### C/\RBOi\.J UT!LIZATIOf-..l t\I\ID**STOR/~GE**



# National Perspectives

C02 

# Sources Map

This map displays stationary source data that were obtained from the Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships (RCSPs) and other external

sources and compiled bythe National Carbon Sequestration Database and Geographic Information System (NATCARB). Each colored dot represents a differenttype ofstationarysource with the dotsize representing the relative magnitude ofthe C0 emission source (see map legend). 1

RCSP/Regiori

C02 Emissions {million metrictons per year)

## 2 

# C0 Sources

There are two different types of C0 sources: natural and 2 anthropogenic (manmade). Natural sources include respiration from animals and plants, volcanic eruptions, forest and grass natural fires, decomposition of biomass material (plants and trees), and naturally occurring sources in geologic formations. Anthropogenic sources result from human activity and include the burning offossil fuels, cement production and other 

### industrial processes, deforestation, agriculture, and changes in natural land usage. Although C0 emissions from natural 2 

### sources are estimated to be greater than the anthropogenic sources, natural sources are usually in equilibrium with a process known as the global carbon cycle, which involves carbon exchange between the land, ocean, and atmosphere. Increases in anthropogenic emissions throughout the last 

### 200 years have led to an overall increase in the concentration of C0 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. 2
In the United States, DOE's RCSPs have documented the location of4,245 large stationary**CO~** sources (each emitting
more than 

### 100,000 metric tons per year) with total annual emissions of approximately 3,279 million metrictons of C0 • 2
For details on large stationary sources of C0 by state, see 2 Appendix D. For more information on the methodologies used to estimate these emissions, please see Appendix A. More detailed information on regional sources can be found in the RCSP section ofthis Atlas and information on Canadian and Mexican source data can be found in the North American Carbon Storage Atlas at www.nacsap.org

.
The number of sources and emissions reported in this Atlas was based on information gathered bythe RCSPs and NATCARB as of May 

### 2012. 

# C02 

# StationarySource Emissions byCategory

C02 

# StationarySource Emissions by RCSP



# I 20% mAgricultural Processing Cement Plants

1111 Electricity Production

Ethanol Production Fertilizer Production Industrial Activity Mining

• Petroleum/Natural Gas

Refineries/Chemical

• Unclassified



### •BSCSP

MGSC MRCSP

• U.S. Non-RCSP**

1l PCOR* 

### wSECARB 1% •SWP •WESTCARB*

*Includes only Canadian Sources Identified by RCSP **As ofNovember

### 2012, "U.S. Non-RCSP" includes Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampsl!ire, Rl!ode Island, Vermont, and Puerto Riw

### CARBON UTfUZi3,TJOf\! /\1\!D**STO~\ACF:'**



# Supercritkal (Dense Phase) C02 

### It is common for experts to talk'about storing C02 in the supercritical (dense phase) condition. In supercritical condition,**CO~** is at a temperature ir\ excess of 

### 31.1 

## _oc and apressure in excess of

### 72.9 atm (about 

### 1,057 psO; this temperature and pressure defines-the critical point for C02. At such temperatures and pressures, the C02 has some properties like a gas and some Properties like a liquid. in particular, it is dense like a liquid but has viscosity like a gas. The main advantage ofstoring C02 in the supercritical condition is thatthe required storage volume is substantially less than ifthe C0 2 were at standard (room) pressure conditions. This reduction in volume is illustrated in the figure at right. The blue numbers show the volume ofC0 2 at each depth compared to avolume of 100 at the surface. TemperatUre naturally increases with depth in the Earth's crust, as does the pressure ofthe fluids (brine, oil, orgas) ih the rocks. At depths below about 800 meters {about 2,600 feet), in most places on Earth, the natural temperature and fluid pressures are in excess ofthe critical pointofCO,.This means thatCO,. injected atthese temperatures and pressures will be in the supercritical condition.The pressure ofC02 must be greaterthan the naturally existing fluid pressure in orderto injectthe C02 into the reservoir. Large temperature differences between the injected C0 2 and the sUrrounding rock are not recommended; however, the CO,. will take on the temPerature ofthe surrounding rock as it moves into the reservoir. Hence, even if not injected under supercritical conditions, it wlll-ln 'most cases-end up in the supercritical condition in the reservoir: 

# SedimentaryBasins

The Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships have identified and examined the location of potential C02 injection formations in different sedimentary basins throughout the United States and Canada. These sedimentary basins collected sediments that lithified to become sedimentary rocks. Ifthese sedimentary rocks are porous orfractured, they can be saturated with brine (water with a high total dissolved solids concentration), oil, or gas. Ifthe sedimentary rock is permeable (e.g., many sandstones), it could be a target for C02 injection. If it is impermeable (e.g., manyshales), it could act as a confining zone to prevent migration of C02 • Necessary conditions for a 

### C0 2 storage site are the presence of both a reservoir with sufficient injectivity and a seal to prevent migration.

Brine is water that contains appreciable amounts ofsalts that have either been leached from the surrounding rocks or from seawater that was trapped when the rock was formed. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has determined that a saline formation used for C02 storage must have at least 10,000 parts per million oftotal dissolved solids-a
measure ofthe amount ofsalt in water. Most drinking water supply wells contain a few hundred parts per million or less oftotal dissolved solids.

Oil and gas reservoirs are often saline formations that have traps and seals that allowed oil and gas to accumulate over millions ofyears. Many oil and gas fields contain stacked formations (different reservoirs overtop ofeach other), which have characteristics, including good porosity, that make for excellent multiple target locations at one geologic storage site.**(;O~ilSa_Gas** 

# "

0.5

### -·~::::::::::::..:'":c~··~·-···~····· 

# ,!1.0**~ ~**  1.5

2.0 

# '·' 0 200 400 600 800 Densityof C02 (kglm3)

1rr

### ust'~~-~:i-;~--Ot**P~~s;-~·~~~ ~ff~-~t;-';;-~-·co~,~~-~~~~'(b~-~~~t~p·~;;-i-~-~-g~·-t;~-~** **"th-~** Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies [C02CRC]}.

# Oil and Gas Reservoirs

Oil and gas reservoirs are porous rock formations (usually sandstones or carbonates) containing hydrocarbons (crude oil and/or natural gas) that 

### have been physically trapped.There are two main types of physical traps: 

### (1) stratigraphic traps, created when changes have occurred in rock types, and (2) structural traps, in which the rocks have been folded or faulted to create atrapping reservoir. Oil and gas reservoirs are ideal geologic storage sites because they have held hydrocarbons for thousands to millions ofyears and have conditions suitable for C0 storage. Furthermore, their architecture 2 

### and properties are well known as a result ofexploration for and production ofthese hydrocarbons. In addition, due tothe industrialization ofthese sites, infrastructure exists for C02 

### transportation and storage.
Traditionally, oil can be extracted from a reservoir in three different phases. The primary recovery phase uses the natural pressure in a reservoir to push the oil up. This process usually accounts for 10 to 15 percent ofoil recovery. The secondary recovery phase involves the injection ofwater to increase the reservoir pressure and displace the oil towards producing wells. This process produces
an additional15 to 25 percent ofthe original oil. Together, these two phases account for the recovery of25 to 40 percent ofthe original oil, but approximately two-thirds ofthe oil remains in the reservoir. Tertiary recovery, or enhanced oil recovery {EOR), is frequently conducted with C0 to recover additional original 2 

### oil. When C0 is injected, it raises the reservoir pressure and increases the oil 2 

### mobility, making iteasier forthe oil to reach producing wells. This method, called C0 -EOR, is an attractive option for C0 storage because it allows for the recovery

2 2 

### and sale ofadditional oil that would otherwise remain trapped in the reservoir, thus lowering the net cost ofC02 

### storage. In North America, C02 

### has been injected into oil reservoirs to increase oil recoveryfor morethan 40 years.

While not all potential mature oil and gas reservoirs in the United States have been examined, DOE's RCSPs have documented the location ofapproximately 226 billion metric tons ofC02 

### storage resource. For details on oil and gas This map displays oil and gas reservoir data that were obtained bythe RCSPs and othersources and compiled by 

### reservoir C02 

### storage resource by state/province, see Appendix D. For more NATCARB. Carbon dioxide geologic storage information in 

### information on the methodologies used to estimate this potential, please see Atlas IVwas developed to prOvide a high-level overview of 

### Appendix B. More detailed regional oil and gas reservoir storage information C0 geologic storage potential. Areal extents ofgeologic 2 

### can be found in the RCSP section ofthis Atlas, and information on Canadian formations and C02 resource estimates presented are 

### oil and gas storage ir)tended to be used as an initial assessment ofpotential geologic storage. This information provides CCUS project developers a starting pointfor further investigation. Furthermore,this information is required to indicate the extent to which CCUS technologies can contribute to the reduction ofC0 emissions and is not intended to serve as 2 a substitutefor site-specific assessmentand testing. Please note that oil and gas reservoir data resulting In a straight edge in the map above is indicative ofan area lacking sufficientdata and is subject tofuture investigation. 

### data can be found in the North American Carbon Storage Atlas at www.nacsap.org.

The storage resource estimates reported in this Atlas were based on information gathered bythe RCSPs and NATCARB as of November 2012.

EOR operations in Michigan. (Courtesy of MRCSP)

### c,cu:;r:;OI\i UTiLiZATiOf\J /\ND STORfiGE

Skyland coalbed in Kentucky. (Courtesy ofMRCSP) This map displays coal data that were obtained bythe RCSPs and other sources and compiled by NATCARB. Carbon dioxide geologic storage information in Atlas IV
was developedto provide a high-level overview of C0 2 geologic storage potential.Areal extents ofgeologic formations and co, resource estimates presented
are intended to be used as an initial assessment of potential geologic storage.This information provides carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) project developers a starting pointfor further investigation. Furthermore,this information is required to indicate the extenttowhich CCUS technologies can contributeto the reduction ofC0 emissions and is notintended to serve 2 asa substitutefor site-specific assessmentand testing. Please notethat coal data resulting in a straight edgein the map above is Indicative ofan area lacking sufficient data and is subject to future investigation. 

# Unmineable Coal

Coal that is considered unmineable because ofgeologic, technological, and economic factors (typicallytoo deep, toothin, or lacking the internal continuity to be economically mined with today's technologies) may have potential for CO, storage. Coal preferentially adsorbs 

### C0 over methane, which is naturallyfound in 2 

### coal seams, at a ratio of2 to 13 times. This property, known as adsorption trapping, is the basis for C0 storage in coal seams. Methane gas is typically recovered from 2 

### coal seams by dewatering and depressurization, but this can leave significant amounts of methanetrapped in the seam. The process of injecting and storing 

### C0 in unmineable coal seams to enhance methane recovery is called enhanced

2 

### coal bed methane (ECBM) recovery. Enhanced coalbed methane recovery parallels C0 -EOR because it provides an economic benefit from the recovery and sale of

2 

### the methane gas, which helps to offset the cost of C02 

### storage. However, for C02 

### to be stored in coals, the coal must have sufficient permeability, which controls injectivity. Coal permeabilitydepends on the effective stress and usually decreases with increasing depth. Furthermore, studies have shown that C02 

### injection can impact coal permeability and injectivity.

For C0 storage in coals or ECBM recovery, the ideal coal seam must have 2 

### sufficient permeability and be considered unmineable. Carbon dioxide need not be in the supercritical (dense phase) state for itto be adsorbed by coal, so C0 2 

### storage in coals can take place at shallower depths (at least 200 meters deep) than storage in oil and gas reservoirs and saline formations (which require at least 800 meters depth). Research to optimize C02 

### storage in coals is ongoing.

While notall unmineable coal has been examined, DOE's RCSPs have documented the location ofapproximately 56 to 114 billion metric tons of potential C02 

### storage resource in unmineable coal. For details on unmineable C02 

### storage
resource by state, see Appendix D. For more information on the methodologies used to estimate this potential, please see Appendix B. More detailed regional coal storage information can be found in the RCSP section ofthis Atlas. Information
on Canadian and Mexican coal storage data can befound in the North American Carbon Storage Atlas at www.nacsap.org

. The storage resource estimates reported in this Atlas were based on information gathered bythe RCSPs and NATCARB as of May 2012.



### C02 

### Storage Resource Estimates forCoal 

### by RCSP
Low High 

### RCSP Billion Metric Tons 

## I Billion Tons 

## I Billion Metric Tons 

## I Billion Tons
BSCSP 1 

### MGSC 2 

# ] 2 

# I 3 

# 1 3 

### MRCSP 1 

### PCOR 7 8 

### 7 8 

### SECARB 33 36 75 83 SWP 

### 1 1 2 2 

### WESTCARB 11 12 25 28



### Total 56 61 114 126

# Saline Formations

Saline formations are layers ofsedimentary porous and permeable rocks saturated with salty water called brine. These formations are fairly widespread throughout 

### North America, occurring in both onshore and offshore sedimentary basins, and they have potential for C0 storage. It is importantthat a regionally extensive 2 

### confining zone {often referred toas caprock or seal) overlies the porous rock layer. Trapping mechanisms include the C0 dissolving in the brine (solubility trapping), 2 reacting chemically with the minerals and fluid toform solid carbonates (mineral 

### trapping), or becoming trapped in the pore space (volumetrictrapping).

Saline formations are estimated to have much larger storage potential for C02 

### than oil and gas reservoirs and unmineable coals because they are more extensive and widespread. Much knowledge about some saline formations exists from the exploration and production ofoil and gas, and prior oil industry experience, butthere are also saline formations about which less is known. Although saline formations have a greater amount of uncertaintythan oil and gas reservoirs, they represent an enormous potential for C0 storage, and recent project results 2 

### suggestthatthey can be used as reliablei long-term storage sites. Saline formation storage lacks the economic incentives ofCCUS storage in oil and gas reservoirs
or unmineable coal areas; however, they represent a significant future storage
resource and can serve as buffer storage for EOR operations.

While not all saline formations in the United States have been examined, DOE's RCSPs have documented an estimated C02 

### storage resource ranging from approximately 2,102 billion metrictons to morethan 20,043 billion metrictons of C0

2• 

### For details on saline formation C02 

### storage resource bystate, see Appendix D. For more information on the methodologies used to estimate this potential, please
see Appendix B. More detailed regional saline formation storage can be found in the RCSP section ofthis Atlas, and information on Canadian and Mexican saline storage data can be found in the North American Carbon Storage Atlas at www.nacsap.org.

The storage resource estimates reported in this Atlas were based on information gathered bythe RCSPs and NATCARB as of May 2012.

This map displays salineformation data thatwere obtained bythe RCSPs and othersources and compiled by NATCARB. Carbon dioxide geologic storage Information in Atlas IV was developed to provide a high-level overview ofC0 geologic 2 storage potential. Areal extents ofgeologicformations and C0 resource estimates presented are intended to be used

2 as an initial assessmentofpotential geologicstorage.This information provides CCUS project developers a starting pointforfurther investigation. Furthermore,this information is required to indicatetheextentto which CCUS technologies
can contributeto the reduction ofC02 emissions and is not intended to serve as a substitutefor site-specificassessment andtesting. Please notethatsalineformation data resulting in a straightedge in the map aboveis indicative ofan area lacking sufficientdata and is subjecttofuture investigation.

Surface outcropping of a saline storage formation near

Belfry, Montana. (Courtesy ofJohn Talbott, BSCSP)

### C/\,RElOf\1 UTH

.. IZATION Ai\ID STOf\/\GE

This map displays basaltformation data that were obtained by the RCSPs and other sources and compiled by NATCARB. Ca'rbon dioxide geologic storage information in Atlas lVwas developedto provide a high-level overview ofCO, geologic storage potential. Areal extents ofgeologicformations presented
are intendedto be used as an initial assessmentofpotential geologic storage. This information providesc;cus projectdevelopers a starting pointfor further investigation. Furthermore,this-information is required to Indicate theextentto which CCUS technologies_can contributetothe reduction ofco, emissions and is not Intendedto serve as a substitutefor site-specificassessmentandtesting. Carbon dioxide storage in basaltformations is an area-ofcurrent research. Before basaltformations can beconsideredviable storagetargets, a numberof questions relating tothebasic geology,the CO, trapping mechanisms andtheir kinetics, and monitoring and modeling tools need to be addressed.As such, 

### AtlasIVpresents a map ofthese potential future storage opportunities, but provides no C02 storage resourcevaluesfor basaltformations. 

# Basalt Formations

Another potential C0 storage option DOE is investigating are geologic 2 

### formations ofsolidified lava called basalt formations. The relatively large amount of potential storage resource in basalts, along with their geographic distribution, make them an importantformation type for possible**CO~** 

### storage, particularly in the Pacific Northwest and the southeastern United States. These formations have a unique chemical makeup that could potentially convert all ofthe injected C02 

### to a solid mineral form, thus isolating it permanentlyfrom the atmosphere.

The chemistry of basalts potentially allows injected C02 

### to react with magnesium and calcium in the rocks to form the stable carbonate mineral forms ofcalcite and dolomite. This mineralization process shows promise to be avaluable tool for carbon capture and storage (CCS) since the mineralization process permanently locks carbon in the solid mineral structure. Thus, basalts may offer one ofthe safest options for long-term isolation of C0 from the atmosphere 2 

### because ofthe unique capacity for permanent incorporation of injected**co~** 

### into carbonates via mineralization. However, more research is needed to understand the time frames and actual chemical inputs and outputs of a basalt C0 injection. Some key factors affecting the

2 

### capacity and injectivity of C02 

### into basalt formations are effective porosity offlow, top layers, and interconnectivity. DOE's current efforts are focused on enhancing and utilizing the mineralization reactions and increasing**co~** 

### flow within basalt formations.

Basalt outcrop in eastern Washington. (Courtesy of Sarah Koenigsberg)

# Organic-Rich Shale Basins

Organic-rich shales are another geologic storage option. Shales are formed from silicate minerals, which are degraded into clay particles that 

### accumulate over millions ofyears. The plate-like structure ofthese day particles causes them to accumulate in aflat manner, resulting in vertical 

### rock layers with extremely low permeability. Therefore, shales are most often used in geologic storage as a confining zone or caprock.
Ongoing efforts are focused on using C02 

### for enhanced gas recovery. 

### Through engineering, the horizontal permeability in shales can be preferentially increased, which makes C02 

### storage feasible. Recent technological advances in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing have increased interest in the energy sectorfor natural gas production from organic-rich shales. With horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing, operators engineer porosity and permeability into organic-rich shales to create flow pathways. These technologies, coupled with thefactthat C02 

### is preferentially adsorbed over methane, will improve the feasibility of using C0 forenhanced gas recovery (EGR) in much the same wayas ECBM 2 

### recovery. While the additional engineering ofthe rocks would add tothe cost, the potential for hydrocarbon production could potentially offset 

### it.

Geologist examining the base ofthe Marcellus Shale at an outcrop near Bedford, PA.

New Albany Shale outctrop. (Courtesy of MGSC) This map displays organic-rich shale basins data that were obtained bythe RCSPs and other sources and compiled by NATCARB. Carbon dioxide geologic storage information in Atlas IV was developed to provide a high-level overview of CO, geologic storage potentiaL Areal extents ofgeologic formations presented areintended to be used as an initial assessment of potential geologic storage.This information provides CCUS projectdevelopers a starting pointforfurther investigation. Furthermore, this information is required to indicatethe extentto which CCUS technologies can contributeto the reduction ofCO, emissions and is not intended to serve as a substitutefor site-specific assessment and testing. Carbon dioxide storage in organic-rich shale basins is an area ofcurrentresearch. Before organic-rich shale basins can be considered viable storagetargets, a number ofquestions relating tothe basic geology,theC0 trapping mechanisms and their kinetics, and monitoring and modeling tools need to be addressed. As such,Atlas/V presents a mapofthese potentialfuture storageopportunities, butprovides no CO, storageresource values for organic-rich shale basins. 1

### CARBON**UTiUZi\T~OI\1** 

### Al\.10 STOR/\GE


# References

Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2010: With Projections to 2035 (Report#: IEA-0383[2010]).

Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.doe.gov.

Gorecki, C.D., Sorensen,J.A., Bremer, J.M., Ayash, S.C., Knudsen, D.J., Holubnyak, Y.l., Smith, S.A., Steadman, E.N., and Harju, J.A., 2009, "Development of storage coefficients for carbon dioxide storage in deep salineformations: Final Report to DOE under Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FC26-08NT43291," July 2009.

Gorecki, C.D., Holubnyak, 

### V.I., Ayash, S.C., Bremer,J.M., Sorensen,J.A., Steadman,E.N., and Harju,J.A., 2009, "A New Classification System For Evaluating C02 Storage Resource/Capacity Estimates/ presented atthe Society ofPetroleum Engineers International Conference on C0 Capture, Storage, 2 and Utilization, San Diego, California, November 2-4, 2009, SPE 126421-MS-P.

lEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (lEA GHG), "DevelopmentofStorage Coefficients for C02 Storage in Deep Saline Formations," 2009/13, October 2009.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2005, Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA.

National Carbon Sequestration Database and Geographic Information System {NATCARB) Viewer, h.Up_;i/w'v1f.w.n.<ll.(!JI.t?vieY;t.er.orq.

North American Carbon Atlas Partnership, http://www.nacsap.org.

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Carbon Sequestration Program Technology Program Plan {DOE/NETL-2011/1464), 2011.

U.S. DepartmentofEnergy, Office ofFossil Energy, National EnergyTechnology Laboratory, Carbon Sequestration Atlas ofthe United States and Canada (Atlas!), 2007. U.S. Department of Energy, Office ofFossil Energy, National EnergyTechnology Laboratory, Carbon Storage Program 2010-2011 Accomplishments (DOE/NETL-2012/1S49),2012.

U.S. Department ofEnergy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Monitoring, Verification, and Accounting ofC0 Stored in Deep Geologic Formations, 2012. 2

U.S. Department of Energy, Office ofFossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Public Outreach and Education for Carbon Storage Projects, 2010.

U.S. Department of Energy, Office ofFossil Energy, National EnergyTechnology Laboratory, Risk Analysis and Simulation for Geologic Storage of C02, 2010.

U.S. DepartmentofEnergy, Office ofFossil Energy, National EnergyTechnology Laboratory, Site Screening, Selection, and Characterization for Storage of C02 in Deep Geologic Formations, 2010.

U.S. Department ofEnergy, Office ofFossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Terrestrial Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide, 2010.

U.S. Department of Energy, Office ofFossil Energy, National EnergyTechnology Laboratory, Third Version ofthe Carbon Sequestration Atlas ofthe United States and Canada (Atlas Ill), 2010.

U.S. Department ofEnergy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Understanding Geologic Storage Formations Classifications: Importanceto Understanding and Impacts on CCS Opportunities in the United States (DOE/NETL- 2010/1420), 2010.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, .tmgL/..\.'I!.w_w,.§2a.qov.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2008, http:// www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/downloadsJ..Qi 

### 11.5.:_\it:!.§:!.IlY.e.D_tQC:l::?mO___Rwgrt.pdf.

Please note for all maps:
This map was prepared as an account ofwork sponsored by an agency ofthe United States Government. Neither the United StatesGovernmentnor anyagencythereof, noranyoftheiremployees, nlakes anywarranty, express orimplied, or assumes any !egalliabillty or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness ofany information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.

Made with Natural Earth. Free vector and raster map data at http:flwww.naturalearthdata.com/

REPORT NUMBER: DOE/NETL-2.012./1589