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Publication #2012-23 4301 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 350, Washington, DC 20008 

Phone 202-572-6000 Fax 202-362-8420 www.childtrends.org

WHAT WORKS FOR FEMALE CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS:

Lessons from Experimental Evaluations of Programs and Interventions

Kelly Bell, B.A., Mary A. Terzian, Ph.D., and Kristin A. Moore, Ph.D. August 2012

OVERVIEW

Girls face unique developmental challenges in childhood and adolescence. Compared to boys, 

girls tend to report more mental health problems1, and they are susceptible to reproductive health 

risks, such as unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease2. While a number of 

evidence-based programs have been found to be effective at reducing risk factors for children 

and adolescents, many programs have differential impacts for girls and boys. Understanding 

what works for girls is critical to improving outcomes youth. This brief and its companion brief, 

focused on boys3, examine programs and strategies that work, as well as those that don’t for each 

gender.

This research brief synthesizes findings from 106 random assignment intent-to-treat evaluations 

of social interventions that targeted female children, adolescents, and young adults, or co-ed 

interventions that provide separate data about impacts for the female subgroup. Interventions 

were excluded from the review if they did not include at least 100 girls in the evaluation sample. 

Overall, 51 of the 106 programs had a positive impact for girls on at least one of the outcomes

reviewed, 27 had mixed findings, and 28 did not have a positive impact on any of the outcomes 

studied. While several themes emerged within each outcome area, there was no approach that 

worked across all outcome areas.

INTRODUCTION

The 106 rigorously evaluated programs were drawn from Child Trends’ online database of 

experimentally-evaluated, out-of-school time social interventions called LINKS (Lifecourse 

Interventions to Nurture Kids Successfully).4

Findings for the programs in this Fact Sheet are reported in the following categories: 

 

1 Merikangas KR, He J, Burstein M, Swanson SA, Avenevoli S, Cui L, Benjet C, Georgiades K, Swendsen J. (2010)

Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Study 

Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 49 (10):

980-98

2 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010) Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2009. Atlanta: U.S. 

Department of Health and Human Services.

3 Bandy, T. (2012) What Works for Male Children and Adolescents: Lessons from Experimental Evaluation of 

Programs and Interventions. Washington, DC: Child Trends

4

http://www.childtrends.org/links
2

Found to Work. Programs in this category have a positive and significant5impact on at least one 

targeted social skills outcome.

Mixed Findings. Programs in this category have varied impacts either on particular outcomes, at 

different times, or for different populations. Thus, a program that results in significant

improvements in contraceptive use at post-test, but has no impact at a one-year follow-up would 

be rating as having “mixed findings.” Also, a program found to improve teacher-rated, but not 

parent-rated behaviors on the same behavior rating scale would be characterized as having 

“mixed findings.” Finally, a program that works for a specific subgroup, but not another (e.g., 

African American girls, but not for Caucasian girls) would also receive a “mixed findings”

rating. 

Not Found to Work. Programs in this category have no statistically significant impacts or only 

marginally significant impacts on the outcomes examined. 

Nine outcome areas were reviewed in this synthesis: 

 Academic Achievement (such as school performance, grades)

 Delinquency (including crime, arrests, and recidivism)

 Externalizing or Acting Out Behaviors (behavior problems such as aggression or 

hyperactivity)

 Mental Health/Internalizing (Depression) Outcomes (including depressive symptoms, 

disordered eating, and suicidality)

 Physical Health and Nutrition (healthy eating, body mass index (BMI), weight or 

physical activity)

 Reproductive Health & Sexuality (such as sexual activity, condom and contraceptive use, 

pregnancy or births)

 Self Sufficiency (including employment, income, and receipt of public assistance)

 Social Skills (such as conflict resolution, empathy, relationship building)

 Substance Use (including alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, and illicit drugs)

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

The education outcomes reviewed in this synthesis are academic achievement and educational 

attainment. Ten of the 29 programs included in this synthesis had positive impacts on at least one 

academic outcome for girls. Eight programs had mixed impacts, and 11 had no impact on girls’ 

academic outcomes. Programs targeting academic outcomes were conducted with toddlers (4 

programs), children (16 programs), adolescents (18 programs), and/or young adults (5 

programs).

Found to Work

Programs that target young adults. Three6out of five programs that targeted young adult 

women (ages 18 to 24) had positive impacts on educational attainment. The other two programs 

had mixed impacts.

 

5 Reported impacts are those reported by the evaluators to be significant at the p≤ 0.05 level. Note that this literature 

review does not focus on the magnitude or duration of the impact, though this information is generally included in 

the LINKS program summaries. A research brief called “Improving the Lives of Adolescents and Young Adults: 

Out-of-School Time Programs That Have Significant Positive Impacts” reports on interventions for school-aged 

youth that have moderate to large impacts.
3

Mixed Findings

Gender-specific programs. Three of the four programs designed specifically for girls had 

mixed impacts on academic outcomes. The fourth program had no impact for girls.

Mentoring. Two7out of four programs that included a mentoring component had positive 

impacts on academic outcomes for girls.

Vocational training/support. Of the 11 programs that provided vocational training and/or 

support, four8had positive impacts and three had mixed impacts on academic outcomes for girls. 

Not Found to Work

Social skills training. None of the five programs that taught participants social skills had a 

positive impact on any academic outcome for girls. One program had mixed impacts on 

academic achievement. The social skills training programs were all intensive, lasting 64 to 240 

weeks and providing 40 to 3,750 hours of contact time. It is important to note that, while all of 

the programs measured academic outcomes, only one program (Quantum Opportunities 

Program) included components specifically designed to target academic outcomes. Three 

programs were variants of the Metropolitan Area Child Study and focused on children’s social 

competence, and the final program (Early Intervention Program for Adolescent Mothers) was a 

home visiting program for adolescent mothers.

Programs with less than 70 hours contact time. None of the five programs with less than 70 

hours of contact time had positive impacts on academic outcomes; two programs had mixed 

impacts.

DELINQUENCY

The LINKS database contains 11 programs that measure delinquency outcomes for girls. Of 

these 11 programs, one was found to have positive impacts, two had mixed impacts, and eight

were not found to work for girls. Six of the programs included children as participants, nine 

included adolescents, and three included young adult women. Due to the small number of studies 

with positive or mixed impacts, no conclusions could be drawn about approaches that work or 

have mixed findings.

Not Found to Work

Mentoring programs. None of the four mentoring programs that measured delinquency 

outcomes for girls were found to work. One program had mixed impacts.

School-based programs. None of the four school-based programs had a positive impact on 

delinquency outcomes for girls. One program had mixed impacts.

EXTERNALIZING OR ACTING OUT BEHAVIORS

 

6

Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA), JOBSTART, New Chance

7

JOBSTART, Big Brothers Big Sisters

8 CAS-Carrera, Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA), JOBSTART, New Chance
4

This synthesis includes 26 social programs that measured externalizing or acting out outcomes 

for girls. Overall, seven programs had positive impacts on at least one externalizing outcome, 

four programs had mixed impacts, and 15 programs were not found to have any impact on 

externalizing outcomes for girls. Programs targeting externalizing behaviors included 

participants who were toddlers (4 programs), children (21 programs), and adolescents (12 

programs). 

Found to Work

Community-based programs. Three9out of four programs that included community-based 

components had positive impacts on at least one of girls’ externalizing behaviors.

Combining parent training with social skills training. Two10 out of three programs that 

included parent training and social skills training led to improved externalizing outcomes for 

girls. The third program had mixed findings.

Mixed Findings

Cognitive-behavioral skills training. Two11 of the four programs that included cognitivebehavioral skills training had a positive impact on at least one externalizing outcome for girls. 

Interactive activities. Out of eleven programs that included interactive activities, four programs 

had positive impacts12 and three had mixed impacts on girls’ acting out behaviors. The rest did 

not find significant impacts.

Not Found to Work

Targeting group norms or normative beliefs. Of the six programs that attempted to change 

group norms or participants’ normative beliefs, one program13 had a positive impact and one 

program had mixed impacts on girls’ acting out behaviors.

MENTAL HEALTH/INTERNALIZING (DEPRESSION) OUTCOMES

The mental health outcomes included in this synthesis of social interventions for girls include

depression, anxiety, suicidality, disordered eating, and internalizing symptoms. Interventions in 

this outcome area targeted toddlers (4 programs), children (12 programs), adolescents (14 

programs), and/or young adults (2 programs). Overall, six out of 21 social programs had a 

positive impact on girls’ mental health outcomes, three had mixed impacts, and 12 had no impact 

for girls. The number of programs using any given approach is small; therefore, conclusions 

should be seen as preliminary.

Found to Work

Cognitive-behavioral skills training. Three14 out of five social programs that taught 

participants cognitive-behavioral skills in a group-based setting had positive impacts on at least 

one mental health outcome. One program had mixed impacts.

 

9 Resolve It, Solve It, Safe Dates, Teen Outreach Program

10 The Family Bereavement Program (FBP), Schools and Homes in Partnership (SHIP)

11 Second Step: A Violence Prevention Curriculum, The Family Bereavement Program (FBP)

12 Safe Dates, Second Step: A Violence Prevention Curriculum, Schools and Homes in Partnership (SHIP), Teen 

Outreach Program

13 Safe Dates
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Qualified professionals and parent involvement. Three15 out of the three programs that 

included a parent component and were administered by professionals with graduate degrees had 

positive impacts on mental health outcomes.

Short-term programs. Three16 out of the four programs that lasted six weeks or less had

positive impacts girls’ mental health.

Mixed Findings

Parent training. Of the eight programs that included parent training, three17 had positive 

impacts and three had mixed impacts on mental health.

Life skills training. Three18 out of the eight programs that taught participants life skills (any 

practical skill such as decision-making or resistance strategies) had positive impacts on mental 

health. One program had mixed impacts.

Teacher-provided interventions. Three of the six programs that were provided by the 

participants’ teachers had mixed impacts on girls’ mental health, and one

19 program had a 

positive impact.

Not Found to Work

Home visiting programs. None of the four home visiting programs that assessed mental health 

outcomes were found to work.

Case-management. None of the four social intervention programs that provided casemanagement services to participants were found to have a positive impact on girls’ mental 

health.

Long-term interventions. Of the 10 social intervention programs that lasted for more than seven 

weeks, none had positive impacts and two had mixed impacts on mental health outcomes. It 

should be noted that only three of these long-term programs were designed specifically to target 

mental health outcomes. The Family Bereavement Program, which is designed to improve 

children’s mental health after the loss of a caregiver, had a positive impact on girls’ mental 

health. The FRIENDS program, designed to treat clinical anxiety in children, had mixed impacts 

on girls’ mental health. The Healthy Weight Regulation Curriculum, designed to prevent 

disordered eating, did not have a positive impact on girls’ mental health. 

PHYSICAL HEALTH AND NUTRITION

 

14 Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Alternatives (ATHENA), CAST (Coping and Support 

Training), The Family Bereavement Program (FBP)

15 CAST (Coping and Support Training), Care, Assess, Respond, Empower (CARE), The Family Bereavement 

Program (FBP)

16 CAST (Coping and Support Training), Care, Assess, Respond, Empower (CARE), Guiding Good Choices

17 Busselton Health Study, Guiding Good Choices, The Family Bereavement Program (FBP)

18 CAST (Coping and Support Training), Guiding Good Choices, The Family Bereavement Program (FBP), New 

Chance

19 CAST (Coping and Support Training)
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The physical health outcomes examined in this synthesis include obesity, nutrition, and physical 

fitness. Programs targeting this outcome area served toddlers (4 programs), children (15 

programs), adolescents (15 programs), and/or young adults (2 programs). Overall, more than half 

of the physical health interventions were found to have positive impacts for girls. Fifteen out of 

the 27 programs had positive impacts on at least one physical health outcome for girls, five had 

mixed impacts, and seven had no impacts for girls.

Found to Work

Social cognitive theory. Six20 out of seven programs that were informed by Bandura’s social 

cognitive theory had positive impacts on a physical health outcome. The seventh program had 

mixed impacts.

Teaching cognitive-behavioral skills. All four programs21 that taught cognitive-behavioral 

skills, including coping skills and emotion regulation techniques, to participants had positive 

impacts on girls’ physical health. 

Media literacy. Of the four programs that encouraged participants to think critically about 

messages promoted in the media, three22 had positive impacts and one had mixed impacts on 

physical health outcomes.

School-based programs. Out of 20 school-based programs, twelve23 had positive impacts and 

four had mixed impacts on girls’ physical health.

Mixed Findings

Setting goals and monitoring progress. Three24 of the six programs that had participants set 

goals and monitor progress had positive impacts on girls’ physical health. One program had 

mixed impacts.

Life skills training. Of the nine programs that provided life skills training, four25 had positive 

impacts and one had mixed impacts on physical health outcomes for girls.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH/SEXUALITY

The reproductive health outcomes included in this synthesis are unintended pregnancy, sexual 

activity, condom and/or contraceptive use, and sexually transmitted diseases. Programs that 

 

20 5-A-Day Power Plus Program, Know Your Body, Lifestyle Education for Activity Program (LEAP), Planet 

Health, Reducing Children's Television Viewing to Prevent Obesity, Stanford Adolescent Heart Health Program

21 Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Alternatives (ATHENA), Know Your Body, Planet Health, 

Stanford Adolescent Heart Health Program

22 Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Alternatives (ATHENA), Know Your Body, Stanford 

Adolescent Heart Health Program

23 5-A-Day Power Plus Program, Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise & Nutrition Alternatives (ATHENA), 

Heart Smart School Health Promotion, Know Your Body, Lifestyle Education for Activity Program (LEAP), 

Superkids/Superfit, Untitled Fitness and Nutrition Intervention, Untitled School-based Physical Activity 

Intervention, Planet Health, Untitled School-Based Physical Training Program, 

Reducing Children's Television Viewing to Prevent Obesity, Stanford Adolescent Heart Health Program

24 Heart Smart School Health Promotion, Reducing Children's Television Viewing to Prevent Obesity, Stanford 

Adolescent Heart Health Program

25 5-A-Day Power Plus Program, Heart Smart School Health Promotion, Know Your Body, Stanford Adolescent 

Heart Health Program
7

measured reproductive health outcomes included girls who were adolescents (30 programs) 

and/or young adults (11 programs). One program also included children in 5th grade. Overall, 

only 14 out of 35 programs that measured reproductive health outcomes had a positive impact on 

at least one outcome. Four programs had mixed impacts, and 17 had no impact on girls’ 

reproductive health. The number of programs employing any one strategy is modest, so 

conclusions must be seen as preliminary.

Found to Work

Discussing gender roles. Three26 of the four programs that encouraged participants to think 

critically about gender roles had positive impacts on at least one reproductive health outcome for 

girls. 

One-on-one interventions. Five27 out of eight interventions in which participants met 

individually with a facilitator had a positive impact on at least one reproductive health outcome

for girls. Furthermore, three28 out of four one-on-one interventions that were located in a clinic 

or practitioner’s office were successful at improving a reproductive health outcome.

Culturally relevant interventions. Three29 out of four culturally-specific programs delivered by 

facilitators who shared common characteristics with participants had positive impacts for girls on 

at least one reproductive health outcome. 

Interventions that meet girls’ specific needs. Three30 out of five gender-specific programs that 

were tailored to meet participant’s needs had positive impacts for girls on at least one 

reproductive health outcome.

Mixed Findings

Social cognitive theory-based interventions. Four31 out of eight programs that were informed 

by Bandura’s social cognitive theory had positive impacts on at least one reproductive health 

outcome for girls, and one program had mixed impacts. Although the number of programs is 

small, social cognitive theory-based programs tend to be more effective for girls when they are 

designed for specific populations. Two32 out of three gender-specific programs and three33 out of 

five culturally-specific programs that were grounded in social cognitive theory had positive 

impacts on girls’ reproductive health. 

 

26 CAS-Carrera, Sistering, Informing Healing, Loving, and Empowering (SiHLE), TeenSTAR

27 Computer-Assisted Motivational Intervention Plus (CAMI Plus), Health Belief Model Intervention to Increase 

Condom Use Among Female Adolescents, Nurse-Family Partnership, What Could You Do?, Project RESPECT

28 Health Belief Model Intervention to Increase Condom Use Among Female Adolescents, What Could You Do?, 

Project RESPECT

29 Computer-Assisted Motivational Intervention Plus (CAMI Plus), Sistering, Informing Healing, Loving, and 

Empowering (SiHLE), Video-Based STD Patient Education

30 Computer-Assisted Motivational Intervention Plus (CAMI Plus), Nurse-Family Partnership, What Could You Do?

31 Be Proud! Be Responsible!, Computer-Assisted Motivational Intervention Plus (CAMI Plus), Sistering, Informing 

Healing, Loving, and Empowering (SiHLE), Project RESPECT

32 Computer-Assisted Motivational Intervention Plus (CAMI Plus), Sistering, Informing Healing, Loving, and 

Empowering (SiHLE)

33 Be Proud! Be Responsible!, Computer-Assisted Motivational Intervention Plus (CAMI Plus), Sistering, Informing 

Healing, Loving, and Empowering (SiHLE)
8

Media literacy. Two34 out of the four programs that aimed to teach girls to be critical media 

consumers had a positive impact on reproductive health, and one program had mixed findings. 

Altering group norms or participants’ normative beliefs. Three35 out of seven 

programs that attempted to change social norms regarding sexual activity had positive impacts 

on reproductive health for girls. 

One-session interventions. Three of the six one-session interventions had positive impacts on 

girls’ reproductive health and two had mixed impacts. All of the one-session interventions 

targeted condom use. Two of the successful interventions (Health Belief Model Intervention to 

Increase Condom Use Among Female Adolescents and Video-Based STD Patient Education)

were clinic-based and lasted less than one hour, and the other (Be Proud! Be Responsible!) was 

community-based and lasted five hours. 

Not Found to Work

Service learning. Of the four programs that included service-learning components, only one36

had a positive impact on any reproductive health outcome for girls.

Vocational training and/or support. Only two37 out of seven programs that included vocational 

training or support had positive impacts for girls on any reproductive health outcome.

Including parents or families. Only one38 out of the four programs that included a 

parent/family component had a positive impact on girls’ reproductive health outcomes. 

School-based programs. Of the 14 school-based programs, only four39 had a positive impact on 

a reproductive health outcome and two had mixed impacts. 

SELF-SUFFICIENCY

Self-sufficiency outcomes considered in this synthesis include employment, earnings, and 

welfare receipt. Programs in this outcome area targeted adolescents (9 programs) and/or young 

adults (5 programs). Five out of ten programs had positive impacts, three programs had mixed 

impacts, and two programs had no impact on the self-sufficiency of adolescent or young adult 

women. Due to the limited number of interventions identified, we could not draw conclusions 

on approaches that worked or were not found to work.

Mixed Findings

Vocational training and/or support. Five40 out of the ten programs that provided vocational 

training or support had positive impacts on girls’ self-sufficiency. Three programs had mixed 

findings.

 

34 Postponing Sexual Involvement (PSI), TeenSTAR

35 Centering Pregnancy Plus, FOCUS, Project RESPECT

36 Teen Outreach Program

37 CAS-Carrera, Nurse-Family Partnership

38 Nurse-Family Partnership

39 Be Proud! Be Responsible!, Postponing Sexual Involvement (PSI), TeenSTAR, Teen Outreach Program

40 CAS-Carrera, Job Corps, Youth Corps, Summer Career Exploration Program (SCEP), Quantum Opportunities 

Program
9

Individual counseling or therapy. Two41 out of the four programs that offered individual 

counseling or therapy had a positive impact on self sufficiency; one program had mixed impacts.

Life skills training. Of the six programs offering life skills training, three42 had positive impacts 

and one had mixed impacts on self sufficiency outcomes.

SOCIAL SKILLS

This synthesis examined social skills outcomes including conflict resolution, problem solving, 

empathy, and relationship building. Twenty programs targeting social skills were identified. Of 

the twenty programs, three had positive impacts, five had mixed impacts, and twelve did not 

have a significant impact on girls’ social skills. The programs included toddlers (3 programs), 

children (13 programs), adolescents (12 programs), and young adults (2 programs). 

Found to Work

Including families in individualized sessions. Of the three one-on-one interventions that 

included a parent/family component, two43 had a positive impact on girls’ social skills. 

Mixed Findings

Social skills training. One44 out of the four programs that taught participants social skills 

worked to improve girls’ social skills, and one program had mixed impacts. 

Not Found to Work

Mentoring. None of the four programs that provided mentoring to girls had a positive impact on 

their social skills. One program had mixed impacts.

School-based programs. Only one45 out of 11 school-based programs had a positive impact on 

girls’ social skills. Two programs had mixed impacts.

SUBSTANCE USE

This synthesis includes 20 programs that measured impacts on girls’ substance use outcomes, 

including alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and other illicit drug use. Five programs were found to 

work for girls, seven had mixed impacts, and eight were not found to work for girls. The 20

programs included participants who were children (9 programs), adolescents (14 programs) and 

young adults (4 programs). 

Found to Work

Including parents in adolescent programming. Three46 of the five programs for adolescents 

that included a parent/family component had a positive impact on girls’ substance use. 

 

41 CAS-Carrera, Job Corps

42 Youth Corps, New Chance, Summer Career Exploration Program (SCEP), Quantum Opportunities Program

43 Busselton Health Study, Nurse-Family Partnership

44 Social Aggression Prevention Program (SAPP)

45 Second Step: A Violence Prevention Curriculum

46 Guiding Good Choices, Nurse-Family Partnership, Self Sufficiency Project
10

Engaging local stakeholders. Two47 of the three programs that made efforts to engage 

stakeholders in the community, often through forming committees, had positive impacts on 

substance use.

Mixed Findings

Encouraging media literacy. Five out of six programs designed to increase girls’ media literacy 

had mixed impacts on substance use outcomes.

Targeting actual or perceived norms. Two of four programs that targeted participants’ social 

norms or beliefs had mixed impacts on substance use, and one program48 had a positive impact. 

Not Found to Work

Teaching social skills. None of the four programs that taught participants social skills had a 

positive impact on substance use outcomes for girls. One program had mixed impacts and three 

had no impact.

DISCUSSION

This review of experimental evaluations indicates that social interventions can have positive 

impacts on the well-being of girls and young women. Half of the rigorously evaluated 

interventions reviewed in this synthesis worked for at least one outcome. Interventions in some 

outcome areas, such as physical health, were generally found to be successful, while for other 

outcome areas, including reproductive health and problem behaviors, it seems more difficult to 

achieve positive impacts. Also, the number of rigorous evaluations was limited for many 

outcomes, which suggests that patterns should be viewed as preliminary. Still, within each 

outcome area, we were able to identify several programs that worked and/or promising 

approaches that appear to improve outcomes for girls.

We found several similarities between strategies that work and do not work for girls and those 

identified as working and not working for boys in the companion Fact Sheet. Specifically, we 

found that including parents in interventions in some way led to desirable impacts for boys’ and 

girls’ mental health outcomes. We also found that, for reproductive health outcomes, most 

school-based programs did not work for boys or girls. 

There were also meaningful differences between what worked for girls and for boys in certain 

outcome areas. For example, while one-on-one interventions often led to positive impacts for 

girls’ reproductive health outcomes, experiential learning activities that included group activities

were often effective for boys. Similarly, while social skills training interventions were not 

generally successful for boys in reducing delinquency outcomes, these types of interventions 

were often successful in reducing externalizing behaviors in girls. However, the number of 

studies is too small for these patterns to be more than suggestive.

Given these findings, continuing to assess which strategies work best for both girls and boys 

appears to be an important task for future research to undertake.

 

47 Nurse-Family Partnership, Tobacco Policy Options for Prevention (TPOP)

48 Brief Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students (BASICS)
11

© 2012 Child Trends. May be reprinted with citation.

We gratefully acknowledge the support of and the Alexander and Margaret Stewart Trust Foundation and 

the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation.

Child Trends is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research center that studies children at all stages of development. 

Our mission is to improve outcomes for children by providing research, data, and analysis to the people 

and institutions whose decisions and actions affect children. For additional information, including 

publications available to download, visit our Web site at www.childtrends.org. For the latest information 

on more than 100 key indicators of child and youth well-being, visit the Child Trends DataBank at 

www.childtrendsdatabank.org. For summaries of over 500 evaluations of out-of-school time programs 

that work (or don't) to enhance children's development, visit www.childtrends.org/WhatWorks.
12

Summary Table: Review of Research Literature Programs for Female Children 

and Adolescents

OUTCOME 

AREA

NOT FOUND TO WORK MIXED REVIEWS FOUND TO WORK

Academics:

Academic 

Achievement

Busselton Health Study

The program had no impact on 

girls’ academic achievement.

Comprehensive Child 

Development Program

The program had no impact on 

girls’ academic achievement.

Department of Education 

Student Mentoring Program

The program had no impact on 

academic achievement.

Leadership 

Education Through Athletic 

Development (LEAD)

The program had no impact on 

math ability.

New Hope Project

The program had no impact on 

girls’ academic achievement.

Study of Mentoring in the 

Learning Environment 

(SMILE)

The program did not have a 

positive impact on academic 

achievement.

Summer Career Exploration 

Program (SCEP)

The program had no impact on 

grades.

21st Century Community Learning 

Centers

Female participants were more likely to 

complete school assignments to 

satisfaction, but were not more likely to 

be attentive or participate in class.

Case-Management Program for 

Academic Enhancement

Girls who participated in the program 

had higher grades than girls in the 

control group at post-test, but not at the 

one-year follow-up.

Metropolitan Area Child Study 

(MACS)

The program had a positive impact on 

grades for students who only received 

the program in grades 1-4, but not for 

students who received it in grades 1-4 

and 5-6 or only in grades 5-6.

Monetary Incentive Program

The program had a significant impact 

on grades at post-test, but not the oneyear follow-up.

Self Sufficiency Project

The program had a positive impact on 

academic achievement for girls ages 6 to 

18, but not for younger girls.

Team Assisted Individualization 

(T.A.I.) for Math

The program had a positive impact 

achievement test scores for math 

computations but not math concepts and 

applications.

Big Brothers Big Sisters

Girls’ who participated in 

the program had higher 

GPAs and scholastic 

competence than girls in 

the control group. 

CAS-Carrera

Program participants 

were significantly more 

likely than the control 

teens to believe that the 

quality of their 

schoolwork had 

improved. On PSAT 

verbal and math portions, 

Carerra teens had higher 

scores than the control 

group, and Carrera 

females were more likely 

to have higher scores on 

the verbal portion

Mastery Learning for 

Children

The program had a 

positive impact on reading 

achievement.

New Chance

The program had no 

impact on mothers’ 

reading scores or 

children’s school 

readiness.

Teen Outreach Program

Participants were 

significantly less likely to 

fail a course.

Academics:

Educational 

Attainment

Career Academies

The program had no impact on 

girls’ educational attainment.

Early Intervention Program 

for Adolescent Mothers (EIP)

The program had no impact on 

mothers’ educational 

attainment.

Summer Career Exploration 

Program (SCEP)

The program had no impact on 

likelihood of graduating from 

Job Corps

Compared to the control group, 

program group members were more 

likely to receive the GED or vocational 

certificate. Participation did not improve 

college attendance and had negative 

impacts on receiving a high school 

diploma for those enrolled in school at 

the time they were assigned to 

participate in Job Corps. 

Nurse-Family Partnership

The program had a positive impact on 

the likelihood of participants to enroll in 

Busselton Health Study

At the 20 year follow-up, 

women who participated 

in the program were more 

likely to have received a 

university degree.

Job Training 

Partnership Act (JTPA)

Female participants in the 

program group were 

significantly more likely 

than control group 

members to obtain a high 
13

high school. or graduate from an educational 

program at the 6-month interview, but 

this impact was limited to unmarried 

women at the 10-month interview and 

faded completely by the 22-month 

interview. Another study found no 

program impacts at the 4- year or 6-year 

assessments.

Quantum Opportunity Program

At the 2-year follow-up, QOP-enrolled 

participants were significantly more 

likely than the control group to have 

attended college or vocational or 

technical school, enrolled in an 

apprenticeship, or enlisted in the 

military; however, there were no 

impacts on the likelihood of graduating 

high school with a diploma or earning a 

GED or having completed any 2- or 4-

year college. At the 4-year follow-up, 

there were no impacts on any education 

attainment outcome. 

Youth Corps

White females who participated in the 

program were more likely to have an 

associate’s degree and to expect to 

graduate from a four-year institution 

than the control group. Impacts were not 

found for women of other races or 

ethnicities.

school diploma or GED 

during the follow-up 

period.

JOBSTART

Program participants 

were more likely to earn a 

GED or high school 

diploma than control 

group members.

New Chance

Mothers who participated 

in the program were more 

likely to receive a high 

school diploma or GED.

Progresa Poverty 

Program

Girls who participated in 

the program were more 

likely to be enrolled in 

school than girls in the 

control group.

Delinquency 21st Century Community 

Learning Centers

The program had no impact on 

delinquency.

Aban Aya Youth Project

The program had no impacts 

on school delinquency for girls.

Big Brothers Big Sisters

The program had no impact on 

the number of times girls stole 

something or damaged 

property. 

Busselton Health Study

The program had no impact on 

stealing or fire lighting at age 6. 

Job Training Partnership Act 

(JTPA)

The program did not have an 

impact on arrest rates.

JOBSTART

The program had no impact on 

arrest rates for women.

Department of Education Student 

Mentoring Program

The program decreased truancy for 

younger students, but not for older 

students.

Self Sufficiency Project

The program had a positive impact on 

delinquency for girls ages 15 to 18, but 

not for girls ages 12 to 14.

Job Corps

Participants had lower 

rates of arrests and 

convictions.
14

Quantum Opportunity 

Program

The program had no impacts on 

the likelihood of committing a 

crime, or being arrested or 

charged with a crime.

Summer Career Exploration 

Program (SCEP)

The program had no impact on 

criminal or delinquent activity.

Externalizing 

or Acting Out

Aban Aya Youth Project

The program had no impacts 

on violence or provoking 

behavior for girls.

Big Brothers Big Sisters

The program had no impact on 

the number of times girls hit 

someone.

Catch Em Being Good

The program had no impact on 

girls’ aggressive behavior.

Comprehensive Child 

Development Program

The program had no impact on 

problem behaviors.

Leadership 

Education Through Athletic 

Development (LEAD)

The program had no impact on 

conduct problems for girls. 

New Chance

The program increased 

behavior problems for girls over 

age five, and had no impact for 

younger girls.

New Hope Project

The program had no impact on 

externalizing behavior for girls.

Moving to Opportunity 

(MTO)

The program had no impact on 

girls’ problem behaviors.

Protecting You/Protecting Me

The program had no impact on 

whether girls reported following 

rules. 

Self Sufficiency Project

The program had no impact on 

behavior problems.

Busselton Health Study

At age six, girls who had participated in 

the program were less likely to hit 

people, but there was no program 

impact on cursing, swearing, 

destructiveness, or lying.

Good Behavior Game

One study found that the program 

reduced aggressive behavior in girls, but 

other studies did not find the same 

impact.

Metropolitan Area Child Study 

(MACS)

The intervention reduced aggression in 

neighborhoods with higher levels of 

school and community resources, but 

increased aggression in schools with 

lower resources.

Resolve It, Solve It

The program reduced girls’ physical 

aggression against people but not verbal 

aggression or physical aggression 

against objects.

Responding in Peaceful and Positive 

Ways (RIPP)

Program participants were less likely to 

have disciplinary violations for violent 

behaviors or have been injured in a fight 

at posttest, but not at the 6- or 12-month 

follow-ups. Girls who participated in the 

program were less likely to report that 

they threatened to hurt a teacher at the 

12- month follow-up. The program had 

no impacts on the likelihood of 

threatening someone with a weapon or 

bringing a weapon to school.

Schools and Homes in Partnership 

(SHIP)

The program had a significant impact 

on parent-reported antisocial behavior 

and coercive behavior, but no impact on 

parent-reported externalizing behavior. 

The program reduced teacher-rated 

externalizing behaviors for participants 

Safe Dates

Adolescents who 

received the Safe Dates 

intervention reported 

perpetrating less 

psychological abuse, 

moderate physical abuse, 

and sexual dating abuse 

than control group 

adolescents at all four 

follow-up assessments. 

Second Step: A Violence 

Prevention Curriculum

Participants had less 

aggression and need for 

adult intervention during 

prize division when 

compared with the control 

group.

Teen Outreach Program

Participants were 

significantly less likely to 

be suspended from school. 

The Family 

Bereavement Program 

(FBP)

The program reduced 

externalizing problems in 

girls at the 11 month 

follow-up.
15

Social Aggression Prevention 

Program (SAPP)

The program had no impact on 

social aggression.

Students for Peace

The program had no impact on

frequency of fights in school, 

being injured in a fight, 

perceived school safety, 

threatening to hurt others, or 

overall aggression.

Youth Matters

The program had no impact on 

bullying behaviors.

who were aggressive at baseline, but 

increased rating for participants who 

were not aggressive at baseline.

Steps To Respect

The program led to a reduction in 

bullying only among students who 

bullied at baseline.

Mental Health Comprehensive Child 

Development Program

The program had no impact on 

depression or anxiety.

Early Intervention Program 

for Adolescent Mothers (EIP)

The program had no impact on 

mothers’ depressive symptoms.

Everybody’s Different

The program had no impact on 

anxiety, depression, or 

disordered eating.

Healthy Weight Regulation 

Curriculum

The program did not have an 

impact on weight regulation or 

prevent eating disorders.

Home Visitation Trial for 

Urban Women

The program had no impact on 

mothers’ psychological distress.

Leadership 

Education Through Athletic 

Development (LEAD)

The program had no impact on 

depression.

New Chance

Mothers who participated in 

the program reported feeling 

more stress than control group 

mothers. The program had no 

impact on depression.

Nurturing Program for 

Teenage Parents and Their 

Families

The program had no impact on 

mothers’ mental health.

Planet Health

Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise 

and Nutrition Alternatives 

(ATHENA)

Program participants were less likely to 

engage in disordered eating behavior 

(specifically diet pill use), but the 

program had no impact feelings of 

depression in the past week.

Catch Em Being Good

White girls who participated in the 

program scored lower on the selfdestructive, depressive and nervousoveractive scales of the CBCL. Impacts 

were not found for black girls.

The Family Bereavement Program 

(FBP)

The program had a positive impact 

positive coping and parent-report 

internalizing problems for all girls, but 

the impact on self-report internalizing 

problems was only significant for girls 

who had high scores at baseline. 

FRIENDS Program

The program had a positive impact on 

sixth grade girls’ anxiety symptoms 

over time, but no impact on ninth grade 

girls’ anxiety symptoms. The program 

had no impact on depressive symptoms.

Schools and Homes in Partnership 

(SHIP)

One study found that the program had 

an impact on internalizing problems 

only for non-Hispanic children. Another 

study did not find a significant impact 

on internalizing problems.

Busselton Health Study

At the 20 year follow-up 

, women who had 

participated in the 

program reported fewer 

depressive and neurotic 

symptoms.

Care, Assess, Respond, 

Empower (CARE)

Participants declined 

faster than the control 

group on favorable 

attitudes toward suicide, 

suicidal ideation, 

depression, hopelessness, 

anxiety, and anger (but 

not on suicide threats or 

attempts.)

CAST (Coping and 

Support Training)

The program had positive 

impacts on depression, 

anxiety, and suicide 

ideation (but not suicide 

threats or attempts). 

Guiding Good Choices

Adolescents’ whose 

parents participated in the 

intervention had slower 

growth of depressive 

symptoms over time than 

control group adolescents.
16

The program had no impact on 

eating disorders.

Project TRUST (Teaching, 

Reaching, Using Students and 

Theatre)

The program had no impact on 

anxiety scores.

Protecting You/Protecting Me

The program had no impact on 

participants’ stress 

management. 

Self Sufficiency Project

The program had no impact on 

depression.

Physical 

Health / 

Nutrition

Action Schools! British 

Columbia (AS! BC)

The program had no impact, or 

negative impacts, on physical 

activity for girls. 

Comprehensive Child 

Development Program

The program had no impact on 

girls’ physical health.

Middle School Physical 

Activity and Nutrition (MSPAN)

The program had no impact on 

girls’ physical activity, fat 

intake, or BMI. 

New Chance

Mothers who participated in the 

program were not more likely to 

rate their personal health as 

“very good” or “excellent”. 

Project SPARK: Sports, Play 

and Active Recreation for 

Kids

Neither the teacher- nor 

specialist-led versions of the 

program had any impact on 

skinfold measurements. 

Quantum Opportunity 

Program

The program had no impact on

self-reported health status.

WIC Nutrition Education 

Demonstration Study: 

Prenatal Intervention

The program had no impact on 

nutrition knowledge.

5-A-Day Power Plus Program

Girls who received the intervention 

consumed significantly more fruits and 

vegetables then girls in the control 

group. Findings were mixed regarding 

consumption of fat, iron, calcium, fiber, 

Vitamin A, and Vitamin C. The program 

did not impact consumption of saturated 

fat or folacin. 

Everybody’s Different

Normal weight females in the 

intervention condition were less likely 

to lose weight than normal weight 

females in the control group, based on 

standard body weight measures. There 

were no impacts on standard body 

weight for overweight or underweight 

participants.

Healthy Weight Regulation 

Curriculum

The program had a small impact on 

BMI for the high-risk subgroup but no 

impact for the sample as a whole.

Heart Smart School Health 

Promotion

The program has a positive impact on 

high-density lipoprotein cholesterol 

levels but no impact on physical fitness.

Lifestyle Education for Activity 

Program (LEAP)

Girls attending LEAP schools were 

significantly more likely to report 

engaging in regular vigorous physical 

activity than were girls attending control 

schools, but the program did not have an 

impact on the percentage of girls who 

were overweight.

Physical Activity and Teenage Health 

(PATH)

Two studies have evaluated the 

Athletes Targeting 

Healthy Exercise and 

Nutrition Alternatives 

(ATHENA)

The program had positive 

impacts on protein 

consumption and strength 

training skills. 

Busselton Health Study

At age six, girls who had 

participated in the 

program had fewer sleep 

disorders and eating 

problems (other health 

conditions were not 

affected). At the 20 year 

follow-up, women who 

participated in the 

program had lower BMIs.

CAS-Carrera

Program participants 

were significantly more 

likely to have four or five 

desirable health outcomes 

(e.g., medical check-up

last year, teeth checked in 

the last year, etc.)

Job Corps

Participants were less 

likely than control group 

members to report their 

health status as "poor" or 

"fair".

Know Your Body

Girls who participated in 

the program showed a 

significant net decrease in 

saturated fat intake as well 

as a significant increase in 

carbohydrate and crude 

fiber intake.
17

program, but results have not been 

consistent. The first study found positive 

impacts on body fat percentage (ES = 

0.42) and blood pressure (ES = 0.28, 

0.33), but these were not replicated in 

the second study. The second study 

found positive impacts on dietary 

behaviors (ES = 0.11), cholesterol (ES = 

0.03), and cardiovascular fitness (ES = 

1.33), which were not found in the first 

study. 

Planet Health

Girls who participated in the 

intervention ate more fruits and 

vegetables and had lower total energy 

intake than girls in the control group. 

Black girls who participated in the 

intervention had lower prevalence of 

obesity than black girls in the control 

group, but this impact was not found for 

white or Hispanic girls. There was no 

program impact on physical activity.

Reducing Children's Television 

Viewing to Prevent Obesity

The program had positive impacts on 

BMI, skinfold thickness, waist 

circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio, 

but no impact on waist circumference, 

physical activity or nutrition.

Self Sufficiency Project

The program had a positive impact on 

physical health for girls ages 6 to 11, but 

not for younger or older girls.

Triple A Program

The program had a positive impact on 

asthma quality of life but no impact on 

lung function.

Untitled Fitness and Nutrition 

Intervention

The intervention had positive impacts 

on fiber and fat intake, physical 

endurance, skinfold thickness, and blood 

pressure, but no impacts on sugar or 

protein intake, body fat percentage, 

cholesterol, or BMI. 

Untitled School-based Physical 

Activity Intervention

The program had positive impacts on 

physical activity during school time 

(ES=0.4) and moderate to vigorous 

physical activity (ES=0.29), but no 

impact on total physical activity.

Untitled SchoolBased Physical Training Program

The program had a positive impact on 

Superkids/Superfit

Girls who participated in 

the program had lower 

BMI’s at post-test 

(ES=.29) than girls in the 

control group and were 

less likely to have 

increasing BMI’s at 

follow-up (ES=.63).

Stanford Adolescent 

Heart Health Program

The program had a 

positive impact on 

physical fitness, obesity, 

and nutrition for girls.
18

girls’ physical fitness but no impact on 

weight or skinfold thickness. For 

normotensive (but not hypertensive) 

girls, there was a significant reduction in 

diastolic blood pressure. There was no 

impact on systolic blood pressure.

Western Australian Schools Physical 

Activity and Nutrition (WASPAN)

The program had a positive impact on 

physical fitness at post-test and followup. It had positive impacts on skinfold 

thickness and sodium intake at post-test 

but not 6-month follow-up. The program 

had no impacts on physical activity, fat 

intake or BMI. 

Reproductive 

Health: 

Sexual 

Activity / 

Abstinence

Aban Aya Youth Project

The program did not impact 

sexual activity for girls.

Adult Identity Mentoring 

(AIM)

The program had no impact on 

sexual activity for females. 

Draw the Line/Respect the 

Line

There were no program 

impacts on the likelihood of 

initiating sex, number of 

partners, or frequency of sex for 

girls.

Peer-led HIV Prevention 

Education

The program had no impact on 

number of sexual partners.

Reach for Health

The program did not have a 

significant impact on sexual 

initiation or recent sex.

Recapturing the Vision

The program had no positive 

impact on girls' sexual 

behaviors.

Teen Talk

Females who participated in 

the program were not more 

likely to maintain abstinence 

over the 1-year follow-up.

The McMaster Teen Program

The program had no impacts 

on sexual abstinence for girls.

Be Proud! Be Responsible!

Participants reported engaging in anal 

sex less frequently and with fewer 

partners , but they were not more likely 

to practice abstinence.

FOCUS

FOCUS participants who were sexually 

inexperienced at baseline had 

significantly fewer sexual partners and 

fewer casual partners than did sexually 

inexperienced members of the control 

group. This impact was not found for 

those who were sexually experienced.

Peer-Led Sex Education (RIPPLE 

study)

Girls’ who participated in the 

intervention were less likely to initiate

sex before age 16, but not before age 18.

Project CHARM

Project CHARM students reported 

having significantly fewer sexual 

partners than did control students at the 

6-month follow-up. This was no longer 

the case at the 12-month follow-up. 

Staying Connected With Your Teen

African American adolescents who 

participated in the self-administered 

program were less likely to initiate 

sexual activity. This impact was not 

found for Caucasian participants.

What Could You Do?

Participants were more likely to report 

practicing abstinence at the 3 month 

follow-up, but not at the 6-month 

follow-up. 

Postponing Sexual 

Involvement (PSI)

Females who participated 

in the intervention were 

more likely to be virgins 

at the end of the follow-up 

period.

Sistering, Informing 

Healing, Loving, and 

Empowering (SiHLE)

Participants were less 

likely to report having 

acquired new sexual 

partners in the month 

leading up to the followup assessment.

TeenSTAR

Female TeenSTAR 

participants were less 

likely to initiate sexual 

intercourse than control 

females.
19

Reproductive 

Health: 

Pregnancy 

and Births

Computer-Assisted 

Motivational Intervention 

(CAMI)

The program had no impact on 

repeat births.

Early Intervention Program 

for Adolescent Mothers (EIP)

The program had no impact on 

repeat births.

Family Planning Clinic 

Support Services

Participants were no less likely 

to get pregnant than individuals 

in the control group.

Job Corps

The program had no impact on 

birth rates.

JOBSTART

The program had no impact on 

childbearing.

New Chance

The program had no impact on 

pregnancy.

Peer-Led Sex Education 

(RIPPLE study)

The program had no impact on 

pregnancy.

Quantum Opportunity 

Program

The program had no impact on 

teen pregnancy.

The McMaster Teen Program

The program had no impact on 

pregnancy.

Centering Pregnancy Plus

Participants were significantly less 

likely to have a repeat pregnancy at the 

6-month follow-up, but not at the 12-

month follow-up.

Sistering, Informing Healing, Loving, 

and Empowering (SiHLE)

Participants were less likely to report a 

pregnancy at the 6-month follow-up 

(OR=.38), but not at the 12-month 

follow-up.

CAS-Carrera

Participants had lower 

rates of pregnancies and 

births than controls.

Computer-Assisted 

Motivational 

Intervention Plus 

(CAMI Plus)

Adolescents who 

participated in the CAMIPlus intervention group 

were less likely to have a 

rapid repeat birth than 

adolescents in the control 

group in the two years 

after the birth of their first 

child (ES=.29).

FOCUS

FOCUS participants were 

less likely to have an 

unintended pregnancy or 

acquire an STD over the 

one year follow-up (while 

this difference was 

significant when 

combining pregnancy and 

STI as one variable, 

neither was significant on 

its own). 

Teen Outreach Program

Girls who participated in 

the program were 

significantly less likely to 

become pregnant.

TeenSTAR

The program reduced 

pregnancy rates for the 

intervention group 

compared to the control 

group.

Nurse-Family 

Partnership

Three studies have found 

that the program reduced 

subsequent births, 

although one of the 

studies found that this 

impact was only 

significant for poor, 

unmarried women.
20

Reproductive 

Health: 

Sexually 

Transmitted 

Infections

Health Belief Model 

Intervention to Increase 

Condom Use Among Female 

Adolescents

Clients in the treatment group 

were not any less likely than 

clients in the control group to 

become re-infected with 

Chlamydia during the sixmonth follow-up period.

Centering Pregnancy Plus

Adolescents in the CPP group had 

significantly fewer cases of STIs at 12 

months when compared with 

adolescents in the control group. This 

impact was not found for young adults.

Sistering, Informing Healing, Loving, 

and Empowering (SiHLE)

 SiHLE females were significantly less 

likely to have acquired Chlamydia, but 

were not less likely to have 

acquired trichomonas or gonorrhea 

during the 12-month follow-up period.

FOCUS

FOCUS participants were 

less likely to acquire an 

STD or have an 

unintended pregnancy 

over the one year followup (while this difference 

was significant when 

combining pregnancy and 

STI as one variable, 

neither was significant on 

its own). 

Project RESPECT

Participants were less 

likely to acquire an STD.

What Could You Do?

Participants were 

significantly less likely to 

report having been 

diagnosed with an STI at 

the 6-month follow-up.

Reproductive 

Health: 

Condom Use 

or 

Contraception

Aban Aya Youth Project

The program did not have an

impact on condom use for girls.

AlcoholEdu

Participating in the program 

increased the likelihood that 

participants would have 

unprotected sex.

Draw the Line/Respect the 

Line

The program had no impact on 

condom use.

Family Planning Clinic 

Support Services

The program had no impact on 

contraception use.

FOCUS

The program did not have an 

impact on consistency of 

condom use.

Peer-led HIV Prevention 

Education

The program has no impact on 

condom use.

Peer-Led Sex Education 

(RIPPLE study)

The program had no impact on 

unprotected sex.

Project CHARM

The program did not have an 

impact on frequency of 

unprotected sexual intercourse.

Condom Intervention with Women

At the 6-week follow-up, treatment 

women were significantly more likely to 

carry condoms and practice telling their 

partners to use condoms than control 

women, but they were not more likely to 

purchase condoms or to discuss condom 

use with their partner. At the 6-month 

follow-up, there were no significant 

differences between groups.

Condom Promotion Videos for 

College Students

Participants were significantly more 

likely to have used a condom the last 

time they had sex with a regular partner, 

but not the last time they had sex with a 

new or casual partner.

What Could You Do?

The program did not have an impact on 

frequency of condom use, but the 

program did have an impact on number 

of condom failures at the 6-month 

follow-up. 

Be Proud! Be 

Responsible!

Participants reported 

engaging in unprotected 

sex less frequently than 

control students at the 6-

month follow-up.

CAS-Carrera

Female participants were 

significantly more likely 

to have used DepoProvera than females in 

the control group.

Centering Pregnancy 

Plus

The program had a 

significant impact on 

condom use at the 6- and 

12-month follow-ups, and 

a significant impact on 

number of unprotected 

sexual encounters at the 

12 month follow-up.

Health Belief Model 

Intervention to Increase 

Condom Use Among 

Female Adolescents

Compared with clients in 

the control group, clients 

in the treatment group 

significantly increased 

their condom usage over 

the six-month follow-up 

period, but remained 

inconsistent users.
21

New Chance

The program had no impact on 

contraceptive use. 

Recapturing the Vision

The program has no impact on 

birth control use.

Teen Talk

Females assigned to the Teen 

Talk program were significantly 

less likely to be consistent users 

of effective contraception and 

to have used contraception the 

last time they had sex than were 

females assigned to other 

programs.

The McMaster Teen Program

The program had no impact on 

contraception use.

Untitled Prevention 

Intervention for Hispanic 

Couples

The program had no impact on 

consistent use of contraception.

Postponing Sexual 

Involvement (PSI)

Female participants were 

significantly more likely 

to use contraception than 

control females.

Sistering, Informing 

Healing, Loving, and 

Empowering (SiHLE)

SiHLE females reported 

significantly more 

consistent condom use 

than did control group 

females at both the 6- and 

12-month follow-ups.

Video-Based STD 

Patient Education

Participants were more 

likely to redeem coupons 

for free condoms.

SelfSufficiency

Career Academies

The program had no impact on 

girls’ employment or welfare 

receipt.

Job Training Partnership Act 

(JTPA)

The program had no impacts 

on earnings or receipt of public 

assistance.

New Chance

The program had no impact on 

employment, welfare receipt, or 

earnings.

JOBSTART

Participants were more likely to work at 

the 1-year follow-up but not the 2- or 4-

year follow-ups. Participants’ earnings 

were lower than controls’ for the first 

two years of follow-up and no different 

for the final two years. Participants were 

not less likely to receive of public 

benefits, except for females with 

children, who were less likely to receive 

AFDC at the 4-year follow-up. 

Nurse-Family Partnership

One study found women who 

participated in the program worked 

more than women in the control group, 

but a subsequent study found that these 

impacts faded by the 2-year follow-up. 

Another study found the impact on 

employment to be limited a subgroup of 

poor, unmarried, younger women. This 

study also found that poor, unmarried, 

older women received fewer days of 

public assistance at the 10-month 

follow-up, but not the 24-month followup. A six-year follow-up study found 

impacts on receipt of public assistance 

but not employment.

Quantum Opportunity Program

QOP-enrolled participants were more 

likely to have a job with benefits than 

control participants at the 4-year followup, but there was no impact on 

CAS-Carrera

Participants were more 

likely to have bank 

accounts and to have had 

work experience than 

control group members.

Job Corps

Participants had reduced 

reliance on public 

assistance, higher paying 

jobs, and higher levels of 

employment when 

compared with control 

group members.

Summer Career 

Exploration Program 

(SCEP)

Girls who participated in 

the program earned more 

than girls in the control 

group.

Youth Corps

Participants had greater 

total numbers of hours 

worked and were more 

likely to have worked for 

pay.
22

employment or welfare receipt.

Social Skills 21st Century Community 

Learning Centers

The program had no impact on 

teacher reports that girls “get 

along with others”. 

Alcohol Misuse Prevention 

Study (AMPS)

The program did not have a 

significant impact on girls’ 

refusal skills.

Big Brothers Big Sisters

The program had no impact on 

relationships with parents or 

peers for girls.

Comprehensive Child 

Development Program

The program had no significant 

impact on girls’ adaptive social 

behavior.

Department of Education 

Student Mentoring Program

The program had no impact on 

girls’ pro-social behaviors.

Home Visitation Trial for 

Urban Women

The program had no impact on 

mothers’ perceived social 

support.

LEAD

The program had no impact on 

girls’ self regulation skills.

Nurturing Program for 

Teenage Parents and Their 

Families

The program had no impact on 

mothers’ empathy or social 

support.

Peer-Led Sex Education 

(RIPPLE study)

Girls in the intervention group 

were less comfortable refusing 

to do something sexually that 

they did not want to do. 

CAS-Carrera

One study found that girls in the 

experimental group were more likely to 

refuse to have sex when pressured. 

Another study did not find a significant 

impact on this outcome.

New Hope Project

One study found that the program had a 

positive impact on parent report of girls’ 

positive social behaviors, but not on 

teacher report. Another study did not 

find a significant impact on girls’ 

positive social behaviors. Neither study 

found an impact on girls’ social 

relationships.

Self Sufficiency Project

The program increased positive social 

behavior for girls ages 6 to 11 but not 

younger girls. 

Social Aggression Prevention 

Program (SAPP)

The program had a positive impact on 

pro-social behavior for high-aggression 

girls, but not girls with normal 

aggression levels. There was no impact 

on teacher ratings of empathy.

Study of Mentoring in the Learning 

Environment (SMILE)

High-school girls in the experimental 

condition reported greater social support 

from friends, but middle-school girls 

reported less self control than girls in 

the control group.

Busselton Health Study

Girls in the experimental 

group reported 

significantly more positive 

feelings about their 

mothers than girls in the 

control group.

Nurse Family 

Partnership

The program had a 

positive impact on 

mothers’ social support.

Second Step: A Violence 

Prevention Curriculum

The program had a 

positive impact on girls’ 

negotiation strategies and 

positive social behavior.
23

Schools and Homes in 

Partnership (SHIP)

The program had no impact on 

teacher-rated social competence 

or positive social behavior.

Steps to Respect

The program had no impact on 

girls’ social interaction skills. 

Substance Use Aban Aya Youth Project

The program had no impact on 

substance use for girls.

Big Brothers Big Sisters

The program had no impact on 

likelihood of initiating drug or 

alcohol use. 

Busselton Health Study

The program had no impact on 

smoking at age 20.

Early Intervention Program 

for Adolescent Mothers (EIP)

The program had no impact on 

alcohol, tobacco, or marijuana 

use.

Good Behavior Game

The program had no impact on 

smoking for girls.

Job Corps

The program had no impact on 

tobacco, alcohol, or illegal drug 

use.

Know Your Body

The program did not impact 

smoking for girls.

Recapturing the Vision

 The program had no impact on 

alcohol, tobacco, or marijuana 

use.

AlcoholEdu

Program participants were less likely to 

play drinking games, but there was no 

impact on number of drinks in the past 

two weeks.

Alcohol Misuse Prevention Study 

(AMPS)

The program had positive impacts on 

alcohol use only for six grade students 

with prior drinking experience. For high 

school students, there was a significant 

impact on alcohol misuse but not serious 

alcohol offenses.

Friendly PEERsuasion

Younger participants were less likely 

than younger control students to use 

substances. The program did not have 

the same impact for older students.

Project Toward No Tobacco Use 

(TNT)

Participants were less likely to use 

cigarettes up at the one and two year 

follow-ups, but impacts on smokeless 

tobacco use were only evident at the 

one-year follow-up.

Quantum Opportunities Program

The program had a positive impact on 

binge drinking on 8 or more days in past 

month at the two year follow-up, but no 

impacts on substance use at the four 

year follow-up.

Stanford Adolescent Heart Health 

Program

More students in the intervention 

group who smoked on a monthly basis 

or less at baseline quit smoking at 

follow-up and fewer of these students 

became regular smokers when compared 

to the control group. The intervention 

did not have an impact on smoking 

frequency for students who had never 

smoked at baseline or students who 

were regular smokers at baseline.

Brief Alcohol Screening 

and Intervention for 

College Students 

(BASICS)

The program decreased 

alcohol dependence over 

the 2-year follow-up 

period.

Guiding Good Choices

The program decreased 

multiple substance use 

over time.

Tobacco Policy Options 

for Prevention (TPOP)

Intervention communities 

had lower net prevalence 

of daily, weekly, and 

monthly smoking than 

control communities.

Nurse-Family 

Partnership

Mothers who received the 

intervention smoked fewer 

cigarettes per day than 

mothers in the control 

group.

Self Sufficiency Project

The program had a 

positive impact on alcohol 

use but not drug use or 

smoking.