After a regulatory action has been completed, Executive Order 12866 requires agencies 

to identify the substantive changes between the draft submitted to Office of Information 

and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) for review and the action subsequently announced, and to 

identify those changes made at the suggestion or recommendation of OIRA. The 

document below provides more information.
1

[6450-01-P]

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

10 CFR Parts 429 and 430

[Docket Number EERE–2011–BT–STD–0048]

RIN: 1904-AC07

Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Standby Mode 

and Off Mode for Microwave Ovens

AGENCY: Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Department of Energy.

ACTION: Final rule.

SUMMARY: The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 (EPCA), as amended,

prescribes energy conservation standards for various consumer products and certain 

commercial and industrial equipment. Microwave ovens are covered products under 

EPCA, although there are no existing microwave oven standards. DOE has already 

previously determined that active mode standards are not warranted. The Energy 

Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) amended EPCA to require any final 

rule adopted after July 1, 2010 establishing or revising energy conservation standards for 

covered products, including microwave ovens, to address standby mode and off mode 

energy use. In this final rule, DOE is only adopting energy conservation standards for 

microwave oven standby mode and off mode. It has determined that the amended energy 
2

conservation standards for these products in standby mode and off mode would result in 

significant conservation of energy, and are technologically feasible and economically 

justified. 

DATES: The effective date of this rule is [INSERT DATE 60 DAYS AFTER DATE 

OF PUBLICATION IN THE FEDERAL REGISTER]. Compliance with the amended 

standards established for microwave ovens in this final rule is [INSERT DATE 3 

YEARS AFTER DATE OF PUBLICATION IN THE FEDERAL REGISTER].

ADDRESSES: The docket for this rulemaking is available for review at 

www.regulations.gov, including Federal Register notices, framework documents, public 

meeting attendee lists and transcripts, comments, and other supporting 

documents/materials. All documents in the docket are listed in the regulations.gov index.

However, not all documents listed in the index may be publicly available, such as 

information that is exempt from public disclosure. 

A link to the docket web page can be found at: 

http://www.regulations.gov/#!docketDetail;rpp=10;po=0;D=EERE-2011-BT-STD-0048. 

The regulations.gov web page will contain simple instructions on how to access all 

documents, including public comments, in the docket.

For further information on how to review the docket, contact Ms. Brenda Edwards 

at (202) 586-2945 or by email: Brenda.Edwards@ee.doe.gov.
3

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: 

Mr. John Cymbalsky, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency 

and Renewable Energy, Building Technologies Program, EE-2J, 1000 Independence 

Avenue, SW., Washington, DC, 20585-0121. Telephone: (202) 287-1692. E-mail:

microwave_ovens@ee.doe.gov.

Mr. Ari Altman, Esq., U.S. Department of Energy, Office of the General Counsel, 

GC-71, 1000 Independence Avenue, SW., Washington, DC, 20585-0121. Telephone: 

(202) 287-6307. E-mail: Ari.Altman@hq.doe.gov.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Table of Contents

I. Summary of the Final Rule and Its Benefits

A. Benefits and Costs to Consumers

B. Impact on Manufacturers

C. National Benefits

D. Conclusion

II. Introduction

A. Authority

B. Background

1. Current Standards

2. History of Standards Rulemaking for Microwave Ovens

III. General Discussion

A. Test Procedures

B. Technological Feasibility

1. General

2. Maximum Technologically Feasible Levels

C. Energy Savings

1. Determination of Savings

2. Significance of Savings

D. Economic Justification

1. Specific Criteria
4

a. Economic Impact on Manufacturers and Consumers

b. Life-Cycle Costs

c. Energy Savings

d. Lessening of Utility or Performance of Products

e. Impact of Any Lessening of Competition

f. Need for National Energy Conservation

g. Other Factors

2. Rebuttable Presumption

IV. Methodology and Revisions to the Analyses Employed in the February 2012 

Proposed Rule

A. Covered Products

B. Product Classes

C. Technology Assessment

1. Cooking Sensors

2. Display Technologies

3. Power Supply and Control Boards

4. Power-Down Options

D. Engineering Analysis

1. Energy Use Metric

2. Standby Power Levels

3. Manufacturing Costs

E. Life Cycle Cost and Payback Period Analysis

1. Product Costs

2. Annual Energy Consumption

3. Energy Prices

4. Repair and Maintenance Costs

5. Product Lifetime

6. Discount Rates

7. Compliance Date of New Standards

8. Product Energy Efficiency in the Base Case

9. Inputs to Payback Period Analysis

10. Rebuttable-Presumption Payback Period

F. National Impact Analysis – National Energy Savings and Net Present Value 

Analysis

1. General

2. Shipments

a. New Construction Shipments

b. Replacements and Non-replacements

3. Purchase Price, Operating Cost, and Income Impacts

4. Other Inputs

a. Forecasted Efficiencies

b. Annual Energy Consumption

c. Site-to-Source Energy Conversion

d. Total Installed Costs and Operating Costs

e. Discount Rates

G. Consumer Subgroup Analysis
5

H. Manufacturer Impact Analysis

I. Employment Impact Analysis

J. Utility Impact Analysis

K. Emissions Analysis

L. Monetizing Carbon Dioxide and Other Emissions Impacts

1. Social Cost of Carbon

a. Monetizing Carbon Dioxide Emissions

b. Social Cost of Carbon Values Used in Past Regulatory Analyses

c. Current Approach and Key Assumptions

2. Valuation of Other Emissions Reductions

M. Discussion of Other Comments

1. Significance of Energy Savings for the Built-in and Over-the-Range Product 

Class

2. Standard Levels

V. Analytical Results

A. Trial Standard Levels

B. Economic Justification and Energy Savings

1. Economic Impacts on Consumers

a. Life-Cycle Cost and Payback Period

b. Consumer Subgroup Analysis

c. Rebuttable-Presumption Payback

2. Economic Impacts on Manufacturers

a. Industry Cash-Flow Analysis Results

b. Employment Impacts

c. Impacts on Manufacturing Capacity

d. Impacts on Subgroups of Manufacturers

e. Cumulative Regulatory Burden

3. National Impact Analysis

a. Significance of Energy Savings

b. Net Present Value of Consumer Costs and Benefits

c. Indirect Impacts on Employment

4. Impact on Utility or Performance of Product

5. Impact of Any Lessening of Competition

6. Need of the Nation to Conserve Energy

7. Other Factors

C. Conclusion

1. Benefits and Burdens of TSLs Considered for Microwave Oven Standby Mode 

and Off Mode Energy Use

2. Summary of Benefits and Costs (Annualized) of the Standards

VI. Additional Technical Corrections to 10 CFR 430.32

VII. Procedural Issues and Regulatory Review

A. Review Under Executive Orders 12866 and 13563

B. Review Under the Regulatory Flexibility Act

C. Review Under the Paperwork Reduction Act

D. Review Under the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

E. Review Under Executive Order 13132
6

F. Review Under Executive Order 12988

G. Review Under the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995

H. Review Under the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act, 1999

I. Review Under Executive Order 12630

J. Review Under the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act, 2001

K. Review Under Executive Order 13211

L. Review Under the Information Quality Bulletin for Peer Review

M. Congressional Notification

VIII. Approval of the Office of the Secretary

I. Summary of the Final Rule and Its Benefits

Title III, Part B1

Table 

I.1

of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 (EPCA or 

the Act), Pub. L. 94-163 (42 U.S.C. 6291–6309, as codified), established the Energy 

Conservation Program for Consumer Products Other Than Automobiles. Pursuant to 

EPCA, any new or amended energy conservation standard that DOE prescribes for 

certain products, such as microwave ovens, shall be designed to achieve the maximum 

improvement in energy efficiency that DOE determines is technologically feasible and 

economically justified. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(A)) Furthermore, the new or amended 

standard must result in significant conservation of energy. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(3)(B)) In 

accordance with these and other statutory provisions discussed in this rulemaking, DOE 

is adopting amended energy conservation standards for microwave ovens to address 

standby mode and off mode energy use. The amended standards, which are the maximum 

allowable energy use when a product is in standby mode or off mode, are shown in 

.

2 These amended standards apply to all products listed in Table I.1 and manufactured 

 1

 For editorial reasons, upon codification in the U.S. Code, Part B was redesignated Part A. 2 DOE considered energy use in off mode for microwave ovens, but is not adopting a maximum allowable 

off mode power at this time because DOE is aware of less than 1 percent of microwave oven models in 

Product Class 1 and no models in Product Class 2 that are capable of operating in such a mode. DOE has 

already previously determined that active mode standards are not warranted. 74 FR 16040 (Apr. 8, 2009).
7

in, or imported into, the United States on or after [INSERT DATE 3 YEARS AFTER 

DATE OF PUBLICATION IN THE FEDERAL REGISTER].

Table I-1 Energy Conservation Standards for Microwave Ovens (Compliance 

Starting [INSERT DATE 3 YEARS AFTER DATE OF PUBLICATION IN THE 

FEDERAL REGISTER])

Product Classes

Effective [INSERT DATE 3 YEARS AFTER 

DATE OF PUBLICATION IN THE 

FEDERAL REGISTER]

Microwave-Only Ovens and Countertop 

Convection Microwave Ovens

Maximum Standby Power = 1.0 watt

Built-In and Over-the-Range Convection 

Microwave Ovens

Maximum Standby Power = 2.2 watts

A.

Table I.2

Benefits and Costs to Consumers

presents DOE’s evaluation of the economic impacts of today’s standards 

on consumers of microwave ovens, as measured by the average life-cycle cost (LCC) 

savings and the median payback period. The average LCC savings are positive for 88

percent of consumers of microwave-only ovens and countertop convection microwave 

ovens and for all consumers of built-in and over-the-range convection microwave ovens.

Table I-2 Impacts of Today’s Standards on Consumers of Microwave Ovens

Product Class Average LCC Savings 

(2011$

Median Payback Period 

) (years

Microwave-Only Ovens and 

Countertop Convection

Microwave Ovens

)

11 3.5

Built-In and Over-the-Range 

Convection Microwave Ovens 12 3.3

*

Average microwave oven lifetime is estimated at 10.9 years.

Deleted: 93

Deleted: 9

Deleted: 10
8

B.

The industry net present value (INPV) is the sum of the discounted cash flows to 

the industry from the base year through the end of the analysis period (2013 to 2045). 

Using a real discount rate of 8.0 percent, DOE estimates that the INPV for manufacturers 

of microwave ovens is $1.4 billion in 2011$. Under today’s standards, DOE expects that 

manufacturers may lose up to 7.0 percent of their INPV, which is approximately $96.6

million. Additionally, based on DOE’s interviews with the manufacturers of microwave 

ovens, DOE does not expect any plant closings or significant loss of employment.

Impact on Manufacturers

C.

DOE’s analyses indicate that today’s standards would save a significant amount 

of energy. The lifetime savings for microwave ovens purchased in the 30-year period that 

begins in the year of compliance with amended standards (2016–2045) amount to 0.48

quads. The average annual primary energy savings in 2016-2045 is equivalent to the 

annual primary energy use of 70,000 households.

National Benefits

The cumulative net present value (NPV) of total consumer costs and savings of

today’s standards in 2011$ ranges from $3.38 billion (at a 3-percent discount rate) to

$1.53 billion (at a 7-percent discount rate) for microwave ovens. This NPV expresses the 

estimated total value of future operating-cost savings minus the estimated increased 

product costs for products purchased in 2016–2045, discounted to 2013. 

Deleted: This

Deleted: 2 percent of total U.S. residential

Deleted: in 2011. 

Deleted: 62

Deleted: 67
9

In addition, today’s standards would have significant environmental benefits. The 

energy savings would result in cumulative greenhouse gas emission reductions of 

approximately 38.11 million metric tons (Mt)3 of carbon dioxide (CO2), 27.14 thousand 

tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2), 32.67 thousand tons of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and 0.095 

tons of mercury (Hg).

4

The value of the CO2 reductions is calculated using a range of values per metric 

ton of CO2 (otherwise known as the Social Cost of Carbon, or SCC) developed by an

interagency process. The derivation of the SCC values is discussed in section IV.L of this 

rulemaking. Using the most recent (2013) SCC values from the interagency group, DOE 

estimates that the present monetary value of the CO2 emissions reductions is between

$255 million and $3,615 million, expressed in 2011$ and discounted to 2013. DOE

estimates that the present monetary value of the NOX emissions reductions, expressed in

2011$ and discounted to 2013, is $21.8 million at a 7-percent discount rate, and $44.5

million at a 3-percent discount rate.5

Table I.3 summarizes the national economic costs and benefits expected to result 

from today’s standards for microwave ovens. The monetary value of the CO2 emissions 

reductions using the previous (2010) SCC estimates, and the benefits using those 

estimates, are presented for information purposes. Using the updated 2013 social cost of 

 3 A metric ton is equivalent to 1.1 short tons. Results for NOX and Hg are presented in short tons. 4 DOE calculated emissions reductions relative to the Annual Energy Outlook (AEO) 2012 Reference case, 

which generally represents current legislation and environmental regulations, including recent government 

actions, for which implementing regulations were available as of December 31, 2011. 5

DOE has not monetized SO2 and Hg emissions in this rulemaking.

Deleted: 09

Deleted: 65

Deleted: a recent

Deleted: net 

Deleted: 150

Deleted: 2,256

Deleted: also

Deleted: net
10

carbon estimates, the net benefits from the microwave oven standby power rule, 

discounted at 3 percent, are projected to be $4.6 billion (2011 dollars). For comparison 

purposes, the net benefits, discounted at 3 percent, are projected to be $4.2 billion using 

the 2010 SCC estimates. When discounted at 7 percent, the net benefits of the rule are 

projected to be $2.7 billion using the 2013 SCC estimates, compared with $2.3 billion 

using the 2010 SCC estimates.
11

Table I-3 Summary of National Economic Benefits and Costs of Microwave Oven 

Energy Conservation Standards

Category

Present Value

(Million Discount Rate

2011$)

Benefits

Operating Cost Savings

2,306 7%

4,717 3%

CO2 Reduction Monetized Value ($12.6/t

case)*

Using 2013 Social Cost of Carbon Values

255 5%

CO2 Reduction Monetized Value ($41.1/t

case)* 1,179 3%

CO2 Reduction Monetized Value ($63.2/t

case)* 1,876 2.5%

CO2 Reduction Monetized Value ($119.1/t

case)* 3,615 3%

Total Benefits† 3,507 7%

5,941 3%

CO2 Reduction Monetized Value ($6.2/t

case)**

Using 2010 Social Cost of Carbon Values

150 5%

CO2 Reduction Monetized Value ($25.6/t

case)**

740 3%

CO2 Reduction Monetized Value ($41.1/t

case)** 1,243 2.5%

CO2 Reduction Monetized Value ($78.4/t

case)**

2,257 3%

NOX Reduction Monetized Value (at 

$2,567/ton)**

21.8 7%

44.5 3%

Total Benefits††

3,069 7%

5,503 3%

Costs

Incremental Installed Costs

776 7%

1,341 3%

Net Benefits (using 2013 SCC values)

Including CO2 and NOX Reduction Monetized 

Value†

2,731 7%

4,600 3%

Deleted: (at $

Deleted: )*

Deleted: (at $

Deleted: )*

Deleted: 741

Deleted: (at $

Deleted: )*

Deleted: (at $

Deleted: )*

Deleted: )*

Deleted: †
12

Net Benefits (using 2010 SCC values)

Including CO2 and NOX Reduction Monetized 

Value††

2,293 7%

4,162 3%

* The CO2 values represent global values (in 2011$) of the social cost of CO2 emissions in 2016 under 

several scenarios. The values of $12.6, $41.1, and $63.2 per ton are the averages of SCC distributions 

calculated using 5%, 3%, and 2.5% discount rates, respectively. The value of $119.1 per ton represents the 

95th percentile of the SCC distribution calculated using a 3% discount rate. The value for NOX (in 2011$) is 

the average of the low and high values used in DOE’s analysis.

** The CO2 values represent global values (in 2011$) of the social cost of CO2 emissions in 2016 under 

several scenarios. The values of $6.2, $25.6, and $41.1 per ton are the averages of SCC distributions 

calculated using 5%, 3%, and 2.5% discount rates, respectively. The value of $78.4 per ton represents the 

95th percentile of the SCC distribution calculated using a 3% discount rate. The value for NOX (in 2011$) is 

the average of the low and high values used in DOE’s analysis.

† Total Benefits for both the 3% and 7% cases are derived using the series corresponding to SCC value of 

$41.1/t in 2016 (derived from the 3% discount rate value for SCC).

†† Total Benefits for both the 3% and 7% cases are derived using the series corresponding to SCC value of 

$25.6/t in 2016 (derived from the 3% discount rate value for SCC).

The benefits and costs of today’s standards, for products sold in 2016–2045, can

also be expressed in terms of annualized values. The annualized monetary values are the 

sum of (1) the annualized national economic value of the benefits from operating the 

product (consisting primarily of operating cost savings from using less energy, minus 

increases in equipment purchase and installation costs, which is another way of 

representing consumer NPV), plus (2) the annualized monetary value of the benefits of 

emission reductions, including CO2 emission reductions.6

 6 DOE used a two-step calculation process to convert the time-series of costs and benefits into annualized 

values. First, DOE calculated a present value in 2013, the year used for discounting the NPV of total 

consumer costs and savings, for the time-series of costs and benefits using discount rates of 3 and 7 percent 

for all costs and benefits except for the value of CO2 reductions. For the latter, DOE used a range of 

discount rates, as shown in Table I.3. From the present value, DOE then calculated the fixed annual 

payment over a 30-year period (2016 through 2045) that yields the same present value. The fixed annual 

payment is the annualized value. Although DOE calculated annualized values, this does not imply that the 

time-series of cost and benefits from which the annualized values were determined is a steady stream of 

payments.

Deleted: †

Deleted: .
13

Although adding the value of consumer savings to the value of emission 

reductions provides a valuable perspective, two issues should be considered. First, the 

national operating cost savings are domestic U.S. consumer monetary savings that occur 

as a result of market transactions, while the value of CO2 reductions is based on a global 

value. Second, the assessments of operating cost savings and CO2 savings are performed 

with different methods that use different time frames for analysis. The national operating 

cost savings is measured for the lifetime of microwave ovens shipped in 2016–2045. The 

SCC values, on the other hand, reflect the present value of all future climate-related 

impacts resulting from the emission of one metric ton of carbon dioxide in each year. 

These impacts continue well beyond 2100.

Estimates of annualized benefits and costs of today’s standards are shown in 

Table I.4. (All monetary values below are expressed in 2011$). The results under the 

primary estimate, using the 2013 SCC values from the interagency group, are as follows. 

Using a 7-percent discount rate for benefits and costs other than CO2 reduction, for which 

DOE used a 3-percent discount rate along with the SCC series corresponding to a value 

of $41.1/ton in 2016, the cost of the standards in today’s rule is $58.4 million per year in 

increased equipment costs, while the benefits are $174 million per year in reduced 

equipment operating costs, $58.4 million in CO2 reductions, and $1.64 million in reduced 

NOX emissions. In this case, the net benefit amounts to $175 million per year. Using a 3-

percent discount rate for all benefits and costs and the SCC series corresponding to a 

value of $41.1/ton in 2016, the cost of the standards in today’s rule is $66.4 million per 

year in increased equipment costs, while the benefits are $234 million per year in reduced 

Deleted: 25.6

Deleted: 48.1

Deleted: 36.7

Deleted: 164

Deleted: 25.6

Deleted: 54.7
14

operating costs, $58.4 million in CO2 reductions, and $2.20 million in reduced NOX

emissions. In this case, the net benefit amounts to $228 million per year. The monetary 

value of the CO2 emissions reductions using the previous (2010) SCC estimates, and the 

benefits using those estimates, are presented for information purposes.

Deleted: 36.7

Deleted: 218 million per year
15

Table I-4 Annualized Benefits and Costs of Amended Standards for Microwave 

Ovens

Discount 

Rate

Primary 

Estimate*

Low Net 

Benefits 

Estimate

High Net 

Benefits 

Estimate

Benefits

(Million 2011$/year)

Operating Cost Savings

7% 174 162 191

3% 234 215 261

CO2 Reduction ($12.6/t case)**

Using 2013 Social Cost of Carbon Values

5% 15.8 14.7 17.4

CO2 Reduction ($41.1/t case)** 3% 58.4 54.1 64.5

CO2 Reduction ($63.2/t case)** 2.5% 87.4 80.9 96.7

CO2 Reduction ($119/t case)** 3% 179 166 198

Total Benefits†

7% plus 

CO2 range

191 to 354 178 to 329 210 to 391

7% 234 218 258

3% 294 271 328

3% plus 

CO2 range

252 to 415 232 to 383 281 to 462

CO2 Reduction ($6.2/t case)***

Using 2010 Social Cost of Carbon Values

5% 9.29 8.62 17.4

CO2 Reduction ($25.6/t case)*** 3% 36.7 34.0 40.6

CO2 Reduction ($41.1/t case)*** 2.5% 57.9 53.6 64.1

CO2 Reduction ($78.4/t case)*** 3% 111.8 103.5 123.6

NOX Reduction at $2,567/ton**

7% 1.64 1.54 1.79

3% 2.20 2.05 2.42

Total Benefits†

7% plus 

CO2 range

185 to 287 172 to 267 203 to 317

7% 212 198 234

3% 273 251 304

3% plus 

CO2 range

245 to 348 226 to 321 274 to 388

Costs

Incremental Installed Costs

7% 58.4 59.6 57.5

3% 66.4 67.8 64.3

Net Benefits (using 2013 SCC values)

Total† 7% plus 133 to 296 119 to 270 153 to 334

Deleted: at $

Deleted: **

Deleted: 10.24

Deleted: at $

Deleted: **

Deleted: at $

Deleted: **

Deleted: at $

Deleted: **

Deleted: 78

Deleted: Product

Deleted: /Costs
16

Discount 

Rate

Primary 

Estimate*

Low Net 

Benefits 

Estimate

High Net 

Benefits 

Estimate

CO2 range

(Million 2011$/year)

7% 175 158 200

3% 228 203 264

3% plus 

CO2 range

185 to 349 164 to 315 217 to 398

Net Benefits (using 2010 SCC values)

Total††

7

%

p

l

u

s

C

O

2

r

a

n

g

e

126 to 229 113 to 208 146 to 259

7% 154 138 176

3% 206 183 240

3% plus 

CO2 range

179 to 281 158 to 253 210 to 323

* This table presents the annualized costs and benefits associated with microwave ovens shipped in 2016–

2045. These results include benefits to consumers which accrue after 2016 from the microwave ovens 

purchased from 2016–2045. Costs incurred by manufacturers, some of which may be incurred prior to 2016

in preparation for the rule, are not directly included, but are indirectly included as part of incremental 

equipment costs. The Primary, Low Benefits, and High Benefits Estimates utilize projections of energy 

prices and housing starts from the AEO 2012

IV.E.1

Reference case, Low Estimate, and High Estimate, 

respectively. In addition, incremental product costs reflect a medium decline rate for product prices in the 

Primary Estimate, constant product price in the Low Benefits Estimate, and a high decline rate for product 

prices in the High Benefits Estimate. The methods used to derive projected price trends are explained in 

section of this rulemaking.

Deleted: †

Deleted: projected 

Deleted: price trends

Deleted: a low decline rate for projected

Deleted: trends using a

Deleted: projected 

Deleted: price trends using a
17

** The CO2 values represent global monetized values of the SCC, in 2011$, in 2016 under several 

scenarios. The values of $12.6, $41.1, and $63.2 per metric ton are the averages of SCC distributions 

calculated using 5%, 3%, and 2.5% discount rates, respectively. The value of $119/t represents the 95th

percentile of the SCC distribution calculated using a 3% discount rate. The SCC time series increase over 

time. The value for NOX (in 2011$) is the average of the low and high values used in DOE’s analysis.

*** The CO2 values represent global monetized values of the SCC, in 2011$, in 2016 under several 

scenarios. The values of $6.2, $25.6, and $41.1 per metric ton are the averages of SCC distributions 

calculated using 5%, 3%, and 2.5% discount rates, respectively. The value of $78.4/t represents the 95th

percentile of the SCC distribution calculated using a 3% discount rate. The SCC time series increase over 

time. The value for NOX (in 2011$) is the average of the low and high values used in DOE’s analysis.

† Total Benefits for both the 3-percent and 7-percent cases are derived using the series corresponding to 

SCC value of $41.1/t in 2016. In the rows labeled “7% plus CO2 range” and “3% plus CO2 range,” the

operating cost and NOX benefits are calculated using the labeled discount rate, and those values are added

to the full range of CO2 values.

†† Total Benefits for both the 3-percent and 7-percent cases are derived using the series corresponding to 

SCC value of $25.6/t in 2016. In the rows labeled “7% plus CO2 range” and “3% plus CO2 range,” the 

operating cost and NOX benefits are calculated using the labeled discount rate, and those values are added 

to the full range of CO2 values.

D.

Based on the analyses culminating in this final rule, DOE found the benefits to the 

nation of the standards (energy savings, consumer LCC savings, positive NPV of 

consumer benefit, and emission reductions) (see section V.B.1.a. of this rulemaking)

outweigh the burdens (loss of INPV and LCC increases for a very small percentage of 

users of these products) (see section 

Conclusion

V.B.2.a and section V.B.1.a.). DOE has concluded 

that the standards in today’s final rule represent the maximum improvement in energy 

efficiency that is technologically feasible and economically justified, and would result in 

significant conservation of energy. 

II. Introduction

Deleted: .2, $25.6

Deleted: 41.1

Deleted: 78.4

Deleted: used by DOE incorporate an escalation 

factor.

Deleted: 25.6/t

Deleted: ).
18

The following section briefly discusses the statutory authority underlying today’s 

final rule, as well as some of the relevant historical background related to the 

establishment of standards for microwave ovens.

A.

Title III, Part B of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 (EPCA or the 

Act), Pub. L. 94-163 (42 U.S.C. 6291–6309, as codified) established the Energy 

Conservation Program for Consumer Products Other Than Automobiles,

Authority

7 a program 

covering most major household appliances (collectively referred to as “covered 

products”), which includes the types of microwave ovens that are the subject of this 

rulemaking. (42 U.S.C. 6292(a)(10)) The National Appliance Energy Conservation Act 

of 1987 (NAECA), Public Law 100-12, amended EPCA to establish prescriptive 

standards for cooking products, specifically gas cooking products. No standards were 

established for microwave ovens. DOE notes that under 42 U.S.C. 6295(m), the agency 

must periodically review its already established energy conservation standards for a 

covered product. Under this requirement, the next review that DOE would need to 

conduct must occur no later than 6 years from the issuance of a final rule establishing or 

amending a standard for a covered product.

Pursuant to EPCA, DOE’s energy conservation program for covered products 

consists essentially of four parts: (1) testing; (2) labeling; (3) the establishment of Federal 

energy conservation standards; and (4) certification and enforcement procedures. The 

Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is primarily responsible for labeling, and DOE 

 7

 For editorial reasons, upon codification in the U.S. Code, Part B was redesignated Part A.
19

implements the remainder of the program. Subject to certain criteria and conditions, DOE 

is required to develop test procedures to measure the energy efficiency, energy use, or 

estimated annual operating cost of each covered product. (42 U.S.C. 6293) Manufacturers 

of covered products must use the prescribed DOE test procedure as the basis for 

certifying to DOE that their products comply with the applicable energy conservation 

standards adopted under EPCA and when making representations to the public regarding 

the energy use or efficiency of those products. (42 U.S.C. 6293(c) and 6295(s)) Similarly, 

DOE must use these test procedures to determine whether the products comply with 

standards adopted pursuant to EPCA. Id. The DOE test procedures for microwave ovens 

currently appear at title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) part 430, subpart B, 

appendix I.

DOE must follow specific statutory criteria for prescribing amended standards for 

covered products. As indicated above, any amended standard for a covered product must 

be designed to achieve the maximum improvement in energy efficiency that is 

technologically feasible and economically justified. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(A)) 

Furthermore, DOE may not adopt any standard that would not result in the significant 

conservation of energy. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(3)) Moreover, DOE may not prescribe a 

standard: (1) for certain products, including microwave ovens, if no test procedure has 

been established for the product, or (2) if DOE determines by rule that the amended 

standard is not technologically feasible or economically justified. (42 U.S.C. 

6295(o)(3)(A)-(B)) In deciding whether an amended standard is economically justified, 

DOE must determine whether the benefits of the standard exceed its burdens. (42 U.S.C. 
20

6295(o)(2)(B)(i)) DOE must make this determination after receiving comments on the 

proposed standard, and by considering, to the greatest extent practicable, the following 

seven factors:

1. The economic impact of the standard on manufacturers and consumers of the 

products subject to the standard;

2. The savings in operating costs throughout the estimated average life of the 

covered products in the type (or class) compared to any increase in the price, initial 

charges, or maintenance expenses for the covered products that are likely to result from 

the imposition of the standard; 

3. The total projected amount of energy, or as applicable, water, savings likely to 

result directly from the imposition of the standard;

4. Any lessening of the utility or the performance of the covered products likely to 

result from the imposition of the standard;

5. The impact of any lessening of competition, as determined in writing by the 

Attorney General, that is likely to result from the imposition of the standard;

6. The need for national energy and water conservation; and

7. Other factors the Secretary of Energy (Secretary) considers relevant. (42 U.S.C. 

6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(I)–(VII))

EPCA, as codified, also contains what is known as an “anti-backsliding” 

provision, which prevents the Secretary from prescribing any amended standard that 

either increases the maximum allowable energy use or decreases the minimum required 
21

energy efficiency of a covered product. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(1)) Also, the Secretary may 

not prescribe an amended or new standard if interested persons have established by a 

preponderance of the evidence that the standard is likely to result in the unavailability in 

the United States of any covered product type (or class) of performance characteristics

(including reliability), features, sizes, capacities, and volumes that are substantially the 

same as those generally available in the United States. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(4))

Further, EPCA, as codified, establishes a rebuttable presumption that a standard is 

economically justified if the Secretary finds that the additional cost to the consumer of 

purchasing a product complying with an energy conservation standard level will be less 

than three times the value of the energy savings during the first year that the consumer 

will receive as a result of the standard, as calculated under the applicable test procedure.

See 42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(iii).

Additionally, 42 U.S.C. 6295(q)(1) specifies requirements when promulgating a 

standard for a type or class of covered product that has two or more subcategories. DOE 

must specify a different standard level than that which applies generally to such type or 

class of products for any group of covered products that have the same function or 

intended use if DOE determines that products within such group (A) consume a different 

kind of energy from that consumed by other covered products within such type (or class); 

or (B) have a capacity or other performance-related feature which other products within 

such type (or class) do not have and such feature justifies a higher or lower standard. (42 

U.S.C. 6295(q)(1)) In determining whether a performance-related feature justifies a 
22

different standard for a group of products, DOE must consider such factors as the utility 

to the consumer of such a feature and other factors DOE deems appropriate. Id. Any rule 

prescribing such a standard must include an explanation of the basis on which such 

higher or lower level was established. (42 U.S.C. 6295(q)(2))

Federal energy conservation requirements generally supersede State laws or 

regulations concerning energy conservation testing, labeling, and standards. (42 U.S.C. 

6297(a)–(c)) DOE may, however, grant waivers of Federal preemption for particular 

State laws or regulations, in accordance with the procedures and other provisions set forth 

under 42 U.S.C. 6297(d)).

Finally, pursuant to the amendments contained in section 310(3) of EISA 2007,

any final rule for new or amended energy conservation standards promulgated after July 

1, 2010, are required to address standby mode and off mode energy use. (42 U.S.C. 

6295(gg)(3)) Specifically, when DOE adopts a standard for a covered product after that 

date, it must, if justified by the criteria for adoption of standards under EPCA (42 U.S.C. 

6295(o)), incorporate standby mode and off mode energy use into the standard, or, if that 

is not feasible, adopt a separate standard for such energy use for that product. (42 U.S.C. 

6295(gg)(3)(A)–(B)) DOE’s current test procedure for microwave ovens addresses

standby mode and off mode energy use, as do the amended standards adopted in this final 

rule.
23

DOE has also reviewed this regulation pursuant to Executive Order 13563, issued 

on January 18, 2011. 76 FR 3281 (Jan. 21, 2011). EO 13563 is supplemental to and 

explicitly reaffirms the principles, structures, and definitions governing regulatory review 

established in Executive Order 12866. To the extent permitted by law, agencies are 

required by Executive Order 13563 to: (1) propose or adopt a regulation only upon a 

reasoned determination that its benefits justify its costs (recognizing that some benefits 

and costs are difficult to quantify); (2) tailor regulations to impose the least burden on 

society, consistent with obtaining regulatory objectives, taking into account, among other 

things, and to the extent practicable, the costs of cumulative regulations; (3) select, in 

choosing among alternative regulatory approaches, those approaches that maximize net 

benefits (including potential economic, environmental, public health and safety, and other 

advantages; distributive impacts; and equity); (4) to the extent feasible, specify 

performance objectives, rather than specifying the behavior or manner of compliance that 

regulated entities must adopt; and (5) identify and assess available alternatives to direct 

regulation, including providing economic incentives to encourage the desired behavior, 

such as user fees or marketable permits, or providing information upon which choices can 

be made by the public.

DOE emphasizes as well that Executive Order 13563 requires agencies to use the 

best available techniques to quantify anticipated present and future benefits and costs as 

accurately as possible. In its guidance, the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs 

has emphasized that such techniques may include identifying changing future compliance 

costs that might result from technological innovation or anticipated behavioral changes. 
24

For the reasons stated in section I of this rulemaking, DOE determines that today’s final 

rule is consistent with these principles, including the requirement that, to the extent 

permitted by law, benefits justify costs and that net benefits are maximized. Consistent 

with EO 13563, and the range of impacts analyzed in this rulemaking, the energy 

efficiency standard adopted herein by DOE achieves maximum net benefits.

B.

1. Current Standards

Background

Currently, there are no DOE energy conservation standards for microwave oven 

active mode, standby mode, or off mode energy consumption. Based on analyses and 

comments from interested parties, DOE decided in 2009 not to adopt energy conservation 

standards for microwave oven energy factor (microwave oven operation in active mode), 

but to develop a separate energy use metric for standby mode and off mode. 74 FR 16040 

(Apr. 8, 2009).

8 As discussed in section II.A of this rulemaking, if DOE adopts amended 

standards for microwave ovens after July 1, 2010, it must, if justified by the criteria for 

adoption of standards under EPCA (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)), incorporate standby mode and 

off mode energy use into the standard, or, if that is not feasible, adopt a separate standard 

for such energy use for that product. (42 U.S.C. 6295(gg)(3)(A)–(B)) Because there is 

currently no test procedure or standard for microwave oven active mode, DOE has 

determined that proposing a combined metric for standby and active mode energy use is 

not feasible at this time. If DOE amends the test procedure to incorporate measurement of 

 8 DOE repealed the microwave oven active mode provisions from its test procedure on July 22, 2010, after 

determining that the active mode methodology did not produce repeatable and representative results. 75 FR 

42579.

Deleted: amend

Deleted: also 
25

microwave oven active mode energy use, DOE will consider whether it is technically 

feasible to incorporate active mode, standby mode, and off mode energy use into a single 

metric for future energy conservation standards.

2. History of Standards Rulemaking for Microwave Ovens

On March 15, 2006, DOE published on its website a document titled, 

“Rulemaking Framework for Commercial Clothes Washers and Residential Dishwashers, 

Dehumidifiers, and Cooking Products” (Framework Document).9 71 FR 15059. The 

Framework Document described the procedural and analytical approaches that DOE 

anticipated using to evaluate energy conservation standards for these products, and 

identified various issues to be resolved in conducting the rulemaking. On December 4, 

2006, DOE posted on its website two spreadsheet tools for this rulemaking.10 The first 

tool calculates LCC and payback periods (PBPs). The second tool—the national impact 

analysis (NIA) spreadsheet—calculates the impacts on shipments and the national energy 

savings (NES) and NPV at various candidate standard levels. DOE subsequently 

published the advance notice of proposed rulemaking (ANOPR) for this rulemaking (72 

FR 64432 (Nov. 15, 2007)), the November 2007 ANOPR) and on December 13, 2007, 

held a public meeting to present and seek comment on the analytical methodology and 

results in the ANOPR (the December 2007 Public Meeting).

 9 This document is available on the DOE website at: 

http://www.regulations.gov/#!docketBrowser;rpp=25;po=0;D=EERE-2006-STD-0127. (Last accessed 

December 2012.) 10 These spreadsheets are available on the DOE website at: 

http://www.regulations.gov/#!docketBrowser;rpp=25;po=0;D=EERE-2006-STD-0127. (Last accessed 

December 2012)
26

At the December 2007 Public Meeting, DOE invited comment in particular on the 

following issues concerning microwave ovens: (1) incorporation of the International 

Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) test standard IEC Standard 6230111 into DOE’s 

microwave oven test procedure to measure standby mode and off mode power; (2) IEC 

Standard 62301 test conditions; and (3) a requirement that if the measured standby mode 

power varies as a function of the time displayed, the standby mode power test would run 

for 12 hours, with an initial clock setting of 12:00.

Interested parties’ comments presented during the December 2007 Public Meeting 

and submitted in response to the November 2007 ANOPR addressed the standby mode 

and off mode energy use of microwave ovens and the ability to combine that energy use 

into a single metric with cooking energy use. Those concerns lead DOE to thoroughly 

investigate standby mode, off mode, and active mode power consumption of microwave 

ovens.

On October 17, 2008, DOE published a NOPR (the October 2008 NOPR) for 

cooking products and commercial clothes washers in the Federal Register proposing 

amended energy conservation standards. 73 FR 62034. In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE 

tentatively concluded that a standard for microwave oven standby mode and off mode 

energy use would be technologically feasible and economically justified. Id. at 62120. 

Therefore, concurrent with the standards NOPR, DOE published in the Federal Register

 11 IEC standards are available for purchase at: 

a 

test procedure NOPR for microwave ovens to incorporate a measurement of standby 

http://www.iec.ch/.
27

mode and off mode power and to consider inclusion of such power as part of the energy 

conservation standards rulemaking. 73 FR 62134 (Oct. 17, 2008). DOE concluded, 

however, that, “although it may be mathematically possible to combine energy 

consumption into a single metric encompassing active (cooking), standby, and off modes, 

it is not technically feasible to do so at this time....” 73 FR 62034, 62043 (Oct. 17, 2008). 

The separate prescriptive standby mode and off mode energy conservation standards 

proposed in the October 2008 NOPR for microwave ovens are shown in Table II.1.

Table II-1 October 2008 NOPR Proposed Energy Conservation Standards for 

Microwave Oven Standby Mode and Off Mode

Product Class Proposed Energy Conservation Standard

Microwave Ovens Maximum Standby Power = 1.0 watt

In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE described and sought further comment on the 

analytical framework, models, and tools (e.g., LCC and NIA spreadsheets) it was using to 

analyze the impacts of energy conservation standards for this product. DOE held a public 

meeting in Washington, DC, on November 13, 2008 (the November 2008 Public 

Meeting), to present the methodologies and results for the October 2008 NOPR analyses.

Multiple interested parties commented in response to the October 2008 NOPR 

that insufficient data and information were available to complete this rulemaking, and 

requested that it be postponed to allow DOE to gather such inputs on which to base its 

analysis. DOE agreed with these commenters that additional information would improve 

its analysis and, in April 2009, it concluded that it should defer a decision regarding 

amended energy conservation standards that would address standby mode and off mode 
28

energy use for microwave ovens pending further rulemaking. 74 FR 16040, 16042 (Apr. 

8, 2009). In the interim, DOE proceeded with consideration of energy conservation 

standards for microwave oven active mode energy use based on its proposals in the 

October 2008 NOPR, and its analysis determined that no new standards for microwave 

oven active mode (as to cooking efficiency) were technologically feasible and 

economically justified. Therefore, in a final rule published on April 8, 2009, DOE 

maintained the “no standard” standard for microwave oven active mode energy use. Id. at 

16087. The final rule is available on DOE’s website at: 

www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/appliance_standards/residential/pdfs/74fr16040.pdf

After continuing its analysis of microwave oven standby mode and off mode 

through additional testing, research, and consideration of an updated version of IEC 

Standard 62301, DOE published an SNOPR on February 14, 2012 (77 FR 8526) 

(hereafter referred to as the February 2012 SNOPR) to enable interested parties to 

comment on revised product class definitions and standby power levels proposed for 

microwave oven standby mode and off mode energy use. As discussed further in section 

IV.B of this rulemaking, DOE determined that built-in and over-the range convection

microwave ovens incorporate features required to handle the thermal loads associated 

with their installation and to provide consumer utility, thereby resulting in higher standby 

power consumption than for other microwave oven product types. DOE’s product testing 

and reverse-engineering analysis additionally determined that over-the-range microwaveonly ovens did not require features with higher standby power consumption than 
29

countertop microwave-only units, and thus DOE proposed the following two product 

classes and standby power levels for microwave oven energy conservation standards:

Table II-2 February 2012 SNOPR Proposed Energy Conservation Standards for 

Microwave Oven Standby Mode and Off Mode

Product Class Proposed Energy Conservation Standard

Microwave-Only Ovens and 

Countertop Convection* Microwave 

Ovens

Maximum Standby Power = 1.0 watt

Built-In and Over-the-Range 

Convection* Microwave Ovens

Maximum Standby Power = 2.2 watts

* In earlier stages of this rulemaking, DOE referred to microwave ovens that incorporate convection 

features and any other means of cooking in a single compartment as “combination microwave ovens”. In 

the final rule for DOE’s microwave oven test procedure (78 FR 4015, 4017–4018 (Jan. 18, 2013), DOE 

defined such products as “convection microwave ovens”, and DOE accordingly uses this terminology

consistently in today’s final rule rulemaking and amended microwave oven standards.

The compliance date for the amended energy conservation standards for 

microwave ovens is [INSERT DATE 3 YEARS AFTER DATE OF PUBLICATION 

IN THE FEDERAL REGISTER].

III. General Discussion

A.

Section 310 of EISA 2007 amended EPCA to require DOE to amend the test 

procedures for covered products to address energy consumption of standby mode and off 

mode. If technically infeasible, DOE must prescribe a separate standby mode and off 

mode energy use test procedure. (42 U.S.C. 6295(gg)(2)(A))

Test Procedures

In the final rule published on January 18, 2013 (hereafter referred to as the 

January 2013 TP Final Rule), DOE amended the microwave oven test procedure to 

incorporate by reference certain provisions of IEC Standard 62301 Edition 2.0 2011-01 
30

(IEC Standard 62301 (Second Edition)), along with clarifying language, for the 

measurement of standby mode and off mode energy use. In the narrow case of 

microwave ovens with power consumption that varies as a function of the time displayed, 

DOE maintained the existing use of IEC Standard 62301 (First Edition) for measuring 

standby mode power to minimize manufacturer burden. DOE also determined that 

microwave ovens combined with other appliance functionality are covered under the 

definition of “microwave oven” at 10 CFR 430.2, but due to a lack of data and 

information, did not adopt provisions in the microwave oven test procedure to measure 

the standby mode and off mode energy use of the microwave component. 78 FR 4015

(Jan. 18, 2013).

The Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers (AHAM) and GE Consumer 

& Industrial (GE) commented that they support incorporation by reference of IEC

Standard 62301 (Second Edition) in the DOE microwave oven test procedure, but stated 

that DOE cannot determine appropriate standard levels in this rulemaking without testing 

based on the final test procedure to be used to determine compliance. (AHAM, No. 16 at 

p. 412; GE, No. 19 at p. 1)

DOE reviewed its testing that it had conducted in support of various stages of the

microwave oven test procedure rulemaking, and determined that there were six 

 12 A notation in the form “AHAM, No. 16 at p. 4” identifies a written comment that DOE has received and 

has included in the docket of the standards rulemaking for microwave ovens (Docket No. EERE–2011–

BT–STD–0048). This particular notation refers to a comment (1) submitted by the Association of Home 

Appliance Manufacturers (AHAM), (2) recorded in document number 16 in the docket of this rulemaking, 

and (3) which appears on page 4 of document number 16.
31

microwave oven models that had been tested according to both the First and Second 

Editions of IEC Standard 62301. In order to supplement this sample, DOE additionally

tested eight more microwave ovens as part of its final rule analysis so that a comparison 

could be made between the standby power consumption measurements obtained with the 

First Edition and Second Edition for various installation configurations, display types, 

and manufacturers/brands. Table III.1 presents the results of the comparison between 

testing to the First Edition and the Second Edition, which showed results for the two 

methodologies varying by no more than 5.5 percent, which DOE concludes demonstrates 

close enough agreement that manufacturers could apply the same design option pathways 

(see section IV.C.3 of this rulemaking) to achieve the varying standby power levels when 

measuring according to IEC Standard 62301 (Second Edition) as DOE’s analysis 

identified based on testing to IEC Standard 62301 (First Edition).
32

Table III-1 Comparison of Standby Power Measurements According to IEC 

Standard 62301 (First Edition) and IEC Standard 62301 (Second Edition)

Configuration Display*

Standby 

Power (W), 

First Edition

Standby Power 

(W), Second 

Edition

% 

Difference

Countertop Microwave-Only

Backlit 

LCD 3.84 3.66 -4.7

Countertop Microwave-Only

Backlit 

LCD 2.18 2.18 -0.3

Countertop Microwave-Only

Backlit 

LCD 3.81 3.78 -1.0

Countertop Microwave-Only LED 1.06 1.07 0.3

Countertop Microwave-Only LED 1.76 1.77 0.8

Countertop Microwave-Only LED 1.27 1.27 -0.4

Countertop Microwave-Only VFD 3.44 3.42 -0.6

Countertop Microwave-Only VFD 3.14 3.12 -0.7

Countertop Convection

Microwave LED 1.20 1.24 3.2

Countertop Convection

Microwave VFD 4.14 4.13 -0.1

Countertop Convection

Microwave VFD 3.23 3.05 -5.5

Over-the-Range MicrowaveOnly VFD 1.66 1.67 0.4

Over-the-Range MicrowaveOnly LED 0.78 0.78 0.0

Over-the-Range Convection

Microwave VFD 4.50 4.48 -0.4

* LCD = Liquid Crystal Display, LED = Light Emitting Diode, VFD = Vacuum Fluorescent Display

B.

1. General

Technological Feasibility

In each standards rulemaking, DOE conducts a screening analysis based on 

information gathered on all current technology options and prototype designs that could 

improve the efficiency of the products or equipment that are the subject of the 

rulemaking. As the first step in such an analysis, DOE develops a list of technology 

options for consideration in consultation with manufacturers, design engineers, and other 

interested parties. DOE then determines which of those means for improving efficiency 

are technologically feasible. DOE considers technologies incorporated in commercially 
33

available products or in working prototypes to be technologically feasible. 10 CFR part 

430, subpart C, appendix A, section 4(a)(4)(i).

After DOE has determined that particular technology options are technologically 

feasible, it further evaluates each technology option in light of the following additional 

screening criteria: (1) practicability to manufacture, install, or service; (2) adverse 

impacts on product utility or availability; and (3) adverse impacts on health or safety. 10 

CFR part 430, subpart C, appendix A, section 4(a)(3) and (4). All technologically feasible 

design options that pass the three additional screening criteria are candidates for further 

assessment in the engineering and subsequent analyses in the NOPR stage. DOE may 

amend the list of retained design options in SNOPR analyses based on comments 

received on the NOPR and on further research. Section IV.D of this rulemaking discusses 

the results of the screening analysis for microwave ovens, particularly the designs DOE 

considered, those it screened out, and those that are the basis for the trial standard levels 

(TSLs) in this rulemaking. For further details on the screening analysis for this 

rulemaking, see chapter 4 of the final rule TSD.

DOE published a list of evaluated microwave oven technologies in the November 

2007 ANOPR. 72 FR 64432 (Nov. 15, 2007). DOE identified lower-power display 

technologies, improved power supplies and controllers, and alternative cooking sensor 

technologies as options to reduce standby power. DOE conducted this research when it 

became aware of the likelihood of EISA 2007 being signed, which DOE understood was 

to contain provisions pertaining to standby mode and off mode energy use. Therefore, 
34

DOE presented details of each design option to interested parties at the December 2007 

Public Meeting even though the results were not available in time for publication in the 

November 2007 ANOPR. DOE determined that all of these options were technologically 

feasible, and in the ANOPR invited comment on technology options that reduce standby 

power in microwave ovens. 72 FR 64432, 64513 (Nov. 15, 2007).

For the October 2008 NOPR, DOE conducted additional research on several 

microwave oven technologies that significantly affect standby power, including cooking 

sensors, display technologies, and control strategies and associated control boards. DOE 

determined that control strategies are available that enable manufacturers to make design 

tradeoffs between incorporating features that consume standby power (such as displays or 

cooking sensors) and including a function to turn power off to those components during 

standby mode. 73 FR 62034, 62052 (Oct. 17, 2008).

DOE received comments on each of these technology options in response to the 

October 2008 NOPR, and determined through additional research conducted for the 

February 2012 SNOPR and today’s final rule that each of these technologies and control 

strategies are feasible means to reduce standby power for both product classes of 

microwave ovens. 77 FR 8526, 8537–40 (Feb. 14, 2012). For more details of these 

technology options and comments from interested parties, see chapter 3 of the final rule 

TSD and section IV.C of this rulemaking.
35

2. Maximum Technologically Feasible Levels

When DOE proposes to adopt an amended standard for a type or class of covered 

product, it must determine the maximum improvement in energy efficiency or maximum 

reduction in energy use that is technologically feasible for such product. (42 U.S.C. 

6295(p)(1)) Using the design parameters that lead to creation of the highest available 

product efficiencies, in the engineering analysis DOE determined the maximum 

technologically feasible (“max-tech”) standby power levels13

Table III.2

for microwave ovens, as 

shown in . The max-tech microwave oven standby power level corresponds to 

a unit equipped with a default automatic power-down function that disables certain 

power-consuming components after a specified period of user inactivity. The max-tech 

microwave oven standby power level was determined in the October 2008 NOPR to be 

0.02 watts (W). 73 FR 62052 (Oct. 17, 2008). Based upon additional analyses for the 

February 2012 SNOPR, DOE determined that this max-tech level is applicable to the 

product class of microwave-only ovens and countertop convection microwave ovens. For 

built-in and over-the-range convection microwave ovens, DOE identified, based on its 

analysis, a max-tech standby power level of 0.04 W. 77 FR 8526, 8541–42 (Feb. 14, 

2012). DOE has retained these max-tech levels for today’s final rule. For more details of 

the max-tech levels, see chapter 5 of the final rule TSD and section IV.D.2 of this

rulemaking.

 13 As noted elsewhere in today’s final rule, DOE is aware of fewer than 1 percent of microwave oven 

models currently available that can operate in off mode. Therefore, efficiency levels for the purposes of 

evaluating standby mode and off mode energy use in microwave ovens are defined on the basis of standby 

power only at this time.
36

Table III-2 Max-Tech Microwave Oven Standby Power Levels

Product Class Max-Tech Standby Power 

Level

Microwave-Only Ovens and Countertop Convection 

Microwave Ovens

0.02 watts

Built-In and Over-the-Range Convection Microwave 

Ovens

0.04 watts

C.

1. Determination of Savings

Energy Savings

For each TSL, DOE projected energy savings from the products that are the 

subject of this rulemaking purchased in the 30-year period that begins in the year of 

compliance with amended standards (2016–2045). The savings are measured over the 

entire lifetime of products purchased in the 30-year period.14 DOE quantified the energy 

savings attributable to each TSL as the difference in energy consumption between each 

standards case and the base case. The base case represents a projection of energy

consumption in the absence of amended mandatory efficiency standards, and considers 

market forces and policies that affect demand for more efficient products.

DOE used its NIA spreadsheet model to estimate energy savings from amended 

standards for the products that are the subject of this rulemaking. The NIA spreadsheet 

model (described in section IV.F of this rulemaking) calculates energy savings in site 

energy, which is the energy directly consumed by products at the locations where they 

are used. DOE reports national energy savings on an annual basis in terms of the source 

 14 In the past DOE presented energy savings results for only the 30-year period that begins in the year of 

compliance. In the calculation of economic impacts, however, DOE considered operating cost savings 

measured over the entire lifetime of products purchased in the 30-year period. DOE has chosen to modify 

its presentation of national energy savings to be consistent with the approach used for its national economic 

analysis.
37

(primary) energy savings, which is the savings in the energy that is used to generate and 

transmit the site energy. To convert site energy to source energy, DOE derived annual 

conversion factors from the model used to prepare the Energy Information 

Administration’s (EIA) Annual Energy Outlook 2012 (AEO 2012).

2. Significance of Savings

As noted above, 42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(3)(B) prevents DOE from adopting a standard 

for a covered product unless such standard would result in “significant” energy savings. 

Although the term “significant” is not defined in the Act, the U.S. Court of Appeals, in 

Natural Resources Defense Council v. Herrington

V.C

, 768 F.2d 1355, 1373 (D.C. Cir. 1985), 

indicated that Congress intended “significant” energy savings in this context to be 

savings that were not “genuinely trivial.” The energy savings for all of the TSLs 

considered in this rulemaking (presented in section of this rulemaking) are 

nontrivial, and, therefore, DOE considers them “significant” within the meaning of 

section 325 of EPCA.

D.

1. Specific Criteria

Economic Justification

EPCA provides seven factors to be evaluated in determining whether a potential 

energy conservation standard is economically justified. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)) The 

following sections discuss how DOE has addressed each of those seven factors in this 

rulemaking.
38

a. Economic Impact on Manufacturers and Consumers

In determining the impacts of an amended standard on manufacturers, DOE first 

uses an annual cash-flow approach to determine the quantitative impacts. This step 

includes both a short-term assessment—based on the cost and capital requirements during 

the period between when a regulation is issued and when entities must comply with the 

regulation—and a long-term assessment over a 30-year period. The industry-wide 

impacts analyzed include the INPV, which values the industry on the basis of expected 

future cash flows; cash flows by year; changes in revenue and income; and other 

measures of impact, as appropriate. Second, DOE analyzes and reports the impacts on 

different types of manufacturers, including impacts on small manufacturers. Third, DOE 

considers the impact of standards on domestic manufacturer employment and 

manufacturing capacity, as well as the potential for standards to result in plant closures 

and loss of capital investment. Finally, DOE takes into account cumulative impacts of 

various DOE regulations and other regulatory requirements on manufacturers.

For more details on the manufacturer impact analysis (MIA), see section IV.H of this 

rulemaking and chapter 12 of the final rule TSD.

For individual consumers, measures of economic impact include the changes in 

LCC and PBP associated with new or amended standards. The LCC, which is specified 

separately in EPCA as one of the seven factors to be considered in determining the 

economic justification for a new or amended standard, 42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(II), is 

discussed in the following section. For consumers in the aggregate, DOE also calculates 
39

the national net present value of the economic impacts applicable to a particular 

rulemaking.

b. Life-Cycle Costs

The LCC is the sum of the purchase price of a product (including its installation) 

and the operating expense (including energy, maintenance, and repair expenditures) 

discounted over the lifetime of the product. The LCC savings for the considered 

efficiency levels are calculated relative to a base case that reflects projected market trends 

in the absence of amended standards. The LCC analysis requires a variety of inputs, such 

as product prices, product energy consumption, energy prices, maintenance and repair 

costs, product lifetime, and consumer discount rates. For its analysis, DOE assumes that 

consumers will purchase the considered products in the first year of compliance with 

amended standards.

To account for uncertainty and variability in specific inputs, such as product

lifetime and discount rate, DOE uses a distribution of values, with probabilities attached 

to each value. DOE identifies the percentage of consumers estimated to receive LCC 

savings or experience an LCC increase, in addition to the average LCC savings

associated with a particular standard level. DOE also evaluates the LCC impacts of 

potential standards on identifiable subgroups of consumers that may be affected 

disproportionately by a national standard. See section IV.E of this rulemaking for more 

details on the LCC and PBP analysis.
40

c. Energy Savings

Although significant conservation of energy is a separate statutory requirement 

for imposing an energy conservation standard, EPCA requires DOE, in determining the 

economic justification of a standard, to consider the total projected energy savings that 

are expected to result directly from the standard. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(III)) As 

discussed in section IV.F of this rulemaking, DOE uses the NIA spreadsheet to project 

national energy savings. See chapter 10 of the final rule TSD for more details on this 

analysis.

d. Lessening of Utility or Performance of Products

In establishing classes of products, and in evaluating design options and the 

impact of potential standard levels, DOE evaluates standards that would not lessen the 

utility or performance of the considered products. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(IV)) The

standards adopted in today’s final rule will not reduce the utility or performance of the 

products under consideration in this rulemaking.

e. Impact of Any Lessening of Competition

EPCA directs DOE to consider any lessening of competition that is likely to result 

from standards. It also directs the Attorney General of the United States (Attorney 

General) to determine the impact, if any, of any lessening of competition likely to result 

from a proposed standard and to transmit such determination to the Secretary within 60 

days of the publication of a direct final rule and simultaneously published proposed rule, 

together with an analysis of the nature and extent of the impact. (42 U.S.C. 
41

6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(V) and (B)(ii)) DOE received the Attorney General’s determination, 

dated December 16, 2008, on standards proposed in the October 2008 NOPR. The 

Attorney General’s determination for October 2008 NOPR did not mention microwave 

oven standards. To assist the Attorney General in making a determination for microwave 

oven standards, DOE provided the Department of Justice (DOJ) with copies of the 

SNOPR and the TSD for review. DOJ concluded that the energy conservation standards 

for microwave standby power as proposed were unlikely to have a significant adverse 

impact on competition.

f. Need for National Energy Conservation

The energy savings from amended standards are likely to provide improvements 

to the security and reliability of the nation’s energy system. Reductions in the demand for 

electricity also may result in reduced costs for maintaining the reliability of the nation’s 

electricity system. DOE conducts a utility impact analysis to estimate how standards may 

affect the nation’s needed power generation capacity.

The amended standards also are likely to result in environmental benefits in the 

form of reduced emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases associated with energy 

production. DOE reports the emissions impacts from today’s standards, and from each 

TSL it considered, in chapter 15 of the final rule TSD. (42. U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(VI))

See section IV.K of this rulemaking for more details on this analysis. DOE also reports 

estimates of the economic value of emissions reductions resulting from the considered 

TSLs.
42

g. Other Factors

EPCA allows the Secretary of Energy, in determining whether a standard is 

economically justified, to consider any other factors that the Secretary deems to be 

relevant. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(VII)) In considering amended standards for today’s 

rulemaking, the Secretary found no relevant factors other than those identified elsewhere 

in today’s final rule.

2. Rebuttable Presumption

As set forth in 42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(iii), EPCA creates a rebuttable 

presumption that an energy conservation standard is economically justified if the 

additional cost to the consumer of a product that meets the standard is less than three 

times the value of the first year’s energy savings resulting from the standard, as 

calculated under the applicable DOE test procedure. DOE’s LCC and PBP analyses 

generate values used to calculate the effect potential amended energy conservation 

standards would have on the payback period for consumers. These analyses include, but 

are not limited to, the 3-year payback period contemplated under the rebuttablepresumption test. In addition, DOE routinely conducts an economic analysis that 

considers the full range of impacts to consumers, manufacturers, the nation, and the 

environment, as required under 42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i). The results of this analysis 

serve as the basis for DOE’s evaluation of the economic justification for a potential 

standard level (thereby supporting or rebutting the results of any preliminary 
43

determination of economic justification). The rebuttable presumption payback calculation 

is discussed in section IV.E.10 of this rulemaking and chapter 8 of the final rule TSD.

IV. Methodology and Revisions to the Analyses Employed in the February 2012

Proposed Rule

In weighing the benefits and burdens of amended standards for microwave oven 

standby mode and off mode energy use, DOE used economic models to estimate the 

impacts of each TSL. The LCC spreadsheet calculates the LCC impacts and payback 

periods for potential amended energy conservation standards. DOE used the engineering 

spreadsheet to develop the relationship between cost and efficiency and to calculate the 

simple payback period for purposes of addressing the rebuttable presumption that a 

standard with a payback period of less than 3 years is economically justified. The NIA 

spreadsheet provides shipments forecasts and then calculates NES and NPV impacts of 

potential amended energy conservation standards. DOE also assessed manufacturer 

impacts, largely through use of the Government Regulatory Impact Model (GRIM).

Additionally, DOE estimated the impacts of potential amended energy 

conservation standards on utilities and the environment. DOE used a version of the EIA’s 

National Energy Modeling System (NEMS) for the utility and environmental analyses. 

The EIA has developed the NEMS model, which simulates the energy economy of the 

United States, over several years primarily for the purpose of preparing the AEO. The 

NEMS produces forecasts for the United States energy situation that are available in the 

public domain. The version of NEMS used for appliance standards analysis is called 
44

NEMS-BT.15 The NEMS-BT offers a sophisticated picture of the effect of standards, 

because it accounts for the interactions among the various energy supply and demand 

sectors and the economy as a whole.

A.

At the time of the October 2008 NOPR, DOE’s regulations codified at 10 CFR 

430.2 defined a microwave oven as a class of kitchen ranges and ovens which is a 

household cooking appliance consisting of a compartment designed to cook or heat food 

by means of microwave energy. In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE proposed a single 

product class for microwave ovens that would encompass microwave ovens with and 

without browning (thermal) elements, but would not include microwave ovens that 

incorporate convection systems. 73 FR 62034, 62048 (Oct. 17, 2008).

Covered Products

As part of its microwave oven test procedure rulemaking, DOE reassessed what 

products would be considered microwave ovens under the regulatory definition, and 

whether multiple product classes would be appropriate. As discussed in the test procedure 

interim final rule that published on March 9, 2011 (the March 2011 TP Interim Final 

Rule), DOE amended the definition of microwave oven in 10 CFR 430.2 to clarify that it 

includes microwave ovens with or without thermal elements designed for surface 

browning of food and combination ovens (which at the time was the term DOE used to 

 15 The EIA approves the use of the name NEMS to describe only an AEO version of the model without any 

modification to code or data. Because the present analysis entails some minor code modifications and runs 

the model under various policy scenarios that deviate from AEO assumptions, the model used here has 

been named NEMS-BT. (“BT” stands for DOE’s Building Technologies Program.) For more information 

on NEMS, refer to The National Energy Modeling System: An Overview, DOE/EIA–0581 (98) (Feb. 1998) 

(available at: http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/forecasting/058198.pdf). (Last accessed November 10, 

2012.)
45

designate convection microwave ovens). DOE also determined that all ovens equipped 

with microwave capability would be considered a covered product, regardless of which 

cooking mode (i.e., radiant heating or microwave energy) is primary. Based on the 

preliminary analysis it conducted, DOE observed that the typical standby mode and off 

mode operation for microwave ovens that also incorporate other means of cooking food 

does not differ from that of microwave-only units. As a result, DOE amended the 

microwave oven test procedure in the March 2011 TP Interim Final Rule to require that 

the same standby mode and off mode testing methods be used for all microwave ovens. 

76 FR 12825, 12828–30 (Mar. 9, 2011).

DOE received comments on the topic of covered products in response to the 

February 2012 SNOPR on microwave oven energy conservation standards. AHAM and 

GE stated that DOE should clarify the applicability of the proposed standards to products 

using both microwave energy and radiant heating. AHAM and GE also commented that 

the definition of “combination oven” as established by the March 2011 TP Interim Final 

Rule and proposed to be maintained in the February 2012 SNOPR should be revised to be 

sufficiently broad to include, generally, “other means of cooking” in order to account for 

current and future cooking technologies. According to AHAM and GE, DOE's definition 

was too vague and would lead to confusion as to which products are covered. These 

commenters further stated that DOE's proposal that, for products with multiple oven 

compartments but no integral cooking top, the compartment(s) that cook by means of 

microwave energy in combination with any other cooking or heating means would be 

classified as microwave ovens while the compartment(s) that cook or heat food by means 
46

of a gas flame or electric resistance heating without the use of microwave energy would 

be classified as conventional ovens, is contradictory, adds complexity, and is confusing.

AHAM and GE agreed with DOE that a free-standing range with microwave capability 

should be excluded from coverage as a microwave oven, but stated that a built-in range 

with microwave capability should not be classified as a microwave oven either because 

the installation configuration does not affect how the product is used. AHAM, GE, and 

Whirlpool Corporation (Whirlpool) commented that the primary use should determine 

how the product is characterized, such that a built-in product with two separate cavities, 

one that uses microwave energy and one that uses conventional thermal energy, should be 

classified as a conventional range, not a microwave oven. AHAM and GE stated that this 

would be consistent with the exclusion of free-standing ranges with microwave 

capability. These commenters, therefore, recommended that DOE define a combination 

oven as “a microwave oven that incorporates means of cooking other than microwave 

energy, and does not mean free-standing or built-in conventional cooking tops, 

conventional ovens, or conventional ranges that include microwave ovens in separate 

cavities.” (AHAM, No. 16 at pp. 1, 3–4; GE, No. 19 at p. 1; Whirlpool, No. 15 at p. 1) 

Whirlpool commented that not all manufacturers produce a built-in cooking product with 

two separate cavities, one which uses microwave energy and one which uses 

conventional thermal energy, and which are controlled by a single control panel. Some of 

Whirlpool’s competitors have such built-in products with two separate control panels. 

Whirlpool stated that if DOE maintains the definition of combination oven, Whirlpool 

and other product manufacturers with similar product lines will be placed at a 
47

competitive disadvantage to those with separate control panels. (Whirlpool, No. 15 at p. 

1)

DOE maintained in the January 2013 TP Final Rule that the definition of 

microwave oven also includes all products that combine a microwave oven with other 

appliance functionality. To aid in distinguishing such other “combined products” from 

the type of microwave oven that incorporates convection features and any other means of 

cooking, DOE adopted the term “convection microwave oven” to more accurately 

describe the latter, and provided a definition of convection microwave oven in 10 CFR 

430.2. In this definition, DOE clarified that the microwave capability, convection 

features, and any other cooking means are incorporated in a single cavity. 78 FR 4015, 

4017–4018 (Jan. 18, 2013).

In the January 2013 TP Final Rule, DOE further confirmed that all products that 

combine a microwave oven with other appliance functionality would be considered 

covered products, including microwave/conventional ranges, microwave/conventional 

ovens, microwave/conventional cooking tops, and other combined products such as 

microwave/refrigerator-freezer/charging stations. Regarding microwave/conventional 

ranges, DOE clarified that an appliance need not be free-standing to be covered as a 

microwave/conventional range. DOE, therefore, added a definition of 

“microwave/conventional cooking top” in 10 CFR 430.2 to state that it is a class of 

kitchen ranges and ovens that is a household cooking appliance consisting of a 

microwave oven and a conventional cooking top. Similarly, DOE added a definition in 10 
48

CFR 430.2 of a “microwave/conventional oven” as a class of kitchen ranges and ovens 

which is a household cooking appliance consisting of a microwave oven and a 

conventional oven in separate compartments. DOE also clarified in the definition of 

microwave/conventional range that the microwave oven and conventional oven are 

incorporated as separate compartments. 78 FR 4015, 4018 (Jan. 18, 2013).

DOE determined in the January 2013 TP Final Rule that the microwave oven 

component of these combined products would meet the statutory requirements as a 

covered product for the purposes of measuring standby mode and off mode energy use 

under EPCA. (42 U.S.C. 6295(gg)(2)(B)(vi)) DOE stated that it does not believe that the 

presence of additional appliance functionality would eliminate the statutory requirement 

to evaluate standby mode and off mode energy use in the microwave oven component. 

DOE also concluded in the January 2013 TP Final Rule that the provisions related to the 

measurement of standby mode and off mode energy use in the test procedure should only 

measure such energy use associated with the microwave oven portion of combined 

products, and for that reason the amendments from the January 2013 TP Final Rule do 

not require any determination as to which appliance function of a combined product with 

a microwave oven component represents the primary usage of the product. Id. DOE notes 

that there are currently no active mode provisions for microwave ovens in its test 

procedure, although it has initiated a separate rulemaking to consider such amendments.

In the microwave oven standby mode and off mode test procedure rulemaking, 

DOE confirmed that the microwave oven portion of a combined product is covered under 
49

the definition of microwave oven, but due to a lack of data and information at the time, 

did not amend its test procedures in the January 2013 TP Final Rule to measure standby 

mode and off mode energy use for the microwave portion of combined products. Id. 

Therefore, DOE is not establishing amended energy conservation standards for standby 

mode and off mode energy use for these products in today’s final rule. DOE may choose 

to initiate a separate rulemaking at a later date that would address standby and off mode 

energy use of combined products.

B.

In general, when evaluating and establishing energy conservation standards, DOE 

divides covered products into classes by the type of energy used, capacity, or other 

performance-related features that affect consumer utility and efficiency. (42 U.S.C. 

6295(q); 6316(a)) Different energy conservation standards may apply to different product 

classes. 

Product Classes

Id.

In order to determine whether specific types of microwave ovens should be 

separated into different product classes, DOE investigated whether there are any 

performance related features that would justify the establishment of a separate energy 

conservation standard. As discussed in the October 2008 NOPR, DOE tested a sample of 

32 countertop microwave-only units and measured standby mode power ranging from 1.2 

W to 5.8 W. 73 FR 62034, 62042 (Oct. 17, 2008). None of these units were capable of 

operation in off mode, nor was DOE aware at that time of any other microwave ovens 

capable of such operation. In the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE noted that standby power 
50

consumption for microwave-only units largely depended on the presence of a cooking 

sensor, the display technology, the power supply and control board, and implementation 

of a power-down feature. With regards to display technologies, DOE noted that 

microwave-only units incorporated Light Emitting Diode (LED) displays, Liquid Crystal 

Displays (LCDs), and Vacuum Fluorescent Displays (VFDs).

Based on comments received in response to the October 2008 NOPR, DOE 

conducted a survey of over-the-range microwave-only units available on the U.S. market. 

DOE determined that the display technologies used are similar to those used in 

countertop microwave-only units (i.e., LED displays, LCDs, and VFDs). DOE also 

conducted in-store standby mode testing on a limited sample of over-the-range 

microwave-only units which showed similar standby power consumption as countertop 

microwave-only units. For these reasons, DOE tentatively concluded in the February 

2012 SNOPR that over-the-range microwave-only units would not warrant a separate 

product class. DOE understands that over-the-range microwave-only units may have 

additional components that are energized during active mode operation (i.e., exhaust fan 

motors). However, DOE’s testing showed that the presence of such features did not 

increase the standby power consumption to warrant establishing a separate product class.

77 FR 8526, 8536 (Feb. 14, 2012).

DOE also conducted standby power testing on a sample of 13 representative 

convection microwave ovens, including 5 countertop convection microwave ovens, 6 

over-the-range convection microwave ovens, and 2 built-in convection microwave ovens. 
51

DOE’s testing showed that the countertop convection microwave ovens use similar 

display technologies as countertop microwave-only units, and had standby power 

consumption ranging from 1.2 W to 4.7 W, which is similar to the standby power 

consumption for countertop microwave-only units. As a result, DOE tentatively 

concluded in the February 2012 SNOPR that countertop convection microwave ovens 

would not warrant a product class separate from microwave-only ovens. Id.

DOE’s testing of built-in and over-the-range convection microwave ovens for the 

February 2012 SNOPR showed that the standby power consumption for these products 

ranged from 4.1 W to 8.8 W, which was higher than the standby power consumption for 

other microwave oven product types (i.e., countertop microwave-only, over-the-range 

microwave-only, and countertop convection microwave ovens). DOE’s reverseengineering analysis suggested that the additional features in built-in and over-the-range 

convection microwave ovens required to handle the thermal loads associated with their 

installation and to provide consumer utility, such as additional exhaust fan motors, 

convection fan motors and heaters, and additional lights, require a significant number of 

additional relays on the control board, and thus require a larger power supply for the 

control of such relays. While the relays themselves do not consume power in standby 

mode, they increase the total power supply requirements of the control board and thus 

increase the standby losses of the power supply. As a result, DOE determined that a 

separate product class should be established for built-in and over-the-range convection 

microwave ovens. DOE recognized that built-in and over-the-range microwave-only units 

may similarly require some additional relays for exhaust fans and lights, and that 
52

countertop convection microwave ovens would require some additional relays for 

convection fans and heaters. However, DOE’s product testing and reverse-engineering 

analyses indicated that these product types use similar-sized power supplies as those 

found in countertop microwave-only units, and as a result would not warrant a separate 

product class from countertop microwave-only units. Id.

Thus, for the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE determined that separate product 

classes for the purposes of setting energy conservation standards addressing standby 

mode and off mode energy use were warranted on the basis of different standby power 

performance. DOE did not evaluate whether the same product class distinction would 

also be appropriate for any active mode energy use standards because DOE eliminated 

the regulatory provisions establishing the cooking efficiency test procedure for 

microwave ovens in the a final rule published on July 22, 2010 (the July 2010 TP Final 

Rule). 75 FR 42579. If DOE adopts amendments to the microwave oven test procedure to 

include provisions for measuring active mode cooking efficiency, DOE may reevaluate 

these product classes as part of a future microwave oven energy conservation standards 

rulemaking. At that time, DOE may consider dividing countertop convection microwave 

ovens and over-the-range/built-in microwave-only units into separate product classes to 

account for the energy performance of heating components other than the microwave 

portion. In the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE proposed to establish the following two 

product classes for microwave ovens (77 FR 8526, 8536 (Feb. 14, 2012)):

Table IV-1 February 2012 SNOPR Proposed Microwave Oven Product Classes

Product Class

1. Microwave-Only Ovens and Countertop Convection Microwave Ovens
53

2. Built-in and Over-the-Range Convection Microwave Ovens

The Appliance Standards Awareness Project, Natural Resources Defense Council, 

National Consumer Law Center, Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance, and Northwest 

Power Conservation Council, (hereafter referred to as the Joint Commenters), jointly

supported the inclusion of all microwave-only and countertop convection microwave 

ovens in a single product class, stating that over-the-range microwave-only ovens do not 

have features that necessitate additional standby mode energy use. (Joint Comment, No. 

17 at p. 2)

AHAM, GE, and Whirlpool objected to the lack of product class differentiation 

between countertop and over-the-range microwave-only ovens in Product Class 1. 

According to these commenters, there are significant differences in energy consumption 

and consumer utility between countertop and over-the-range microwave ovens. They 

stated that a countertop microwave oven is typically designed to operate at room 

temperature, whereas an over-the-range microwave oven is subject to higher 

temperatures. AHAM, GE, and Whirlpool further stated that certain features of over-therange microwave ovens, such as a VFD display that can reliably withstand higher 

temperatures while still providing consumer utility, consumes more energy in standby 

mode than a countertop microwave oven display, which can use lower-power LED and 

LCD technologies. Whirlpool also noted that electronic controls for over-the-range 

microwave ovens must be constructed of materials which can operate in this 

environment. (AHAM, No. 16 at pp. 1–2; GE, No. 19 at p. 1; Whirlpool, No. 15 at p. 2)
54

In addition to standby mode considerations, AHAM, GE, and Whirlpool 

commented that the proposed product classes failed to consider the effects of active mode 

differences on a future microwave oven active mode test procedure or standard. These 

commenters noted that over-the-range units have energy consuming features such as air 

venting and circulation, forced cooling, and cooktop lighting that are not found in 

countertop units. (AHAM, No. 16 at p. 2; GE, No. 19 at p. 1; Whirlpool, No. 15 at pp. 2–

3) AHAM and GE concluded that over-the-range microwave-only ovens should be 

included in Product Class 2. (AHAM, No. 16 at p. 2; GE, No. 19 at p. 1)

DOE agrees with commenters that over-the-range microwave ovens must operate 

under conditions that are harsher than countertop microwave ovens are typically exposed 

to, in terms of elevated temperatures and humidity levels. For the components that are 

associated with standby mode and off mode energy use, these conditions have the most 

effect on the displays. Under long-term exposure, displays may degrade in illuminance 

over time, resulting in a consumer’s perception of reduced brightness, a significant 

element of consumer utility. As discussed further in section IV.C.2 of this rulemaking, 

DOE conducted accelerated lifetime testing of different microwave oven display types by 

subjecting a limited sample of microwave ovens to high temperatures and humidity levels 

for an extended period of operation in standby mode. The results of this testing 

demonstrated that the illuminance of each display tended to decrease over time to varying 

degrees, but did not reveal any correlation between display type and rate of illuminance 

reduction. In addition, DOE observed in its test sample a unit with an LED display that 

exhibited illuminance that was comparable to that of the VFD on another unit. Based on 
55

this lifetime testing, and the existence of multiple over-the-range microwave oven models 

on the market with each type of display technology, DOE concludes that over-the-range 

microwave ovens would not require certain display technologies (i.e., VFD) that have 

inherently higher power consumption than other display types that provide similar 

consumer utility. In addition, DOE is not aware of, nor did commenters provide 

information on, different standby power consumption that would be associated with 

controls that have the same functionality but different material selection.

In its final rule engineering analysis, DOE also examined more closely whether 

combinations of design options are available that would allow over-the-range microwaveonly ovens to meet the same standby power levels as countertop microwave ovens. These 

“design pathways” are discussed in more detail in section IV.C.3 of this rulemaking. 

From its analysis, DOE concluded that design pathways exist for all over-the-range 

microwave-only ovens with LED displays and LCDs to meet a 1.0 W standard, so that 

none of these would warrant classification into Product Class 2 on the basis of energy use 

characteristics in standby mode. DOE further concludes that the range of these display 

technologies allows manufacturers to design over-the-range products with comparable 

consumer utility and durability of the display as for over-the-range microwave ovens with 

VFDs. Therefore, DOE is maintaining in today’s final rule the two product classes that 

were proposed in the February 2012 SNOPR.

As noted in the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE acknowledges that over-the-range 

microwave ovens contain additional relays for components that are not found in 
56

countertop units, such as exhaust or cooling fans and cooktop lighting. However, these 

components were not found in DOE’s analysis to require larger power supplies that 

would affect standby power consumption, and thus would not support the definition of a 

separate product class for over-the-range microwave-only ovens from countertop 

microwave ovens. In the future, if DOE establishes a test procedure that measures 

microwave oven active mode energy use and considers whether active mode energy 

conservation standards are warranted, it may consider redefining the product classes 

according to utility and energy use for both active mode and standby mode. Such revised 

product classes would not be precluded by the definition of product classes for standby 

mode considerations in today’s final rule.

C.

Product teardowns performed by DOE for this and past rulemakings gave DOE an 

insight into the strategies a manufacturer could adopt to achieve higher energy 

conservation standards. In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE presented information on 

several microwave oven technologies that significantly affect standby power, including 

cooking sensors, display technologies, and control strategies and associated control 

boards. 73 FR 62034, 62052 (Oct. 17, 2008). In the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE 

determined that the standby power characteristics for countertop convection microwave 

ovens and over-the-range microwave-only units are similar to that of counter-top 

microwave-only units, and therefore, the same technology options would apply to these 

products. Additional testing on over-the range convection microwave ovens conducted by 

DOE also showed that standby power in these products depends largely on the same 

Technology Assessment
57

factors. 77 FR 8526, 8536–37 (Feb. 14, 2012). DOE determined in the screening analysis 

for the final rule that all of the technology options identified in the February 2012 

SNOPR meet the screening criteria and thus were considered as design options in the 

engineering analysis. The following sections discuss these technology options and 

additional analysis conducted for today’s final rule.

1. Cooking Sensors

In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE reported that its teardown analysis had revealed 

one cooking sensor technology with no standby power consumption used in microwave 

ovens on the U.S. market: a piezoelectric steam sensor. DOE also found that infrared and 

weight sensors, which require little to no warm-up time or standby power, had been 

applied successfully in Japanese-market microwave ovens. Furthermore, DOE identified 

relative humidity sensors with no standby power consumption as a feasible microwave 

oven cooking sensor technology, but found no microwave ovens using these sensors at 

the time. Finally, DOE learned that a major microwave oven supplier to the U.S. market 

was preparing to introduce microwave ovens using a new type of absolute humidity 

sensor with no standby power requirement and no cost premium over that of a 

conventional absolute humidity sensor. 73 FR 62034, 62051 (Oct. 17, 2008). 

In the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE noted that it was not aware of any intellectual 

property or patent infringement issues for infrared sensors, weight sensors, piezoelectric 

sensors, or relative humidity sensors. With respect to the accuracy and reliability of lowand zero-standby power cooking sensors, DOE noted that a significant number of 
58

microwave oven models using the alternate cooking sensor technologies discussed above 

are available on the international market, and have been available for a number of years. 

As discussed above, DOE was also aware of one zero-standby power cooking sensor 

technology used in microwave ovens on the U.S. market. DOE noted in the February 

2012 SNOPR that it was not aware of any data indicating that the reliability and accuracy 

associated with these low- and zero-standby power cooking sensors significantly differs 

from that of the absolute humidity sensors currently employed in microwave ovens on the 

U.S. market. DOE was also unaware of data showing that fouling of infrared cooking 

sensors would significantly differ from that of absolute humidity sensors, or data on the 

decreased accuracy due to fouling as compared to the fouling of absolute humidity 

sensors. DOE stated that because it was not aware of any relative humidity cooking 

sensors used in microwave ovens currently on the market, it was also not aware of any 

data regarding the accuracy of these sensors for detecting the state of the cooking load to 

adjust the cooking time. However, DOE noted that multiple other cooking sensor 

technology options exist that have been employed in microwave ovens in place of an 

absolute humidity cooking sensor. Based on this information, DOE tentatively concluded 

in the February 2012 SNOPR that the low- and zero-standby-power cooking sensor 

technologies discussed above are viable design options. 77 FR 8526, 8537 (Feb. 14, 

2012).

DOE requested data and information on the accuracy and reliability of low- and 

zero-standby power cooking sensors as compared to absolute humidity cooking sensors 

currently used in microwave ovens on the U.S. market, and whether these technologies 
59

would affect how consumers use their microwave ovens or their satisfaction in using 

them due to any lessening of the utility or the performance of microwaves imposed by the 

standard. DOE also sought information on the current commercial availability of this 

technology, the likelihood of future adoption, and the potential impact on the lessening of 

competition amongst manufacturers. DOE also requested comment on whether any 

intellectual property or patent infringement issues are associated with the cooking sensor 

technologies discussed above. 77 FR 8526, 8537–38 (Feb. 14, 2012).

The Joint Commenters stated that sensor cooking has previously relied on the use 

of absolute humidity sensors that require a warm-up time after a period in a lower-power 

state, which is typically avoided by maintaining constant power to the sensor. The Joint 

Commenters stated that placing this type of cooking sensor into a lower power state could 

affect the consumer experience as a result of the necessary warm-up time. Based on 

DOE's findings regarding the availability of zero or near-zero standby power cooking 

sensors without such warm-up times, the Joint Commenters supported DOE's conclusion 

that such technologies can be used without impacting consumer utility. (Joint Comment, 

No. 17 at pp. 1–2) 

GE stated that:

• Zero-standby power cooking sensors, while limited in use at that time, had not 

been fully tested and evaluated as appropriate alternatives;

• DOE should provide data on the availability, reliability, and functionality of these 

sensors;

Deleted: placing a cooking sensor that requires a 

warm-up time
60

• Absolute humidity sensors with standby power consumption offer greater 

resolution than relative humidity sensors with no standby power consumption and 

therefore offer consumer utility;

• Some of the sensor technologies, such as infrared and weight sensors, are not 

feasible alternatives to the absolute humidity sensors used today; and

• DOE should provide further information about absolute humidity sensors with no 

standby power consumption and no cost premium over that of a conventional 

absolute humidity sensor. (GE, No. 19 at p. 3)

GE further commented that industry’s experience and research do not support 

considering the same sensor technologies for all microwave oven platforms, and that

different technologies are required for a countertop versus over-the-range application. GE 

stated that if evidence to support this conclusion is not available, DOE should determine 

that absolute humidity sensors provide consumers with utility that cannot be matched by 

zero-standby power cooking sensors. (GE, No. 19 at pp. 1–2) GE also commented that 

DOE should preserve the use of absolute humidity sensors for over-the-range microwave 

ovens. (GE, No. 19 at p. 3)

Whirlpool commented that most of its new microwave ovens use a humidity 

sensor that can be de-energized in standby mode and off mode. According to Whirlpool,

these absolute humidity sensors use the same technology as older types of absolute 

humidity sensors and maintain similar performance. Whirlpool also stated that, unlike the 

older sensors that require a few minutes to stabilize after activation, the newer sensors are
61

operational after a wake-up time of approximately 10 seconds, which is not noticeable to 

the consumer. Whirlpool commented that its products with this type of sensor have been 

on the market in Europe for almost 3 years, and there have been no issues with them. 

However, Whirlpool also commented that there are limited suppliers of these absolute 

humidity sensors and capacity is currently limited due to flooding in late 2011 in 

Thailand that destroyed the equipment and factory that had been producing sensors for 

Whirlpool. Whirlpool stated that adequate lead time and access to capital will be required 

for these suppliers to add sufficient capacity if such sensors are mandated. (Whirlpool, 

No. 15 at pp. 3–4) Whirlpool commented that a simple circuit with several transistors to 

shut down a cooking sensor would cost approximately $0.10. (Whirlpool, No. 15 at p. 4)

DOE contacted multiple cooking sensor manufacturers to further evaluate zerostandby power absolute humidity sensors. DOE identified one sensor manufacturer that 

supplies absolute humidity sensors to multiple microwave oven manufacturers that 

comprise a significant portion of the market (over 50 percent). This sensor manufacturer 

noted that all of its sensors are capable of short warm-up times (5–10 seconds). This 

sensor manufacturer also noted that the control circuits would only need to be modified to 

add transistors to de-energize the cooking sensors while in standby mode. Because these 

zero-standby power absolute humidity sensors can be energized in a period of time that is 

small compared to the duration of a cooking cycle in which they would be used, these 

sensors provide the same utility to consumers as absolute humidity sensors that must 

remain energized in standby mode. This sensor manufacturer also indicated that there are 

Deleted: .

Deleted: DOE determined
62

no patents on these short warm-up time humidity sensors that would restrict other sensor 

manufacturers from supplying similar products to microwave oven manufacturers.

The absolute humidity sensor manufacturer indicated that it has plans to expand 

manufacturing capacity and could expand further if market demands increase. DOE also 

determined, based on discussions with microwave oven manufacturers, that the cooking 

sensor manufacturing facility flooding issue discussed above has been resolved. As a 

result, DOE does not believe there are any issues limiting the supply of these zerostandby power absolute humidity sensors. 

Based on microwave oven manufacturer interviews, DOE determined that 

reliability of these zero-standby power absolute humidity sensors has not been an issue. 

One manufacturer noted that the reliability is expected to be improved compared to 

previous sensor types because the zero-standby power absolute humidity sensors are only 

energized during the cooking cycle, whereas the previous sensors are energized 

continuously for the lifetime of the product.

Additionally, DOE’s research confirms that multiple zero-standby power cooking 

sensors other than absolute humidity sensors are available at a similar cost to zerostandby power absolute humidity sensors. These include different methods for 

determining the state of the food load being cooked, using either piezoelectric steam, 

infrared, or weight sensors. As discussed above, DOE notes that piezoelectric steam 

sensors are currently used by one microwave oven manufacturer.

Deleted: DOE’s discussions with 

Deleted: manufacturers
63

Based on this information, DOE has determined that zero-standby power cooking 

sensors with equivalent reliability and accuracy as the existing absolute humidity cooking 

sensors will be available on the scale necessary to serve the U.S. microwave oven market 

at the time of new standards. DOE concludes, therefore, that zero-standby power cooking 

sensors are a viable design option for reducing microwave oven standby power 

consumption.

2. Display Technologies

DOE stated in the October 2008 NOPR that it would consider three display 

technologies for reducing microwave oven standby power consumption: LED displays, 

LCDs with and without backlighting, and VFDs. DOE stated that LED displays and 

LCDs consume less power than VFDs. DOE also stated that each identified display 

technology provides acceptable consumer utility, including brightness, viewing angle, 

and ability to display complex characters. 73 FR 62034, 62051 (Oct. 17, 2008).

In response to comments received in the October 2008 NOPR, DOE researched 

microwave oven display technologies and found that multiple over-the-range microwave 

ovens with low-power displays, including the LED and LCD types, are currently 

available on the U.S. market. DOE also found that manufacturer temperature ratings for 

the three types of displays are comparable. Furthermore, DOE found that LED displays 

and LCDs in both countertop and over-the-range microwave ovens offer acceptable 

consumer utility features, including brightness, viewing angle, and ability to display 
64

complex characters. DOE found no microwave oven display technologies with 

intermittent backlighting or other features that impair consumer utility. As a result, DOE 

stated in the February 2012 SNOPR that LED displays and LCDs can be integrated into 

any countertop or over-the-range microwave oven, with proper heat shielding and 

without significant loss of consumer utility. 77 FR 8526, 8538 (Feb. 14, 2012).

AHAM and GE disagreed that LED displays and LCDs can be integrated into all

countertop or over-the-range microwave ovens with proper heat shielding and without 

significant loss of consumer utility. (AHAM, No. 16 at p. 4; GE, No. 19 at p. 1) GE 

commented that DOE should preserve the use of VFDs in over-the-range microwave 

ovens. GE stated that DOE did not consider the reliability of low-power displays. 

According to GE, non-VFD displays deteriorate when exposed to high heat by darkening 

and becoming unreadable. GE stated that this is a serious deficiency in components that 

must be included in millions of products that operate in the extreme heat environments 

found in most over-the-range applications. GE stated that DOE should provide data from

life testing under high-heat conditions before adopting a standard that would require lowpower displays. (GE, No. 19 at pp. 2, 3)

Whirlpool commented that it uses LCD, VFD, and LED displays in microwave 

ovens, but that LCDs require more attention to cooling than the others. (Whirlpool, No. 

15 at p. 4) Whirlpool also noted that the user appearance of LCD, VFD, and LED 

displays is different, and Whirlpool uses that to help brand appearance and 

differentiation. According to Whirlpool, VFDs allow for the display of bright text at a 
65

cost and performance level that is preferable to the other technologies. Whirlpool stated 

that the power used by VFDs is a function of the size of the display, and that a typical 

midrange over-the-range microwave oven with a VFD with a graphical area of 2 inches 

by 1 inch could meet the 2.2 W standby level. Whirlpool commented that very large 

VFDs that can be found in some built-in products will have issues reaching these levels. 

Whirlpool noted that there is technology available for VFDs that allows part of the 

display area to be shut down, while leaving a small area (e.g., the clock) to remain on. 

However, Whirlpool also noted that use of this technology would place other design 

restrictions on the display, such as restrictions on pattern design. Whirlpool stated that 

these restrictions would increase costs beyond DOE’s estimate and/or reduce consumer 

functionality. (Whirlpool, No. 15 at p. 4)

Whirlpool commented that LCDs face more challenges in larger sizes, and the 

backlight intensity may need dimming or limiting of the available intensity setting. 

Whirlpool stated that the added functions needed to manage the power can range from a 

few cents to dollars, depending on the size and technology of the display. (Whirlpool, No. 

15 at p. 4)

DOE conducted additional review of products available on the U.S. market and 

identified 25 over-the-range microwave oven models from multiple manufacturers that

incorporated LCD or LED displays. To further evaluate the reliability and consumer 

utility of LED displays, LCDs, and VFDs in over-the-range environments, DOE 

contacted display manufacturers to discuss these issues. Display manufacturers indicated 
66

that most LED displays and VFDs have maximum operating temperatures of 85 degrees 

Celsius (°C), while most LCDs have maximum operating temperatures of 70 °C. DOE 

also noted that display reliability testing is generally conducted at 90-percent relative 

humidity (RH). According to display manufacturers, the rated lifetime (i.e., the time at 

which the display brightness will have decreased by 50 percent) for most LED displays is

approximately 50,000 hours, whereas the lifetime for VFDs is between 35,000 and 

50,000 hours. Display manufacturers also noted that LED displays and VFDs can achieve 

similar levels of brightness. For LCDs with LED backlighting, display manufacturers 

stated that the lifetime of approximately 50,000 hours is based on the LED backlights, 

because the LED backlighting will fail before the LCD itself as long as the display is 

operated within the rated temperature and humidity conditions. According to display

manufacturers, if LED displays, LCDs, and VFDs are operated below their maximum 

rated operating temperature and humidity, the lifetime would not be affected.

To further investigate reliability under the conditions experienced in over-therange installations, DOE conducted testing on a sample of over-the-range microwave 

ovens with different display types. DOE selected 2 LED, 2 LCD, and 3 VFD over-therange microwave oven models for testing. For each model, DOE purchased two identical 

units to evaluate the reliability under two separate temperature and humidity conditions.

Prior to the start of testing, the illuminance for each display was measured from a fixed 

distance under dark room conditions. In order to obtain consistent and comparable 

measurements, each clock display was set to 12:00 prior to the illuminance 
67

measurements. Because some displays may dim after a period of user inactivity, the 

illuminance for each unit was measured again after a period of 10 minutes of inactivity. 

One set of the six microwave oven models were then operated in standby mode in 

an environmental chamber for twelve 20-hour periods at 82.5 ± 2.5 °C and 90 ± 5 percent 

RH, and the other set of six microwave ovens was operated in standby mode for twelve 

20-hour periods at 67.5 ± 2.5 °C and 90 ± 5 percent RH. The temperature conditions were 

selected based on the maximum rated operating conditions for the different display types. 

After each 20-hour period at elevated temperature and humidity, the environmental 

chamber and microwave ovens were cooled to ambient room temperature (23 ± 5 °C), at 

which point the illuminance of each display was measured before and after a 10-minute 

period of inactivity using the same method described above. Each set of microwave 

ovens was exposed to the elevated temperature and humidity conditions for a total of 240 

hours. DOE selected this number of hours based on its review of available information on 

the duration of lifetime testing under similar ambient conditions that display 

manufacturers conduct. The number of hours manufacturers used ranged from 48 to 240, 

and DOE selected the maximum 240 hours for its testing. The illuminance was measured 

twice at ambient room conditions after each 20-hour cycle. In addition, power 

consumption and current were measured throughout each 20-hour cycle and subsequent 

10-minute illuminance measurement period for each test unit.

The test results showed that display illuminance tended to degrade over time at 

these elevated conditions for most of the units tested, but the data did not reveal a 

Deleted: , with
68

correlation between the rate of degradation and display type. VFDs in DOE’s test sample 

degraded both more and less rapidly than the LED displays under both

temperature/humidity conditions, including an LED display with illuminance comparable 

to the VFDs in the test sample. DOE notes that the test units for one of the models with a

backlit LCD failed after 20 hours at 82.5 °C and after 60 hours at 67.5 °C. Other backlit 

LCD model had similar illuminance levels as two of the VFD models and showed little to 

no degradation. Based on these test data, DOE concludes that all display types can be 

used in over-the-range microwave oven applications without a loss in consumer utility. 

For further details on the display reliability testing, see chapter 5 of the final rule TSD. 

3. Power Supply and Control Boards

In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE discussed several technologies available to 

increase power supply and control board efficiency that would reduce microwave oven 

standby power consumption. DOE found some microwave ovens on the U.S. market 

using switch-mode power supplies with up to 75-percent conversion efficiencies and 0.2 

W or less no-load standby losses, though these models came with a higher cost, higher 

part count, and greater complexity. DOE stated that switch-mode power supplies were, at 

the time, unproven in long-term microwave oven applications, and the greater complexity 

of these power supplies could also lower overall reliability. DOE was also aware of 

options to improve the energy efficiency of linear power supplies, such as low-loss 

transformers or unregulated voltages closer to the voltages used for logic and control, but 

these were not found on commercially available microwave ovens at the time. 73 FR 

62034, 62051 (Oct. 17, 2008).
69

In response to the October 2008 NOPR, some commenters stated that certain 

switch-mode power supplies used in computers have efficiencies greater than 90 percent, 

while others questioned the reliability of switch-mode power supplies for use in 

microwave ovens, and that electromechanical controls will be needed to meet standby 

power requirements. In its analysis for the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE observed that 

switch-mode power supplies are found in products such as computers, battery chargers, 

clothes washers, and clothes dryers, suggesting that the reliability and durability of 

switch-mode power supplies has been proven in residential appliance applications. DOE 

also noted that microwave ovens incorporating switch-mode power supplies have been 

available for multiple years and are still used, as evidenced by such power supplies 

observed in DOE’s most recent test sample of convection microwave ovens. DOE’s 

research suggested that switch-mode power supplies for appliance applications in power 

capacities similar to those utilized in microwave ovens achieve no greater than 75-percent 

efficiency,16

 16 Information on the design and efficiency of switch-mode power supplies can be found at 

and DOE was unaware of data indicating that the reliability of switch-mode

power supplies is significantly worse than conventional linear power supplies over the 

lifetime of the product. DOE was also not aware at that time of any microwave ovens on 

the market at that time with electromechanical controls. As a result, in the February 2012 

SNOPR, DOE proposed considering only microwave ovens with electronic controls in 

determining standby power levels, and determined that electromechanical controls would 

not be required to achieve any of the standby power levels proposed in the February 2012 

SNOPR. 77 FR 8526, 8538–39 (Feb. 14, 2012).

http://www.powerint.com/en/applications/major-appliances. (Last accessed December 2012.)
70

Whirlpool commented that it uses switch-mode power supplies in many of its 

microwave ovens. According to Whirlpool, such power supplies will cost more than

conventional linear power supplies with traditional transformers, depending on the 

particular design and product features. For a new design optimized for low standby power 

consumption, Whirlpool believes that the cost increase would be in the range of DOE’s 

SNOPR analysis for both countertop and built-in/over-the-range microwave ovens. 

Whirlpool also commented, however, that if an existing design needs to be modified, the 

incremental manufacturing cost will exceed DOE's estimates for both product classes.

Whirlpool stated that DOE underestimates the impact on manufacturers, which will either 

incur greater costs in designing new control systems or added product cost to adapt 

existing control systems. Whirlpool further stated that although it has not investigated the 

use of solid state relays to reduce the power requirements for power supplies, it believes 

that the reduction in power consumption would be minimal. (Whirlpool, No. 15 at p. 5)

In response to these comments, DOE expanded the scope of its microwave oven 

power supply analysis. First, DOE conducted an updated, comprehensive survey of 

microwave oven brands and models available on the U.S. market. The database contains 

459 entries for Product Class 1 and 81 for Product Class 2. The database categorizes each 

microwave oven by installation configuration (i.e., built-in, over-the-range, or countertop), heating technology (i.e., microwave-only, microwave plus thermal heating 

elements, or microwave plus convection), magnetron power supply type (i.e., 

conventional or inverter), and display type (i.e., LED, LCD, backlit LCD, VFD, or none).
71

As part of this research, DOE identified four countertop microwave-only models 

produced by two manufacturers that have electromechanical rotary dial controls and no 

displays, and which, therefore, are capable of operation in off mode. Because these units 

represent less than 1 percent of the models in Product Class 1 and because their power 

consumption is already low due to the lack of a display, any energy savings associated 

with off mode energy conservation standards for microwave ovens would be trivial. For 

these reasons, DOE is not adopting standards for microwave oven off mode at this time.

DOE conducted further standby power testing on a representative sample of builtin and over-the-range units from both Product Class 1 and Product Class 2 to supplement 

the existing inputs into the analysis. DOE determined the portion of overall product 

standby power consumption that is associated with baseline power supply and control 

board configurations for each product type based on these laboratory measurements.

DOE then identified options for reducing power supply and control board power 

consumption, which include low-loss transformers, switch-mode power supplies, and 

three different relay options of varying energy efficiency.17

 17 Please see: 

Based on this new set of 

standby power and design option information, DOE identified 39 different power supply 

design pathways for the various microwave oven configurations that could be used to 

achieve the standby power levels analyzed in this final rule. Each pathway comprises the 

combination of power supply and control board design options that would decrease 

standby power requirements. 

http://orbit.dtu.dk/fedora/objects/orbit:56806/datastreams/file_4175071/content. (Last 

accessed November 28, 2012).
72

For each standby power level analyzed, DOE took into consideration the specific 

power consumption needs for the product type being analyzed. For example, DOE 

confirmed in each case that the power supply could power at least three 3 ampere (A)-

rated relays and one 16 A-rated relay concurrently, in addition to the other microwave 

oven base loads. MWO control boards may contain more relays than that, but DOE 

research suggests that not all relays will be active at the same time. The 16 A-rated relay 

is typically used to control the power input into the magnetron assembly, while the 3 Arated relays are typically used for other functions, such as controlling a blower fan, 

turntable motor, or interior light.

DOE research also suggests that power supplies inside microwave ovens typically 

feature multiple direct current (DC) voltages with varying levels of line regulation. The 

voltages used to drive relays are usually the highest and the least regulated, as relays do 

not need very stable voltages. In a microwave oven with a linear power supply, 

unregulated power is the result of the line voltage being converted to a lower voltage by a 

transformer, rectified via a bridge rectifier, and smoothed somewhat with a capacitor. On 

control boards with linear power supplies, a linear regulator and additional capacitors 

provide a very smooth power supply suitable for microprocessors at even lower voltages 

than the unregulated supply. Boards featuring switch-mode power supplies will produce 

the two DC voltages with similar regulation characteristics through the use of integrated 

circuits directly from rectified line power. 
73

Switch-mode power supplies differ from linear regulators in conversion 

efficiency. Linear regulators produce a constant output voltage by dissipating the 

difference between the target voltage and the input voltage times the current drawn into 

heat. Thus, the higher the input voltage or the lower the target voltage, the higher the 

power dissipation and the lower the power supply efficiency. Switch-mode power 

supplies, however, turn line power on and off as needed, thus avoiding a significant 

portion of the energy losses associated with linear power supplies. While switch-mode 

power supplies typically offer higher conversion efficiencies, they are more complicated 

and difficult to design, and still not widespread in microwave oven applications.

DOE research suggests that inverter-based microwave ovens consume, on 

average, 0.9 W more in standby mode than non-inverter microwave ovens featuring the 

same display technology and installation configuration. All inverter-driven units that 

DOE reverse-engineered originated from one manufacturer and featured linear regulators 

supplied by an unregulated bus voltage of 18 volts (V). Based on the above discussion, 

one likely contributing factor to the higher standby power of these units is the high 

unregulated bus voltage. Additionally, the inverter board powering the magnetron 

contained a number of microprocessors and other components that appear to be powered 

continuously. DOE research suggests that the standby power requirements of these 

microwave ovens could be reduced substantially by reducing the unregulated bus voltage 

and fitting a disconnect relay/transistor for the inverter control board. For such systems, 

DOE’s design pathways include a relay option to shut down the power to the inverter 

board altogether when in standby mode. Similarly, the manufacturer could redesign the 
74

units to feature a lower unregulated bus voltage of 9 V or 12 V, potentially doubling the 

efficiency of the linear power supply.

Since the sample of microwave ovens reverse-engineered by DOE research only 

included two units with a switch-mode power supply, DOE chose to use reference 

designs published by a major power supply manufacturer instead. The reference power 

supplies selected by DOE are intended to be drop-in replacements for the current linear 

power supplies assumed for the baseline. All switch-mode power supplies used in the 

analysis feature two typical output voltage options (12 V and 5 V) to allow manufacturers 

to continue using the same relay and microprocessor families as in their present designs.

DOE research suggests that a small percentage of microwave ovens would not be 

able to achieve baseline standby power levels without incorporating switch-mode power 

supplies. For example, DOE tore down two microwave ovens in Product Class 2 which

featured switch-mode power supplies for which average standby power consumption 

ranged from 4.1–4.3 W. DOE research suggests that the same microwave oven using a 

linear power supply would draw about twice as much standby power. For the purpose of 

the analysis and the potential design pathways, the standby requirements were adjusted 

accordingly, and the adjusted measurements became an input into the average for all 

standby measurements of this particular microwave oven sub-type (back-lit LCD, overthe-range, with cooking sensor).
75

DOE also developed updated costs for power supply options that were based on 

additional review of past teardowns, inputs from subject matter experts, and analysis of 

reference designs by a major supplier of switch-mode power supplies. DOE research 

suggests that the component prices for switch-mode power supplies and traditional linear 

power supplies are currently nearly equivalent. However, DOE concludes that the 

industry will likely transition to switch-mode power supplies as it gains more experience 

with them, causing switching component prices to fall further as volumes increase. 

Additionally, the adoption of switch-mode power supplies would facilitate standardized

control boards for world-wide use, thereby reducing testing and development costs.

For each design pathway for the different product types that can be used to 

achieve the various standby power levels, DOE determined the corresponding 

manufacturing cost based on the cost of the components and the typical markups that 

printed circuit board manufacturers charge for the manufacture and testing of the control 

boards. Details of the costs at each standby power level are presented in the engineering 

analysis in section IV.D.3 of this rulemaking, and in chapter 5 of the final rule TSD.

4. Power-Down Options

In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE determined that control strategies are available 

to allow microwave oven manufacturers to make design tradeoffs between incorporating 

power-consuming features such as displays or cooking sensors and including a function 

to cut power to those components during standby mode. DOE found at that time that a 

large number of microwave ovens incorporating this automatic power-down feature were 

available in other markets such as Japan. 73 FR 62034, 62051–52 (Oct. 17, 2008).
76

In response to the October 2008 NOPR, interested parties commented that: 1) the 

industry lacks data on control board circuitry to allow for a function to cut off power 

during standby mode, 2) such features must be reliable in high-temperature 

environments, and 3) DOE had allowed no time for manufacturers to evaluate the

viability or feasibility of the proposed technologies. In the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE 

noted that its research had not identified any technical barrier that would prevent 

microwave oven manufacturers from successfully integrating such control board circuitry 

with proper heat shielding and other design elements. DOE stated it was also aware of 

similar automatic power-down control technologies incorporated in products such as 

clothes washers and clothes dryers, which utilize an additional transformer-less power 

supply to provide just enough power to maintain the microcontroller chip while the unit is 

powered down, resulting in very low standby power levels. Therefore, DOE determined 

in the February 2012 SNOPR that an automatic power-down feature is technically 

feasible in microwave applications. 77 FR 8526, 8539 (Feb. 14, 2012).

Commenters on the October 2008 NOPR also requested clarification on whether 

an on/off switch, particularly a consumer-activated one, would be considered a design 

option for the purpose of standby mode energy use. Under the mode definitions adopted 

by the amended microwave oven test procedure from the March 2011 TP Interim Final 

Rule (76 FR 12825, 12834–37 (Mar. 9, 2011)), a product for which an on/off switch has 

turned off the display would be considered to be in off mode, unless other energy 

consuming features associated with standby mode remain energized (i.e., features to 
77

facilitate the activation of other modes by remote switch, internal sensor, or timer; or 

continuous functions, including other information or status displays or sensor-based 

features). In the latter case, the microwave oven would remain in standby mode even with 

the display turned off. DOE was not aware at the time of the February 2012 SNOPR of 

any products incorporating a user-activated control to turn the display on or off, and did 

not have information to evaluate how often consumers might make use of such a feature. 

Therefore, DOE determined in the February 2012 SNOPR that it was unable to analyze 

such a control as a design option. DOE however agreed that such a feature, if provided, 

could result in decreased energy usage in standby mode or off mode, and noted that 

manufacturers would not be precluded from incorporating such a feature in their products 

under the proposed standards. 77 FR 8526, 8539–40 (Feb. 14, 2012). As part of the latest 

market survey, DOE noted several microwave ovens which allow consumers to turn the 

display off. DOE notes, however, that the power savings are highly dependent on the type 

of display, the mechanism by which the display is turned off, and the power supply.

Whirlpool commented that certain features for the microwave oven may not be 

available if a relay is used to turn off a secondary power supply. Whirlpool provided an 

example in which the oven cavity light may not turn on if the door is opened while the 

control is in standby mode. In this scenario, a user may have to press a button to wake up 

part of the control first or put food in with the light off. According to Whirlpool,

consumers would likely find this unacceptable. Whirlpool commented that the cost of 

adding the relay is under $1 if it is added early in the design process, or as much as $4 if 

added to existing designs. Whirlpool also commented that monitoring only certain keys 
78

on the keypad or monitoring them at a slower rate, especially on glass touch interfaces, 

can reduce standby mode energy consumption, although a user may have to press an "on" 

key first before pressing other keys. Whirlpool stated that the additional cost for this 

feature is approximately $0.25. (Whirlpool, No. 15 at p. 5)

For today’s final rule, DOE further examined automatic power-down strategies. 

DOE notes that there are many design pathways available to implement automatic powerdown and re-awakening feature. For example, the microwave oven could be designed to 

return to a fully-on state every time a consumer opens the door, as there are at least three 

micro-switches that monitor the state of the door. DOE determined that achieving the 

max-tech standby power levels would likely require a relay-driven disconnect between 

line power and the power filtration board typically incorporated in microwave ovens. The 

automatic power-down module that DOE included for this design option features a 1.5 W 

switch-mode power supply that can respond to a simple switch signal to power up and 

enable microwave oven operation via a relay on the power filtration board.18

 18 Please see: 

If the 

existing door switches do not suffice, an additional door switch could provide the 

necessary signal to enable this power supply, for which power consumption is otherwise 

nearly 0 W. Thus, the microwave oven would power up, enabling a light to be energized,

with a delay short enough to be perceived as instantaneous when the consumer opens the 

door. For such an approach, the costs for automatic power-down increased slightly 

compared to the costs that were included in the analysis for the February 2012 SNOPR.

http://powerintegrations.com/sites/default/files/PDFFiles/der260.pdf.
79

Details of the costs for this design option are included in the engineering analysis in 

section IV.D.3 of this rulemaking and in chapter 5 of the final rule TSD.

D.

The purpose of the engineering analysis is to characterize the relationship 

between the energy use and the cost of standby mode features of microwave ovens. DOE 

used this standby power/cost relationship as input to the payback period, LCC, and NIA 

analyses. The engineering analysis provides data that can be used to establish the 

manufacturer selling price of more efficient products. Those data include manufacturing 

costs and manufacturer markups.

Engineering Analysis

DOE has identified three basic methods for generating manufacturing costs: (1) 

the design-option approach, which provides the incremental costs of adding to a baseline 

model design options that will improve its efficiency (i.e., lower its energy use in standby 

mode and off mode); (2) the efficiency-level approach, which provides the incremental 

costs of moving to higher energy efficiency levels (in this case, levels of reduced standby 

power), without regard to the particular design option(s) used to achieve such increases; 

and (3) the cost-assessment (or reverse-engineering) approach, which provides “bottomup” manufacturing cost assessments for achieving various levels of increased efficiency, 

based on detailed data on costs for parts and material, labor, shipping/packaging, and 

investment for models that operate at particular efficiency levels. DOE conducted the 

engineering analysis for this rulemaking using the efficiency-level approach. For this 

analysis, DOE relied on laboratory testing of representative microwave ovens. DOE 
80

supplemented the standby power data with data gained through reverse-engineering 

analysis and primary and secondary research, as appropriate. To identify microwave oven 

design options, DOE performed a reverse-engineering analysis on a representative 

sample of microwave ovens, and presented the details of the engineering analysis in 

chapter 5 of the February 2012 SNOPR TSD. DOE updated this analysis for today’s final 

rule through additional teardowns and testing that are detailed in chapter 5 of the final 

rule TSD.

1. Energy Use Metric

In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE explored whether it would be technically 

feasible to combine the existing measure of energy efficiency during the cooking cycle 

per use (i.e., active mode) with standby mode and off mode energy use over time to form 

a single metric, as required by EISA 2007. (42 U.S.C. 6295(gg)(2)(A)) DOE tentatively 

concluded that, although it may be mathematically possible to combine energy 

consumption into a single metric encompassing active, standby, and off modes, it is not 

technically feasible to do so due to the high variability in the cooking efficiency 

measurement based on the microwave oven test procedure at that time and because of the 

significant contribution of standby power to overall microwave oven energy use. 

Therefore, DOE proposed a separate metric to measure standby power as provided by 

EISA 2007. 73 FR 62034, 62042–43 (Oct. 17, 2008).

Interested parties agreed with DOE’s determination that it is not technically 

feasible to integrate standby mode and off mode energy use into a single efficiency 
81

metric with the active mode energy use for microwave ovens, or stated that it would not 

be practical to do so. One commenter questioned if there were any legal prohibition on 

establishing a prescriptive standby power standard for microwave ovens, especially since 

DOE was at that time also proposing a prescriptive standard for other cooking products 

(i.e., standing pilots in gas cooking products). DOE eliminated the active mode cooking 

efficiency provisions in the July 2010 TP Final Rule after it determined that those 

provisions did not produce accurate and repeatable results. 75 FR 42579 (July 22, 2010). 

Therefore, in the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE determined that the absence of active 

mode provisions results in a de facto separate energy use descriptor for microwave oven 

standby mode and off mode energy use. 77 FR 8526, 8540 (Feb. 14, 2012).

DOE did not receive any comments in response to the February 2012 SNOPR 

regarding the use of a metric for measuring standby mode and off mode energy use 

separate from any active mode energy use metric for microwave ovens. For the reasons 

discussed above, DOE is adopting energy conservations based on maximum allowable 

standby power levels in today’s final rule.

2. Standby Power Levels

DOE considered standby mode and off mode standards based on a maximum 

allowable standby power, in W, for microwave ovens. For the reasons noted previously, 

the standards do not include off mode power. As discussed in section IV.A, in the 

October 2008 NOPR, DOE proposed a single product class for microwave ovens that 

would encompass microwave ovens with and without browning (thermal) elements, but 
82

would not include microwave ovens that incorporate convection systems. For the October 

2008 NOPR, DOE’s analysis estimated the incremental manufacturing cost for 

microwave ovens having standby power consumption less than the baseline level of 4 W. 

For the purposes of that analysis, a baseline microwave oven was considered to 

incorporate an absolute humidity cooking sensor. To analyze the cost-energy use 

relationship for microwave oven standby power, DOE defined standby power levels 

expressed as a maximum allowable standby power in W. To analyze the impacts of 

standards, DOE defined the following four standby power levels for analysis: (1) the 

Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) procurement efficiency recommendation; 

(2) the International Energy Agency’s (IEA’s) 1-Watt Plan; (3) a standby power level as 

a gap-fill between the FEMP Procurement Efficiency Recommendation and IEA 1-Watt 

Plan; and (4) the current maximum microwave oven standby technology (max-tech; i.e.

Table IV.2

, 

lowest standby power) that DOE determines is or could be commercially available when 

the energy conservation standards become effective, based on a review of microwave 

ovens currently on the market worldwide. provides the microwave oven 

standby power levels and the reference source for each level that DOE analyzed for the 

October 2008 NOPR. Due to the definition of only four standby power levels, a TSL was 

defined for each standby power level and thus standby power levels may also be referred 

to as TSLs.
83

Table IV-2 October 2008 NOPR Proposed Microwave Oven Standby Power Levels

Standby 

Power Level 

(TSL) Source

Standby Power 

(

Baseline

W)

Baseline 4.0

1 FEMP Procurement Efficiency Recommendation 2.0

2 Gap Fill 1.5

3 IEA 1-Watt Program 1.0

4 Max Tech 0.02

In response to the October 2008 NOPR, interested parties commented that while 

the microwave oven standby power TSLs were appropriate, over-the-range microwave 

ovens that use VFDs would not be able to meet the 1.0 W standard (TSL 3) proposed in 

the October 2008 NOPR, and that use of other display technologies for over-the-range 

microwave ovens would reduce consumer utility. Commenters also stated that DOE 

should conduct additional testing of over-the-range microwave ovens with VFDs, and 

that manufacturers should be allowed a variety of pathways to reduce standby power 

consumption to each TSL. 77 FR 8526, 8541 (Feb. 14, 2012).

DOE research for the February 2012 SNOPR established that multiple over-therange microwave ovens are currently available on the market that incorporate low-power 

display technologies, including LED displays and LCDs. DOE also determined that 

manufacturer temperature ratings for the three types of displays are comparable, and that 

LED displays and LCDs in both countertop and over-the-range microwave ovens offer 

acceptable consumer utility features, including brightness, viewing angle, and ability to 

display complex characters. Based on these findings, DOE determined for the February 

2012 SNOPR that the TSLs and the associated analyses from the October 2008 NOPR 

were still valid and would apply to the revised product class encompassing microwave-
84

only ovens (including countertop, built-in, and over-the-range units) and countertop 

convection microwave ovens. DOE also determined that multiple pathways exist to reach 

each TSL, based on the selection of the display technology, power supply/control boards, 

and cooking sensors, and the possible incorporation of algorithms to automatically reduce 

standby power after a period of inactivity, as stated in the October 2008 NOPR. Id.

Based on the October 2008 NOPR, interested parties also requested additional 

information about the functionality associated with a microwave oven that meets the 

max-tech level, including response time from power-down, and whether such a model has 

as many display features and included all the features of the baseline models. In the 

February 2012 SNOPR, DOE stated that the max-tech microwave oven standby power 

level of 0.02 W corresponds to a unit equipped with a default automatic power-down 

function that disables certain power-consuming components after a specified period of 

user inactivity. The standby power at max-tech was obtained from a microwave oven on 

the market at that time in Korea, which incorporated such a feature. 73 FR 62034, 62045 

(Oct. 17, 2008). Although DOE did not have operational information on this specific 

model, DOE analyzed the components necessary to achieve an automatic power-down 

function, and determined that such a feature would not limit the selection of display 

technologies or other features that provide consumer utility. DOE analysis suggested that 

response times for startup would be short enough (less than 1 second) to be acceptable to 

consumers. 77 FR 8526, 8541 (Feb. 14, 2012).
85

As noted previously, DOE proposed a separate product class for built-in and overthe-range convection microwave ovens in the February 2012 SNOPR, and therefore also 

separately analyzed these microwave ovens in the engineering analysis. DOE’s analysis 

estimated the incremental manufacturing cost for built-in and over-the-range convection 

microwave ovens having standby power consumption less than a baseline value of 4.5 W. 

To determine that baseline level, DOE measured the standby power consumption of a 

representative sample of built-in and over-the-range convection microwave ovens on the 

market at that time. For the purpose of that standby power analysis, a baseline builtin/over-the-range convection microwave oven was considered to incorporate an absolute 

humidity cooking sensor. In order to analyze the cost-energy use relationship for this 

product class, DOE defined each standby power level as a maximum allowable standby 

power in watts. Id.

To determine the maximum allowable standby power at each level in Product 

Class 2, DOE reverse-engineered a representative sample of built-in and over-the-range 

convection microwave ovens to analyze the various components that contributed to the 

standby power consumption of the unit. DOE also measured the standby power 

consumed by these components individually. In its analysis, DOE observed that the 

absolute humidity cooking sensors used in these convection microwave ovens on average 

consume 0.9 W of standby power. For Standby Power Level (SL) 1, DOE determined 

that standby power can be reduced by incorporating a zero-standby cooking sensor. For 

SL 2, DOE analyzed potential improvements to the power supply design. DOE noted that 

microwave ovens at the baseline standby energy use incorporate a linear power supply. 
86

DOE measured the standby power consumption of the power supply and found that the 

transformer used to step down the line input voltage contributes most significantly to the 

standby power consumption. DOE then performed a power budget analysis to determine 

the size of the transformer needed to operate a microwave at full load, and the results 

suggested that replacing the conventional linear power supply with a more efficient

switch-mode power supply would reduce the standby power associated with the power 

supply. DOE thus estimated the standby power for SL 2 based on the improvement 

associated with changing from a conventional linear power supply with an efficiency of 

55 percent to a switch-mode power supply with an efficiency of 75 percent DOE 

developed this estimate for the efficiency of a switch-mode power supply based on 

research of such power supply designs for appliance applications. For SL 3, DOE 

analyzed the impact relays have in determining the size of a power supply. DOE 

compared the power budget of a control board with electromechanical relays to that with 

solid state relays, and observed that the power requirement of a control board, with 

similar input and load, was lower with solid state relays than with electromechanical 

relays. Therefore, DOE estimated the standby power at SL 3 based on design 

improvements associated with using more efficient components in a switch-mode power 

supply that incorporates solid state relays. For SL 4, DOE analyzed an automatic function 

that turns off power to standby power-consuming components after a certain period of 

inactivity and that uses a transformer-less power supply to maintain the microcontroller 

chip while the microwave oven is not powered on. DOE estimated the standby power at 

SL 4 based on the standby power requirements of the microcontroller chip. 77 FR 8526, 

8541–42 (Feb. 14, 2012).
87

In light of the above analysis, DOE proposed in the February 2012 SNOPR the 

standby power levels for the two product classes shown in Table IV.3.

Table IV-3 February 2012 SNOPR Proposed Microwave Oven Standby Power 

Levels

Standby Power Level

Standby Power (W)

Microwave-Only and 

Countertop Convection

Built-In and Over-theRange Convection

Baseline 4.0 4.5

1 2.0 3.7

2 1.5 2.7

3 1.0 2.2

4 0.02 0.04

DOE did not receive comments on these standby power levels in response to the 

February 2012 SNOPR. Whirlpool, however, submitted information regarding an off 

mode power level. Whirlpool stated that it is technically possible to achieve off mode 

power consumption below 0.1 W, but that it would add significant cost, as well as restrict 

design choices and product functionality, both of which would be unacceptable to the 

consumer. Whirlpool commented that it has been complying with a 1 W microwave oven 

off mode limit in Europe for several years, which will be reduced to 0.5 W in 2013. 

According to Whirlpool, most of its European built-in microwave ovens currently 

consume 0.6–0.9 W in off mode. Whirlpool expects to reduce this power consumption to 

0.3–0.45 W by the end of 2012, noting the following contributors that prevent off mode 

power consumption from being 0 W:

• Certain circuitry must be powered at all times to "wake up" the product 

(power supply circuits, keyboard scanning, and micro controller(s)).
88

• A mains filter is required to comply with electromagnetic interference (EMI) 

regulations. Such filters include certain capacitors that must be discharged to 

prevent electric shock if the user touches the terminals of the mains plug after 

unplugging the appliance from the wall. There is normally a "bleed resistor" 

in the filter design to discharge the capacitors, which consumes power as soon 

as the appliance is connected to the mains.

• The filter itself has certain losses, and normally it is not possible to disconnect 

the filter in standby mode or off mode, as that would impact product function 

in active mode.

(Whirlpool, No. 15 at p. 3)

DOE considered these comments, but noted that Whirlpool’s inclusion of 

circuitry that is powered at all times to sense a user input and “wake up” indicates that the 

product is operating in standby mode, as these components comprise a sensor to activate 

other mode(s). Furthermore, DOE concludes that this particular operating state is 

equivalent to the automatic power-down function associated with SL 4. DOE research 

suggests that the filter circuitry referenced by Whirlpool serves primarily to reduce the 

interference caused by the magnetron and its power supply, and that the power supply for 

at least some logic components inside a microwave oven do not necessarily have to be 

placed ‘behind’ the filtration board. Instead, these logic components could derive their 

inputs directly from line power and disconnect the filtration board and the rest of the 

microwave oven from line power until a need arises. Additionally, DOE notes that at 

least one microchip manufacturer has commercialized a product to eliminate power 
89

losses associated with bleed resistors using a single component that isolates the bleed 

resistor(s) as long as line power is connected. 

Past reverse-engineering by DOE has uncovered several strategies to minimize 

standby power requirements. One option is to have a drop-capacitor power supply 

feeding a low-power circuit whose sole function is to sense user interaction and to then 

activate the (much higher-capacity) regular linear power supply for the logic components 

as needed. Thus, the transformer losses of the linear power supply are avoided. Another 

option is to have a switch-mode power supply that normally is ‘asleep’ wake and activate 

the rest of the controls when the door is opened. The automatic power-down approach at 

SL 4 chosen by DOE consists of such a 1.5 W-capable power supply, a door switch, 

assorted wiring, and a relay that isolates the microwave filtration board (and hence the 

rest of the microwave oven) from line power whenever it is deep sleep mode.

In addition, DOE’s current research indicates that conventional linear power 

supplies have efficiencies of 40 percent or less, as compared to the 55-percent efficiency 

that was estimated for the February 2012 SNOPR. DOE accounted for this relative 

increase in efficiency improvement when changing to a switch-mode power supply by 

considering different design pathways to reach the standby power levels associated with 

this design option.
90

Therefore, for the reasons discussed above for the standby power levels proposed 

in the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE has retained the same levels for the final rule 

analysis.

3. Manufacturing Costs

In this rulemaking, DOE determined the estimated manufacturing cost for 

microwave ovens at each standby power level. The manufacturing costs are the basis of 

inputs for other analyses, including the LCC, national impact, and GRIM analyses.

For microwave oven standby mode and off mode energy use, DOE estimated a 

cost-energy use relationship (or “curve”) in the form of the incremental manufacturing 

costs associated with incremental reductions in baseline standby power. In the October 

2008 NOPR, DOE determined that microwave oven standby power depends on, among 

other factors, the display technology used, the associated power supplies and controllers, 

and the presence or lack of a cooking sensor. From testing and reverse engineering, DOE 

observed correlations between (1) specific components and technologies, or combinations 

thereof, and (2) measured standby power. DOE obtained preliminary incremental 

manufacturing costs associated with standby power levels by considering combinations 

of those components as well as other technology options identified to reduce standby 

power. In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE presented manufacturing cost estimates based 

on quotes obtained from suppliers, interviews with manufacturers, interviews with 

subject matter experts, research and literature review, and numerical modeling. 73 FR 

62034, 62055 (Oct. 17, 2008). They are shown in Table IV.4. As noted above, for the 

October 2008 NOPR, DOE analyzed a single product class for microwave ovens 
91

encompassing microwave ovens with and without browning (thermal) elements, but not 

including microwave ovens that incorporate convection systems.

Table IV-4 October 2008 NOPR Proposed Microwave Oven Standby Power 

Incremental Manufacturing Costs

Standby Power Level Standby Power (W) Incremental Cost (2007$)

Baseline 4.0 NA

1 2.0 $0.30

2 1.5 $0.67

3 1.0 $1.47

4 0.02 $5.13

DOE noted that it had observed several different cooking sensor technologies. 

Follow-on testing after the December 2007 public meeting showed that some sensors 

were zero-standby (relative humidity) cooking sensors. During the MIA interview for the 

October 2008 NOPR, one manufacturer indicated that its supplier of cooking sensors had 

developed zero-standby absolute humidity cooking sensors that would have the same 

manufacturing cost as the higher-standby power devices they would replace. Based on 

the number of available approaches to zero-standby cooking sensors from which 

manufacturers can choose, DOE concluded at that time that all manufacturers can and 

likely would implement zero-standby cooking sensors by the effective date of standby 

mode and off mode energy conservation standards, and maintain the consumer utility of a 

cooking sensor without affecting unit cost. DOE also concluded that a standard at standby 

power levels of 1 or 2 W would not affect consumer utility, because all display types 

could continue to be used. At SL 3 for VFDs and SL 4 for all display technologies, DOE 

analysis suggested the need for a separate controller (automatic power-down) that 

automatically turns off all other power-consuming components during standby mode. 
92

Such a feature would affect the consumer utility of having a clock display only if the 

consumer could not opt out of auto power-down. 73 FR 62034, 62055 (Oct. 17, 2008).

In response to the October 2008 NOPR, interested parties questioned the source 

of the incremental cost data associated with each standby power level, the need for 

incremental manufacturing costs to reflect both a one-time cost as well as the possibility 

of multiple paths to achieve each TSL, and questioned the cost associated with upgrading 

power supplies to reach TSL 3. 

In the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE noted that it had developed incremental cost 

estimates for each standby power level using the design-option approach, and that onetime costs are evaluated as part of the MIA. DOE estimated costs for each of the 

components and technologies based on quotes from component suppliers, interviews with 

manufacturers, interviews with subject matter experts, research and literature review, and 

numerical modeling. The incremental manufacturing costs for each standby power level 

were determined by considering different combinations of these components as well as 

other technology options identified to reduce standby power. DOE stated that it was 

aware that manufacturers may employ a number of strategies to achieve the different 

standby power levels. The estimated manufacturing costs for each standby power level 

represent the approach DOE determined manufacturers would most likely use to achieve 

the standby power at each level. For each level, DOE assumed manufacturers would 

implement design options with the lowest associated manufacturing cost. If DOE 

determined there were multiple paths with similar costs to reach a certain level, it 
93

assumed manufacturers would be equally likely to choose either strategy. 77 FR 8526, 

8543 (Feb. 14, 2012).

Interested parties also commented that the analysis did not consider consumer 

education costs on proper operation of microwave ovens with automatic power-down 

features, and that the manufacturing costs did not include cost implications on appliance 

manufacturers for including variables such as component readability and/or utility. DOE 

observed that it had considered the potential conversion costs associated with changes to 

consumer utility and reliability in the MIA. However, as previously discussed, DOE

found no reliability or consumer utility concerns with switching from VFD to LCD or 

LED displays. Through discussions with manufacturers and OEMs, DOE determined that 

zero-standby cooking sensors could be implemented with no effect on consumer utility or 

reliability. DOE noted that an automatic power-down feature required at SL 3 for VFDs 

and at SL 4 for all display types could affect consumer utility, and considered these 

impacts in the selection of the proposed standards. Id.

Therefore, in the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE determined that the standby power 

levels and corresponding incremental manufacturing costs presented in the October 2008 

NOPR remained fundamentally valid for the microwave-only and countertop convection 

microwave oven product class. DOE was unaware of any technologies that became 

available after the October 2008 NOPR that would alter the incremental cost for any 

standby power level. However, the costs presented in the October 2008 NOPR were in 

2008 dollars. DOE scaled these costs to 2010 dollars using the producer price index (PPI) 
94

to reflect more current values.19

Table IV.5

The relevant PPI for microwave ovens is a subset of the 

household cooking appliance manufacturing industry, specifically for electric (including 

microwave) household ranges, ovens, surface cooking units, and equipment. Thus, DOE 

revised the incremental costs for each standby power level for Product Class 1, scaled to 

2010 dollars, as presented in .

Table IV-5 February 2012 SNOPR Proposed Microwave Oven Product Class 1 

Standby Power Incremental Manufacturing Costs 

Standby Power Level Standby Power (W) Incremental Cost (2010$

Baseline

)

4.0 NA

1 2.0 $0.27

2 1.5 $0.60

3 1.0 $1.31

4 0.02 $4.58

DOE conducted additional analyses on a test sample of 13 convection microwave 

ovens for the February 2012 SNOPR to evaluate the built-in and over-the-range 

convection microwave oven product class. DOE again used the design-option approach to 

determine the incremental manufacturing costs of convection microwave ovens for each 

standby power level.

As discussed in the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE estimated the incremental cost 

associated with reductions in baseline standby power of built-in and over-the-range 

convection microwave ovens. DOE performed engineering teardowns and control board 

cost analyses to determine the cost of the baseline control board used in these units. DOE 

estimated the cost associated with each standby power level by using quotes from various 

 19 Information on the PPI databases can be found at http://www.bls.gov/ppi/data.htm. (Last accessed 

December 2012.)
95

component suppliers to determine the cost of the components used in each design option.

77 FR 8526, 8543 (Feb. 14, 2012).

For SL 1, DOE estimated that the manufacturing cost of a zero-standby cooking 

sensor would be the same as that of the cooking sensor with high standby power. To 

estimate the manufacturing cost for SL 2, DOE used reverse engineering to determine the 

cost of the components used in a design of a switch-mode power supply capable of 

delivering the same output power as the baseline conventional linear power supply. In its 

analysis for the manufacturing cost of SL 3, DOE determined the cost of the components 

used to design a control board with a switch-mode power supply and solid state relays 

capable of driving the same loads as the electromechanical relays. DOE estimated the 

manufacturing cost for SL 4 based on the cost of the components needed to design an 

automatic power-down function that uses a transformer-less power supply. The results of 

these analyses for the February 2012 SNOPR are presented in Table IV.6.

Table IV-6 February 2012 SNOPR Proposed Microwave Oven Product Class 2 

Standby Power Incremental Manufacturing Costs 

Standby Power 

Level Standby Power (W) Incremental Cost (2010$

Baseline

)

4.5 NA

1 3.7 $0

2 2.7 $2.29

3 2.2 $9.44

4 0.04 $5.18

Whirlpool stated that the incremental manufacturing costs for SL 3 would consist 

only of component costs and would not require additional processing and labor costs.

Whirlpool estimated the total incremental cost at SL 3 as the sum of the costs it provided 

for each of the design options it had commented on, and stated that the largest contributor 
96

would be the cost of changing to a switch-mode power supply for those microwave ovens 

that don’t currently have them. (Whirlpool, No. 15 at pp. 5–6) DOE observes that 

Whirlpool did not provide estimated costs for a implementing a zero-standby power 

cooking sensor or a switch-mode power supply, although, as noted previously in section 

IV.C.3 of this rulemaking, Whirlpool agreed with DOE’s estimate for the cost associated 

with a switch-mode power supply for a new product design but stated that the cost would 

be too low for existing designs. The sum of the upper range of estimated costs which 

Whirlpool did provide were approximately $5.00, which is greater than the costs DOE 

estimated at SL 3 for Product Class 1 and approximately half DOE’s estimate for Product 

Class 2.

DOE, therefore, expanded its evaluation of manufacturing costs to consider all of 

the design pathways it had identified for each product type and class. DOE aggregated 

and weighted the cost results from the design pathway studies using the distribution of 

features by stock-keeping-units (SKUs). For example, about 22 percent of microwave 

oven SKUs in Product Class 1 incorporate a VFD and a cooking sensor. DOE also 

conducted additional research and interviews with suppliers to update the component 

costs for the individual design options. The resulting updated incremental manufacturing 

costs for both product classes are presented in Table IV.7 and Table IV.8. Because 

DOE’s analysis for today’s final rule was based on a more comprehensive model 

database, the greater sample size combined with the updated component cost estimates

and significantly more design pathways affected the manufacturing cost results. For 

example, at the higher efficiency levels, the pathway for some product types requires
97

automatic power-down at SL 3 rather than SL 4. In addition, DOE determined that for 

several product types in Product Class 2, the baseline model already incorporates a 

switch-mode power supply. As a result, the weighted average cost at SL 3 is lower than 

proposed in the February 2012 SNOPR. For more details of the manufacturing costs 

developed as part of the engineering analysis, see chapter 5 of the final rule TSD.

Table IV-7 Final Rule Microwave Oven Product Class 1 Standby Power 

Incremental Manufacturing Costs

Standby Power Level Standby Power (W) Incremental Cost (2011$

Baseline

)

4.0 NA

1 2.0 $0.26

2 1.5 $0.38

3 1.0 $3.28

4 0.02 $6.23

Table IV-8 Final Rule Microwave Oven Product Class 2 Standby Power 

Incremental Manufacturing Costs

Standby Power Level Standby Power (W) Incremental Cost (2011$

Baseline

)

4.5 NA

1 3.7 $0.06

2 2.7 $0.08

3 2.2 $5.01

4 0.04 $5.86

E.

In response to the requirements of section 325(o)(2)(B)(i) of the Act, DOE 

conducted LCC and PBP analyses to evaluate the economic impacts of possible amended 

energy conservation standards for consumers of microwave ovens having standby mode 

and off mode features. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)) DOE conducted the analyses using a 

spreadsheet model, which is described in chapter 8 of the final rule TSD.)

Life Cycle Cost and Payback Period Analysis
98

The LCC represents the total consumer expense over the life of a product, 

including purchase and installation expenses and operating costs (energy expenditures, 

repair costs, and maintenance costs). The PBP is the number of years it would take for the 

consumer to recover the increased costs of a higher efficiency product through energy 

savings. To calculate the LCC, DOE discounts future operating costs to the time of 

purchase and sums them over the lifetime of the product. DOE forecasts the change in 

LCC and the change in PBP associated with a given efficiency level relative to the basecase product efficiency. The base-case forecast reflects the market in the absence of 

amended mandatory energy conservation standards. As part of the LCC and PBP 

analyses, DOE develops data that it uses to establish product prices, annual energy 

consumption, energy prices, maintenance and repair costs, product lifetime, and discount 

rates.

For the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE developed a consumer sample for 

microwave ovens having standby mode and off mode features from EIA’s 2005 

Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS). For today’s final rule, it developed a 

consumer sample from the 2009 RECS. It used this sample to establish the variability and 

uncertainty in microwave oven electricity use. 

The variability in electricity pricing was characterized by incorporating regional 

energy prices. DOE calculated the LCC associated with a baseline microwave oven 

having standby mode and off mode features. To calculate the LCC savings and PBP 
99

associated with products that could meet potential amended energy conservation

standards, DOE substituted the baseline unit with more efficient designs.

Table IV.9 summarizes the approaches and data DOE used to derive the inputs to 

the LCC and PBP calculations for the October 2008 NOPR, and the changes it made for 

today’s final rule. DOE did not introduce changes to the LCC and PBP analysis 

methodology described in the October 2008 NOPR. As the following sections discuss in 

more detail, however, DOE revised some of the inputs to the analysis. Chapter 8 of the 

final rule TSD contains a detailed discussion of the methodology utilized for the LCC and 

PBP analysis as well as the inputs developed for the analysis.
100

Table IV-9 Summary of Inputs and Key Assumptions in LCC and PBP Analyses

Inputs October 2008 NOPR Changes for the 

SNOPR

Changes for the 

Final Rule

Affecting Installed Costs

Product Cost Derived by multiplying 

manufacturer cost by 

manufacturer, distributor 

markups and sales tax.

Used experience curve 

fits to forecast a price 

scaling index to forecast 

product costs.

Increased the 

geographic 

resolution of sales

tax data.

Affecting Operating Costs

Annual Energy 

Use

Annual energy use 

determined from the 

annual usage (average 

daily use cycles). 

No change. No change.

Energy Prices Electricity: Updated using 

EIA’s 2006 Form 861 

data.

Variability: Regional 

energy prices determined 

for 13 regions.

Electricity: Updated 

using EIA’s 2009 Form 

861 data.

Variability: No change.

Electricity: 

Updated using 

EIA’s 2010 Form 

861 data.

Variability: Energy 

prices determined 

by RECS 

Reportable Domain 

(27 individual 

States or State 

groupings).

Energy Price 

Trends

Energy: Forecasts updated 

with EIA’s Annual Energy 

Outlook 2008 (AEO 

2008). 

Reference Case, High 

Growth, and Low 

Growth forecasts 

updated with EIA’s AEO 

2010 May Release. 

Reference Case, 

High Growth, and 

Low Growth 

forecasts updated 

with EIA’s AEO 

2012 June Release. 

Repair and 

Maintenance 

Costs

Assumed no repair or 

maintenance costs.

No change. No change.

Affecting Present Value of Annual Operating Cost Savings

Product Lifetime Estimated using survey 

results from RECS (1990, 

1993, 1997, 2001, 2005) 

and the U.S. Census 

American Housing Survey 

(2005, 2007), along with 

historic data on appliance 

shipments.

No change. Updated LCC 

lifetime 

methodology to 

reflect 

methodology used 

in the NIA

Discount Rates Variability: Characterized 

using Weibull probability 

distributions.

No change. No change.

Affecting Installed and Operating Costs

Compliance Date 

of New Standard

2012. 2014. 2016.

Deleted: No change.
101

1. Product Costs

To calculate the product costs paid by microwave oven purchasers, DOE 

multiplied the manufacturing product costs (MPCs) developed from the engineering 

analysis by industry markups to derive manufacturers’ selling prices (MSPs). The MSPs 

in turn are multiplied by supply chain markups (along with sales taxes) to estimate the 

initial cost to the consumer. DOE used the same supply chain markups for today’s final 

rule that were developed for the October 2008 NOPR. These include separate markups on 

the baseline MSP and the incremental cost of each higher efficiency level considered. 

AHAM submitted an attachment to its comment in which Shorey Consulting

argues against using a lower incremental retail markup on the added costs of higherefficiency products. (AHAM, No. 16, Attachment 1; GE, No. 19 at p. 1) Shorey

Consulting claims that DOE ignores relevant, consistent and reliable data and attempts to

apply pure, unconfirmed theory (whose validity and applicability Shorey Consulting

questions). Shorey used retail industry data to measure competition in appliance retailing 

and argues that DOE’s approach requires a level of competition that does not exist. 

Stating that several decades of experience provide information about what actually

happens at the retail level, Shorey argues that DOE should base its analyses on actual 

practices rather than theory. It notes that retailers have experience with the markups on

products in the post‐standards situation. It states that to the extent that manufacturers are

aware of the markup practices at the retail level, those practices seem consistent with the 

long-term pattern of stable gross margins.
102

DOE continues to believe that microwave oven retail markets are reasonably 

competitive, so that an increase in the manufacturing cost of microwave ovens is not 

likely to contribute to a proportionate rise in retail profits, as would be expected to 

happen without incremental markups. DOE believes that Shorey’s measure of 

competition is inaccurate for microwave ovens, primarily because it assumes that the 

market shares for major appliances adequately represent the market shares for microwave 

ovens. Microwave ovens are sold in some retail channels not included in Shorey’s list of 

the major appliance retailers (e.g., drugstores), as well as on the Internet.

In response to Shorey’s comments regarding the lack of empirical evidence 

underlying DOE’s markup analysis, DOE has previously examined historical retail price 

data for several appliances.

20 The data do not support the use of a constant markup. DOE 

acknowledges that detailed information on actual retail practices would be helpful in 

evaluating markups on products after appliance standards take effect. DOE currently is 

collecting information that would shed more light on actual practices by retailers selling 

microwave ovens and other appliances. To date, the limited evidence DOE has collected 

provides no clear answer, but it does not support the idea that retail profits rise as a result 

of efficiency standards. Thus, DOE continues to use an approach to markups that is 

consistent with economic theory of firm behavior in competitive markets. See chapter 6

of the final rule TSD for additional information.

 20 Larry Dale, et al. “Retrospective Evaluation of Appliance Price Trends,” Energy Policy 37 (2009). pp.

597–605.
103

In the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE examined historical PPIs for electric cooking 

equipment generally and microwave ovens specifically and found a consistent, long-term

declining real price trend. Consistent with the method used in other rulemakings, DOE 

used experience curve fits to develop a price scaling index to project product costs for 

this rulemaking. For the LCC and PBP analysis, the experience rate (defined as the 

fractional reduction in price expected from each doubling of cumulative production) is 

based on historical PPI data for electric cooking products from the Bureau of Labor 

Statistics,

21 along with a time-series of annual shipments for 1969–2009 for electric 

household cooking products.

AHAM and GE continue to oppose the use of experience curves. (AHAM, No. 16 

at p. 4; GE, No. 19 at p. 1) AHAM submitted an attachment prepared by Shorey 

Consulting that presents arguments against using experience curves to project product 

costs. Shorey states that DOE has not rebutted the comments on the lack of theoretical 

foundation for its experience curve analysis made by Shorey Consulting and AHAM in 

response to DOE’s Notice of Data Availability (NODA) and Request for Comment 

Regarding Equipment Price Forecasting in Energy Conservation Standards Analysis. 76 

FR 9696 (Feb. 22, 2011). It claims that DOE has identified some data (whose reliability

and relevance Shorey Consulting continues to question) and tries to apply it even though 

its own sources question the theoretical underpinnings of such usage. Shorey 

 21 Although electric cooking products represent a higher level of aggregation than microwave ovens only, 

because no PPI data specific to microwave ovens were available, DOE used PPI data for electric cooking 

products as representative of microwave ovens. Additionally, shipments of microwave ovens have become 

a significant part of total shipments of electric household cooking products since 1975.
104

recommends that DOE substitute a sensitivity analysis for experience curve costing in the 

national impact analysis. (AHAM, No. 16, Attachment 1)

DOE responded to the comments on the NODA by AHAM and other interested 

parties in the final rule for energy conservation standards for refrigerators, refrigeratorfreezers, and freezers. 76 FR 57549 (Sep. 15, 2011). There is an extensive literature, 

spanning several decades, supporting the use of experience curves for a broad range of 

products. As discussed in a recent publication by researchers at Lawrence Berkeley 

National Laboratory,22 the approach used by DOE is consistent with the experience 

curves that have been empirically demonstrated in numerous studies. In addition, wellknown energy models such as NEMS already incorporate experience curves. DOE is not 

aware of the sources to which Shorey refers. DOE believes that the specific sensitivity 

analysis proposed by Shorey would be impractical. It also seems unnecessary because 

DOE incorporates sensitivity analysis in its current methodology.

Shorey also suggests that DOE not use the experience effect for the period 

preceding the compliance date of standards because the engineering analysis uses cost 

projections that already have some effects of production cost reductions built into them. 

The costs DOE developed in the engineering analysis for microwave ovens through 

teardowns and cost modeling reflect the year of analysis, not the year of compliance. 

(AHAM, No. 16, Attachment 1) DOE estimated costs for each of the components and 

 22 Desroches, L.-B., K. Garbesi, C. Kantner, R. Van Buskirk, H.-C. Yang (2012), "Incorporating 

Experience Curves in Appliance Standards Analysis," accepted to Energy Policy. 

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.09.066
105

technologies that contribute to standby power based on quotes from suppliers, interviews 

with manufacturers, interviews with subject matter experts, review of research and 

literature, and numerical modeling. Preliminary incremental manufacturing costs 

associated with various standby levels then were obtained by considering combinations 

of those components as well as other technology options identified to reduce standby 

power. Manufacturer interviews were conducted also to obtain greater insight into design 

strategies and the associated costs for improving efficiency. Based on the incremental 

manufacturing costs at various standby power levels, DOE developed cost-efficiency 

curves. DOE did not specifically solicit information regarding manufacturing costs at the 

time of the compliance date of any standby power standards. Furthermore, the AHAM 

data requests and manufacturer interview guides used in recent energy conservation 

standards rulemakings for other residential products, such as dishwashers, dehumidifiers, 

clothes washers, clothes dryers, and room air conditioners, reveal that incremental costs 

were solicited from manufacturers in a manner consistent with the approach taken in the 

microwave oven standby power standards rulemaking. Because the costs estimated in the 

engineering analysis are based on the year of analysis, DOE believes it is appropriate to 

apply the derived experience rate beginning the following year, as was done for the 

February 2012 SNOPR and today’s final rule.

Shorey also questioned DOE’s use of the PPI for electric cooking equipment in 

the experience curve derivation for microwave ovens. Shorey notes that the PPI for 

electric cooking equipment does not measure a significant number of microwave ovens, 

since microwave ovens represent only 2 to 3 percent of the shipments and value of 
106

electric cooking products. In addition, approximately 99 percent of microwave ovens are 

imported and thus excluded from the PPI. (AHAM, No. 16, Attachment 1)

In response, DOE acknowledges that there is no PPI category specific to 

microwave ovens. DOE investigated an experience rate using price data specific to 

microwave ovens, but did not use that as the default case because the estimate is not 

particularly robust given the limited data. Instead, DOE used the most disaggregated 

category that includes microwave ovens, which is electric cooking equipment. Although 

this approach may introduce some inaccuracy, it more closely reflects real price trends 

(as indicated by the price data specific to microwave ovens) than an assumption of no 

price trend. The paper cited above explores the role of imports and how the PPI compares

to retail prices have been explored for several appliances. It found that PPI data track 

retail prices in a manner that lends confidence to the use of PPI data when constructing 

experience curves. Although the PPI does not include imports, the trend does not appear 

to be systematically biased compared to retail prices (for either imports or domestically 

produced products) for the appliances analyzed. 

In summary, DOE believes that its use of the experience curve approach to 

estimate a future price trend for microwave ovens is reasonable and appropriate. For the 

final rule, DOE made minor changes to its calculation method to match the approach 

used in other recent rulemakings. A more detailed discussion of DOE’s price trend

modeling and the various sensitivity analyses is provided in appendix 8-C of the final rule

TSD.
107

For the October 2008 NOPR, DOE analyzed only countertop models of 

microwave ovens and considered installation costs to be zero. For today's final rule, DOE 

analyzed both countertop and over-the-range microwave ovens and considered both 

installation and incremental installation costs to be zero.

2. Annual Energy Consumption

DOE determined the annual energy consumption of the standby mode and off 

mode of microwave ovens by estimating the number of hours of operation throughout the 

year and assuming that the unit would be in standby mode or off mode the rest of the 

time. In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE determined the average hours of operation for 

microwaves to be 71 hours per year. DOE has no reason to believe that this number has 

changed.

To estimate variability in microwave oven hours of operation for each household 

in the RECS sample, DOE calculated a relative usage factor (with an average of 1.0) for 

each household. DOE multiplied the reported number of hot meals by the frequency of 

microwave oven usage and then normalized the result as an index value. DOE then 

multiplied the relative usage factor for each household by the average of 71 hours per 

year.

Finally, DOE subtracted the number of calculated operating hours from the total 

number of hours in a year and multiplied that difference by the standby mode and off 
108

mode power usage at each efficiency level to determine annual standby mode and off 

mode energy consumption. 

AHAM and GE continue to strongly oppose DOE’s reliance on RECS for these 

analyses, noting that it is difficult to compare the results to the energy use measured in a 

controlled test procedure situation. (AHAM, No. 16 at p. 4; GE, No. 19 at p. 1) Whirlpool 

claimed that use of the RECS data in calculation of the LCC and PBP is highly suspect 

because the sample size would be too small to be statistically valid. (Whirlpool, No. 15 at 

p. 2)

The purpose of the energy use analysis is to estimate the range of product energy 

use in the field, not the energy use in a controlled test procedure situation. By so doing, 

DOE is able to estimate how the energy savings would vary among households for each 

considered efficiency level. This allows DOE to develop a more accurate characterization 

of the impacts of potential standards on consumers, as required by EPCA. (42 U.S.C. 

6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(I)) The sample that DOE used contained 11,616 records and is large 

enough to provide statistically valid results for microwave oven utilization.

3. Energy Prices

DOE estimated residential electricity prices for each of the 27 geographic areas 

used in RECS 2009 based on data from EIA Form 861, “Annual Electric Power Industry 

Report.” DOE calculated an average residential electricity price by first estimating an 

average residential price for each utility, and then calculating an average price by 
109

weighting each utility having customers in a region by the number of residential

customers served in that region. The calculations for today’s final rule used the most 

recent available data (2010).

To estimate trends in electricity prices for the supplemental notice, DOE used the 

price forecasts in EIA’s AEO 2010. For today’s final rule, DOE used the forecasts in

AEO 2012. To arrive at prices in future years, DOE multiplied the average prices 

described above by the forecast of annual average price changes in AEO 2012. Because 

the AEO forecasts prices only to 2035, DOE followed past guidelines that EIA provided 

to the Federal Energy Management Program and used the average rate of change during 

2020–2035 to estimate price trends beyond 2035.23

AHAM, GE, and Whirlpool objected to the inclusion of cap-and-trade program 

impacts in the energy price forecasts in the February 2012 SNOPR because there are no 

tangible facts upon which to base an analysis. (AHAM, No. 16 at p. 4; GE, No. 19 at p. 1; 

Whirlpool, No. 15, p. 2) The electric power sector module in the NEMS used for AEO 

2012

 23 The spreadsheet tools used to conduct the LCC and PBP analysis allow users to select energy price 

forecasts for either the AEO’s High economic growth case or Low economic growth case to estimate the 

sensitivity of the LCC and PBP to different energy price forecasts.

Reference Case accounts for estimated impacts of the Northeast Regional 

Greenhouse Gas Initiative and the cap-and-trade program being implemented in 

California as a result of California Assembly Bill 32. DOE believes that, given the known 

constraints on CO2 emissions associated with these programs, the electric power sector 

module in NEMS provides a reasonable estimate of how electricity providers would 
110

behave with respect to power plant construction and dispatch, which in turn would affect 

electricity prices in a small way. Thus, DOE believes that the energy price forecasts used 

for the final rule are appropriate.

4. Repair and Maintenance Costs

Repair costs are those associated with repairing or replacing components that 

have failed in an appliance; maintenance costs are associated with maintaining the 

operation of the product. For the October 2008 NOPR, DOE did not include repair or 

maintenance costs in its analyses by assuming higher efficient products do not warrant 

increased costs for repair or maintenance. DOE maintained the same approach for this 

final rule.

5. Product Lifetime

Because the lifetime of appliances varies depending on utilization and other 

factors, DOE develops a distribution of lifetimes from which specific values are assigned 

to the appliances in the samples. DOE conducted an analysis of microwave oven lifetimes 

in the field based on a combination of shipments data and RECS data on the ages of the 

microwave ovens reported in the household stock. The analysis yielded an estimate of 

mean age for microwave ovens of approximately 10.9 years. It also yielded a survival 

function that DOE incorporated as a probability distribution in its LCC analysis. See 

chapter 8 of the final rule TSD for further details on the method and sources DOE used to 

develop microwave oven lifetimes.

Deleted: For the October 2008 NOPR and today’s 

final rule, DOE used a variety of sources to establish 

low, average, and high estimates for product 

lifetime. The average microwave oven lifetime used 

is 9.3 years. DOE used a Weibull probability 

distribution to characterize microwave oven lifetime.¶
111

6. Discount Rates

In the calculation of LCC, DOE applies discount rates to estimate the present 

value of future operating costs. DOE estimated a distribution of residential discount rates 

for microwave ovens. See chapter 8 in the final rule TSD for further details on the 

development of consumer discount rates.

To establish residential discount rates for the LCC analysis in the October 2008 

NOPR and today’s final rule, DOE identified all debt or asset classes that consumers 

might use to purchase household appliances, including household assets that might be 

affected indirectly. It estimated average percentage shares of the various debt or asset 

classes for the average U.S. household using data from the Federal Reserve Board’s 

“Survey of Consumer Finances” (SCF) for 1989, 1992, 1995, 1998, 2001, 2004, and 

2007. Using the SCF and other sources, DOE then developed a distribution of rates for 

each type of debt and asset to represent the rates that may apply in the year in which new 

standards would take effect. DOE assigned each sample household a specific discount 

rate drawn from one of the distributions. The average rate across all types of household 

debt and equity, weighted by the shares of each class, is 5.1 percent. DOE used the same 

approach for today’s final rule.

7. Compliance Date of New Standards

The compliance date is the future date when parties subject to the requirements of 

a new energy conservation standard must begin compliance. For the October 2008 

NOPR, DOE assumed that any new standards adopted in this rulemaking would become 
112

effective in March 2012, 3 years after the month when it expected the final rule would be

published in the Federal Register. Today’s final rule is being published with new 

standards requiring compliance 3 years later. Thus, DOE calculated the LCC for 

appliance consumers as if they would purchase new products in 2016.

8. Product Energy Efficiency in the Base Case

For the LCC and PBP analysis, DOE analyzes higher efficiency levels relative to 

a base case (i.e.

Table IV.10

, the case without new energy conservation standards). However, some 

consumers may already purchase products having efficiencies greater than the baseline 

product levels. Thus, to accurately estimate the percentage of consumers that would be 

affected by a particular standard level, DOE estimates the distribution of product

efficiencies that consumers are expected to purchase under the base case. DOE refers to 

this distribution of product energy efficiencies as a base-case efficiency distribution. For 

the October 2008 NOPR and today’s final rule, DOE used recent shares of available 

models at specific standby power levels to establish the base-case efficiency distributions.

presents the market shares of the standby power levels in the base case for 

standby mode and off mode energy use of microwave ovens.

Table IV-10 Microwave Ovens: Base-Case Efficiency Market Shares

Product Class 1 Product Class 2

Level

Standby Power 

(W) Share (

Standby

%) Power (W) Share (

Baseline

%)

4.00 46.2 4.50 100.0

TSL1* 2.00 34.6 3.70 0.0

TSL 2 1.50 19.2 2.70 0.0

TSL 3 1.00 0.0 2.20 0.0

TSL 4 0.02 0.0 0.04 0.0

*TSL = Trial Standard Level
113

9. Inputs to Payback Period Analysis

The PBP is the amount of time (expressed in years) it takes the consumer to 

recover the additional installed cost of a more efficient product through operating cost 

savings, compared to the baseline product. The simple payback period does not account 

for changes in operating expenses over time or the time value of money. The inputs to the 

PBP calculation are the total installed cost of the product to the consumer for each 

efficiency level and the annual (first-year) operating expenditures for each efficiency 

level. For the October 2008 NOPR and today’s final rule, the PBP calculation uses the 

same inputs as the LCC analysis, except that energy price trends and discount rates are 

not needed.

10. Rebuttable-Presumption Payback Period

As noted above, EPCA, as amended (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(iii)) establishes a 

rebuttable presumption that a standard is economically justified if the Secretary finds that 

the additional cost to the consumer of purchasing a product complying with an energy 

conservation standard level will be less than three times the value of the energy savings 

during the first year that the consumer will receive as a result of the standard, as 

calculated under the test procedure in place for that standard. For each TSL, DOE 

determined the value of the first year’s energy savings by calculating the quantity of 

those savings in accordance with DOE’s test procedure, and multiplying that amount by 

the average energy price projection for the year in which a new standard first would be 

effective—in this case, 2016.
114

F.

1. General

National Impact Analysis – National Energy Savings and Net Present Value Analysis

DOE’s NIA assesses the national energy savings, as well as the national NPV, of 

total consumer costs and savings expected to result from new or amended standards at 

specific efficiency levels. DOE applied the NIA spreadsheet to calculate energy savings 

and NPV, using the annual energy consumption and total installed cost data from the 

LCC analysis. DOE forecasted the energy savings, energy cost savings, product costs, 

and NPV for the two product classes from 2016 to 2045. The forecasts provide annual 

and cumulative values for all four parameters. In addition, DOE incorporated into its NIA 

spreadsheet the capability to analyze sensitivity of the results to forecasted energy prices 

and product efficiency trends. Table IV.11 summarizes the approach and data DOE used 

to derive the inputs to the NES and NPV analyses for the October 2008 NOPR, February 

2012 SNOPR, and the changes made in the analyses for today’s final rule. A discussion 

of the 2008 inputs and the changes follows. (See chapter 10 of the final rule TSD for 

further details.)
115

Table IV-11 Approach and Data Used to Derive Inputs to the National Energy 

Savings and NPV Analyses

Inputs 2008 NOPR Description Changes for the 2012 

SNOPR

Changes for the 

Final Rule

Shipments Annual shipments from 

shipments model.

See Table IV.12 See Table IV.12

Compliance Date 

of Standard

2012. 2014. 2016.

Base-Case 

Forecasted 

Efficiencies

Shipment-weighted 

efficiency (SWEF) 

determined in 2005. 

SWEF held constant over 

forecast period. 

No change. No change.

Standards-Case 

Forecasted 

Efficiencies

Analyzed as one product 

class. Roll-up scenario 

used for determining 

SWEF in the year that 

standards become 

effective for each 

standards case. SWEF 

held constant over 

forecast period. 

Analyzed as two product 

classes. Roll-up scenario 

used for determining 

SWEF in the year that 

standards become 

effective for each 

standards case. SWEF 

held constant over 

forecast period.

No change.

Annual Energy 

Consumption per 

Unit

Annual weighted-average 

values as a function of 

SWEF. 

No change. No change.

Total Installed 

Cost per Unit

Annual weighted-average 

values as a function of 

SWEF. 

Incorporated learning 

rate to forecast product 

prices.

Product price 

forecasting updated to 

reflect most current 

methodology.

Energy Cost per 

Unit

Annual weighted-average 

values as a function of the 

annual energy 

consumption per unit and 

energy (and water) prices. 

No change. No change.

Repair Cost and 

Maintenance Cost 

per Unit

Incorporated changes in 

repair costs as a function 

of standby power.

No change. No change.

Escalation of 

Energy Prices

AEO 2008 forecasts (to 

2030); extrapolated to 

2042.

Updated to AEO 2010 

May release forecasts (to 

2035); extrapolated to 

2043.

Updated to AEO 2012

Energy Site-toSource 

Conversion

June release forecasts 

(to 2035); 

extrapolated to 2045.

Conversion varies yearly 

and is generated by 

DOE/EIA’s NEMS 

program (a time-series 

conversion factor; 

includes electric 

generation, transmission, 

No change. No change.
116

Inputs 2008 NOPR Description Changes for the 2012 

SNOPR

Changes for the 

Final Rule

and distribution losses).

Discount Rate 3 and 7 percent real. No change. No change

Present Year Future expenses 

discounted to 2007. 

Future expenses 

discounted to 2011.

Future expenses 

discounted to 2013.

2. Shipments

The shipments portion of the NIA spreadsheet is a model that uses historical data 

as a basis for projecting future shipments of the products that are the subject of this 

rulemaking. In projecting microwave oven shipments, DOE accounted for two market 

segments: (1) new construction; and (2) replacement of failed products. Because 

shipments for new construction and replacements were not enough to account for all 

product shipments, DOE developed another market segment to calibrate its shipments 

model. In addition to normal replacements, DOE’s shipments model also assumed that a 

small fraction of the stock would be replaced early. It also considered retired units not 

replaced. DOE used the non-replacement market segment to calibrate the shipments

model to historical shipments data.

To estimate the impacts of prospective standards on product shipments (i.e., to 

forecast standards-case shipments), DOE considered the combined effects of changes in 

purchase price, annual operating cost, and household income on the magnitude of 

shipments.

Table IV.12 summarizes the approach and data DOE used to derive the inputs to 

the shipments analysis for the October 2008 NOPR, the February 2012 SNOPR, and the 
117

changes it made for today’s final rule. The general approach for forecasting microwave

shipments for today’s final rule remains unchanged from the October 2008 NOPR.
118

Table IV-12 Approach and Data Used to Derive Inputs to the Shipments Analysis

Inputs 2008 NOPR Description Changes for the 2012 

SNOPR

Changes for the 

Final Rule

Number of 

Product Classes

One product class. Market 

share data provided by 

AHAM.

Two product classes: (1) 

all microwave oven-only 

and countertop 

convection microwave 

oven; (2) over-the-range 

convection microwave 

oven. Market share data 

provided by AHAM; 

99% product class #1 

and 1% product class #2. 

Product class market 

shares held constant over 

forecast period.

No change.

New Construction 

Shipments

Housing forecasts 

updated with EIA AEO 

2008

No change in approach. 

Housing forecasts 

April release updated with EIA 

forecasts for the 

Reference case, High 

growth case, and Low 

growth case. 

AEO 

2010

No change in 

approach. Housing 

forecasts updated 

forecasts for the with EIA 

Reference case, High 

growth case, and Low 

growth case. 

AEO 

2012

Replacements

forecasts for 

the Reference case, 

High growth case, 

and Low growth 

case.

Determined by tracking 

total product stock by 

vintage and establishing 

the failure of the stock 

using retirement functions 

from the LCC and PBP 

analysis. Retirement 

functions revised to be 

based on Weibull lifetime 

distributions.

No change. No change. 

Retired Units not 

Replaced (i.e.

Used to calibrate 

shipments model to 

historical shipments data.

, 

non-replacements)

No change. No change.

Historical 

Shipments

Data sources include 

AHAM data submittal 

and Appliance 

No change.

magazine.

No change.

Purchase Price, 

Operating Cost, 

and Household 

Income Impacts 

due to Efficiency 

Standards

Developed “relative 

price” elasticity, which 

accounts for the purchase 

price and the present 

value of operating cost 

savings divided by 

household income. Used 

purchase price and 

efficiency data specific to 

No change. No change.
119

residential refrigerators, 

clothes washers, and 

dishwashers between 

1980 and 2002 to 

determine a “relative 

price” elasticity of 

demand of -0.34. 

Fuel Switching Not applicable. No change. No change.

a. New Construction Shipments

To estimate shipments for new construction, DOE used forecasts of housing starts 

coupled with microwave oven saturation data. In other words, to forecast the shipments 

for new construction in any given year, DOE multiplied the housing forecast by the 

forecasted saturation of microwave ovens for new housing.

New housing comprises single- and multi-family units (also referred to as “new 

housing completions”) and mobile home placements. For the final rule, DOE forecasted 

new housing based on EIA’s AEO 2012 for 2009–2035. AEO 2012 provides three sets of 

forecasts: the Reference case, the High economic growth case, and the Low economic 

growth case. DOE used the forecasts from the Reference case for the NIA results 

reported in this rulemaking. For 2035−2045, DOE kept completions at the level in 2035.

b. Replacements and Non-replacements

To determine shipments for the replacement market, DOE used an accounting 

method that tracks the total stock of units by vintage. DOE estimated a stock of 

microwave ovens by vintage by integrating historical shipments starting from 1972. Over 

time, some units are retired and removed from the stock, triggering the shipment of a 

replacement unit. Depending on the vintage, a certain percentage of each type of unit will 
120

fail and need to be replaced. To determine when a microwave oven fails, DOE used data 

from RECS and American Housing Survey (AHS) to estimate a product survival 

function. This function was modeled as a Weibull distribution. Based on this method, the 

average calculated microwave oven lifetime is 9.3 years. For a more complete discussion 

of microwave lifetimes, refer to chapter 8 of the final rule TSD.

3. Purchase Price, Operating Cost, and Income Impacts

To estimate the combined effects of increases in product purchase price and 

decreases in product operating costs on microwave oven shipments, for the October 2008 

NOPR DOE used a literature review and a statistical analysis on a limited set of 

appliance price, efficiency, and shipments data. DOE used purchase price and efficiency 

data specific to microwave ovens between 1980 and 2002 to conduct regression analyses. 

DOE’s analysis suggested that the relative short-run price elasticity of demand is -0.34.

Because DOE’s forecast of shipments and national impacts attributable to 

standards spans more than 30 years, DOE also considered how the relative price elasticity 

is affected once a new standard takes effect. After the purchase price changes, price 

elasticity becomes more inelastic over the years until it reaches a terminal value. For the 

October 2008 NOPR and today’s final rule, DOE incorporated a relative price elasticity 

change that resulted in a terminal value of approximately one-third of the short-run 

elasticity. In other words, DOE determined that consumer purchase decisions, in time, 

become less sensitive to the initial change in the product’s relative price. See chapter 9 

of the final rule TSD for further discussion.
121

4. Other Inputs

a. Forecasted Efficiencies

A key input to the calculations of NES and NPV are the energy efficiencies that 

DOE forecasts for the base case (without new standards). The forecasted efficiencies 

represent the annual shipment-weighted energy efficiency (SWEF) of the product under 

consideration during the forecast period (i.e., from the estimated effective date of a new 

standard to 30 years after that date). Because DOE had no data to reasonably estimate 

how microwave oven standby power levels might change during the next 30 years, it 

assumed that forecasted efficiencies will stay at the 2016 standby power levels until the 

end of the forecast period.

For its determination of the cases under alternative standard levels (“standards 

cases”), DOE used a “roll-up” scenario in the October 2008 NOPR to establish the SWEF 

for 2012. For today’s final rule, DOE established the SWEF for 2016 and assumed that 

the market share of products in the base case that do not meet the standard level under 

consideration (i.e. are less efficient than the standard) would shift to products that meet 

the new standard level. DOE assumed that all product efficiencies in the base case that 

are above the standard level under consideration would remain the same in the standard

case.

DOE made the same assumption regarding forecasted standards-case efficiencies 

as for the base case; namely, that efficiencies will remain at the 2016 standby power level 

Deleted: product efficiencies

Deleted: would roll-up

Deleted: were

Deleted: not be affected by
122

until the end of the forecast period. By maintaining the same rate of increase for 

forecasted efficiencies in the standards case as in the base case (i.e.

standards case.

, no change), DOE 

retained a constant efficiency difference between the two cases throughout the forecast 

period. Although the no-change trends may not reflect what would happen to base-case 

and standards-case product efficiencies in the future, DOE believes that maintaining a 

constant efficiency difference between the base case and each standards case provides a 

reasonable estimate of the impact that standards would have on product efficiency. It is 

more important to accurately estimate the efficiency difference between the standards 

case and base case than to accurately estimate the actual product efficiencies in the 

standards and base cases. DOE retained the approach used in the October 2008 NOPR for 

today’s final rule. Because the effective date of the standard is now assumed to be 2016, 

DOE applied the “roll-up” scenario in 2016 to establish the SWEF for each 

b. Annual Energy Consumption

The annual energy consumption per unit depends directly on product efficiency. 

For the October 2008 NOPR and today’s final rule, DOE used the SWEFs associated 

with the base case and each standards case, in combination with the annual energy use 

data, to estimate the shipment-weighted average annual per-unit energy consumption 

under the base case and standards cases. The national energy consumption is the product 

of the annual energy consumption per unit and the number of units of each vintage, which 

depends on shipments.
123

As noted above, DOE used a relative price elasticity to estimate standards-case 

shipments for microwave ovens. To avoid the inclusion of energy savings from any 

reduction in shipments attributable to a standard, DOE used the standards-case shipments 

projection and the standards-case stock to calculate the annual energy consumption in the 

base case. For microwave ovens, DOE assumed that any drop in shipments caused by 

standards would result in the purchase of used machines. DOE retained the use of the 

base-case shipments to determine the annual energy consumption in the base case for 

today’s final rule.

c. Site-to-Source Energy Conversion

To estimate the national energy savings expected from appliance standards, DOE 

uses a multiplicative factor to convert site energy consumption (energy use at the location 

where the appliance is operated) into primary or source energy consumption (the energy 

required to deliver the site energy). For the October 2008 NOPR, DOE used annual siteto-source conversion factors based on the version of NEMS that corresponds to AEO 

2008. For today’s final rule, DOE used AEO 2012. For electricity, the conversion factors 

vary over time because of projected changes in generation sources (i.e., the types of 

power plants projected to provide electricity to the country). Because the AEO does not 

provide energy forecasts beyond 2035, DOE used conversion factors that remain constant 

at the 2035 values throughout the rest of the forecast.
124

d. Total Installed Costs and Operating Costs

The increase in total annual installed cost is equal to the difference in the per-unit 

total installed cost between the base case and standards case, multiplied by the shipments 

forecasted in the standards case. 

As discussed in section IV.F.1 of this rulemaking, DOE applied an experience 

rate to project the prices of microwave ovens sold in each year in the forecast period 

(2016–2045). The experience rate expresses the change in price associated with a 

doubling in cumulative production. The price in each year is a function of the learning 

rate and the cumulative production of microwave ovens forecast in each year. DOE 

applied the same values to forecast prices for each product class at each considered 

efficiency level.

To evaluate the impact of the uncertainty of the price trend estimates, DOE 

performed price trend sensitivity calculations in the national impact analysis. DOE 

considered three experience rate sensitivities, which are described in appendix 8-C of the 

final rule TSD. 

The annual operating cost savings per unit include changes in energy, repair, and 

maintenance costs. DOE forecasted energy prices for the February 2012 SNOPR based 

on AEO 2010; it updated the forecasts for the final rule using data from AEO 2012. For 

the February 2012 SNOPR and today’s final rule, DOE assumed no increases in repair 
125

and maintenance costs for more efficient standby mode and off mode features of 

microwave ovens.

e. Discount Rates

DOE multiplies monetary values in future years by a discount factor to determine 

their present value. DOE estimated national impacts using both a 3-percent and a 7-

percent real discount rate, in accordance with guidance provided by the Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) to Federal agencies on the development of regulatory 

analysis (OMB Circular A-4 (Sept.17, 2003), section E, “Identifying and Measuring 

Benefits and Costs”). 

An individual commenter objected to DOE’s use of 3-percent and a 7-percent

discount rates. The comment stated that, according to a holding in NRDC v. Herrington

(NRDC v. Herrington, 768 F.2d 1355, 1367 (D.C. Cir. 1985)), DOE cannot rely on the 

OMB alone to justify its choice to use 3-percent and 7-percent discount rates. (Private 

Citizen, No. 10 at pp. 3–4) In response, DOE notes that the 7-percent discount rate is an 

estimate of the average before-tax rate of return to private capital in the U.S. economy. It 

approximates the opportunity cost of capital, and it is the appropriate discount rate 

whenever the main effect of a regulation is to displace or alter the use of capital in the 

private sector. When regulation primarily and directly affects private consumption (e.g., 

through higher consumer prices for goods and services), a lower discount rate is 

appropriate. The alternative most often used is sometimes called societal rate of time 

preference, which is the rate at which society discounts future consumption flows to their 
126

present value. The real rate of return on long-term government debt may provide a fair 

approximation of the societal rate of time preference. Over the last 30 years, this rate has 

averaged around 3 percent in real terms on a pre-tax basis.

G.

In analyzing the potential impact of new or amended standards on consumers, 

DOE evaluates the impact on identifiable subgroups of consumers that may be 

disproportionately affected by a national standard. In the October 2008 NOPR, DOE 

analyzed the potential effects of microwave oven standby mode and off mode standards 

on two subgroups: (1) low-income consumers, and (2) consumers living in senior-only 

households. DOE used the same approach for today’s final rule.

Consumer Subgroup Analysis

H.

In determining whether an amended energy conservation standard for microwave 

ovens subject to this rulemaking is economically justified, DOE is required to consider 

the economic impact of the standard on the manufacturers and consumers of the products 

subject to the standards. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(I)) The statute also calls for an 

assessment of the impact of any lessening of competition as determined by the Attorney 

General that is likely to result from the adoption of a standard. (42 U.S.C. 

6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(V)) DOE conducted the MIA to estimate the financial impact of standby 

mode and off mode energy conservation standards on microwave oven manufacturers, 

and to calculate the impact of such standards on domestic employment and 

manufacturing capacity.

Manufacturer Impact Analysis
127

The MIA has both quantitative and qualitative aspects. The quantitative part of 

the MIA primarily relies on the GRIMan industry-cash-flow model customized for this 

rulemaking. The GRIM inputs are data characterizing the industry cost structure, 

shipments, and revenues. The key output is the INPV. Different sets of assumptions 

(scenarios) will produce different results. The qualitative part of the MIA addresses 

factors such as product characteristics, characteristics of particular firms, as well as 

market and product trends. It also includes an assessment of the impacts of standards on 

subgroups of manufacturers. DOE outlined its methodology for the MIA in the February 

2012 SNOPR. 77 FR 8526, 8550–52 (Feb. 14, 2012). The complete MIA is presented in 

chapter 12 of the final rule TSD.

For today’s final rule, DOE updated the MIA results in the February 2012 

SNOPR based on several changes to other analyses that impact the MIA. DOE revised 

the analysis to account for the impacts on manufacturers resulting from standby mode 

and off mode standards for Product Class 1 (Microwave-Only Ovens and Countertop 

Convection Microwave Ovens) and Product Class 2 (Built-In and Over-the-Range 

Convection Microwave Ovens). As discussed in section IV.D.3 of this rulemaking, based 

on additional research for the engineering analysis, DOE included updated MPCs in 

2011$ for both Product Class 1 and Product Class 2. DOE also incorporated updated 

price trends into the analysis rather than assuming prices remain fixed in real terms 

throughout the analysis period. DOE used the same price trends in the NIA starting in the 

base year of the analysis (2013) and continuing through the end of the analysis period 
128

(2045). DOE also assumed that MPCs and MSPs were similarly impacted by price trends

in both the base case and standards cases. See section IV.F of this rulemaking for a 

description of how DOE implemented price trends into the analysis.

The total shipments and efficiency distributions were updated using the new 

estimates described in the final rule NIA. The MIA also uses the new analysis period in 

the NIA (2016–2045) and has updated the base year of analysis to 2013. See section IV.F

of this rulemaking for a description of the changes to the NIA. 

As was done for the February 2012 SNOPR MIA, DOE considered product and 

capital conversion costs associated with the analyzed TSLs in today’s final rule. Product 

conversion costs are one-time investments in research, development, testing, and 

marketing, focused on ensuring product designs comply with new energy conservation 

standards. DOE investigated available product information to update the estimated

number of product platforms that would need to be altered at each TSL to determine 

conversion costs for the entire industry. DOE also used information provided in 

manufacturer interviews to verify the estimates used to determine product conversion 

costs. For each TSL, DOE assumed that most of the product conversion costs would be 

used for product development expenses. To account for the majority of the cost to 

upgrade the designs of product platforms that did not meet the standby power

requirements at each TSL, DOE estimated a per-platform cost for engineering time, 

reliability testing, and product development that varied depending on the complexity of 

the design options. 
129

To allocate total product and capital conversion costs across Product Class 1 and 

Product Class 2 for the final rule MIA, DOE used the same ratio between these two 

product classes as used in the final rule NIA. DOE used the same per-platform costs at 

each standby power level for both product classes as developed in the February 2012 

SNOPR, but converted these product and capital conversion costs to 2011$ using the PPI.

DOE received comments pertaining to the manufacturer impact analysis in the 

February 2012 SNOPR from a private citizen, who commented that the loss in INPV 

would disproportionally and negatively impact small business microwave oven 

manufacturers around the world (Private Citizen, No.10 at pp. 2, 10). DOE did not 

identify any manufacturers classified as a small business selling microwave ovens in the 

United States. Additionally, the INPV figure in the February 2012 SNOPR is industrywide, and does not represent the impact on any one manufacturer.

The private citizen also commented that small and medium-size businesses would 

have a difficult time complying with a standard with a compliance date in 2014 or 2015, 

and that some could go out of business (Private Citizen, No. 10 at p. 7). In addition to the 

fact that DOE identified no small microwave oven manufacturers, DOE points out that 

the compliance date is 3 years from the publication of today’s final rule, which is 

consistent with other new standards. DOE also notes that no manufacturers objected to 

the compliance date as part of this rulemaking.
130

I.

DOE considers employment impacts in the domestic economy as one factor in 

selecting a proposed standard. Employment impacts include direct and indirect impacts.

Direct employment impacts are any changes in the number of employees of 

manufacturers of the products subject to standards, their suppliers, and related service 

firms. The MIA addresses those impacts. Indirect employment impacts from standards 

consist of the net jobs created or eliminated in the national economy, other than in the 

manufacturing sector being regulated, caused by: (1) reduced spending by end users on 

energy; (2) reduced spending on new energy supply by the utility industry; (3) increased 

spending on new products to which the new standards apply; and (4) the effects of those 

three factors throughout the economy. 

Employment Impact Analysis

One method for assessing the possible effects on the demand for labor of such 

shifts in economic activity is to compare sector employment statistics developed by the 

Labor Department’s Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).24

 24 Data on industry employment, hours, labor compensation, value of production, and the implicit price 

deflator for output for these industries are available upon request by calling the Division of Industry 

Productivity Studies (202-691-5618) or by sending a request by e-mail to dipsweb@bls.gov. Available at: 

The BLS regularly publishes its 

estimates of the number of jobs per million dollars of economic activity in different 

sectors of the economy, as well as the jobs created elsewhere in the economy by this 

same economic activity. Data from BLS indicate that expenditures in the utility sector 

generally create fewer jobs (both directly and indirectly) than expenditures in other 

www.bls.gov/news.release/prin1.nr0.htm. (Last accessed December 2012.)
131

sectors of the economy. 25 There are many reasons for these differences, including wage 

differences and the fact that the utility sector is more capital-intensive and less laborintensive than other sectors. Energy conservation standards have the effect of reducing 

consumer utility bills. Because reduced consumer expenditures for energy likely lead to 

increased expenditures in other sectors of the economy, the general effect of efficiency 

standards is to shift economic activity from a less labor-intensive sector (i.e., the utility 

sector) to more labor-intensive sectors (e.g., the retail and service sectors). Thus, based 

on the BLS data alone, DOE believes net national employment will increase due to shifts 

in economic activity resulting from amended standards for microwave ovens.

For the standard levels considered in today’s direct final rule, DOE estimated 

indirect national employment impacts using an input/output model of the U.S. economy 

called Impact of Sector Energy Technologies version 3.1.1 (ImSET).26 ImSET is a 

special-purpose version of the “U.S. Benchmark National Input-Output” (I–O) model, 

which was designed to estimate the national employment and income effects of energysaving technologies. The ImSET software includes a computer-based I–O model having 

structural coefficients that characterize economic flows among 187 sectors most relevant 

to industrial, commercial, and residential building energy use. 

 25 See Bureau of Economic Analysis, Regional Multipliers: A User Handbook for the Regional InputOutput Modeling System (RIMS II). Washington, DC. U.S. Department of Commerce, 1992. 26 J. M. Roop, M. J. Scott, and R. W. Schultz, ImSET 3.1: Impact of Sector Energy Technologies, PNNL18412, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2009. Available at: 

www.pnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-18412.pdf. (Last accessed December 

2012.)
132

DOE notes that ImSET is not a general equilibrium forecasting model, and 

understands the uncertainties involved in projecting employment impacts, especially 

changes in the later years of the analysis. Because ImSET does not incorporate price 

changes, the employment effects predicted by ImSET may overestimate actual job 

impacts over the long run for this rule. Because ImSET predicts small job impacts

resulting from this rule, regardless of these uncertainties, the actual job impacts are likely 

to be negligible in the overall economy. DOE may consider the use of other modeling 

approaches for examining long run employment impacts. DOE also notes that the 

employment impacts estimated with ImSET for the entire economy differ from the 

employment impacts in the microwave oven manufacturing sector estimated using the 

GRIM in the MIA. The methodologies used and the sectors analyzed in the ImSET and 

GRIM models are different. 

For further details, see chapter 13 of the final rule TSD.

J.

The utility impact analysis estimates the change in the forecasted power 

generation capacity for the Nation that would be expected to result from adoption of new 

or amended standards. The analysis determines the changes to electricity supply as a 

result of electricity consumption savings due to standards. For the October 2008 NOPR 

and today’s final rule, DOE used the NEMS-BT computer model to calculate these

changes. The analysis output provides a forecast for the needed generation capacities at 

each TSL. The estimated net benefit of a standard is the difference between the 

Utility Impact Analysis
133

generation capacities forecasted by NEMS-BT and the AEO Reference case. DOE

obtained the energy savings inputs from the NIA. Those inputs reflect the effects of 

standby mode and off mode energy use reduction on electricity consumption of 

microwave ovens. Chapter 14 of the final rule TSD presents results of the utility impact

analysis.

K.

In the emissions analysis, DOE estimated the reduction in power sector emissions 

of CO2, SO2, NOX, and Hg from amended energy conservation standards for microwave 

ovens. DOE conducted the emissions analysis using emissions factors that were derived 

from data in EIA’s 

Emissions Analysis

AEO 2012, supplemented by data from other sources. DOE developed 

separate emissions factors for power sector emissions and upstream emissions. The 

method that DOE used to derive emissions factors is described in chapter 15 of the final 

rule TSD.

EIA prepares the Annual Energy Outlook using the National Energy Modeling 

System (NEMS). Each annual version of NEMS incorporates the projected impacts of 

existing air quality regulations on emissions. AEO 2012 generally represents current 

legislation and environmental regulations, including recent government actions, for 

which implementing regulations were available as of December 31, 2011.

SO2 emissions from affected electric generating units (EGUs) are subject to 

nationwide and regional emissions cap and trading programs. Title IV of the Clean Air 
134

Act sets an annual emissions cap on SO2 for affected EGUs in the 48 contiguous States 

and the District of Columbia (D.C.). SO2 emissions from 28 eastern States and D.C. were 

also limited under the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR), which created an allowancebased trading program that operates along with the Title IV program. 70 FR 25162 (May 

12, 2005). CAIR was remanded to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) by 

the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, but it remained in effect. 

See North Carolina v. EPA, 550 F.3d 1176 (D.C. Cir. 2008); North Carolina v. EPA, 531 

F.3d 896 (D.C. Cir. 2008). On July 6, 2011 EPA issued a replacement for CAIR, the 

Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR). 76 FR 48208 (Aug. 8, 2011). The AEO 2012

emissions factors used for today’s rule assume the implementation of CSAPR.27

The attainment of emissions caps typically is flexible among EGUs and is 

enforced through the use of emissions allowances and tradable permits. Under existing 

EPA regulations, any excess SO2 emissions allowances resulting from the lower 

electricity demand caused by the imposition of an efficiency standard could be used to 

permit offsetting increases in SO2 emissions by any regulated EGU. In past rulemakings, 

DOE recognized that there was uncertainty about the effects of efficiency standards on 

SO2 emissions covered by the existing cap-and-trade system, but it concluded that no 

reductions in power sector emissions would occur for SO2 as a result of standards.

 27 On December 30, 2011, the D.C. Circuit stayed the new rules while a panel of judges reviews them, and 

told EPA to continue enforcing CAIR. See EME Homer City Generation, LP v. EPA, Order, No. 11-1302, 

Slip Op. at *2 (D.C. Cir. Dec. 30, 2011). On August 21, 2012, the D.C. Circuit vacated CSAPR and related 

Federal Implementation Plans that would have superseded the State Implementation Plans that EPA 

typically approves for compliance with Clean Air Act stationary source regulations. See EME Homer City 

Generation, LP v. EPA, No. 11-1302, 2012 WL 3570721 at *24 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 21, 2012). The court 

required EPA to continue administering CAIR. See id. The AEO 2012, however, had been finalized prior to 

both these decisions. DOE understands, however, that CAIR and CSAPR are similar with respect to their 

effect on emissions impacts of energy efficiency standards.
135

Beginning in 2015, however, SO2 emissions will fall as a result of the Mercury 

and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) for power plants, which were announced by EPA on 

December 21, 2011. 77 FR 9304 (Feb. 16, 2012). In the final MATS rule, EPA 

established a standard for hydrogen chloride as a surrogate for acid gas hazardous air 

pollutants (HAP), and also established a standard for SO2 (a non-HAP acid gas) as an 

alternative equivalent surrogate standard for acid gas HAP. The same controls are used to 

reduce HAP and non-HAP acid gas; thus, SO2 emissions will be reduced as a result of the 

control technologies installed on coal-fired power plants to comply with the MATS 

requirements for acid gas. AEO 2012 assumes that, in order to continue operating, coal 

plants must have either flue gas desulfurization or dry sorbent injection systems installed 

by 2015. Both technologies, which are used to reduce acid gas emissions, also reduce 

SO2 emissions. Under the MATS, NEMS shows a reduction in SO2 emissions when 

electricity demand decreases (e.g., as a result of energy efficiency standards). Emissions 

will be far below the cap that would be established by CSAPR, so it is unlikely that 

excess SO2 emissions allowances resulting from the lower electricity demand would be 

needed or used to permit offsetting increases in SO2 emissions by any regulated EGU. 

Therefore, DOE believes that efficiency standards will reduce SO2 emissions in 2015 and 

beyond.

Under CSAPR, there is a cap on NOx emissions in 28 eastern States and the 

District of Columbia. Energy conservation standards are expected to have little effect on 

NOx emissions in those States covered by CSAPR because excess NOx emissions 
136

allowances resulting from the lower electricity demand could be used to permit offsetting 

increases in NOx emissions. However, standards would be expected to reduce NOx

emissions in the States not affected by the caps, so DOE estimated NOx emissions 

reductions from the standards considered in today’s rule for these States.

The MATS limit mercury emissions from power plants, but they do not include 

emissions caps and, as such, DOE’s energy conservation standards would likely reduce 

Hg emissions. For this rulemaking, DOE estimated mercury emissions reductions using 

the NEMS-BT based on AEO 2012, which incorporates the MATS.

Chapter 15 of the final rule TSD provides further information on the emissions 

analysis.

L.

As part of the development of this final rule, DOE considered the estimated 

monetary benefits from the reduced emissions of CO2 and NOX that are expected to result 

from each of the TSLs considered. In order to make this calculation similar to the 

calculation of the NPV of customer benefit, DOE considered the reduced emissions 

expected to result over the lifetime of products shipped in the forecast period for each 

TSL. This section summarizes the basis for the monetary values used for each of these 

emissions and presents the values considered in this rulemaking.

Monetizing Carbon Dioxide and Other Emissions Impacts
137

For today’s final rule, DOE is relying on sets of values for the social cost of 

carbon (SCC) that were developed by an interagency process. A summary of the basis for 

those values is provided below, and a more detailed description of the methodologies 

used is provided in appendix 16-A and appendix 16-B of the final rule TSD.

1. Social Cost of Carbon

The SCC is an estimate of the monetized damages associated with an incremental 

increase in carbon emissions in a given year. It is intended to include (but is not limited 

to) changes in net agricultural productivity, human health, property damages from 

increased flood risk, and the value of ecosystem services. Estimates of the SCC are 

provided in dollars per metric ton of carbon dioxide. A domestic SCC value is meant to 

reflect the value of damages in the United States resulting from a unit change in carbon 

dioxide emissions, while a global SCC value is meant to reflect the value of damages 

worldwide.

Under section 1(b)(6) of Executive Order 12866, “Regulatory Planning and 

Review,” 58 FR 51735 (Oct. 4, 1993), agencies must, to the extent permitted by law, 

assess both the costs and the benefits of the intended regulation and, recognizing that 

some costs and benefits are difficult to quantify, propose or adopt a regulation only upon 

a reasoned determination that the benefits of the intended regulation justify its costs. The 

purpose of the SCC estimates presented here is to allow agencies to incorporate the 

monetized social benefits of reducing CO2 emissions into cost-benefit analyses of 

regulatory actions that have small, or “marginal,” impacts on cumulative global 
138

emissions. The estimates are presented with an acknowledgement of the many 

uncertainties involved and with a clear understanding that they should be updated over 

time to reflect increasing knowledge of the science and economics of climate impacts.

As part of the interagency process that developed the SCC estimates, technical 

experts from numerous agencies met on a regular basis to consider public comments, 

explore the technical literature in relevant fields, and discuss key model inputs and 

assumptions. The main objective of this process was to develop a range of SCC values 

using a defensible set of input assumptions grounded in the existing scientific and

economic literatures. In this way, key uncertainties and model differences transparently 

and consistently inform the range of SCC estimates used in the rulemaking process.

a. Monetizing Carbon Dioxide Emissions

When attempting to assess the incremental economic impacts of carbon dioxide 

emissions, the analyst faces a number of serious challenges. A recent report from the 

National Research Council points out that any assessment will suffer from uncertainty, 

speculation, and lack of information about: (1) future emissions of greenhouse gases; (2) 

the effects of past and future emissions on the climate system; (3) the impact of changes 

in climate on the physical and biological environment; and (4) the translation of these 

environmental impacts into economic damages. As a result, any effort to quantify and 

monetize the harms associated with climate change will raise serious questions of 

science, economics, and ethics and should be viewed as provisional.
139

Despite the serious limits of both quantification and monetization, SCC estimates 

can be useful in estimating the social benefits of reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Most 

Federal regulatory actions can be expected to have marginal impacts on global emissions. 

For such policies, the agency can estimate the benefits from reduced emissions in any 

future year by multiplying the change in emissions in that year by the SCC value 

appropriate for that year. The net present value of the benefits can then be calculated by 

multiplying the future benefits by an appropriate discount factor and summing across all 

affected years. This approach assumes that the marginal damages from increased 

emissions are constant for small departures from the baseline emissions path, an 

approximation that is reasonable for policies that have effects on emissions that are small 

relative to cumulative global carbon dioxide emissions. For policies that have a large 

(non-marginal) impact on global cumulative emissions, there is a separate question of 

whether the SCC is an appropriate tool for calculating the benefits of reduced emissions. 

This concern is not applicable to this rulemaking, however.

It is important to emphasize that the interagency process is committed to 

updating these estimates as the science and economic understanding of climate change 

and its impacts on society improves over time. In the meantime, the interagency group 

will continue to explore the issues raised by this analysis and consider public comments 

as part of the ongoing interagency process.

Deleted: Specifically, the interagency group has 

set a preliminary goal of revisiting the SCC values 

within 2 years or at such time as substantially 

updated models become available, and to continue to 

support research in this area. 
140

b. Social Cost of Carbon Values Used in Past Regulatory Analyses

Economic analyses for Federal regulations have used a wide range of values to 

estimate the benefits associated with reducing carbon dioxide emissions. In the final 

model year 2011 CAFE rule, the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) used both a 

“domestic” SCC value of $2 per metric ton of CO2 and a “global” SCC value of $33 per 

metric ton of CO2 for 2007 emission reductions (in 2007$), increasing both values at 2.4 

percent per year. DOT also included a sensitivity analysis at $80 per metric ton of CO2.

28 

A 2008 regulation proposed by DOT assumed a domestic SCC value of $7 per metric ton 

of CO2 (in 2006$) for 2011 emission reductions (with a range of $0−$14 for sensitivity 

analysis), also increasing at 2.4 percent per year.29 A regulation for packaged terminal air 

conditioners and packaged terminal heat pumps finalized by DOE in October of 2008 

used a domestic SCC range of $0 to $20 per metric ton CO2 for 2007 emission reductions 

(in 2007$). 73 FR 58772, 58814 (Oct. 7, 2008). In addition, EPA’s 2008 Advance Notice 

of Proposed Rulemaking on Regulating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Under the Clean Air 

Act identified what it described as “very preliminary” SCC estimates subject to revision. 

73 FR 44354 (July 30, 2008). EPA’s global mean values were $68 and $40 per metric ton 

CO2 for discount rates of approximately 2 percent and 3 percent, respectively (in 2006$ 

for 2007 emissions).

 28 See Average Fuel Economy Standards Passenger Cars and Light Trucks Model Year 2011, 74 FR 14196 

(March 30, 2009) (Final Rule); Final Environmental Impact Statement Corporate Average Fuel Economy 

Standards, Passenger Cars and Light Trucks, Model Years 2011-2015 at 3-90 (Oct. 2008) (Available at: 

http://www.nhtsa.gov/fuel-economy). (Last accessed December 2012.)

29 See Average Fuel Economy Standards, Passenger Cars and Light Trucks, Model Years 2011-2015, 73 

FR 24352 (May 2, 2008) (Proposed Rule); Draft Environmental Impact Statement Corporate Average Fuel 

Economy Standards, Passenger Cars and Light Trucks, Model Years 2011-2015 at 3-58 (June 2008) 

(Available at: http://www.nhtsa.gov/fuel-economy). (Last accessed December 2012).
141

In 2009, an interagency process was initiated to offer a preliminary assessment of 

how best to quantify the benefits from reducing carbon dioxide emissions. To ensure 

consistency in how benefits are evaluated across agencies, the Administration sought to 

develop a transparent and defensible method, specifically designed for the rulemaking 

process, to quantify avoided climate change damages from reduced CO2 emissions. The 

interagency group did not undertake any original analysis. Instead, it combined SCC 

estimates from the existing literature to use as interim values until a more comprehensive 

analysis could be conducted. The outcome of the preliminary assessment by the 

interagency group was a set of five interim values: global SCC estimates for 2007 (in 

2006$) of $55, $33, $19, $10, and $5 per metric ton of CO2. These interim values 

represented the first sustained interagency effort within the U.S. government to develop 

an SCC for use in regulatory analysis. The results of this preliminary effort were 

presented in several proposed and final rules.

c. Current Approach and Key Assumptions 

Since the release of the interim values, the interagency group reconvened on a 

regular basis to generate improved SCC estimates. Specifically, the group considered 

public comments and further explored the technical literature in relevant fields. The 

interagency group relied on three integrated assessment models commonly used to 

estimate the SCC: the FUND, DICE, and PAGE models. These models are frequently 

cited in the peer-reviewed literature and were used in the last assessment of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Each model was given equal weight in the 

SCC values that were developed.

Deleted: , which were used for this final rule.
142

Each model takes a slightly different approach to model how changes in 

emissions result in changes in economic damages. A key objective of the interagency 

process was to enable a consistent exploration of the three models while respecting the 

different approaches to quantifying damages taken by the key modelers in the field. An 

extensive review of the literature was conducted to select three sets of input parameters 

for these models: climate sensitivity, socio-economic and emissions trajectories, and 

discount rates. A probability distribution for climate sensitivity was specified as an input 

into all three models. In addition, the interagency group used a range of scenarios for the 

socio-economic parameters and a range of values for the discount rate. All other model 

features were left unchanged, relying on the model developers’ best estimates and 

judgments.

The interagency group selected four SCC values for use in regulatory analyses. 

Three values are based on the average SCC from three integrated assessment models, at 

discount rates of 2.5 percent, 3 percent, and 5 percent. The fourth value, which represents 

the 95th-percentile SCC estimate across all three models at a 3-percent discount rate, is 

included to represent higher-than-expected impacts from climate change further out in the 

tails of the SCC distribution. The values grow in real terms over time. Additionally, the 

interagency group determined that a range of values from 7 percent to 23 percent should 

be used to adjust the global SCC to calculate domestic effects, although preference is 

given to consideration of the global benefits of reducing CO2 emissions. Table IV.13

Deleted: For emissions (or emission reductions) 

that occur in later years, these

Deleted: , as depicted in Table IV.13.
143

presents the values in the 2010 interagency group report,

30 which is reproduced in 

appendix 16-A of the final rule TSD.

Table IV.13 Annual SCC Values from 2010 Interagency Report, 2010–2050 (in 2007 

dollars per metric ton CO2)

Year

Discount Rate %

5 3 2.5 3

Average Average Average 95th Percentile

2010 4.7 21.4 35.1 64.9

2015 5.7 23.8 38.4 72.8

2020 6.8 26.3 41.7 80.7

2025 8.2 29.6 45.9 90.4

2030 9.7 32.8 50.0 100.0

2035 11.2 36.0 54.2 109.7

2040 12.7 39.2 58.4 119.3

2045 14.2 42.1 61.7 127.8

2050 15.7 44.9 65.0 136.2

The SCC values used for today’s notice were generated using the most recent 

versions of the three integrated assessment models that have been published in the peerreviewed literature.

31

 30 Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory Impact Analysis Under Executive Order 12866. Interagency 

Working Group on Social Cost of Carbon, United States Government, 2010. URL

Table IV.14 shows the updated sets of SCC estimates in five year 

increments from 2010 to 2050. The full set of annual SCC estimates between 2010 and 

2050 is reported in appendix 16-B of the final rule TSD. The central value that emerges is 

the average SCC across models at the 3 percent discount rate. However, for purposes of 

capturing the uncertainties involved in regulatory impact analysis, the interagency group 

emphasizes the importance of including all four sets of SCC values.

31 Technical Update of the Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory Impact Analysis Under Executive Order 

12866. Interagency Working Group on Social Cost of Carbon, United States Government. April 2013. See 

appendix 16-B of the final rule TSD.

Deleted: Social Cost of CO2
144

Table IV.14 Annual SCC Values from 2013 Interagency Update, 2010–2050 (in 2007 

dollars per metric ton CO2)

Year

Discount Rate %

5 3 2.5 3

Average Average Average 95th Percentile

2010 11 33 52 90

2015 12 38 58 109

2020 12 43 65 129

2025 14 48 70 144

2030 16 52 76 159

2035 19 57 81 176

2040 21 62 87 192

2045 24 66 92 206

2050 27 71 98 221

It is important to recognize that a number of key uncertainties remain, and that 

current SCC estimates should be treated as provisional and revisable since they will 

evolve with improved scientific and economic understanding. The interagency group also 

recognizes that the existing models are imperfect and incomplete. The National Research 

Council report mentioned above points out that there is tension between the goal of 

producing quantified estimates of the economic damages from an incremental ton of 

carbon and the limits of existing efforts to model these effects. There are a number of 

concerns and problems that should be addressed by the research community, including 

research programs housed in many of the Federal agencies participating in the 

interagency process to estimate the SCC. The interagency group intends to periodically 

review and reconsider those estimates to reflect increasing knowledge of the science and 

economics of climate impacts, as well as improvements in modeling.

Deleted: ¶

¶

DOE recognizes the uncertainties embedded in the 

estimates of the SCC used for cost-benefit analyses. 

As such, DOE and others in the U.S. Government 

intend

Deleted: In this context, statements recognizing 

the limitations of the analysis and calling for further 

research take on exceptional significance.
145

In summary, in considering the potential global benefits resulting from reduced 

CO2 emissions, DOE used the values from the 2013 interagency report, adjusted to 

2011$ using the Gross Domestic Product price deflator. For each of the four cases 

specified, the values used for emissions in 2016 were $12.6, $41.1, $63.2, and $119 per 

metric ton avoided (values expressed in 2011$). DOE derived values after 2050 using the 

growth rate for the 2040-2050 period in the interagency update. 

DOE multiplied the CO2 emissions reduction estimated for each year by the SCC 

value for that year in each of the four cases. To calculate a present value of the stream of 

monetary values, DOE discounted the values in each of the four cases using the specific 

discount rate that had been used to obtain the SCC values in each case.

2. Valuation of Other Emissions Reductions

DOE investigated the potential monetary benefit of reduced NOX emissions from 

the potential standards it considered. As noted above, DOE has taken into account how 

amended energy conservation standards would reduce NOX emissions in those 22 States 

not affected by emissions caps. DOE estimated the monetized value of NOX emissions 

reductions resulting from each of the TSLs considered for today’s final rule based on 

estimates found in the relevant scientific literature. Available estimates suggest a very 

wide range of monetary values per ton of NOX from stationary sources, ranging from 

$455 to $4,679 per ton in 2011$).34

 34 For additional information, refer to U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Office of Information and 

Regulatory Affairs, 2006 Report to Congress on the Costs and Benefits of Federal Regulations and 

Unfunded Mandates on State, Local, and Tribal Entities, Washington, DC.

In accordance with OMB guidance, DOE calculated 

Deleted: identified in Table A1 of

Deleted: (“Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory 

Impact Analysis Under Executive Order 12866”),

Deleted: 32

Deleted: 6.2, $25

Deleted: 78.4

Deleted: 33
146

the monetary benefits using each of the economic values for NOX and real discount rates 

of 3 percent and 7 percent. 

DOE is evaluating appropriate monetization of avoided SO2 and Hg emissions in 

energy conservation standards rulemakings. It has not included monetization in the 

current analysis.

M.

1. Significance of Energy Savings for the Built-in and Over-the-Range Product Class

Discussion of Other Comments

In the February 2012 SNOPR, the total cumulative energy savings for the 

proposed standby power standard for the built-in and over-the-range convection 

microwave oven product class estimated for products shipped in 2016–2045 were 0.01 

quad. AHAM, Whirlpool, and GE questioned whether that amount could be considered 

large enough to justify standards for that product class. They requested that DOE issue a 

“no standard” standard for the product class. (AHAM, No. 16 at p. 1; Whirlpool, No.15 at 

p. 2; GE, No. 19 at p. 1)

In the past, DOE has issued standards for a product class for which the total 

savings were 0.01 quad or less. For the 2010 standards on direct heating equipment 

(DHE), for example, the combined total energy savings from the standards were 0.23

quad, but the savings for several DHE product classes were each 0.01 quad or less. 75 FR 

20185 (Apr. 16, 2010). Using the interpretation of “non-trivial” energy savings that DOE 

 

Deleted: estimated
147

has applied in previous rulemakings (see section III.C.2 of this rulemaking), DOE 

concludes that the energy savings estimated for the standard for the built-in and over-therange convection microwave oven product class are non-trivial and thus significant 

within the meaning of 42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(3)(B).

2. Standard Levels

The Joint Commenters stated that they support the standards at TSL 3. According 

to these commenters, such energy conservation standards will help harmonize the United 

States with standby mode and off mode power standards developed by the European 

Union in 2009. (Joint Comment, No. 17 at p. 1)

Whirlpool stated that the payback period shown for built-in and over-the-range 

convection microwave ovens at the proposed standard level (TSL 3) is 6.3 years, which 

exceeds the timeframe consumers will accept to recoup the cost of a more efficient 

product. It stated that this excessive payback period calls into question whether TSL 3 is 

the proper level for built-in and over-the-range convection microwave ovens. (Whirlpool, 

No. 15 at p. 2)

DOE is not aware of evidence for a specific payback period that consumers 

require to recoup the incremental cost of a more efficient product. As shown in Table V.2

and Table V.3 in section V.B.1.a of this rulemaking, the median payback period 

calculated for the final rule for built-in and over-the-range convection microwave ovens

at TSL 3 is 3.5 years. The payback period is lower than estimated for the February 2012 
148

SNOPR due to the aforementioned change in the estimated manufacturing cost of 

meeting higher efficiency levels. DOE believes that the majority of consumers would 

find such a payback acceptable.

V. Analytical Results

A.

DOE analyzed the benefits and burdens of a number of TSLs for the microwave 

oven standby mode and off mode energy use that are the subject of today’s final rule. For 

the October 2008 NOPR, DOE based the TSLs on standby power levels explored in the 

November 2007 ANOPR, and selected the TSLs on consideration of economic factors 

and current market conditions. As discussed previously in section 

Trial Standard Levels

IV.D.2 of this

rulemaking, given the small number of standby power levels analyzed, DOE maintained 

all four of the standby power levels to consider as TSLs.

Table V.1 shows the TSLs for microwave oven standby mode and off mode 

energy use. TSL 1 corresponds to the first candidate standard level from each product 

class and represents the standby power level for each class with the least significant 

design change. TSL 4 corresponds to the max-tech efficiency levels. TSLs 2 and 3 are 

intermediate levels between TSL 1 and TSL 4.
149

Table V-1 Trial Standard Levels for Microwave Oven Standby Mode and Off Mode

Energy Use

Trial 

Standard 

Level

Standby Power (W)

Product Class 1: Microwave-Only 

and Countertop Convection 

Microwave Oven

Product Class 2: Built-In and 

Over-the-Range Convection 

Microwave Oven

TSL 1 2.00 3.70

TSL 2 1.50 2.70

TSL 3 1.00 2.20

TSL 4 0.02 0.04

B.

1. Economic Impacts on Consumers

Economic Justification and Energy Savings

a. Life-Cycle Cost and Payback Period

To evaluate the net economic impact of standards on consumers, DOE conducted 

LCC and PBP analyses for each TSL. In general, a higher efficiency product would affect 

consumers in two ways: (1) annual operating expense would decrease; and (2) purchase 

price would increase. Section IV.E of this rulemaking discusses the inputs DOE used for 

calculating the LCC and PBP.

The key outputs of the LCC analysis are a mean LCC savings relative to the basecase efficiency distribution, as well as a probability distribution or likelihood of LCC 

reduction or increase, for each TSL and product class. The LCC analysis also estimates 

the fraction of consumers for which the LCC will decrease (net benefit), increase (net 

cost), or exhibit no change (no impact) relative to the base-case product forecast. No 

impacts occur when the product efficiencies of the base-case forecast already equal or 

exceed the efficiency at a given TSL.
150

Table V.2 and Table V.3 show the LCC and PBP results for both microwave oven 

product classes. Note that for built-in and over-the-range convection microwave ovens, 

100 percent of consumers of such products in 2016 are assumed to be using a convection 

microwave oven in the base case. Any decrease in standby power would affect 100 

percent of the market.

Table V-2 Microwave-Only Ovens and Countertop Convection Microwave Ovens: 

Life-Cycle Cost and Payback Period Results

TSL

Standby 

Power 

(

Life-Cycle Cost (

W)

$) Life-Cycle Cost Savings

Payback 

Period 

(

Average 

Installed 

Price

years)

Average 

Standby 

Operating 

Cost

Average 

LCC

Average 

Savings $

% Households with

Median

Net

Cost

No 

Impact

Net 

Benefit

Baseline 4.00 234 35 269 NA 0 100 0 NA

1 2.00 234 18 252 8 0 54 46 0.2

2 1.50 234 13 247 11 0 19 81 0.3

3 1.00 239 9 248 11 12 0 88 3.5

4 0.02 243 0 244 15 5 0 95 3.5

Table V-3 Built-In and Over-the-Range Convection Microwave Ovens: Life-Cycle 

Cost and Payback Period Results

TSL

Standby 

Power 

(

Life-Cycle Cost (

W)

$) Life-Cycle Cost Savings

Payback 

Period 

(

Average 

Installed 

Price

years)

Average 

Standby 

Operating 

Cost

Average 

LCC

Average 

Savings

% Households with

Median

Net

Cost

No 

Impact

Net 

Benefit

Baseline 4.50 506 40 545 NA 0 100 0 NA

1 3.70 506 33 538 7 0 0 100 0.1

2 2.70 506 24 529 16 0 0 100 0.1

3 2.20 513 19 533 12 0 0 100 3.3

4 0.04 515 0 515 30 0 0 100 2.0

Deleted: 31

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Deleted: 16

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Deleted: 7

Deleted: 12

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Deleted: 8

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Deleted: 15

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Deleted: 13

Deleted: .

Deleted: 35

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Deleted: 29

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Deleted: 6

Deleted: 21

Deleted: 527

Deleted: 14

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151

b. Consumer Subgroup Analysis 

Using the LCC spreadsheet model, DOE determined the impact of the standards 

on the following microwave oven consumer subgroups: senior-only households and lowincome households. Table V.4 and Table V.5 compare the average LCC savings for 

senior-only households and low-income households with those for all households. The 

LCC impacts for senior-only and low-income households are essentially the same as they 

are for the general population.

Table V-4 Microwave-Only Ovens and Countertop Convection Microwave Ovens: 

Comparison of Average LCC Savings for Consumer Subgroups and All Households

TSL

Standby 

Power 

Senior-Only 

(W) Households

Low-Income 

Households All Households

1 2.00 $8 $8 $8

2 1.50 $11 $11 $11

3 1.00 $11 $11 11

4 0.02 $14 $14 $15

Table V-5 Built-In and Over-the-Range Convection Microwave Ovens: Comparison 

of Average LCC Savings for Consumer Subgroups and All Households

TSL

Standby 

Power 

Senior-Only 

(W) Households

Low-Income 

Households All Households

1 $6 $7 $7 7

2 $14 $16 $16 $16

3 $10 $12 $12 $12

4 $25 $30 $30 $30

c. Rebuttable-Presumption Payback

As discussed above, EPCA establishes a rebuttable presumption that, in essence,

an energy conservation standard is economically justified if the increased purchase cost 

for a product that meets the standard is less than three times the value of the first-year 

Deleted: .

Deleted: 7

Deleted: 7

Deleted: 7

Deleted: 10

Deleted: 10

Deleted: 10

Deleted: 9

Deleted: 9

Deleted: $9

Deleted: 12

Deleted: 12

Deleted: 13

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Deleted: 6

Deleted: 6

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Deleted: 14

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Deleted: 14

Deleted: 10

Deleted: 10

Deleted: 10

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152

energy savings resulting from the standard. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(iii)) DOE 

calculated a rebuttable-presumption payback period for each TSL to determine whether 

DOE could presume that a standard at that level is economically justified. Table V.6

shows the rebuttable-presumption payback periods for the microwave oven standby mode 

and off mode TSLs. Because only a single, average value is necessary for establishing the 

rebuttable-presumption payback period, rather than using distributions for input values, 

DOE used discrete values. As required by EPCA, DOE based the calculation on the 

assumptions in the DOE test procedures for microwave ovens. (42 U.S.C. 

6295(o)(2)(B)(iii)) As a result, DOE calculated a single rebuttable-presumption payback 

value, and not a distribution of payback periods, for each TSL.

Table V-6 Rebuttable-Presumption Payback Periods for Microwave Oven Standby 

Mode and Off Mode

TSL

Payback Period (

Microwave-Only Ovens and Countertop 

Convection Microwave Ovens

years)

Built-In and Over-the-Range 

Convection Microwave Ovens

1 0.2 0.1

2 0.2 0.1

3 3.5 3.3

4 3.5 2.0

All the TSLs in the above tables have rebuttable-presumption payback periods of 

less than 4 years. DOE believes that the rebuttable-presumption payback period criterion 

(i.e.

IV

, a limited payback period) is not sufficient for determining economic justification. 

Therefore, DOE has considered a full range of impacts, including those to consumers, 

manufacturers, the Nation, and the environment. Section of this rulemaking provides a

Deleted: 1.6

Deleted: 2

Deleted: 2.

Deleted: 1.9

Deleted: With the exception of TSL 3 for built-in 

and over-the-range convection microwave ovens, all

Deleted: 3

Deleted: IV

Deleted: notice
153

complete discussion of how DOE considered the range of impacts to select the standards 

in today’s rule.

2. Economic Impacts on Manufacturers

For today’s final rule, DOE used INPV to compare the financial impacts of 

potential energy conservation standards on microwave oven manufacturers at different 

TSLs. The INPV is the sum of all net cash flows discounted by the industry’s cost of 

capital (discount rate). DOE used the GRIM to compare the INPV of the base case (no 

new energy conservation standards) to that of each TSL for the microwave oven industry. 

To evaluate the range of cash-flow impacts on the microwave oven industry, DOE 

constructed different scenarios using different markups that correspond to the range of 

anticipated market responses. Each scenario results in a unique set of cash flows and 

corresponding industry value at each TSL. These steps allowed DOE to compare the 

potential impacts on the industry as a function of TSLs in the GRIM. The difference in 

INPV between the base case and the standards case is an estimate of the economic 

impacts that implementing that standard level would have on the entire industry. See 

chapter 12 of the final rule TSD for additional information on MIA methodology and 

results.

a. Industry Cash-Flow Analysis Results

To assess the lower end of the range of potential impacts for the microwave oven 

industry, DOE considered the scenario reflecting the preservation of gross margin 

percentage. As production cost increases with efficiency, this scenario implies 
154

manufacturers will be able to maintain gross margins as a percentage of revenues. To 

assess the higher end of the range of potential impacts for the microwave oven industry, 

DOE considered the scenario reflecting preservation of gross margin in absolute dollars. 

Under this scenario, DOE assumed that the industry can maintain its gross margin in 

absolute dollars after the compliance date of the energy conservation standard by 

accepting lower gross margins as a percentage of revenue, but maintaining these margins 

in absolute dollars. Table V.7 through Table V.12 show MIA results for standby mode

and off mode energy conservation standards using both markup scenarios described 

above for microwave oven manufacturers.

Table V-7 Product Class 1 Manufacturer Impact Analysis Under the Preservation 

of Gross Margin Percentage Markup Scenario

INPV Change in 

INPV

Change in 

INPV

Product 

Conversion 

Costs

Capital 

Conversion 

Costs

Total 

Investment 

Required

Units Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$ % Millions 2011$

Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$

Base Case 1,356.8 - - - - -

TSL 1 1,341.9 (14.9) (1.1) 16.7 3.9 20.6

TSL 2 1,332.5 (24.3) (1.8) 30.0 4.3 34.3

TSL 3 1,317.3 (39.5) (2.9) 38.0 4.7 42.7

TSL 4 1,281.4 (75.4) (5.6) 73.4 7.8 81.3

Parentheses indicate negative (-) values.

Table V-8 Product Class 1 Manufacturer Impact Analysis Under the Preservation 

of Gross Margin in Absolute Dollars Markup Scenario

INPV Change in 

INPV

Change in 

INPV

Product 

Conversion 

Costs

Capital 

Conversion 

Costs

Total 

Investment 

Required

Units Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$ % Millions 2011$

Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$

Base 

Case

1,356.8 - - - - -

TSL 1 1,339.7 (17.1) (1.3) 16.7 3.9 20.6

TSL 2 1,328.6 (28.2) (2.1) 30.0 4.3 34.3

TSL 3 1,261.6 (95.2) (7.0) 38.0 4.7 42.7

TSL 4 1,174.0 (182.8) (13.5) 73.4 7.8 81.3
155

Parentheses indicate negative (-) values.

Table V-9 Product Class 2 Manufacturer Impact Analysis Under the Preservation 

of Gross Margin Percentage Markup Scenario

INPV Change in 

INPV

Change in 

INPV

Product 

Conversion 

Costs

Capital 

Conversion 

Costs

Total 

Investment 

Required

Units Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$ % Millions 2011$

Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$

Base Case 29.7 - - - - -

TSL 1 29.5 (0.1) (0.5) 0.2 0.0 0.2

TSL 2 29.4 (0.2) (0.8) 0.3 0.0 0.3

TSL 3 29.2 (0.5) (1.5) 0.4 0.0 0.4

TSL 4 28.9 (0.8) (2.5) 0.7 0.1 0.8

Parentheses indicate negative (-) values.

Table V-10 Product Class 2 Manufacturer Impact Analysis Under the Preservation 

of Gross Margin in Absolute Dollars Markup Scenario

INPV Change in 

INPV

Change in 

INPV

Product 

Conversion 

Costs

Capital 

Conversion 

Costs

Total 

Investment 

Required

Units Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$ % Millions 2011$

Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$

Base Case 29.7 - - - - -

TSL 1 29.5 (0.2) (0.5) 0.2 0.0 0.2

TSL 2 29.4 (0.3) (0.9) 0.3 0.0 0.3

TSL 3 28.3 (1.4) (4.6) 0.4 0.0 0.4

TSL 4 27.8 (1.8) (6.1) 0.7 0.1 0.8

Parentheses indicate negative (-) values.

Table V-11 Combined Product Classes Manufacturer Impact Analysis Under the 

Preservation of Gross Margin Percentage Markup Scenario 

INPV Change in 

INPV

Change in 

INPV

Product 

Conversion 

Costs

Capital 

Conversion 

Costs

Total 

Investment 

Required

Units Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$ % Millions 2011$

Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$

Base Case 1,386.5 - - - - -

TSL 1 1,371.4 (15.1) (1.1) 16.9 4.0 20.8

TSL 2 1,361.9 (24.6) (1.8) 30.3 4.3 34.7

TSL 3 1,346.5 (40.0) (2.9) 38.3 4.7 43.1

TSL 4 1,310.3 (76.1) (5.5) 74.2 7.9 82.1

Parentheses indicate negative (-) values.
156

Table V-12 Combined Product Classes Manufacturer Impact Analysis Under the 

Preservation of Gross Margin in Absolute Dollars Markup Scenario

INPV Change in 

INPV

Change in 

INPV

Product 

Conversion 

Costs

Capital 

Conversion 

Costs

Total 

Investment 

Required

Units Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$ % Millions 2011$

Millions 

2011$

Millions 

2011$

Base Case 1,386.5 - -

TSL 1 1,369.2 (17.3) (1.2) 16.9 4.0 20.8

TSL 2 1,358.0 (28.5) (2.1) 30.3 4.3 34.7

TSL 3 1,289.9 (96.6) (7.0) 38.3 4.7 43.1

TSL 4 1,201.9 (184.6) (13.3) 74.2 7.9 82.1

Parentheses indicate negative (-) values.

TSL 1 represents an improvement in standby power from the baseline level of 4.0 

W to 2.0 W for Product Class 1 and an improvement in standby power from the baseline 

level of 4.5 W to 3.7 W for Product Class 2. At TSL 1, the impact on INPV and cash flow 

varies depending on the manufacturers’ ability to pass on increases in MPCs to their 

customers. DOE estimated the impacts in INPV at TSL 1 to range -$15.1 million to -

$17.3 million, or a change in INPV of -1.1 percent to -1.2 percent. At this level, the 

industry cash flow decreases by approximately 6.0 percent, to $99.7 million, compared to 

the base-case value of $106.1 million in the year leading up to the standards.

TSL 2 represents an improvement in standby power from the baseline level of 4.0 

W to 1.5 W for Product Class 1 and an improvement in standby power from the baseline 

level of 4.5 W to 2.7 W for Product Class 2. At TSL 2, the impact on INPV and cash flow 

would be similar to TSL 1 and depend on whether manufacturers can fully recover the 

increases in MPCs from their customers. DOE estimated the impacts in INPV at TSL 2 to 

range from -$24.6 million to -$28.5 million, or a change in INPV of -1.8 percent to -2.1

percent. At this level, the industry cash flow decreases by approximately 9.7 percent, to 
157

$95.8 million, compared to the base-case value of $106.1 million in the year leading up to 

the standards.

TSL 3 represents an improvement in standby power from the baseline level of 4.0 

W to 1.0 W for Product Class 1 and an improvement in standby power from the baseline 

level of 4.5 W to 2.2 W for Product Class 2. At TSL 3, the impact on INPV and cash flow 

continues to vary depending on the manufacturers and their ability to pass on increases in 

MPCs to their customers. DOE estimated the impacts in INPV at TSL 3 to range from 

approximately -$40.0 million to -$96.6 million, or a change in INPV of -2.9 percent to -

7.0 percent. At this level, the industry cash flow decreases by approximately 12.0 percent, 

to $93.4 million, compared to the base-case value of $106.1 million in the year leading up 

to the standards.

TSL 4 represents an improvement in standby power from the baseline level of 4.0 

W to 0.02 W for Product Class 1 and an improvement in standby power from the baseline 

level of 4.5 W to 0.04 W for Product Class 2. At TSL 4, DOE estimated the impacts in 

INPV to range from approximately -$76.1 million to -$184.6 million, or a change in 

INPV of -5.5 percent to -13.3 percent. At this level, the industry cash flow decreases by 

approximately 22.7 percent, to $82.0 million, compared to the base-case value of $106.1 

million in the year leading up to the standards. At higher TSLs, manufacturers have a 

harder time fully passing on larger increases in MPCs to their customers. At TSL 4, the 

conversion costs are higher than the other TSLs because the design of all microwave 

platforms must be altered more significantly.
158

For new standby mode and off mode energy conservation standards, conversion 

costs increase at higher TSLs as the complexity of further lowering standby power

increases, substantially driving up engineering, product development, and testing time. If 

the increased production costs are fully passed on to consumers (the preservation of gross 

margin percentage scenario), the operating revenue from higher prices is still not enough 

to overcome the negative impacts from the substantial conversion costs. The incremental 

costs are small for each TSL, meaning the positive impact on cash flow is small 

compared to the conversion costs required to achieve these efficiencies. As a result of the 

small incremental costs and large conversion expenses, INPV is negative for all TSLs 

under the preservation of gross margin percentage scenario. If the incremental costs are 

not fully passed along to customers (the preservation of gross margin in absolute dollars 

scenario), the negative impacts on INPV are amplified at each TSL.

b. Employment Impacts

DOE discussed the domestic employment impacts on the microwave oven 

industry in the February 2012 SNOPR. DOE concluded that since more than 98 percent 

of microwave ovens are already imported and the employment impacts in the GRIM are 

small, the actual impacts on domestic employment would depend on whether any U.S. 

manufacturer decided to shift remaining U.S. production to lower-cost countries. 77 

8526, FR 8561 (Feb.14, 2012). DOE maintains this conclusion for today’s final rule.
159

c. Impacts on Manufacturing Capacity

As stated in the October 2008 NOPR, minor tooling changes would be necessary 

at all TSLs for standby mode and off mode energy conservation standards. For all 

standby power levels, the most significant conversion costs are the research and 

development, testing, and certification of products with more-efficient components, 

which does not affect production line capacity. Thus, DOE determined that

manufacturers will be able to maintain manufacturing capacity levels and continue to 

meet market demand under new energy conservation standards. 73 FR 62034, 62103 

(Oct. 17, 2008). DOE reached the same conclusion in today’s final rule.

d. Impacts on Subgroups of Manufacturers

DOE used the results of the industry characterization to group manufacturers 

exhibiting similar characteristics. However, DOE did not identify any manufacturer 

subgroups for microwave ovens that would justify a separate manufacturer subgroup.

e. Cumulative Regulatory Burden

During previous stages of this rulemaking DOE identified a number of 

requirements with which manufacturers of these microwave ovens must comply and 

which take effect within 3 years of the compliance date of the new standards. DOE 

discusses these and other requirements, and includes the full details of the cumulative 

regulatory burden, in chapter 12 of the final rule TSD.
160

3. National Impact Analysis

a. Significance of Energy Savings

For each TSL, DOE projected energy savings for microwave ovens purchased in 

the 30-year period that begins in the year of compliance with amended standards (2016–

2045). The savings are measured over the entire lifetime of products purchased in the 30-

year period. DOE quantified the energy savings attributable to each TSL as the difference 

in energy consumption between each standards case and the base case. Table V.13

presents the estimated energy savings for each TSL. The savings were calculated using 

the approach described in section IV.E of this rulemaking.

35

Table V-13 Cumulative National Energy Savings for Microwave Oven Standby 

Mode and Off Mode Power for Units Sold in 2016-2045

TSL

Microwave-Only Ovens 

and Countertop 

Convection Ovens 

(quads

Built-In and Over-theRange Convection

Microwave Ovens 

) (quads)

Total*

(

1

quads)

0.24 0.00 0.24

2 0.35 0.00 0.35

3 0.47 0.01 0.48

4 0.72 0.01 0.73

Circular A-4 requires agencies to present analytical results, including separate 

schedules of the monetized benefits and costs that show the type and timing of benefits 

and costs. Circular A-4 also directs agencies to consider the variability of key elements 

underlying the estimates of benefits and costs. DOE believes its standard 30-year analysis 

is fully compliant with the procedures outlined in Circular A-4. For this rulemaking, 

 35 Chapter 10 of the TSD presents tables that show the magnitude of the energy savings discounted at rates 

of 3 percent and 7 percent. Discounted energy savings represent a policy perspective in which energy 

savings realized farther in the future are less significant than energy savings realized in the nearer term.
161

DOE undertook an additional sensitivity analysis of its standard 30-year analysis, using a 

9-year analytical period. The choice of a 9-year period is a proxy for the timeline in 

EPCA for the review of certain energy conservation standards and potential revision of 

and compliance with such revised standards.

36

Table V.14

We would note that the review timeframe 

established in EPCA generally does not overlap with the product lifetime, product 

manufacturing cycles or other factors specific to microwave ovens. Thus, this 

information is presented for informational purposes only and is not indicative of any 

change in DOE’s analytical methodology. The NES results based on a 9-year analytical 

period are presented in . The impacts are counted over the lifetime of products 

purchased in 2016–2024. The sensitivity analysis results based on a 9-year analytical 

period are presented in Table V.14.

Table V-14 Cumulative National Energy Savings for Microwave Oven Standby 

Mode and Off Mode Power for Units Sold in 2016-2024

TSL

Microwave-Only Ovens 

and Countertop 

Convection Microwave

Ovens (quads

Built-In and Over-theRange Convection

Microwave Ovens 

) (quads)

Total*

(

1

quads)

0.07 0.00 0.07

2 0.10 0.00 0.10

3 0.14 0.00 0.14

4 0.21 0.00 0.22

 36 EPCA requires DOE to review its standards at least once every 6 years, and requires, for certain 

products, a 3-year period after any new standard is promulgated before compliance is required, except that 

in no case may any new standards be required within 6 years of the compliance date of the previous 

standards. While adding a 6-year review to the 3-year compliance period adds up to 9 years, DOE notes 

that it may undertake reviews at any time within the 6 year period and that the 3-year compliance date may 

yield to the 6-year backstop. A 9-year analysis period may not be appropriate given the variability that 

occurs in the timing of standards reviews and the fact that for some consumer products, the compliance 

period is 5 years rather than 3 years.

Deleted: This

Deleted: may

Deleted: be statistically relevant

Deleted: regard to
162

b. Net Present Value of Consumer Costs and Benefits

DOE estimated the cumulative NPV to the Nation of the total costs and savings 

for consumers that would result from particular standard levels for microwave oven 

standby mode and off mode. In accordance with the OMB’s guidelines on regulatory 

analysis,37 DOE calculated NPV using both a 7-percent and a 3-percent real discount 

rate. The 7-percent rate is an estimate of the average before-tax rate of return on private 

capital in the U.S. economy, and reflects the returns on real estate and small business 

capital as well as corporate capital. DOE used this discount rate to approximate the 

opportunity cost of capital in the private sector, because recent OMB analysis has found 

the average rate of return on capital to be near this rate. DOE used the 3-percent rate to 

capture the potential effects of standards on private consumption (e.g., through higher 

prices for products and reduced purchases of energy). This rate represents the rate at 

which society discounts future consumption flows to their present value. This rate can be 

approximated by the real rate of return on long-term government debt (i.e., yield on 

Treasury notes minus annual rate of change in the Consumer Price Index), which has 

averaged about 3 percent on a pre-tax basis for the past 30 years.

Table V.15 shows the consumer NPV results for each TSL DOE considered for 

both product classes of microwave ovens, using both a 7-percent and a 3-percent discount 

rate. In each case, the impacts cover the lifetime of products purchased in 2016–2045. 

See chapter 10 of the final rule TSD for more detailed NPV results.

 37 OMB Circular A-4, section E (Sept. 17, 2003). Available at: 

http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a004_a-4. (Last accessed December 2012.)
163

Table V-15 Cumulative Net Present Value of Consumer Benefits for Microwave 

Oven Standby Mode and Off Mode for Units Sold in 2016–2045

TSL

Net Present Value (Billions 2011$)

Microwave-Only Ovens 

and Countertop 

Convection Microwave 

Ovens

Built-In and Over-theRange Convection

Microwave Ovens Total*

7% 

Discount 

Rate

3% 

Discount 

Rate

7% 

Discount 

Rate

3% 

Discount 

Rate

7% 

Discount 

Rate

3% 

Discount 

Rate

1 1.13 2.32 0.01 0.02 1.14 2.34

2 1.61 3.31 0.02 0.05 1.63 3.36

3 1.51 3.34 0.02 0.04 1.53 3.38

4 2.00 4.56 0.04 0.09 2.04 4.65

* The total values may differ from the sum of the product class sub-totals due to the rounding to two 

decimal places.

The NPV results presented in Table V.15 are based on the default product price 

trend. As discussed in section IV.E.3 of this rulemaking, DOE developed several 

sensitivity cases with alternative forecasts of future prices of microwave ovens. The 

impact of these alternative forecasts on the NPV results is presented in appendix 10-C of 

the final rule TSD.

The NPV results based on the afore-mentioned 9-year analytical period are 

presented in Table V.16. The impacts are counted over the lifetime of products purchased 

in 2016–2024. As mentioned previously, this information is presented for informational 

purposes only and is not indicative of any change in DOE’s analytical methodology or 

decision criteria.
164

Table V-16 Cumulative Net Present Value of Consumer Benefits for Microwave 

Oven Standby Mode and Off Mode for Units Sold in 2016–2024

TSL

Net Present Value (

Microwave-Only Ovens 

and Countertop 

Convection Microwave 

Ovens

Billions 2011$)

Built-In and Over-theRange Convection

Microwave Ovens Total*

7% 

Discount 

Rate

3% 

Discount 

Rate

7% 

Discount 

Rate

3% 

Discount 

Rate

7% 

Discount 

Rate

3% 

Discount 

Rate

1 0.55 0.84 0.00 0.01 0.56 0.85

2 0.79 1.20 0.01 0.02 0.80 1.22

3 0.73 1.19 0.01 0.01 0.74 1.20

4 0.96 1.61 0.02 0.03 0.98 1.64

* The total values may differ from the sum of the product class sub-totals due to the rounding to two 

decimal places.

c. Indirect Impacts on Employment 

DOE develops estimates of the indirect employment impacts of proposed 

standards on the economy in general. As discussed above, DOE expects energy 

conservation standards for microwave ovens to reduce energy bills for consumers of 

those products, and the resulting net savings to be redirected to other forms of economic 

activity. Those shifts in spending and economic activity could affect the demand for 

labor. As described in section IV.I of this rulemaking, to estimate those effects, DOE 

used an input/output model of the U.S. economy. Chapter 13 of the final rule TSD 

presents the estimated net indirect employment impacts in the near term for the TSLs for 

both product classes of microwave ovens that DOE considered in this rulemaking. The 

results suggest that today’s standards are likely to have a negligible impact on the net 

demand for labor in the economy. The net change in jobs is so small that it would be 

imperceptible in national labor statistics and might be offset by other, unanticipated 

effects on employment.
165

4. Impact on Utility or Performance of Product 

For the reasons stated in section III.D.1.d of this rulemaking, DOE believes that 

for purposes of 42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(IV), the standby power level considered in 

this rulemaking does not reduce the utility or performance of the microwave oven 

products under consideration in this rulemaking.

5. Impact of Any Lessening of Competition

DOE has considered any lessening of competition that is likely to result from 

today’s standards. The Attorney General determines the impact, if any, of any lessening 

of competition likely to result from a proposed standard, and transmits such 

determination to the Secretary of Energy, together with an analysis of the nature and 

extent of such impact. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(V) and (B)(ii)) To assist the Attorney 

General in making such a determination, DOE provided the Department of Justice (DOJ)

with copies of the proposed rule and the TSD for review. In a letter to DOE dated May 9, 

2012, DOJ provided the following opinion: “[T]he proposed energy conservation 

standards for microwave oven standby power are unlikely to have a significant adverse 

impact on competition.” DOE considered DOJ’s comments on the proposed rule in 

preparing the final rule.

6. Need of the Nation to Conserve Energy

Improving the energy consumption of microwave oven standby mode and off 

mode, where economically justified, would likely improve the security of the Nation’s 
166

energy system by reducing overall demand for energy. Reduced electricity demand may

also improve the reliability of the electricity system. As a measure of this reduced 

demand, chapter 14 in the final rule TSD presents the estimated reduction in national 

generating capacity for the TSLs that DOE considered in this rulemaking.

Energy savings from more stringent microwave oven standby mode and off mode 

standards would also produce environmental benefits in the form of reduced emissions of 

air pollutants and greenhouse gases associated with electricity production. Table V.17

provides DOE’s estimate of cumulative CO2 and NOX emissions reductions that would 

result from the TSLs considered in this rulemaking. DOE reports estimated annual 

changes in emissions attributable to each TSL in chapter 15 of the final rule TSD.

Table V-17 Cumulative Emissions Reductions under Microwave Oven Standby 

Mode and Off Mode Trial Standard Levels for Units Sold in 2016–2045

TSL CO2

(Mt)

SO2

(1,000 tons)

NOX

(1,000 tons)

Hg

(tons)

1 19.13 13.63 16.40 0.048

2 27.63 19.70 23.69 0.069

3 38.11 27.14 32.67 0.095

4 58.55 41.72 50.20 0.146

Mt = million metric tons. Values for other emissions reductions refer to short tons.

DOE also estimated monetary benefits likely to result from the reduced emissions 

of CO2 and NOX that DOE estimated for each of the TSLs considered for microwave 

oven standby mode and off mode. In order to make this calculation similar to the 

calculation of the NPV of consumer benefit, DOE considered the reduced emissions 

expected to result over the lifetime of products shipped in 2016–2045. 
167

As discussed in section IV.L.1 of this rulemaking, DOE used four sets of values 

for the SCC developed by an interagency process. For each of the four cases, DOE 

calculated a present value of the stream of annual values using the same discount rate as 

was used in the studies upon which the dollar-per-ton values are based. Table V.18

presents the global values of CO2 emissions reductions at each TSL. DOE calculated 

domestic values as a range from 7 percent to 23 percent of the global values, and these 

results are presented in chapter 16 of the final rule TSD.

Table V-18 Estimates of Present Value of CO2 Emissions Reductions Under 

Microwave Oven Standby Mode and Off Mode Trial Standard Levels for Products

Sold in 2016–2045

TSL

SCC Case

5% discount 

rate, average*

3% discount rate, 

average*

2.5% discount 

rate, average*

3% discount rate, 

95th percentile*

1

(Million 2011$)

$128 $592 $942 $1,815

2 $185 $855 $1,360 $2,621

3 $255 $1,179 $1,876 $3,615

4 $392 $1,812 $2,882 $5,554

* Columns are labeled by the discount rate used to calculate the SCC and whether it is an average value or 

drawn from a different part of the distribution. The values in 2016 (in 2011$) are $12.6/ton, $41.1/ton, 

$63.2/ton, and $119/ton. The values increase over time.

DOE is well aware that scientific and economic knowledge about the contribution 

of CO2 and other GHG emissions to changes in the future global climate and the potential 

resulting damages to the world economy continues to evolve rapidly. Thus, any value 

placed on reducing CO2 emissions is subject to change. DOE, together with other Federal 

agencies, will continue to review various methodologies for estimating the monetary 

Deleted: 75

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Deleted: 230

Deleted: 138

Deleted: 1,910

Deleted: 3,468

Deleted: 6.2/ton, $25

Deleted: 

Deleted: 78.4

Deleted: These

Deleted: correspond to the value of emission 

reductions in 2016; the values for later years are 

higher due to increasing damages as the magnitude 

of climate change increases
168

value of reductions in CO2 and other GHG emissions. However, consistent with DOE’s 

legal obligations, and taking into account the uncertainty involved with this particular 

issue, DOE has included in this rule the most recent values resulting from the interagency 

review process.

DOE also estimated a range for the cumulative monetary value of the economic 

benefits associated with NOX emissions reductions anticipated to result from new standby 

mode and off mode standards for microwave ovens. The dollar-per-ton values that DOE 

used are discussed in section IV.L.2 of this rulemaking. Table V.19 presents the 

cumulative present values for each TSL calculated using 7-percent and 3-percent 

discount rates.

Table V-19 Estimates of Present Value of NOX Emissions Reductions Under 

Microwave Oven Standby Mode and Off Mode Trial Standard Levels for Products

Sold in 2016–2045

TSL

3% discount rate 7% discount rate

(Million 2011$)

1

(Million 2011$)

$22.3 $11.0

2 $32.3 $15.8

3 $44.5 $21.8

4 $68.4 $33.6

The NPV of the monetized benefits associated with emissions reductions can be 

viewed as a complement to the NPV of the consumer savings calculated for each TSL 

considered in this rulemaking. Table V.20 and Table V.21 present the NPV values that 

result from adding the estimates of the potential economic benefits resulting from 

reduced CO2 and NOX emissions in each of four valuation scenarios to the NPV of 

consumer savings calculated for each TSL considered in this rulemaking, at both a 7-
169

percent and 3-percent discount rate. The CO2 values used in the columns of each table 

correspond to the four scenarios for the valuation of CO2 emission reductions presented 

in section IV.L of this rulemaking.

Table V-20 Results of Adding Net Present Value of Consumer Savings (at 7-Percent

Discount Rate) to Net Present Value of Monetized Benefits from CO2 and NOX

Emissions Reductions for Microwave Oven Standby Mode and Off Mode

TSL

Consumer NPV at 7% Discount Rate added with:

SCC Value of 

$12.6/t CO2

* and 

Low Value for 

NOX

**

SCC Value of $41.1/t

CO2

* and Medium 

Value for NOX

**

(Billion 2011$)

SCC Value of 

$63.2/t CO2

* and 

Medium Value for 

NOX

**

(Billion 2011$)

SCC Value of 

$119/t CO2

* and 

High Value for 

NOX

**

(Billion 2011$)

1

(Billion 2011$)

1.26 1.73 2.08 2.96

2 1.80 2.48 2.99 4.26

3 1.77 2.71 3.41 5.17

4 2.40 3.85 4.92 7.62

* These label values represent the global SCC in 2016, in 2011$. The present values have been calculated 

with scenario-consistent discount rates. ** Low Value corresponds to $455 per ton of NOX emissions. Medium Value corresponds to $2,567 per ton 

of NOX emissions. High Value corresponds to $4,679 per ton of NOX emissions.

Deleted: .2/metric ton

Deleted: 25.6/metric ton

Deleted: 41.1/metric ton

Deleted: 78.4/metric ton

Deleted: 20

Deleted: 51

Deleted: 1.76

Deleted: 28

Deleted: 72

Deleted: 16

Deleted: 53

Deleted: 3.28

Deleted: 67

Deleted: 28

Deleted: 2.78

Deleted: 3.81

Deleted: 24

Deleted: 17

Deleted: 3.94

Deleted: 5.53
170

Table V-21 Results of Adding Net Present Value of Consumer Savings (at 3-Percent

Discount Rate) to Net Present Value of Monetized Benefits from CO2 and NOX

Emissions Reductions for Microwave Oven Standby Mode and Off Mode

TSL

Consumer NPV at 3% Discount Rate added with:

SCC Value of 

$12.6/t CO2

* and 

Low Value for 

NOX

**

SCC Value of $41.1/t

CO2

* and Medium 

Value for NOX

**

(Billion 2011$)

SCC Value of 

$63.2/t CO2

* and 

Medium Value for 

NOX

**

(Billion 2011$)

SCC Value of 

$119/t CO2

* and 

High Value for 

NOX

**

(Billion 2011$)

1

(Billion 2011$)

2.45 2.93 3.28 4.17

2 3.50 4.20 4.70 5.99

3 3.60 4.56 5.26 7.03

4 4.97 6.44 7.51 10.24

* These label values represent the global SCC in 2016, in 2011$. The present values have been calculated 

with scenario-consistent discount rates. ** Low Value corresponds to $455 per ton of NOX emissions. Medium Value corresponds to $2,567 per ton 

of NOX emissions. High Value corresponds to $4,679 per ton of NOX emissions.

Although adding the value of consumer savings to the values of emission 

reductions provides a valuable perspective, two issues should be considered. First, the 

national operating cost savings are domestic U.S. consumer monetary savings that occur 

as a result of market transactions, while the value of CO2 reductions is based on a global 

value. Second, the assessments of operating cost savings and the SCC are performed with 

different methods that use quite different time frames for analysis. The national operating 

cost savings is measured for the lifetime of products shipped in 2016–2045. The SCC 

values, on the other hand, reflect the present value of future climate-related impacts 

resulting from the emission of one ton of CO2 in each year. These impacts continue well 

beyond 2100.

7. Other Factors

The Secretary of Energy, in determining whether a standard is economically 

justified, may consider any other factors that the Secretary deems to be relevant. (42 

Deleted: .2/metric ton

Deleted: 25.6/metric ton

Deleted: 41.1/metric ton

Deleted: 78.4/metric ton

Deleted: 40

Deleted: 71

Deleted: 2.96

Deleted: 3.49

Deleted: 43

Deleted: 3.88

Deleted: 24

Deleted: 01

Deleted: 50

Deleted: 12

Deleted: 4.63

Deleted: 5.68

Deleted: 80

Deleted: 5.77

Deleted: 6.54

Deleted: 8.15
171

U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(B)(i)(VI)) DOE has not considered other factors in development of the 

standards in this final rule.

C.

When considering proposed standards, the new or amended energy conservation 

standard that DOE adopts for any type (or class) of covered product shall be designed to 

achieve the maximum improvement in energy efficiency that the Secretary determines is 

technologically feasible and economically justified. (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(2)(A)) In 

determining whether a standard is economically justified, the Secretary must determine 

whether the benefits of the standard exceed its burdens by, to the greatest extent 

practicable, considering the seven statutory factors discussed previously. (42 U.S.C. 

6295(o)(2)(B)(i)) The new or amended standard must also “result in significant 

conservation of energy.” (42 U.S.C. 6295(o)(3)(B))

Conclusion

The Department considered the impacts of standards at each TSL, beginning with 

the maximum technologically feasible level, to determine whether that level was 

economically justified. Where the max-tech level was not justified, DOE then considered 

the next most efficient level and undertook the same evaluation until it reached the 

highest efficiency level that is both technologically feasible and economically justified 

and saves a significant amount of energy.

To aid the reader in understanding the benefits and/or burdens of each TSL, Table 

V.22 summarizes the quantitative analytical results for each TSL, based on the 
172

assumptions and methodology discussed herein. In addition to the quantitative results

presented in the table, DOE also considers other burdens and benefits that affect 

economic justification. These include the impacts on identifiable subgroups of 

consumers, such as low-income households and seniors, who may be disproportionately 

affected by a national standard. Section V.B.1.b of this rulemaking presents the estimated 

impacts of each TSL for these subgroups.
173

Table V-22 Summary of Results for Trial Standard Levels for Microwave Oven 

Standby Mode and Off Mode Energy Use

Category TSL 1 TSL 2 TSL 3 TSL 4

National Energy Savings (quads) 0.24 0.35 0.48 0.73

NPV of Consumer Benefits 

(Billion 2011$)

 3% discount rate 2.34 3.36 3.38 4.65

 7% discount rate 1.14 1.63 1.53 2.04

Manufacturer Impacts

Industry NPV (Million (15.1) to (17.3) 2011$) (24.6) to (28.5) (40.0) to (96.6) (76.1) to (184.6)

Industry NPV (% change) (1.1) to (1.2) (1.8) to (2.1) (2.9) to (7.0) (5.5) to (13.3)

Cumulative Emissions Reduction

CO2 (

SO2 (

Mt) 19.13

thousand tons) 13.63

27.63

19.70

38.11

27.14

58.55

41.72

NOx (thousand tons) 16.40 23.69 32.67 50.20

Hg (tons) 0.048 0.069 0.095 0.146

Value of Emissions Reductions

 CO2 (Million 2011$ 128 to 1815 )

* 185 to 2621 255 to 3615 392 to 5554

 NOX – 3% discount rate (Million 

2011$ 22.3 ) 32.3 44.5 68.4

 NOX – 7% discount rate (Million 

2011$ 11.0 ) 15.8 21.8 33.6

Consumer Mean LCC Savings 

(2011$)

 Product Class 1 8 11 11 15

 Product Class 2 7 16 12 30

Consumer Median PBP (years)

Product Class 1 0.2 0.3 3.5 3.5

Product Class 2 0.1 0.1 3.3 2.0

Distribution of Consumer LCC 

Impacts

 Product Class 1

Net Cost 0 0 12 5

No Impact 54 19 0 0

Net Benefit 46 81 88 95

 Product Class 2

Net Cost 0 0 0 0

No Impact 0 0 0 0

Net Benefit 100 100 100 100

Parentheses indicate negative (-) values. For NPVs, a negative value means a decrease in NPV.

* Range of the economic value of CO2 reductions is based on estimates of the global benefit of reduced 

CO2 emissions.

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174

In addition to the quantitative results, DOE also considered harmonization of 

microwave oven standby mode and off mode standards with international standby power

programs such as Korea’s e-standby program,38 Australia’s standby program,39 and

Japan’s Top Runner Program.40 Those programs seek to establish standby power ratings 

through the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) 1-Watt Program, which seeks to lower 

standby power below 1 W for microwave ovens.41 Korea published a mandatory standby 

power standard of 1 W that became effective in 2010 and Australia will publish 

mandatory standby power standards of 1 W by 2013. In accordance with Japan’s Top 

Runner Program, Japanese appliance manufacturers made a voluntary declaration to 

reduce standby power of microwave ovens that lack a timer to as close to zero as possible 

and that of microwave ovens that have a timer to 1 W or lower.

DOE also notes that the economics literature provides a wide-ranging discussion 

of how consumers trade off upfront costs and energy savings in the absence of 

government intervention. Much of this literature attempts to explain why consumers 

appear to undervalue energy efficiency improvements. This undervaluation suggests that 

regulation that promotes energy efficiency can produce significant net private gains (as 

well as producing social gains by, for example, reducing pollution). There is evidence 

that consumers undervalue future energy savings as a result of (1) a lack of information; 

(2) a lack of sufficient salience of the long-term or aggregate benefits; (3) a lack of 

 38 Refer to: http://www.kemco.or.kr/new_eng/pg02/pg02100300.asp. (Last accessed December 2012.) 39 Refer to: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/products-themes/standby-power/about/. (Last accessed 

December 2012.)

40 Refer to: http://www.eccj.or.jp/top_runner/pdf/tr_microwaveoven.pdf. (Last accessed December 2012.) 41 IEA Energy Information Centre. Standby Power Use and the IEA “1-Watt Plan.” Available at:

http://greenshorenstein.info/pdf/Standby%20Power%20Fact%20Sheet%20-%20IEA%20-

%20April%202007.pdf. (Last accessed December 2012.) 
175

sufficient savings to warrant delaying or altering purchases; (4) excessive focus on the 

short term, in the form of inconsistent weighting of future energy cost savings relative to 

available returns on other investments; (5) computational or other difficulties associated 

with the evaluation of relevant tradeoffs; and (6) a divergence in incentives (that is, renter 

versus owner; builder vs. purchaser). Other literature indicates that with less than perfect

foresight and a high degree of uncertainty about the future, consumers may trade off 

these types of investments at a higher than expected rate between current consumption 

and uncertain future energy cost savings. 

In its current regulatory analysis, potential changes in the benefits and costs of a 

regulation due to changes in consumer purchasing decisions are included in two ways. 

First, if consumers forego a purchase of a product in the standards case, this decreases 

sales for product manufacturers and the cost to manufacturers is included in the MIA.

Second, DOE accounts for energy savings attributable only to products actually used by 

consumers in the standards case; if a regulatory option decreases the number of products 

used by consumers, this decreases the potential energy savings from an energy 

conservation standard. DOE provides detailed estimates of shipments and changes in the 

volume of product purchases in chapter 9 of the final rule TSD. DOE’s current analysis 

does not explicitly control for heterogeneity in consumer preferences, preferences across 

subcategories of products or specific features, or consumer price sensitivity variation 

according to household income.

42

 42 P.C. Reiss and M.W. White. Household Electricity Demand, Revisited. Review of Economic Studies

(2005) 72, 853–883.
176

While DOE is not prepared at present to provide a fuller quantifiable framework 

for estimating the benefits and costs of changes in consumer purchase decisions due to an 

energy conservation standard, DOE is committed to developing a framework that can

support empirical quantitative tools for improved assessment of the consumer welfare 

impacts of appliance standards. DOE has posted a paper that discusses the issue of 

consumer welfare impacts of appliance energy efficiency standards, and potential

enhancements to the methodology by which these impacts are defined and estimated in 

the regulatory process.43

1. Benefits and Burdens of TSLs Considered for Microwave Oven Standby Mode and 

Off Mode Energy Use

First, DOE considered TSL 4, the max-tech level for microwave oven standby 

mode and off mode energy use. TSL 4 likely would save 0.73 quads of energy through 

2045, an amount DOE considers significant. Under TSL 4, the estimated NPV of 

consumer benefit is $2.04 billion, using a discount rate of 7 percent, and $4.65 billion, 

using a discount rate of 3 percent.

The cumulative emissions reductions at TSL 4 are 58.55 Mt of CO2, 41.72 

thousand tons of SO2, 50.20 thousand tons of NOX, and 0.146 tons of Hg. The estimated 

monetary value of the CO2 emissions reductions at TSL 4 ranges from $392 million to 

$5,554 million.

 43 Alan Sanstad, Notes on the Economics of Household Energy Consumption and Technology Choice. 

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 2010. Available online at: 

www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/appliance_standards/pdfs/consumer_ee_theory.pdf. (Last accessed 

December 2012.)

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177

DOE projects that at TSL 4 for microwave-only ovens and countertop convection 

microwave ovens (Product Class 1), the average microwave oven consumer would 

experience a savings in LCC of $15. DOE also estimates 95 percent of consumers who

purchase these microwave ovens would realize some LCC savings. The median payback 

period at TSL 4 is projected to be 3.5 years, substantially shorter than the lifetime of the 

product. DOE projects that at TSL 4 for built-in and over-the-range convection 

microwave ovens (Product Class 2), the average microwave oven consumer would 

experience a savings in LCC of $30, and all consumers who purchase these microwave 

ovens would realize some LCC savings. The median payback period at TSL 4 is 

projected to be 2.0 years, substantially shorter than the lifetime of the product.

Although DOE estimates that all microwave oven consumers would benefit 

economically from TSL 4, the reduction in standby power consumption at TSL 4 would 

result in the loss of certain functions that provide utility to consumers, specifically the 

continuous clock display. Because it is uncertain how greatly consumers value this 

function, DOE is concerned that TSL 4 may result in significant loss of consumer utility.

For manufacturers of microwave ovens, DOE estimated a decrease in INPV that 

ranges from $76.1 million to $184.6 million. DOE recognizes that TSL 4 poses the risk of 

large negative impacts if manufacturers’ expectations about reduced profit margins are 

realized. In particular, if the high end of the range of impacts is reached, as DOE expects, 

Deleted: decrease

Deleted: 13

Deleted: decrease

Deleted: 26
178

TSL 4 could result in a net loss of 13.3 percent in INPV to microwave oven 

manufacturers.

After carefully considering the analysis and weighing the benefits and burdens of 

TSL 4, DOE has reached the following initial conclusion: At TSL 4, the benefits of 

energy savings, NPV of consumer benefit, positive consumer LCC impacts, and

emissions reductions would be outweighed by the potential burden on consumers from 

loss of product utility and the large product conversion costs that could result in a 

reduction in INPV for manufacturers.

DOE then considered TSL 3. Primary energy savings are estimated to be 0.48

quads of energy through 2045, which DOE considers significant. Under TSL 3, the 

estimated NPV of consumer benefit is $1.53 billion, using a discount rate of 7 percent, 

and $3.38 billion, using a discount rate of 3 percent.

The cumulative emissions reductions at TSL 3 are 38.11 Mt of CO2, 27.14 

thousand tons of SO2, 32.67 thousand tons of NOX, and 0.095 tons of Hg. The estimated 

monetary value of the CO2 emissions reductions at TSL 3 ranges from $255 million to 

$3,615 million.

For microwave-only ovens and countertop convection microwave ovens, DOE 

projects that at TSL 3 the average consumer would experience a savings in LCC of $11, 

and 88 percent of consumers who purchase these microwave ovens would realize some 

Deleted: 150

Deleted: 2,256

Deleted: decrease

Deleted: 9

Deleted: 85
179

LCC savings. At TSL 3 the median payback period is projected to be 3.5 years, 

substantially shorter than the lifetime of the product. In addition, DOE estimates that the 

reduction in standby power consumption under TSL 3 (to no greater than 1.0 W) would 

not impact consumer utility. The continuous clock display that would be lost under TSL 4

would be retained at TSL 3.

For built-in and over-the-range convection microwave ovens, DOE projects that 

at TSL 3 the average consumer would experience a savings in LCC of $12, and all

consumers who purchase these microwave ovens would realize some LCC savings. At 

TSL 3, the median payback period is projected to be 3.3 years, significantly shorter than 

the lifetime of the product.

For manufacturers of microwave ovens, DOE estimated that the projected 

decrease in INPV under TSL 3 would range from $40.0 million to $96.6 million. DOE 

recognizes the risk of large negative impacts at TSL 3 if manufacturers’ expectations 

about reduced profit margins are realized. In particular, if the high end of the range of 

impacts is reached, as DOE expects, TSL 3 could result in a net loss of 7.0 percent in 

INPV to microwave oven manufacturers.

After considering the analysis and weighing the benefits and the burdens of TSL 

3, the Secretary concludes that TSL 3 will offer the maximum improvement in efficiency 

that is technologically feasible and economically justified, and will result in the 

significant conservation of energy. Therefore, DOE adopts the energy conservation 

Deleted: decrease

Deleted: 10
180

standards for microwave oven standby mode and off mode at TSL 3. The amended 

energy conservation standards, which are maximum allowable standby power 

consumption, are shown in Table V.23.

Table V-23 Amended Energy Conservation Standards for Microwave Oven Standby 

and Off Mode

Product Classes

Effective [INSERT DATE 3 YEARS AFTER 

DATE OF PUBLICATION IN THE 

FEDERAL REGISTER]

Microwave-Only Ovens and Countertop 

Convection Microwave Ovens

Maximum Standby Power = 1.0 watt

Built-In and Over-the-Range Convection 

Microwave Ovens

Maximum Standby Power = 2.2 watts

2. Summary of Benefits and Costs (Annualized) of the Standards

The benefits and costs of today’s proposed standards can also be expressed in 

terms of annualized values. The annualized monetary values are the sum of (1) the 

annualized national economic value, expressed in 2011$, of the benefits from operating 

products that meet the proposed standards (consisting primarily of operating cost savings 

from using less energy, minus increases in equipment purchase costs, which is another 

way of representing consumer NPV), and (2) the monetary value of the benefits of 

emission reductions, including CO2 emission reductions.

44

 44 DOE used a two-step calculation process to convert the time-series of costs and benefits into annualized 

values. First, DOE calculated a present value in 2011, the year used for discounting the NPV of total 

consumer costs and savings, for the time-series of costs and benefits using discount rates of 3 and 7 percent

for all costs and benefits except for the value of CO2 reductions. For the latter, DOE used a range of 

discount rates, as shown in 

The value of the CO2

reductions is calculated using a range of values per metric ton of CO2 developed by a 

Table V.24. From the present value, DOE then calculated the fixed annual 

payment over a 30-year period, starting in 2011 that yields the same present value. The fixed annual 

payment is the annualized value. Although DOE calculated annualized values, this does not imply that the 

time-series of cost and benefits from which the annualized values were determined would be a steady 

stream of payments.
181

recent interagency process. The monetary costs and benefits of cumulative emissions 

reductions are reported in 2011$ to permit comparisons with the other costs and benefits 

in the same dollar units.

Although combining the values of operating savings and CO2 reductions provides 

a useful perspective, two issues should be considered. First, the national operating 

savings are domestic U.S. consumer monetary savings that occur as a result of market 

transactions while the value of CO2 reductions is based on a global value. Second, the 

assessments of operating cost savings and SCC are performed with different methods that 

use different time frames for analysis. The national operating cost savings is measured for 

the lifetime of products shipped in 2016–2045. The SCC values, on the other hand, 

reflect the present value of future climate-related impacts resulting from the emission of 

one ton of CO2 in each year. These impacts continue well beyond 2100.

Table V.24 shows the annualized values for the proposed standards for

microwave oven standby mode and off mode energy use. The results for the primary 

estimate are as follows. Using a 7-percent discount rate for benefits and costs other than

CO2 reductions, for which DOE used a 3-percent discount rate along with the SCC series 

corresponding to a value of $41.1/ton in 2011, the cost of the standards proposed in 

today’s rule is $58.4 million per year in increased product costs, while the annualized 

benefits are $174 million in reduced product operating costs, $58.4 million in CO2

reductions, and $1.64 million in reduced NOX emissions. In this case, the net benefit 

amounts to $175 million per year. Using a 3-percent discount rate for all benefits and 

Deleted: 25.6

Deleted: 36.7

Deleted: 164
182

costs and the SCC series corresponding to a value of $41.1/ton in 2011, the cost of the

standards proposed in today’s rule is $66.4 million per year in increased product costs, 

while the annualized benefits are $234 million in reduced operating costs, $58.4 million 

in CO2 reductions, and $2.20 million in reduced NOX emissions. In this case, the net 

benefit amounts to $228 million per year. The monetary value of the CO2 emissions 

reductions using the previous (2010) SCC estimates, and the net benefits using those 

estimates, is presented for information purposes in Table V.24.

Deleted: 25.6

Deleted: 36.7

Deleted: 206 million per year
183

Table V-24 Annualized Benefits and Costs of Amended Standards (TSL 3) for 

Microwave Ovens Sold in 2016–2045

Discount 

Rate

Primary 

Estimate*

Low Net 

Benefits 

Estimate

High Net 

Benefits 

Estimate

Benefits

(Million 2011$/year)

Operating Cost Savings

7% 174 162

1

9

1

3% 234 215

2

6

1

CO2 Reduction ($12.6/t case)**

Using 2013 Social Cost of Carbon Values

5% 15.8 14.7 17.4

CO2 Reduction ($41.1/t case)** 3% 58.4 54.1 64.5

CO2 Reduction ($63.2/t case)** 2.5% 87.4 80.9 96.7

CO2 Reduction ($119/t case)** 3% 179 166 198

Total Benefits†

7% plus 

CO2 range

191 to 354 178 to 329 210 to 391

7% 234 218 258

3% 294 271 328

3% plus 

CO2 range

252 to 415 232 to 383 281 to 462

CO2 Reduction ($6.2/t case)***

Using 2010 Social Cost of Carbon Values

5% 9.29 8.62 17.4

CO2 Reduction ($25.6/t case)*** 3% 36.7 34.0 40.6

CO2 Reduction ($41.1/t case)*** 2.5% 57.9 53.6 64.1

CO2 Reduction ($78.4/t case)*** 3% 111.8 103.5 123.6

NOX Reduction at $2,567/ton** 7% 1.64 1.54 1.79

3% 2.20 2.05 2.42

Total Benefits†

7% plus 

CO2 range

185 to 287 172 to 267 203 to 317

7% 212 198 234

3% 273 251 304

3% plus 

CO2 range

245 to 348 226 to 321 274 to 388

Deleted: .

Deleted: *

Deleted: *

Deleted: Monetized (Millions

Deleted: at $

Deleted: **

Deleted: 10.24

Deleted: at $

Deleted: **

Deleted: at $

Deleted: **

Deleted: at $

Deleted: **

Deleted: t
184

Discount 

Rate

Primary 

Estimate*

Low Net 

Benefits 

Estimate

High Net 

Benefits 

Estimate

Costs

(Million 2011$/year)

Incremental Installed Costs

7% 58.4 59.6 57.5

3% 66.4 67.8 64.3

Net Benefits (using 2013 SCC values)

Total†

7% plus 

CO2 range

133 to 296 119 to 270 153 to 334

7% 175 158 200

3% 228 203 264

3% plus 

CO2 range

185 to 349 164 to 315 217 to 398

Net Benefits (using 2010 SCC values)

Total††

7% plus 

CO2 range

126 to 

229

113 

to 

208

1

4

6 

to 

2

5

9

7% 154 138 176

3% 206 183 240

3% plus 

CO2 range

179 to 281 158 to 253 210 to 323

* This table presents the annualized costs and benefits associated with microwave ovens shipped in 2016–

2045. These results include benefits to consumers which accrue after 2016 from the microwave ovens 

purchased from 2016–2045. Costs incurred by manufacturers, some of which may be incurred prior to 2016

in preparation for the rule, are not directly included, but are indirectly included as part of incremental 

equipment costs. The Primary, Low Benefits, and High Benefits Estimates utilize projections of energy 

prices and housing starts from the AEO 2012

IV.E.1

Reference case, Low Estimate, and High Estimate, 

respectively. In addition, incremental product costs reflect a medium decline rate for product prices in the 

Primary Estimate, constant product price in the Low Benefits Estimate, and a high decline rate for product 

prices in the High Benefits Estimate. The methods used to derive projected price trends are explained in 

section of this rulemaking.

** The CO2 values represent global monetized values of the SCC, in 2011$, in 2016 under several 

scenarios. The values of $12.6, $41.1, and $63.2 per metric ton are the averages of SCC distributions 

calculated using 5%, 3%, and 2.5% discount rates, respectively. The value of $119/t represents the 95th

percentile of the SCC distribution calculated using a 3% discount rate. The SCC time series increase over 

time. The value for NOX (in 2011$) is the average of the low and high values used in DOE’s analysis.

Deleted: *

Deleted: *

Deleted: Monetized (Millions

Deleted: Product

Deleted: Total 

Deleted: †

Deleted: forecasts

Deleted: Economic Growth case

Deleted: Economic Growth case

Deleted: the Low estimate uses 

Deleted: that reflects constant prices (no price 

forecasting)

Deleted: , and 

Deleted: estimate uses incremental product costs 

that reflects a declining trend (AEO Chained

Deleted: forecast) for product prices

Deleted: ¶

Deleted: (

Deleted: $) of the social cost of CO2 emissions

Deleted: .2, $25.6

Deleted: 41.1

Deleted: 78.4 per ton
185

*** The CO2 values represent global monetized values of the SCC, in 2011$, in 2016 under several 

scenarios. The values of $6.2, $25.6, and $41.1 per metric ton are the averages of SCC distributions 

calculated using 5%, 3%, and 2.5% discount rates, respectively. The value of $78.4/t represents the 95th

percentile of the SCC distribution calculated using a 3% discount rate. The SCC time series increase over 

time. The value for NOX (in 2011$) is the average of the low and high values used in DOE’s analysis.

† Total Benefits for both the 3-percent and 7-percent cases are derived using the series corresponding to 

SCC value of $41.1/t in 2016. In the rows labeled “7% plus CO2 range” and “3% plus CO2 range,” the 

operating cost and NOX benefits are calculated using the labeled discount rate, and those values are added 

to the full range of CO2 values.

†† Total Benefits for both the 3-percent and 7-percent cases are derived using the series corresponding to 

SCC value of $25.6/t in 2016. In the rows labeled “7% plus CO2 range” and “3% plus CO2 range,” the 

operating cost and NOX benefits are calculated using the labeled discount rate, and those values are added 

to the full range of CO2 values.

VI. Additional Technical Corrections to 10 CFR 430.32

In the February 2012 SNOPR, DOE also proposed the following technical 

corrections to the language contained in 10 CFR 430.32. DOE noted that 10 CFR 430.32, 

“Energy and water conservation standards and their effective dates” contains dates 

required for compliance with energy and water conservation standards rather than the 

effective dates of such standards. As a result, DOE proposed in the February 2012 

SNOPR to revise the title of 10 CFR 430.32 to read “Energy and water conservation 

standards and their compliance dates.” DOE also noted that the current energy 

conservation standards for cooking products found at 10 CFR 430.32(j)(1)–(2) should be 

revised to more accurately reflect the date required for compliance with energy 

conservation standards. DOE proposed to revise the language in 10 CFR 430.32(j)(1)–(2) 

to state that products manufactured on or after the compliance date must meet the 

required energy conservation standard. 77 FR 8526, 8569 (Feb. 14, 2012).

AHAM and GE supported the proposed amendment to the title of 10 CFR 430.32 

to clarify that these are compliance dates rather than effective dates, and the proposed 

Deleted: %

Deleted: %

Deleted: calculated at a 3% discount rate, which is 

$25.6/ton

Deleted: (in 2011$).

Deleted: as
186

revision to 10 CFR 430.32(j)(1)–(2) to state that products manufactured on or after the 

compliance date must meet the required energy conservation standards. AHAM and GE 

further requested that DOE clarify that products manufactured before the compliance date 

may continue to be sold after the compliance date. (AHAM, No. 16 at p. 4; GE, No. 19 at 

p. 1) DOE also received a comment from a private citizen requesting that DOE clarify the 

compliance date for new microwave oven standby power standards. (Private Citizen, No. 

10 at p. 7)

For clarity, DOE revises in today’s final rule the title of 10 CFR 430.32 and 

amends 10 CFR 430.32(j)(1)–(2) as proposed in the February 2012 SNOPR. In the new 

energy conservation standards that will be codified at 10 CFR 430.32(j)(3), DOE 

specifies the maximum standby power consumption for microwave ovens manufactured 

on or after [INSERT DATE 3 YEARS AFTER DATE OF PUBLICATION IN THE 

FEDERAL REGISTER]. These new standards do not apply to any microwave oven 

manufactured before that compliance date.

VII. Procedural Issues and Regulatory Review

A.

Section 1(b)(1) of Executive Order 12866, “Regulatory Planning and Review,” 58 

FR 51735 (Oct. 4, 1993), requires each agency to identify the problem that it intends to 

address, including, where applicable, the failures of private markets or public institutions 

that warrant new agency action, as well as to assess the significance of that problem. The 

problems that today’s standards address are as follows: 

Review Under Executive Orders 12866 and 13563
187

(1) There is a lack of consumer information and/or information processing capability 

about energy efficiency opportunities in the home appliance market.

(2) There is asymmetric information (one party to a transaction has more and better 

information than the other) and/or high transactions costs (costs of gathering 

information and effecting exchanges of goods and services).

(3) There are external benefits resulting from improved energy efficiency of 

microwave ovens that are not captured by the users of such equipment. These 

benefits include externalities related to environmental protection and energy 

security that are not reflected in energy prices, such as reduced emissions of 

greenhouse gases.

In addition, DOE has determined that today’s regulatory action is an 

“economically significant regulatory action” under section 3(f)(1) of Executive Order 

12866. Accordingly, section 6(a)(3) of the Executive Order requires that DOE prepare a 

regulatory impact analysis (RIA) on today’s rule and that the Office of Information and 

Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) in the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) review this 

rule. DOE presented to OIRA for review the draft rule and other documents prepared for 

this rulemaking, including the RIA, and has included these documents in the rulemaking 

record. The assessments prepared pursuant to Executive Order 12866 can be found in the 

technical support document for this rulemaking.

DOE has also reviewed this regulation pursuant to Executive Order 13563, issued 
188

on January 18, 2011 (76 FR 3281 (Jan. 21, 2011)). EO 13563 is supplemental to and 

explicitly reaffirms the principles, structures, and definitions governing regulatory review 

established in Executive Order 12866. To the extent permitted by law, agencies are 

required by Executive Order 13563 to: (1) propose or adopt a regulation only upon a 

reasoned determination that its benefits justify its costs (recognizing that some benefits 

and costs are difficult to quantify); (2) tailor regulations to impose the least burden on 

society, consistent with obtaining regulatory objectives, taking into account, among other 

things, and to the extent practicable, the costs of cumulative regulations; (3) select, in 

choosing among alternative regulatory approaches, those approaches that maximize net 

benefits (including potential economic, environmental, public health and safety, and other 

advantages; distributive impacts; and equity); (4) to the extent feasible, specify 

performance objectives, rather than specifying the behavior or manner of compliance that 

regulated entities must adopt; and (5) identify and assess available alternatives to direct 

regulation, including providing economic incentives to encourage the desired behavior, 

such as user fees or marketable permits, or providing information upon which choices can 

be made by the public.

DOE emphasizes as well that Executive Order 13563 requires agencies to use the 

best available techniques to quantify anticipated present and future benefits and costs as 

accurately as possible. In its guidance, the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs 

has emphasized that such techniques may include identifying changing future compliance 

costs that might result from technological innovation or anticipated behavioral changes. 

For the reasons stated in the preamble, DOE determines that today’s final rule is 
189

consistent with these principles, including the requirement that, to the extent permitted by 

law, benefits justify costs and that net benefits are maximized.

B.

The Regulatory Flexibility Act (5 U.S.C. 601 

Review Under the Regulatory Flexibility Act

et seq.) requires preparation of a 

regulatory flexibility analysis (RFA) for any rule that by law must be proposed for public 

comment, unless the agency certifies that the rule, if promulgated, will not have a 

significant economic impact on a substantial number of small entities. As required by 

Executive Order 13272, “Proper Consideration of Small Entities in Agency Rulemaking,” 

67 FR 53461 (Aug. 16, 2002), DOE published procedures and policies on February 19, 

2003, to ensure that the potential impacts of its rules on small entities are properly 

considered during the rulemaking process. 68 FR 7990. DOE has made its procedures 

and policies available on the Office of the General Counsel’s website (www.gc.doe.gov ).

For manufacturers of microwave ovens, the Small Business Administration (SBA) 

has set a size threshold, which defines those entities classified as “small businesses” for 

the purposes of the statute. DOE used the SBA’s small business size standards to 

determine whether any small entities would be subject to the requirements of the rule. 65 

FR 30836, 30848 (May 15, 2000), as amended at 65 FR 53533, 53544 (Sept. 5, 2000) and 

codified at 13 CFR part 121.The size standards are listed by North American Industry 

Classification System (NAICS) code and industry description and are available at

http://www.sba.gov/sites/default/files/files/Size_Standards_Table.pdf. Microwave oven

manufacturing is classified under NAICS 335221, “Household Cooking Appliance 
190

Manufacturing.” The SBA sets a threshold of 750 employees or less for an entity to be 

considered as a small business for this category.

DOE surveyed the AHAM member directory to identify manufacturers of 

microwave ovens. In addition, DOE asked interested parties and AHAM representatives 

within the microwave oven industry if they were aware of any small business 

manufacturers. DOE consulted publicly available data, purchased company reports from 

sources such as Dun & Bradstreet, and contacted manufacturers, where needed, to 

determine if they meet the SBA’s definition of a small business manufacturing facility 

and have their manufacturing facilities located within the United States. Based on this 

analysis, DOE determined that the microwave oven industry consists of seven 

manufacturers that have a market share greater than 3 percent. Most are large, foreign 

companies that import microwave ovens into the United States. There are U.S. facilities 

that partly assemble microwave ovens, but none of these are small businesses. DOE 

estimates that there is one small business which manufactures a product which combines 

a microwave oven with other appliance functionality. However, because DOE is not 

amending energy conservation standards at this time for the microwave oven portion of 

such combined products, DOE certifies that today’s final rule would not have a 

significant economic impact on a substantial number of small entities. Accordingly, DOE 

has not prepared a regulatory flexibility analysis for this rulemaking. DOE will transmit 

the certification and supporting statement of factual basis to the Chief Counsel for 

Advocacy of the SBA for review under 5 U.S.C. 605(b).
191

C.

Manufacturers of microwave ovens must certify to DOE that their products 

comply with any applicable energy conservation standards. In certifying compliance, 

manufacturers must test their products according to the DOE test procedure for 

microwave ovens, including any amendments adopted for those test procedures. DOE has 

established regulations for the certification and recordkeeping requirements for all 

covered consumer products and commercial equipment, including microwave ovens. (76 

FR 12422 (Mar. 7, 2011). The collection-of-information requirement for the certification 

and recordkeeping is subject to review and approval by OMB under the Paperwork 

Reduction Act (PRA). This requirement has been approved by OMB under OMB control 

number 1910-1400. Public reporting burden for the certification is estimated to average 

20 hours per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing 

data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing 

the collection of information. 

Review Under the Paperwork Reduction Act

Notwithstanding any other provision of the law, no person is required to respond 

to, nor shall any person be subject to a penalty for failure to comply with, a collection of 

information subject to the requirements of the PRA, unless that collection of information 

displays a currently valid OMB Control Number.

D.

Pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969, DOE has 

determined that the rule fits within the category of actions included in Categorical 

Review Under the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 
192

Exclusion (CX) B5.1 and otherwise meets the requirements for application of a CX. See 

10 CFR Part 1021, App. B, B5.1(b); 1021.410(b) and Appendix B, B(1)–(5). The rule fits 

within the category of actions because it is a rulemaking that establishes energy 

conservation standards for consumer products or industrial equipment, and for which 

none of the exceptions identified in CX B5.1(b) apply. Therefore, DOE has made a CX 

determination for this rulemaking, and DOE does not need to prepare an Environmental 

Assessment or Environmental Impact Statement for this rule. DOE’s CX determination 

for this rule is available at http://cxnepa.energy.gov/.

E.

Executive Order 13132, “Federalism.” 64 FR 43255 (Aug. 10, 1999) imposes 

certain requirements on Federal agencies formulating and implementing policies or 

regulations that preempt State law or that have Federalism implications. The Executive 

Order requires agencies to examine the constitutional and statutory authority supporting 

any action that would limit the policymaking discretion of the States and to carefully 

assess the necessity for such actions. The Executive Order also requires agencies to have 

an accountable process to ensure meaningful and timely input by State and local officials 

in the development of regulatory policies that have Federalism implications. On March 

14, 2000, DOE published a statement of policy describing the intergovernmental 

consultation process it will follow in the development of such regulations. 65 FR 13735. 

EPCA governs and prescribes Federal preemption of State regulations as to energy 

conservation for the products that are the subject of today’s final rule. States can petition 

Review Under Executive Order 13132
193

DOE for exemption from such preemption to the extent, and based on criteria, set forth in 

EPCA. (42 U.S.C. 6297) No further action is required by Executive Order 13132.

F.

With respect to the review of existing regulations and the promulgation of new 

regulations, section 3(a) of Executive Order 12988, “Civil Justice Reform,” imposes on 

Federal agencies the general duty to adhere to the following requirements: (1) eliminate 

drafting errors and ambiguity; (2) write regulations to minimize litigation; and (3) 

provide a clear legal standard for affected conduct rather than a general standard and 

promote simplification and burden reduction. 61 FR 4729 (Feb. 7, 1996). Section 3(b) of 

Executive Order 12988 specifically requires that Executive agencies make every 

reasonable effort to ensure that the regulation: (1) clearly specifies the preemptive effect, 

if any; (2) clearly specifies any effect on existing Federal law or regulation; (3) provides 

a clear legal standard for affected conduct while promoting simplification and burden 

reduction; (4) specifies the retroactive effect, if any; (5) adequately defines key terms; 

and (6) addresses other important issues affecting clarity and general draftsmanship under 

any guidelines issued by the Attorney General. Section 3(c) of Executive Order 12988 

requires Executive agencies to review regulations in light of applicable standards in 

section 3(a) and section 3(b) to determine whether they are met or it is unreasonable to 

meet one or more of them. DOE has completed the required review and determined that, 

to the extent permitted by law, this final rule meets the relevant standards of Executive 

Order 12988.

Review Under Executive Order 12988
194

G.

Title II of the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995 (UMRA) requires each 

Federal agency to assess the effects of Federal regulatory actions on State, local, and 

Tribal governments and the private sector. Pub. L. 104-4, sec. 201 (codified at 2 U.S.C. 

1531). For an amended regulatory action likely to result in a rule that may cause the 

expenditure by State, local, and Tribal governments, in the aggregate, or by the private 

sector of $100 million or more in any one year (adjusted annually for inflation), section 

202 of UMRA requires a Federal agency to publish a written statement that estimates the 

resulting costs, benefits, and other effects on the national economy. (2 U.S.C. 1532(a), 

(b)) The UMRA also requires a Federal agency to develop an effective process to permit 

timely input by elected officers of State, local, and Tribal governments on a “significant 

intergovernmental mandate,” and requires an agency plan for giving notice and 

opportunity for timely input to potentially affected small governments before establishing 

any requirements that might significantly or uniquely affect small governments. On 

March 18, 1997, DOE published a statement of policy on its process for 

intergovernmental consultation under UMRA. 62 FR 12820. DOE’s policy statement is 

also available at 

Review Under the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995

www.gc.doe.gov.

DOE has concluded that this final rule would likely require expenditures of $100 

million or more on the private sector. Such expenditures may include: (1) investment in 

research and development and in capital expenditures by microwave oven manufacturers 

in the years between the final rule and the compliance date for the new standards, and (2) 
195

incremental additional expenditures by consumers to purchase higher-efficiency 

microwave ovens, starting at the compliance date for the applicable standard.

Section 202 of UMRA authorizes a Federal agency to respond to the content 

requirements of UMRA in any other statement or analysis that accompanies the final rule.

2 U.S.C. 1532(c). The content requirements of section 202(b) of UMRA relevant to a 

private sector mandate substantially overlap the economic analysis requirements that 

apply under section 325(o) of EPCA and Executive Order 12866. The 

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION section of the notice of final rulemaking and 

the “Regulatory Impact Analysis” section of the TSD for this final rule respond to those 

requirements. 

Under section 205 of UMRA, the Department is obligated to identify and consider 

a reasonable number of regulatory alternatives before promulgating a rule for which a 

written statement under section 202 is required. 2 U.S.C. 1535(a). DOE is required to 

select from those alternatives the most cost-effective and least burdensome alternative 

that achieves the objectives of the rule unless DOE publishes an explanation for doing 

otherwise, or the selection of such an alternative is inconsistent with law. As required by 

42 U.S.C. 6295(h), today’s final rule would establish energy conservation standards for 

microwave ovens that are designed to achieve the maximum improvement in energy 

efficiency that DOE has determined to be both technologically feasible and economically 

justified. A full discussion of the alternatives considered by DOE is presented in the 

“Regulatory Impact Analysis” section of the TSD for today’s final rule.
196

H.

Section 654 of the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act, 1999 

(Pub. L. 105-277) requires Federal agencies to issue a Family Policymaking Assessment 

for any rule that may affect family well-being. This rule would not have any impact on 

the autonomy or integrity of the family as an institution. Accordingly, DOE has 

concluded that it is not necessary to prepare a Family Policymaking Assessment.

Review Under the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act, 1999

I.

DOE has determined, under Executive Order 12630, “Governmental Actions and 

Interference with Constitutionally Protected Property Rights” 53 FR 8859 (Mar. 18, 

1988), that this regulation would not result in any takings that might require 

compensation under the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

Review Under Executive Order 12630

J.

Section 515 of the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act, 2001 

(44 U.S.C. 3516, note) provides for Federal agencies to review most disseminations of 

information to the public under guidelines established by each agency pursuant to general 

guidelines issued by OMB. OMB’s guidelines were published at 67 FR 8452 (Feb. 22, 

2002), and DOE’s guidelines were published at 67 FR 62446 (Oct. 7, 2002). DOE has 

reviewed today’s final rule under the OMB and DOE guidelines and has concluded that it 

is consistent with applicable policies in those guidelines.

Review Under the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act, 2001
197

K.

Executive Order 13211, “Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly 

Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use” 66 FR 28355 (May 22, 2001), requires 

Federal agencies to prepare and submit to OIRA at OMB, a Statement of Energy Effects 

for any significant energy action. A “significant energy action” is defined as any action 

by an agency that promulgates or is expected to lead to promulgation of a final rule, and 

that: (1) is a significant regulatory action under Executive Order 12866, or any successor 

order; and (2) is likely to have a significant adverse effect on the supply, distribution, or 

use of energy, or (3) is designated by the Administrator of OIRA as a significant energy 

action. For any significant energy action, the agency must give a detailed statement of 

any adverse effects on energy supply, distribution, or use should the proposal be 

implemented, and of reasonable alternatives to the action and their expected benefits on 

energy supply, distribution, and use.

Review Under Executive Order 13211

DOE has concluded that today’s regulatory action, which sets forth energy

conservation standards for microwave oven standby mode and off mode, is not a 

significant energy action because the amended standards are not likely to have a 

significant adverse effect on the supply, distribution, or use of energy, nor has it been 

designated as such by the Administrator at OIRA. Accordingly, DOE has not prepared a 

Statement of Energy Effects on the final rule.
198

L.

On December 16, 2004, OMB, in consultation with the Office of Science and 

Technology Policy (OSTP), issued its Final Information Quality Bulletin for Peer Review 

(the Bulletin). 70 FR 2664 (Jan. 14, 2005). The Bulletin establishes that certain scientific 

information shall be peer reviewed by qualified specialists before it is disseminated by 

the Federal Government, including influential scientific information related to agency 

regulatory actions. The purpose of the bulletin is to enhance the quality and credibility of 

the Government’s scientific information. Under the Bulletin, the energy conservation 

standards rulemaking analyses are “influential scientific information,” which the Bulletin 

defines as scientific information the agency reasonably can determine will have, or does 

have, a clear and substantial impact on important public policies or private sector 

decisions. 70 FR 2667.

Review Under the Information Quality Bulletin for Peer Review 

In response to OMB’s Bulletin, DOE conducted formal in-progress peer reviews 

of the energy conservation standards development process and analyses and has prepared 

a Peer Review Report pertaining to the energy conservation standards rulemaking 

analyses. Generation of this report involved a rigorous, formal, and documented 

evaluation using objective criteria and qualified and independent reviewers to make a 

judgment as to the technical/scientific/business merit, the actual or anticipated results, 

and the productivity and management effectiveness of programs and/or projects. The 

“Energy Conservation Standards Rulemaking Peer Review Report” dated February 2007 

has been disseminated and is available at the following Web site: 

www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/appliance_standards/peer_review.html.
199

M.

As required by 5 U.S.C. 801, DOE will report to Congress on the promulgation of 

this rule prior to its effective date. The report will state that it has been determined that 

the rule is a “major rule” as defined by 5 U.S.C. 804(2).

Congressional Notification

VIII. Approval of the Office of the Secretary

The Secretary of Energy has approved publication of today’s final rule.

List of Subjects

10 CFR Part 429 

Administrative practice and procedure, Confidential business information, Energy 

conservation, Household appliances, Reporting and recordkeeping requirements.

10 CFR Part 430

Administrative practice and procedure, Confidential business information, Energy 

conservation, Household appliances, Imports, Intergovernmental relations, Reporting and 

recordkeeping requirements, and Small businesses.

Issued in Washington, DC, on
200

________________________________

David Danielson

Assistant Secretary of Energy

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
201

For the reasons stated in the preamble, DOE amends parts 429 and 430, of

Chapter II of title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth below.

PART 429--CERTIFICATION, COMPLIANCE, AND ENFORCEMENT FOR 

CONSUMER PRODUCTS AND COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL 

EQUIPMENT

1. The authority citation for part 429 continues to read as follows: 

Authority: 42 U.S.C. 6291–6317.

2. In § 429.23 revise paragraph (b)(2) to read as follows:

§ 429.23 Conventional cooking tops, conventional ovens, microwave ovens.

* * * * *

(b) * * *

(2) Pursuant to §429.12(b)(13), a certification report shall include the following 

public product-specific information: For conventional cooking tops and conventional 

ovens: the type of pilot light and a declaration that the manufacturer has incorporated the 

applicable design requirements. For microwave ovens, the average standby power in 

watts.

PART 430--ENERGY CONSERVATION PROGRAM FOR CONSUMER 

PRODUCTS

3. The authority citation for part 430 continues to read as follows:

Authority: 42 U.S.C. 6291–6309; 28 U.S.C. 2461 note.
202

4. In § 430.23 revise paragraph (i)(3) to read as follows:

§ 430.23 Test procedures for the measurement of energy and water consumption.

* * * * *

(i) * * *

(3) The standby power for microwave ovens shall be determined according to 

3.2.3 of appendix I to this subpart. The standby power shall be rounded off to the nearest 

0.1 watt.

* * * * *

5. In § 430.32 revise the heading and paragraph (j) to read as follows:

§ 430.32 Energy and water conservation standards and their compliance dates.

* * * * *

(j) Cooking Products

(2) Gas cooking products without an electrical supply cord manufactured on or 

after April 9, 2012, shall not be equipped with a constant burning pilot light.

(1) Gas cooking products with an electrical supply cord 

manufactured on or after January 1, 1990, shall not be equipped with a constant burning 

pilot light. 

(3) Microwave-only ovens and countertop convection microwave ovens 

manufactured on or after [INSERT DATE 3 YEARS AFTER DATE OF 

PUBLICATION IN THE FEDERAL REGISTER] shall have an average standby 

power not more than 1.0 watt. Built-in and over-the-range convection microwave ovens 

manufactured on or after [INSERT DATE 3 YEARS AFTER DATE OF 
203

PUBLICATION IN THE FEDERAL REGISTER] shall have an average standby 

power not more than 2.2 watts. 

* * * * *