 

and we found no indication of weediness, therefore the pathway risk assessment proceeds.
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Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 4

2.3. Previous Pest Risk Assessments 

The risk assessment completed in 1995 covered the importation of Japanese Unshu orange fruits 

into the five citrus-producing states: Arizona, California, Florida, Louisiana, and Texas (PERAL, 

1995). Currently, Unshu orange fruits from Japan are enterable into all states in the continental 

United States except those five citrus-producing states. The analysis confirmed that the 

established safeguards for Unshu oranges from Japan were effective. The mitigation options 

recommended in the pest risk assessment included the following: 

 Present a work plan with mandatory treatments (methyl bromide) for microarthropods 

and give options for Bactrocera tsuneonis which include: 

o a) mandatory treatment (methyl bromide), 

o b) fruit fly free zone [by definition 319.562(f)], and 

o c) systems approach. 

 Biometric sampling. 

 Full preclearance at origin. 

 Optional treatments such as oil-soapy water dips. 

 Port-of-entry inspection.

The current risk assessment is for the importation of commercially grown and packed fresh 

Unshu oranges fruit from Japan into the continental United States. New information and 

experience has contributed to a better understanding of the main pest risks associated with Unshu 

oranges, including citrus canker, and citrus greening. 

2.4. Current Status and Pest Interceptions

Current restrictions on the entry of Unshu oranges from Japan are summarized above (1.2/1.3). 

More detailed information is presented in the mitigations options section (3).

The pest interceptions on Citrus (Citrus spp., C. reticulata, C. unshu, and C. sinensis) from Japan 

from January 1985 to August 2008 are listed in Appendix B. During this time, there were 6259 

interceptions of quarantine pests on Citrus spp. from Japan (PestID, 2008). These included 518 

interceptions of Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri, X. campestris pv. citri (Citrus canker A); 130 

interceptions of Guignardia citricarpa Kiely; 275 interceptions of Parlatoria ziziphi Lucas; and 

5024 interceptions of Unaspis yanonensis Kuwana (PestID, 2008).

2.5. Pest Categorization 

2.5.1. Identification of Quarantine Pests and Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway

Pests in Japan that are associated with Unshu oranges are listed below (Table 2). This list 

includes information on the presence or absence of these pests in the United States, the affected 

plant part or parts, the quarantine status of the pest with respect to the United States, an 

indication of the pest-commodity association, and pertinent references for pest distribution and 

biology.

A pest is considered able to follow the pathway if it is associated with the commodity and likely

to survive with and remain on the commodity until entry into the United States. These quarantine 

pests are subjected to steps 5-7 (PPQ, 2000) in the following sections of this risk assessment. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 5

Because all pests associated with the plant species are listed, there will be quarantine pests not 

expected to follow the pathway. For example, a pest may be only associated with plant parts 

other than commodity, or a pest may not be reasonably expected to remain with the commodity

during harvest and packing.

Important notes regarding the pest list: 

 Even if non-quarantine pests are able to follow the pathway, phytosanitary measures 

against these pests would not be justified considering the pest already occurs in the 

United States; therefore, information on plant part association and whether the pest is 

likely to follow the pathway is not needed for non-quarantine pests. Therefore, for the 

non-quarantine pests in Table 2, we put N/A (= Not Applicable) in the columns for “Plant 

Part(s) Association” and “Likely to Follow Pathway.” 

 “No” in the “Likely to Follow Pathway” columns means that the pest is unlikely to 

follow the pathway because either we found no evidence that the commodity (Unshu 

oranges) will carry the pest, or standard post-harvest processing is likely to remove the 

pest.

 We shade the quarantine pests identified as likely to follow the commodity pathway and 

selected for further analysis. 

 Brackets around the states in distribution designation indicate that the pest has a limited 

distribution in the United States and is either under official control or under consideration 

for official control.

Table 2. Pests associated with Unshu Oranges in Japan.

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

ARACHNIDA

Acari - Eriophyidae

Aculops pelekassi (Keifer, 

1959)]

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003;

Ashihara et al., 2004

); US ( Childers et al., 

2008 )

Ashihara et al., 

2004; Baker et 

al., 1996; Futch 

et al., 2001

No F (Gerson, 

2003)

N/A 

Phyllocoptruta citri Soliman 

& Abou-Awad

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F4 Yes

5

Phyllocoptruta oleivora 

(Ashmead)

JP; US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

 

1 Geographic Distribution: JP = Japan, US = United States, LA = Lousiana, FL = Florida, CA = California (Individual U.S. 

states are listed in brackets [ ] only if the pest species is considered a quarantine pest for the United States.)

2

“Citrus:” indicates the pest was reported on citrus in Japan. Because Unshu is the most widespread type of citrus in Japan, 

the pest is presumably but not definitively associated with Unshu oranges.

3

Plant Parts: Bk = Bark, Br = Branch, F = Fruit, I = Inflorescence/Flower, IB = Inner bark; IC = Inhabits canopy; L = Leaf or 

foliage, R = Root, Sd = Seed; Sh = Shoot, St = Stem, SW = Sapwood, T = Trunk, and WP = Whole plant.

4 Based on P. olievora biology.

5 Mites are surface feeding arthropods. They are highly likely to be removed by the postharvest treatment of washing, 

scrubbing, and pressure-rinsing (7 CFR § 305.42, 2005; 7 CFR § 319, 2008). 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

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Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Acari - Tarsonemidae

Polyphagotarsonemus latus

(Banks, 1904)

JP (Gerson, 1992; 

Umeya and Okada, 

2003); US (Gerson, 

1992 CABI, 2007)

CABI, 2007; 

Gerson, 1992

No N/A N/A

Acari - Tenuipalpidae

Brevipalpus obovatus

(Donnadieu) 

syn. Tenuipalpus 

pseudocuneatus

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; CABI, 

2007); US (CABI, 

2007; Baker and 

Tuttle, 1964)

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Brevipalpus lewisi McGregor JP (CABI, 2007); US 

Baker and Tuttle, 

1964 ; CABI, 2007) 

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Acari - Tetranychidae

Bryobia rubrioculus

(Scheuten, 1857)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Migeon and Dorkeld, 

2006a); US (CABI, 

2007; Migeon and 

Dorkeld, 2006a)

Migeon and 

Dorkeld, 2006a

No N/A N/A

Eotetranychus kankitus

Ehara,1955

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; Migeon 

and Dorkeld, 2006b;

Bolland et al., 1998)

CABI, 2007; 

Migeon and 

Dorkeld, 2006b

Yes F (Gerson, 

2003)

Yes5

Eotetranychus sexmaculatus

(Riley, 1890)

syn.: E. asiaticus Ehara

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; Migeon 

and Dorkeld, 2006c; 

Bolland et al., 1998)); 

US (Migeon and 

Dorkeld, 2006c; 

Bolland et al., 1998))

Katayama et al., 

2001; Muma, 

1965

No N/A N/A

Panonychus citri (Mc Gregor, 

1916)

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; Migeon 

and Dorkeld, 2006d ); 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Migeon and Dorkeld, 

2006d)

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Tetranychus cinnabarinus

(Boisduval, 1867)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Umeya and Okada, 

2003); US [AZ, CA, 

HI, TX] (CABI, 2007; 

Tuttle and Baker, 

1968) 

Citrus: CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

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Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Tetranychus kanzawai

Kishida, 1927

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; Migeon 

and Dorkeld, 2006e;

Bolland et al., 1998); 

US (Migeon and 

Dorkeld, 2006e; 

Bolland et al., 1998)

Katayama et al., 

2001

No N/A N/A

Tetranychus urticae (Koch 

1836)

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Bolland et al., 1998)

Bolland et al., 

1998

No N/A N/A

INSECTA

Coleoptera - Anthribidae

Araecerus fasciculatus

(Degeer, 1775); also 

classified Curculionidae; 

syn.: A. coffeae (Fabricius) 

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008) US 

[CA, FL, LA, TX] 

(USDA, 1971; CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: USDA, 

1971; Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Coleoptera - Buprestidae

Agrilus alesi Obenberger, 

1935

JP (Anonymous, 

2008a; Osamu, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Anonymous, 

2008a

Yes T, Br, and Bk 

of dying or 

stressed trees 

(Moraal and 

Hilszczanski, 

2000)

No

Agrilus auriventris Saunders JP (Ohgushi, 1966, 

1978; CABI, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008)

Citrus: Ohgushi, 

1966, 1978; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes T, L (Ohgushi, 

1966, 1978)

No

Coleoptera - Cantharidae

Athemus suturellus

Motschulsky 

JP (Osamu, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Nohara et 

al., 2000

Yes IC (Nohara et 

al., 2000)

No

Athemus vitellinus

Kiesenwetter 

JP (Osamu, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Nohara et 

al., 2000

Yes IC (Lekesono 

et al., 2005; 

Nohara et al., 

2000)

No

Podabrus malthionoides 

Kiesenwetter

JP (Nohara et al., 

2000)

Citrus: Nohara et 

al., 2000

Yes IC (Nohara et 

al., 2000)

No

Coleoptera - Cerambycidae

Anoplophora chinensis

(Forster)

syn.: A. malasiaca Thomson 

JP (CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008; Osamu, 

2008) US [eradicated] 

(CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes T (Lingafelter 

and Hoebeke, 

2002)

No

Ceresium simile simile 

(Gaham)

JP ( Sugiura and 

Yamaura, 2008)

Citrus: Sugiura

and Yamaura, 

2008

Yes IB, SW 

(Sugiura and 

Yamaura, 

2008)

No
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Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Ceresium unicolor (Fabricius) JP (Sugiura and 

Yamaura, 2008)

Citrus: Sugiura

and Yamaura, 

2008

Yes IB, SW 

(Sugiura and 

Yamaura, 

2008

No

Chlorophorus annularis

(Fabricius) 

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Arbec, 2008; Osamu, 

2008) US [intercepted 

only] (pest PestID, 

2008; CABI, 2007; 

NAPIS, 2008)

Citrus: Arbec, 

2008; Walker, 

2008

Yes St (PestID, 

2008) 

No

Pterolophia bigibbera 

(Newman)

JP (Sugiura and 

Yamaura, 2008)

Citrus: Sugiura

and Yamaura, 

2008

Yes Bk (Sugiura

and Yamaura, 

2008)

No

Coleoptera - Chrysomelidae

Clitea citri Chujo JP (Chujo and 

Kimoto, 1961; 

Kimoto, 1966)

Citrus: Chujo 

and Kimoto, 

1961; Kimoto, 

1966

Yes L 

(Konstantinov 

and Prathapan, 

2008

No

Luperomorpha funesta Baly; 

basic biology Minamizawa 

1997

JP (Chujo and 

Kimoto, 1961; 

Osamu, 2008; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Chujo 

and Kimoto, 

1961; Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, Rt (Iba and 

Inoue, 1977 ) 

No

Coleoptera - Curculionidae

Pseudocneorhinus bifasciatus 

Roelofs 

syn.: Callirhopalus 

bifasciatus (Roelofs 1880); 

synonymy (Gyeltshen & 

Hodges 2005) 

JP ( Gyeltshen and 

Hodges, 2005) US 

(O'Brien and Wibmer, 

1982)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Coleoptera - Elateridae

Melanotus annosus Candéze JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes Rt6 No

Coleoptera - Nitidulidae

Epuraea domina Reitter, 

1873; basic biology 

Yoshimoto et al 2007

JP (Osamu, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

No7fermented tree 

sap 

(Yoshimoto et 

al., 2007)

No

Coleoptera - Scarabaeidae

Exomala orientalis 

(Waterhouse) 

syn.: Anomala orientalis 

Waterhouse; Blitopertha 

orientalis (Waterhouse)

JP (Imura, 2003; 

Umeya and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 2007); 

US ( Vandenburg, 

2001; CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

 

6 Based on M. communis (Anonymous, 2009) whose larvae are feeders on crop roots.

7 Genus or species is not reportable (PestID, 2009)
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Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Ectinohoplia obducta

(Motschulsky, 1857)

JP (Osamu, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, I, Rt 

(Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Eucetonia pilifera

(Motschulsky) 

syn.: Cetonia pilifera

(Motschulsky)

JP (Osamu, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, I, Rt 

(Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Holotrichia kiotoensis

Brenske 

syn.: H. kiotonensis Brenske

JP (Osamu, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, I, Rt 

(Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Oxycetonia jucunda

Faldermann

syn. O. jucundo; Gametis 

jucunda (Faldermann) 

JP (Bisby et al., 2008; 

Osamu, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, I, Rt 

(Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Protaetia orientalis (Gory & 

Pecheron, 1833) 

syn. Protaetia aerata

(Erichson)

JP (Harink, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008; ZCZ, 

2008); US [CA] 

(CDFA, 2007)

Citrus: FujiFlavor, 2009Yes L, I, Rt 

(Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Coleoptera - Scolytidae

Xyleborus perforans JP (CABI, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008)

Citrus: CABI, 

2007

Yes Br, dunnage, 

unseasoned 

wood (CABI, 

2007

No

Diptera - Cecidomyiidae

Contarinia okadai (Miyoshi); 

poss. syn.: Diplosis okadai 

(Miyoshi) 

JP (Kato, 1984; 

CABI, 2007; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003, Nohara et 

al., 2007 

Yes L, I; aborts F 

(Nohara et al., 

2007)

No

Diptera - Tephritidae

Bactrocera cucurbitae 

Coquillett; 

syn.: Zeugodacus 

cucurbitae (Coquillett); 

other synonymy CABI, 

2007

JP [eradicated]

(CABI, 2007 ); US 

[under official 

control] (Pacific-FlyWeb., 2002; Weems 

et al., 2004)

Citrus: CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) JP [eradicated]

(CABI, 2007); US 

[HI] (CABI, 2007) 

[CA & FL–under 

official control]

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Bactrocera tsuneonis

(Miyake, 1919) 

syn.: Tetradacus tsuneonis 

(Miyake) (Osamu, 2008)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Bisby et al., 2007; 

Osamu, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes F (CABI, 

2007)

Yes8

 

8 Work plan protocols call for citrus to be produced in fly-free areas, fumigated with methyl bromide if shipped to U.S. 

citrus-producing states, or subjected to orchard trapping and monitoring for fruit flies.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 10

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Diptera - Tipulidae

Limonia amatrix Alexander, 

1922 

syn. Libnotes (Libnotes) 

amatrix (Alexander, 1922)

JP (Bisby et al., 2007; 

Osamu, 2008; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002

Yes generalized 

Tipulid 

biology 

(Borror et al., 

1989)

No

Hemiptera - Aleyrodidae

Aleurocanthus spiniferus

(Quaintance,1903)

JP (CABI, 2007;

Evans, 2007; Osamu, 

2008) US [HI] 

(CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; Evans, 

2007

Yes St, L (CABI, 

2007)

No 

Aleuroclava aucubae

(Kuwana, 1911)

syn.: Aleurotuberculatus 

aucubae (Kuwana)

JP (Evans, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; Evans, 

2007

Yes St, L (CABI, 

2007)

No 

Aleurolobus marlatti

(Quaintance)

syn.: A. niloticus Preisner & 

Hosny

JP (Evans, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; Evans, 

2007

Yes St, L (CABI, 

2007

No 

Aleurothrixus floccosus

Maskell

JP (Kanmiya and 

Sonobe, 2002); US 

[CA, FL, TX] (CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Evans, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Bemisia giffardi (Kotinsky) JP (CABI, 2007; 

Evans, 2007; Osamu, 

2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; Evans, 

2007

Yes St, L (CABI, 

2007)

No

Dialeurodes citri (Ashmead, 

1885)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Evans, 2007); US 

(CABI, 2007; Evans, 

2007)

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

Evans, 2007

No N/A N/A

Orchamoplatus 

mammaeferus (Quaintance 

& Baker) 

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Evans, 2007); US 

[HI] (CDFA, 2003)

Citrus: CDFA, 

2003,; Evans, 

2007; Suh et al., 

2008

Yes St, L (CABI, 

2007)

No 

Parabemisia myricae

(Kuwana, 1927)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Evans, 2007; Osamu, 

2008); US [CA, FL, 

HI] (CABI, 2007; 

Evans, 2007)

Citrus: CABI, 

2007

Yes St, L (CABI, 

2007)

No 

Siphoninus phillyreae

Haliday 

JP (Kanmiya and 

Sonobe, 2002; Evans, 

2007); US [AZ, CA, 

NV] (Nyugen and 

Hamon, 2000; CABI, 

2007; Evans, 2007)

Citrus: Nyugen 

and Hamon, 

2000

Yes St, L (CABI, 

2007)

No 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 11

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Hemiptera –Aphididae

Aphis craccivora Koch syn. A. 

citricola van der Goot

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008); US 

[widespread] (CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Aphis gossypii Glover JP (Imura, 2003; 

CABI, 2007); US 

[widespread] (CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Aphis spiraecola JP (Index 

Information Center, 

2001b)

Index 

Information 

Center, 2001b

No7 N/A N/A

Aulacorthum magnoliae

Essig & Kuwana

JP (Imura, 2003; 

Fukunaga and 

Akimoto, 2006; 

CABI, 2007) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Aulacorthum solani

(Kaltenbach, 1843)

JP (Takahashi et al., 

2002; Imura, 2003; 

CABI, 2007); US 

(CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

(Thomas)

JP [introduced] 

(CABI, 2007; Osamu, 

2008); US (CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: 

Denmark, 1990; 

Halbert and 

Brown, 2001

No N/A N/A

Myzus persicae (Sulzer) JP (CABI, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008); US 

[widespread] (CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Rhopalosiphum maidis

(Fitch) 

JP (CABI, 2007007; 

Osamu, 2008); US 

[widespread] (CABI, 

2007)

minor host: 

CABI, 2007

No N/A N/A

Sinomegoura citricola van der 

Goot 

JP (Osamu, 2008) EPPO, 2006 Yes St, L 

(DEWHA, 

2008)

No

Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de 

Fonscolombe)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008); US 

(CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Toxoptera citricida Kirkaldy; 

syn.: T. citricidus 

(Kirkaldy)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008) US 

[FL, HI] (CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes L, Sh (new 

growth only) 

(CABI, 2007)

No 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 12

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Toxoptera odinae (Van der 

Goot)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Osamu, 2008)

Lu et al., 2008; 

Tao and Tan, 

n.d.; Sunil and 

Poorani, 2003

Yes underside of L, 

young Sh, Is 

(CABI, 2007)

No 

Hemiptera – Aphrophoridae; also classified as Cercopidae

Aphrophora intermedia Uhler 

syn.: Obiphora intermedia 

Uhler (Liang 2000)

JP (Yamaguchi, 2003; 

Osamu, 2008; 

Morishima, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; largely 

confined to 

conifers

Yes St, twigs 

(Thompson, 

1999)

No 

Hemiptera – Cerococcidae

Asterococcus muratae 

(Kuwana)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes St (Yang et al., 

2006)

No

Hemiptera -Cicadellidae

Apheliona ferruginea

(Matsumura)

JP (Yamaguchi, 2003; 

Osamu, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, L (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No 

Bothrogonia ferruginea 

(Fabricius)

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, L (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No 

Chlorita flavovitella 

Matsumura; 

syn.: Empoasca 

arborescens Vilbaste 

JP (McKamey, 2008; 

Osamu, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, L (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No 

Empoasca formosana Paoli JP (CABI, 2007; 

McKamey, 2008)

minor host, 

CABI, 2007

Yes St, L (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No 

Empoasca onukii Masuda JP (CABI, 2007; 

McKamey, 2008; 

Osamu, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, L (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No 

Empoasca sakaii 

Dworakowska

syn.: E. sasakaii 

Dworakowska

JP (McKamey, 2008; 

Osamu, 2008; 

Atsushi, 1977)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, L (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No 

Hishimonus sellatus (Uhler)

syn.: Thamnotettix sellatus

Uhler

JP (McKamey, 2008; 

Osamu, 2008; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, L (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No 

Penthimia nitida Lethierry 

1876; Penthimiinae in 

Cicadellidae; alternately 

listed as Penthimiidae; 

Kamitani 1998 lists as 

Cicadellidae

JP (McKamey, 2008; 

Takano and Takano, 

2008; ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, L (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 13

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Hemiptera - Cicadidae

Cryptotympana facialis

(Walker, 1858)

JP (Osamu, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes Rts 

(immatures), 

St (adults) 

(Borror et al., 

1989)

No 

Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata

(Motschulsky, 1866) 

JP (Shiozawa and 

Tsuchizaki, 1992; 

Kubo-Irie et al., 2003; 

Morishima, 2008; 

Anonymous, 2008b)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes Rts 

(immatures), 

St (adults) 

(Borror et al., 

1989) 

No 

Meimuna opalifera (Walker, 

1850)

JP (Morishima, 2008; 

Osamu, 2008; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes Rts 

(immatures), 

St (adults) 

(Borror et al., 

1989)

No 

Platypleura kaempferi

(Fabricius)

JP (Morishima, 2008; 

Uchiyama, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes Rts 

(immatures), 

St (adults) (v)

No 

Hemiptera - Coccidae9

Ceroplastes ceriferus

(Fabricius, 1798)]

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008) US (BenDov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Ceroplastes floridensis

Comstock, 1881

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007) 

US (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Ceroplastes japonicus Green, 

1921

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; C. unshiu: 

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 

2007

Yes WP (CABI, 

2007)

Yes9

Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus

Green 

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001

Yes St (CABI, 

2007)

No

 

9

Surface-feeding insects occasionally associated with fruit. Those remaining on the fruit are highly likely to be removed 

from the pathway by the postharvest treatment of washing, scrubbing, and pressure-rinsing (7 CFR § 305.42, 2005 ; 7 CFR 

§ 319, 2008).
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 14

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Ceroplastes rubens Maskell, 

1893

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007) 

US [FL] (CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; C. unshiu: 

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 

2007

Yes F, L, St 

(CABI, 2007)

Yes9

Coccus discrepans (Green, 

1904)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes Rt (attended 

by ants)

No

Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus, 

1758

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) ;US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001

No N/A N/A

Coccus longulus (Douglas, 

1887)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Umeya and 

Okada, 2003US (BenDov et al., 2001)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001

No N/A N/A

Coccus pseudomagnoliarum 

(Kuwana, 1914)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Coccus viridis (Green, 1889) JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; BenDov et al., 2001 has it 

absent from Japan); 

US (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Dekle and 

Fasulo, 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001

No N/A N/A

Eucalymnatus tessellatus 

(Signoret)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001

No N/A N/A

Howardia biclavis (Comstock, 

1883)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Kilifia acuminate (Signoret, 

1873)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Milviscutulus mangiferae 

(Green)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) US [FL, 

TX] (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; C. 

sinensis: BenDov et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Parasaissetia nigra (Nietner, 

1861)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Citrus: 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Parthenolecanium persicae 

(Fabricius)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 15

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Protopulvinaria pyriformis

(Cockerell, 1894)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Pulvinaria aurantii Cockerell, 

1896; 

syn.: Chloropulvinaria 

aurantii (Cockerell) 

(Umeya and Okada, 2003)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

Hashemi et al., 

2008

Yes L, St (Hashemi 

et al., 2008; 

Reuther et al., 

1989)

No

Pulvinaria citricola Kuwana, 

1914; 

syn.: Chloropulvinaria 

citricola (Kuwana) (Umeya 

and Okada, 2003)

JP US [CA, MD, VA] 

(Ben-Dov et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Pulvinaria floccifera 

(Westwood)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No7 N/A N/A

Pulvinaria okitsuensis

Kuwana, 1914; 

syn.: Chloropulvinaria 

okitsuensis (Kuwana) 

(Umeya and Okada, 2003)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes L, St10 (CABI, 

2007)

No

Pulvinaria polygonata

Cockerell, 1905; 

syn.: Chloropulvinaria 

polygonata Borchsenius

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Citrus: 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes L, St10(CABI, 

2007)

No

Pulvinaria psidii Maskell JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Saissetia citricola (Kuwana, 

1909)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes L, St (CABI, 

2007)

No

Saissetia coffeae (Walker, 

1852)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Citrus: 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Saissetia oleae (Olivier, 1791) JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Citrus: 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

 

10 Based on P. psidii biology.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 16

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Takahashia japonica 

(Cockerell); 

syn.: Pulvinaria japonica 

Cockerell (Cockerell, 1896)

JP US [CA] (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Umeya

and Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera - Coreidae

Anacanthocoris striicornis

Scott 

JP (Akira and 

Tomokuni, 1981; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, F (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No11

Cletus punctiger (Dallas) JP (Muramoto, 1978; 

Akira and Tomokuni, 

1981; CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, F (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No11

Hygia opaca (Uhler) JP (Muramoto, 1978; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: 

Murakami et al., 

2000

Yes St, F No11

Leptocorisa acuta

(Thunberg); 

syn.: L. varicornis Fabricius 

(CABI, 2007)

JP (Takeuchi, 2006; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Alternate “host”: 

utilizes for 

hibernation 

(CABI, 2007)

Yes L, St, F 

(CABI, 2007)

No11

Hemiptera - Diaspididae

Andaspis hawaiiensis 

Maskell, 1895

JP US [FL] (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell, 

1878)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Aonidiella citrina (Coquillett) JP US [CA, FL, TX] 

(Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007)

C. unshiu: BenDov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007

No N/A N/A

Aonidiella comperei 

McKenzie

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes F (Martins et 

al., 2004)

Yes12

Aonidiella inornata 

McKenzie

JP US [TX] (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes F (Pantoja and 

Peña, 2006)

Yes12

Aspidiotus destructor (Denis 

& Schiffermiller)

JP US [CA, FL, GA] 

(Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007

No N/A N/A

Aspidiotus excisus Green JP US [FL] (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Aspidiotus nerii Bouché JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007

No N/A N/A

 

11 Large-bodied true bugs with piercing/sucking mouthparts that feed on fruit and cause cat-facing damage (see footnote 

#18). They are highly unlikely to be associated with fruit during harvest.

12 Armored scales may enter on commercial fruit for consumption, but are highly unlikely to become established via this 

pathway. Please see discussion following this table for a detailed explanation.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 17

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Aulacaspis crawii (Cockerell) JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes St, L, F (Suh 

and Hodges, 

2007)

Yes12

Aulacaspis tubercularis 

Newstead

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes St, L, F (Suh 

and Hodges, 

2007)

Yes12

Chrysomphalus aonidum (L.)

syn.: C. ficus (Ashmead) 

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007) 

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Citrus: 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Chrysomphalus 

bifasciculatus Ferris; syn.: 

C. ficus Ferris 

(misidentification)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

CitrusBen-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Chrysomphalus dictyospermi

(Morgan, 1889)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

C. unshiu: BenDov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007

No N/A N/A

Diaspidiotus perniciosus 

(Comstock, 1990) 

syn.: Quadraspidiotus 

perniciosus (Comstock, 

1990); Comstockaspis 

perniciosa Comstock, 1990)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

C. unshiu: BenDov et al., 2001; 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Duplaspidiotus claviger 

(Cockerell)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) US 

[FL] (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001;)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Fiorinia fioriniae (Targioni 

Tozzetti)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Fiorinia proboscidaria Green JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001) 

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001

Yes Bk, F, St 

(CARIB, 

2008)

Yes12

Fiorinia randiae Takahashi JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes Bk, F, St13 Yes12

Fiorinia theae Green JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Fioronia turpiniae Takahashi JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes Bk, F, St13

(CARIB, 

2008)

Yes12

 

13 Based on F. proboscidaria biology.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 18

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Hemiberlesia lataniae 

(Signoret)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001Citrus: 

CABI, 2007

No N/A N/A

Hemiberlesia rapax 

(Comstock, 1881)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001); CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Howardia biclavis 

(Comstock)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Ischnaspis longirostris 

(Signoret)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Lepidosaphes beckii 

(Newman, 1869)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

C. unshiu: BenDov et al., 

2001Citrus: 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Lepidosaphes conchiformis 

(Gmelin)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Lepidosaphes gloverii

(Packard, 1869)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; C. unshiu: 

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001

No N/A N/A

Lepidosaphes laterochitinosa 

Green

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes WP; F = low 

risk (Hamon, 

1988; 

Biosecurity

Australia, 

2005)

Yes12

Lepidosaphes pallida 

(Maskell)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Lepidosaphes pinnaeformis 

(Bouché)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Lepidosaphes takahashii 

(Borchsenius)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes WP; F = low 

risk14 (Hamon, 

1988; 

Biosecurity

Australia, 

2005)

Yes12

Lepidosaphes tokionis 

(Kuwana)

JP US [MS] (BenDov et al., 2001)Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 20011

Yes WP; F = low 

risk14(Hamon, 

1988; 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2005)

Yes12

 

14 Based on L. laterochitinosa biology.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 19

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Lepidosaphes ulmi (L); syn.

L. conchiformis (CABI, 

2007, but Ben-Dov et al., 

2001, do not agree)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Lopholeucaspis cockerelli

(Grandpre & Charmoy, 

1899)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001) US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Lopholeucaspis japonica

(Cockerell, 1897)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Melanaspis sulcata Ferris JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes Bk, St, L 

(Deitz and 

Davidson, 

1986)

No

Morganella longispina 

(Morgan)

JP US [FL] (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Oceanaspidiotus spinosus 

(Comstock)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Octaspidiotus stauntoniae 

(Takahashi)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes L, young Sh 

(Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

No

Parlatoria camelliae 

Comstock

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Parlatoria cinerea Doane & 

Hadden, 1909

JP US [DC, MD] 

(Ben-Dov et al., 2001)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes L, F (EPPO, 

2005; EPPO, 

1999 )

Yes12

Parlatoria pergandii

(Comstock, 1881); poss. 

syn.: P. camelliae (Umeya 

and Okada, 2003)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

C. unshiu: BenDov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007

No N/A N/A

Parlatoria proteus (Curtis, 

1843) 

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007

No N/A N/A

Parlatoria theae Cockerell JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Parlatoria ziziphi (Lucas, 

1853)

JP US [FL, MS] (BenDov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007)

C. unshiu: BenDov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007

Yes L, F (Watson, 

2008)

Yes12
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 20

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Pinnaspis aspidistrae 

(Signoret, 1869)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Pinnaspis buxi (Bouché) JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Pinnaspis strachani JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

C. unshiu: BenDov et al., 2001 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Pseudaonidia duplex

(Cockerell)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis

(Green)

JP US [FL] (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes15 L vein, 

undersides 

(Watson, 

2008)

No

Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli 

(Cooley)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

CitrusBen-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Pseudaulacaspis pentagona 

(Targioni Tozzetti)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Quadraspidiotus perniciosus 

Comstock; junior synonym 

of Diaspidiotus perniciosus

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

C. unshiu: BenDov et al., 2001; 

Citrus: CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Selenaspidus articulatus

(Morgan)

JP US [FL] (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Unaspis citri (Comstock) JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Unapsis euonymi (Comstock) JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Unaspis yanonensis (Kuwana, 

1923)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007) 

C. unshiu: BenDov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007

Yes L, Br, F (under 

outbreak 

conditions) 

(CABI, 2007)

Yes12

Hemiptera - Errhomenellidae

Epiacanthus stramineus 

(Motschulsky)

JP ( McKamey, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008) 

Citrus leaves: 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002

Yes L (Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002)

No

Hemiptera - Flatidae

Geisha distinctissima 

(Walker); planthopper

JP (Imura, 2003; 

Morishima, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, L (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No

 

15 Actionable unless destined for Puerto Rico.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 21

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Hemiptera - Largidae

Physopelta gutta (Burmeister) JP (Tokajar, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, L 

(Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002)

No 

Hemiptera - Lygaeidae

Geocoris varius (Uhler, 

1860); 

syn.: Piocoris varius 

(Uhler); generalist predator 

(Weeden et al 2008); 

subfamily Anthocorinae

JP (Moriya et al., 

2002; Imura, 2003 ; 

ZCZ, 2008)

(Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002; 

predator per 

Moriya et al., 

2002.

Yes predator, L 

juice 

(Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002)

No 

Nysius plebejus Distant JP (Muramoto, 1978; 

Anonymous, 2008d; 

ZCZ, 2008)

(Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002

Yes Sd 

(Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002)

No 

Hemiptera - Margarodidae

Drosicha corpulenta 

(Kuwana)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Nohara et al., 

2000

Yes Bk, buds 

(Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002)

No

Drosicha howardi (Kuwana, 

1922) 

syn: Warajicoccus howardi 

Kuwana, 1922

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes L, twig, bud 

(Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002)

No

Drosicha maskelli (Cockerell) JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes WP (CABI, 

2007)

Yes16

lcerya aegyptiaca (Douglas) JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007

Yes WP17 (CABI, 

2007)

Yes16

Icerya purchasi Maskell, 

1879

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

CABI, 2007

No N/A N/A

Icerya seychellarum

(Westwood, 1855)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007)

Citrus 

reticulata: BenDov et al., 

2001,Citrus: 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

CABI, 2007

Yes lower L veins 

(CABI, 2007)

No

 

16 Pests on fruit are highly likely to be removed from the pathway by wash/pressure rinse/wax, mandatory inspection for 

mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), or by fumigation if pests are found associated with fruit (7 CFR § 305.42, 2005).

17 Based on Icerya purchasi biology.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 22

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Hemiptera - Ortheziidae

Insignorthezia insignis 

(Browne) 

syn.: Orthezia insignis

Browne

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001) US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Nipponorthezia ardisiae

Kuwana, 1916

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes Rt (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No

Hemiptera - Pentatomidae

Carbula humerigera (Uhler) JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F [catfacing18] 

(Borror et al., 

1989)

No19

Eucorysses grandis

(Thunberg, 1783)

JP (Akira and 

Tomokuni, 1981; 

Umeya and Okada, 

2003; ZCZ, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F [catfacing] (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No19

Glaucias subpunctatus

(Walker)

JP (Masahiko et al., 

2001; ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F [catfacing] (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No19

Halyomorpha halys (Stal, 

1855)

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Nezara antennata Scott JP (CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F [catfacing] (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No19

Nezara viridula (Linnaeus, 

1758)

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Plautia stali Scott 

syn.: P. crossota stali Scott; 

synonymy Ohno 1999

JP (Imura, 2003; 

CABI, 2007; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F [catfacing] (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No19

Rhynchocoris humeralis 

Thunberg

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F [catfacing] (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No19

 

18 “Cat-facing” describes the results of feeding attempts by certain piercing-sucking insects. These insects leave blackened 

spots that may slightly sink into the fruit skin. They often make three feeding attempts, and someone called the resulting 

triangular sunken shape a “cat face.” Cat-facing occurs most often on soft-skinned fruits such as peach.

19 Large, active winged insects that may feed on fruit for sap and cause cat-facing, but are highly unlikely to be associated 

with fruit at harvest or to follow the pathway.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 23

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Hemiptera - Pseudococcidae20

Crisicoccus matsumotoi 

(Siraiwa)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes L, St21 (Miller, 

2005)

No

Dysmicoccus boninsis 

(Kuwana)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Dysmicoccus brevipes 

(Cockerell)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2001v)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Geococcus citrinus Kuwana, 

1923

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes Rt (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No

Maconellicoccus hirsutus 

(Green)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001) US [CA, FL] 

(CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

Yes WP (USDA, 

1996)

Yes20

Nipaecoccus viridis

(Newstead) 

syn.: N. vastator Maskell, 

1895

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007) 

US [HI] (CABI, 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001Citrus: 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes twig, Sh, L, F 

(CABI, 2007)

Yes20

Planococcus citri (Risso, 

1813)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Planococcus kraunhiae

(Kuwana, 1902); 

syn.: P. kuraunhiae

(Kuwana)

JP US [CA] (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes L, F (CABI, 

2007)

Yes20

Planococcus lilacinus

(Cockerell, 1905)

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes L, F (CABI, 

2007)

Yes20

Pseudococcus comstocki

(Kuwana, 1902); poss. syn.: 

P. odermatti (Umeya & 

Okada 2003); poss. syn.: P. 

ogasawarensis (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001;

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

 

20 Three mealybug species–Planococcus kraunhiae, P. lilacinus, and Pseudococcus cryptus–have a mandatory inspection and 

fumigation (if found) according to the work plan (Importation of Unshu Oranges from Japan, 2008; (7 CFR § 319. 28, 

2008). All mealybugs are highly likely to be mitigated by these practices. 

21 Based on C. azaleae biology.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 24

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Pseudococcus cryptus

Hempel, 1918

syn.: Pseudococcus 

citriculus Green, 1922

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; CABI, 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F (CABI, 

2007)

Yes20

Pseudococcus longispinus

(Targioni Tozzetti, 1867)

JP US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2001; CABI, 

2007)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Pseudococcus odermatti 

Miller & Williams

JP US [FL] (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Ripersiella kondonis 

(Kuwana)

syn.: Rhizoecus kondonis

Kuwana, 1923

JP (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001; Kawai and 

Takagi, 1971) US 

[CA] (Ben-Dov et al., 

2001)

Citrus: Ben-Dov 

et al., 

2001;Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes Rt (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2001)

No

Hemiptera - Psyllidae

Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, 

1908

JP (Mead, 1998; 

CABI, 2007) US [AL, 

FL, GA, MS, SC, TX] 

(CABI, 2007; 

NAPPO, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes22 Sh, L (CABI, 

2007; Mead, 

2008,)

No 

Hemiptera – Tartessidae

Kolla atramentaris

(Motschulsky);

syn.: K. atramentaria

(Motschulsky)

JP (Imura, 2003; 

Morishima, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes St, L (Borror 

et al., 1989)

No 

Hymenoptera -Formicidae

Formica japonica 

Motschulsky 

JP (CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008; Kaneko, 

2003b) 

Kaneko, 2003b Yes predaceous on 

plant pests

No23

Lasius niger Linneaus JP (Kaneko, 2003a) Kaneko, 2003a Yes Aphid-ants 

association

No23

Pristomyrmex pungens Mayr JP (Kaneko, 2003a, 

Kaneko, 2003b)

Kaneko, 2003a, 

Kaneko, 2003b

Yes Aphid-ants 

association

No23

Isoptera - Termitidae

Nasutitermes costalis

(Holmgren)

JP (Miura et al., 2000; 

CABI, 2007) US 

[eradicated] 

(Lockette, 2004)

Citrus: CABI, 

2007

Yes associated 

with T

No

 

22 Disease and vector are under official control.

23 Formicidae are generalist predators and protectors of honeydew secreting insects such as scales and aphids. Ants other than 

isolated (sterile) workers are highly unlikely associated with fruit at harvest (Borror et al., 1989).
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 25

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Lepidoptera - Arctiidae

Lemyra imparilis (Butler, 

1877)

syn.: Spilarctia imparilis

FUNET, 2008 

JP (Anonymous, 

2008cc; CABI, 2007) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L No

Lemyra inaequalis (Butler) 

syn.: Spilarctia inequalis

Butler (FUNET, 2008)

JP (Anonymous, 

2008c; ZCZ, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L No

Spilosoma lubricipeda

(Linnaeus, 1758)

syn.: S. lubricipedum

(Linnaeus, 1758)

JP (Anonymous, 

2008c; FUNET, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008ZCZ, 

2008) US [TX] (ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L No

Lepidoptera - Geometridae

Ascotis selenaria (Denis & 

Schiffermuller, 1775)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes Bk, L (Ascher 

et al., 1978)

No

Biston robustus Butler, 1879 

syn.: B. robustum (Bisby et 

al. 2008)

JP (Matsui and 

Nonaka, 1997; ZCZ, 

2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L (Akino et 

al., 2004)

No

Cusiara stipitaria (Oberthür, 

1880)

poss. syn.: Cusiala stipitalia

(Oberthür) [misspelling]

JP (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002; 

Hokkaido-Insects, 

2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L No

Descoreba simplex Butler, 

1878

JP (Anonymous, 

2008c; ZCZ, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L No

Megabiston plumosaria

Leech, 1891

JP (ZCZ, 2008) Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L No

Pylargosceles steganioides

(Butler, 1878)

JP (Anonymous, 

2008c; ZCZ, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L No

Lepidoptera - Gracillariidae

Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton, 

1856

JP US [AL, FL, LA, 

TX] (CABI, 2007; 

Bisby et al., 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes L, F (rarely; 

mines rind) 

(CABI, 2007; 

Heppner, 

2008) 

No24

Lepidoptera - Hepialidae

Endoclyta excrescens (Butler) JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) 

No

 

24 Most Lepidoptera are generalist foliage feeders and are not associated with fruit at harvest. Those that feed on or mine the 

fruit cause scarring that would cause the fruit to be culled during the inspection and packing process (Borror et al., 1989).
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 26

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Lepidoptera - Limacodidae

Cnidocampa flavescens

Walker 1985 

syn.: Monema flavescens

Walker

JP (Lammers and 

Stigter, 2004; ZCZ, 

2008) US [MA] 

(Lammers and Stigter, 

2004)

Citrus: Lammers 

and Stigter, 2004

No N/A No

Lepidoptera - Lymantriidae

Euproctis pulverea Leech, 

1889

JP (Matsui and 

Nonaka, 1997; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) 

No

Lepidoptera - Noctuidae

Anomis flava (Fabricius, 

1775)

JP (Hiramatsu et al., 

2001 ; CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008) US [FL, 

SC] (Biodiversity 

Institute of Ontario, 

2006; Opler et al., 

2006)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

No N/A No

Anomis mesogona (Walker, 

1858) 

syn.: Gonitis mesogona

Walker

JP (Holloway, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) 

No

Arcte coerula (Guenée) JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

CitrusUmeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003) 

No24

Artena dotata (Fabricius, 

1794)

JP (Holloway, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, St (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003) 

No

Bastilla maturata Walker 

syn.: Dysgonia maturata 

(Walker, 1858), Parallelia 

maturata (Walker, 1858) 

JP (Holloway, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003) 

No24

Dysgonia arctotaenia Gueneé; 

syn.: Ophiusa arctotaenia

JP (KRC, 2008; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, St (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003) 

No

Dysgonia stuposa (Fabricius) JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, St, F 

(Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) 

No24

Ercheia umbrosa Butler, 1881 JP (Anonymous, 

2008c; ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, St (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003) 

No

Erebus ephesperis (Hübner) JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, St (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003) 

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 27

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Eudocima fullonia (Clerck) 

syn.: Othreis fullonia

(Clerck) 

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Anonymous, 2008c; 

FUNET, 2008) US 

[HI] (CABI, 2007)

Citrus, Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes F (HerbisonEvans and 

Crossley, 

2008-)

No24

Eudocima salaminia (Cramer, 

1777)

JP (Anonymous, 

2008c)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes F (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No24

Eudocima tyrannus (Guenée, 

1852)

syn.: Adris tyrannus 

(Guenée); Ophideres 

tyrannus Guenée; Othreis 

tyrannus (Guenée)

JP (Anonymous, 

2008c; ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, St (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No

Helicoverpa armigera HibDet JP (CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008)

CABI, 2007 Yes nursery stock, 

cut flowers 

(Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) 

No 

Oraesia emarginata

(Fabricius, 1794)

JP (Anonymous, 

2008c; ZCZ, 2008

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes L, F (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No24

Oraesia excavata (Butler, 

1878)

JP (Anonymous, 

2008c; ZCZ, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes L, F (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No24

Plusiodonta casta (Butler, 

1878)

JP (Anonymous, 

2008c; ZCZ, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Plusiodonta coelonota

(Kollar, 1844)

JP (Kisti, 2005; 

Anonymous, 2008c)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Spodoptera litura (Fabricius, 

1775)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

EPPO, 1997c) US 

[HI] (CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes L, St, cut 

flowers, 

nursery stock 

(Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

CABI, 2007)

No

Thyas juno Dalman

poss. syn.: Lagoptera juno

(Dalman)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Holloway, 2008)

CitrusUmeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

CABI, 2007)

No

Xylena formosa Butler, 1878 JP (FUNET, 2008; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus:

Murakami et al., 

2000

Yes L (Murakami 

et al., 2000)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 28

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Lepidoptera - Oecophoridae

Psorosticha melanocrepida

Clarke, 1962

JP (Yoshitsugu et al., 

1999; Index 

Information Center, 

2001b)

Citrus: 

Yoshitsugu et 

al., 1999; Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L (Yoshitsugu 

et al., 1999; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Stathmopoda auriferella

(Walker, 1864)

JP (Moriuti, 1975; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: CABI, 

2007

Yes L (CABI, 

2007)

No

Lepidoptera - Papilionidae

Papilio bianor C. & R. Felder JP (Neubauer, 2008) Citrus: 

Neubauer, 2008

Yes L (Neubauer, 

2008) 

No

Papilio dehaani C. & R. 

Felder; also classified as a 

subspecies of P. bianor

JP (Neubauer, 2008) Citrus: 

Neubauer, 2008

Yes L (Neubauer, 

2008) 

No

Papilio helenus Linnaeus

subspecies P. helenus 

nicconicolens Butler, 

sometimes listed as a 

separate species 

JP (ZCZ, 2008) Citrus: CABI, 

2007

Yes L (CABI, 

2007) 

No

Papilio maackii tutanus

Fenton; subspecies P. m. 

tutanus is sometimes treated 

as P. tutanus (ZCZ, 2008)

JP (Neubauer, 2008) wild Rutaceae: 

Neubauer, 2008

Yes L No

Papilio macilentus Janson, 

1877

JP (FUNET, 2008) CitrusFUNET, 

2008

Yes L (FUNET, 

2008)

No

Papilio memnon Linnaeus

subspecies P. memnon 

thunbergii von Siebold 

sometimes listed as a 

separate species 

JP (ZCZ, 2008) Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

CABI, 2007)

No

Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 

1758

syn.: P. polytes polytes

(Linnaeus); P. polytes 

polycritos Fruhstorfer; 

synonymy (Bisby et al., 

2008) 

JP (CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: CABI, 

2007; Neubauer, 

2008

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Papilio protenor Cramer; P. 

protenor demetrius Cramer 

JP (Kusigemati, 1976; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

mandarin 

orange: Sumio 

and Isamu, 1969

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

Sumio and 

Isamu, 1969)

No

Papilio xuthus Linnaeus, 

1767

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Neubauer, 2008) US 

[HI] (CABI, 2007) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

CABI, 2007)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 29

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Lepidoptera - Psychidae

Acanthopsyche nigraplaga

(Wileman, 1911)

JP (Anonymous, 

2008c) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, twig 

(Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Bambalina sp. JP (Anonymous, 

2008c; NARO, 2008) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, St (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No

Chalioides kondonis Kondo, 

1822

JP (Seino, 1980) Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, St (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No

Eumeta japonica (Heylaerts, 

1884)

prob. syn.: Cryptothelea 

japonica Heylaerts 

JP (Leech, 1898; 

Nishida, 1983)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, St (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No

Eumeta minuscula (Butler, 

1881) 

syn.: Clania minuscula

Butler

JP (Leech, 1898; 

Momoi et al., 1965; 

CABI, 2007; ZCZ, 

2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, St (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No

Lepidoptera - Pyralidae

Conogethes punctiferalis

(Guenée, 1854)

JP (CABI, 2007; 

ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes 

(USDA, 

2000) 

L, St, F, Bk 

(Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No24

Lepidoptera - Tortricidae

Adoxophyes honmai Yasuda JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F No24

Archips fuscocupreanus 

Walsingham

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) US 

(ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

No N/A N/A

Archips xylosteana (L) JP (Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2000; P 

PERAL, 2006,) 

Citrus: 

Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2000; 

PERAL, 2006

Yes St, L, F 

(Meijerman 

and Ulenberg, 

2000; PERAL, 

2006)

No24

Homona magnanima

Diakonoff, 1948

JP (CABI, 2007;ZCZ, 

2008) 

Citru: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes St, L (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007)

No

Homona coffearia Nietner JP (Matsui and 

Nonaka, 1997; CABI, 

2007) 

Citrus: CABI, 

2007

Yes St, L (CABI, 

2007)

No

Lobesia aeolopa Meyrick JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes F (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No24

Pandemis chlorograpta

Meyrick, 1921

JP Byun et al., 2003 ) Byun et al., 2003 Yes L (Byun et al., 

2003)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 30

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Orthoptera - Acrididae

Nomadacris japonica Bolivar 

syn.: N. immaculata

(Sjöstedt); Patanga 

japonica (Bolivar, 1898)

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; Bisby et 

al., 2008; ) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Orthoptera - Gryllidae

Ornebius kanetataki

(Matsumura, 1904)

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; Bisby et 

al., 2008; Eades and 

Otte, 2008; Takano 

and Takano, 2008 )

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No25

Teleogryllus emma (Ohmachi 

& Matsuura)

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; Eades 

and Otte, 2008

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L ( Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Orthoptera - Tettigoniidae

Holochlora japonica Brunner 

von Wattenwyl, 1878

JP (Bisby et al., 2008; 

Umeya and Okada, 

2003; Eades and Otte, 

2008; ZCZ, 2008)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003)

No

Thysanoptera - Thripidae

Frankliniella occidentalis

(Pergande, 1895); 

synonymy Mound 2005 

JP (CABI, 2007) US 

[widespread] ( 

Mound, 2005; CABI, 

2007; Diffie et al., 

2008)

Citrus: CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis

(Bouché, 1833); synonymy 

Mound 2005 

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; CABI, 

2007) US 

[widespread] (CABI, 

2007; Diffie et al., 

2008)

Citrus: Lewis, 

1997; CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Megalurothrips distalis

(Karny); synonymy Mound 

2005

JP (Okada and Kudo, 

1982; Imura, 2003; 

Mound, 2005; CABI, 

2007)

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003

Yes L (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

CABI, 2007)

Yes26

 

25 Large-bodied insects that feed on foliage and may occasionally chew on fruit for moisture. Damage to fruit would blemish 

the surface and result in culling of damaged fruit at harvest (Borror et al., 1989). They are highly unlikely to follow the 

pathway.

26

 As in the previous risk assessment, thrips are highly unlikely to remain with the fruit after harvest. First, thrips typically 

attack growing points of plants, which includes leaves, shoots and young fruit. Second, the fruit wash/scrub/pressure-rinse 

is highly likely to remove active organisms present on the fruit (7 CFR § 305.42, 2005 ; 7 CFR § 319, 2008).
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 31

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, 

1919; synonymy Mound 

2005

JP [widespread] 

(Okada and Kudo, 

1982 ; Hoddle and 

Mound, 2003; CABI, 

2007; Matsumoto and 

Okajima, 2007) US 

[FL, GA, HI] (CABI, 

2007; Diffie et al., 

2008)

Citrus: Palmer et 

al., 1989; Lewis, 

1997; Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

CABI, 2007

Yes L, I, F (CABI, 

2007)

Yes26

Thrips coloratus Schmutz, 

1913 

syn.: T. japonicus Bagnall; 

synonymy Mound 2005

JP (Okada and Kudo, 

1982; Mound, 2005; 

CABI, 2007)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, I, F (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003) 

Yes26

Thrips flavus Schrank, 1776; 

synonymy Mound 2005

JP (Okada and Kudo, 

1982; Mound, 2005; 

CABI, 2007) 

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007

Yes L, I (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003; CABI, 

2007)

No26

Thrips hawaiiensis Morgan 

1913; synonymy Mound 

2005

JP (Okada and Kudo, 

1982; Imura, 2003; 

Mound, 2005; CABI, 

2007) US (Mound, 

2005; CABI, 2007; 

Diffie et al., 2008)

Citrus: 

Nakahara, 1994; 

Lewis, 1997; 

Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; 

CABI, 2007

No N/A N/A

Thrips palmi Karny, 1925; 

synonymy Mound 2005

JP [widespread] 

(Mound, 2005; CABI, 

2007) US [FL, HI] 

(CABI, 2007; Diffie 

et al., 2008)

Citrus: 

Nakahara, 1994; 

CABI, 2007

Yes L, F 

(Nakahara, 

1994; CABI, 

2007)

Yes26

Thrips tabaci Lindemann, 

1888; synonymy Mound 

2005

JP [widespread] 

(Okada and Kudo, 

1982; Mound, 2005; 

CABI, 2007) US 

[widespread] (CABI, 

2007; Diffie et al., 

2008)

Tsuchida, 2002 No N/A N/A

MOLLUSCA

Acusta despecta sieboldiana

(Pfeiffer, 1850) [Eulotidae]

JP (Dundee and 

Cancienne, 1978; 

Sumikawa and 

Koyomiya, 1997; 

Machiko, 2004)

Index 

Information 

Center, 2001b

Yes L, St (Index 

Information 

Center, 

2001b) 

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 32

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Bradybaena similaris

(Ferussac) [Helicidae]

JP (Kaneda et al., 

1992; Umeya and 

Okada, 2003; CABI, 

2007) US [HI, five 

Gulf states AL, FL, 

LA, MS, TX,] 

(GSMFC, 2003; 

CABI, 2007)

Citrus: 

(occasional) 

Chiu et al., 1985

No N/A N/A

Meghimatium bilineatum 

(Benson) 

syn.: Incilaria bilineatum

(Benson) [Philomycidae]

JP (Umeya and 

Okada, 2003) US [HI] 

(Cowie, 1997)

Citrus: Umeya 

and Okada, 2003

Yes L, F (Umeya 

and Okada, 

2003)

No27

FUNGI28 and CHROMISTAS

Alternaria alternata (Keissl) 

[Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) dos Reis, 2006; 

dos Reis et al., 

2007

No N/A N/A

Alternaria citri (Ellis & 

Pierce) [Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Armillarila mellea (Vahl:Fr.) 

P. Kumm. [Basidiomycetes: 

Agaricales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Aspergillus niger (Tiegh) 

[Ascomycetes: Eurotiales] 

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & 

Kimbr. [= Corticium rolfsii]

[Anamorph: Scerotium 

rolfsii (Sacc.)] 

[Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Aureobasidium pullulans (de 

Bary) G. Arnaud

[= Pellularia pollulans] 

[Ascomycetes: Dothideales]

JP (JSCC, 2008b,) US 

(Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

 

27 Mollusca are indiscriminate feeders that damage all parts of the plant, including fruit. Fruit is damaged by removal of rind 

on overripe fruit, appearing as scraped rind, and the damaged fruit would be discarded as unfit due to mucus and secondary 

rots (Reuther et al., 1989; Barker, 2002).

28 Taxonomy according to Farr and Rossman (2009).
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 33

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Bionectria ochroleuca

(Schwein) Schroers & 

Samuels [= Sphaeria 

ochroleuca] [Anamorph: 

Clonostachys rosea f. rosea

(Link: Fr.) Schroers et al.] 

[= Gliocladium roseum]

[Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Botrytis cinerea (Pers. Fr.) 

[Teleomorph: Botryotinia 

fuckeliana (de Bary) 

Whetzel] [Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Capnodium citri Berk. & 

Desm. [= Limacinia citri 

(Briosi & Pass.)] 

[Ascomycetes: 

Capnodiales]

JP (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Capnodium salicinum Mont. 

[Anamorph: Fumagospora 

capnodioides G. Arnaud.] 

[Ascomycetes: 

Capnodiales]

JP ( Tanaka, 1920)

US (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Capnophaeum fuliginoides

(Rhem) Yamamoto 

[= Capnodium fuliginodes 

Rehm] [Ascomycetes: 

Capnodiales]

JP (Kishi, 1998; 

Miyakawa and 

Yamaguchi, 1981)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009; 

Kishi, 1998; 

Miyakawa and 

Yamaguchi, 

1981

Yes L, St. Agrios, 

1997

No29

Chaetoscorias vulgaris

Yamamoto [Ascomycetes: 

Capnodiales]

JP (Hughes, 1976; 

Kishi, 1998)

Kishi, 1998; 

Miyakawa and 

Yamaguchi, 

1981

Yes L, St. Agrios, 

1997

No29

Ceratocystis fimbriata Ellis 

and Halst.

JP US (CABI, 2007) Citrus: CABI, 

2007

No N/A N/A

Colletotrichum acutatum

(Simmonds ex Simmonds) 

[Teleomorph: Glomerella 

acutata Guerber & J.C. 

Correll] [Ascomycetes: 

Incertae sedis]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

 

29 Sooty mold fungi generally are considered minor leaf pathogens that grow superficially on plant tissue (Agrios, 1997). 

Sooty moulds proliferate in abundance on the foliage of guava, subsisting on the honeydew secreted by scale insects aphids, 

whiteflies, and mealy bugs. These fungi are unlikely to follow the pathway because the fruit surface is disinfested as part of 

the control measures in the packinghouse. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 34

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Colletotrichum coccodes

(Wallr.) S. Hughes.

[= Gloeosporium foliicola

(Nishida) Sawada [as 

'foliicolum'] [Ascomycetes: 

Incertae sedis]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 

2007;Petrak, 

1920, 

No N/A N/A

Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides (Penz.) 

Penz. & Sacc. In Penz. 

[teleomorph: Glomerella 

cingulata (Stoneman) 

Spauld. & H. Schrenk] 

[Ascomycetes: Incertae 

sedis]

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Cylindrocladium citri (H. 

Fawc. & L.J. Klotz) Boedijn 

& Reitsma. [Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales]

JP (Watanabe and 

Nakamura, 2004) US 

(Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Diaporthe citri F.A. Wolf 

(anamorph: Phomopsis citri 

H.Fawc. non (Sacc.) 

Traverso & Spessa) 

[Ascomycetes: Diaportales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Diaporthe faginea (Curr.) 

Sacc. [= D. medusaea

Nitschke] [Anamorph:

Phomopsis rudis (Fr. : Fr.) 

Höhn] [Ascomycetes: 

Diaportales]

JP (CABI, 2007; Farr 

and Rossman, 2009)

US (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009)

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Dothiorella gregaria Sacc. 

[Ascomycetes: Dothidiales]

JP (CABI, 2007) US 

(CABI, 2007; Farr 

and Rossman, 2009)

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Elsinoë fawcettii (Bitancourt 

& Jenk.) [Anamorph: 

Sphaceloma fawcettii var. 

fawcettii Jenkins] 

[Ascomycetes: 

Myriangiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Erythricium salmonicolor

(Berk. & Broome) Burdsall 

[= Corticium salmonicolor 

Berk. & Broome; 

anamorph: Necator decret 

Massee] [Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales]

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 35

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Fusarium oxysporum

(Schlechtendahl) f. sp. citri 

[Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales] 

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc.

[Teleomorph: 

Haematonectria 

haematococca (Berk. & 

Broome) Samuels & 

Rossman] [Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales]

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Galactomyces geotrichum (E. 

E. Butler & L. J. Petersen) 

Redhead & Malloch 

(Anamorph: Geotrichum 

candidum Link] 

[Saccharomycetes: 

Saccharomycetales]

JP (Suprapta et al., 

1995) US (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009)

Suprapta et al., 

1995; Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Ganoderma applanatum

(Pers.) Pat. [= Elfvingia 

applanata (Person) Karsten] 

[Basidiomycetes: 

polyporales]

JP US (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) 

P. Karst. [Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales]

JP (Seo et al., 1995)

US (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Guignardia bidwellii (Ellis) 

Viala & Ravaz [Anamorph: 

Phyllosticta ampelicida

(Engelm) Aa.] 

[Ascomycetes: Dothideales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Guignardia mangiferae (A. J. 

Roy) [Anamorph: 

Phyllosticta capitalensis = 

Phoma citricarpa McAlpine 

var. mikan Hara]

[Ascomycetes: Dothideales]

JP US (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009)

Foligata et al., 

2004

No N/A N/A

Helicobasidium mompa

Tanaka 

[= Septobasidium mompa

(Tanaka) Racib] 

[Ustilaginomycetes: 

Incertae cedis]

JP (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009; 

CABI, 2007; 

Nakamura et al., 

2001)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009; 

JSCC, 2008a 

Yes Rts (Cree, 

2005, )

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 36

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Hypocapnodium japonicum

(Hara) Yamamoto [= 

Limacinia japonica Hara] 

[Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales]

JP (Kishi, 1998) Kishi, 1998 Yes F, L, St (Kishi, 

1998)

No29

Hypocrea lixii (Pat.)

[Anamorph: Trichoderma 

harzianum Rifai] 

[Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales]

JP US (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Lasiodiplodia theobromae

(Pat.) Griffon & Maubl. [= 

Botryodiplodia theobromae 

Pat.; Teleomorph: 

Botryosphaeria rhodina

(Berk & M.A. Curtis) Arx] 

[Ascomycetes: Dothideales] 

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Limacinia harai Yamamoto 

[Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales]

JP (Kishi, 1998) Kishi, 1998; Yes F, L, St (Kishi, 

1998)

No29

Limacinula javanica (Zimm.) 

Höhnel [= Capnodium 

javanicum Zimm.]

[Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales]

JP (Kishi, 1998) Kishi, 1998 Yes F, L, St (Kishi, 

1998)

No29

Meliola butleri Sydow 

[Pyrenomycetes: 

Meliolales]

JP (Tsukiboshi et al., 

2007; Kishi, 1998) 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009; 

Kishi, 1998

Yes F, L, St (Farr 

and Rossman, 

2009)

No29

Mycosphaerella citri

(Whiteside) [Anamorph: 

Stenella citri-grisea (F. E. 

Fisher)] [Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales]

JP (CABI, 2007) US

(CABI, 2007; Farr 

and Rossman, 2009)

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Mycosphaerella horii K. Hara 

[Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales]

JP (CABI, 2007) US 

(Farr and Rossman, 

2009)30

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

Yes L (Amador, 

n.d.; Tanaka, 

1917; Morton, 

1987b, )

No

 

30 This species was thought to cause greasy spot in the United States but apparently does not occur outside Japan (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009).
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 37

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Mycosphaerella pinodes

(Berk. & Bloxam) Vestergr. 

(= Didymella pinodes 

(Berk. & Bloxam) Petr.; 

anamorph: Ascochyta 

pinodes L.K. Jones) 

[Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales]

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Kishi, 1998, 

Miyakawa and 

Yamaguchi, 1981 US 

(CABI, 2007)

Kishi, 1998; 

Miyakawa and 

Yamaguchi, 

1981

No N/A N/A

Nectria haematococca (Berk 

& Broome) Samuels & 

Rossman [Anamorph: 

Fusarium solani (Mart.) 

Sacc.] [Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Nematospora coryli Peglion 

[= Eremothecium coryli 

(Peglion) Kurtzman] 

[Saccharomycetes, 

Saccharomycetales] 

JP US (CABI, 2007) Farr and 

Rossman, 2009; 

Shivas, 2007

No N/A N/A

Neocapnodium tanakae

(Shirai & Hara) Yamamoto 

[= Capnodium tanakae 

Shirai & Hara] 

[Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales]

JP (Tanaka, 1920) Tanaka, 1920 Yes L, Br, F 

(Tanaka, 

1920) 

No29

Corticium koleroga (Cooke) 

Höhnel [= Pellicularia 

koleroga (Cooke)] 

[Basidiomycetes: 

Ceratobasidiales]

JP (CABI, 2007) US 

(CABI, 2007; Farr 

and Rossman, 2009)

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Penicillium digitatum

(Pers.:Fr.) Sacc. 

[Ascomycetes: Eurotiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Penicillium italicum

(Wehmer) [Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Phaeosaccardinula javanica

(Zimmermann) Yamamoto 

[Loculoascomyctes: 

Dothideales]

JP (Yamamoto, (n.d.) Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

Yes L, Br, F (Farr 

and Rossman, 

2009)

No29

Phoma erratica (Ellis & 

Everh.) Hara var. mikan 

Hara (=P. citricarpa

McAlpine var. mikan Hara)

[Ascomycetes, Dothideales]

See Guignardia 

mangifera
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 38

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Phoma pinodella (L.K. Jones) 

Morgan- Jones & K.B. 

Burch (= Ascochyta 

pinodella L.K. Jones; P. 

medicaginis Malbr. & 

Roum. var. pinodella 

(L.K.Jones) Boerema) 

[Ascomycete : 

Pleosporales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) Timmer et al., 

2000

No N/A N/A

Phyllosticta beltranii Penzig 

[Ascomycetes: Dothideales]

JP (Index 

Information Center, 

2001a; Kishi, 1998) 

Index 

Information 

Center, 2001a;

NIAST, 2008; 

Kishi, 1998,

Yes L (Index 

Information 

Center, 

2001a; 

NIAST, 2008; 

Kishi, 1998) 

No

Phyllosticta erratica Ellis & 

Everh. 

[Ascomycetes: Dothideales]

JP (Kishi, 1998; 

Tsukiboshi et al., 

2007) US (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009) 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009; 

Kishi, 1998; 

Tsukiboshi et al., 

2007; 

Tsukiboshi et al., 

2007

No N/A N/A

Phyllosticta hesperidearum 

(Cattaneo) Penz. 

[Ascomycetes: Dothideales]

JP (Tsukiboshi et al., 

2007) US (Morton, 

1987a)

Tsukiboshi et al., 

2007

No N/A N/A

Phyllosticta longispora 

McAlpine [Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales]

JP US (Farr and 

Rossman, 2009)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Phyllosticta nakayamai

[Ascomycetes: Dothideales]

JP (Kishi, 1998) Kishi, 1998 Yes31 N/A N/A

Phytophthora cactorum

(Lebert & Cohn) Schröt. 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales] 

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora citricola

(Sawada) 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora citrophthora

(R. E. Sm. & E. H. Sm.) 

Leonian 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora cryptogea

(Pethybr. & Laff.) 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

Vial and Latorre, 

2004

No N/A N/A

 

31 Although Phyllosticta nakayamai is listed in Kishi (1998) as a pest from Japan, we found no evidence confirming an 

association on Unshu oranges.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 39

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Phytophthora nicotianae

(Breda de Haan) [= P.

nicotianae var. parasitica

(Dastur) G. M. Waterhouse] 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Phytophthora palmivora var.

palmivora (E. J. Butler) 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Pseudocochliobolus 

pallescens Tsuda & 

Ueyama, 1983 

JP US (Sivanesan, 

1990)

Citrus:

Sivanesan, 1990

No N/A N/A

Pythium debaryanum (Auct. 

non.) R. Hesse [Oomycetes: 

Pythiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Pythium ultimum (Trow) 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Pythium vexans (de Bary) 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

JP (CABI, 2007) US 

(CABI, 2007) 

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Rhizoctonia solani J. G. Kuhn 

[Teleomorph:

Thanatephorus cucumeris

(A.B. Frank) Donk 

[Basidiomycetes: 

Ceratobasidiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

Rosellinia necatrix (Prill) 

[Anamorph: Dematophora 

necatrix R. Hartig] 

[Ascomycetes: Xylariales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Schizothyrium pomi (Mont. & 

Fr.) Arx (synonym: 

Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. 

& Fr.) Sacc.) 

[Loculoascomycetes: 

Dothideales]

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Miyakawa and 

Yamaguchi, 1981) US 

(CABI, 2007) 

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

(Lib.) de Bary [Anamorph: 

S. varium Pers. Fr.] 

[Ascomycetes: Helotiales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Scorias citrina (Hara) 

Yamamoto 

[Loculoascomyctes: 

Dothideales]

JP (Kishi, 1998) Kishi, 1998 Yes L, St (Kishi, 

1998) 

No29

Septobasidium bogoriense 

Potouillard 

[Basidiomycetes: 

Septobasidiales]

JP (Kishi, 1998; 

Miyakawa and 

Yamaguchi, 1981) 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009; 

Kishi, 1998;

Yes Rt, St (Farr 

and Rossman, 

2009)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 40

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Sporobolomyces roseus

Kluyver & Niel 

[‘Mitosporic fungi’: 

Hyphomycetes]

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Kishi, 1998) US (Farr 

and Rossman, 2009)

Kishi, 1998; No N/A N/A

Thielaviopsis basicola (Berk. 

& Broome) Farraris 

[Ascomycetes: 

Microascales]

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr and Rossman, 

2009)

CABI, 2007; 

Farr and 

Rossman, 2009

No N/A N/A

BACTERIA32

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

(Smith & Town.) Conn 

[Alphaproteobacteria: 

Rhizobiaceales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

“Candidatus Liberobacter

asiaticus"33 Jagoueix et al. 

1994. (Citrus greeening)

[Alphaproteobacteria:

Rhizobiales]

JP US [FL, LA, GA,

SC]34 (CABI, 2007)

CABI, 2007 Yes Vascular 

tissues and 

part plants 

including Sd 

(CABI, 2007;

Tatineni et al., 

2008 )

Yes35

Erwinia rhapontici (Millard 

1924) Burkholder, 1948 

JP US (CABI, 2007) Citrus: Huang 

and Erickson, 

2003

No N/A N/A

Pseudomonas fluorescens

(Trevisan) Migula 

[Gammaproteobacteria: 

Pseudomonales]

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

syringae (van Hall)

[Gammaproteobacteria: 

Pseudomonales]

JP US ( CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

 

32 Taxonomy according to Euzéby (2007).

33 According to the "Committee for the re-evaluation of the species definition in bacteriology" (Stackebrandt et al., 2002) the 

use of the "Candidatus" concept for well characterized but as yet uncultured organisms is recommended. 

34 This pathogen is under quarantine regulation in the United States.

35 Citrus seeds in fruit for consumption are highly unlikely to introduce this pathogen into the United States (7 CFR § 

301.76, 2011). Although the pathogen may be vectored by Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Insecta: Hemiptera: Psyllidae), 

the Asian Citrus Psyllid(ACP), fruit is not known to be a host article of ACP (e.g., Mead, 1998). Accordingly, we are not 

further analyzing either citrus greening or ACP. See discussion below for further information.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 41

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

Xanthomonas citri subsp.

citri (ex Hasse 1915) 

Gabriel et al. 1989 [= X. 

axonopodis pv. citri

(Vauterin, et al.), X. 

campestris pv. citri (Hasse) 

Dye] (Citrus canker A) 

[Gammaproteobacteria: 

xanthomonales]

JP US [FL] (CABI, 

2007)

CABI, 2007 Yes St, L, F 

(CABI, 2007; 

Timmer et al., 

2000)

Yes

VIRUSES and VIRUS-LIKE AGENTS36

Citrus cachexia viroid (= 

Xyloporosis, Hop stunt 

viroid)

JP US (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Citrus exocortis viroid

[Pospiviroidae: pospiviroid]

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Miyakawa and 

Yamaguchi, 1981) US 

(CABI, 2007)

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Citrus leaf rugose ilarvirus (= 

Citrus crinkly leaf ilarvirus)

[Bromoviridae: Ilavirus]

JP (CABI, 2007; 

Brunt et al., 1996)

CABI, 2007; 

Brunt et al., 

1996

No N/A N/A

Citrus mosaic virus37 See: Satsuma dwarf 

nepovirus

Citrus tatter leaf capillovirus JP US (Brunt et al., 

1996; CABI, 2007)

CABI, 2007; 

Brunt et al., 

1996

No N/A N/A

Citrus tristeza closterovirus

[Closteroviridae: 

Closterovirus]

JP US (Brunt et al., 

1996; CABI, 2007)

CABI, 2007; 

Brunt et al., 

1996

No N/A N/A

Citrus vein enation – woody 

gall associated luteovirus

JP US (CABI, 2007; 

EPPO, 1997a)

CABI, 2007; 

EPPO, 1997a

No N/A N/A

Hassaku dwarf virus 38 See: Citrus tristeza 

virus

Natsudaidai dwarf virus38 See: Satsuma dwarf 

nepovirus

Navel orange infectious 

mottling virus38

See: Satsuma dwarf 

nepovirus

Satsuma dwarf nepovirus

[Secoviridae: Sadwavirus]

JP (Brunt et al., 1996; 

CABI, 2007)

Brunt et al., 

1996; CABI, 

2007

Yes WP (Brunt et 

al., 1996; 

CABI, 2007) 

No39

 

36 Taxonomy according to AAB (2009).

37 Part of the Satsuma dwarf complex.

38 Recognized as a form of CTV stem-pitting affecting the pummelo hybrid Hassaku.

39 Satsuma dwarf nepovirus is transmitted by grafting. An experimental seed transmission (up to 9 percent) was reported to 

occur in Phaseolus vulgaris (Brunt et al., 1996t), but we found no reports of seed transmission in citrus.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 42

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Reported on 

Unshu2

Quarantine pestPlant part(s) 

association 3

Follow 

pathway

NEMATODES40

Helicotylenchus dihystera

(Cobb, 1893) [Tylenchida: 

Hopolaimidae

JP (CABI, 2007) US 

(CABI, 2007)

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Paratrichodorus porosus

Allen, 1957 [Dorylaimida: 

Trichodoridae]

JP (CABI, 2007) US 

(CABI, 2007)

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Pratylenchus coffeae

(Zimmermann, 1898) 

[Tylenchida: 

Pratylenchidae]

JP (CABI, 2007) US 

(CABI, 2007)

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Pratylenchus loosi Loof 

[Tylenchida: 

Pratylenchidae]

JP (CABI, 2007) CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Pratylenchus penetrans

(Cobb) Filipjev & 

Schuurmans Stekhoven

JP (CABI, 2007) US 

(CABI, 2007)

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

Tylenchulus semipenetrans

(Cobb)

JP (CABI, 2007) US 

(CABI, 2007)

CABI, 2007 No N/A N/A

 

40 Taxonomy according to Ferris (2006).
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 43

2.5.2. Selected Pests Not Considered in this Assessment

Elsinoë australis. We did not list one citrus pathogen, Elsinoë australis (Bitancourt & Jenk.) 

[Anamorph: Sphaceloma australis Bitancourt & Jenk.] [Ascomycetes: Myriangiales], in the pest 

list because the only evidence that it is present in Japan is one interception on citrus fruit in 

passenger baggage at a U.S. port-of-entry (PestID, 2009). This is insufficient evidence that the

pest occurs in Japan.

Phytophthora boehmeriae. Frezzi (1941) reported P. boehmeriae (Sawada) as a pathogen 

causing brown rot on fruit of citrus in Argentina. Artificial inoculations on sweet oranges fruit

yielded infections, but no infections occurred when the bases of the stems of sweet oranges and 

other citrus were inoculated (Frezzi, 1941). That is the only record of P. boehmeriae infecting 

orange fruits, and no subsequent records in the literature link this pathogen to citrus, either in the 

field or in trade. Moreover, the author indicates that the only plant part affected by this pathogen 

is the fruit. Because citrus is a widely cultivated plant and P. boehmeriae has a large global 

distribution and occurs in citrus areas (Farr and Rossman, 2009), any impacts or occurrence of P. 

boehmeriae in citrus would likely have been reported if it were a significant host. Thus, we 

found the single record of P. boehmeriae on citrus was insufficient evidence for a host 

association. If additional evidence of the natural occurrence of this pathogen infecting citrus is 

reported, we may reevaluate the status of this pest.

Likewise, we concluded that available evidence was not sufficient to confirm the presence of 

Citrus Leprosis Virus (CiLV) in Japan. Therefore, we did not include CiLV on the pest list, nor 

did list its vector, Brevipalpus mites, as quarantine pests, because, in the absence of CiLV in 

Japan, the mites are not quarantine significant.

Finally, despite 130 interceptions of Guignardia citricarpa from Japan on citrus, those 

interceptions in baggage were of uncertain origin. CABI (2010) confirmed the absence of the 

pathogen in Japan. Therefore, we did not list it. Moreover, we recently assessed the risk of fresh 

and dried fruit of Citrus spp. as a pathway for the introduction of G. citricarpa (Citrus Black 

Spot, or CBS). We concluded that those commodities are not epidemiologically significant 

pathways for the introduction of CBS. 

2.5.3. Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway

Some quarantine pests that were reasonably expected to follow the pathway, i.e., be included in 

commercial shipments of Unshu orange, were analyzed in detail (Steps 5-7; PPQ, 2000). Other 

plant pests, not chosen for further scrutiny, may be potentially detrimental to U.S. ecosystems, 

but were not subjected to further analysis for a variety of reasons. For example, they were 

associated mainly with plant parts other than the commodity; may be associated with the 

commodity, but would not reasonably remain with the commodity during processing; or have 

been intercepted as biological contaminants of these commodities during U.S. agricultural portof-entry inspection, but would not be present in commercial shipments. The various pests and 

reasons for not analyzing them further are summarized below (Table 4).

Citrus greening. Citrus fruit for consumption are highly unlikely to introduce “Ca. L. asiaticus” 

into the United States (7 CFR § 301.76, 2011), for several reasons. First, fruit is not known to be 

a host article of the vector, Asian Citrus Psyllid (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama; Insecta: 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 44

Hemiptera: Psyllidae). Second, infected citrus fruit cannot spread "Ca. L. asiaticus” (EPPO, 

1997b), as no mechanism exists for this phloem-limited bacterium to be transmitted from fruit. 

Third, although some evidence indicates that “Ca. L. asiaticus” may be seed-transmitted (ARSUSDA et al., 2007, Tirtawidjaja, 1981), it has not been demonstrated that the organism persists 

in seedlings grown from infected seed, or that the disease is expressed (e.g., ARS-USDA et al., 

2007; Shatters, 2008). Fourth, the likelihood of propagation of plants from seed is very low, 

since most Unshu cultivars are considered seedless, with at most six seeds (Ladaniya, 2007; 

Federal Register, 2003), and those are mostly inviable (Rouse and Zekri, 2002). Moreover, of 

mandaring seeds survive for shorter period stored under ambient conditions after that 

germination is reduced from 95 to 65 percent (Doijode, 2001). Therefore, we did not further 

analyze this pest; its Pest Risk Potential on this commodity is Negligible.

Pests analyzed previously but not in this assessment. The prior pest risk assessment identified 

11 arthropod pests of quarantine significance (Eotetranychus kankitus, E. sexmaculatus, 

Tetranychus kanzawai, Bactrocera tsuneonis, Toxoptera citricida, Parlatoria cinerea, Unaspis 

yanonensis, Planococcus kraunhiae, P. lilacinus Pseudococcus cryptus, and Diaphorina citri)

that could follow the Unshu orange fruit pathway (PERAL, 1995). Two of these, Diaphorina 

citri and Toxoptera citricida, are vectors of citrus diseases, and were analyzed previously 

(PERAL, 1995) despite not being likely to follow the pathway (Table 2). Two other mites, 

Eotetranychus asiaticus (now E. sexmaculatus), and Tetranychus kanzawai, are no longer 

quarantine pests. We did not analyze these pests here. 

Armored scales. The armored scales (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) identified in this risk assessment 

as quarantine pests—Aonidiella comperei, A. inornata, Aulacaspis crawii, A. tubercularis, 

Fiorinia proboscidaria, F. randiae, F. turpiniae, Lepidosaphes laterochitinosa, L. takahashii, L. 

tokionis, Melanaspis sulfata, Octaspidiotus stauntoniae, Parlatoria cinerea, and P. ziziphi—

were not further analyzed because, although armored scales may enter on commercial fruit for 

consumption, they are not expected to become established, and therefore introduced, via this 

pathway (Miller, 1985; PERAL, 2007b). A recent critical review of the literature, APHIS-PPQ 

operational data, and expert opinion concludes that, even assuming high quantities of imported 

fruit infested with armored scale species that could be parthenogenic, highly fecund, 

polyphagous, invasive, theoretically able to survive in most of the United States, and cause high 

level consequences, the specific pathway represented by commercially produced fruit shipped 

without leaves, stems or contaminants constitutes an extremely low risk (PERAL, 2007b). This 

low risk is explained by poor ability of armored scales to disperse to new host plants from fruits 

for consumption, and consequently, by their low probability of establishment. The following 

characteristics of armored scales contribute to their poor dispersal capabilities:

 Legs and wings are absent in females and in feeding immature forms. Males possess wings 

but are short-lived, do not feed, and tend to mate with nearby females. 

 Self-dispersal of armored scales occurs by immature forms, or “crawlers”. They are the most 

vulnerable life stage, survival of which decreases with long distance wind dispersal. Crawlers 

can be passively dispersed by wind from one plant to another only during a time period of 

approximately 24 hours. No further dispersal is possible after the crawlers start feeding as 

they lose their legs during the first molt and the mouth parts are deeply inserted in the host, 

anchoring them firmly to the substrate.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 45

 Dispersal from fruit discarded in the environment is considered very unlikely because of low 

wind speeds at ground level and low survival rate of crawlers on the ground or on decaying 

fruit or fruit peel. Active dispersal of crawlers by walking from their natal host is highly

unlikely since they are not capable of rapid movement over bare soil or rough surfaces. 

Non-intercepted organisms. A second group of organisms that do not require further analysis 

are those that have not been intercepted from Japan or on citrus, rendering them Low risk. This 

includes the soft scale, Ceroplastes japonicas, and the mealybugs, Crisicoccus matsumotoi, 

Drosicha maskelli, Icerya aegyptiaca, Nipaecoccus viridis, and Pseudococcus cryptus (Table 3).\

Organisms removed from the pathway. A third group of organisms that do not require further 

analysis are those removed from the pathway via the systems approach for Unshu oranges. 

The remaining pests from the lists above, specifically Ceroplastes rubens, Coccus viridis, 

Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Planococcus kraunhiae, and P. lilacinus, will be mitigated by the 

systems approach that is in place for Japanese Unshu oranges as outlined below (Table 4).

2.5.4. Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway and Further Analyzed

We identified one quarantine pest pathogen for further analysis: the bacteria, Xanthomonas citri 

subsp. citri, or Citrus canker A.

Table 3. Interceptions of quarantine pests identified in the 1995 Unshu orange risk assessment, 

from January 1985 to November 2008 (PestID, 2008). 

Type Organism Interceptions

Total From Japan On citrus

Mealybug Crisicoccus matsumotoi 0 0 0

Mealybug Icerya aegyptiaca 9 0 0

Mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis 31 0 3

Mealybug Drosicha sp. 36 0 1

Mealybug Planococcus kraunhiae 166 140 6

a

Mealybug Pseudococcus cryptusb595 20 33

Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus 1,117 2

c

5

Mealybug Planococcus lilacinus 1,978 5

d

26

Soft scale Ceroplastes japonicus 27 1 0

Soft scale Ceroplastes rubens 4,776 0 279

Soft scale Coccus viridis 10,475 1 1,410

Mite Tetranychus sp. 2,454 21 71

Mite Eotetranychus sp. 50 0 3

Aphid Toxoptera citricida 368 0 360

Fruit fly Bactrocera sp. 6,623 3 255

a

The six interceptions on citrus were from Japan, on C. reticulata and C. unshiu

b

Includes synonyms

c Not on citrus 

d

Sixty-five other times from “Asia country unknown”
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 46

Table 4. Mitigations that keep some quarantine pests from being likely to follow the pathway.

Type Organism Mitigation/Rationale

Mites Eotetranychus kankitus Lack of interceptionsa

Phyllocoptruta citri Systems approach

Fruit Fly [Diptera –

Tephritidae]

Bactrocera tsuneonis

Armored scales Aonidiella comperei, A. inornata Low likelihood of 

establishment (PERAL, 

2007b)

Low likelihood of 

establishment (PERAL, 

2007b)

[Hemiptera –Diaspididae] Aulacaspis crawii, A. tubercularis

Fiorinia proboscidaria, F. randiae, 

F. turpiniae

Lepidosaphes laterochitinosa, L. 

takahashii, L. tokionis

Parlatoria cinerea, P. ziziphi

Unaspis yanonensis

Mealybugs [Hemiptera Crisicoccus matsumotoi Lack of interceptionsa

-Pseudococcidae] Maconellicoccus hirsutus Systems approach

Nipaecoccus viridis

Planococcus kraunhiae, P.liliacinus

Pseudococcus cryptus

Scales [Hemiptera– Drosicha maskelli Lack of interceptionsa

Margarodidae] Icerya aegyptiaca

Soft scales [Hemiptera– Ceroplastes japonicus; C. rubens Systems approach

Coccidae] Coccus viridis

Thrips [Thysanoptera- Scirtothrips dorsalis Systems approach

Thripidae] Thrips coloratus, T. palmi

a

Systems approach also likely to be effective.

2.6. Analysis of Quarantine Pests

In this risk assessment we identify and characterize the main sources of uncertainty. These 

include the use of a developing or evolving process (PPQ, 2000; Orr et al., 1993), the approach 

used to combine risk elements (Bier, 1999; Morgan and Henrion, 1990), and the evaluation of 

risk by comparisons to lists of factors within the guidelines (Kaplan, 1992; Orr et al., 1993). To 

address this last source of uncertainty, the lists of factors were interpreted as illustrative and not 

exhaustive, implying that additional biological information, even if not explicitly part of the 

criteria, can be used when relevant to a rating. Other sources of uncertainty include the quality of 

the biological information and the amount of information available on the regional flora and 

fauna. Inherent biological variation within a population of organisms introduces uncertainty as 

well (Morgan and Henrion, 1990).

2.6.1. Consequences of Introduction

In this part of the analysis we consider the negative outcomes that may occur when the identified 

quarantine pests are associated with Unshu oranges from Japan and are introduced into the 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 47

continental United States. We rated the consequences of introduction for each pest according to 

the following five risk elements (PPQ, 2000): Climate–Host Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal 

Potential, Economic Impact, and Environmental Impact. These risk elements reflect the biology

of the pest and its hosts. For each risk element, we assigned pests a rating of Low (1), Medium 

(2), or High (3). We then calculate a cumulative risk value as the sum of the ratings for each pest. 

These ratings are helpful in interpreting detailed results; however, the ratings are considered 

supplemental information within the context of the overall risk analysis document. We 

summarized these ratings below for the two pests (Table 5).

Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri 

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction. Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri, or citrus canker, 

has successfully established several times in the United States. Citrus canker is now widespread 

throughout citrus-producing areas in Florida. To date, citrus canker has not spread from Florida 

to other U.S. citrus-producing areas. Citrus canker could establish in three Plant Hardiness Zones 

(PERAL, 2007a), and citrus is grown in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 8-10 (Bright Leaf Citrus 

Nursery, 2008; Wright, 2001). Our rating for this element is Medium.

Risk Element #2: Host Range. Citrus canker primary hosts belong to the Rutaceae family, with 

Citrus spp. having primary economic importance. Grapefruits (C. paradisi), limes (C. 

aurantifolia), and trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata) are highly susceptible. Sour oranges (C. 

aurantium), lemons (C. limon), and most sweet oranges (C. sinensis) are moderately susceptible 

(Civerolo, 1984; Gottwald et al., 1993; Gottwald et al., 2002a; Graham et al., 1992b; Smith et al., 

1997), and most mandarin cultivars (C. reticulata) are moderately resistant (Gottwald et al., 

1993; Graham et al., 1992b). In addition, plants in several other plant families (Asteraceae, 

Convolvulaceae, Meliaceae, Poaceae, and Solanaceae) have been artificially inoculated with 

citrus canker (CABI, 2007; Goto, 1970; Goto et al., 1975; Goto et al., 1978). Because the natural 

host range only includes species in one family, our rating is Medium. 

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential. Citrus canker can survive on non-citrus weed and grass 

hosts, although the epidemiological significance (i.e., the minimum conditions required for 

introduction of a disease into a new area) of this source is unclear (Goto, 1970; Goto et al., 1975; 

Goto et al., 1978; Pereira et al., 1978; Pereira et al., 1976; Serizawa, 1981; Stall et al., 1980). 

Bacteria survive in lesions formed on aboveground parts of susceptible hosts, including fruit 

attached to the tree, leaves, twigs, stems, and the bark of the trunk (Leite Jr. and Moham, 1990). 

Bacteria produced in leaf and twig lesions are significant for secondary infections (Pruvost et al., 

2002). The amount of citrus canker bacteria present within active lesions decreases as the lesions 

age (Timmer et al., 1991), and stem lesions can act as reservoirs of inoculum for longer periods 

than fruits and leaves (Leite Jr. and Moham, 1990; Schubert et al., 2001; Verniere et al., 2003). 

Viable bacteria have been isolated from 5-7 year-old stem lesions (Schubert et al., 2001), and 

asymptomatic citrus leaves on the tree likely harbor citrus canker bacteria for several months.

Bacteria may also survive for a few weeks to several months on decomposing plant litter (fallen 

fruit, leaves, and limbs), on the soil surface (Civerolo, 1984; Gottwald et al., 2002a; Graham et 

al., 1987; Leite Jr. and Moham, 1990; Schubert et al., 2001), or on plant material in the soil, for 

as long as four years (Goto, 1992; Goto et al., 1975; Pereira et al., 1976). Citrus canker bacteria 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 48

do not survive for long periods in the soil in the absence of host material (Graham et al., 1989; 

Graham et al., 1987; Leite Jr. and Moham, 1984). 

In wind-driven rain, bacteria dispersal can occur within trees and from tree to tree (Bock, 2005; 

Gottwald and Graham, 2000). Pathogen spread has been recorded from 32 meters to several 

miles (Gottwald and Graham, 2000; Gottwald et al., 1988; Gottwald et al., 2002b; Stall et al., 

1980). In Florida, pathogen spread was detected within 579 m (1900 ft) from the source 95 

percent of the time (Compton and Fagan, 2000; Gottwald et al., 2002a; Gottwald et al., 2001). 

Citrus canker spread from an initial 50 square miles to 1,265 square miles area in the first five 

years following detection in Florida. 

Long-distance spread of the pathogen can also occur via the movement of infected planting and 

propagating material, such as budwood, rootstock seedlings or budded trees from nurseries 

(Gottwald et al., 2002a; Graham and Leite Jr., 2004; Smith et al., 1997; Timmer et al., 2005). 

There is no confirmed record of seed transmission (Smith et al., 1997). Contaminated personnel, 

clothing, equipment, tools, field boxes, and other items associated with harvesting and postharvest handling of fruit may also provide a means of long-distance dissemination, especially 

when trees are wet (Civerolo, 1984; Timmer et al., 2005). Bacteria can survive in plant debris in 

the soil for long periods (Goto et al., 1978; Graham et al., 1987); thus, the removal of leaves, 

fruit, and limbs from the grove floor and the removal of infected trees, help reduce inoculum and 

diminish spread potential.

The movement of diseased fruit has often been considered a means of long-distance pathogen 

spread, but despite a long global history of commercial trade in citrus fruit, no authenticated 

record exists of this for this pathogen (Smith et al., 1997). Infected culled fruit and processed 

fruit pulp may facilitate long-distance pathogen spread, but the likelihood of this is unknown 

(Smith et al., 1997). We do not know if asymptomatic fruit or fruit with lesions can initiate new 

infections (Canteros, 2004; Jetter et al., 2000). Based on the above, we rated citrus canker 

Medium for Dispersal Potential.

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact. Severe infections of citrus canker can result in dieback, 

defoliation, fruit deformation, and premature fruit drop (Civerolo, 1981; Gottwald and Graham, 

2000; Stall and Seymour, 1983). The most significant effect of citrus canker is the loss of 

commercial markets due to unmarketable fruit. Blemished fruit are still suitable for the juice 

market (Stall and Seymour, 1983), but do not meet the market standard for fresh fruit (Gottwald 

et al., 2001; Muraro et al., 2001). We rated citrus canker High for Economic Impact.

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact. The introduction of citrus canker in a new area may

require specific control programs that may negatively impact non-target pests and the 

environment. Prophylactic sprays of copper oxychloride or other copper-containing compounds 

are commonly used to provide protection against initial infection (Das, 2003; Graham and Leite 

Jr., 2004; Koizumi, 1977a; Kuhara, 1978; Leite Jr. and Moham, 1990; Medina-Urrutia and 

Stapleton, 1985; Muraro et al., 2001; Stall et al., 1980; Timmer, 1988). Additional copper 

fungicide sprays are often necessary to avoid symptoms in generally infected areas because the 

initial spray usually wears off (Gottwald et al., 2002b; Leite Jr. and Moham, 1990; Stall et al., 

1980). In Japan, susceptible hosts are often sprayed 5 to 7 times, while moderately susceptible 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 49

cultivars are only sprayed four times throughout the growing season (Appendix C). Five to six 

copper sprays during the susceptible rainy season in Brazil decrease disease incidence by 90 

percent in moderately susceptible cultivars (Leite Jr. et al., 1987). Citrus canker is rated Medium 

for Environmental Impacts.

Table 5. Risk ratings for consequences of introduction.

Pest Risk elements Cumulative 

risk ratinga

Climate-host 

interaction

Host 

range

Dispersal 

potential

Economic 

impact

Environmental 

impact

Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri Med (2) Med (2) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) Medium (11)

a

Low=5 to 8; Medium=9 to 12; High=13 to 15.

2.6.2. Likelihood of Introduction

In this portion of the assessment, we consider two components. First, we estimate the amount of 

commodity likely to be imported (which is the same for all quarantine pests considered). Second, 

we consider five biological features (i.e., sub-elements) concerning each pest and its interactions 

with the commodity. We sum the sub-elements to get a cumulative risk rating for Likelihood of 

Introduction. We summarized these ratings below (Table 6).

Sub-Element 1: Quantity Imported Annually. The likelihood that an exotic pest will be 

introduced depends on the amount of potentially infested commodity imported. For qualitative 

pest risk assessments, the amount of commodity imported is estimated in units of standard 40-

foot shipping containers. 

Production of “Unshu mikan” tangerines in Japan seems likely to increase to more than one 

million metric tons (FAS, 2007). Unshu orange imports from Japan between 1995 and 2005 

averaged 238 metric tons per year. The best information available estimates that about 500 

metric tons of Unshu orange fruit will be imported from Japan (Federal Register, 2002). In total, 

13 to 25 containers are expected annually, based on a conversion factor of 20 metric tons per 40-

foot shipping containers. Based on import quantity less than 100 containers per year, we rated 

this sub-element Medium for X. citri subsp. citri. 

Sub-Element 2: Harvested Fruit is Infested/Infected and Survives Post-Harvest Treatment. 

This sub-element is the likelihood of pest/inoculum surviving the packing process and postharvest treatment. We assume field culling would remove symptomatic and damaged fruit. We 

also try to account for the expected prevalence of each pest under standard production practices 

in Japan. We assumed that infestation/infection is likely if fruit originates in areas where the 

pest/disease occurs, but the magnitude of the hazard at this stage depends in large part on the 

proportion of infested/infected fruit and the nature of the infestation or contamination. The 

incidence of infested/infected fruit will depend primarily on variety, environmental conditions, 

and field management.
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 50

Xanthomonas citri subsp. Citri. The presence of the organism on fruit may be associated with 

lesions, injuries, or blemishes, or it may be epiphytic (contamination). Research does not indicate 

the existence of endophytic infection inside the fruit or any plant part that does not develop 

symptoms. 

A ten-year research project in Argentina confirmed the very low susceptibility (zero percent) of 

Unshu mandarin fruit to citrus canker, especially in comparison to grapefruit (Figure 4) 

(Canteros, 2004). Disease incidence on vegetative plant parts was slightly above zero on fruit, 

with the Unshu mandarin the least susceptible to citrus canker of all tested cultivars (Canteros, 

2004) (Figure 5). Small fruit (<20 mm) are not susceptible to infection as the stomata are not 

fully open at this stage. Above this size susceptibility is inversely related to fruit age: younger 

fruit are more susceptible (Graham et al., 1992a). 

Well-timed field treatments reduce the incidence of disease, the level of inoculum, and the 

number of symptomatic fruit in the field. Prophylactic sprays (Das, 2003; Graham and Leite Jr., 

2004 ; Koizumi, 1977b; Kuhara, 1978; Leite Jr. and Moham, 1990; Medina-Urrutia and 

Stapleton, 1985; Muraro et al., 2001; Stall et al., 1980; Timmer, 1988) and cultural control 

practices, such as windbreaks and pruning diseased shoots, further reduce disease incidence 

(Das, 2003; Kuhara, 1978; Leite Jr., 2000; Leite Jr. and Moham, 1990).

Epiphytic populations of citrus canker on citrus tissue drop 3-5 orders of magnitude in 24 hours 

in experiments (Timmer et al., 1996). In Brazil, asymptomatic fruit were sprayed with a bacterial 

suspension, and after five days at room temperature under laboratory conditions the bacteria 

could not be recovered (Belasque Jr. and Rodriguez Neto, 2000). Harsher environmental 

conditions outside the laboratory would likely further reduce the survival of epiphytic citrus 

canker populations on asymptomatic fruit. 

Figure 4. Citrus canker incidence on citrus fruit without control treatments (Canteros, 2004).

Fruit response to Citrus Canker

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

May-95 May-96 Mar-97 97/98 Jan-99 May-00 Mar-01 Jul-02 Feb-03 Jun-04

Dates

Dis

e

a

s

e In

cid

e

n

c

e (%)

Grapefruit

Lemon

Orange

Murcott tangor

Satsuma 

Average
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 51

Figure 5. Citrus canker incidence on plant foliage of citrus cultivar without control treatment. 

Unshu oranges had the lowest disease incidence on leaves (Canteros, 2004).

Commercially packed citrus fruit is washed as a normal part of the packing process. This usually 

includes mechanical brushing and detergent, which removes organic and other contaminants, 

such as soil (Schubert et al., 1999). Brushing increases the exposure of citrus canker to 

detergents or other toxins (Brown and Schubert, 1987). The drying process (i.e., hot air at 58 °C 

for 2.5 minutes) further reduces epiphytic citrus canker populations (Schubert et al., 1999). 

When disinfectants are used, populations of the closely related species, Xanthomonas campestris

pv. Vesicatoria, are reduced to undetectable levels (Brown and Schubert, 1987; Graham and 

Gottwald, 1991). Using 200 ppm chlorine for two minutes reduces natural bacterial populations 

on citrus fruits 77-99 percent (Stapleton, 1986). Similarly, exposing fruit from infected citrus 

trees to a prewash with SOPP detergent, followed by a chlorine wash reduced the survival of 

surface citrus canker (Gottwald et al., 2009). A packinghouse wash with disinfectants can 

practically remove all epiphytic citrus canker from fruits without symptoms (Canteros, 2004, 

n.d.,.; Canteros et al., 2000). Post-harvest treatment in Uruguay reduced bacterial populations on 

inoculated fruit by 99.5 percent, and by 99.8 percent on naturally infested fruit (Verdier et al., 

2005, 2006). Finally, two different chlorine-wash protocols reduced (by approximately 50 

percent) the ability of lesions to produce viable bacteria Gottwald (2009).

If a small epiphytic population of citrus canker did survive post-harvest treatments, it would not 

survive long on the surface of the fruit (Goto, 1969; Timmer et al., 1991). Under natural 

conditions, epiphytic citrus canker survives on fruit surfaces for only about three days (Goto, 

1969; Goto, 1962; Shiotani et al., 2009), and they do not multiply in water, on leaf surfaces, or 

on dry leaves (Timmer et al., 1991; Timmer et al., 1996). Because bacterial survival on nonattached citrus fruit is significantly reduced (Koizumi, 1972), the likelihood of citrus canker 

spread via commercial fruit is very low, but not zero (Golmohammadi et al., 2007) .

 Plant Response to Citrus Canker

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Dec91Jun92Dec92Aug93Dec93Jun94Jan95M

ay95

Jan96Jun96Dec96Jan97Jun97Dec97M

ay98

Jan99Jun99Dec99M

ay00

Dec01Jan02Mar02Feb03Nov03Jan04

Dates

Dis

e

a

s

e In

cid

e

n

c

e (%)

Grapefruit

Lemon

Orange

Murcott tangor

Satsuma 

Average
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 52

Overall, then, symptomatic fruit are unlikely to pass through the packinghouse process standard 

packinghouse procedures. Post-harvest treatments prescribed by the systems approach will likely

remove and/or devitalize epiphytic populations of the pathogen to the extent that they become 

epidemiologically insignificant. For these reasons, we rated this risk element Low. 

Sub-Element 3: Quarantine Pests Survive Shipment. In this sub-element we assess the 

likelihood of inoculum surviving in fruit during shipping. Shipments of Unshu oranges are likely 

to be refrigerated and spend several days in transit to the United States. Recommended shipping 

and storage temperatures for Unshu oranges are between 4 and 7 °C, for two to four weeks 

(Cantwell, 2002).

Bacteria that survive the packing process on the surface of citrus fruit are unlikely to survive the 

shipping process. Bacterial populations in existing lesions decreased by several orders of 

magnitude when the average maximum temperature was below 20 °C and average minimum 

temperature was below 10 °C (Koizumi, 1977a,). Stall (1980) noted “the populations of viable 

cells in lesions decreased about 100-fold during the winter months.” As mentioned above, under 

natural conditions epiphytic citrus canker survives on fruit surfaces only up to three days (Goto, 

1969; Goto, 1962; Shiotani et al., 2009). Therefore, epiphytic populations pose an 

epidemiological threat for only a very limited window of time.

After processing, bacteria have not been shown to occur on the surface of citrus fruit or under the 

wax coating applied to the fruit, and are unlikely to cause disease development under these 

circumstances. Fruit-to-fruit post-harvest spread of bacteria has not been documented. Citrus 

canker latent populations do not produce symptoms in harvested fruit (Civerolo, 1997), and there 

is no evidence of epiphytic growth by citrus canker (Brunings and Gabriel, 2003). Our rating is 

Low for this risk element.

Sub-Element 4: Quarantine Pest is not Detected at Port-of-Entry. In this sub-element we 

assess the likelihood of a pest not being detected during port inspections.

Groves in infested areas may have citrus canker infected fruit at varying levels depending on the 

prevalence of inoculum, the susceptibility of the variety, and climatic, environmental, and 

cultural conditions. The presence of the organism on fruit may be associated with lesions, 

injuries, or blemishes, or it may be epiphytic (contamination). Epiphytic populations would be 

difficult to detect, but are much less likely to introduce the disease (above). Lesions on infected 

fruit are distinctive and have been detected at ports multiple times. Therefore, we rated this subelement Low. 

Sub-Element 5: Infested/Infected Fruit is Moved to Suitable Habitat. This sub-element 

involves shipment of infested/infected fruit to a suitable habitat for establishment/disease 

development; for this, we consider the geographic location of likely markets. Fruit arriving in the 

United States normally arrive at multiple ports and is distributed according to market demand.

Three of the four most populous states in the United States—Florida, Texas, and California (US 

Census, 2000)—are in the southern United States where the climate best matches the native 

climates for citrus canker and “Ca. L. asiaticus.” Assuming that citrus is distributed across the 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 53

United States proportional to population, then fruit is likely to be shipped to these states. Only a 

small portion of each state actually produces citrus, however. 

Like G. citricarpa, this pathogen needs citrus plants, and only small portions of the citrusproducing states have climates suitable for disease development. Therefore, we rated this risk 

element Medium.

Sub-Element 6: Pest Find Suitable Host and Establish or Incite Disease. The sixth subelement examines the risk that imported infected fruit will encounter a suitable host within the 

suitable habitat, and a viable reproductive unit of the insect pest or the plant pest associated with 

the fruit is able to complete its life cycle. This assessment must take into account not only the 

availability, in time and space, of host plants and of the particular plant parts fed upon or used for 

reproduction, but also the pests’ abilities to find, reach, and colonize hosts successfully.

The following events must occur for the disease to develop:

 A susceptible host must be available

 The host must be exposed when infection can occur (varies with cultivar)

 Free water must be available on the surface of the citrus plants from rain

 Sufficient force (i.e., wind) must be present to drive the bacteria into natural openings, or 

wounds must be present

 The causal organism must be in sufficient amount and at stage that can cause disease 

onset

 Enough time must elapse for key interactions to occur

Viable bacteria from infected fruit are unlikely to encounter suitable hosts under the conditions 

required for disease development for several reasons. First, citrus canker has only fifteen known 

hosts, in Citrus spp. (see above). Second, hosts must be susceptible, which lasts 90-120 days 

after petal fall. Most leaf infections occur during enlargement (Civerolo, 1984), over a short 

interval, often within the first six weeks (Gottwald and Graham, 2000). Mature, unwounded fruit 

and leaves are not susceptible to infection (Civerolo, 1984; Gottwald and Graham, 2000), 

because they are protected by the build up of a waxy cuticle (Albrigo, 1976; Gottwald and 

Graham, 2000; Graham et al., 1992b; National Plant Board, 2002). Third, infiltration of bacteria 

into stomata on unwounded fruit or leaves is aided by wind-driven rain, with wind speeds 

exceeding 8 m/s (Gottwald et al., 2002a; Graham and Leite Jr., 2004). Such weather conditions 

will be relatively rare. Finally, diseased fruit have not been shown to affect epidemiology of 

citrus canker disease (Smith et al., 1997; Gottwald et al., 2009), whether with lesions or 

asymptomatic (Anonymous, 2005; Canteros, 2004; Jetter et al., 2000; USDA, 2007; Verdier et 

al., 2005).

Gottwald (2009) demonstrated that actively growing citrus plants exposed to infected, 

packinghouse treated fruit, did not become infected. Discarded canker-infected fruit in cull piles 

were also not effective sources of inoculum for dispersal to nearby plants under natural 

conditions. Overall, citrus fruit with canker lesions are an unlikely pathway for establishment in 

new areas (Gottwald et al., 2009). We rated this sub-element Low.
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Table 6. Risk Rating for Likelihood of Introduction.

Pest Quantity 

imported 

annually

Survive post 

harvest 

treatment

Survive 

shipments

Not detected 

at port-ofentry

Move to 

suitable 

habitat

Find 

suitable 

host 

Cumulative 

risk ratinga

Xanthomonas citri 

subsp. citri

Med (2) Low (1) Low (1) Low (1) Med (2) Low (1) Low (8) 

a

Low = 6 to 9; Medium = 10 to 14; High = 15 to 18

2.7. Pest Risk Potential/Conclusion 

We found three quarantine pest plant pathogens likely to follow the pathway, and summed the 

values for each for the Consequences of Introduction and the Likelihood of Introduction to find 

the baseline Pest Risk Potential (Table 7). 

Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri had Medium pest risk potential. For medium risk pests, specific 

phytosanitary measures may be necessary.

Gottwald (2009) demonstrated that actively growing citrus plants exposed to Xcc infected, 

packinghouse treated fruit, did not become infected. Moreover, discarded canker-infected fruit in 

cull piles were also not effective sources of inoculum for dispersal to nearby plants under natural

conditions. Thus citrus fruit with canker lesions are an unlikely pathway for establishment in 

new areas.

Identification and selection of appropriate sanitary and phytosanitary measures to mitigate risk 

for pests with particular Pest Risk Potential ratings is undertaken as part of the risk management 

phase is not discussed in this document. The appropriate risk management strategy for a 

particular pest depends on the risk posed by that pest.

Table 7. Pest Risk Potential for quarantine pests associated with Unshu oranges from Japan

Pest Consequences of 

Introduction

Likelihood of 

Introduction

Pest Risk Potentiala

Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri Medium (11) Low (8) Medium (19)

a

Low = 11 to 18; Medium = 19 to 26; High = 27 to 33

3. Risk Management Options 

3.1. Measures for Pest Risk Reduction

The appropriate level of protection for an importing country can be achieved by the application 

of a single phytosanitary measure, such as inspection or a quarantine treatment, or a combination 

of measures. The combination of specific phytosanitary measures that provide overlapping or 

redundant safeguards is distinctly different from the use of a single risk mitigation technique. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 55

Such combinations vary in complexity; however, all require the integration of two or more 

measures that act independently of each other, with the cumulative effect of achieving the 

desired level of phytosanitary protection (i.e., a systems approach; IPPC, 2009: ISPM #14). 

Specific mitigations may be selected from a range of pre-harvest and post-harvest options, and 

may include other safeguarding measures. Measures may be added or the strength of measures 

increased to compensate for uncertainty. At a minimum, for a measure to be considered for use 

in a systems approach, it must be 1) clearly defined, 2) efficacious, 3) officially required 

(mandated), and 4) subject to monitoring and control by the responsible national plant protection 

organization (IPPC, 2009). Systems approaches to risk mitigation have been specified in recent 

work plans for the importation of commodities, such as citrus from Chile (Fernandez, 2004) and 

avocado from Mexico (USDA, 2005).

A systems approach to mitigating risks involved with Unshu oranges (C. reticulata Blanco) from 

Japan might combine a variety of measures. Several of these management measures are being 

implemented to mitigate several pest of quarantine significance and include: 1) certification of 

pest-free areas, pest-free places of production, or areas of low pest prevalence for certain 

quarantine pests, such as fruit flies; 2) programs (e.g., mechanical, chemical, cultural) to control 

pests within orchards; 3) preclearance oversight by USDA-APHIS officials; 4) packinghouse 

procedures (e.g., washing with detergent, brushing, inspection of fruit) to eliminate external 

pests; 5) quarantine treatments to disinfest fruit of internal and external pests; 6) consignments 

inspected and certified by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan and 

APHIS-PPQ to be free of quarantine pests; 7) fruit traceable to state of origin, packing facility, 

grower, and orchard; 8) consignments subject to sampling and inspection after arrival in the 

United States; and 9) limits on distribution and transit within the United States.

We identified a total 26 arthropod pests of quarantine significance that could potentially follow 

the Unshu orange fruit pathway. They are one mite, eight mealybugs, three soft scales, thirteen 

armored scale, and one tephritid fruit fly. Because all organisms that carry significant risks of 

importation are targeted for inspection or treatment or both, the mitigated risk for these 

organisms is considered low. and one quarantine pathogen that could be introduced with fresh 

commercially produced Unshu oranges are Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (the causal agent of 

citrus canker disease). Since quarantine plant pests are likely to be present, a risk management 

strategy is required to mitigate the phytosanitary risks posed by these pests. We outline options 

available to mitigate risk of introduction of these quarantine pests. 

3.2. Phytosanitary Options

In this section we describe risk mitigation options with discussion of efficacy, if known, and 

application.

3.2.1. Pest-free areas

As a sole mitigative measure, the establishment of pest-free areas or pest-free places of 

production may be completely effective in satisfying an importing country’s appropriate level of 

phytosanitary protection (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #s 4, 10, 29). This option has proven to be 

successful in practice, eliminating the need for post-harvest commodity treatments to achieve 

probit-9-level security (e.g., TDOA, 2003). Establishment and maintenance of pest-free areas or 
Pest Risk Assessment for Unshu Orange from Japan

Ver. 5 April 23, 2013 56

production sites should comply with international standards (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #s 4, 10, 29; 

NAPPO, 2004). 

There are various methods available for survey of Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri, and and “Ca.

L. asiaticus,” to establish pest free areas. Any protocol for establishing and maintaining a pestfree area should include a pest-reporting procedure and emergency action plan to address target 

pest detections in the pest-free or low-prevalence zones (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #s 4, 10; NAPPO, 

2004). Under this option, groves producing fruit for export to the United States would be 

restricted to areas where pest-free status could be established.

3.2.2. Areas of low pest prevalence

According to the IPPC, an area of low pest prevalence may comprise all of a country, part of a 

country, or all or parts of several countries, in which a particular pest species occurs at low 

population densities and which is or are subject to effective surveillance and control or 

eradication measures (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #5). Procedures for the establishment and maintenance 

of areas of low pest prevalence should comply with international standards (e.g., NAPPO, 2004; 

IPPC, 2009: ISPM #29). For example, elements of an operational plan for establishment and 

maintenance of such areas might include a geographic description to delimit the area; 

specification of an upper limit to pest densities; means to document and verify all necessary

procedures and maintain records; specification of phytosanitary procedures (e.g., survey, pest 

control); and movement controls to prevent pest entry or re-entry into the area. The international 

standards recommend that the exporting country consult with the importing country in the early

stages of implementation to ensure that importing country requirements are met. In particular, 

target or threshold population densities defining an area of low pest prevalence should be 

established in consultation with the importing country.

Any protocol for establishing and maintaining an area of low pest prevalence also should include 

a pest-reporting procedure and emergency action plan to address target pest detections in the 

pest-free or low-prevalence zones (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #s 4, 10, 22, 29; NAPPO, 2004). Under 

this option, groves producing fruit for export to the United States would be restricted to areas 

where low-prevalence could be established.

3.2.3. Control program

Cultural, chemical, or mechanical means (e.g., grove sanitation, pruning of dead and diseased 

branches, pre-harvest application of pesticides, fruit bagging) (Appendix C) may be used to 

eliminate pests from groves or prevent fruit infection. Sanitation and pesticide applications, as 

essential components of best management practices, are mainstays of commercial fruit 

production (e.g., Kirk et al., 2001). 

Well-timed field treatments significantly reduce the incidence of citrus canker, the level of 

inoculum, and the number of symptomatic fruit in the field. Combinations of prophylactic sprays 

and cultural control practices, such as windbreaks and pruning diseased shoots, further reduce 

disease incidence (Das, 2003; Leite Jr., 2000; Leite Jr. and Moham, 1990). 
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3.2.4. Phytosanitary certification inspections and monitoring

If pest-free areas are established, fruit of Citrus reticulata should be sampled and inspected 

periodically during the growing season and post-harvest for quality control and for phytosanitary

precautionary measures. Production areas also should be subject to scheduled audits and 

periodic, unannounced inspections by certified inspectors from PPQ and the Japanese NPPO. 

These inspections should insure that production areas meet requirements for the issuance of a 

phytosanitary certificates required for each consignment. This measure is useful for detecting 

pests present during the growing season that may be more difficult to detect post-harvest. 

Detection methods need to be combined with other measures to ensure the absence of pests of 

concern. Fruit should be sampled and inspected periodically during the growing season and after 

harvest. These measures are useful for detecting pests present in the field that may be more 

difficult to detect post-harvest, but it must be combined with other measures to ensure the 

absence of pests of concern. Statistical procedures are available to verify, to a specified 

confidence level, the pest-free status of an area, given negative survey or trapping results (e.g., 

Venette et al., 2002; Barclay and Hargrove, 2005). 

The National Pest Outbreak Forecasting Program operates under Japan’s Plant Protection Law 

and Regulations Relevant to Plant Quarantine of 1950 (version 1 April 1997). These regulations 

refer to Japan’s legislation pertaining to inspection, movement of plants and plant material, 

emergency control of pests and pest forecasting for high risk designated pests (Chapters 3, 4, and 

5 of Japan’s Plant Protection Law), which must be adhered to by all Prefectures to keep Japan 

free of, or to control, these pests (Appendix D). The pre-harvest inspection for the United States 

consists of a joint field inspection of MAFF and APHIS personnel. According to information 

provided by Japan, there has been no detection of citrus canker in the export areas since trade in 

Unshu mandarins commenced to the United States in 1968 (Appendix D).

3.2.5. Post-harvest safeguards and packinghouse procedures

Containers of harvested fruit should be covered with tarpaulins or other covers and moved to the 

packinghouse in a fruit fly-proof conveyance in a timely manner (e.g., within three hours of 

harvest) (USDA, 2005). Practices in the grove such as selective harvesting, in which harvesters 

select only fruit visually free of disease symptoms and blemishes, can reduce levels of infested or 

infected harvested fruit (USDA, 2007). In the packinghouse, fruit should undergo sanitizing, 

washing, with detergent, mechanical brushing, rinsing, waxing, and drying, as well as visual 

inspection or other treatment to remove external pests and to cull damaged or symptomatic fruit. 

Consignments should be transported in sealed, refrigerated vehicles.

Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri: Packinghouse processes that cull out fruit with citrus canker 

lesions can reduce numbers of infected fruit packaged. Packinghouse requirements in Uruguay

for cleaning fruit, which include mechanical brushing, detergent, sanitizing agents or 

disinfectants, followed by drying, cumulatively reduce levels of citrus canker present on the 

exterior of the fruit (Schubert et al., 1999; Brown and Schubert, 1987 orthophenylphenate) or 

both are currently approved by the USDA for citrus canker decontamination of fresh citrus fruit

moved interstate from areas quarantined for citrus canker within the United States and various 

studies demonstrated the effectiveness of these disinfectants in reducing numbers of citrus canker 

cells or similar bacteria to low or undetectable levels (Brown and Schubert, 1987; Canteros et al., 

2000; Obata et al., 1969; Parra, 2007; Rybak and Canteros, 2001 ).
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A new surface disinfectant treatment using peroxyacetic acid (PAA) was recently added to U.S. 

regulations (Brown and Schubert, 1987 ). Based on PAA’s characteristics as a general 

disinfectant and the results of testing on X. axonopodis pv. citrumelo, APHIS determined that 

PAA will be effective on citrus canker and added PAA as an option for surface disinfection 

treatment of fruit (Brown and Schubert, 1987).

The citrus canker regulation has been amended effective October 22, 2009. The citrus canker 

regulations modify the conditions under which fruit may be moved interstate from a quarantined 

area. We continue to require fruit moved interstate from a quarantined area to be treated with an 

approved disinfectant and to be packed in a commercial packinghouse that operates under a 

compliance agreement. These changes relived some restrictions on the interstate movement of 

fresh citrus fruit from quarantined areas while maintaining conditions that will prevent the 

artificial spread of citrus canker (7CFR Part 301) (7 CFR § 301.75, 2011).

3.2.6. Quarantine treatments

There are several quarantine treatment schedules for citrus fruit specified in the APHIS, PPQ 

Treatment Manual (PPQ, 2008e). Several treatment protocols, employing heat (e.g., forced air, 

vapor, or hot water: T103-a-1, T103-b-1, T106a, T102-a) cold (e.g., T107-a-1, T107-b-1, T107-

c, T107-k), irradiation (T101-i-1-1) and methyl bromide fumigation (e.g., T101-w-1-2, T101-n2-1, T101-j-2-1, T101-j-2), have been tested and found to be effective in disinfesting Citrus fruit 

of pests. 

For Citrus canker fruits must be treated with either (a) CC1 for citrus canker. The fruit must be 

thoroughly wetted for at least 2 minutes with a solution containing 200 parts per million sodium 

hypochlorite. (b) CC2 for citrus canker. The fruit must be thoroughly wetted with a solution 

containing sodium o-phenyl phenate (SOPP) at a concentration of 1.86 to 2.0 percent of the total 

solution, for 45 seconds if the solution has sufficient soap or detergent to cause a visible foaming 

action or for 1 minute if the solution does not contain sufficient soap to cause a visible foaming 

action (7 CFR § 305, 2010).

Methyl bromide (CH3Br) fumigation is effective in killing eggs and larvae of internal Diptera 

and Lepidoptera, as well as some scale insects and mites, infesting fresh fruit (Bond, 1984), and 

thus is an option for disinfesting guava of these pests. In one study, for example, methyl bromide 

produced 100 percent mortality in A. suspensa at all dosages tested (16, 32, and 48 g/m3at 24° 

and 30°C); by the ninth day of storage under ideal conditions (10°C at 85-90 percent relative 

humidity), fumigated guava fruit had suffered no loss of market quality (Witherell, 1983). 

Further research is needed to determine the efficacy of fumigation for the control of the 

Anastrepha spp. and other quarantine-significant citrus fruit pests in Uruguay.

The probit-9-level security afforded by a quarantine treatment may be overwhelmed by a large 

volume of infested fruit (Powell, 2003). For this reason, adoption of a particular quarantine 

treatment should be in conjunction with efforts to maintain pest populations in production zones 

below specified densities [e.g., 0.01 fruit fly trap-1day-1; (DeHaven, 2006, as would satisfy

requirements for the establishment of areas of low pest prevalence (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #22)].
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3.2.7. Point-of-entry sampling and inspection

Upon arrival in the United States, consignments should be inspected, with particular attention 

given to paperwork and seals on vehicles, to ascertain that the chain of custody has remained 

intact. A random sample of fruit from each consignment should be inspected to detect a pest 

infestation rate of 10 percent or greater (Page 4-3; PPQ, 2008c).

3.2.8. Limits on distribution and transit within the United States

Under § 412(a) of the Plant Protection Act (7 U.S.C. § 7701-7786, 2000) the Secretary of 

Agriculture may prohibit or restrict the movement in interstate commerce of any plant or plant 

product if the Secretary determines that the prohibition or restriction is necessary to prevent the 

dissemination of a plant pest within the United States. The actions the Secretary may take under 

this paragraph include limiting the importation or distribution of a plant or plant product to 

certain States. For example, the regulations governing the interstate movement of citrus fruit 

from an area quarantined for citrus canker in § 301.75-6 prohibit the distribution of citrus fruit to 

commercial citrus-producing States other than Florida, where citrus canker is present. Along 

with requirements for treatment and inspection for citrus canker, the provisions limiting the 

distribution of citrus fruit help to mitigate the risk of introduction of citrus canker to unaffected 

areas. 

Limiting distribution of citrus fruit imported or moved from areas where citrus diseases are 

present prevents the introduction of the diseases into those States that have the highest likelihood 

for introduction of the diseases, due to the density of citrus plantings in those States. Outside of 

commercial citrus-producing States, conditions under which citrus diseases could be introduced 

or established are far less likely to prevail. 

Therefore, in combination with other measures designed to prevent the introduction of citrus 

canker the systems approach would prohibit the importation or distribution of Unshu oranges 

from Japan to commercial citrus-producing States within the continental United States, i.e., 

Arizona, California, Florida, Louisiana, and Texas.

3.3. Oversight

3.3.1. Pre-shipment programs

Inspection, treatment, or other mitigation measures performed in the orchard and packinghouse 

should be under the direct supervision of qualified APHIS and MAFF personnel, and in 

accordance with specified phytosanitary procedures. Such programs require monitoring all 

aspects of the application of any required phytosanitary measures and also aim to identify

shortcomings or opportunities for program modifications (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #14). Provision 

should be made for the formal recognition of approved areas, sites, or producers, as well as the 

specification of conditions for revoking approvals or refusing certification for export to the 

United States.

3.3.2 Shipments traceable to place of origin in Japan

A requirement that Citrus reticulata be packed in containers with identification labels indicating 

the specific place of origin is necessary to ensure traceability to each production site.
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3.4. Conclusions

The number and diversity of pests potentially infesting Citrus imports make it unlikely that a 

single mitigation measure will be adequate to reduce risk of their introduction into the United 

States. For this reason, a combination of measures in a systems approach, including orchard 

monitoring and management programs to achieve and maintain area pest freedom or low pest 

prevalence, packinghouse inspection and treatments, quarantine treatments, and maintenance of 

consignment security and traceability in transit, is most feasible. Options for risk mitigation are 

summarized below (Table 8).

This document does not purport to establish specific work plans or to evaluate the quality of a 

specific program or systems approach. It identifies risks and provides information regarding 

known mitigation measures. The specification and implementation of measures, as would be 

present in an operational work plan, is beyond the scope of this document.

Table 8. Summary of risk mitigation options for Citrus reticulata from Japan.

Measure(s) Pests Efficacy

Pest-free areas or places of 

production

Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri

(citrus canker)

Satisfies requirements for 

appropriate level of 

protection.

Control program All Research required to 

demonstrate efficacy

Packinghouse procedures Fruit cleaning: Xanthomonas citri

subsp. citri (citrus canker), when 

washing either detergent, 

sanitizing, drying etc. are done in a 

prescribed required program that 

shows effective removal of pests

Culling/inspection: obvious 

symptomatic fruit for citrus canker

Research required 

comparing efficacy of 

different treatment 

protocols.

Obvious symptomatic or 

damaged fruit can be 

removed, but internal pests 

or latent pathogens would be 

difficult to detect and 

remove.

Methyl bromide fumigation 

combined with low pest 

prevalence

Recommended external feeders APHIS-recognized 

quarantine treatment

Limited distribution Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri

(citrus canker)”

Prevents the introduction of 

the diseases into States that 

have the highest likelihood 

for establishment and 

introduction of the diseases.
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4. APHIS Contributors and Reviewers

Walter Gutiérrez a

James Smith a

Larry Brown a

Kenneth Lakin a

a USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST-PERAL, Raleigh, NC

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6. Appendices

Appendix A. Production areas of Unshu oranges in Japan

Source: Draft import risk analysis report for fresh Unshu mandarin fruit from Japan (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2008).
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Appendix B. Pests Intercepted on Citrus spp. and C. reticulata from Japan 

Source: PestID, 2009 (Pests Intercepted from 1985 to 2007). Non-reportable pests are not listed.

Scientific Name (taxonomic affiliation) Interceptions (no.)

Abgrallaspis sp. (Diuaspididae) 1

Acari species of 3

Aleurotrachelus sp. (Aleyrodidae) 1

Aleurotuberculatus aucubae (Aleyrodidae) 4

Aleurodidae species of 2

Aphididae, Species of 1

Cladosporium sp. (Hypomycetes) 2

Coccidae species of 6

Colletotrichium acutatum (Coelomycertes) 1

Colletotrichium gloeosporioides (Penz) Penz & Sacc. (Coelomycetes) 3

Diaspididae, Species of 41

Diaspidotus species of (Diaspididae) 1

Diptera, Species of 2

Elsinoe australis Bitanc. & Jenkins (Elsinoaceae) 1

Elsinoe sp. (Elsinoaceae) 2

Graphiola sp.(Graphiolaceae) 2

Guignardia citricarpa Kiely (Botryosphaeriaceae) 130

Hemiberlesia sp. (Diaspididae) 2

Homoptera, Species of 1

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y Trelles) (Pesudococcidae) 1

Insecta, Species of 1

Lepidosptera, species of 1

Macrophoma sp. (Coelomycete) 12

Megalurothrips sp. (Thripidae) 1

Olethreutinae, Species of (Tortricidae) 1

Parlatoria sp. (Diaspididae) 4

Parlatoria ziziphi (Lucas) (Diaspididae) 275

Pentarthrum huttoni Wollaston (Cuculionoidae) 2

Pestalotiopsis sp. (Coelomycetes) 2

Phyllosticta citricarpa (McAlpine) Aa (Coelomycetes) 6

Pinnaspis sp. (Diaspididae) 1

Planococcus kraunhiae (Kawana) (Pseudococcidae) 12

Planaococcus minor (Maskell) (pseudococcidae) 1

Planococcus sp. (Pseudoccoidae) 5

Pseudaoniodia trilobitiformis (Green) (Diaspididae) 2

Pseudaulacaspis sp. (Diaspididae) 1

Pseudococcidae, Species of 58

Pseudococcus citriculus Green (Pseudococcidae) 16

Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozzetti) (Pseudococcidae) 1

Pseudococcus sp. (Pseudococcidae) 18
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Scientific Name (taxonomic affiliation) Interceptions (no.)

Psylliodes sp (Chrysomelidae) 1

Pyralidae, Species of 3

Succinea CF Horticola Reinhardt (Succiniaceae) 1

Tetranychidae, Species of 3

Thips flavus Schrank (Thripidae)) 1

Tysanoptera , Species of 1

Tortricidae, Species of 2

Trioza anceps Tuthill (Psyllidae) 1

Ulixes sp. (Issidae) 6

Unaspis sp. (Diaspididae) 1

Unaspis yanonensis (Kuwana) (Diaspididae) 5024

Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Hasse) Dye (Xanthomonadaceae) 212

Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri (Hasse) Dye (Xanthomonadaceae) 72

Xanthomonas sp. (Xanthomonadaceae) 1
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Appendix C. Unshu production areas and spray calendar (2007) for Japan

Cultivars

Unshu oranges is a selection of Satsuma mandarin, which originates in Japan. The large

number of satsuma cultivars is broadly classified into four groups, based on their time of fruit 

maturity: very early (goko wase), early (wase), mid-season, and late (Unshu) (Harty and 

Anderson, 1997).

The citrus production in the export areas is limited to Unshu mandarins, consisting of the 

Aoshima and Miyagawa Wase varieties grafted on trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata) 

rootstock. Both of these seedless varieties are grown in about equal proportion in the export 

areas. Trees are relatively small (about 2 meters in height) and thornless. Leaf flush of mature 

trees occurs once per year, during early spring, prior to flowering. Fruit ripen during December 

(Biosecurity Australia, 2008)

Production areas: Unshu mandarin is a selection of satsuma mandarin, which originates in 

Japan. The large number of satsuma cultivars is broadly classified into four groups, based on 

their time of fruit maturity: very early (goko wase), early (wase), and mid-season and late 

(Unshu) (Harty and Anderson, 1997).

Unshu mandarin spray calendar (2007) for Japan

Spray period Applicable pest(s) Active ingredient

Late December to

mid-January or March

Scale insects, citrus red mite

Citrus canker, Melanose

Machine oil

Copper sulphate and copper 

carbonate

Mid to end April Citrus red mite

Citrus scab

Machine oil

Imibenconazole

Mid to end May (early

petal fall period)

Botrytis rot, Grey mould

Citrus canker

Citrus scab

Cyprodinil, Fludioxonil

Copper sulphate and copper 

carbonate

Kresoxim-methyl

Early to mid June Scirtothrips dorsalis

Melanose, Black spot

Citrus red mite, Arrowhead 

scale

Citrus scab

Imidacloprid

Mancozeb

Machine oil

Diethofencarb, Thiophanatemethyl

Early July Scirtothrips dorsalis

Melanose, Black spot

Chloropenable

Mancozeb

Mid-July Melanose, Black spot

White-spotted longicorn beetle

Mancozeb

Acetamprid

Late July Scirtothrips dorsalis

Melanose, Black spot

Citrus leafminer

Citrus red mite

Thiamethoxam

Mancozeb

Acephate

Bifenazate
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Spray period Applicable pest(s) Active ingredient

Scale insects, including 

Ceroplastes spp.

Methidathion

Mid to late August Scirtothrips dorsalis

Melanose, Black spot

Scale insects

Acetamprid

Mancozeb

Methidathion

Mid-September Scirtothrips dorsalis

Shield bugs

Leafroller moths

Melanose, Black spot

Brown rot

Acephate, Bifenthrin, 

Spirodiclofen, Etoxazole

Bifenthrin, Fenpropathrin

Dichlorvos

Mancozeb

Kresoxim-methyl

After mid-October Citrus red mite

Leafhoppers

Acequinocyl, Milbemectin

Fenpropathrin

Before harvesting Post-harvest disease (e.g., Blue 

mould, Green mould, White 

mould)

Iminoctadine acetate, Benomyl, 

Thiophanatemethyl

Source: Biosecurity Australia (2008) Draft import risk analysis report for fresh Unshu mandarin 

fruit from Japan. Biosecurity Australia, Canberra. www.biosecurityaustralia.gov 
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Appendix D. Monitoring for citrus canker in the Shizuoka Prefecture

Source: Draft import risk analysis report for fresh Unshu mandarin fruit from Japan (Biosecurity

Australia, 2008). 

The Shizuoka Prefecture is part of the National Pest Outbreak Forecasting Program that 

undertakes pest and disease forecasting for specified agricultural crops, including Unshu 

mandarins and other mid-season citrus. The National Pest Outbreak Forecasting Program 

operates under Japan’s Plant Protection Law and Regulations Relevant to Plant Quarantine of 

1950 (version 1 April 1997). These regulations refer to Japan’s legislation pertaining to 

inspection, movement of plants and plant material, emergency control of pests and pest 

forecasting for high risk designated pests (Chapters 3, 4, and 5 of Japan’s Plant Protection Law), 

which must be adhered to by all Prefectures to keep Japan free of, or to control, these pests.

Chapter 6 of Japan’s Plant Protection Law provides a list of injurious animals and plants for 

which Prefectural governments have special powers to ensure freedom from (or control of) those 

pests that are of concern to a particular Prefecture. This list includes citrus canker. The 

Prefectural Pest Forecasting Program is based on 30 sentinel inspection points where specified 

pest and disease levels are regularly monitored. The sentinel inspection points consist of ten sites 

each in the eastern (Numatzu City), central (Shizuoka City) and western (Hamamatzu City) 

districts within the Prefecture. Japan advised that the two closest inspection points in relation to 

the designated export areas are Shizuoka City and Umatzu City, which of both of which are 25–

50 km from the export areas. The Pest Forecasting Program for citrus canker at the Shizuoka 

Prefectural level consists of monthly monitoring during the growing season from March to 

October. Each month a combined, random sample of 100 leaves (old leaves and new leaves) and 

fruit is collected from one citrus tree at each of the 30 sentinel stations. This sampling is 

conducted for two categories of citrus: Unshu mandarins and other mid-season citrus. The 

following equation is used for obtaining monthly statistics that report on the absence/presence of 

citrus canker from Unshu mandarin and other mid-season citrus at the Prefecture level:

100 x 7A + 5B + 3C + D10

7 x leaf No

A = 21 and more lesions/leaf (or fruit)

B = 11–20 lesions per/leaf (or fruit)

C = 4–10 lesions/leaf (or fruit)

D = 1–3 lesions/leaf (or fruit)

at the 30 monitoring points.

Forecasting information is issued once per month and covers the status of the pest, the predicted 

level of an emerging pest, and evidence and proportion of fields (orchards) requiring controls. 

Forecasting information will include information on how to control the pest (e.g., pesticide 

dosage and timing). This information is disseminated speedily and appropriately to institutions, 

organizations, and stakeholders that engage in the planning,
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provision of guidance and publicizing of controls, to the national government offices in the 

affected prefecture and surrounding prefectures.

In addition, MAFF officers monitor Unshu mandarin orchards exporting fruit from four 

designated export areas near Fujieda City to the United States and New Zealand twice through 

the production cycle. Monitoring is conducted immediately after petal fall and prior to harvest. 

MAFF inspectors inspect half of all orchards at petal fall and the other half of the orchards at the 

pre-harvest inspection, which includes inspection of export orchards and buffer orchards. MAFF 

assistant inspectors inspect the other half of orchards at petal fall and at pre-harvest. Within each 

orchard, 30 percent of all Unshu trees are inspected at random at both the petal fall and the preharvest inspection.

The pre-harvest inspection for the United States consists of a joint field inspection of MAFF and 

the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) personnel. According to information 

provided by Japan, there has been no detection of citrus canker in the export areas since trade in 

Unshu mandarins commenced to the United States in 1968. New Zealand does not require a joint 

field inspection.