# C_2023349EN.01001801.xml

| 29.9.2023 | EN | Official Journal of the European Union | C 349/18 |
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29.9.2023

EN

Official Journal of the European Union

C 349/18

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Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on ‘Water efficient consumption and consumer awareness about their water footprint’

(own-initiative opinion)

(2023/C 349/04)

| Rapporteur: | Milena ANGELOVA |
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Rapporteur:

Milena ANGELOVA

Milena ANGELOVA

| Plenary Assembly decision | 25.1.2023 |
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| Legal basis | Rule 52(2) of the Rules of Procedure |
| | Own-initiative opinion |
| Section responsible | Single Market, Production and Consumption |
| Adopted in section | 29.6.2023 |
| Adopted at plenary | 12.7.2023 |
| Plenary session No | 580 |
| Outcome of vote
  (for/against/abstentions) | 190/2/6 |

Plenary Assembly decision

25.1.2023

Legal basis

Rule 52(2) of the Rules of Procedure

Own-initiative opinion

Section responsible

Single Market, Production and Consumption

Adopted in section

29.6.2023

Adopted at plenary

12.7.2023

Plenary session No

580

Outcome of vote

(for/against/abstentions)

190/2/6

1.   Conclusions and recommendations

Conclusions and recommendations

| 1.1. | Water is essential for life, the environment and the economy, and, as such, it is a common good that must not only be accessible and affordable for all, but, most importantly, respected and protected. Due to human impact and climate change, water scarcity is increasing — globally, as well as in Europe, where water stress affects around 20 % of the territory and 30 % of the population (1). The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) welcomes the comprehensive EU legislation that has been introduced in this area (2) and calls for its swift and efficient implementation, so that efficient water consumption is ensured, and each EU citizen has access to water. |
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1.1.

Water is essential for life, the environment and the economy, and, as such, it is a common good that must not only be accessible and affordable for all, but, most importantly, respected and protected. Due to human impact and climate change, water scarcity is increasing — globally, as well as in Europe, where water stress affects around 20 % of the territory and 30 % of the population (1

2

| 1.2. | The EESC calls for specific measures to be designed and promptly implemented to increase awareness of water-efficient consumption and to promote technological innovations for increasing water efficiency in production systems, as well as for waste minimisation and recycling strategies. In line with applying the ‘polluter pays’ principle, it urges the EU and the Member States to take decisive action to ensure compliance by all stakeholders (3). |
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1.2.

The EESC calls for specific measures to be designed and promptly implemented to increase awareness of water-efficient consumption and to promote technological innovations for increasing water efficiency in production systems, as well as for waste minimisation and recycling strategies. In line with applying the ‘polluter pays’ principle, it urges the EU and the Member States to take decisive action to ensure compliance by all stakeholders (3

| 1.3. | The EESC stresses the vital importance of informing, raising the awareness of, encouraging and guiding consumers towards water-efficient consumption. Policymakers, social partners, civil society organisations and all stakeholders have a shared responsibility to communicate clearly about the value of water and its footprint, promote the use of water-efficient appliances and provide incentives for consumers to be committed to water saving patterns and to strive for constant excellence. |
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1.3.

The EESC stresses the vital importance of informing, raising the awareness of, encouraging and guiding consumers towards water-efficient consumption. Policymakers, social partners, civil society organisations and all stakeholders have a shared responsibility to communicate clearly about the value of water and its footprint, promote the use of water-efficient appliances and provide incentives for consumers to be committed to water saving patterns and to strive for constant excellence.

| 1.4. | The EESC calls on the EU, Member States, competent authorities, water operators, and all parties involved in the process to endeavour, within their competences, to constantly improve water availability, accessibility and efficiency. Better protecting drinking water resources, moving towards circular water, ensuring public water supply at a fair price for services, and preventing water poverty are essential elements of this process. |
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1.4.

The EESC calls on the EU, Member States, competent authorities, water operators, and all parties involved in the process to endeavour, within their competences, to constantly improve water availability, accessibility and efficiency. Better protecting drinking water resources, moving towards circular water, ensuring public water supply at a fair price for services, and preventing water poverty are essential elements of this process.

| 1.5. | The EESC suggests that the following measures be swiftly implemented in order to enhance water-efficient consumption and consumer awareness of their water footprint and contribute to a Water-Smart Society (4): |
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1.5.

The EESC suggests that the following measures be swiftly implemented in order to enhance water-efficient consumption and consumer awareness of their water footprint and contribute to a Water-Smart Society (4

1.5.1.   Measures focused on encouraging and guiding consumers towards water-efficient consumption

Measures focused on encouraging and guiding consumers towards water-efficient consumption

| 1.5.1.1. | Clear communication regarding the value of water (implemented by competent authorities, water operators). Communication campaigns to change long-term behaviour should be conducted to educate consumers on the value of water and water services and also to specifically address short-term emergency measures in response to crisis situations caused by climate change (drought, flood). One important target group is children. Substituting the use of drinking water with non-conventional water sources should become the norm (e.g., whenever possible, watering gardens, washing cars, etc. with collected rainwater). |
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1.5.1.1.

Clear communication regarding the value of water (implemented by competent authorities, water operators

| 1.5.1.2. | Promoting water-efficient appliances/devices (implemented by the EU and the Member States). Private households use numerous water-consuming appliances/devices today. Following the advancement of technology, many of them have considerably reduced their water use over the past years supporting an overall declining trend in per-capita water use. Further incentives are needed to motivate producers to keep innovating to improve water efficiency and the customers to buy and use them. All such appliances/devices should include a water consumption label. |
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1.5.1.2.

Promoting water-efficient appliances/devices (implemented by the EU and the Member States

| 1.5.1.3. | Informing consumers about their water footprint (implemented by the EU and the Member States). The actual water consumption of private households goes far beyond drinking water use. Every product and service consumed contains a certain amount of water (5) and often a substantial part of a consumer’s water footprint lies outside their home region/country or even the EU. Consumer choices therefore have an impact on regional, national and global water use. The water footprint is an effective parameter from an educational point of view — also recently included in the programmes developed by many utilities for schools. There are many footprint calculators available online, where a consumer can feed in their data and get their footprint figure. Consumers should be made aware of them through information campaigns. |
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1.5.1.3.

Informing consumers about their water footprint (implemented by the EU and the Member States).

5

1.5.2.   Measures focused on improving water availability, accessibility and efficiency

Measures focused on improving water availability, accessibility and efficiency

| 1.5.2.1. | Ensuring public water supply (implemented by the Member States, water operators). As part of a holistic approach, measures should be taken to improve the efficiency and resilience of the drinking water supply and distribution system through better leakage control, where necessary, the development of alternative drinking water sources and other appropriate measures. This also entails, with a view to protecting public health and well-being, Member States considering measures to ensure that the public water supply has priority over other water uses in periods of acute water scarcity. |
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1.5.2.1.

Ensuring public water supply (implemented by the Member States, water operators).

| 1.5.2.2. | Ensure a fair price for water services based on full cost recovery while guaranteeing affordability for vulnerable groups (implemented by competent authorities). Directive 2000/60/EC requires the Member States to take account of the principle of recovery of the costs of water services, at least with regard to industry, households and agriculture. According to Commission and OECD data, full cost recovery of water services is only being achieved in nine Member States (6). In most cases, it is limited to private households. While the Member States should take measures to ensure the accessibility and affordability of water services for the most vulnerable groups (7), it is important that the water tariff reflect the real cost of water services. This, combined with the accurate metering of consumption, will ensure that consumers are better aware of the cost of water services. The Member States should discuss the possibility of charging based on the ‘value of water’, which would ensure that this scarce resource is preserved also for future generations. Water tariffs could contain price signals to increase water-use efficiency. For example, tariffs could increase when a certain amount of per capita consumption is exceeded in a household, or when water supply is threatened by temporary water scarcity. |
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1.5.2.2.

Ensure a fair price for water services based on full cost recovery while guaranteeing affordability for vulnerable groups (implemented by competent authorities)

6

7

| 1.5.2.3. | Efficient water consumption metering by increasing the accuracy of measurement (implemented by the Member States, municipalities, water providers):






  — | ensure efficient water consumption measuring with accurate water meters and a water meter renewal policy to make end users aware of their actual consumption; |
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1.5.2.3.

Efficient water consumption metering by increasing the accuracy of measurement (implemented by the Member States, municipalities, water providers)

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ensure efficient water consumption measuring with accurate water meters and a water meter renewal policy to make end users aware of their actual consumption;

| — | control consumption from private wells to limit water use directly from groundwater; |
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control consumption from private wells to limit water use directly from groundwater;

| — | use smart metering to provide alerts to end users regarding high or abnormal consumption, and low flow consumption, which could be internal leakage. |
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use smart metering to provide alerts to end users regarding high or abnormal consumption, and low flow consumption, which could be internal leakage.

| 1.5.2.4. | Better protection of drinking water resources (implemented by the EU and Member States). Drinking water resources must be protected from anthropological contamination. To achieve this, the EU Zero Pollution Action Plan must be rigorously implemented by applying the principles of precaution and control at source, consistent with the Polluter Pays Principle, to all substances of concern that may enter drinking water resources. Contaminants also come from industrial sources (PFAS, pharmaceuticals, disinfectants etc.) or agricultural sources (pesticides, nitrates). The EU is revising relevant legislative acts that can prevent pollution at the source including Directive 2010/75/EU (8), Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 (9), Directive 2009/128/EC (10), Regulation 726/2004 (11) and Directive 2001/83/EC (12). It must be ensured that these future rules effectively protect our water resources. |
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1.5.2.4.

Better protection of drinking water resources (implemented by the EU and Member States)

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9

10

11

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| 1.5.2.5. | Moving towards circular water (implemented by the EU, the Member States and water operators). Water efficiency can be increased by reusing water. On the one hand, private households should be encouraged to collect rainwater whenever possible, and use it for appropriate purposes, including garden watering and cleaning). On the other hand, effective control-at-source measures must be taken to ensure that the wastewater produced by households does not contain contaminants that could jeopardise the reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation and other purposes. |
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1.5.2.5.

Moving towards circular water (implemented by the EU, the Member States and water operators)

| 1.5.2.6. | Climate change adaptation (implemented by the Member States, municipalities, wastewater operators). Regions are affected differently by climate change. It is important to adjust measures to local conditions. Generally, urban planning will need to be re-thought by transforming towns into ‘sponge cities’ (13). This will improve the urban climate, allow rainwater to seep away and reduce the number of combined sewer overflow events. |
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1.5.2.6.

Climate change adaptation (implemented by the Member States, municipalities, wastewater operators)

13

| 1.5.2.7. | Ensure good governance (implemented by the Member States, regions, and municipalities). Clear and efficient governance structures are needed to bring about change. This should strengthen cooperation between all players and determine responsibilities. Actions should be based on accurate forecasts of regional climate change impacts and the development of water demand patterns (agriculture, industry, population development etc.) for the decades to come. |
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1.5.2.7.

Ensure good governance (implemented by the Member States, regions, and municipalities)

| 1.5.2.8. | Public authorities as frontrunners (implemented by the Member States, municipalities). Being responsible for designing and implementing both policy measures and practical arrangements, public authorities, including European institutions, should assume a frontrunner role in reducing their water footprint. |
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1.5.2.8.

Public authorities as frontrunners (implemented by the Member States, municipalities)

2.   Premise

Premise

| 2.1. | As part of the EESC’s 2023 flagship initiative to address water as an important priority at European and global level, this own-initiative opinion explores the measures needed to ensure more efficient water consumption in the EU by consumers, taking into account environmental issues, knowledge gaps and the state of play in related technologies. It puts forward ideas on how to optimise household water consumption and release, based on a comprehensive vision of the role of consumers and their needs in terms of quantity and quality of water and makes specific proposals to that end. |
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2.1.

As part of the EESC’s 2023 flagship initiative to address water as an important priority at European and global level, this own-initiative opinion explores the measures needed to ensure more efficient water consumption in the EU by consumers, taking into account environmental issues, knowledge gaps and the state of play in related technologies. It puts forward ideas on how to optimise household water consumption and release, based on a comprehensive vision of the role of consumers and their needs in terms of quantity and quality of water and makes specific proposals to that end.

| 2.2. | Water is essential for life, the environment and the economy, and, as such, it is a common good that must be respected and protected. However, Europe’s water resources are under threat due to climate change — as many water basins (and the Mediterranean in particular (14)) are seeing declining overall precipitation and longer drought periods, while in most regions there are more heavy rainstorm events with disastrous flooding. Furthermore, rising sea levels mean that salt water may penetrate freshwater aquifers. |
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2.2.

Water is essential for life, the environment and the economy, and, as such, it is a common good that must be respected and protected. However, Europe’s water resources are under threat due to climate change — as many water basins (and the Mediterranean in particular (14

| 2.3. | There is a growing imbalance between the availability of the local resource and the demand for water from end users, posing a significant threat of water shortages in the future. While water availability is determined by essential factors such as precipitation, geography, climate trends and contamination, water consumption and demand are determined mainly by human behaviour. Furthermore, human activities, including those of private households, affect the quality of available water resources. Man-induced pollution of the aquatic environment reduces the availability of usable water resources and increases the cost and environmental impacts of treating water to the quality levels required for certain activities (drinking water, industrial use, irrigation, etc.). Studies (15) identify lack of advanced water quality monitoring in EU water bodies as one of the main causes of ecological disasters due to water pollution. |
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2.3.

There is a growing imbalance between the availability of the local resource and the demand for water from end users, posing a significant threat of water shortages in the future. While water availability is determined by essential factors such as precipitation, geography, climate trends and contamination, water consumption and demand are determined mainly by human behaviour. Furthermore, human activities, including those of private households, affect the quality of available water resources. Man-induced pollution of the aquatic environment reduces the availability of usable water resources and increases the cost and environmental impacts of treating water to the quality levels required for certain activities (drinking water, industrial use, irrigation, etc.). Studies (15

| 2.4. | According to the European Environment Agency (EEA), on average, water stress affects around 20 % of the European territory every year and 30 % of the total population (16). The EEA states that ‘water stress occurs when there is not sufficient water available to meet the demands of the environment and our society and economy, in terms of quantity or quality. Water stress is a general term combining drought, quantitative scarcity, water quality and water accessibility’ (17). |
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2.4.

According to the European Environment Agency (EEA), on average, water stress affects around 20 % of the European territory every year and 30 % of the total population (16

17

| 2.5. | Water for drinking purposes represents about 10 % of total water use. Agriculture, forestry and fishing account for 58 %, and electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply for 18 % (18). |
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2.5.

Water for drinking purposes represents about 10 % of total water use. Agriculture, forestry and fishing account for 58 %, and electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply for 18 % (18

| 2.6. | In terms of water abstraction, water for drinking purposes represents about 20 % of the total amount. Abstraction for cooling in electricity generation (19) (32 %) and abstraction for agriculture (28 %) are the largest contributors to total annual abstraction (20). |
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2.6.

In terms of water abstraction, water for drinking purposes represents about 20 % of the total amount. Abstraction for cooling in electricity generation (19

20

| 2.7. | Given that the contamination of water resources with nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and many hazardous substances (such as those with cumulative carcinogenic or mutagenic properties) poses a severe risk to health and the environment, and that the necessary treatment to purify water is costly and resource-intensive, the EESC calls for swift implementation of the comprehensive EU legislation currently in place. It reiterates that the EU’s industrial and agricultural policies must reduce pollutant emissions while supporting growth and competitiveness. As water is a common good, the EESC calls for drinking water to be made freely available to all EU citizens via accessible water fountains and sources in public places in line with Directive (EU) 2020/2184. In the case of mineral water concessions, an effort should be made to provide a tap source available to the public. |
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2.7.

Given that the contamination of water resources with nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and many hazardous substances (such as those with cumulative carcinogenic or mutagenic properties) poses a severe risk to health and the environment, and that the necessary treatment to purify water is costly and resource-intensive, the EESC calls for swift implementation of the comprehensive EU legislation currently in place. It reiterates that the EU’s industrial and agricultural policies must reduce pollutant emissions while supporting growth and competitiveness. As water is a common good, the EESC calls for drinking water to be made freely available to all EU citizens via accessible water fountains and sources in public places in line with Directive (EU) 2020/2184. In the case of mineral water concessions, an effort should be made to provide a tap source available to the public.

| 2.8. | While the focus of this opinion is mainly on the consumption and availability of water resources, it also aims to tackle quality-related problems, as they influence the actual usability of this resource. Hence, the policy objective is to prevent further deterioration, and protect and enhance the status of aquatic ecosystems, to ensure the progressive reduction of groundwater pollution and to prevent its further pollution. |
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2.8.

While the focus of this opinion is mainly on the consumption and availability of water resources, it also aims to tackle quality-related problems, as they influence the actual usability of this resource. Hence, the policy objective is to prevent further deterioration, and protect and enhance the status of aquatic ecosystems, to ensure the progressive reduction of groundwater pollution and to prevent its further pollution.

| 2.9. | In order to guarantee water of sufficient quality and quantity for the current and future generations, a general awareness of all of the problems and their root causes is needed. Each and every citizen/consumer must be aware of the importance of water and its value as a finite resource, and a widespread awareness of the issues related to water resources needs to be cultivated, with measures adopted accordingly, starting from the private sphere. For this very purpose, the recent Directive (EU) 2020/2184 recommends measures to the Member States to encourage a growing awareness about the quality and consumption of drinking water. |
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2.9.

In order to guarantee water of sufficient quality and quantity for the current and future generations, a general awareness of all of the problems and their root causes is needed. Each and every citizen/consumer must be aware of the importance of water and its value as a finite resource, and a widespread awareness of the issues related to water resources needs to be cultivated, with measures adopted accordingly, starting from the private sphere. For this very purpose, the recent Directive (EU) 2020/2184 recommends measures to the Member States to encourage a growing awareness about the quality and consumption of drinking water.

| 2.10. | There are numerous factors and aspects to be considered, which affect, directly and indirectly, the significance and impact of household water consumption, including:






  — | the various purposes of direct water consumption: e.g., drinking, washing, watering etc.; |
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2.10.

There are numerous factors and aspects to be considered, which affect, directly and indirectly, the significance and impact of household water consumption, including:

—

the various purposes of direct water consumption: e.g., drinking, washing, watering etc.;

| — | the location of direct water consumption: e.g., at home, at work, in hobbies, etc.; |
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the location of direct water consumption: e.g., at home, at work, in hobbies, etc.;

| — | the types of water consumed: e.g., groundwater, surface water, reused water etc.; |
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the types of water consumed: e.g., groundwater, surface water, reused water etc.;

| — | indirect water consumption: water used to produce goods and services; |
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—

indirect water consumption: water used to produce goods and services;

| — | direct wastewaters: quantity and quality (nutrients, organic matter, chemicals etc.); |
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direct wastewaters: quantity and quality (nutrients, organic matter, chemicals etc.);

| — | indirect wastewaters: wastewaters generated by the production of goods and services; |
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indirect wastewaters: wastewaters generated by the production of goods and services;

| — | geographical water scarcity and quality aspects related to both direct and indirect consumption (ranging from local to global). |
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geographical water scarcity and quality aspects related to both direct and indirect consumption (ranging from local to global).

3.   Water use indicators

Water use indicators

| 3.1. | While the overall approach towards optimising water consumption should be comprehensive, the indicators used should be as few and as simple as possible. The added value of increasing the number of indicators or of using complicated aggregated indicators (such as footprints and indices) may not be high in relation to the resources needed for monitoring, analysing and processing them. It is thus crucial to find the most relevant and influential indicators, taking into account the purpose of the information needed. A distinction should be made between the indicators used by economists/scientists/policymakers to define problems, develop strategies and measure progress towards defined goals, and the indicators used for communication purposes with consumers. For policy purposes, it is important to evaluate a series of indicators directly or indirectly connected to water consumption that will enable policy effectiveness to be assessed, with particular attention to the consistency and continuity of monitoring the parameters. The indicators used by the EEA provide a reference here. |
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3.1.

While the overall approach towards optimising water consumption should be comprehensive, the indicators used should be as few and as simple as possible. The added value of increasing the number of indicators or of using complicated aggregated indicators (such as footprints and indices) may not be high in relation to the resources needed for monitoring, analysing and processing them. It is thus crucial to find the most relevant and influential indicators, taking into account the purpose of the information needed. A distinction should be made between the indicators used by economists/scientists/policymakers to define problems, develop strategies and measure progress towards defined goals, and the indicators used for communication purposes with consumers. For policy purposes, it is important to evaluate a series of indicators directly or indirectly connected to water consumption that will enable policy effectiveness to be assessed, with particular attention to the consistency and continuity of monitoring the parameters. The indicators used by the EEA provide a reference here.

| 3.2. | The development of the EEA indicators has been guided by the need to identify a small number of policy-relevant indicators that are stable (but not static) in time and that can provide answers to selected priority questions (environmental, social, economic, etc.). |
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3.2.

The development of the EEA indicators has been guided by the need to identify a small number of policy-relevant indicators that are stable (but not static) in time and that can provide answers to selected priority questions (environmental, social, economic, etc.).

| 3.3. | The most relevant indicator to measure water use by consumers (private households) is water consumption in litres per capita per day (L/cap/d). Available data show large variations ranging from 77 to 220 L/cap/d (21). |
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3.3.

The most relevant indicator to measure water use by consumers (private households) is water consumption in litres per capita per day (L/cap/d). Available data show large variations ranging from 77 to 220 L/cap/d (21

| 3.4. | Measures to stimulate water-efficient consumption must look at the full water cycle and cover both qualitative and quantitative aspects. They should not only look at drinking water abstraction/consumption, but should also include the benefits of circular water (water reuse) and develop the understanding that water is also embodied in products and services consumed. This will help private households to understand better the impact of their consumption choices on the quality and quantity of water resources in their region, country and worldwide. It will also help citizens to develop a culture of awareness regarding all aspects of their individual water consumption patterns — both domestic and non-domestic — and to be aware of how to make their consumption efficient. The role of civil society organisations is vital in helping them choose and implement strategies for increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of their consumption. |
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3.4.

Measures to stimulate water-efficient consumption must look at the full water cycle and cover both qualitative and quantitative aspects. They should not only look at drinking water abstraction/consumption, but should also include the benefits of circular water (water reuse) and develop the understanding that water is also embodied in products and services consumed. This will help private households to understand better the impact of their consumption choices on the quality and quantity of water resources in their region, country and worldwide. It will also help citizens to develop a culture of awareness regarding all aspects of their individual water consumption patterns — both domestic and non-domestic — and to be aware of how to make their consumption efficient. The role of civil society organisations is vital in helping them choose and implement strategies for increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of their consumption.

| 3.5. | While water-efficient consumption is a necessity in all parts of Europe, the urgency is greater in areas suffering from water scarcity or more frequent drought events. The efficiency of the water supply system should be included in the overall strategy with a view to ensuring a holistic approach. Possible solutions should also be found in more forward-looking strategies of water suppliers, including supply system risk assessment and risk management, leakage management, alternative water sources, etc. |
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3.5.

While water-efficient consumption is a necessity in all parts of Europe, the urgency is greater in areas suffering from water scarcity or more frequent drought events. The efficiency of the water supply system should be included in the overall strategy with a view to ensuring a holistic approach. Possible solutions should also be found in more forward-looking strategies of water suppliers, including supply system risk assessment and risk management, leakage management, alternative water sources, etc.

| 3.6. | Although theory suggests using a plethora of other indicator parameters, (the theme of water is very suitable for this); it should be considered that not only the search for additional data, but also their validation and their dissemination involve significant work. These further activities fall within the remit of the European central structures, but also of the Member States and their respective agencies or operating companies that search for and produce such data. It is not always the case that adding an extra violin in an already large orchestra will necessarily improve the quality of the music. Therefore, rather than adding new indicators, it is better to make the best possible use of the existing ones. |
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3.6.

Although theory suggests using a plethora of other indicator parameters, (the theme of water is very suitable for this); it should be considered that not only the search for additional data, but also their validation and their dissemination involve significant work. These further activities fall within the remit of the European central structures, but also of the Member States and their respective agencies or operating companies that search for and produce such data. It is not always the case that adding an extra violin in an already large orchestra will necessarily improve the quality of the music. Therefore, rather than adding new indicators, it is better to make the best possible use of the existing ones.

Brussels, 12 July 2023.

The President of the European Economic and Social Committee

Oliver RÖPKE

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(1)  EEA Report No 12/2021 on Water resources across Europe — confronting water stress: an updated assessment, 2021.

1

Water resources across Europe — confronting water stress: an updated assessment

(2)  Fit for 55 package, Water Framework Directive, Drinking Water Directive, Water Reuse Regulation, etc.

2

(3)  For example, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_14_1151 and https://www.politico.eu/article/italy-biggest-steel-mill-mockery-eu-environmental-rules/.

3

(4)  https://watereurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/WE-Water-Vision-2023_online.pdf.

4

(5)  Water Footprint Network, Water Footprint Assessment, consulted on 22 May 2023.

5

(6)  OECD, Background note: Cost recovery, April 2022.

6

(7)  Directive (EU) 2020/2184 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2020 on the quality of water intended for human consumption (OJ L 435, 23.12.2020, p. 1).

7

(8)  Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control) (OJ L 334, 17.12.2010, p. 17).

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(9)  Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999/45/EC and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No 793/93 and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1488/94 as well as Council Directive 76/769/EEC and Commission Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC (OJ L 396, 30.12.2006, p. 1).

9

(10)  Directive 2009/128/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for Community action to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides (OJ L 309, 24.11.2009, p. 71).

10

(11)  Regulation (EC) No 726/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 31 March 2004 laying down Community procedures for the authorisation and supervision of medicinal products for human and veterinary use and establishing a European Medicines Agency (OJ L 136, 30.4.2004, p. 1).

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(12)  Directive 2001/83/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 November 2001 on the Community code relating to medicinal products for human us (OJ L 311, 28.11.2001, p. 67).

12

(13)  
  ‘
  “Sponge cities” are urban areas with abundant natural areas such as trees, lakes and parks — or other good designs intended to absorb rain and prevent flooding.’ https://climatechampions.unfccc.int/what-are-sponge-cities-and-how-can-they-prevent-floods/, consulted on 7 June 2023.

13

(14)  An IPCC report (Cross-Chapter Paper 4: Mediterranean Region. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability) says that ‘the Mediterranean region is a hotspot for highly interconnected climate risks’.

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(15)  EEA, Pollution in Europe’s rivers.

15

(16)  EEA Report No 12/2021 on Water resources across Europe — confronting water stress: an updated assessment, 2021.

16

Water resources across Europe — confronting water stress: an updated assessment

(17)  EEA Report No 12/2021 on Water resources across Europe — confronting water stress: an updated assessment, 2021.

17

Water resources across Europe — confronting water stress: an updated assessment

(18)  ECA Special Report 12/2021 The Polluter Pays Principle: Inconsistent application across EU environmental policies and actions (based on EEA figures).

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The Polluter Pays Principle: Inconsistent application across EU environmental policies and actions

(19)  However, the impact on resource availability of the use of water for cooling plants is not particularly clear. Usually, the water is taken from surface water bodies or from the sea, and usually all (or almost all) of it is returned to those water bodies.

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(20)  EEA, Water abstraction by source and economic sector, 1 June 2022.

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Water abstraction by source and economic sector

(21)  Eureau, The governance of water services in Europe, 2020.

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