# Patent

## Title
Reliable elliptic curve cryptography computation

## Abstract

A method for reliable computation of point additions and point multiplications in an elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) system. Two asymmetric operations are performed: one of the operations is of slightly higher complexity than a conventional ECC operation, and the other operation is of much lower complexity than the first operation. The complexity of the second operation is a function of the desired degree of reliability, or the desired probability of failure detection. The method validates a computation involving one or more points on a specified elliptic curve by selecting a second elliptic curve, deriving a third elliptic curve from the specified and selected curves, projecting points onto the derived curve, performing a computation on the derived curve involving the projected points, validating the computation on the selected curve, extracting from the computation on the derived curve a predicted result of the computation on the selected curve, and comparing the predicted result to the computation on the selected curve. A predicted result of the computation to be validated may then be extracted from the computation on the derived curve. The predicted result is compared to an actual result of a computation on the selected curve, and if the results match, the predicted result of the computation performed on the selected curve is validated.

## Background
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/158,635, filed Jun. 21, 2005, which claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/604,079, filed Aug. 24, 2004.


BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates generally to the field of elliptic curve cryptography, and more specifically, to elliptic curve point computation reliability.
2. Background
Cryptography systems based on elliptic curves are well known in the art. Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) is widely used today as a method for encoding data to prevent unauthorized access to information that is stored or transmitted electronically. Increasingly, ECC systems are being used in data communications systems to ensure privacy, to authenticate transmissions, and to maintain data integrity.
Encryption in ECC systems involves finding a solution to the discrete logarithm problem from the group of points of an elliptic curve defined over a finite field. Using additive notation, this problem can be described as: given points P and Q in the group, find a number k such that kP=Q. Additional background on elliptic curves, and on mathematical operations performed on elliptic curves, is provided below.
Elliptic Curve Defined Over a Field
An elliptic curve Ep over a field Fp, where p is a prime greater than three, is composed by the set of points (x,y) that satisfy an elliptic curve equation such as y2≡x3+apx+bp mod p together with the point at infinity Op. The addition of points belonging to Ep that involves the point at infinity are the following: Op+Op=Op, P+Op=Op+P=P, P+(−P)=(−P)+P=Op. Equation (1) defines an expression for the point addition operation P1+P2 for which P1≠Op, P2≠Op, and P1+P2≠Op.

λp≡(y2−y1)/(x2−x1)mod p for P1≠P2  (1)

or

(3x12+ap)/(2y1)mod p for P1=P2 

x3≡λp2−x1−x2 mod p 

y3≡λp(x1−x3)−y1 mod p 

The points on Ep define a commutative group under the point addition operation defined above. The number of points in the curve is denoted here by #Ep. #Ep is also referred to as the order of the curve. The order of a point P is the scalar number np for which npP=Op. kP, where k is a scalar and P is a point on the curve, represents the addition of k points P (kP=P+P+ . . . +P). This operation, known as point multiplication, may be computed with iterated point additions.
Industry standards such as FIPS 186-2 (“Digital Signature Standard (DSS),” Federal Information Processing Standards Publication 186-2, U.S. Dept. of Commerce/NIST, January 2000), incorporated herein by reference, recommend the use of curves of prime orders in cryptography systems. In certain cases, subgroups of prime orders may also be used. For these curves and groups, the order of each point of interest with the exception of Op is the same. Using a group of prime order also guarantees that each point with the exception of Op is a generator of the group. Different multiples of a generator point define all the points in a group; for example, given that P is a generator, all the elements of the group correspond to the multiples iP where i=0 to np−1, where np represents the order of each point except Op.
Elliptic Curve Defined Over a Ring
An elliptic curve En over a ring Zn is composed by the set of points (x,y) that satisfy an elliptic curve equation such as y2≡x3+anx+bn mod n together with the point at infinity On.
The well-known Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) allows the representation of point P=(x, y)εEn as follows: P=[Pp,Pq]=[(xp,yp),(xq,yq)], where PpεEp, PqεEq, xp≡x mod p, xq≡x mod q, yp≡y mod p, and yq≡y mod q. Ep and Eq are elliptic curves defined over fields Fp and Fq. Op and Oq represent the points at infinity in Ep and Eq, and by convention On=[Op,Oq]. The constants in the curve expression for En are related to the constants on the expressions for the curves Ep and Eq in the following way: an=[ap,aq] and bn=[bp,bq], where ap≡an mod p, aq≡an mod q, bp≡bn mod p, and bq≡bn mod q. Throughout this disclosure, expressions inside brackets represent the projections modulo p and modulo q. The expression modulo n can be computed from the expressions modulo p and modulo q using Gauss's or Garner's algorithms. Descriptions of these algorithms are well known in the art, and can be found, e.g. in A. J. Menezes et al., “Handbook of Applied Cryptography,” CRC Press, 1997 (hereinafter “Menezes”), available at www.cacr.math.uwaterloo.ca/hac, and incorporated herein by reference.
The addition of points belonging to En can be defined so it is analogous to the addition of points belonging to curves defined over finite fields. The basic operations involving the point at infinity are the following: On+On=On, P+On=On+P=P, P+(−P)=(−P)+P=On. The addition P1+P2, where P1=[P1p,P1q] and P2=[P2p,P2q], can be computed according to Equation (2) given the following restrictions in addition to those shown in the equation: P1p≠Op, P1q≠Oq, P2p≠Op, P2q≠Oq, P1p+P2p≠Op in Ep, and P1q+P2q≠Oq in Eq.
The additional restrictions in Equation (2) establish consistent operations in Ep, Eq, and En. In this equation and throughout this disclosure, the symbol/≡ represents a non-congruent condition. A point addition where P1≠P2 corresponds to a point addition in Ep where P1p≠P2p and to a point addition in Eq where P1q≠P2q. The restrictions may not allow, for example, a point addition in En to correspond to a point addition in Ep (P1p≠P2p) and to a point double in Eq (P1q=P2q). The stated conditions guarantee the existence of the inverses (x2−x1)−1=[(x2p−x1p)−1, (x2q−x1q)−1] and (2y1)−1=[(2y1p)−1, (2y1q)−1] and their computation either directly or using the CRT. Given the inverses relationships, one can verify the following relationships: λn=[λp,λ], x3=[x3p,x3q], and y3=[y3p,y3q].

λn≡(y2−y1)/(x2−x1)mod n for x1/≡x2 mod p and x1/≡x2 mod q  (2)

or

(3x12+an)/(2y1)mod n for x1≡x2 mod p and x1≡x2 mod q 

x3≡λn2−x1−x2 mod n 

y3≡λn(x1−x3)−y1 mod n 

Equation (2) restricts the points in En that can be added. The following sections demonstrate how point addition and point multiplication operations can be performed using point addition in a ring in a way that avoids restricted point additions.
Point Multiplication
For large elliptic curves, point multiplications are computed with iterated point doubles and additions. Algorithm 1 (below) shows the double and add point multiplication algorithm, which is one of the simplest point multiplication algorithms. In Algorithm 1, step 2.1.1 uses a point double and step 2.1.2.1 uses a point addition.
For curves defined over finite fields, the expressions in Equation (1) can be used to compute these operations when Q≠O, P≠O, and P+Q≠O. For curves defined over rings, Algorithm 1 may be modified to comply with the restrictions described above for elliptic curves defined over a ring. Note that in general, a point multiplication is computed with iterated point additions and point doubles.
Point multiplication typically involves the computation of many point doubles and point additions (or point subtractions). When using affine coordinates in point double and point addition operations, inverse operations can be very costly in terms of processing time and memory usage. These inverse operations can be avoided by using projective coordinates. When using projective coordinates, the point double and the point addition operations require a larger number of multiplications and additions than when using affine coordinates but they do not require the computation of inverses. One inverse is required at the end of a point multiplication, when the resulting point is converted back to affine coordinates. Depending on the algorithm and the target performance, one or more additional inverses may be required to represent pre-computed points in affine coordinates.
Point multiplication when using projective coordinates typically involves the following steps: 1) conversion from affine coordinates, P=(x,y), to projective coordinates, P=(X, Y, Z); 2) computation of point multiplication Q=kP=k(X, Y, Z) using classical algorithms but with the point operations done in projective coordinates; and 3) conversion of the resulting point Q=(X, Y, Z) to affine coordinates Q=(x,y). Point multiplication algorithms are well known in the art and in industry standards. Additional examples can be found in G. Orlando, “Efficient Elliptic Curve Processor Architectures for Field Programmable Logic,” Ph.D. dissertation, ECE Dept., Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Mass., March 2002, incorporated herein by reference.
Two projective coordinates representations, known as homogeneous coordinates and Jacobian coordinates, are described below. To highlight operations on curves defined over rings, the remainder of this disclosure defines curves and points operations in terms of n. These curves and operations are also applicable to embodiments that utilize curves defined over fields. In embodiments utilizing curves defined over fields, n is treated as a prime number.










Algorithm 1: Double and Add Point Multiplication Algorithm


















Inputs:




 







  k
  =
  
    
      ∑
      
        i
        =
        0
      
      
        m
        -
        1
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
        k
        i
      
      ⁢
      
        2
        i
      
    
  




/ * ki ∈ [0,1] * /



 



P
/*Point on the curve.*/



Outputs:



Q = kP



Processing:









1. /*Initialize variables.*/



1.1 Q = O



2. /*Compute the point multiplication.*/



2.1 for i = m − 1 down to 0 do










2.1.1 Q = 2Q
/*Point double */



2.1.2 if ki ≠ 0 then



2.1.2.1 Q = Q + P.
/*Point addition*/



3. /*Return result.*/



3.1 Return (Q)










Homogeneous Coordinates
Homogeneous coordinates represent points with three coordinates (X, Y, Z). Points represented in this form satisfy the homogeneous form of the elliptic curve equation shown in Equation (3).

Y2Z≡X3+aXZ2+bZ3 mod n  (3)

The conversion from affine to homogeneous coordinates is trivial. Assuming that P=(x, y), the representation of P in homogeneous coordinates is P=(X=x, Y=y, Z=1). The conversion of P=(X, Y, Z) from homogeneous to affine coordinates is P=(X/Z ,Y/Z) provided that the divisions X/Z mod n and Y/Z mod n exist. By convention the point O in homogeneous coordinates is represented by O=(0, Y, 0).
Equation (4) shows expressions for point double, (X3, Y3, Z3)=2(X1, Y1, Z1), and Equation (5) shows expressions for point addition, (X3, Y3, Z3)=(X1, Y1, Z1)+(X2, Y2, Z2).

(X3, Y3, Z3)=2(X1, Y1, Z1)  (4)

w≡3X12+aZ12 mod n 

X3≡2Y1Z1(w28X1Y12Z1)mod n 

Y3≡4Y12Z1(3wX1−2Y12Z1)−w3 mod n 

Z3≡8Y13Z13 mod n

(X3, Y3, Z3)=(X1, Y1, Z1)+(X2, Y2, Z2)  (5)

u≡Y2Z1−Y1Z2 mod n 

v≡X2Z1−X1Z2 mod n 

X3≡v{Z2(u2Z1−2v2X1)−v3} mod n 

Y3≡Z2(3uv2X1−v3Y1−u3Z1)+uv3 mod n 

Z3≡v3Z1Z2 mod n

Equations (4) and (5) have the property that the addition of P and −P result in the conventional representation for O: (X3, Y3, Z3)=(X1, Y1, Z1)+(X2, Y2, Z2)=(0,(−2Y1Z2)3Z1Z2,0) when X1/Z1≡X2/Z2 mod n and Y1/Z1≡−Y2/Z2 mod n; and (X3, Y3, Z3)=2(X1, Y1, Z1)=(0,−(3X12aZ12)3,0) when Y1/Z1≡0 mod n (i.e., P1 is a point of order two). When adding a point of the form O=(0, Y, 0), the expressions in Equation (4) and Equation (5) yield O=(0, 0, 0), which corresponds to O=(0, Y, 0) with Y=0.
The point double expressions yield valid results for 2P=P+(−P)=O and 2O=O. The point addition expressions yield valid result for P+(−P)=O but they yield invalid results for P+O=P when P≠O; for which, the expressions in Equation (5) compute P+O=O. The last case is handled explicitly by the point addition operation, which compares the values of the input points against O and depending on the results computes the following: R=P+Q if P≠O, Q≠O, and P≠Q using Equation (5); sets R=P if Q=O; or sets R=Q if P=O. In addition, the point addition operation performs a point double operation using Equation (4) if P=Q.
According to known complexity estimates, a point double operation requires 11 modular multiplications and a point addition requires 12 modular multiplications. These complexity estimates ignore additions because their complexities are usually much lower than the complexities of multiplications.
Jacobian Coordinates
Jacobian coordinates represent points with three coordinates (X, Y, Z). Points represented in this form satisfy the projective form of the elliptic curve equation shown in Equation (6).

Y2≡X3+aXZ4+bZ6 mod n  (6)

The conversion from affine to Jacobian coordinates is trivial. Assuming that P=(x, y), the representation of P in Jacobian coordinates is P=(X=x, Y=y, Z=1). The conversion of P=(X, Y, Z) from Jacobian to affine representation is P=(X/Z2, Y/Z3) provided that the divisions X/Z2 mod n and Y/Z3 mod n exist. By convention the point O in Jacobian coordinates is represented by O=(t2,t3,0).
For Jacobian coordinates, Equation (7) shows the expressions for point double, (X2, Y2, Z2)=2(X1, Y1, Z1) and Equation (8) shows the expressions for point addition, (X2, Y2, Z2)=(X0, Y0, Z0)+(X1, Y1, Z1).

(X2, Y2, Z2)=2(X1, Y1, Z1)  (7)

M≡(3X12+aZ14)mod n 

Z2≡2Y1Z1 mod n

S≡4X1Y12 mod n

X2≡M2−2S mod n 

T≡8Y4 mod n

Y≡M(S−X2)−T mod n 

(X2, Y2, Z2)=(X0, Y0, Z0)+(X1, Y1, Z1)  (8)

U0≡X0Z12 mod n

S0≡Y0Z12 mod n

U1≡X1Z02 mod n

S1≡Y1Z03 mod n

W≡U0−U1 mod n 

R≡S0−S1 mod n 

T ≡U0+U1 mod n 

M≡S0+S1 mod n 

Z2≡Z0Z1W mod n

X2≡R2TW2 mod n

V≡TW22X2 mod n

Y2≡(VR−MW3)/2 mod n 

Equations (7) and (8) have the property that the addition of P and −P result in the conventional representation for O:

    (X2, Y2, Z2)=(X0, Y0, Z0)+(X1, Y1, Z1)=(t2, t3, 0) where t=−2Y1Z03 when
    X0/Z02≡X1/Z12 mod n and Y0/Z03≡−Y1/Z13 mod n; and
    (X2, Y2, Z2)=2(X1, Y1, Z1)=(t2, t3, 0) where t=−(3X12+aZ14) when Y1/Z13=0 mod n (i.e., P1 is a point of order two).


When adding a point of the form O=(u2, u3, 0),the expressions in Equation (7) yield 2O=(t2, t3, 0), which matches the expected result. When adding a point of the form O=(u2, u3, 0), the expressions in Equation (8) yield P+O=O=(0, 0, 0), which corresponds to O=(t2, t3, O) with t=0, instead of the expected result P+O=P when P≠O. The last case is handled explicitly by the point addition operation, which compares the values of the input points against O and depending on the results computes the following: R=P+Q if P≠O, Q≠O, and P≠−Q using Equation (8); sets R=P if Q=O; or sets R=Q if P=O. In addition, the point addition operation performs a point double operation using Equation (7) if P=Q.
When using Jacobian coordinates, a point double operation requires 10 modular multiplications if a/≡−3 mod n and 8 modular multiplications if a≡−3 mod n. Point addition requires 16 field multiplications when Z1/≡1 mod n and 11 field multiplications when Z1≡1 mod n. Some standards, such as FIPS 186-2, suggest the use of curves for which a≡−3 mod n.
Point double is the most common operation in point multiplication. As a consequence, Jacobian coordinates lead to faster point multiplications than homogeneous coordinates for curves for which a≡−3 mod n and for point multiplications that yield both the x and y coordinates of the resulting points. Some algorithms, usually specified in terms of homogenous coordinates, do not use the y coordinates of the resulting points or can recover them. Examples of these algorithms can be found in N. Demytko, “A New Elliptic Curve Based Analogue of RSA,” Advances in Cryptology—Eurocrypt '93 (LNCS 765), pp. 40-49, Springer-Verlag, 1994 (hereinafter “Demytko”), and also in E. Brier et al., “Weierstrass Elliptic Curves and Side-Channel Attacks,” Public Key Cryptography (LNCS 2274), pp. 335-345, Springer-Verlag, 2002, both of which are incorporated by reference herein.
Verification of Decryption Computations
The elliptic curve point additions and point multiplications described above are the basic mathematical operations used in elliptic curve cryptography. These operations are routinely applied, for example, in computerized cryptography systems when implementing key agreement protocols for secure communications. During implementation, erroneous computations can sometimes arise as a result of random errors, or as a result of errors maliciously induced by an attacker or active adversary. Thus, for security purposes, it is often desirable to perform independent verification of a computation in order to increase system reliability.
In a conventional system, reliable computation can be achieved with two redundant engines that independently perform the same computation or with a single engine that performs the same computation twice. If the results from the two operations match, the common result is assumed to be correct, and the communication is deemed reliable and secure. The main problem with these approaches is that they double the complexity of an already complex, time-consuming, and memory-intensive operation.
SUMMARY
Methods of reliability computation for elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) systems perform two operations according to the present invention. The complexity of the first operation is slightly higher than the complexity of an operation computed in a conventional system. The complexity of the second operation is a function of the desired degree of reliability, or the desired probability of failure detection. In general, the second operation is of much lower complexity than the first operation, thus, the first and second operations are asymmetric. The processing requirements, or total number of calculations performed by the combination of the asymmetric operations are significantly less demanding than the sum of redundant operations performed in a conventional reliability computation.
One embodiment of the method validates a point addition computation involving one or more points on a specified elliptic curve. The method comprises steps for selecting a second elliptic curve to serve as a validation curve, deriving a third elliptic curve from the specified and selected curves, and projecting points onto the derived curve. Each point projected onto the derived curve is a tuple comprising a point from the specified curve and a point from the selected curve. The method includes steps for performing a computation on the derived curve involving the projected points, validating the computation on the selected curve, extracting from the computation on the derived curve a predicted result of the computation on the selected (validation) curve, and comparing the predicted result to the validation computation performed on the selected curve. In additional steps, a predicted result of the computation to be validated may then be extracted from the computation on the derived curve. The predicted result may then be compared to an actual result of a computation on the second curve, and if the results match, the predicted result of the computation performed on the selected curve is validated.
Another embodiment of a method of the present invention validates a point multiplication computation involving one or more points on a specified elliptic curve. The method comprises steps for selecting a second elliptic curve to serve as a validation curve, deriving a third elliptic curve from the specified and selected curves, and projecting points onto the derived curve. Each point projected onto the derived curve is a tuple comprising a point to be multiplied from the specified curve and a fixed point from the selected curve that is used to establish the reliability of the point multiplication. The method includes steps for generating an addition chain for a multiplier that avoids invalid points, such as a point at infinity, or a point double in the selected curve that does not map to a point double in the specified curve. Additional method steps comprise computing a point multiplication on the derived curve, computing one or more point multiplication validations on the selected curve, extracting from the computation on the derived curve a predicted result for each computation performed on the selected (validation) curve, and comparing each predicted result to its corresponding actual result obtained from multiplication performed on the selected curve. In additional steps, a predicted result of the point multiplication computation to be validated may then be extracted from the computation on the derived curve. The predicted result may then be compared to an actual result of a computation on the second curve, and if the results match, the predicted result of the computation performed on the selected curve is validated.
Other systems, methods, features and advantages of the invention will be or will become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the invention, and be protected by the accompanying claims.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES
The invention can be better understood with reference to the following figures. The components in the figures are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention.
FIG. 1 is a block diagram embodiment of a two-party communication system, or method, employing reliability computation according to the invention.
FIG. 2 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a reliable point addition method according to the present invention.
FIG. 3 illustrates one example of a reliable point addition method according to the invention that yields a valid result for p=11, q=5, and n=55.
FIG. 4A illustrates one embodiment of a reliable point addition method according to the invention.
FIG. 4B illustrates optional process steps for the method of FIG. 4A.
FIG. 5 shows a conceptual diagram including steps for implementing a reliable point multiplication method according to the invention.
FIG. 6 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a reliable point multiplication method according to the present invention.
FIG. 7A illustrates one embodiment of a reliable point multiplication method according to the invention.
FIG. 7B illustrates optional process steps for the method of FIG. 7A.
FIGS. 8A-8B show a tabulation of relevant cases of employing a recoding adjustment algorithm in a method according to the invention.
FIG. 9 shows a tabulation of a recoding example using an adjusted addition chain in a reliable point multiplication method according to the invention, for k=30, nq=5 and w=1.
FIG. 10 shows a tabulation of results of a recoding reliable point multiplication algorithm according to the invention, including the probability of estimation error for kε[1,216).
FIG. 11 shows a tabulation of results of a recoding reliable point multiplication algorithm according to the invention, including the probability of estimation error for 216 random k values in the range [1,2192).



DETAILED DESCRIPTION
As utilized herein, it should be appreciated that terms such as “selecting”, “deriving”, “projecting”, “providing”, “performing”, “comparing”, “extracting”, “validating” and the like, refer to the action and process of a computer system or electronic processing device that transforms data that is stored within the computer system's memory or that is otherwise accessible by the computer system.
As used herein, the term “software” includes source code, assembly language code, binary code, firmware, macro-instructions, micro-instructions, or the like, or any combination of two or more of the foregoing.
The term “memory” refers to any processor-readable medium, including but not limited to RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, disk, floppy disk, hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD, flash memory, or the like, or any combination of two or more of the foregoing, which may store data accessible by a processor such as a series of software instructions executable by a processor.
The terms “processor” refers to any device capable of executing a series of instructions and includes, without limitation, a CPU, a general- or special-purpose microprocessor, a finite state machine, a controller, computer, digital signal processor (DSP), or the like.
The term “logic” refers to implementations in hardware, software, or combinations of hardware and software.
The various embodiments disclosed herein use non-singular elliptic curves. With respect to elliptic curves defined over a field, this requires that g.c.d.(4ap3=27bp2,p)=1. With respect to elliptic curves defined over a ring, this requires that g.c.d.(4an3+27bn2,n)=1, n=pq be square free (i.e., p≠q), and that p and q be odd. Although the many embodiments described herein focus on n=pq, the results can be expanded to the case where n=p1*p2* . . . *pt. The notation g.c.d. refers to the greatest common divisor operation.
The mathematical operation “point addition” refers to either the addition or subtraction operation; however, for simplicity, the various exemplary embodiments show point addition operations only. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that embodiments according to the invention may also involve point subtraction.
Block Diagram
FIG. 1 illustrates a basic block diagram 100 of a two-party communication system using message encryption/decryption and employing reliability computation according to the invention. Two parties, sender 101A and receiver 100B desire to communicate information 102 confidentially over a communications channel 103. Channel 103 may represent a secured or unsecured channel. Sender 101A generates information 102 from a data source 104. Source 104 may be any source or subsystem capable of storing and/or transmitting digital information such as a computer, cellular telephone or other device or communications system having cable or wireless transmission capability. In block 105, information 102 is encrypted, for example, by an ECC technique, prior to transmission over channel 103. A data transmission error signal 111 may or may not corrupt information 102 on channel 103. Error signal 111 may occur as a random error introduced by a transmission anomaly, or an attacker or adversary 110 may maliciously introduce it.
In block 106, receiver 101B decrypts the information received, for example, by means of point multiplication operations discussed above. In order to verify the authenticity of the signal received over channel 103, block 106 performs reliable ECC computations in accordance with the present invention. Reliable ECC computations are disclosed in greater detail in the following sections. Block 106 comprises reliability computation blocks 107 and 108. In block 107, a high complexity reliability computation is performed that is of slightly higher complexity than a computation performed according to a conventional ECC decryption algorithm. In block 108, a low complexity reliability computation is performed to verify the result obtained in block 107. The computation performed in block 108 is of much lower complexity than a computation performed according to a conventional ECC decryption algorithm. Thus, the total number of calculations performed by the combination of blocks 107 and 108 is significantly lower than twice the number of calculations performed by a conventional operation.
Having decrypted the signal received and having verified its authenticity by means of reliable ECC computation, receiver 101B receives information signal 102 at its destination block 109. Destination block 109 may represent any device or subsystem capable of storing and/or receiving digital information such as a computer, cellular telephone or other device or communications system having cable or wireless receiving capability. In one or more embodiments, sender 101A and/or receiver 101B each comprise a system having a processor coupled to memory, such as a computer system. In these embodiments, data source block 104 and/or destination block 109 may be integral to the computer system, or they may be peripheral devices coupled thereto. Encryption block 105, decryption block 106, and computation blocks 107 and 108 may represent individual processors or other logic devices capable of executing one or more reliable ECC computation algorithms as a series of software instructions, or they may represent memory capable of storing the software instructions that is accessible by a processor. It should be noted that the diagram of FIG. 1 is exemplary only. Other embodiments according to the invention are possible, for example, one in which sender 101A and receiver 101B exchange information, wherein both parties include means or steps for performing the reliable ECC computation algorithms.
Reliable Point Addition (RPA)
One embodiment of the invention comprises a reliable computation method for the addition of points belonging to curves defined over prime fields Fp. Hereinafter embodiments of this method are referred to as Reliable Point Addition (RPA).
The goal of an RPA method is to reliable compute the addition Qp=P1p+P2p, where P1p,P2pεEp. To achieve this result, an RPA method computes the following two point additions: Qn=P1n+P2n and Qq=P1q+P2q, where P1n=[P1p,P1q], P2n=[P2p,P2q]εEn and P1q,P2qεEq. If the restrictions described above regarding elliptic curves defined over a ring are satisfied, the result Qp can be derived from Qn=[Qp′,Qq′] by reducing the coordinates of Qn modulo p. The derived Qp′ is assumed to be correct if the Qq′ derived from Qn matches the independently computed Qq.
FIG. 2 shows an RPA method 200 according to the invention as it is applied to the computation of Qp=P1p+P2p. The first set of steps are steps 202A and 202B. In step 202A, points P1p and P1q are projected onto P1n and the points P2p and P2q are projected onto P2n. These steps may comprise application of a cryptographic algorithm such as Garner's Algorithm. In step 202B, curve En is derived from Ep and Eq. Note that step 202B need only be performed once for given curves Ep and Eq. The second set of steps are point addition steps 204A and 204B. Step 204A computes Qn=P1n+P2, and step 204B computes Qq=P1q+P2q. The third set of steps are steps 206A and 206B. Step 206A derives Qp′ from Qn and step 206B derives Qq′ from Qn. The final step is step 208, which validates the result Qp′ by comparing Qq′ and Qq. If Qq′=Qq, the result Qp′ is assumed to be correct.
Another embodiment of an RPA method according to the invention is shown below in Algorithm 2. Algorithm 2 assumes that np=#Ep and nq=#Eq, as it is the case for curves recommended in FIPS 186-2. FIG. 2 and Algorithm 2 make reference to Garner's algorithm, which finds the solutions x to the system of congruences x≡xp mod p and x≡xq mod q. Cryptographic algorithms such as Garner's algorithms are well known in the art, and can be found, e.g. in Menezes.
Given the restrictions for elliptic curves defined over a ring, choose P1q=P2q if P1p=P2p and choose P1q≠P2q if P1p≠P2p.










Algorithm 2: RPA Algorithm















Inputs:


Ep Elliptic curve specified for point addition. Curve parameterized by


ap,bp,q,# Ep.


Eq Elliptic curve used to validate results. Curve parameterized by


aq,bq,q,# Eq.


En Elliptic curve used to compute point addition. Curve parameterized by


an,bn,p,q,n = pq. Input provided if curve is already defined, otherwise the


algorithm computes the parameters for this curve.








P1p,P2p
Points to add in Ep, where P1p ≠ Op,P2p ≠ Op, and







P1p + P2p ≠ Op.


P1q,P2q Points to add in Eq, where P1q ≠ Oq,P2q ≠ Oq, and P1q +


P2q ≠ Op, and where P1q = P2q ifP1p = P2p and P1q ≠ P2q if P1p ≠ P2p.


Outputs:


En Elliptic curve specified for point addition. Output only if it has not been


previously defined.


Qp Point addition result.








result_is_valid
True if the result is presumed to be valid and







False otherwise.


Processing:


1. /* Compute parameters for En if they are not already defined. */


/* Typically done only once for a given set of curves Ep and Eq */


1.1 if En is not defined then


1.1.1 n=pq


1.1.2 an = garner(ap,aq,p,q) /* ap ≡ an mod p,aq ≡ an mod q */


1.1.3 bn = garner(bp,bq,p,q) /* bp ≡ bn mod p, bq ≡ bn mod q */


2. /* Compute P1n and P2n */


2.1 xP1n = garner(xP1p,xP1q,p,q) /* xP1p ≡ xP1n mod p, xP1q ≡ xP1n mod q */


2.2 yP1n = garner(yP1p,yP1q,p,q) /* yP1p ≡ yP1n mod p, yP1q ≡ yP1n mod q */


2.3 xP2n = garner(xP2p,xP2q,p,q) /* xP2p ≡ xP2n mod p, xP2q ≡ xP2n mod q */


2.4 yP2n = garner(yP2p,yP2q,p,q) /* yP2p ≡ yP2n mod p, yP2q ≡ yP2n mod q


*/


3. /* Compute Qn = P1n + P2n = (xQn,yQn), */


3.1 Qn = point_addition(P1n,P2n,En)


4. /* Compute Qq = P1q + P2q = (xQq,yQq) */


4.1 Qq = point_addition(P1q,P2q,Eq)


5. /* Derive Q′p and Q′q from Qn */


5.1 Q′p = (xQ′p ≡ xQn mod p, yQ′p ≡ yQn mod p)


5.2 Q′q = (xQ′q ≡ xQn mod q, yQ′q ≡ yQn mod q)


6. /* Compare results Qq and Q′q and set error status. */


6.1 if (xQq ≡ xQ,q mod q) and (YQq = yQ,q mod q) then result_is_valid =


True


6.2 else result_is_valid = False


7. /* Return result. */


7.1 return (Q′p,En, result_is_valid)









The points of interest in En are the points Pn=[Pp,Pq], where PpεEp, PqεEq, Pp≠Op, and Pq≠Oq, together with the point at infinity On=[Op,Oq]. All other points are considered invalid points. Given that there are #Ep points in Ep, including the point at infinity, and #Eq points in Eq, including the point at infinity, the total number of points of interest in En is (#Ep−1)*(#Eq−1)+1 ( ̃#Ep#Eq). Assuming that the Qq′ matches Qq, the probability that result is assumed to be right when in fact it is wrong is approximately 1/#Eq. Note that in the set of points of interest there are #Ep−1 points Pp that correspond to a given point Pq.
The curve Eq influences the probability of detecting failures. This curve need not be a cryptographically secure curve; it need only contain enough points to satisfy the desired detection probability. From an implementation perspective, it would also be beneficial to choose curve parameters that minimize the computational complexity of the operations in En and Eq. For example, q can be chosen so that it minimizes the complexity of the modular operations required to compute point additions.
The point addition Qn=P1n+P2n is expected to be slightly more complex than the point addition Qp=P1p+P2p. The complexity of the point addition Qq=P1q+P2q is expected to be much lower than the complexity of the point addition Qp=P1p+P2p. In addition to these point operations, the RPA requires at least four computations involving Garner's algorithm (step 2) and four reductions (step 5).
RPA Example
FIG. 3 illustrates an RPA example 300. Steps 302A, 302B, 304A, 304B, 306A, 306B and 308 correspond to like-numbered steps of method 200. In RPA example 300, a valid result is achieved for p=11, q=5, and n=55. However, an RPA computation may not guarantee a valid result. Furthermore, an invalid result or failure may be detectable or undetectable.
An example of a detectable failure is the following: If there is a failure in the Point Addition 1 that results, for example, in Qn=(38,32), which is a point in En, then Qq′ would be (3,2) and the check will determine that the derived Qp′=(5,10) is an invalid result.
An example of an undetectable failure is the following: If there is a failure in the Point Addition 1 that results, for example, in Qn=(48,3), which is a point in En, Qq′ would be (3,3) and the check will assume that the derived Qp′=(4,3) is a valid result when in reality it is not. There are about #Ep points that would satisfy the check out of about #Ep#Eq points of interest in En; therefore, the probability of detecting a random failure that results in a point of interest is approximately 1/#Eq.
FIG. 4 illustrates another embodiment of a method 400 according to the invention for validating a computation involving one or more points on a specified elliptic curve E. Method 400 begins with step 402, which comprises selecting a second elliptic curve Eq. Preferably, curve Eq is selected to achieve a desired balance between validation accuracy and the computational complexity of the operations in En and Eq. The next step 404 comprises deriving a third elliptic curve, En, from curves Ep and Eq. As previously discussed in method 200, curve En may be derived by means of an appropriate cryptographic algorithm such as Garner's Algorithm.
The same or a similar algorithm may be employed in the next step 406, which comprises projecting one or more points Pjn onto En. Each point Pjn is a projection of a set of points [Pjp,Pjq] where PjpεEp,PjqεEq, and j=1 to t (t an integer). The next two steps are similar. Step 408 comprises performing a computation on En involving the one or more projected points Pjn. In one implementation, this computation comprises a point addition computation that yields a result Qn=P1n+P2n. Step 410 comprises performing a computation on Eq involving one or more points Pjq. In one implementation, the computation in step 410 computes Qq=P1q+P2q. The next step is step 412. Step 412 comprises extracting from the computation on En a predicted result of the computation on Eq. This step is illustrated above, for example, as step 206B of method 200. In the final step 414 of method 400, the predicted result from the previous step is compared to an actual result of the computation on Eq.
The following additional steps may be performed in a method 400 according to the invention. After step 414, step 416 may comprise extracting, from the computation on En, a predicted result of the computation to be validated. In one implementation, the computation to be validated is the point addition Qp=P1p+P2p. In step 418, a determination is made whether the predicted result of the computation on Eq equals the actual result of the computation on Eq, and if so, validating the result predicted in step 416.
Reliable Point Multiplication (RPM)
Another embodiment of the invention comprises a reliable computation method for point multiplications for curves defined over prime fields FP. Hereinafter embodiments of this method are referred to as Reliable Point Multiplication (RPM).
FIG. 5 shows one embodiment of an RPM method as it is applied to the computation of kPp on an elliptic curve Ep. This curve is modeled in the figure as an ellipse labeled Ep. A second elliptic curve is selected, and is modeled in the figure as an ellipse labeled Eq. A third elliptic curve is derived from Ep and Eq, and is modeled as the larger ellipse labeled En.
The steps in FIG. 5 are illustrated conceptually by dashed lines and solid lines. The first step is to project points Pp and Pq onto Pn. This step is illustrated by the dashed lines labeled “1p” and “1q” that project to point Pn=[1Pp, 1Pq] on curve En. The figure shows points in En including Pn, as tuples of the form Pn=[Pp, Pq] that indicates their projections onto Ep and Eq. Pp is the point on Ep of order np that is to be multiplied, and Pq is a fixed point on Eq of order nq that is used to establish the reliability of the point multiplication. The figure uses diamonds to represent points Pn=[Pp, Pq] for which Pp or Pq are the points at infinity in Ep or Eq. This embodiment of RPM requires that np and nq be coprime (i.e. no factors in common) and that they be odd.
The second step is illustrated by the sequence of solid lines labeled “2n” and by the sequence of solid lines labeled “2q”. The “2n” portion of this step computes kPn on En using an addition chain that avoids points iPn where i is a multiple of nq or np. This addition chain must also preclude point additions that project to point doubles in either Ep or Eq (but not in both) for applications that require the use of distinct operations for point doubles and point additions. This is one of the restrictions discussed in the context of elliptic curves defined over a ring. The “2q” portion of this step also computes (k mod nq)Pq on Eq, as illustrated.
The third step is illustrated by the dashed lines labeled “3p” and “3q”. The “3p” portion of this step projects the resulting point kPn onto kPp on Ep. The “3q” portion of this step projects the resulting point kPn onto kPq on Eq. In the final step (not illustrated), the projected result kPq is compared against the independently computed (k mod nq)Pq, and, if the results match, the projected point kPp is assumed to be the desired result.
The space of valid results Qn=[Qp′,Qq′] for multiplications kPn consists of approximately np nq points. For a given point Qq′ there are np valid points Qp′. An RPM method according to the invention detects invalid results for which Qq≠Qq′, but it fails to detect invalid results for which Qq=Qq′. Given that there are about np points that satisfy the last condition and that there are about np nq points of interest in En, the probability of failing to detect invalid results that map to points of interest in En is approximately 1/nq when considering failures with equal likelihood.
FIG. 6 shows an RPM method 600 according to the invention as it is applied to the computation of kPp on Ep. The first set of steps are steps 602A and 602B. In step 602A, points Pp and Pq are projected on Pn using an appropriate cryptographic algorithm such as Garner's Algorithm. In step 602B, curve En is derived from Ep and Eq. The second set of steps are point multiplication steps 604A and 604B. Step 604A computes Qn=krPn and step 204B computes Qq=krqPq. The third set of steps are steps 606A and 606B. Step 606A derives Qp′ from Qn and step 606B derives Qq′ from Qn. Next, in step 608, the results for Qq and Qq′ are compared. If Qq′=Qq, the result Qp′ is assumed to be valid. In the next step 610, if necessary to avoid an undesirable point, the result Qp′ is adjusted using the recode parameter adj to obtain Qp. This is achieved by the point addition on Ep: Qp=Qp′+adj*Pp. Next, in step 612, a check is performed to determine whether the resulting point Qp exists on curve Ep. In the final step 614, appropriate logic, such as an AND gate, is used to determine whether there has been a valid result. If the result in step 608 and the result for step 612 are both true, then a logical one is output. If the result of either step 608 or step 612 is false, then a logical zero is output.
The block diagram of method 600 covers the case shown in FIG. 5 along with the cases for which a final result is adjusted. A final result may need to be adjusted to avoid an undesirable point double in Eq that does not map to a point double in Ep. The final result also needs to be adjusted when k≡0 mod nq, a condition that cannot be avoided with the addition chain mentioned previously. When using unsigned addition chains, multiples of np can be avoided by reducing k modulo np at the beginning of the point multiplication.
When k≡0 mod nq, kPq=Oq. To support this case, the RPM method can compute the following point multiplications: Qn=[Qp′,Qq′]=krPn and Qq=krqPq, where kr=k−adj, kr/≡0 mod nq, and krq=kr mod nq. If Qq=Qq′, the result Qp′ is assumed to be valid. The final result is computed as follows: Qp=Qp′+adj*Pp. To verify that errors are not introduced in this final step, a check is done to verify that Qp is in Ep.
The addition chain may represent k as the sum kr+adj, when it needs to avoid point additions that result in a point double in either Ep or En (but not on both). The following discussion assumes that np is prime and very large as it is the case for the curves specified in FIPS 186-2. When using unsigned addition chains with these curves, the condition to avoid is a point addition that projects to a point double in Eq and to a point addition in Ep.
Algorithm 3 discloses additional details concerning RPM computation performed in accordance with the block diagram of FIG. 6.










Algorithm 3: RPM Algorithm















Inputs:








Ep
Elliptic curve specified for point multiplication. Curve parameterized







by ap,bp,p, # Ep.








Eq
Elliptic curve used to validate results. Curve parameterized by







aq,bq,q, # Eq.








En
Elliptic curve used to compute point multiplication. Curve







parameterized by an,bn,p,q,n = pq. Input provided if curve is already defined,


otherwise the algorithm computes the parameters for this curve.








Pp
Base point for point multiplication. Order of point is np FIPS 186-2







recommends points with prime order np.








Pq
Base point for redundant computation. Order of point is nq, where







g.c.d.(np,nq) = 1.








k
Point multiplier.







Outputs:








En
Elliptic curve specified for point multiplication. Output only if it has







not been previously defined.








Qp
Point multiplication result.








result_is_valid
True if the result is presumed to be valid and False







otherwise.


Processing:


1. /* Compute parameters for En if they are not already defined. */


/* Typically done only once for a given set of curves Ep and Eq */


1.1 if En is not defined then


1.1.1 n = pq


1.1.2 an = garner(ap,aq,p,q) /* ap ≡ an mod p, aq ≡ an mod q */


1.1.3 bn = garner(bp,bq,p,q) /* bp ≡ bn mod p, bq ≡ bn mod q */


2. /* Compute Pn from Pp and Pq */


2.1 xPn = garner(xPp,xPq,p,q) /* xPp ≡ xPn mod p, xPq ≡ xPn mod q */


2.2 yPn = garner(yPp,yPq,p,q) /* yPp ≡ yPn mod p, yPq ≡ yPn mod q */


3. /* Recode k as k = kr + adj and compute krq = kr mod nq. */


/* Recoding avoids partial results iP where i = nq or np and it can also avoid


additions that would project to point doubles in Eq or Eq but not in both for


applications requiring different operations for point addition and point double. */


/* Note that krPq = (kr mod nq)Pq = krqPq */


3.1 kr,adj,krq = recode(k,np,nq)


4. /* Compute Qn = krPn = (k − adj)Pn = (xQn,yQn). */


4.1 Qn =point_multiplication(kr,Pn,En)


5. /* Compute Qq = krPq = (kr modnq)Pq = (xQq,yQq). */


5.1 Qq = point_multiplication(krq,Pq,Eq)


6. /* Derive Q′p and Q′q from Qn.*/


6.1 Q′p=(xQ′p ≡ xQn mod p,yQ′p ≡ yQn mod p)


6.2 Q′q=(xQ′q ≡ xQn mod q,yQ′q ≡ yQn mod q)


7. /* Compare results Qq and Q′q and set error status. */


7.1 if (xQq ≡ xQ′q mod q) and (yQq ≡ yQ′qmod q) then result_is_valid = True


7.2 else result_is_valid = False


8. /* Adjust Q′p */


8.1 Qp = point_addition(Q′p,adj,Pp,Ep) /* Qp = Q′p + adj* Pp = kPp */


9 /* Check that resulting point is on the curve and set error status. */


9.1 if yQp2 mod p/ ≡ xQp3 + apxQpbp mod p then result_is_valid = False */


10. /* Return result. */


10.1 return (Qp, En, result_is_valid)









FIG. 7 illustrates another embodiment of a method 700 according to the invention for validating a point multiplication kPp on a specified elliptic curve Ep defined over a prime field, where k is an integer and Pp is a point in Ep. Method 700 begins with step 702, which comprises selecting one or more elliptic validation curves Eqi, where i=1 to m (m an integer). The next step 704 comprises deriving an elliptic curve En from the specified curve Ep and the one or more validation curves Eqi. This derivation may be performed, for example, according to a cryptographic algorithm such as Garner's Algorithm. In the next step 706, one or more points Pjn are projected onto En, each point Pjn a projection of a set of points [Pjp,Pjqi]=[Pjp, Pjq1, Pjq2, . . . Pjqm], where PjpεEp, PjqiεEqi, and j=1 to m (m an integer).
The next step 708 comprises generating an addition chain for k that avoids invalid points. Examples of invalid points include a point double in Eq that does not map to a point double in Ep. In step 710, a point multiplication Qn=kPjn is computed for Pjn on curve En. In step 712, point multiplications Qqi=(k mod nqi)Pjqi are computed for each Pjqi of order nqi on each curve Eqi, respectively. Then, step 714 is performed to extract, from the computation on En, a predicted result for each computation on a curve Eqi. Finally in step 716 each predicted result is compared to its corresponding actual result obtained from the computation on Eqi.
The following additional steps may be performed in a method 700 according to the invention. After step 716, step 718 may comprise extracting, from the computation on En, a predicted result of the computation to be validated. In one implementation, the computation to be validated is a point multiplication of the form Qp=kPp. In step 720, a determination is made whether the predicted result for each computation on Eqi equals the corresponding actual result, and if so, validating the result predicted in step 718.
k Recoding
The RPM method relies on the recoding of k in a manner that the partial sums of segments of the addition chain do not result in numbers that are multiples of np or nq. If, for example, an addition chain yields an intermediate value kinv=c*nq, the partial result of the point multiplication corresponds to kinvPn=kinv[Pp,Pq]=[kinvPp,Oq], which is an invalid point. This embodiment of RPM also requires that additions on En when projected to the curves Ep and En also correspond to additions or doubles but not a mix of the two.
To minimize the probability of performing an invalid operation, np and nq can be chosen to be very large. However, for computational speed, a curve Eq should be chosen as small as possible within limits that meet expected reliability criteria. Thus, a tradeoff exists between speed and reliability. As processing complexity is simplified, the probability of performing invalid operations rises, thus forcing the use of mechanisms that avoid these operations or compensate for them. For reliable computation, one design alternative is to choose a curve Eq large enough so that the probability of performing an invalid operation is small. This system would use a simpler operation in step 3 and would also avoid step 8 of Algorithm 3. The drawback of such systems is that it could lead to high computational complexity.
Another design alternative is to choose a curve Eq small enough to meet the desired error probability and to use an addition chain that avoids invalid operations. The following section describes an unsigned left-to-right windowing algorithm that meets these criteria. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that this and other recoding concepts disclosed herein can be applied to other point multiplication algorithms, such as fixed and non-fixed-point multiplication algorithms, simultaneous point multiplication algorithms, etc.
Unsigned Windowing Point Multiplication Algorithm with Adjustment
In another embodiment of a reliable ECC computation method according to the invention, a two-step recoding algorithm is employed to avoid invalid point additions. One implementation of a two-step recoding algorithm is shown below in the combination of Algorithm 4 and Algorithm 5. The first step in the two-step recoding algorithm is Algorithm 4, which comprises a classical unsigned, left-to-right, fixed-window recoding algorithm. The second step in the two-step recoding algorithm is Algorithm 5. Algorithm 5 is an adjustment algorithm that adjusts the results of Algorithm 4 that would lead to invalid point additions.
The inputs to Algorithm 4 are a number k and the window size w, and the output is a radix 2w number expressed by a non-redundant digit set with digit values in the range [0, 2w). The recoded representation includes on average (2w−1)t/2w nonzero digits, where t represents the total number of digits required to represent k.
The inputs to Algorithm 5 are the recoded output of Algorithm 4, the window size w, and a number nq, which value is to be excluded from the prime factorization of partial sums of the addition chain. The result of this algorithm is a number represented, uniquely, using three parameters k′, k′′, and adj, which sum is equal to k.










Algorithm 4: Classical Unsigned, Left-To-Right, Fixed-Window


Recoding Algorithm (unsigned_left_right_recode)
















Inputs:



 






  k
  =
  
    
      ∑
      
        i
        =
        0
      
      
        m
        -
        1
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
        k
        i
      
      ⁢
      
        2
        i
      
    
  




/* k < np,ki ∈ [0,1] */


 


w
/*Window size.*/


Outputs:


 






  kr
  =
  
    
      ∑
      
        i
        -
        0
      
      
        t
        -
        1
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
        kr
        i
      
      ⁢
      
        2
        wi
      
    
  




/* kri ∈ [0,2w),t = ┌m/w┐ */


 


Processing:









1. /*Determine the number of digits required to represent k.*/



1.1 t = ┌m/w┐



2. /* Recode k. */



 














  
    2.1
    ⁢
    
      
    
    ⁢
    
      kr
      
        t
        -
        1
      
    
  
  =
  
    
      ∑
      
        j
        =
        0
      
      
        
          (
          
            m
            -
            1
          
          )
        
        -
        
          
            (
            
              t
              -
              1
            
            )
          
          ⁢
          w
        
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
        kr
        
          
            
              
                (
                
                  t
                  -
                  1
                
                )
              
              *
            
            ⁢
            w
          
          +
          j
        
      
      ⁢
      
        2
        j
      
    
  




/* Most significant digit.*/



 



2.2 for i = t − 2 down to 0 do
/* Least significant digits.*/



 







  
    kr
    i
  
  =
  
    
      ∑
      
        j
        =
        0
      
      
        w
        -
        1
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
        kr
        
          
            
              i
              *
            
            ⁢
            w
          
          +
          j
        
      
      ⁢
      
        2
        j
      
    
  







 



3. return (kr)




















Algorithm 5: Recoding Adjustment Algorithm for Unsigned


Fixed-Window Recoding (unsigned_left_right_recode_adj)
















Inputs:



 






  k
  =
  
    
      ∑
      
        i
        =
        0
      
      
        t
        -
        1
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
        k
        i
      
      ⁢
      
        2
        wi
      
    
  




/* ki ∈ [0,2w),k ∈ [1,np),np rep. order of Pp */


 


w
/* Window size */


nq
/*Multiple to avoid. nq > 2w+1 − 1 is prime.*/


Outputs:


/* k = k′ + k′′ + adj */


 











  
    
      /
      *
    
    ⁢
    
      g
      .
      c
      .
      d
      .
      
        (
        
          
            
              ∑
              
                i
                =
                j
              
              
                t
                -
                1
              
            
            ⁢
            
              
            
            ⁢
            
              
                (
                
                  
                    k
                    i
                    ′
                  
                  +
                  
                    k
                    i
                    ′′
                  
                
                )
              
              ⁢
              
                2
                
                  w
                  ⁡
                  
                    (
                    
                      i
                      -
                      j
                    
                    )
                  
                
              
            
          
          ,
          
            n
            q
          
        
        )
      
    
  
  =
  
    
      1
      ⁢
      
        
      
      ⁢
      for
      ⁢
      
        
          
        
        ⁢
        
          
        
      
      ⁢
      j
    
    =
    
      t
      -
      
        
          1
          ⁢
          
            
          
          .
          
            
          
          .
          
            
          
          .
          
            
          
          ⁢
          
            0
            
              
                
              
              *
            
          
        
        /
      
    
  






 












  
    k
    ′
  
  =
  
    
      ∑
      
        i
        =
        0
      
      
        t
        -
        1
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
        k
        i
        ′
      
      ⁢
      
        2
        wi
      
    
  




/* ki′ ∈ [0,2w]*/


 






  
    k
    ′′
  
  =
  
    
      ∑
      
        i
        =
        0
      
      
        t
        -
        1
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
    
    ⁢
    
      
        k
        i
        ′′
      
      ⁢
      
        2
        wi
      
    
  




/* ki′′ ∈ [0,2w]*/


 


adj
/* adj ∈ [0,1]


Processing:









1. /* Initialize variables */



1.1 adj = 0



1.2 krq = 0



2. /* Recode * /



2.1 for i = t−1 down to 0



/* Absorb adjustment. */



2.1.1 if adj ≠ 0 then



2.1.1.1 ki′ = 2w



2.1.1.2 ki′′ = ki



2.1.2 else /* adj = 0 */



2.1.2.1 ki′ = ki



2.1.2.2 ki′′ = 0



2.1.3 adj = 0



/* Update krq.*/



2.1.4 krq = krq2wmod nq



/* Adjust if sum lead to multiple of nq or double in Eq. */



2.1.5 if (krq = ki′ ≡ 0 mod nq) or (krq = ki′ ≡ 0 mod nq) then



2.1.5.1 ki′ = ki′ − 1



2.1.5.2 ki′′ = ki′′ + 1



/* Update krq.*/



2.1.6 krq = krq + ki′ mod nq.



/* Adjust if sum lead to multiple of nq or double in Eq. */



2.1.7 if (krq + ki′′ ≡ 0 mod nq) or (krq − ki′′ ≡ 0 mod nq) then



2.1.7.1 ki′′ = ki′′ − 1



2.1.7.2 adj = 1



/* Update krq.*/



2.1.8 krq = krq + ki′′ mod nq



3. /* Return result */



3.1 return (k′,k′′,adj)










Description of Adjustment Algorithm
The table in FIGS. 8A-8B shows the cases of interest in the loop of Algorithm 5. The steps in the top row of the table correspond to the steps in Algorithm 5.
When Algorithm 4 generates an addition chain that does not lead to invalid point additions, Algorithm 5 outputs k′=k, k′′=0, and adj=0. For this scenario, all the loop iterations correspond to case 0 in the table.
Case 1 corresponds to finding a partial sum that is a multiple of nq. Cases 2 and 3 correspond to finding addition chains that would lead to undesirable point doubles in Eq. Case 2 propagates the condition while case 3 is able to resolve it without propagating adjustments.
Cases 4 and 5 correspond to adjustment propagations from the previous iterations of the loop that result in partial addition chains whose sums are multiples of nq. Case 4 is unable to resolve adjustment propagation because ki is zero. Case 5 resolves adjustment propagation.
Cases 6 to 10 correspond to adjustment propagations from the previous iterations that would lead to undesirable point doubles in Eq. Cases 6 and 8 resolve previous adjustments. Cases 7 and 9 resolve previous adjustments but they encountered multiples of nq, which resolution they propagate. Case 10 resolves a previous adjustment but encounters another condition that would lead to an undesirable point double in Eq.
The cases listed in the table assume that nq>2w+1−1. This nq selection avoids encountering an undesirable condition after an adjustment; for example, when subtracting one from ki′ in case 1, the resulting ki′−1 is not equal to krq, which would lead to an undesirable double operation in Eq. Cases 7, 9, and 10 can be avoided with proper nq selection.
Example of Recoding Algorithm
The table in FIG. 9 shows a recoding example according to the invention. This example shows recoding of an addition chain adjusted according to Algorithm 5 with k=30, nq=5, and w=1. When used in a point multiplication process, the addition chain avoids invalid point doubles and points that will project the points at infinity in Eq. This example shows the recoding of k=(k4k3k2k1k0)2 as the sum of k=k′+k′′+adj, where k′=(k4′k3′k2′k1′k0′)2, k′′=(k4′′k3′′k2′′k1′′k0′′)2 and adj is a scalar (adj refers to the value of adj at the end of the algorithm).
Point Multiplication Algorithm with Adjustment
In another aspect of the invention, RPM may be computed after a recoding adjustment. Algorithm 6 shows the recoding algorithm correspondent to step 3.1 of Algorithm 3. Algorithm 7 shows the point multiplication function correspondent to step 4.1 of Algorithm 3. The point multiplication in step 5.1 of Algorithm 3 need not be computed using Algorithm 7. This point multiplication can be computed using classical point multiplication algorithms, including fixed-point algorithms.










Algorithm 6: Fixed-Window Recoding Algorithm with Adjustment


















Inputs:




 







  k
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/* k ∈ [0,1] */



 



w
/* Window size. */



nq
/*Multiple to avoid. nq is prime */



np
/*Multiple to avoid. np is prime */



Outputs:









/* k = k′ + k′′ + adj */



 







  
    
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/* ki′ ∈ [0,2w] */



 







  
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/* ki′′ ∈ [0,2w] /



 



adj
/* adj ∈ [0,1] */



Processing:









1. /* Limit values of k to range [0,np) (typically k < np). */



1.1 k = k mod np



2. /* Perform classical recoding of k (Algorithm 4). */



2.1 kr = unsigned_left_right_recode (k,w)



3. /*Adjust recoding (Algorithm 5). */



3.1 k′,k′′,adj = unsigned_left_right_recode_adj(kr,w, nq)



4. /* Return result. */



4.1 return (k′,k′′,adj)




















Algorithm 7: Fixed-Window Point Multiplication Algorithm with Adjustment
















Inputs:



/* k′+k′′= k−adj = */


 






  
    k
    ′
  
  =
  
    
      ∑
      
        i
        =
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/* ki′ ∈ [0,2w] */


 






  
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/* ki′′ ∈ [0,2w] /


 


P ∈ En
/*Point on elliptic curve defined over ring. */


Outputs:


Q = −(k′ + k′′)P
/* Point multiplication result.


Processing:


1. /* Initialize values. */


1.1 Q = 0


1.2 P1 = P


2. /*Pre-compute points. */


2.1. for i = 2 to 2w do


2.1.1. Pi = Pi−1 + P1







3. /* Compute the point multiplication */


3.1 for i = t−1 down to 0 do








3.1.1 Q = 2w Q
/* Computed by doubling Q w times: (2(2(2( . . . 2(Q) . . . )))) */


3.1.2 if ki′ ≠ 0 then


3.1.2.1 Q = Q + Pk′i


3.1.3 if ki′′ ≠ 0 then


3.1.3.1 Q = Q + Pk′′i


4. /* Return result */


4.1 return (Q)









Performance of Rpm Algorithm when Using Fixed-Window Recoding
The following sections develop expressions for estimating the need for Algorithm 5 adjustments and also provide general complexity approximations for the RPM algorithm. The general complexity estimates assumes a low need of adjustment, which result from the use of relatively large values of nq (e.g., 16 bit prime).
Probability of Encountering an Addition Chain that Does Not Require Adjustments
Algorithm 5 adjusts the results of Algorithm 4 so that invalid operations in En are avoided. The conditions to avoid correspond to multiples of nq that lead to Oq when results in En are projected into Eq and to additions of two values that modulo nq correspond to the same value, a condition that projects to a point double in Eq and a point addition in Ep.
In another aspect of the invention, to establish the need for addition chain adjustment, additional method steps may be required that estimate the probability of obtaining an addition chain from Algorithm 4 that avoids undesirable conditions.
These methods include an expression for estimating the probability of avoiding multiples of nq, and also expressions for estimating the probability of avoiding undesirable point doubles when the operations are projected into Eq. An additional method includes an expression that covers both cases. For simplicity, the probabilities are described using as an example the classical double and add algorithm (w=1). Generalized expressions for the fixed-window algorithm are also provided. FIGS. 10 and 11 show tabulated results of complexity estimates' error probabilities gathered from running simulations for random values of k.
Consider the case of the double and add point multiplication algorithm, which scans the bits of the multiplier k=(kmk−1, . . . , k1, k0)2 from its most significant bit (MSB) to its least significant bit (LSB). Let mk=┌log2 k┐, mnq=└log2 nq┘, kmk−1>0, and let nq be an odd prime greater that three.
The scanning of the first mnq bits (kmk−1, . . . , kmk−mnq)2 does not yield a multiple of nq because (kmk−1, . . . , kmk−mnq)2<2mnq<nq. If bit kmk−mnq−1 is zero, the partial result (kmk−1, . . . , kmk−mnq)2 is multiplied by two, which is not a factor of nq, and therefore, the result (kmk−1, . . . , kmk−mnq, kmk−mnq−1=0)2 is not a multiple of nq. On the other hand, if kmk−mnq−1 is one, about 1/nq of the possible values (kmk−1, . . . , kmk−mnq, kmk−mnq−1=1)2 are multiples of nq.
For the last approximation let ktmp=(kmk−1, . . . , kmk−mnq)2ε[1,nq). The double operation 2ktmp mod nqε[1,nq) permutes the values of ktmp. The addition that follows permutes the values again, and pushes the values ktmp≡(nq−1)/2 mod nq to be congruent to nq(ktmp=2ktmp=kmk−mnq−1≡0 mod nq). Assuming that all the values are equally distributed, approximately 1/nq of the values become a nonzero multiple of nq.
Given that




  
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is not a multiple of nq, multiples of nq are encountered only when the bits ki for iε[0,mk−mnq) are not zero. When a nonzero bit ki is encountered, the probability that the partial result is a multiple of nq is approximately 1/nq. The probability that ki is nonzero is 1⁄2 for a random k. Therefore, using the expression shown in Equation (9), the probability that a multiple of nq is not encountered in the partial sums of an addition chain can be approximated. In this equation, Pr(ki≠0) represents the probability that a bit of k is one.

The probabilities of encountering invalid double operations can also be approximated using the same approach used above for multiples of nq. As in the case of multiples of nq, possible invalid doubles could start occurring when processing kmk−mnq−1, and possible doubles could result only when processing nonzero bits ki for iε[0,mk−mnq). The partial value of (kmk−1, . . . , kmk−mnq)2 is lower than nq but it is larger than any value that kmk−mnq−1 can take; therefore, the addition chain cannot lead to invalid doubles before processing kmk−mnq−1. If kmk−mnq−1 is zero, no addition operations are needed and therefore no invalid double could occur. On the other hand, if kmk−mnq−1 is one and the partial values of ktmp=(kmk−1, . . . , kmk−mnq,0)2 are equally distributed, the probability that ktmp≡kmk−mnq−1 mod nq is approximately 1/nq. Given that mk−mnq bits are processed and that the probability of avoiding a point double for each processed nonzero bit is (1−1/nq), the probability of successfully avoiding invalid point double operations can be also approximated with the expression show in Equation (9).

Pr1=(1−1/nq)(mk−mnq)*Pr(ki≠0)  (9)

Equation (10) shows an expression for the probability of encountering an addition chain that avoids both multiples of nq and values that would lead to invalid point doubles in projections into Eq. Using an analysis similar to the one shown above, it can be shown that for each nonzero bit ki for iε[0,mk−mnq) two failure cases can be encountered: one case corresponds to a multiple of nq and the other case corresponds to a value that would lead to an invalid point double. These conditions are mutually exclusive when nq is an odd prime, and therefore, the aggregate probability of encountering either of these cases is approximately 2/nq. Given that mk−mnq bits are processed and that the probability of avoiding both undesirable cases for each processed nonzero bit is (1−2/nq), the probability of encountering an addition chain that avoids both conditions can be approximated with the expression show in Equation (10).

Pr2=(1−2/nq)(mk−mnq)*Pr(ki≠0)  (10)

Equation (11) and Equation (12) show general expressions of Equation (9) and Equation (10) for the fixed-window point multiplication algorithm, of which the classical double and add algorithm is the special case for which w=1. In these equations, mk=┌log2w k┐, mnq=└log2w nq┘, Pr(ki≠0)=(2w−1)/2w (note that one of the possible 2w values of ki is zero), and k=(kmk−1, . . . , k1, k0)2w.

Pr3=(1−1/nq)(mk−mnq)*Pr(ki≠0)  (11)

Pr4=(1−2/nq)(mk−mnq)*Pr(ki≠0)  (12)

FIG. 10 and FIG. 11 each show tabulated simulation results of a recoding RPM algorithm according to the invention. The table in FIG. 10 summarizes recoding results for all values of k in the range [1,216). The table in FIG. 11 shows results of 216 random values of k in the range [1,2192). These tables show measured probabilities, estimated probabilities based on Equation 12, and the estimation error. The tables show that the estimation error is low, especially for large values of nq. The results in the tables show that the probability of obtaining an addition chain from Algorithm 4 that requires no adjustment increases as the value nq increases and it also increases as the window size (w) increases.
RPM Algorithm Complexity
When nq>(2w+1+1)(2w−1), cases 7, 9, and 10 of FIG. 8A are avoided. When these cases are avoided, an adjustment due to an invalid double operation is absorbed when processing the next digit, for example, as demonstrated in cases 6 and 8. An adjustment due to a found multiple of nq is propagated if the next digit in the addition chain is zero, as in case 4; otherwise, the next digit absorbs the adjustment, as in case 5.
Equation 13 shows an expression for the expected adjustment propagation length due to multiples of nq. This equation accounts for intervening runs of zero digits terminated by nonzero digits. The worse case propagation occurs when a multiple of nq is found early in the chain and it is propagated for mk−mnq digits, a case that is very unlikely for large k.

E1=2w/(2w−1)  (13)

When the probability of adjustment is low, the additional overhead due to adjustments can be considered to be negligible. In these cases the complexity of the point multiplication with adjustment can be approximated by the complexity of point multiplication without adjustment. Equation 14 approximates the complexity of the point multiplication operation. In this equation, D represents the complexity of a point double, A represents the complexity of a point addition, and m represents the number of bits of k. Equation 15 provides an approximation for the number of bits required to store the pre-computed values. This expression assumes the storage of two coordinates per point. In comparison with Algorithm 4, Algorithm 5 includes the storage of one extra point.

#OPs=mD+(┌m/w┐(2w−1)/2w)A  (14)

#MBs=m2w+1  (15)

The most complex operations of the RPM algorithms are the two point multiplications. Of these, the point multiplication in En is the most complex. The point multiplication in En is of the order O((log2 n/log2 q)3) times more complex than the point multiplication in Eq. This expression accounts for the square complexity of multiplications and the linear complexity of point multiplication (k vs. k mod nq).
This disclosure introduces two methods for the reliable computation of point additions and point multiplications. For point multiplication, one embodiment of an unsigned fixed-window algorithm is disclosed. Those skilled in the art will recognize that the same principles employed in this algorithm can be extended to other point multiplication algorithms. The basic idea is to use a classical point multiplication algorithm and to adjust the addition chains that it generates so that they avoid invalid operations.
The RPA and RPM methods disclosed herein rely on asymmetric operations. For typical cases, the reliability of an ECC operation must be known. Rather than performing the ECC operation twice to ensure reliability (i.e. symmetric or redundant operation), two asymmetric operations are performed: one of the operations is of slightly higher complexity than the ECC operation, and the other operation is much simpler. The complexity of each operation is a function of the expected, or desired, degree of reliability.
The complexity of the simpler operation can be further reduced in comparison with the complex operation, for example, by using fixed-point multiplication algorithms or by using the Montgomery trick that computes only the x coordinate of a point multiplication. In this last case, they coordinate of the resulting point in Ep can be verified by checking that the resulting x and y coordinates satisfy the elliptic curve equation.
The validity of the algorithms disclosed herein has been verified with simulations, and the results of these simulations have also been disclosed. In short, the methods presented here provide a way to reliably compute ECC operations with much lower complexity than fully redundant methods. And while various embodiments of the invention have been described, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that many more embodiments and implementations are possible that are within the scope of this invention. Accordingly, the invention is not to be restricted except in light of the attached claims and their equivalents.

## Claims

1. In an elliptic curve cryptosystem comprising a computer system with a processor, a method for validating a computation involving one or more points on a specified elliptic curve, Ep, using multiple elliptic validation curves Eq, where p and q are coprime numbers, the method comprising:
selecting m elliptic validation curves Eqi, where i=1 to m (m an integer), each curve Eqi comprising one or more validation subgroups;
deriving an elliptic curve En from the specified curve Ep and the m validation curves Eqi, where n is an integer;
projecting one or more points Pjn onto En, each point Pjn a projection of a set of points [Pjp,Pjqi]=[Pjp, Pjq1, Pjq2, . . . , Pjqm], where PJpεEp,PjqiεEqi, and j=1 to m;
performing, with the processor, a computation on En involving the one or more projected points Pjn;
performing, with the processor, a computation on each validation curve Eqi, each computation involving one or more points Pjqi on each curve Eqi, respectively; and
extracting, from the computation on En, a predicted result for each validation curve computation; and comparing each predicted result to its corresponding actual result obtained from the validation curve computation.

2. The method of claim 1 further comprising:
extracting, from the computation on En, a predicted result of the computation to be validated; and
if each predicted result for a validation curve computation equals its corresponding actual result;
validating the result predicted in the second extracting step.

3. The method of claim 1 wherein at least one of the elliptic curves Ep and Eq is defined over a prime field.

4. The method of claim 1 wherein at least one of the elliptic curves Ep and Eq is defined over a ring.

5. The method of claim 3 wherein the elliptic curves are composed by a set of points (x,y) that satisfies an elliptic curve equation together with a point at infinity.

6. The method of claim 5 wherein the equation is y2=x3+a px+bp mod p, where a and b are constants, and where p is a prime number greater than 3.

7. The method of claim 1 wherein at least one subgroup in Eqi has a number of points that is prime.

8. The method of claim 1 wherein at least one validation subgroup in curve Eqi has a number of points that is coprime to a number of points in any other validation subgroup in curves Eq.

9. The method of claim 1 wherein each validation subgroup in curve Eqi has a number of points that is coprime to a number of points in any other validation subgroup in curves Eq.

10. The method of claim 1 wherein:
curves Ep and Eqi are defined over finite fields of integers modulo p and qi, respectively;
En is defined over a ring;
p and all qi are coprime numbers greater than 3; and
n=pq1q2 . . . qm.

11. The method of claim 1 wherein En is derived from Ep and Eqi for i=1 to m by means of Chinese Remainder Theorem.

12. The method of claim 1 wherein the one or more resultant points Pjn are derived by means of Chinese Remainder Theorem.

13. The method of claim 1 wherein the computation to be verified comprises a point addition.

14. The method of claim 13 wherein the point addition comprises Qp=P1p=P2p+ . . . Pjp, where P1p, P2p . . . Pjp are elements of Ep.

15. The method of claim 1 wherein the computation on each Eqi comprises a point addition Qqi=P1qi+P2qi+ . . . +Pjqi, where P1qi, P2qi, . . . Pjqi are elements of Eqi.

16. The method of claim 1 wherein the computation on En comprises a point addition Qn=P1n+P2n+ . . . +Ptn, where P1n=[P1p, P1qi, P1q2, . . . P1qm], P2n=[P2p, P2q1, P2q2, . . . P2qm] . . . Ptn=[Ptp, Ptq1, Ptq2, . . . Ptqm] are elements of En.

17. The method of claim 1 wherein each predicted result, Q′qi, is extracted according to the equation


Q′qi=(xQ′qi≡xQn mod qi, yQ′qi≡yQn mod qi),

wherein a set of points (x, y) satisfies an elliptic curve equation, and wherein curves Ep, Eqi, En use arithmetic modulo p, qi and n, respectively, where p and all qi are coprime numbers greater than 3, and where n=pq1q2 . . . qm.

18. The method of claim 17 wherein at least one subgroup in Eqi has a number of points that is prime.

19. The method of claim 17 wherein at least one validation subgroup in curve Eqi has a number of points that is coprime to a number of points in any other validation subgroup in curves Eq.

20. The method of claim 17 wherein each validation subgroup in curve Eqi has a number of points that is coprime to a number of points in any other validation subgroup in curves Eq.

21. The method of claim 1 wherein the predicted result of the computation to be validated, Q′p, is extracted according to the equation Q′p=(xQ′p≡xQn mod p, yQ′p≡yQn mod p), wherein a set of points (x, y) satisfies an elliptic curve equation, and wherein curves Ep, Eqi, En use arithmetic modulo p, qi and n, respectively, where p and all qi are coprime numbers greater than 3, and where n=pq1q2 . . . qm.

22. The method of claim 21 wherein at least one subgroup in Eqi has a number of points that is prime.

23. The method of claim 21 wherein at least one validation subgroup in curve Eqi has a number of points that is coprime to a number of points in any other validation subgroup in curves Eq.

24. The method of claim 21 wherein each validation subgroup in curve Eqi has a number of points that is coprime to a number of points in any other validation subgroup in curves Eq.

25. A non-transitory processor readable medium tangibly embodying the method of claim 1 as a series of software instructions.

26. The medium of claim 25 selected from a group consisting of RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, disk, floppy disk, hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD and flash memory.

27. In a computing system comprising a processor to use elliptic curve cryptography, a method for validating a point multiplication kPp on a specified elliptic curve Ep defined over a prime field, where k is an integer, p is a prime number, and Pp is a point in Ep, comprising:
selecting m elliptic validation curves Eqi, where i=1 to m (m an integer), p is a prime number, and p and q are coprime numbers;
deriving an elliptic curve En from the specified curve Ep and the m validation curves Eqi, where n is an integer;
projecting one or more points Pjn onto En, each point Pjn a projection of a set of points [Pjp,Pjqi]≡[Pjp, Pjq1, Pjq2, . . . Pjqm], where PjpεEp,PjqiεEqi, and j=1 to m;
generating an addition chain for k that avoids invalid points;
computing, with the processor, a point multiplication Qn=kPjn for Pjn on curve En;
computing, with the processor, point multiplications Qqi=kPjqi for each Pjqi on each curve Eqi, respectively;
extracting, from the computation on En, a predicted result for each computation on a curve Eqi;
and comparing each predicted result to its corresponding actual result obtained from the computation on Eqi.

28. The method of claim 27 wherein computing point multiplications Qqi=kPjqi further comprises using (k mod nqi) Pjqi, where nqi represents the number of points in the validation subgroup of Eqi.

29. The method of claim 27 further comprising:
extracting, from the computation on En, a predicted result for kPp; and
if each predicted result for a computation on a curve Eqi equals its corresponding actual result; validating the result predicted in the second extracting step.

30. The method of claim 27 wherein each curve Eqi comprises one or more validation subgroups.

31. The method of claim 30 wherein at least one subgroup in the m validation curves Eqi has a number of points that is prime.

32. The method of claim 30 wherein at least one validation subgroup in the m validation curves Eqi has a number of points that is coprime to a number of points in any other validation subgroup.

33. The method of claim 30 wherein each validation subgroup in the m validation curves Eqi has a number of points that is coprime to a number of points in any other validation subgroup.

34. The method of claim 27 wherein each elliptic curve comprises a set of points (x,y) that satisfies an elliptic curve equation together with a point at infinity.

35. The method of claim 34 wherein the equation is y2≡x3+apx+bp mod p, where a and b are constants, and where p is a prime number greater than 3.

36. The method of claim 27 wherein:
curves Ep and Eqi are defined over finite fields of integers modulo p and qi, respectively;
En is defined over a ring;
p and all qi are prime numbers greater than 3; and
n=pq1q2 . . . qm.

37. The method of claim 27 wherein En is derived by means of Chinese Remainder Theorem.

38. The method of claim 27 wherein the one or more resultant points Pjn are derived by means of Chinese Remainder Theorem.

39. The method of claim 27 wherein the addition chain avoids intermediate points iPn, where:
i is a multiple of nqi or np;
nqi represents a number of points in Eqi; and
np represents a number of points in Ep.

40. The method of claim 27 wherein the addition chain avoids point additions that project to point doubles in either Ep or Eq.

41. The method of claim 27 wherein each predicted result, Q′qi, is extracted according to the equation Q′qi=(xQ′qi≡xQn mod qi, yQ′qi≡yQn mod qi), wherein a set of points (x, y) satisfies an elliptic curve equation, and wherein curves Ep, Eqi, En use arithmetic modulo p, qi and n, respectively, where p and all qi are coprime numbers greater than 3, and where n=pq1q2 . . . qm.

42. The method of claim 27 wherein the predicted result of the computation to be validated, Q′p, is extracted according to the equation Q′p=(xQ′p≡xQn mod p, yQ′p≡yQn mod p), wherein a set of points (x, y) satisfies an elliptic curve equation, and wherein curves Ep, Eqi, En use arithmetic modulo p, qi and n, respectively, where p and all qi are coprime numbers greater than 3, and where n=pq1q2 . . . qm.

43. A non-transitory processor readable medium tangibly embodying the method of claim 27 as a series of software instructions.

44. The medium of claim 43 selected from a group consisting of RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, disk, floppy disk, hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD and flash memory.