C/\RBOi\.J UT!LIZATIOf-..l t\I\ID STOR/~GE 

National Perspectives 

C02 Sources Map 

This map displays stationary source data that were obtained from the 

Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships (RCSPs) and other external 

sources and compiled by the National Carbon Sequestration Database and 

Geographic Information System (NATCARB). Each colored dot represents a 

different type of stationary source with the dot size representing the relative 

magnitude ofthe C0 emission source (see map legend). 1 

RCSP/Regiori 

C02 Emissions 

{million metric tons per year) 
C02 Sources 


There are two different types of C0 sources: natural and 2 

anthropogenic (manmade). Natural sources include respiration 

from animals and plants, volcanic eruptions, forest and grass 

natural fires, decomposition of biomass material (plants and 

trees), and naturally occurring sources in geologic formations. 

Anthropogenic sources result from human activity and include 

the burning of fossil fuels, cement production and other 

industrial processes, deforestation, agriculture, and changes 

in natural land usage. Although C0 emissions from natural 2 

sources are estimated to be greater than the anthropogenic 

sources, natural sources are usually in equilibrium with a 

process known as the global carbon cycle, which involves 

carbon exchange between the land, ocean, and atmosphere. 

Increases in anthropogenic emissions throughout the last 

200 years have led to an overall increase in the concentration 

of C0 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. 2 

In the United States, DOE's RCSPs have documented the 

location of 4,245 large stationary CO~ sources (each emitting 

more than 100,000 metric tons per year) with total annual 

emissions of approximately 3,279 million metric tons of C0 •

2

For details on large stationary sources of C0 by state, see 2 

Appendix D. For more information on the methodologies 

used to estimate these emissions, please see Appendix A. 

More detailed information on regional sources can be found 

in the RCSP section of this Atlas and information on Canadian 

and Mexican source data can be found in the North American 

Carbon Storage Atlas at www.nacsap.org. 

The number of sources and emissions reported in this Atlas was 

based on information gathered by the RCSPs and NATCARB as 

of May 2012. 

C02 Stationary Source Emissions by Category 

C02 Stationary Source Emissions by RCSP 

I 

20% 

mAgricultural Processing 

Cement Plants 

1111 Electricity Production 

Ethanol Production 

Fertilizer Production 

Industrial Activity 

Mining 

• Petroleum/Natural Gas 

Refineries/Chemical 

• Unclassified 

•BSCSP 

MGSC 

MRCSP 

• U.S. Non-RCSP** 

1l PCOR* 

wSECARB 

1% •SWP 

•WESTCARB* 

*Includes only Canadian Sources Identified by RCSP 

**As ofNovember 2012, "U.S. Non-RCSP" includes Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampsl!ire, Rl!ode Island, Vermont, and Puerto Riw 
CARBON UTfUZi3,TJOf\! /\1\!D STO~\ACF:' 

Supercritkal (Dense Phase) C02 

It is common for experts to talk'about storing C02 in the supercritical (dense phase) condition. In supercritical 

condition, CO~ is at a temperature ir\ excess of 31.1 _oc and apressure in excess of 72.9 atm (about 1,057 psO; this 

temperature and pressure defines-the critical point for C02

. At such temperatures and pressures, the C02 has some 

properties like a gas and some Properties like a liquid. in particular, it is dense like a liquid but has viscosity like a gas. 

The main advantage of storing C02 in the supercritical condition is that the required storage volume is substantially 

less than ifthe C02 were at standard (room) pressure conditions. This reduction in volume is illustrated in the figure 

at right. The blue numbers show the volume ofC02 at each depth compared to a volume of 100 at the surface. 

TemperatUre naturally increases with depth in the Earth's crust, as does the pressure ofthe fluids (brine, oil, orgas) ih 

the rocks. At depths below about 800 meters {about 2,600 feet), in most places on Earth, the natural temperature 

and fluid pressures are in excess ofthe critical point ofCO,. This means that CO,. injected at these temperatures and 

pressures will be in the supercritical condition. The pressure ofC02 must be greater than the naturally existing fluid 

pressure in order to injectthe C02 into the reservoir. Large temperature differences between the injected C02 and 

the sUrrounding rock are not recommended; however, the CO,. will take on the temPerature of the surrounding 

rock as it moves into the reservoir. Hence, even if not injected under supercritical conditions, it wlll-ln 'most 

cases-end up in the supercritical condition in the reservoir: 

Sedimentary Basins 

The Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships have identified and 

examined the location of potential C02 injection formations in different 

sedimentary basins throughout the United States and Canada. These 

sedimentary basins collected sediments that lithified to become 

sedimentary rocks. If these sedimentary rocks are porous or fractured, 

they can be saturated with brine (water with a high total dissolved solids 

concentration), oil, or gas. If the sedimentary rock is permeable (e.g., many 

sandstones), it could be a target for C02 injection. If it is impermeable 

(e.g., many shales), it could act as a confining zone to prevent migration of 

C02 • Necessary conditions for a C02 storage site are the presence of both a 

reservoir with sufficient injectivity and a seal to prevent migration. 

Brine is water that contains appreciable amounts of salts that have either 

been leached from the surrounding rocks or from seawater that was 

trapped when the rock was formed. The U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA) has determined that a saline formation used for C02 storage 

must have at least 10,000 parts per million of total dissolved solids-a 

measure of the amount of salt in water. Most drinking water supply wells 

contain a few hundred parts per million or less of total dissolved solids. 

Oil and gas reservoirs are often saline formations that have traps and seals 

that allowed oil and gas to accumulate over millions of years. Many oil and 

gas fields contain stacked formations (different reservoirs over top of each 

other), which have characteristics, including good porosity, that make for 

excellent multiple target locations at one geologic storage site. 

(;O~ilSa_Gas 

" 

0.5 -·~::::::::::::..:'":c~··~·-···~····· 

,!1.0 

~ ~ 1.5 

2.0 

'·' 0 200 400 600 800 

Density of C02 (kglm3) 

1rr ust'~~-~:i-;~--Ot P~~s;-~·~~~ ~ff~-~t;-';;-~-·co~,~~-~~~~'(b~-~~~t~p·~;;-i-~-~-g~·-t;~-~"th-~ 

Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies [C02CRC]}. 
Oil and Gas Reservoirs 

Oil and gas reservoirs are porous rock formations (usually sandstones or 

carbonates) containing hydrocarbons (crude oil and/or natural gas) that 

have been physically trapped. There are two main types of physical traps: 

(1) stratigraphic traps, created when changes have occurred in rock types, 

and (2) structural traps, in which the rocks have been folded or faulted to 

create a trapping reservoir. Oil and gas reservoirs are ideal geologic storage 

sites because they have held hydrocarbons for thousands to millions of years 

and have conditions suitable for C0 storage. Furthermore, their architecture 2 

and properties are well known as a result of exploration for and production 

ofthese hydrocarbons. In addition, due to the industrialization of these sites, 

infrastructure exists for C02 transportation and storage. 

Traditionally, oil can be extracted from a reservoir in three different phases. The 

primary recovery phase uses the natural pressure in a reservoir to push the oil up. 

This process usually accounts for 10 to 15 percent of oil recovery. The secondary 

recovery phase involves the injection of water to increase the reservoir 

pressure and displace the oil towards producing wells. This process produces 

an additional15 to 25 percent of the original oil. Together, these two phases 

account for the recovery of25 to 40 percent ofthe original oil, but approximately 

two-thirds of the oil remains in the reservoir. Tertiary recovery, or enhanced oil 

recovery {EOR), is frequently conducted with C0 to recover additional original 2 

oil. When C0 is injected, it raises the reservoir pressure and increases the oil 2 

mobility, making it easier for the oil to reach producing wells. This method, called 

C0 -EOR, is an attractive option for C0 storage because it allows for the recovery 2 2 

and sale of additional oil that would otherwise remain trapped in the reservoir, 

thus lowering the net cost of C02 storage. In North America, C02 has been 

injected into oil reservoirs to increase oil recovery for more than 40 years. 

While not all potential mature oil and gas reservoirs in the United States have 

been examined, DOE's RCSPs have documented the location of approximately 

226 billion metric tons of C02 storage resource. For details on oil and gas This map displays oil and gas reservoir data that were 

obtained by the RCSPs and othersources and compiled by reservoir C02 storage resource by state/province, see Appendix D. For more NATCARB. Carbon dioxide geologic storage information in information on the methodologies used to estimate this potential, please see Atlas IV was developed to prOvide a high-level overview of 

Appendix B. More detailed regional oil and gas reservoir storage information C0 geologic storage potential. Areal extents of geologic 2 

can be found in the RCSP section of this Atlas, and information on Canadian formations and C02 resource estimates presented are 

oil and gas storage ir)tended to be used as an initial assessment of potential 

geologic storage. This information provides CCUS project 

developers a starting point for further investigation. 

Furthermore, this information is required to indicate the 

extent to which CCUS technologies can contribute to the 

reduction ofC0 emissions and is not intended to serve as 2 

a substitute for site-specific assessment and testing. Please 

note that oil and gas reservoir data resulting In a straight 

edge in the map above is indicative of an area lacking 

sufficientdata and is subject to future investigation. 

data can be found in 

the North American 

Carbon Storage Atlas 

at www.nacsap.org. 

The storage resource 

estimates reported 

in this Atlas were 

based on information 

gathered by the RCSPs 

and NATCARB as of 

November 2012. 

EOR operations in Michigan. (Courtesy of MRCSP) 
c,cu:;r:;OI\i UTiLiZATiOf\J /\ND STORfiGE 

Skyland coalbed in Kentucky. (Courtesy of MRCSP) 

This map displays coal data that were obtained by the 

RCSPs and other sources and compiled by NATCARB. 

Carbon dioxide geologic storage information in Atlas IV 

was developed to provide a high-level overview of C02 

geologic storage potential. Areal extents of geologic 

formations and co, resource estimates presented 

are intended to be used as an initial assessment of 

potential geologic storage. This information provides 

carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) project 

developers a starting point for further investigation. 

Furthermore, this information is required to indicate the 

extent to which CCUS technologies can contribute to the 

reduction of C0 emissions and is not intended to serve 2 

as a substitute for site-specific assessment and testing. 

Please note that coal data resulting in a straight edge in 

the map above is Indicative of an area lacking sufficient 

data and is subject to future investigation. 

Unmineable Coal 


Coal that is considered unmineable because of geologic, technological, and 

economic factors (typically too deep, too thin, or lacking the internal continuity 

to be economically mined with today's technologies) may have potential for CO, 

storage. Coal preferentially adsorbs C0 over methane, which is naturally found in 2 

coal seams, at a ratio of2 to 13 times. This property, known as adsorption trapping, 

is the basis for C0 storage in coal seams. Methane gas is typically recovered from 2 

coal seams by dewatering and depressurization, but this can leave significant 

amounts of methane trapped in the seam. The process of injecting and storing 

C0 in unmineable coal seams to enhance methane recovery is called enhanced 2 

coalbed methane (ECBM) recovery. Enhanced coal bed methane recovery parallels 

C0 -EOR because it provides an economic benefit from the recovery and sale of 2 

the methane gas, which helps to offset the cost of C02 storage. However, for C02 

to be stored in coals, the coal must have sufficient permeability, which controls 

injectivity. Coal permeability depends on the effective stress and usually decreases 

with increasing depth. Furthermore, studies have shown that C02 injection can 

impact coal permeability and injectivity. 

For C0 storage in coals or ECBM recovery, the ideal coal seam must have 2 

sufficient permeability and be considered unmineable. Carbon dioxide need not 

be in the supercritical (dense phase) state for it to be adsorbed by coal, so C02 

storage in coals can take place at shallower depths (at least 200 meters deep) 

than storage in oil and gas reservoirs and saline formations (which require at least 

800 meters depth). Research to optimize C02 storage in coals is ongoing. 

While not all unmineable coal has been examined, DOE's RCSPs have documented 

the location of approximately 56 to 114 billion metric tons of potential C02 

storage resource in unmineable coal. For details on unmineable C02 storage 

resource by state, see Appendix D. For more information on the methodologies 

used to estimate this potential, please see Appendix B. More detailed regional coal 

storage information can be found in the RCSP section of this Atlas. Information 

on Canadian and Mexican coal storage data can be found in the North American 

Carbon Storage Atlas at www.nacsap.org. 

The storage resource estimates reported in this Atlas were based on information 

gathered by the RCSPs and NATCARB as of May 2012. 

C02 Storage Resource Estimates for Coal by RCSP 

Low High RCSP Billion Metric Tons I Billion Tons I Billion Metric Tons I Billion Tons 

BSCSP 1 

MGSC 2 ] 2 I 3 1 3 

MRCSP 1 

PCOR 7 8 7 8 

SECARB 33 36 75 83 

SWP 1 1 2 2 

WESTCARB 11 12 25 28 

Total 56 61 114 126 
Saline Formations 


Saline formations are layers of sedimentary porous and permeable rocks saturated 

with salty water called brine. These formations are fairly widespread throughout 

North America, occurring in both onshore and offshore sedimentary basins, and 

they have potential for C0 storage. It is important that a regionally extensive 2 

confining zone {often referred to as caprock or seal) overlies the porous rock layer. 

Trapping mechanisms include the C0 dissolving in the brine (solubility trapping), 2 

reacting chemically with the minerals and fluid to form solid carbonates (mineral 

trapping), or becoming trapped in the pore space (volumetric trapping). 

Saline formations are estimated to have much larger storage potential for C02 

than oil and gas reservoirs and unmineable coals because they are more extensive 

and widespread. Much knowledge about some saline formations exists from 

the exploration and production of oil and gas, and prior oil industry experience, 

but there are also saline formations about which less is known. Although saline 

formations have a greater amount of uncertainty than oil and gas reservoirs, 

they represent an enormous potential for C0 storage, and recent project results 2 

suggest that they can be used as reliablei long-term storage sites. Saline formation 

storage lacks the economic incentives of CCUS storage in oil and gas reservoirs 

or unmineable coal areas; however, they represent a significant future storage 

resource and can serve as buffer storage for EOR operations. 

While not all saline formations in the United States have been examined, DOE's 

RCSPs have documented an estimated C02 storage resource ranging from 

approximately 2,102 billion metric tons to more than 20,043 billion metric tons of 

C0 2

• For details on saline formation C02 storage resource by state, see Appendix D. 

For more information on the methodologies used to estimate this potential, please 

see Appendix B. More detailed regional saline formation storage can be found in the 

RCSP section ofthis Atlas, and information on Canadian and Mexican saline storage 

data can be found in the North American Carbon Storage Atlas at www.nacsap.org. 

The storage resource estimates reported in this Atlas were based on information 

gathered by the RCSPs and NATCARB as of May 2012. 

This map displays saline formation data that were obtained 

by the RCSPs and other sources and compiled by NATCARB. 

Carbon dioxide geologic storage Information in Atlas IV was 

developed to provide a high-level overview of C0 geologic 2 

storage potential. Areal extents of geologic formations and 

C0 resource estimates presented are intended to be used 2 

as an initial assessment of potential geologic storage. This 

information provides CCUS project developers a starting 

point for further investigation. Furthermore, this information 

is required to indicate the extent to which CCUS technologies 

can contribute to the reduction ofC02 emissions and is not 

intended to serve as a substitute for site-specific assessment 

and testing. Please note that saline formation data resulting 

in a straight edge in the map above is indicative of an area 

lacking sufficient data and is subject to future investigation. 

Surface outcropping of a saline storage formation near 


Belfry, Montana. (Courtesy ofJohn Talbott, BSCSP) 

C/\,RElOf\1 UTH.. IZATION Ai\ID STOf\/\GE 

This map displays basalt formation data that were obtained by the RCSPs and 

other sources and compiled by NATCARB. Ca'rbon dioxide geologic storage 

information in Atlas lVwas developed to provide a high-level overview of CO, 

geologic storage potential. Areal extents of geologic formations presented 

are intended to be used as an initial assessment of potential geologic storage. 

This information provides c;cus project developers a starting point for further 

investigation. Furthermore, this-information is required to Indicate the extent to 

which CCUS technologies_can contribute to the reduction of co, emissions and 

is not Intended to serve as a substitute for site-specific assessment and testing. 

Carbon dioxide storage in basalt formations is an area-of current research. 

Before basalt formations can be considered viable storage targets, a number of 

questions relating to the basic geology, the CO, trapping mechanisms and their 

kinetics, and monitoring and modeling tools need to be addressed. As such, 

Atlas IV presents a map ofthese potential future storage opportunities, but 

provides no C02 storage resource values for basalt formations. 

Basalt Formations 


Another potential C0 storage option DOE is investigating are geologic 2 

formations of solidified lava called basalt formations. The relatively 

large amount of potential storage resource in basalts, along with their 

geographic distribution, make them an important formation type 

for possible CO~ storage, particularly in the Pacific Northwest and the 

southeastern United States. These formations have a unique chemical 

makeup that could potentially convert all ofthe injected C02 to a solid 

mineral form, thus isolating it permanently from the atmosphere. 

The chemistry of basalts potentially allows injected C02 to react with 

magnesium and calcium in the rocks to form the stable carbonate 

mineral forms of calcite and dolomite. This mineralization process 

shows promise to be a valuable tool for carbon capture and storage 

(CCS) since the mineralization process permanently locks carbon 

in the solid mineral structure. Thus, basalts may offer one of the 

safest options for long-term isolation of C0 from the atmosphere 2 

because ofthe unique capacity for permanent 

incorporation of injected co~ into carbonates 

via mineralization. However, more research is 

needed to understand the time frames and 

actual chemical inputs and outputs of a basalt 

C0 injection. Some key factors affecting the 2 

capacity and injectivity of C02 into basalt 

formations are effective porosity of flow, top 

layers, and interconnectivity. DOE's current 

efforts are focused on enhancing and utilizing 

the mineralization reactions and increasing 

co~ flow within basalt formations. 

Basalt outcrop in 


eastern Washington. 


(Courtesy of 


Sarah Koenigsberg) 

Organic-Rich Shale Basins 


Organic-rich shales are another geologic storage option. Shales are 

formed from silicate minerals, which are degraded into clay particles that 

accumulate over millions ofyears. The plate-like structure of these day 

particles causes them to accumulate in a flat manner, resulting in vertical 

rock layers with extremely low permeability. Therefore, shales are most 

often used in geologic storage as a confining zone or caprock. 

Ongoing efforts are focused on using C02 for enhanced gas recovery. 

Through engineering, the horizontal permeability in shales can be 

preferentially increased, which makes C02 storage feasible. Recent 

technological advances in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing 

have increased interest in the energy sector for natural gas production 

from organic-rich shales. With horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing, 

operators engineer porosity and permeability into organic-rich shales to 

create flow pathways. These technologies, coupled with the fact that C02 

is preferentially adsorbed over methane, will improve the feasibility of 

using C0 for enhanced gas recovery (EGR) in much the same way as ECBM 2 

recovery. While the additional engineering ofthe rocks would add to the 

cost, the potential for hydrocarbon production could potentially offset it. 

Geologist examining the base of the 

Marcellus Shale at an outcrop near 

Bedford, PA. 

New Albany Shale outctrop. 

(Courtesy of MGSC) 

This map displays organic-rich shale basins data that were 

obtained by the RCSPs and other sources and compiled by 

NATCARB. Carbon dioxide geologic storage information in 

Atlas IV was developed to provide a high-level overview of 

CO, geologic storage potentiaL Areal extents of geologic 

formations presented are intended to be used as an initial 

assessment of potential geologic storage. This information 

provides CCUS project developers a starting point for further 

investigation. Furthermore, this information is required 

to indicate the extent to which CCUS technologies can 

contribute to the reduction of CO, emissions and is not 

intended to serve as a substitute for site-specific assessment 

and testing. Carbon dioxide storage in organic-rich shale 

basins is an area of current research. Before organic-rich 

shale basins can be considered viable storage targets, a 

number of questions relating to the basic geology, the C0

trapping mechanisms and their kinetics, and monitoring 

and modeling tools need to be addressed. As such,Atlas/V 

presents a map of these potential future storage opportunities, 

but provides no CO, storage resource values for organic-rich 

shale basins. 

1 
CARBON UTiUZi\T~OI\1 Al\.10 STOR/\GE 

References 


Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2010: With Projections to 2035 

(Report#: IEA-0383[2010]). 

Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.doe.gov. 

Gorecki, C. D., Sorensen, J.A., Bremer, J.M., Ayash, S.C., Knudsen, D.J., Holubnyak, Y.l., Smith, S.A., 

Steadman, E.N., and Harju, J.A., 2009, "Development of storage coefficients for carbon dioxide 

storage in deep saline formations: Final Report to DOE under Cooperative Agreement 

No. DE-FC26-08NT43291," July 2009. 

Gorecki, C.D., Holubnyak, V.I., Ayash, S.C., Bremer,J.M., Sorensen,J.A., Steadman, E.N., and Harju,J.A., 

2009, "A New Classification System For Evaluating C02 Storage Resource/Capacity Estimates/ 

presented at the Society of Petroleum Engineers International Conference on C0 Capture, Storage, 2 

and Utilization, San Diego, California, November 2-4, 2009, SPE 126421-MS-P. 

lEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (lEA GHG), "Development of Storage Coefficients for C02 

Storage in Deep Saline Formations," 2009/13, October 2009. 

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h.Up_;i/w'v1f.w.n.<ll.(!JI.t?vieY;t.er.orq. 

North American Carbon Atlas Partnership, http://www.nacsap.org. 

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Carbon Sequestration Program Technology Program Plan {DOE/NETL-2011/1464), 2011. 

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Monitoring, Verification, and Accounting of C0 Stored in Deep Geologic Formations, 2012. 2 

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, 


Public Outreach and Education for Carbon Storage Projects, 2010. 


U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, 

Risk Analysis and Simulation for Geologic Storage of C02

, 2010. 

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Site 

Screening, Selection, and Characterization for Storage of C02 in Deep Geologic Formations, 2010. 

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, 

Terrestrial Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide, 2010. 

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, 

Third Version ofthe Carbon Sequestration Atlas of the United States and Canada (Atlas Ill), 2010. 

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, 

Understanding Geologic Storage Formations Classifications: Importance to Understanding and 

Impacts on CCS Opportunities in the United States (DOE/NETL- 2010/1420), 2010. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, .tmgL/..\.'I!.w_w,.§2a.qov. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions 

and Sinks: 1990-2008, http:// www.epa.gov/climatecha nge/emissions/downloadsJ..Qi 

11.5.:_\it:!.§:!.IlY.e.D_tQC:l::?mO___Rwg rt.pdf. 

Please note for all maps: 

This map was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the 

United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nlakes anywarranty, express or implied, or 

assumes any !egalliabillty or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, 

product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. 

Made with Natural Earth. Free vector and raster map data at 

http:flwww.naturalearthdata.com/ 

REPORT NUMBER: DOE/NETL-2.012./1589