H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 1

H um a n F a c t or s I m pl i c a t i ons o f U A V s i n t he N a t i o na l A i r s pa c e

J a s on S

. M c C a r l e y

C hr i s t ophe r D

. W i c ke ns

I ns t i t ut e of A v i a t i on

A vi a t i on H um a n F a c t or s D i vi s i on

U ni ve r s i t y of I l l i noi s a t U rba na

- C ha m pa i gnH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 2

I N T R O D U C T I O N

U nm a nne d a e r i a l ve hi c l e s ( U A V s ) a r e qui c kl y be c om i ng a pa r t of t he na t i ona l

a i r s pa c e s ys t e m ( N A S ) a s t he y t r a ns i t i on f r om pr i m a r i l y m i l i t a r y a nd hobbyi s t

a

ppl i c a t i ons t o m a i ns t r e a m f l i gh t a ppl i c a t i ons s uc h a s s e c ur i t y m oni t or i ng

, s a t e l l i t e

t r a ns por t

, a nd c a r go ha ul i ng

. B e f or e t he f ul l pot e nt i a l of U A V f l i ght i n t he N A S c a n be

r e a l i z e d, how e ve r

, F A A s t a nda r ds a nd r e gul a t i ons f or U A V ope r a t i ons m us t be

e s t a bl i s he d. G i ve n t he e xpe r i e nc e of t he U

. S

. m i l i t a r y t ha t m i s ha p r a t e s f or U A V s a r e

s e ve r a l t i m e s hi ghe r t ha n f or m a nne d a i r c r a f t ( W i l l i a m s

, 2004)

— ove r t hi r t y t i m e s hi ghe r

, i n s om e c a s e s ( D e pa r t m e nt of D e f e ns e

, 2001)

— t he i m por t a nc e of c a r e f ul l y de s i gne d

s t a nda r ds a nd r e gul a t i ons i s c l e a r

. I s s ue s r e l a t e d t o hum a n f a c t or s a r e l i ke l y t o be o f p a r t i c ul a r c onc e r n i n

e s t a bl i s hi ng gui de l i ne s f or U A V f l i ght

. A s not e d b y G a w r on ( 1998 )

, U A V f l i gh t pr e s e nt s

hum a n f a c t or s c ha l l e nge s di f f

e r e nt f r o m a nd i n s o m e w a ys gr e a t e r t ha n t hos e o f m a nne d

f l i ght

. T he s e a r i s e pr i m a r i l y f r om t he f a c t t ha t ope r a t or a nd a i r c r a f t a r e not c o

- l oc a t e d. A s

di s c us s e d i n m or e d e t a i l be l ow

, t he s e pa r a t i on of o pe r a t or a nd ve hi c l e i m pos e s a num be r

of ba r r i e r s t o opt i m um hum a n pe r f o r m a nc e

, i nc l ud i ng l os s of s e ns or y c ue s va l ua bl e f or

f l i ght c ont r o l

, de l a ys i n c ont r ol a nd c om m uni c a t i o ns l oops

, a nd di f f i c ul t y i n s c a nni ng t he

vi s ua l e nv i r onm e nt s ur r oundi ng t he ve hi c l e

. U nm a nne d f l i ght a l s o a l l ow s t he pos s i bi l i t y

t ha t a s i ngl e ope r a t or m i ght c ont r ol m ul t i pl e ve hi c l e s s i m ul t a ne ous l y, a t a s k l i ke l y t o

i m pos e uni que a nd he a vy w or kl oa d de m a nds

. T he goa l o f t he c u r r e nt w o r k w a s t o e xa m i ne t he e xi s t i ng r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t ur e on t he

hum a n f a c t or s of unm a nne d f l i ght

, a nd t o de l i ne a t e i s s ue s f or f ut u r e r e s e a r c h t o a dd r e s s

. T he t opi c s di s c us s e d be l ow a r e di vi de d i nt o t he c a t e gor i e s A ut om at i on ; P e r c e pt ual and

C

ogni t i v e A s pe c t s of P i l ot I nt e r f

ac e ; A i r T r

af

f

i c M anage m e nt P r oc e dur e s ; a nd C r e w

Q ual i f

i c at i ons

. A s w i l l be c l e a r

, how e ve r

, t he i s s ue s c ove r e d w i t hi n t he va r i ous

c a t e gor i e s a r e hi ghl y i nt e r r e l a t e d. A ns w e r s t o que s t i ons a bout c r e w c om pl e m e nt

, f o r

e xa m pl e

, w i l l be c ont i nge nt on t he na t ur e a nd r e l i a bi l i t y of a ut om a t i on p r ovi de d t o

s uppor t U A V ope r a t or s

. L i ke w i s e

, de c i s i ons a bout i nt e r f a c e de s i gn w i l l de pe nd on t he

e xt e nt t o w hi c h f l i ght c ont r ol i s a ut om a t e d, w i t h m a nua l f l i ght m ode de m a ndi ng

t r a di t i ona l s t i c k

- a nd

- r udde r c ont r o l s a nd a ut om a t e d f l i ght m o de a l l ow i ng f or poi nt

- a nd

c l i c k m e nu

- ba s e d c ont r ol o r ot he r f o r m s of non

- t r a di t i ona l i nt e r f a c e

. I t i s a l s o i m po r t a nt t o not e t ha t unm a nne d a i r c r a f t w i l l l i ke l y s e r ve a r a nge o f

pur pos e s i n c i vi l i a n a i r s pa c e

, a nd t ha t t he de m a nds pl a c e d on hum a n ope r a t or s w i l l va r y

w i t h c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of t he f l i ght m i s s i on. P r opos e d us e s f or U A V s i nc l ude a gr i c ul t ur a l

,

ge ol ogi c a l

, a nd m e t e or ol og i c a l da t a c ol l e c t i on; bor de r s ur ve i l l a nc e ; l ong d i s t a nc e

t r a ns por t ; s e a r c h a nd r e s c ue ; di s a s t e r m oni t o r i ng; t r a f f i c m oni t or i ng; a nd

t e l e c om m uni c a t i ons r e l a y. F u r t he r m or e

, m i l i t a r y U A V s w i l l i nc r e a s i ngl y be r e qui r e d t o

t r a ns i t i on t hr ough c i vi l i a n a i r s pa c e e n r out e t o t he i r m i s s i ons

. I n s om e of t he s e c a s e s

, t he

ve hi c l e i s l i ke l y t o ope r a t e s ol e l y w i t hi n l i ne

- o f

- s i g ht c om m uni c a t i ons r a ng e a nd on l y

ove r r e l a t i ve l y s hor t pe r i ods o f t i m e ( i

. e

. , on t he t i m e s c a l e of s e ve r a l hour s o r l e s s )

. I n

ot he r c a s e s

, t he ve hi c l e w i l l ope r a t e a t d i s t a nc e s de m a ndi ng ove r

- t he

- ho r i z on

c om m uni c a t i ons

, a nd w i l l pot e nt i a l l y r e m a i n a i r bo r ne f or m a ny da ys on e nd. T he s e

m i s s i on c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l m odul a t e c onc e r ns a bout c om m uni c a t i ons de l a ys be t w e e n

gr ound c ont r ol s t a t i on a nd ve hi c l e

, a nd a bout t he n e e d f or t r a ns f e r of ve hi c l e c ont r o l

be t w e e n c r e w s

. F or s om e a ppl i c a t i ons

, a ddi t i ona l l y, ope r a t or s w i l l l i ke l y be r e qui r e d t oH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 3

m a ke f r e que nt c ont r o l i nput s

, a dj us t i ng f l i ght pa r a m e t e r s or s e l e c t i ng ne w w a ypoi nt s

“ onl i ne ” i n r e s pons e t o c ha ngi ng t a s k de m a nds or c ondi t i ons

. F or ot he r a ppl i c a t i ons

, f l i ght pa t h w i l l be pr e de t e r m i ne d a nd l e s s s us c e pt i bl e t o m odi f i c a t i on, r e du c i ng t he

i m m e di a c y a nd f r e que nc y w i t h w hi c h ope r a t o r s a r e r e qui r e d t o i nt e r ve ne i n f l i ght c ont r o l

a nd a l l ow i ng f o r a he a vi e r r e l i a nc e on a ut om a t e d v e hi c l e gui da nc e

.

T E C H N I C A L A P P R O A C H

O ur t e c hni c a l a pp r oa c h i nvol ve d t h r e e pa r a l l e l e f f

or t s

. ( 1) W e a c qui r e d a l a r ge body of

l i t e r a t ur e

, bot h i n publ i s he d s our c e s a nd i n t e c hni c a l r e por t s

, t ha t a ddr e s s e d a ny a s pe c t s

of hum a n f a c t or s i n U A V s

. T hi s l i t e r a t ur e i s doc u m e nt e d i n a n a nnot a t e d b i bl i ogr a phy i n

A ppe ndi x A

. ( 2) W e i de nt i f i e d l a bor a t or i e s w he r e U A V h um a n f a c t or s w or k i s i n

pr ogr e s s

. T he s e l a bor a t or i e s

, a nd poi nt s o f c ont a c t s

, a r e l i s t e d i n A ppe ndi x C

. ( 3 ) W e

be c a m e a c qua i nt e d w i t h U A V hum a n f a c t o r s i s s ue s i n c i vi l i a n a i r s pa c e by f a m i l i a r i z i ng

our s e l ve s w i t h A c c e s s 5 doc um e nt s

. ( 4) W e a ppl i e d our ow n s ubj e c t

- m a t t e r e xpe r t i s e of

bot h a vi a t i on hum a n f a c t or s i n ge ne r a l

, a nd U A V ope r a t i ons i n pa r t i c ul a r

, t o i de nt i f y 18

ke y hum a n f a c t or s r e s e a r c h t opi c s

, t ha t w e be l i e ve d w e r e r e l at i ve l y u n i q u e t o U A V

ope r a t i ons

. T hi s un i que ne s s c ons t r a i nt i s c r i t i c a l

. T he r e a r e f o r e xa m pl e num e r ous hum a n

f

a c t or s i s s ue s t ha t s houl d be a ppl i e d e qua l l y t o m a nne d a s w e l l a s t o unm a nne d a i r c r a f t

,

r e l a t i ng t o t opi c s s uc h a s di s pl a y l e gi bi l i t y, C R M a nd c om m uni c a t i ons

, c he c kl i s t de s i gn,

e t c

. W e di d no t i nc l ude t he s e i n our e f f

o r t

, bu t not e t he i r e ndu r i ng i m po r t a nc e f o r U A V

c e r t i f i c a t i on. R e s e a r c h t opi c s a r e de s c r i be d i n t he t e xt be l ow

, a nd i n A ppe ndi x B a r e

c r os s

- i nde xe d w i t h r e l e va nt s our c e s f r om t he r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t ur e de s c r i be d i n A ppe ndi x A

. H a vi ng i de nt i f i e d i s s ue s

, a nd e xa m i ne d w r i t t e n doc um e nt s t ha t de s c r i be d hum a n

f

a c t or s r e s e a r c h, our f i na l pr oduc t w a s t o m a p r e s e a r c h ne e ds a ga i ns t e xi s t i ng r e s e a r c h

doc um e nt s

, w he r e s uc h doc um e nt s c ont a i ne d e m pi r i c a l l y va l i d f i ndi ngs

. T hi s m a t e r i a l

,

c ont a i ne d i n t a bl e 1 of t he r e por t be l ow

, pr ovi de s a n i de nt i f i c a t i on o f t he ke y r e s e a r c h

a r e a s t ha t w e be l i e ve s houl d be f unde d, i n or de r t o pr oc e e d on t he pa t h t ow a r d s a f e

c e r t i f i c a t i on of U A V s i n c i vi l i a n a i r s pa c e

. W e ha v e not e xpl i c i t l y pr i or i t i z e d t he s e a r e a s

i n t e r m s of t he i r i m por t a nc e

.

A U T O M A T I O N I S S U E S

1. T o w h a t e xt e n t s h ou l d e n r ou t e f l i gh t c on t r ol b e au t om a t e d ?

C ur r e nt U A V s ys t e m s va r y i n t he de gr e e t o w hi c h e n r out e f l i ght c ont r ol i s

a

ut om a t e d. I n s om e c a s e s t he a i r c r a f t i s gu i de d m a nua l l y us i ng s t i c k a nd r udde r c ont r o l s

,

w i t h t he ope r a t o r r e c e i vi ng vi s ua l i m a ge r y f r om a f or w a r d l ooki ng c a m e r a m ount e d on

t he ve hi c l e

. I n ot he r c a s e s c ont r ol i s pa r t i a l l y a ut o m a t e d, s uc h t ha t t he ope r a t or s e l e c t s t he

de s i r e d pa r a m e t e r s or be ha vi or s t h r ough a c om put e r m e nu or r ot a r y di a l i nt e r f a c e i n t h e

gr ound c ont r ol s t a t i on. I n ot he r c a s e s s t i l l c ont r ol i s f ul l y a ut om a t e d, s uc h t ha t a n

a

ut opi l ot m a i nt a i ns f l i gh t c ont r ol us i ng pr e p r ogr a m m e d f l y

- t o c oor di na t e s

. A t l e a s t one

s ys t e m ( P i one e r )

, f i na l l y

, a l l ow s t he ope r a t or t o s w i t c h be t w e e n f ul l m a nua l

, hy b r i d, a nd

f ul l a ut om a t i on c ont r ol m ode s

. T he s e va r i ous m ode s of f l i ght c ont r ol e a c h p r e s e nt be ne f i t s a nd dr a w ba c ks

( M oul oua

, e t a l

, 2003 )

. F ul l m a nua l c ont r ol w oul d s e e m t o i m pos e t he hi ghe s t a nd m os t

c ont i nuous l e ve l of c ogni t i ve w or kl oa d on U A V o pe r a t or s

. M or e ove r

, m a nua l c ont r ol

w i l l be de gr a de d by c om m uni c a t i on de l a ys be t w e e n U A V a nd G C S ( s e e #8, #13 )

. C onve r s e l y, f ul l y a ut om a t e d c ont r ol c a n pr e ve nt a n ope r a t or f r om r a pi dl y i nt e r ve ni ngH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 4

w he n ne c e s s a r y, ( e

. g.

, upon l os s of c om m uni c a t i on s ) a nd by l e a vi ng t he ope r a t or l a r ge l y

“ out of t he l oop” ( W i c ke ns & H ol l a nd, 2000)

, c a n pr oduc e de gr a de d s i t ua t i on a w a r e ne s s

( e

. g.

, not i c i ng a c ha nge of ha ndl i ng qua l i t i e s due t o i c i ng)

. F l i ght pl a nni ng c a n a l s o be

e xc e s s i v e l y t i m e c ons um i ng f o r f ul l y a ut om a t e d s y s t e m s

, s om e t i m e s r e qui r i ng m a ny

w e e ks ( W i l l i a m s

, 2004)

. F or r e a s ons l i ke t hos e de s c r i be d a bove

, M oul oua

, e t a l ( 2003 ) r e c om m e nde d

hybr i d m a nua l / a ut om a t e d c ont r ol s ys t e m s f or m i l i t a r y U A V s

. A bl a nke t

r e c om m e nda t i on, how e ve r

, m a y no t be a ppr opr i a t e f or U A V f l i gh t i n c i vi l i a n a i r s pa c e

. R a t he r

, t he opt i m a l f l i gh t c ont r o l s ys t e m s e e m s l i ke l y t o va r y w i t h t he c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of

t he f l i ght ope r a t i on, e i t he r w i t hi n o r a c r os s f l i ght s

. U A V ope r a t i ons t ha t e nt a i l p r i m a r i l y

l ong

- e ndur a nc e s t a t i on

- ke e pi ng ( A C C E S S 5, 2003 )

, f or e x a m pl e

, a r e not l i ke l y t o i m pos e

e s pe c i a l l y hi gh de m a nds on ope r a t or s i t ua t i on a w a r e ne s s

. F ul l y a ut om a t e d c ont r ol m i gh t

t he r e f or e be m or e a ppr op r i a t e f o r s uc h ope r a t i ons t ha t e i t he r hybr i d or m a nua l

a

ut om a t i on. T he opt i m a l l e ve l of a ut om a t i on m a y a l s o de pe n d on t he num be r of U A V s

t ha t a s i ngl e ope r a t or i s r e qui r e d t o c ont r ol

, t he c o m m uni c a t i on de l a ys be t w e e n ope r a t or

a nd U A V

, a nd t he qua l i t y o f vi s ua l i m a ge r y a nd ot he r s e ns or y i nf or m a t i on pr ovi de d t o

t he ope r a t or f r om t he U A V

. A num be r o f que s t i ons r e l a t e d t o t he m e t hod of U A V f l i ght c ont r ol t hus r e m a i n t o

be a ddr e s s e d. R e s e a r c h i s r e c om m e nde d t o:

• D e t e r m i ne t he c i r c um s t a nc e s unde r w hi c h va r i ous m ode s of U A V f l i ght c ont r o l

—

f ul l y a ut om a t e d, pa r t i a l l y a ut om a t e d, m a nua l

— a r e a ppr opr i a t e

.

• D e t e r m i ne w he t he r or not t he l e ve l o f a ut om a t e d f l i ght c ont r ol s houl d be

r e c onf i gur a bl e

, s uc h t ha t t he ope r a t or c a n a l t e r na t e be t w e e n l e ve l s of c ont r o l

w he n he / s he de e m s a ppr opr i a t e

.

• D e t e r m i ne w he t he r t he r e c onf i gur a t i on of f l i ght c o nt r ol s houl d i t s e l f be a da pt i ve l y

a

ut om a t e d, s uc h t ha t t he U A V s ys t e m a dj us t s t he l e ve l of a ut om a t e d f l i ght c ont r ol

t o m a t c h t he c u r r e nt c i r c um s t a nc e s ( e

. g.

, t he c ur r e nt c om m uni c a t i ons de l a y

be t w e e n U A V a nd G C S )

.

• D e t e r m i ne how a nd w he n t he U A V ope r a t o r w i l l b e a l l ow e d t o ove r r i de t he

a

ut om a t e d f l i ght c on t r ol s ys t e m

. T he out put of t h i s w or k w oul d be a s e t of r ul e s a dvi s i ng w ha t l e ve l of a ut om a t i on s houl d

be a va i l a bl e / r e qui r e d, du r i ng w ha t pha s e s of f l i ght a nd t ype s of ope r a t i ons

.

2. Wh a t ar e t h e c on s e q u e n c e s of d e gr ad e d r e l i a b i l i t y o f au t om a t e d U A V f u n c t i on s

f

or p e r f or m an c e o f t h e au t om at e d t as k a n d o f c on c u r r e n t t as k s ?

A s t he di s c us s i on i n #1 a bove m a ke s c l e a r

, U A V o pe r a t i ons a r e l i ke l y t o be

hi ghl y a ut om a t e d. I t i s w i de l y a c know l e dge d, how e ve r

, t ha t of t e n t he e f f

e c t o f

a

ut om a t i on i s not t o r e duc e t he hum a n ope r a t o r ’ s t a s k de m a nds but r a t he r t o c ha nge

t he m

, i m pos i ng ne w f or m s of c ogni t i ve w or kl oa d a nd m odi f yi ng t he ope r a t or ’ s

pe r f or m a nc e s t r a t e gi e s ( P a r a s ur a m a n, 2000)

. S uc h c ha nge s

, a nd oc c a s i ona l i nc r e a s e s i n

c ogni t i ve w or kl oa d, of t e n r e s ul t i n c i r c um s t a n c e s w he n a ut om a t i on i s i m pe r f e c t

. T hi s

i m pe r f e c t i on doe s not r e f e r t o i s s ue s s uc h a s s of t w a r e r e l i a bi l i t y ( e

. g

. , “ 10

– 5

r e qui r e m e nt s ” )

, but r a t he r

, t o c i r c um s t a nc e s w he r e c or r e c t l y f unc t i oni ng a ut om a t i on i s

i nc a pa bl e of pe r f e c t l y c a r r yi ng out t he f unc t i ons a s ke d of i t

. E xa m pl e s i nc l ude on

- boa r d

c ondi t i ons ( e

. g.

, i c i ng ) f or w hi c h s t a bi l i t y c ont r o l c a nnot f ul l y c om pe ns a t e

, di a gnos t i c

s ys t e m s ba s e d on i m pe r f e c t c ue s

, o r c onf l i c t de t e c t i on/ a voi da nc e a l gor i t hm s ba s e d uponH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 5

f ut ur e t r a

j e c t or y e s t i m a t e s i n a p r oba bi l i s t i c e nvi r o nm e nt ( X u, e t a l

, 2002; K uc ha r

, 2001)

. P a s t w or k ha s i ndi c a t e d t ha t i m pe r f e c t a ut om a t i on a t a r e l i a bi l i t y l e ve l g r e a t e r t ha n

a r ound 0. 80 c a n c ont i nue t o s uppor t pe r f or m a nc e o n t he a ut om a t e d t a s k a s w e l l a s

c onc ur r e nt t a s ks ( D i xon a nd W i c ke ns

, 2004; W i c k e ns & D i xon, 2005)

, a l t hough t hi s

“ t hr e s hol d” e s t i m a t e r e m a i ns f a r f r om a n a bs ol ut e va l ue

, a nd ot he r f a c t or s

, s uc h a s t he

na t ur e a nd pr i o r i t y o f t he a ut om a t e d t a s k, a ppe a r t o m odul a t e pi l ot t ol e r a nc e f o r

i m pe r f e c t i on. T o a l l ow t he op t i m a l de s i gn of a ut o m a t e d s uppor t s ys t e m s f or U A V

ope r a t or s

, r e s e a r c h i s t hus r e c om m e nde d t o:

• D e t e r m i ne t he m i ni m u m a c c e pt a bl e r e l i a bi l i t y l e ve l s f or a ut om a t e d f unc t i ons t ha t

r e l a t i ve l y uni que t o U A V ope r a t i ons

.

• A nt i c i pa t e pot e nt i a l f o r m s of s ys t e m f a i l ur e

, a nd d e l i ne a t e t he i r l i ke l y

c ons e que nc e s

.

• E s t i m a t e t he m e a ns a nd s t a nda r d de vi a t i ons o f ope r a t or s ’ r e s pons e t i m e s t o

va r i ous f a i l ur e s

. T e c hni que s s uc h a s F a i l ur e M ode s E f f

e c t s C r i t i c a l i t y A na l ys i s c a n be us e d i n t he s e

e nde a vor s

.

3. H ow w i l l s e e an d avoi d r e q u i r e m e n t s b e ad d r e s s e d i n U A V f l i gh t ? C an au t o m at e d

d e t e c t

, s e e , an d avo i d ( D

S

A ) t e c h n ol ogy al l ow a U A V op e r at or t o m ai n t ai n

ac c e p t ab l e l e ve l s of s e p ar at i on ? Wh at ar e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of i m p e r f e c t l y r e l i ab l e

D S A au t om a t i on on c on f l i c t d e t e c t i on an d on p e r f or m an c e of c on c u r r e n t t as k s ?

T he a bi l i t y t o m a i nt a i n a de qua t e s e pa r a t i on be t w e e n a i r c r a f t i s a p r e r e qui s i t e f or

t he s a f e i nt e gr a t i on o f unm a nne d ve hi c l e s i nt o t he N A S

. W hi l e s a f e s e pa r a t i on f r om ot he r

a i r c r a f t c a n ge ne r a l l y be a s s ur e d t hr ough s t a nda r d A T C ope r a t i ons i n ope r a t i ons unde r

I F R a nd I M C ( bu t s e e i s s ue #13 be l ow )

, t he r e w i l l be t i m e s i n w hi c h U A V s m a y be

f l yi ng unde r V F R ( o r a c or r e s pondi ng de s i gna t i on) i n w hi c h de t e c t

, s e e a nd a voi d ( D S A )

c a pa bi l i t i e s a r e e s s e nt i a l

. I n s uc h c i r c um s t a nc e s

, s e pa r a t i on m a y of t e n be m a i nt a i ne d

t hr ough e m e r gi ng C N S ( c om m uni c a t i ons

, na vi ga t i on, s ur ve i l l a nc e ) t e c hnol ogy s uppor t e d

by G P S na vi ga t i on a nd A D S

- B c om m uni c a t i ons

. H ow e ve r

, t he s e c ondi t i ons do not

a c c om m oda t e une qui ppe d ( non

- c oope r a t i ng) a i r ve hi c l e s t ha t a r e una bl e t o a c c ur a t e l y

t r a ns m i t ( or t r a ns m i t a t a l l ) t he i r pos i t i on a nd t r a j e c t or y t hr ough t he 3D a i r s pa c e

, a nd

w hi c h m a y be unc oope r a t i ve o r non

- r e s pons i ve i n ne got i a t i ng c onf l i c t a voi da nc e

m a ne uve r s

. I t i s f or t hi s r e a s on t ha t a ut om a t e d D S A f unc t i ons a r e r e qui r e d. T he ne e d f or

s uc h f unc t i ons r a i s e t w o c r i t i c a l hum a n f a c t o r s c onc e r ns

. F i r s t

, ope r a t o r s w i l l be a s ke d t o i nt e r a c t w i t h e r r or pr one s ys t e m s

. I t i s l i ke l y t ha t

a

ut om a t i c t a r ge t r e c ogni t i on c a pa bi l i t i e s w i l l be f a l l i bl e

, pa r t i c ul a r l y i f t he y a r e a s ke d t o

ge ne r a t e e a r l y a l e r t s ( i

. e

. , a t s uf f i c i e nt d i s t a nc e t ha t a voi da nc e m a ne uve r s a r e pos s i bl e )

. A s a c ons e que nc e

, t hi s f or m o f a ut om a t i on w i l l be i m pe r f e c t ( s e e # 2 a bove ; T hom a s

, W i c ke ns

, & R a nt a ne n, 2003)

, l e a di ng t o e i t he r m i s s e s ( l a t e a l e r t s ) or f a l s e a l e r t s

. G i ve n

t he hi gh c os t s of m i s s e s

, a nd l ow ba s e

- r a t e of e ve nt s ( P a r a s ur a m a n, H a nc oc k, a nd

O bof i nba ba

, 1996)

, t he f a l s e a l a r m r a t e w i l l be pot e nt i a l l y qui t e hi gh ( K r oi s

, 1999)

. T he

e f

f

e c t s of s uc h a ut om a t i on e r r or s w i l l ha ve t o be c ons i de r e d i n de s i gni ng D S A s y s t e m s

. S e c ond, ope r a t or s w i l l be r e qui r e d t o i nt e r a c t w i t h t he i m pe r f e c t l y r e l i a bl e D S A s ys t e m

w hi l e a l s o m a i nt a i ni ng r e s pons i bi l i t y f or a i r f r a m e a nd pa yl oa d c ont r ol

. T he s e c onc ur r e nt

r e s pons i bi l i t i e s w i l l de t e r m i ne t he de gr e e t o w h i c h t he ope r a t or c a n be e xpe c t e d t oH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 6

ove r s e e t he D S A

, m oni t or i ng t he r a w da t a of t he U A V s e ns or i m a ge s of t he 3D a i r s pa c e

upon w hi c h t he D S A a l gor i t hm s a r e ba s e d. I n l i ght of t he s e c onc e r ns

, r e s e a r c h i s

r e c om m e nde d t o:

• D e t e r m i ne how ope r a t or s w i l l r e s pond t o a l e r t i m p e r f e c t i ons i n D S A

.

• D e l i ne a t e t he c onf l i c t ge om e t r i e s a nd vi s i bi l i t y c on di t i ons t ha t a r e l i ke l y t o

de gr a de t he r e l i a bi l i t y of D S A a ut om a t i on

.

• E s t a bl i s h pr oc e dur e s by w hi c h t he out put o f hum a n pe r c e pt i on a nd a ut om a t e d

t a r ge t a na l ys i s c a n be c om bi ne d t o m a xi m i z e t he s e ns i t i vi t y of t he t w o

c om pone nt ( pi l ot a nd a l gor i t h m ) s ys t e m gi ve n t he pi l ot ’ s c onc ur r e nt

r e s pons i bi l i t y f or f l i ght c ont r ol

.

4. T o w h a t e xt e n t s h ou l d t ak e o f f an d l an d i n g b e au t om a t e d ?

C ur r e nt U A V s ys t e m s di f f

e r i n t he i r m a nne r of t a ke of f a nd l a ndi ng

. S om e ( e

. g.

,

t he H unt e r a nd P i one e r ) a r e c ont r ol l e d by a n on

- s i t e e xt e r na l pi l ot

. O t he r s ( e

. g

. , t he

P r e da t or ) a r e c ont r ol l e d by a n a i r ve hi c l e ope r a t or w i t hi n t he G C S

. F or ot he r s s t i l l ( e

. g

. ,

t he G l oba l H a w k) t a ke of f a nd l a ndi ng a r e f ul l y a ut om a t e d. T he s e di f f

e r e n c e s a ppe a r t o be

c ons e que nt i a l ; t a ke of f a nd l a ndi ng e r r or s c ons t i t ut e a hi ghe r p r opor t i on of hum a n f a c t o r s

r e l a t e d a c c i de nt s f or t he H unt e r ( 67% ) a nd P i one e r ( 78% ) s ys t e m s

, bot h o f w hi c h a r e

c ont r ol l e d by a n e xt e r na l pi l o t

, t ha n f o r ot he r s ys t e m s ( W i l l i a m s

, 2004 )

. R e s e a r c h i s

t he r e f or e r e c om m e nde d t o:

• D e t e r m i ne w ha t m e t hod o f U A V c ont r ol du r i ng t a ke of f a nd l a ndi ng i s a ppr op r i a t e

f

or a i r c r a f t i n c i vi l i a n a i r s pa c e

.

• D e l i ne a t e t he r e s pons i bi l i t i e s t ha t t he hum a n ope r a t or c a n a nd w i l l be e xpe c t e d t o

a s s um e i n t h e c a s e of a ut om a t i on f a i l ur e

.

• E s t a bl i s h gui de l i ne s t o f o r how a nd how w i l l t he h um a n ope r a t or w i l l be a l l ow e d

t o ove r r i de a ut om a t e d c ont r ol s ys t e m s

.

P I L O T I N T E R F A C E : P E R C E P T U A L A N D C O G N I T I V E I S S U E S

5. T h r ou gh w h at f or m of c on t r ol i n t e r f ac e s h ou l d i n t e r n al an d e xt e r n al p i l ot s

m an i p u l a t e a U A V ?

A s not e d a bove

, U A V s ys t e m s w i l l va r y i n t he de g r e e t o w hi c h a i r f r a m e c ont r ol i s

a

ut om a t e d e i t he r e n r out e or dur i ng t a ke of f a nd l a n di ng. F o r a ny s ys t e m t ha t i s not f ul l y

a

ut om a t e d

— i nc l udi ng s ys t e m s t ha t a l l ow f or a h u m a n ope r a t or t o i nt e r ve ne i n ve hi c l e

c ont r ol by ove r r i di ng a ut om a t i on

— i t w i l l be ne c e s s a r y t o pr ovi de ope r a t or s w i t h a

c ont r ol i nt e r f a c e t hr ough w hi c h t o m a ni pul a t e t he ve hi c l e

. T he f or m of t hi s i nt e r f a c e w i l l

di f f

e r f or i nt e r na l p i l ot s

, t hos e w ho i nt e r a c t w i t h t h e ve hi c l e t hr ough a n i nt e r f a c e o f

s e ns or di s pl a ys a nd c ont r ol s i ns i de a gr ound c ont r o l s t a t i on, a nd e xt e r na l pi l ot s

, t hos e

w ho i nt e r a c t w i t h t he ve hi c l e w hi l e i n vi s ua l c ont a c t w i t h i t a t t he s i t e of t a ke of f o r

l a ndi ng. I n t he c a s e of f ul l m a nua l c ont r ol by a n i n t e r na l pi l ot

, t he s e e m i ngl y ob vi ous

c hoi c e of c ont r ol de s i gn i s a s t i c k a nd r udde r i nt e r f a c e l i ke t ha t us e d f o r c ont r ol of

m a nne d a i r c r a f t

. I n c a s e s of pa r t i a l l y a ut om a t e d f l i ght c ont r ol

, or of f ul l y a ut om a t e d f l i ght

c ont r ol w he r e t he pi l ot i s pr ovi de d a ut ho r i t y t o ove r r i de t he a ut om a t i on w he n de e m e d

ne c e s s a r y, t he opt i m a l de s i gn of c ont r ol i nt e r f a c e i s l e s s c l e a r

. C ur r e nt U A V s ys t e m s va r y

i n c ont r ol de s i gn, w i t h s om e s ys t e m s a l l ow i ng i nt e r a c t i on t hr ough knobs or pos i t i on

s w i t c he s a nd ot he r s t hr ough m ous e

- dr i ve n poi nt

- a nd

- c l i c k c om put e r m e nus ( W i l l i a m s

,H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 7

2004)

. A l t e r na t i ve de s i gns m a y be pos s i bl e

, how e v e r

, a nd s houl d be e xpl or e d

. A ddi t i ona l l y, i t i s i m po r t a nt t o e ns ur e t ha t a ny i nt e r f a c e be t a i l or e d a c c or di ng t o

e s t a bl i s he d hum a n f a c t or s gui de l i ne s ; da t a s ugge s t t ha t s om e e xi s t i ng U A V s ys t e m

i nt e r f a c e s a r e poor l y de s i gne d f or hum a n i nt e r a c t i o n.

S i m i l a r l y, r e s e a r c h i s ne c e s s a r y t o a s s e s s a nd i m pr ove t he de s i gn of c ont r ol s f o r

e xt e r na l pi l ot s

. C ur r e nt l y, a n e xt e r na l pi l ot m a ni pu l a t e s t he U A V us i n g j oys t i c k c ont r ol s

s i m i l a r t o t hos e us e d by r a di o

- c ont r ol l e d a i r c r a f t h obbyi s t s ( W i l l i a m s

, 2004)

. T he s e

de s i gns a r e pr obl e m a t i c

, how e ve r

, i n t ha t t he m a pp i ng of ve hi c l e m ove m e nt t o c ont r ol

i nput va r i e s de pe ndi ng on t he he a di ng o f t he ve hi c l e r e l a t i ve t o t ha t o f t he E P

. W he n t he

he a di ng of t he ve hi c l e a nd pi l ot a r e t he s a m e

, a r i g ht w a r d i nput t o t he j oys t i c k c ont r ol

pr oduc e s r i ght w a r d m ot i on f r om t he a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t he pi l ot

. W he n t he he a di ng of t he

a i r c r a f t a nd pi l ot de vi a t e

, how e ve r

, t hi s i s no l ong e r t r ue

. I n t he m os t e xt r e m e c a s e

, w he r e

t he he a di ng of t he U A V a nd p i l ot di f f

e r by 180°

, a r i ght w a r d i nput on t he j oys t i c k

pr oduc e s l e f t w a r d m ot i on of t he ve hi c l e r e l a t i ve t o t he pi l ot

. J oys t i c k c ont r ol s f or e xt e r na l

pi l ot s a r e t hus not de s i gne d t o c onf o r m c ons i s t e nt l y t o t he w e l l

- e s t a bl i s he d hum a n f a c t or s

pr i nc i pl e of m ot i on c om pat i bi l i t y ( W i c ke ns & H ol l a nd, 2000; W i c ke ns

, V i nc ow

, & Y e h,

2005)

. N ot s ur pr i s i ngl y

, t hi s vi o l a t i on a ppe a r s t o b e c ont r i but i ng f a c t or i n a hi gh num be r

of U A V m i s ha ps ( W i l l i a m s

, 20 04)

. Q ui gl e y a nd c o l l e a gue s ( Q ui gl e y, G oodr i c h

, & B e a r d,

2004) ha ve de s i gne d a nd t e s t e d a va r i e t y of c ont r ol i nt e r f a c e s t o a ddr e s s t hi s p r obl e m

. F ur t he r i s now ne c e s s a r y t o:

• E xpl or e a nd opt i m i z e t he de s i gn of c ont r ol i n t e r f a c e s f or i nt e r na l a nd e xt e r na l

pi l ot s ’ c ont r ol of U A V s

.

• D e l i ne a t e t he pe r f or m a nc e be ne f i t s a nd dr a w ba c ks of va r i ous f or m s of U A V

c ont r ol i nt e r f a c e s o a s t o de t e r m i ne w hi c h de s i gn s houl d be a dopt e d.

6. Wh a t c om p r o m i s e s s h ou l d b e a d op t e d b e t w e e n s p at i al r e s ol u t i on , t e m p or al

r e s ol u t i on , t i m e d e l ay , a n d f i e l d

- o f

- vi e w ( F O V ) i n t h e d i s p l ay o f vi s u al i m age r y f or

f l i gh t c on t r ol a n d / or c on f l i c t d e t e c t i on ?

A U A V ope r a t or ge ne r a l l y r e l i e s on i m a ge r y f r om onboa r d s e ns or s f or m a nua l

c ont r ol of ve hi c l e a nd pa yl oa d a nd f or vi s ua l t a r ge t de t e c t i on. T he q ua l i t y of t hi s vi s ua l

i nf or m a t i on, how e ve r

, m a y be de gr a de d due t o da t a l i nk ba ndw i dt h l i m i t s a nd

t r a ns m i s s i on de l a ys

. S pe c i f i c de gr a da t i ons i nc l ude poor s pa t i a l r e s ol ut i on, l i m i t e d F O V

, l ow upda t e r a t e s

, a nd de l a ye d i m a ge upda t i ng ( V a n E r p

, 2000 )

. T he s e c o ndi t i ons w i l l

i m pa i r bot h ve hi c l e c ont r ol a nd t he v i s ua l de t e c t i on of a i r t r a f f i c

. F o r e xa m pl e

, l ow i m a ge

upda t e r a t e s w i l l de gr a de pe r c e pt i on of m ot i on i nf or m a t i on t ha t i s us e f ul f o r d r a w i ng

a t t e nt i on t o a i r t r a f f i c i n t he vi s ua l f i e l d. L ow upda t e r a t e s a nd l ong c om m uni c a t i on

de l a ys

, l i ke w i s e

, w i l l p r oduc e di s c ont i nuous a nd s l ow vi s ua l f e e dba c k i n r e s pons e t o

ope r a t or c ont r ol i nput s

, l e a di ng t o i ns t a bi l i t y of m a nua l U A V c ont r ol or c a m e r a i m a ge

c ont r ol a nd e nc our a gi ng ope r a t or s t o a dopt a “ go

- a nd

- w a i t s t r a t e gy” i n m a nua l c ont r ol

( V a n E r p & V a n B r e da

, 1999 )

. P oor s pa t i a l r e s ol ut i on, obvi ous l y, w i l l i m pa i r de t e c t i on of

obj e c t s t ha t oc c upy onl y a s m a l l vi s ua l a ngl e w i t hi n a n i m a ge

, r e duc i ng s t a nd

- of f di s t a nc e

i n de t e c t i on of pot e nt i a l t r a f f i c c onf l i c t s ( s e e 4 a bove )

. A s m a l l f i e l d of v i e w ( F O V ) w i l l

not onl y e l i m i na t e a m bi e nt vi s ua l i n f or m a t i on us e f ul f or a s s e s s i ng e go

- m ot i on ne c e s s a r y

a t l ow l e ve l f l i ght ( G i bs on, 1979 ; W i c ke ns & H ol l a nd, 2000)

, but w i l l a l s o i m pos e a

de m a nd f or g r e a t e r a m ount s o f c a m e r a s c a nni n g f o r s uc c e s s f ul t r a f f i c de t e c t i on

. A w e l l

de s i gne d s ys t e m f or di s pl a y of s e ns or y i m a ge r y w i l l be r e qui r e d t o ba l a nc e t he be ne f i t sH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 8

a nd c os t s of t e m por a l r e s ol ut i on, s pa t i a l r e s ol ut i on, a nd F O V

. T o gui de t he de s i gn of

vi s ua l i nf or m a t i on di s pl a ys

, r e s e a r c h i s r e c om m e n de d t o:

• D e t e r m i ne w ha t i nf o r m a t i on i s “ t a s k

- c r i t i c a l ” i n m a nua l a i r f r a m e c ont r ol

, pa yl oa d

s e ns or c ont r ol

, a nd v i s ua l t r a f f i c de t e c t i on ( V a n B r e da

, 2000)

.

• E s t a bl i s h t he opt i m a l c om p r om i s e be t w e e n s pa t i a l r e s ol ut i on, t e m por a l r e s ol ut i on,

a nd F O V i n t he di s pl a y of vi s ua l i m a ge r y

. A s pa r t of t hi s w or k

, i t w i l l be i m por t a nt t o e s t a bl i s h a c a t a l ogue of m i s s i on pa yl oa d

r e qui r e m e nt s t ha t m a y c om pr om i s e t he qua l i t y of v i s ua l i nf or m a t i on f or f l i ght

, a nd

e s t a bl i s h t he m i ni m um ne c e s s a r y i nf or m a t i on ( t i m e de l a y a nd i m a ge qua l i t y ) f or m a nua l

c ont r ol

. F or d i f f

e r e nt f unc t i ons

, s e ns i t i vi t y c ur ve s s houl d be e s t a bl i s he d t o s how

pe r f or m a nc e qua l i t y or f unc t i on de gr a da t i on a s a f unc t i on of s pa t i a l a nd t e m por a l

r e s ol ut i on.

7. C an au gm e n t e d r e al i t y d i s p l ays or s yn t h e t i c vi s i on s ys t e m s s u c c e s s f u l l y

c om p e n s at e f or t h e d e gr ad e d vi s u al i m age r y p r ovi d e d b y on b oar d s e n s or s ?

A s not e d a bove ( #6)

, l ow t e m por a l r e s ol ut i on a nd de l a ye d upda t i ng of v i s ua l

i m a ge r y r e c e i ve d f r om onboa r d s e ns or s w i l l de gr a de m a nua l c ont r ol of a i r f r a m e a nd

pa yl oa d t a s ks

. T he j udi c i ous c hoi c e o f s pa t i a l a nd t e m por a l i m a ge pa r a m e t e r s m a y

a t t e nua t e t he s e e f f

e c t s

, but i s un l i ke l y t o m i t i ga t e t he m i n f ul l

. A n a l t e r na t i ve a ppr oa c h t o

i m pr ovi ng vi s ua l i n f or m a t i on di s pl a y m a y be t hr ou gh t he us e of “ a ugm e nt e d r e a l i t y”

( M i l gr a m & C ol quhoun, 1999 ) o r “ s ynt he t i c vi s i on ” ( D r a pe r

, e t a l

, 2004 )

, i n w hi c h t he

r e a l

- w or l d i m a ge r y pr ovi de d by a s e ns or i s e m be dde d w i t hi n a di s pl a y o f c om put e r

ge ne r a t e d l a ndm a r ks or obj e c t s r e pr e s e nt i ng t he s a m e s c e ne

. T he vi r t ue of a ugm e nt e d

r e a l i t y i n t he c ont e xt o f U A V f l i ght i s t ha t t he c om put e r

- ge ne r a t e d c om pone nt o f a

di s pl a y c a n be upda t e d i m m e di a t e l y i n r e s pons e t o c ont r ol i nput s f r om a U A V ope r a t or

,

pr ovi di ng r a pi d f e e dba c k t o i m pr ove m a nua l t r a c ki ng. F o r e xa m pl e

, V a n E r p & V a n

B r e d a ( 1999) p r ovi de d s ubj e c t s i n a s i m ul a t e d pa yl oa d s e ns or c ont r ol t a s k c a m e r a

i m a ge r y ove r l a i d by a c om put e r

- ge ne r a t e d gr i d of pe r pe ndi c ul a r l i ne s

, o r i e nt e d s o a s t o

c onf or m t o t he i m a ge d s c e ne

. T he s ynt he t i c g r i d s h i f t e d i n r e a l t i m e f ol l ow i ng i nput f r om

t he ope r a t or

, gi vi ng vi s ua l f e e dba c k a s t o t he di r e c t i on a nd m a gni t ude o f c a m e r a

m ove m e nt

. A s c om pa r e d t o a c ont r ol c ondi t i on w i t h no vi r t ua l gr i d

, a ugm e nt e d di s pl a ys

s i gni f i c a nt l y i m pr ove d t a r ge t t r a c ki ng a t l ow c a m e r a upda t e r a t e s ( i

. e

, l ong s e ns or y

de l a y s )

. A s t udy by V e l t m a n a nd O vi ng ( 2002 ) p r o duc e d s i m i l a r be ne f i t s by e m be ddi ng

c ur r e nt a nd p r e di c t e d c a m e r a f oot p r i nt s w i t hi n a l a r ge r m a p ( e i t he r 2D or 3D ) of t he

t e r r a i n t o be s c a nne d. A s t i l l m or e s ophi s t i c a t e d f or

m of d i s pl a y i s a f ul l y vi r t ua l s ynt he t i c

vi s i on s ys t e m

, i n w hi c h t e r r a i n i nf or m a t i on i s s t or e d i n da t a ba s e s a nd r e nde r e d ba s e d on

G P S pos i t i on. A n i m po r t a nt i s s ue he r e c onc e r ns t h e de gr e e of r e a l i s m w i t h w hi c h

s ynt he t i c i m a ge r y s houl d be p r e s e nt e d, w he t he r m i ni m a l i s t ( e

. g

. , t he gr i d us e d by V a n

E r p a nd V a n B r e da )

, or hi ghl y r e a l i s t i c

, s uc h a s e m pl oye d i n c ur r e nt S V S s ys t e m s ( P r i nz e l e t a l

, 2004)

. T he da nge r o f t he l a t t e r i s t ha t pi l ot s m a y p l a c e undue t r us t i n t he

i m a ge r y, l e a di ng t o c ogni t i ve t unne l i ng a nd ne gl e c t of i nf or m a t i on not a va i l a bl e w i t hi n

s uc h a hi gh i m a ge r y di s pl a y ( e

. g

. , a “ t r a ns ponde r o f f

” a i r c r a f t ; T hom a s a nd W i c ke ns

, 2004)

. A ugm e nt e d di s pl a ys t hus pr e s e nt a pr om i s i ng m e t hod of e na bl i ng good U A V

ope r a t or pe r f o r m a nc e

, but a r e no t w i t hout pot e nt i a l c os t s

. R e s e a r c h i s t hus r e c om m e nd e d

t o:H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 9

• F ur t he r de ve l op a nd t e s t pr e di c t i ve a ugm e nt e d di s pl a ys t o i m pr ove a i r f r a m e a nd

pa yl oa d s e ns or c ont r ol

.

• D e t e r m i ne t he e f f

e c t s o f di s pl a y f o r m a t / f i de l i t y on t he U A V ope r a t or ’ s l e ve l of

t r us t i n t he a ut om a t e d s ys t e m

.

8. C an m u l t i m od al d i s p l ay t e c h n o l ogy b e u s e d t o c om p e n s at e f or t h e d e ar t h of

s e n s or y i n f or m at i on ava i l ab l e t o a U A V op e r at o r ?

O ne of t he p r i m a r y c ons e que nc e s of t he s e pa r a t i on be t w e e n a i r c r a f t a nd ope r a t or

i s t ha t t he ope r a t o r i s de pr i ve d of a r a nge o f s e ns or y c ue s a va i l a bl e t o t he pi l ot of a

m a nne d ve hi c l e

. R a t he r t ha n r e c e i vi ng di r e c t s e ns or y i nput f r om t he e nvi r onm e nt i n

w hi c h hi s ve hi c l e i s e m be dde d, t he U A V pi l ot r e c e i ve s onl y t ha t i n f or m a t i on pr ovi de d by

onboa r d s e ns or s vi a da t a l i nk. A s not e d a bove

, t hi s c ons i s t s pr i m a r i l y of po t e nt i a l l y

de gr a de d vi s ua l i m a ge r y c ove r i ng a r e l a t i ve l y s m a l l F O V

. S e ns or y c ue s t ha t a r e l os t t hus

i nc l ude a m bi e nt vi s ua l i nput

, ki ne s t he t i c / ve s t i bul a r i nf or m a t i on

, a nd s ound, a l l of w hi c h

a r e va l ua bl e i n m a i nt a i ni ng ope r a t or a w a r e ne s s of t he e nvi r onm e nt a l a nd s ys t e m

c ondi t i ons ( e

. g.

, t u rbul e nc e

, i c i ng)

. A s c om pa r e d t o t he ope r a t or of a m a nne d a i r c r a f t

,

t he r e f or e

, a U A V ope r a t o r c a n be s a i d t o f unc t i on i n r e l a t i ve “ s e ns or y i s ol a t i on” f r o m t he

a i r c r a f t unde r hi s c ont r ol

. I t i s c r i t i c a l i n l i ght of t hi s f or U A V s ys t e m de ve l ope r s t o

de s i gn di s pl a ys a nd a l a r m s t o ke e p ope r a t or s w e l l

- i nf or m e d of s ys t e m s t a t us a nd a w a r e of

pot e nt i a l s ys t e m f a i l ur e s

. V i s ua l di s pl a ys pr ovi de one m e t hod o f pr e s e nt i ng a U A V ope r a t or w i t h s e ns or

i nf or m a t i on be yond t ha t c onve ye d by i m a ge r y f r o m a ve hi c l e

- m ount e d c a m e r a

. D a t a

s ugge s t

, how e ve r

, t ha t U A V ope r a t or s m a y not opt i m a l l y m odi f y t he i r vi s ua l s c a nni ng

s t r a t e gi e s t o c om pe ns a t e f or t he a bs e nc e of m ul t i s e ns or y c ue s ( T va r ya na s

, 2004 )

. M or e ove r

, t he t a s k o f c r e a t i ng a n “ e c ol ogi c a l ”

, i nt ui t i ve l y

- i nt e r pr e t e d vi s ua l

r e pr e s e nt a t i on f or s uc h i nf or m a t i on i s of t e n di f f i c ul t

. A n a l t e r na t i ve w a y t o c om pe ns a t e

U A V ope r a t or s f or t he l a c k of di r e c t s e ns or y i nput f r om t he ve hi c l e ’ s e nvi r onm e nt c oul d

be t hr ough t he us e of m ul t i m oda l ( e

. g

. , t a c t i l e or a u di t or y) i nf or m a t i on di s pl a ys

. F o r

e xa m pl e

, f l y by w i r e c ont r ol s ha ve l ong be e n e qui ppe d w i t h a ugm e nt e d f o r c e f e e dba c k

m i m i c ki ng t he f or c e s e xpe r i e nc e d on t he a i r s ur f a c e s of m a nne d a i r c r a f t

, a nd r oughl y

c a pt ur i ng t he c ha nge s i n ha ndl i ng qua l i t y. R uf f

, e t a l ( 2000) e xa m i ne d t he va l ue o f ha pt i c

di s pl a ys f or a l e r t i ng U A V ope r a t or s t o t he ons e t o f t ur bul e nc e

. T he i r da t a r e ve a l e d t ha t

ha pt i c a l e r t s

, c onve ye d vi a t he U A V ope r a t o r ’ s j oy s t i c k, c oul d i nde e d i m p r ove s e l f

- r a t e d

s i t ua t i on a w a r e ne s s dur i ng t ur bul e nt c on di t i ons i n a s i m ul a t e d U A V a ppr oa c h a nd

l a ndi ng t a s k. I nt e r e s t i ngl y, t h i s w a s t r ue de s pi t e t h e f a c t t ha t t he ha pt i c s i gna l s w e r e not

de s i gne d t o c l os e l y s i m ul a t e or m i m i c t he ve r i di c a l ha pt i c i nf o r m a t i on e xpe r i e nc e d by t he

pi l ot of a m a nne d ve hi c l e

. T he be ne f i t s of ha pt i c di s pl a ys

, how e ve r

, w e r e obt a i ne d onl y

unde r l i m i t e d c i r c um s t a nc e s ( s pe c i f i c a l l y, onl y w h e n t urbul e nc e oc c ur r e d f a r f r om t he

r unw a y)

, a nd w e r e of f

s e t by a n i nc r e a s e i n t he s ubj e c t i ve di f f i c ul t y of l a ndi ng. T he s e

r e s ul t s s ugge s t s om e va l ue o f m ul t i

- m oda l di s pl a ys a s a m e t hod o f c om pe ns a t i ng f o r

s e ns or y c ue s t ypi c a l l y de ni e d t o a U A V ope r a t or

, b ut a l s o i ndi c a t e t ha t s uc h di s pl a ys m a y

not be uni ve r s a l l y va l ua bl e a nd m a y c a r r y c os t s a s w e l l a s be ne f i t s

. A r e l a t e d poi nt i s t ha t m u l t i m oda l di s pl a ys m a y be us e f ul not s i m pl y a s a m e a ns

t o c om pe ns a t e f or t he U A V ope r a t or ’ s i m pove r i s h e d s e ns or y e nvi r onm e nt

, bu t m o r e

ge ne r a l l y t o r e duc e c ogni t i ve

- pe r c e pt ua l w or kl oa d l e ve l s

. S t udi e s by C a l houn, e t a lH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 10

( 2002)

, S kl a a r a nd S a r t e r ( 1999 )

, a nd W i c ke ns a nd D i x on ( 2002 ; D i xon & W i c ke ns

, 2003; W i c ke ns

, D i xon, & C ha ng, 2003)

, f or e xa m pl e

, ha ve f ound t ha t a udi t o r y a nd t a c t i l e

di s pl a ys c a n i m pr ove a s pe c t s of f l i ght c ont r ol a nd s ys t e m m oni t or i ng.

I n s um

, r e s e a r c h i s ne c e s s a r y t o:

• F ur t he r de ve l op t e c hni que s f or m ul t i m oda l i nf or m a t i on di s pl a y.

• A s s e s s t he va l ue of m ul t i m oda l di s pl a ys i n c ount e r i ng U A V ope r a t or s ’ s e ns or y

i s ol a t i on.

• A s s e s s t he m or e ge ne r a l va l ue o f m ul t i m oda l di s pl a ys i n di s t r i but i ng w o r kl oa d

opt i m a l l y a c r os s c ogni t i ve

- pe r c e pt ua l c ha nne l s

.

9. T o w h a t e xt e n t c an d i s p l ays an d c on t r ol s b e s t an d ar d i z e d ac r os s U A V s ys t e m s ?

Wh at l e ve l o f s t an d ar d i z at i on s h ou l d b e m an d a t e d ? ( B as i c T i n s t r u m e n t p an e l ?

H U D ove r l ay?)

W e a nt i c i pa t e a t e nde nc y f or ve ndor s t o pr oduc e n ove l de s i gns f or t he i nt e r f a c e

,

pa r t i c ul a r l y, gi ve n t he d i ve r s i t y of s pe c i a l i z e d pa yl oa d m i s s i ons f or w hi c h U A V s m a y be

de s i gne d. I t i s e s s e nt i a l t o e s t a bl i s h c e r t a i n c om m o na l i t i e s a c r os s a l l i nt e r f a c e s

. E xa c t l y

w ha t t he s e s houl d be r e m a i ns a que s t i on f or r e s e a r c h. Q ue s t i ons t o be c ons i de r e d i nc l ude

, but a r e not l i m i t e d t o:

• S houl d t he “ ba s i c T ” a l w a ys be m a i nt a i ne d?

• I s a n i ns i de

- out a t t i t ude di s pl a y ne c e s s a r y, gi ve n t h a t t he pi l ot i s no l onge r i ns i de

t he ve hi c l e ?

• S houl d c e r t a i n i n f or m a t i on a l w a ys be vi s i bl e ( ne ve r hi dde n t o be r e t r i e ve d by

m e nu na vi ga t i o n) ?

• S houl d a l l a s pe c t s of t he pa yl oa d di s pl a y be ke pt s pa t i a l l y s e pa r a t e d f r om t he

pr i m a r y f l i ght d i s pl a y, or a r e H U D ove r l a ys a dvi s a bl e ?

• S houl d c e r t a i n c ont r ol s ( e

. g

. , a j oys t i c k) be m a nda t or y f o r c e r t a i n f unc t i ons

, a nd

s houl d ot he r s be pr ohi bi t e d ( e

. g.

, m ous e f o r f l i ght c ont r ol ) ?

I de nt i f i c a t i on of t he s e i s s ue s r e c ogni z e s t ha t no s i ngl e di s pl a y l a yout o r c ont r ol

a s s i gnm e nt i s opt i m a l f or a l l t a s ks

, but a l s o r e c ogn i z e s t ha t c e r t a i n c a s e s of i nc ons i s t e nc y

c a n l e a d t o ne ga t i ve t r a ns f e r a nd pi l ot e r r o r

, a s pi l o t s t r a ns f e r f r om one i nt e r f a c e t o

a not he r

. S i m i l a r i s s ue s ha ve be e n a ddr e s s e d i n a s s i gni ng c om m on t ype r a t i ngs a nd

di f f

e r e nc e s t r a i ni ng i n c om m e r c i a l m a nne d a i r c r a f t

.

10. Wh a t ar e t h e c on s e q u e n c e s f or s ys t e m s af e t y of p i l ot j u d g m e n t w h e n t h e p i l o t n o

l on ge r h as a “s h ar e d f at e ” w i t h t h e ve h i c l e ? Wi l l t h e r e b e s u b t l e s h i f t s i n r i s k t ak i n g

t h at m i gh t af f

e c t ove r al l a i r s p ac e s af e t y?

U A V pi l ot s w i l l not be a t r i s k f or i n j ur y o r de a t h i f t he i r a i r c r a f t c r a s he s

, i n

c ont r a s t t o t he c i r c um s t a nc e s of m a nn e d a i r c r a f t pi l ot s

, w ho “ s ha r e f a t e ” w i t h t he i r

a i r c r a f t

. T hi s di f f

e r e nc e c oul d

, i n t he or y

, i m pos e a s ubs t a nt i a l di f f

e r e nc e i n r i s k t a ki ng

t e nde nc i e s

, i n s uc h a r e a s a s t he de c i s i on t o c a r r y o ut a f l i gh t i nt o ba d w e a t he r ( G oh &

W i e gm a nn, 2001; W e i gm a nn, G oh

, & O ’ H a r e

, 20 02)

. S uc h di f f

e r e nc e s m a y be f u

r t he r

a m pl i f i e d by t he s e ns or y i s ol a t i on de s c r i be d pr e vi o us l y. R e s e a r c h i s t hus r e c om m e nde d

t o:

• D e t e r m i ne how t he U A V ope r a t or ’ s r i s k pe r c e pt i o n a nd r i s k t a ki ng be ha vi or a r e

a f

f

e c t e d by a bs e nc e of s ha r e d f a t e w i t h hi s / he r ve h i c l e

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 11

• D e t e r m i ne how t he U A V ope r a t or ’ s r i s k pe r c e pt i o n a nd r i s k t a ki ng be ha vi or a r e

a f

f

e c t e d by t he a bs e nc e of s e ns or y/ pe r c e pt ua l c ue s

.

A I R T R A F F I C M A N A G E M E N T P R O C E D U R A L I S S U E S

11. H ow w i l l h a n d

- o f f

s b e t w e e n c r e w s b e ac c om p l i s h e d d u r i n g l o n g

- e n d u r an c e

f l i gh t s ?

L ong

- di s t a nc e a nd/ or l ong

- e ndur a nc e U A V f l i ght w i l l r e qui r e t he f r e que nt

t r a ns f e r of c ont r ol be t w e e n ope r a t or s

, ge ne r a l l y t a k i ng one of t hr e e f or m s ( K e vi n

W i l l i a m s

, pe r s ona l c om m uni c a t i on)

. F i r s t

, c ont r ol m a y be pa s s e d f r om one gr ound

c ont r ol s t a t i on t o a not he r

. S e c ond, c ont r ol m a y be pa s s e d f r om one c r e w o f ope r a t or s t o

a not he r w i t hi n t he s a m e gr ound c ont r ol s t a t i on

. F i na l l y, c ont r ol m a y be pa s s e d f r om one

ope r a t or t o a not he r w i t hi n a c r e w

. T he t r a ns f e r of c ont r ol w i l l l i ke l y c ons t i t u t e a c r i t i c a l

a nd hi gh

- w or kl oa d pha s e of U A V ope r a t i ons

. I nde e d, a num be r of m i l i t a r y U A V

a c c i de nt s ha ve oc c ur r e d dur i ng t r a ns f e r of c ont r ol f r om one t e a m of ope r a t or s t o a not he r

,

ge ne r a l l y be c a us e t he s t a t i on r e c e i vi ng c ont r ol w a s not pr ope r l y c onf i gur e d ( W i l l i a m s

, 2004)

. R e s e a r c h i s ne c e s s a r y t o e s t a bl i s h pr oc e dur e s f or t he s a f e ha ndo f f o f c ont r ol

be t w e e n U A V c r e w s

. M or e s pe c i f i c a l l y, t h i s w or k s houl d:

• D e ve l op a nd t e s t f or m a l pr oc e dur e s f o r ha ndof f of U A V c ont r ol be t w e e n t e a m s of

ope r a t or s

.

• D e ve l op a nd t e s t di s pl a ys

, a ut om a t i on, a nd pr oc e d ur e s t o e ns ur e t ha t t he ope r a t or s

r e c e i vi ng U A V c ont r ol a r e a de qua t e l y i n f or m e d o f s ys t e m s t a t us a nd a r e a l e r t e d t o

di s c r e pa nc i e s i n s ys t e m c onf i gur a t i on be t w e e n c ont r ol s t a t i ons r e l i nqui s hi ng a nd

a s s um i ng ve hi c l e c ont r ol

.

12. Wh a t ar e t h e e f f

e c t s of var i a b l e t o t al l oo p t i m e d e l ays on r e s p on s e t o A T C

i n s t r u c t i on s ?

D a t a l i nk de l a ys m a y be e xpe c t e d t o a dd a s m a ny a s s e ve r a l s e c onds t o t he

c om m uni c a t i ons l oop be t w e e n U A V ope r a t or s a nd A T C

. T he m a gni t ude of t he s e de l a ys

, how e ve r

, w i l l be va r i a bl e

, a nd m a y not a l w a ys be pr e di c t a bl e t o hum a n ope r a t or s

. T hus

,

c ont r ol l e r s m a y ha ve g r e a t e r di f f i c ul t y i n c om pe ns a t i ng f or t he s e de l a ys t ha n t he y do i n

c om pe ns a t i ng f or t he f i xe d r e s pons e c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of a gi ve n c l a s s of a i r c r a f t

. P ot e nt i a l

c om pe ns a t or y r e s pons e s t o c om m uni c a t i on de l a ys a r e c ha nge s i n t he t i m i ng w i t h w hi c h

A T C c om m a nds a r e i s s ue d a nd a c t e d upon, a nd c h a nge s i n t he c om m uni c a t i ons f l ow

be t w e e n A T C a nd U A V ope r a t or s ( K i e ke l

, G or m a n, & C ooke

, 2004; R a nt a ne n M c C a r l e y

& X u

, 2004)

. T o a nt i c i pa t e a nd a c c om m oda t e t he e f f

e c t s of c om m uni c a t i ons de l a ys

, i t

w i l l be ne c e s s a r y t o unde r s t a nd a nd t a ke a c c ount o f t he s e c om pe ns a t or y be ha vi or s a nd

t he i r c ons e que nc e s f or s ys t e m pe r f or m a nc e

. R e s e a r c h s houl d t hus be c onduc t e d t o:

• D e t e r m i ne w ha t c om pe ns a t or y be ha vi or s

, i f a ny, a i r t r a f f i c c ont r o l l e r s ’ a nd U A V

ope r a t or s ’ a dopt i n r e s pons e t o c om m uni c a t i on de l a ys

.

• D e t e r m i ne t he e f f

e c t s o f c om m uni c a t i ons de l a ys o n t he f l ow of a i r t r a f f i c

. C om put e r s i m ul a t i on m ode l s of c om m uni c a t i ons m a y be pa r t i c ul a r l y e f f

e c t i ve t ool s he r e

,

s o l ong a s s uc h m ode l s a r e ba s e d on e m pi r i c a l l y va l i da t e d e s t i m a t e s of hum a n r e s pons e

t i m e

, va r i a bi l i t y, a nd r e l i a bi l i t y ( pr oba bi l i t y of c o m m uni c a t i ons e r r or )

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 12

13. Wh a t f or m of p r e d i c t ab l e au t o n om ou s b e h a vi or s h ou l d a U A V ad op t f o l l ow i n g a

l os s of gr ou n d

- t o

- ai r c o m m u n i c a t i on s ? H ow s h ou l d t h e U A V op e r at or b e al e r t e d t o

a l os s of gr ou n d

- t o

- ai r c om m u n i c at i on s ?

O ne pa r t i c ul a r l y di s r upt i ve s c e na r i o of U A V a ut o m a t i on f a i l ur e i s a t ot a l s e ve r i ng of

t he G C

- U A V c ont r ol l oop. I t i s i m p or t a nt t ha t t he ve hi c l e be ha ve pr e di c t a bl y unde r s uc h

c i r c um s t a nc e s

. T hi s i s a hum a n f a c t or s i s s ue be c a us e s uc h de f a

ul t r ul e s a r e o f c r i t i c a l

i m por t a nc e t o t he A T C / A T M w ho m us t m a na ge t r a f f i c ba s e d on t he know l e dge of t he s e

r ul e s ( S hi ve l y, 2004)

. I t i s a l s o i m por t a nt

, c l e a r l y

, t ha t t he U A V ope r a t or be c om e a w a r e

of t he c om m uni c a t i ons l os s a s r a pi dl y a s pos s i bl e

. R e s e a r c h i s t he r e f or e ne c e s s a r y t o:

• D e t e r m i ne w ha t be ha vi or U A V be pr og r a m m e d t o a dopt by de f a

ul t i n c a s e of a

t ot a l c om m uni c a t i ons l os s w i t h gr ound c ont r ol s t a t i on ( C ont i nue t o f l y on a

s t r a i ght pa t h? D e s c e nd? F l y t ow a r d t he ne a r e s t e qu i ppe d a i r f i e l d? )

.

• D e ve l op di s pl a ys

, a ut om a t i on, a nd/ o r p r oc e dur e s by w hi c h t he U A V ope r a t or c a n

be m a de a w a r e of a c om m uni c a t i ons l os s

, a nd be p r ovi de d e s t i m a t e s of i t s

pot e nt i a l c a us e s a nd c ons e que nc e s

.

C R E W Q U A L I F I C A T I O N S

14. H ow m an y m e m b e r s w i l l e ac h c r e w c om p r i s e , an d w h at w i l l b e e ac h

c r e w m e m b e r ’ s r e s p on s i b i l i t i e s ? C an an o p e r at o r s u p e r vi s e m u l t i p l e U A V s

s i m u l t an e ou s l y w h i l e m ai n t ai n i n g an ac c e p t a b l e l e ve l of p e r f or m an c e ?

M i l i t a r y U A V c r e w s f or r e c onna i s s a nc e m i s s i ons t ypi c a l l y i nc l ude bot h a n a i r

ve hi c l e ope r a t or a nd a m i s s i on pa yl oa d ope r a t or ( D r a pe r

, e t a l

, 2000; M oul oua e t a l

, 2003)

. S uc h c r e w s t r uc t u r e i s r e a s ona bl e i n l i ght o f f i ndi ngs t ha t t he a s s i gnm e nt of

a i r f r a m e a nd pa yl oa d c ont r ol t o t he s a m e ope r a t or c a n s ubs t a nt i a l l y de gr a de pe r f or m a nc e ( V a n B r e da

, 1995

, c i t e d i n V a n E r p & V a n B r e da

, 1999)

. F or U A V f l i ght i n c i vi l i a n

a i r s pa c e

, how e ve r

, t he s i z e of t he c r e w c om pl e m e n t ne c e s s a r y f or e a c h ve hi c l e i s l i ke l y t o

be c ont i nge nt on t he na t ur e a nd goa l s of t he f l i gh t t a s k ( e

. g.

, s ur ve i l l a nc e vs

. l ong

di s t a nc e t r a ns por t vs

. s t a t i on ke e pi ng f or t e l e c om m uni c a t i ons )

. A l t hough s om e r e s e a r c h

ha s de m ons t r a t e d pos s i bi l i t y of s i ngl e pi l ot

- m ul t i pl e U A V ( 1

- t o

- m a ny) c ont r ol

( C um m i ngs a nd G ue r l a i n, 2004; G a l s t e r

, e t a l

, 200 1; W i c ke ns

, e t a l

, 2003)

, t he s e

s uc c e s s e s pr e

- s uppos e t hr e e c i r c um s t a nc e s : ( 1) c l o s e l y c oor di na t e d a nd c or r e l a t e d

a c t i vi t i e s a m ong t he m ul t i pl e U A V s ( C um m i ngs & G ue r l a i n, 2004)

, ( 2 ) ope r a t i on i n a

di s t urb a nc e f r e e ( c l os e d) e nvi r onm e nt

, s uc h a s ve r y hi gh a l t i t ude s

, ( 3) hi gh l e ve l s of

r e l i a bl e a ut om a t i on ( D i xon a nd W i c ke ns

, 2004)

. W he n a ny of t he s e t h r e e c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s

a r e not i n f or c e

, a nd, i n pa r t i c ul a r

, w he n one U A V e nt e r s a f a i l ur e m ode

, t he a bi l i t y of t he

pi l ot t o m oni t or ot he r s i n a 1

- t o

- m a ny c onf i gu r a t i o n i s s e ve r e l y c om pr om i s e d.

F ur t he r m or e

, e ve n i n a 1

- t o

- 1 c onf i gur a t i on

, pe r f or

m a nc e of c onc ur r e nt t a s ks i s

dr a m a t i c a l l y de gr a de d w he n he a vy de m a nds a r e i m pos e d on t he s i ngl e ope r a t or by

c om pl e x pa yl oa d ope r a t i ons ( e

. g.

, m a ni pul a t i ng c a m e r a i m a ge r y) ( D i xon a nd W i c ke ns

, 2004)

. I n l i gh t of t hi s

, r e s e a r c h i s ne c e s s a r y t o:

• D e l i ne a t e c i r c um s t a nc e s unde r w hi c h m ul t i pl e r e s pons i bi l i t i e s ( e

. g.

, f l i ght c ont r ol

,

c onf l i c t de t e c t i on, pa yl oa d c ont r ol ) be s a f e l y a s s i g ne d t o a s i ngl e U A V ope r a t or

,

a nd c i r c um s t a nc e s unde r w hi c h s uc h r e s pons i bi l i t i e s s houl d be di s t r i but e d a c r os s

t w o or m o r e c r e w m e m be r s

. A nd, by e xt e ns i on:H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 13

• D e l i ne a t e c i r c um s t a nc e s unde r w hi c h a s i ngl e ope r a t or c a n s a f e hol d

r e s pons i bi l i t y f or m ul t i pl e U A V s s i m ul t a ne ous l y.

I t i s c r uc i a l t ha t s uc h r e s e a r c h c ons i de r c i r c um s t a n c e s unde r w hi c h a ut om a t i on i s

i m pe r f e c t ( #2 )

, a nd t ha t i t a ddr e s s t he pot e nt i a l c os t of c om m un i c a t i ons a nd t e a m w or k

be t w e e n m ul t i pl e ope r a t or s ( K i e ke l

, e t a l

, 2004)

.

15. Wh a t ar e t h e c o r e k n ow l e d ge , s k i l l s , an d ab i l i t i e s ( K S A s ) t h at s h ou l d b e

r e q u i r e d f or U A V p i l ot c e r t i f i c at i on ? Wh at K S A s s h ou l d b e r e q u i r e d f or

c e r t i f i c at i on t o f l y p ar t i c u l ar U A V s ys t e m s or c l as s e s of s ys t e m s ?

R e s e a r c h i s ne c e s s a r y t o:

• D e t e r m i ne t he ge ne r a l K S A s t ha t w i l l be r e qui r e d of a l l U A V ope r a t or s

.

• D e t e r m i ne K S A s r e qui r e d f or c e r t i f i c a t i on t o ope r a t e s pe c i f i e d c l a s s e s or s ys t e m s

of U A V

.

16. H ow s h ou l d U A V op e r at or s b e t r ai n e d ? W h at c on s t i t u t e s an ap p r op r i at e

r e gi m e n of gr ou n d s c h ool

, s i m u l a t or , an d f l i gh t e x p e r i e n c e f or U A V f l i g h t

c e r t i f i c at i on ?

S a f e f l i ght of unm a nne d ve hi c l e s i n t he na t i ona l a i r s pa c e w i l l de m a nd e f f

e c t i ve

pr oc e dur e s f or U A V pi l ot t r a i ni ng. R yde r

, e t a l ( 20 01) not e t ha t be c a us e t he t a s k de m a nds

of ope r a t i ng a U A V f r om a gr ound c ont r ol c ons o l e a r e s i m i l a r dur i ng s i m ul a t e d a nd r e a l

f l i ght

, s i m ul a t or e xpe r i e nc e i s l i ke l y t o c ons t i t ut e a gr e a t e r po r t i on o f t r a i ni ng f or pi l ot s of

unm a nne d ve hi c l e s t ha n f or pi l ot s of m a nne d a i r c r a f t

. A s not e d be l ow ( #17 )

, f ur t he r m or e

,

e xpe r i e nc e pi l ot i ng m a nne d a i r c r a f t a ppe a r s t o pr o duc e pos i t i ve but i m pe r f e c t pos i t i ve

t r a ns f e r t o U A V f l i ght ( S c h r e i be r

, e t a l

, 2002)

. R e s e a r c h i s ne e de d t o:

• O pt i m i z e s i m ul a t i on s ys t e m s f or U A V p i l ot t r a i ni n g a nd t e s t t he i r a de qua c y

• E s t a bl i s h r e qui r e m e nt s f or f l i gh t t

r a i ni ng out s i de t he s i m ul a t or

.

• D e t e r m i ne t o w ha t e xt e nt m a nne d pi l ot e xpe r i e nc e s houl d of f

s e t t r a i ni ng

r e qui r e m e nt s f or U A V c e r t i f i c a t i on.

17. S h o u l d e xp e r i e n c e p i l ot i n g a m an n e d ai r c r af t b e p r e r e q u i s i t e f or U A V p i l ot

c e r t i f i c at i on ?

P a s t r e s e a r c h ha s c om e t o c onf l i c t i ng c onc l us i ons a s t o w he t he r U A V ope r a t o r s

w i l l be ne f i t f r om e xpe r i e nc e pi l ot i ng a m a nne d a i r c r a f t

. S c hr e i be r

, e t a l ( 2002) e xa m i ne d

t he e f f

e c t s of pr i or f l i ght e xpe r i e nc e on novi c e ope r a t or s ’ s ki l l a c qui s i t i on a nd t r a ns f e r i n

a P r e da t or U A V s i m ul a t i on. I n g e ne r a l

, f l i ght e xpe r i e nc e r e duc e d t he num be r of t r a i ni ng

t r i a l s r e qui r e d f or ope r a t or s t o r e a c h a c r i t e r i on l e ve l of pe r f or m a nc e on a s e t of ba s i c

m a ne uve r i ng a nd l a ndi ng t a s ks

, a nd i m pr ove d ope r a t or pe r f o r m a nc e on a s ubs e que nt

r e c onna i s s a nc e t a s k. O t he r f i ndi ngs

, how e ve r

, ha v e s ugge s t e d t ha t U A V ope r a t or s ne e d

not be r a t e d a vi a t or s

. U s i ng t he A r m y’ s J ob A s s e s s m e nt S of t w a r e S ys t e m ( J A S S )

, B a r ne s

, e t a l ( 2000 ) e l i c i t e d H unt e r U A V ope r a t or s r a t i ngs of t he r e l a t i ve i m por t a nc e of

va r i ous c ogni t i ve s ki l l s i n U A V a i r ve hi c l e ope r a t o r s

. R a t i ngs i ndi c a t e d t ha t ou t s i de of

c om m uni c a t i on s ki l l s

, r a t e r s d i d not c ons i de r f l i ght

- r e l a t e d s ki l l s of gr e a t i m po r t a nc e t o

U A V ope r a t i ons

, l e a di ng t he a ut hor s t o c onc l ude t ha t s e l e c t i on of r a t e d a vi a t or s a s a i r

ve hi c l e ope r a t or s w oul d be of l i t t l e va l ue

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 14

T he a ppa r e nt di s c r e pa nc y i n t he c onc l us i ons r e a c he d by S c hr e i be r

, e t a l ( 2002 )

a nd B a r ne s

, e t a l ( 2000) m a y be due

, a t l e a s t i n pa r t

, t o di f f

e r e nc e s i n t he ope r a t i on of t he

U A V s ys t e m s unde r c ons i de r a t i on; w hi l e t he P r e d a t or i s pi l ot e d m a nua l l y vi a a s t i c k a nd

r udde r i nt e r f a c e s i m i l a r t o t ha t o f a m a nne d a i r c r a f t

, t he H unt e r i s gui de d by a ut om a t i on

t ha t a l l ow s t he ope r a t or t o s e l e c t f l i ght pa r a m e t e r s us i ng knobs on t he G C S c ons ol e

. T he

va l ue of pr i or f l i ght e xpe r i e nc e t o a U A V ope r a t or

, t ha t i s

, m a y de pe nd i n pa r t on

s i m i l a r i t y be t w e e n t he m a nne d a nd unm a nne d s ys t e m s

. R e s e a r c h i s ne c e s s a r y t o:

• D e t e r m i ne w he t he r a nd how m uc h e xpe r i e nc e pi l o t i ng a m a nne d s ys t e m s houl d

be r e qui r e d f or U A V pi l ot c e r t i f i c a t i on.

• D e t e r m i ne w he t he r pr e r e qui s i t e l e ve l s of f l i ght e xp e r i e nc e

, i f a ny, s houl d va r y

a c r os s U A V pl a t f or m s

.

18. Wh a t m e d i c al q u al i f i c at i o n s s h ou l d a U A V op e r at or b e r e q u i r e d t o m e e t ?

A l t hough i s s ue s of hi gh a l t i t ude phys i ol ogy a nd m e di c a t i on i nduc e d ve s t i bul a r

di s r upt i on a r e not r e l e v a nt t o U A V pi l o t s

, s om e f o r

m s m e di c a l qua l i f i c a t i ons a r e l i ke l y t o

r e m a i n ne c e s s a r y. R e s e a r c h i s ne c e s s a r y t o:

• D e t e r m i ne w he t he r m e di c a l s t a nda r ds f o r U A V op e r a t or s s houl d be i n a ny w a ys

l e s s or m or e s t r i c t t ha n f o r pi l ot s of m a nne d a i r c r a f t

.

• E s t a bl i s h s p e c i a l dut y l i m i t s f o r l ong dur a t i on m i s s i ons

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 15

R e f e r e n c e s

A c c e s s 5 ( 2003)

. H A L E R O A C onc e pt of O pe r at i ons

.

B a r ne s

, M

. J

. , K na pp, B

. G

. , T i l l m a n

, B

. W

. , W a l t e r s

, B

. A

. , V e l i c ki

, D

. ( 2000)

. C r e w

s y

s t e m s anal y

s is of unm anne d ae r i al v e hi c l e ( U A V ) f ut ur e j o b and t as k i ng

e nv i r onm e nt s ( T e c hni c a l R e por t A R L

- T R

- 2081 )

. A be r de e n P r ovi ng G r ound, M D :

A r m y R e s e a r c h L a bor a t or y

.

C a l houn, G

. L

. , D r a pe r

, M

. H

. , R uf f

, H

. A

. , & F ont e j on, J

. V

. ( 2002 )

. U t i l i t y of a t a c t i l e

di s pl a y f or c ue i ng f a

ul t s

. P r oc e e di ngs of t he H um a n F a c t or s and E r gonom i c s

Soc i e t y 46t h A nnual M e e t i ng

, 2144

- 2148

.

C um m i ngs

, M

. L

. , & G ue r l a i n, S

. ( 2004 )

. D e v e l opi ng ope r at or c apac i t y e s t i m at e s f or

s upe r v i s or y c ont r ol of aut onom ous v e hi c l e s

. M a nu s c r i pt unde r r e vi e w a t H um a n

F a c t or s

.

D e pa r t m e nt of D e f e ns e ( 2 001 )

. U nm anne d ae r i al v e hi c l e s r oadm ap, 2002

- 2025

. O f f i c e

of t he S e c r e t a r y of D e f e ns e

, D e pa r t m e nt of D e f e ns e

, W a s hi ngt on, D C

, A pr i l

2001.

D i xon, S

. , & W i c ke ns

, C

. D

. ( 2003)

. I m

pe r f

e c t aut om at i on i n unm anne d ae r i al v e hi c l e f

l i

ght c ont r ol ( T e c hni c a l r e por t A H F D

- 03

- 17/ M A D

- 03

- 2)

. S a voy, I L : U ni ve r s i t y

of I l l i noi s

, I ns t i t ut e of A vi a t i on, A vi a t i on H um a n F a c t or s D i vi s i on.

D i xon, S

. R

. , & W i c ke ns

, C

. D

. ( 2004)

. R e l i abi l i t y i n aut om at e d ai ds f or unm anne d

ae r i al v e hi c l e f l i

ght c ont r ol : E v al uat i ng a m ode l o f aut om at i on de pe nde nc e i n

hi

gh w or k

l oad ( T e c hni c a l r e po r t A H F D

- 04

- 05/ M A A D

- 04

- 1)

. S a voy, I L :

U ni ve r s i t y of I l l i noi s

, I ns t i t ut e o f A vi a t i on

, A vi a t i on H um a n F a c t or s D i vi s i on.

D r a pe r

, M

. H

. , G e i s e l m a n, E

. E

. , L u

, L

. G

. , R oe

, M

. M

. , & H a a s

, M

. W

. ( 2000 )

. D i s pl a y

c onc e p t s s uppor t i ng c r e w c om m uni c a t i ons of t a r ge t l oc a t i on i n unm a nne d a i r

ve hi c l e s

. P r oc e e di ngs of t he I E

A 2000/ H F

E

S 200 0 C ongr e s s

, 3. 85

- 3

. 88

.

D r a pe r

, M

. H

. , N e l s on, W

. T

. , A be r na t hy

, M

. F

. , C a l houn, G

. L

. ( 2004 )

. Sy nt he t i c v i s i on

ov e r l ay f or i m pr ov i ng U A V ope r at i ons

.

G a l s t e r

, S

. M

. , D ul e y, J

. A

. , M a s a l oni s

, A

. J

. , & P a r a s ur a m a n, R

. ( 2001)

. A i r t r a f f i c

c ont r ol l e r pe r f or m a nc e a nd w o r kl oa d unde r m a t ur e f r e e f l i ght : C onf l i c t de t e c t i on

a nd r e s ol ut i on of a i r c r a f t s e l f

- s e pa r a t i on. I nt e r nat i onal J our nal of A v i at i on

P

s y c hol ogy

, 11

, 71

- 93.

G a w r on, V

. J

. ( 1998 )

. H um a n f a c t or s i s s ue s i n t he de ve l opm e nt

, e va l ua t i on, a nd ope r a t i on

of uni nha bi t e d a e r i a l ve hi c l e s

. A U V SI ' 98: P r oc e e di ngs of t he A s s oc i at i on f or

U

nm anne d V e hi c l e Sy s t e m s I nt e r nat i onal

, 431

- 438

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 16

G i bs on, J

. J

. ( 197 9)

. T he e c ol ogi c al appr oac h t o v i s ual pe r c e pt i on

. H i l l s da l e

, N J :

E r l ba um

.

G oh, J

. , a nd W i e gm a nn, D ( 2001)

. V i s ua l f l i ght r ul e s f l i ght i nt o i ns t r um e nt

m e t e or ol ogi c a l c ondi t i ons

. I nt e r nat i onal J our nal o f A v i at i on P s y c hol ogy

, 11

, 359

-

379.

K i e ke l

, P

. A

. , G o r m a n, J

. C

. , & C ooke

, N

. J

. ( 2004)

. M e a s ur i ng s pe e c h f l ow of c o

- l oc a t e d

a nd di s t r i but e d c om m a nd a nd c ont r ol t e a m s dur i ng a c om m uni c a t i on c ha nne l

gl i t c h. P r oc e e di ngs of t he H um an F ac t or s and E r g

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F a c t or s D i vi s i on.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 19

A p p e n d i x A

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m an e u ve r i n g. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e 12t h C on f

e re n c e on B e h av i or R e pres e n t at

i on i n

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- R m ode l t o e xa m i ne e xpe r t / novi c e di f f

e r e nc e s a nd e f f

e c t s of

c ont r ol s t r a t e gy on P r e da t or U A V f l i ght

. T hr e e m o de l s w e r e de ve l ope d. M ode l P

( pe r f or m a nc e onl y ) l a c ke d t he know l e dge of c ont r ol i ns t r um e nt s e t t i ngs t ha t i s

c ha r a c t e r i s t i c of e xpe r t p i l ot s

, a nd t he r e f or e c oul d onl y r e l y on pe r f o r m a nc e i ndi c a t or s i n

m a ne uve r i ng t he a i r c r a f t

. M ode l C P ( C ont r o l + P e r f or m a nc e ) ha d know l e dge of c ont r ol

a nd pe r f or m a nc e s e t t i ngs ne e de d t o a c hi e ve a i r c r a f t be ha vi or

, a nd t he r e f o r e c oul d r e l y on

a c ont r ol a nd pe r f or m a nc e s t r a t e gy

. H ow e ve r

, t he m ode l di d not r e m a i n f oc us e d on

c ont r ol i ndi c a t or a f t e r m a ki ng a dj us t m e nt t o i t

, but c ont i nue d w i t h nor m a l c r os s c he c k a nd

c he c ke d t o s e e i f m a ni pul a t i on ha d i t s i nt e nde d w h e n a t t e nt i on e ve nt ua l l y r e t ur ne d t o t he

i ndi c a t or

. M ode l C F P ( C ont r ol F oc us & P e r f o r m a n c e ) w a s s i m i l a r t o m ode l C P

, e xc e pt

t ha t i t r e m a i ne d f oc us on c ont r ol i ns t r um e nt unt i l i t w a s pr ope r l y s e t

. T hi s w a s i n a ddi t i on

t o nor m a l c r os s c he c k.

T o e xa m i ne e xpe r t / novi c e di f f

e r e nc e s

, t he a ut hor s c om pa r e d M ode l P t o M ode l C P

. T o

e xa m i ne s t r a t e gi c e f f

e c t s

, t he y c om pa r e d M ode l C P t o M ode l C F P

.

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P e r f or m a nc e w a s be t t e r f or M ode l P t ha n f o r M od e l C P on 6 of 7 m a ne uve r s

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w a s be t t e r on t he m os t c om pl e x ( t h r e e

- a xi s ) m a ne u ve r

, t hough i t s not c l e a r w hy.

P e r f or m a nc e w a s be t t e r f or M ode l C F P t ha n f or M ode l C P on 5 of 7 m a ne uve r s

. P e r f or m a nc e on ot he r t w o m a ne uve r s w a s s i m i l a r

. O ve r a l l

, M ode l C F P pe r f or

m e d t he

m os t l i ke hum a n s ubj e c t m a t t e r e xpe r t s

.

2) B ar n e s , M

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r e w s y s t e m s an al y

s i s of u n m a n n e d ae r i al v e h i c l e ( U

A V ) f u t

u re j ob an d t as ki n g

e n v i r on m e n t s ( T

e c h n i c al R e por t A R L

- T R

- 2081)

. A b e r d e e n P r ovi n g G r ou n d

, M D :

A r m y R e s e ar c h L ab or at or y

.

E xp e r i m e n t 1

A s s e s s e d t he i m por t a nc e of us i ng r a t e d a vi a t or s f o r a i r ve hi c l e ope r a t or ( A V O ) a nd

e xt e r na l pi l ot ( E P ) pos i t i ons i n t he H unt e r U A V

. T he A V O t a s ks a r e t o de s i gn m i s s i on pl a ns i n c ol l a bor a t i on w i t h c om m a nde r

, f l y t he U A V a f t e r t a ke

- o f f

, a nd s e t c ou r s e t o

w a ypoi nt s

. T he A V O m us t be a bl e t o r e a d t he i ns t r um e nt s

, unde r s t a nd f l i ght s t a t us

,

c oor di na t e w i t h t he m i s s i on pa yl oa d ope r a t or ( M P O ) w he n r e a c hi ng t a r ge t a r e a

, a ndH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 20

r e s pond t o e m e r ge nc i e s a nd m a ke c our s e c ha nge s w he n ne c e s s a r y. H ow e ve r

, t he A V O

doe s not f l y t he ve hi c l e us i ng s t i c k

- a nd

- r udde r c on t r ol s

, i n t he m a nne r of a t ypi c a l pi l ot

. T he E P i s r e s pons i bl e f o r t a ke

- o f f a nd l a ndi ng, us i ng a c ont r ol l e r s i m i l a r t o t ha t f or m ode l

a i r pl a ne s

. M os t f l i ght s a f e t y pr obl e m s oc c ur du r i n g t he t i m e s t ha t t he E P i s i n c ont r ol

,

pr i m a r i l y be c a us e t a ke

- of f a nd l a ndi ng a r e i nhe r e nt l y di f f i c ul t

.

T he s t udy us e d t he A r m y's J ob A s s e s s m e nt S of t w a r e S ys t e m ( J A S S ) t o de t e r m i ne w ha t

c ogni t i ve s ki l l s a r e i m por t a nt f o r t he A V O a nd E P pos i t i ons

. J A S S c ol l e c t s r a t i ngs a bo ut

t he de gr e e t o w hi c h va r i ous s ki l l s a nd a bi l i t i e s a r e ne c e s s a r y t o pe r f o r m a gi ve n t a s k. T he

s ki l l s / a bi l i t i e s r a t e d by J A S S f a l l i nt o s i x c a t e gor i e s : c om m uni c a t i on, s pe e d

- l oa de d,

r e a s oni ng, vi s ua l

, a udi t o r y, a nd ps yc hom ot or

. J A S S da t a w e r e s uppl e m e nt e d w i t h

e nha nc e d c om put e r

- a i de d t e s t i ng ( E C A T ) da t a f r o m a n e a r l i e r s t udy. T he E C A T da t a

w e r e one

- a nd t w o

- ha nde d t r a c ki ng s c or e s

, w hi c h w e r e c or r e l a t e d w i t h f a i l ur e r a t e s f o r

E P t r a i ni ng.

21 s ubj e c t s w e r e A V O & M P O de s i gna t e d; 11 ga ve r a t i ngs of A V O t a s k s t r uc t ur e

, 10

ga ve r a t i ngs of M P O t a s k s t r uc t ur e

. 9 s ubj e c t s w e r e c e r t i f i e d E P s

, a nd ga ve r a t i ngs o f E P

t a s k s t r uc t ur e

. 16 f i xe d

- or r ot a r y

- w i ng A r m y a vi a t or s a l s o r a t e d E P s ki l l s

. E C A T da t a

c a m e f r om a s a m pl e of 28 s t ude nt s i n P i one e r a nd H unt e r U A V E P t r a i n i ng c our s e s

. S i x

of t he s e f a i l e d t he c our s e

.

R e s u l t s

A V O r a t e r s di d not r a t e f l i ght

- r e l a t e d t a s ks a s ove r l y de m a ndi ng on a ny of t he s i x s ki l l

s e t s e xc e pt c om m uni c a t i on. T he E P t a s k w a s r a t e d a s m or e de m a ndi ng t ha n A V O t a s k on

a l l s ki l l s e t s

. E P s ubj e c t s w e r e br oke n i nt o 4 gr oup s : E P l ow e xpe r i e nc e

, E P hi gh

e xpe r i e nc e

, f i xe d

- w i ng a vi a t or s

, a nd r ot a r y

- w i ng a vi a t or s

. A vi a t or s ga ve s l i ght l y hi ghe r

r a t i ngs t o r e a s oni ng s ki l l s t ha n di d E P s

. T he E P l o w e xpe r i e nc e gr oup ga ve e s pe c i a l l y

hi gh r a t i ngs t o vi s i on, a ud i t i on, a nd ps yc hom ot or s ki l l s

. E xpe r i e nc e d E P s r e por t e d us i ng

m os t l y c onc e pt ua l s ki l l s dur i ng e m e r ge nc y s i t ua t i ons

. I ne xpe r i e nc e d E P s r e por t e d r e l yi ng

on vi s ua l & ps yc hom ot or s ki l l s

.

E C A T t r a c ki ng da t a w e r e c or r e l a t e d w i t h E P c our s e s uc c e s s r a t e s ; 5 of t he 6 s t ude nt s

w ho f a i l e d ha d t r a c ki ng da t a ne a r bot t om of s a m pl e di s t r i but i on. T he s e f i ndi ngs a r e

c ons i s t e nt w i t h t he f i ndi ng ( not e d a bove ) t ha t i ne xpe r i e nc e d E P s f i nd vi s ua l a nd

ps yc hom ot or s ki l l s t o be pa r t i c ul a r l y i m por t a nt

.

E xp e r i m e n t 2

E xa m i ne d t he p ot e nt i a l va l ue of i m a ge r y a nd i nt e l l i ge nc e a na l ys t s a s c om pone nt s of t he

U A V

. T he m e t hod us e d w a s t o m e a s ur e ove r l a p be t w e e n J A S S r a t i ngs f o r i m a ge r y

a na l ys t s

, i nt e l l i ge nc e a na l ys t s

, a nd U A V c r e w t a s k dut i e s

. I m a ge r y a na l ys t s ki l l r a nki ngs

w e r e s i gni f i c a nt l y c or r e l a t e d w i t h t hos e f or 2 out o f 16 U A V c r e w dut i e s

, i nt e l l i ge nc e

a na l ys t s ki l l r a nki ngs w e r e c or r e l a t e d w i t h t hos e f o r 14 out 16 U A V c r e w dut i e s

. R e s ul t s

s ugge s t t ha t i m a ge r y a na l ys t s w oul d c om pl e m e nt U A V c r e w s ki l l s e t s

.

E xp e r i m e n t 3H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 21

U s e d a c om put a t i ona l m ode l of hum a n c ogni t i on ( M i c r o S a i nt ) t o i nve s t i ga t e w or kl oa d

t hr oughout t he c our s e of a s i m ul a t e d O ut r i de r U A V f l i ght m i s s i on. A l s o c ons i de r e d

r e m a r ks f r om s ubj e c t m a t t e r e xpe r t s ( S M E s )

. R e s ul t s s ugge s t t ha t c a ndi da t e t a s ks f or

a

ut om a t i on i nc l ude d pr e

- a nd pos t

- f l i ght p r oc e dur e s & c he c ks

, ve r i f i c a t i on of s ys t e m

s e t t i ngs

, a nd c om put e r c he c ks of m i s s i on pl a ns

. S M E s r e por t e d t ha t t he y di d not w a nt f ul l

a

ut om a t i on, but pr e f e r

r e d i ns t e a d t o r e t a i n de c i s i on m a ki ng a ut hor i t y t he m s e l ve s

. T o

r e duc e w or kl oa d

, t he y s ugge s t e d m a ki ng t he c om p ut e r i nt e r f a c e f a s t e r a nd l e t t i ng t he

a

ut om a t i on pr ovi de ba c kup c he c k f or s a f e t y pr obl e m s

.

3) B e l l

, B

. , & C l ar k

, J. G

. ( 2002)

. B r i n gi n g c om m a n d an d c on t r ol of u n m an n e d

ai r ve h i c l e s d ow n t o e ar t h

. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e 21 s t D i gi t al A v i on i c s S y

s t

e m s

C

on f

e re n c e ( D

A S C )

, I r vi n e , C A

. D e s c r i be s a n a ut om a t e d s ys t e m t o a s s i s t i n U A V s e a r c h a r e a pl a nni ng. S ys t e m i s c a l l e d

t he A ut om a t e d S e a r c h A r e a P l a nni ng S ys t e m ( A S A P S )

, a nd i s m e a nt t o r e duc e s e a r c h

a r e a by m ode l i ng t e r r a i n a nd t a r ge t m obi l i t y t he n h e l pi ng ope r a t or t o pl a n a s e a r c h r out e

f

oc us i ng on a r e a s w he r e t a r ge t i s m os t l i ke l y t o be f ound.

4) C al h ou n , G

. L

. , D r ap e r , M

. H

. , R u f f

, H

. A

. , & F o n t e j on , J. V

. ( 2002)

. U t i l i t y o f a

t ac t i l e d i s p l ay f or c u e i n g f a u l t s

. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e H u m an F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s

S oc i e t y 46t h A n n u a l M e e t i n g , 2144

- 2148

. S ubj e c t s pe r f or m e d a c om pe ns a t or y t r a c ki ng t a s k i n c onj unc t i on w i t h a m oni t o r i ng t a s k.

S t udy c om pa r e d t he va l ue of vi s ua l

, t a c t i l e

, a nd c om bi ne d vi s ua l / t a c t i l e a l e r t s f o r

i de nt i f yi ng w hi c h o f f our s c a l e s e xc e e de d nor m a l r a nge i n t he m oni t or i ng t a s k. I n t he

vi s ua l c ondi t i on, s ubj e c t w a s r e qui r e d t o m oni t or t he s c a l e s

. I n t he t a c t i l e c ondi t i on,

s ubj e c t r e c e i ve d pul s e t r a i n a l e r t of f a

ul t

, w i t h l oc a t i on a nd f r e que nc y of t r a i n i ndi c a t i ng

w hi c h s c a l e w a s be yond nor m a l r a nge o f va l ue s

.

R e s u l t s

R e s pons e t i m e t o f a

ul t s w a s f a s t e r a nd R M S t r a c ki ng e r r or w a s r e duc e d w i t h t a c t i l e c ue s

c om pa r e d t o vi s ua l c ue s

. S ub j e c t i ve r a t i ngs a l s o s t r ongl y pr e f e r

r e d t he t a c t i l e c ue s

.

5) C al h ou n , G

. L

. , F o n t e j on , J

. V

. , D r ap e r , M

. H

. , Ru f f

, H

. A

. , & G u i l f oos , B

. J

. ( 2004)

. T ac t i l e ve r s u s au r al r e d u n d an t al e r t c u e s f or U A V c on t r ol ap p l i c at i on s

. P

r oc e e di n gs of t h e H u m an F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s S oc i e t y 48t h A n n u a l M e e t i n g , 137

- 141.

E xp e r i m e n t 1

E xa m i ne d t he va l ue o f a ur a l a nd t a c t i l e a l e r t s

, p r e s e nt e d r e dunda nt l y w i t h vi s ua l c ue s

, t o

s i gna l w a r ni ngs dur i ng a s i m ul a t e d U A V c ont r ol t a s k. S ubj e c t s pe r f or

m e d a c ont i nuousH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 22

U A V c ont r ol t a s k. W hi l e doi ng t hi s

, t he y w e r e r e q ui r e d t o r e s pond t o oc c a s i ona l ( 3

- 4 pe r

m i nut e ) da t a e nt r y t a s ks

. T w o k i nds of da t a e nt r y t a s k w e r e us e d:

1) W a r ni ng r e s pons e t a s k S ubj e c t de t e r m i ne d w he t he r w a r ni ng l e ve l w a s c a ut i on ( 20

- 24

pe r t r i a l ) or c r i t i c a l ( 3 pe r t r i a l )

, t he n r e s ponde d by e nt e r i ng a n a ppr op r i a t e s e que nc e of

ke ys

. 2) R a di o f r e que nc y t a s k S ubj e c t s he a r d c a l l s i gns

, f ol l ow e d by a c om bi na t i on o f c ol or &

num be r

. O n e ve nt s w i t h c a l l s i gn E a gl e

, s ubj e c t w a s r e qui r e d t o s e l e c t t he a ppr opr i a t e

c ol or / num be r c oor di na t e on t he H D D us i ng a m ou s e

. O n l ow a udi t o r y l oa d t r i a l s

, onl y t he

c a l l s i gn E a gl e e v e nt s w e r e us e d. O n hi gh a udi t or y l oa d t r i a l s

, di s t r a c t or s e ve nt s w i t h

di f f

e r e nt c a l l s i gns w e r e i nt e r pos e d.

3) D a t a que r y t a s k S i m ul t a ne ous vi s ua l / voi c e c om m a nds s pe c i f i e d da t a f or s ubj e c t t o

r e t r i e ve f r om H D D a nd e nt e r vi a ke ypa d.

P r i m a r y m a ni pul a t i on o f i nt e r e s t w a s i n t he w a r ni n g r e s pons e t a s k. I n ba s e l i ne c ondi t i on

,

c a ut i on s i gna l s w e r e s pe c i f i e d by ye l l ow vi s ua l c u e a nd r e dunda nt T ype I a ur a l c ue

,

c r i t i c a l s i gna l s w e r e s pe c i f i e d by r e d vi s ua l c ue a n d t he T ype I a ur a l c ue

. I n + 2nd a ur a l

c ondi t i on, c a u t i on s i gna l s w e r e s pe c i f i e d by ye l l o w vi s ua l c ue a nd r e dunda nt T ype I a ur a l

c ue

, c r i t i c a l s i gna l s w e r e s pe c i f i e d by r e d vi s ua l c ue a nd t he T ype 2 a u

r a l c ue

. I n + T a c t i l e

c ondi t i on, c a ut i on s i gna l s w e r e s pe c i f i e d by ye l l o w vi s ua l c ue a nd r e dunda nt T ype I a ur a l

c ue

, c r i t i c a l s i gna l s w e r e s pe c i f i e d by r e d vi s ua l c ue a nd t a c t i l e c ue

.

R e s u l t s

+ 2nd a ur a l a nd + T a c t i l e c ondi t i ons pr oduc e d s hor t e r R T s t ha n ba s e l i ne c ondi t i on ( p <

. 05

a nd p <

. 10)

. B a s e l i ne w a s a l s o s ubj e c t i ve l y r a t e d a s l e s s s a l i e nt t ha n t he ot he r t w o

c ondi t i ons

. + 2nd a ur a l a nd + T a c t i l e w e r e not s i gni f i c a nt l y di f f

e r e nt

. + 2nd a ur a l a nd

+ T a c t i l e i m pr ove d pe r f or m a nc e i n t he r a di o f r e que nc y t a s k unde r hi gh a udi t or y l oa d

c ondi t i ons

. F l i ght pe r f or m a nc e w a s not a f f

e c t e d b y a l e r t c ondi t i on

.

E xp e r i m e n t 2

T he s e c ond e xpe r i m e nt w a s c onduc t e d t o e xa m i ne t he i nt e r a c t i on o f c ue f o r m a t a nd

a

udi t or y l oa d m o r e c l os e l y. M e t hod w a s s i m i l a r t o t ha t t he E xpe r i m e nt 1

, e xc e pt t ha t 1)

no a udi t or y c ue w a s us e d i n t he ba s e l i ne c ondi t i on

, 2) onl y c r i t i c a l c ue s ( no c a ut i on c u e s )

w e r e us e d, 3) hi gh a udi t o r y l oa d w a s m or e di f f i c ul t y, 4) a ur a l a nd t a c t i l e c ue s w e r e

m a t c he d f or s a l i e nc e by a pi l ot s t udy, 5 ) a vi s ua l I F F s t a t us pr obe t a s k w a s a dde d.

R e s u l t s

+ A ur a l a nd + T a c t i l e c ondi t i o ns pr oduc e d s hor t e r R T s t ha n ba s e l i ne c ondi t i o n, a nd w e r e

r a t e d a s m or e s a l i e nt

. N o di f f

e r e nc e s obt a i ne d be t w e e n + A ur a l a nd + B a s e l i ne c ondi t i ons

. B a s e l i ne c ondi t i on a l s o pr oduc e d hi ghe r s ubj e c t i ve w or kl oa d. L ow a udi t or y l oa d i n

ge ne r a l pr oduc e d be t t e r s e l f

- r a t e d S A a nd t a s k pe r f or m a nc e a nd l ow e r w o r kl oa d, but di d

not i nt e r a c t w i t h c ue f o r m a t

, c ont r a r y t o f i ndi ngs o f E xpe r i m e nt 1

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 23

6) C ook e , N

. J

. , & S h op e , S

. M

. ( 2004)

. S yn t h e t i c t a s k e n vi r on m e n t s f or t e am s :

C E R T T ' s U A V

- S T E

. H an dbook on h u m an f ac t or s an d e r gon om i c s m e t h ods

. T ayl or

F r an c i s

. D e t a i l s s t e ps i nvol ve d i n c r e a t i ng a s ynt he t i c t a s k e nvi r onm e nt

, a nd i l l us t r a t e s t he p r oc e s s

by de s c r i bi ng t he de ve l opm e nt o f C E R T T 's P r e da t or U A V S T E

.

7) C u m m i n gs , M

. L

. ( 2004)

. H u m an s u p e r vi s or y c on t r ol of s w ar m i n g n e t w or k s

. P

ape r pr es e n t e d at t h e S e c on d A n n u al A u t on o m o u s I n t e l

l i ge n t N e t

w or ke d S y

s t

e m s

C

on f

e re n c e

. D i s c us s e s i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o s upe r vi s or y c ont r ol of s w a r m i ng U A V s

, i

. e

. , gr oups o f U A V s

w i t h s om e l e ve l of a ut onom ous i nt e r

- ve hi c l e c ol l a bor a t i on. C ol l a bor a t i on be t w e e n U A V s

i nt r oduc e s a not he r l a ye r o f a u t om a t i on i nt o U A V c ont r ol t a s k. A t t he m i ni m um l e ve l of

of ne t w or k a ut onom y, t he r e i s no c ol l a bor a t i on be t w e e n U A V s

. A t t he m a xi m um l e ve l

,

ve hi c l e s a r e i n f ul l c ol l a bor a t i on a nd t he r e i s no ne e d f or hum a n i nt e r ve nt i on i n e m e r ge nt

s i t ua t i ons

.

I nc r e a s i ng i n t e r

- ve hi c l e c ol l a bor a t i on doe s not ne c e s s a r i l y i nc r e a s e a ut om a t i on l e ve l f or

t he s ys t e m a s a w hol e

. A t t he l ow e s t l e ve l o f i nt e r

- ve hi c l e c ol l a bor a t i on, a ut om a t i on c a n

r a nge f r om S V l e ve l s 1

- 10. A t hi ghe s t l e ve l s

, i t c a n r a nge f r om l e ve l s 7

- 10. T he e f f

e c t s of

a

ut om a t i on of f ul l s ys t e m a nd o f i nt e r

- ve hi c l e c om m uni c a t i on m us t be c ons i de r e d i n

s ys t e m de s i gn.

D O D r e c ogni z e s t he ne e d f or a s t a nda r d U A V i n t e r f a c e t ha t p r ovi de s c r i t i c a l S A a nd

l oc a t i on da t a t o s uppor t a i r s pa c e i nt e gr a t i on

. S w a r m i ng U A V s w i l l be t a s ke d t o opt i m i z e

m ul t i

- obj e c t i ve c os t f unc t i ons

, a nd c e nt r a l i s s ue i n m a i nt a i ni ng S A w i l l be t o pr ovi de

vi s ua l i z a t i on t ool s t ha t c om m uni c a t e c os t f unc t i on i nf o t o U A V ope r a t or

. I t w i l l a l s o be

ne c e s s a r y t o pr ovi de i nt e r a c t i ve s e ns i t i vi t y a na l ys i s t ool s t o de t e r m i ne how hum a n

a dj us t m e nt s of va r i a bl e s c oul d c ha nge ove r a l l c os t f unc t i on.

8) C u m m i n gs , M

. L

. , & G u e r l ai n , S

. ( 2004)

. D e ve l opi n g ope r at

or c apac i t y e s t

i m at es

f

or s u pe r v i s or y c on t r ol of au t on o m ou s v e h i c l es

. M an u s c r i p t u n d e r r e vi e w

. A n e xpe r i m e nt a s s e s s e d ope r a t or s ' a bi l i t y t o c ont r o l m ul t i pl e a ut ono m ous a i r c r a f t

. S ubj e c t s pe r f or m e d a s upe r vi s or y t a s k t ha t r e qui r e d t he m t o c ont r ol a nd oc c a s i ona l l y r e

t a r ge t m ul t i pl e T om a ha w k m i s s i l e s

. C om m a nds a n d oc c a s i ona l que r i e s w e r e pr e s e nt e d i n

a n ons c r e e n c ha t box. C ha t box r e s pons e s s e r ve d a s a s e c onda r y t a s k m e a s ur e of

w or kl oa d. R e t a r ge t i ng w a s done w i t h a de c i s i on m a t r i x ( l ooks l i ke a s pr e a ds he e t ) t ha t

a l l ow e d s ubj e c t s t o vi e w i nf or

m a t i on on a l l r e t a r ge t a bl e m i s s i l e s

, i nc l udi ng how l ong i t

w oul d t a ke m i s s i l e s t o ge t t o t a r ge t a nd t he t i m e r e m a i ni ng f or t he ope r a t o r t o r e t a r ge t t he

m i s s i l e

. A va i l a bl e m i s s i l e s w e r e l i s t e d i n r ow s

, pot e nt i a l t a r ge t s w e r e l i s t e d i n c ol um ns

. C e l l a t t he i nt e r s e c t i on o f a g i ve n r ow a nd c ol um n ga ve i nf o a bout t ha t m i s s i l e / t a r ge tH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 24

pa i r i ng. R e t a r ge t i ng c om m a nds a r r i ve d a t t w o t e m pos

, l ow ( one e ve nt e ve r y 4 m i nut e s )

a nd hi gh ( one e ve nt e ve r y 2 m i nut e s )

. D i f f i c ul t y o f t a s k s c e na r i os w a s e a s y, m e di um

, or

ha r d.

D e pe nde nt va r i a bl e s w e r e de c i s i on t i m e f o r r e t a r ge t i ng; F i gu r e of M e r i t ( F O M )

, a

w e i ght e d m e a s ur e of ove r a l l pe r f o r m a nc e ; ut i l i z a t i on, a n obj e c t i ve w or kl oa d m e a s ur e

gi ve n by % bus y t i m e ; a nd N A S A

- T L X r a t i ngs

. P a r t i c i pa nt s w e r e 42 a c t i ve a nd r e t i r e d

dut y N a vy pe r s onne l

.

R e s u l t s

D e c i s i on t i m e

, F O M

, a nd ut i l i z a t i on s c or e s w e r e s i m i l a r w i t h 8 a nd 12 m i s s i l e s

, but w e r e

de gr a de d w i t h 16 m i s s i l e s

. T he e f f

e c t of num be r o f m i s s i l e s on de c i s i on t i m e w a s l a r ge r

a s t he s c e na r i o be c a m e m or e di f f i c ul t

. S ubj e c t i ve w or kl oa d s c or e s w e r e not a f f

e c t e d by

num be r of m i s s i l e s

. R e s ul t s s ugge s t t ha t ope r a t or s c a n m a na ge up t o 12 m i s s i l e s w i t h no

de gr a da t i on. S e e pa pe r s by G a l s t e r

, e t a l ( 2001) a nd H i l bur n, e t a l ( 1997 ) f o r s i m i l a r

c onc l us i ons f r om A T C dom a i n

.

9) d e V r i e s , S

. C

. ( 2001)

. H e ad

- s l av e d c on t r ol v e r s u s j oy s t

i c k c on t r ol of a re m ot e

c am e r a ( T

N

O

- re por t T M

- 01

- B 008)

. S oe s t e r b e r g, T h e N e t h e r l an d s : T N O H u m an

F ac t or s R e s e ar c h I n s t i t u t e

. E xpe r i m e nt c om pa r e d be ne f i t s of he a d

- s l a ve d H M D c ont r ol o f U A V c a m e r a vs

. j oys t i c k

c ont r ol

. C a m e r a j oys t i c k w a s e i t he r pa s s i ve

, a c t i ve ( f o r c e f e e dba c k)

, or c om b i ne d w i t h

U A V c ont r ol j oys t i c k. D yna m i c s of t he j oys t i c k w e r e e i t he r pos i t i on or ve l oc i t y c ont r ol

. I n s om e c ondi t i ons

, r e f e r e nc e m a r ks w e r e i nc l ude d t o a i d pe r c e pt i on of c a m e r a

or i e nt a t i on.

R e s u l t s

A na l ys i s of j oys t i c k m a ni pul a t i ons i ndi c a t e d t ha t b e s t pe r f or m a nc e c a m e f r om a pa s s i ve j oys t i c k pr ovi di ng pos i t i on c ont r ol w i t hout ve hi c l e r e f e r e nc e s

. P e r f or m a nc e on a l m os t a l l

m e a s ur e s w a s s upe r i or w i t h j oys t i c k c ont r ol r e l a t i v e t o he a d

- s l a ve d c ont r ol

.

10) d e V r i e s , S

. C

. , & Jan s e n , C

. ( 2002)

. S i t u at i o n al aw ar e n e s s of U A V op e r at or s

on b oar d m ovi n g p l a t f or m s

. P r oc e e di n gs H C

I

- A e r o 2002

. A n e xpe r i m e nt e xa m i ne d s pa t i a l a w a r e ne s s of ope r a t or s c ont r ol l i ng a U A V f r om onboa r d

a m ovi ng he l i c opt e r

. D i s pl a ys pr e s e nt e d a 2

- D e l e c t r oni c m a p o f t e r r a i n i nc l udi ng t he

U A V

, he l i c opt e r

, f ootba l l s t a di um

, a nd a c ol um n o f t a nks

. I n s om e c ondi t i ons

, a 3

- D m a p

w a s pr e s e nt e d t o pr ovi de s e l f

- m ot i on i n f o f r om pe r s pe c t i ve of ope r a t or i ns i de t he

he l i c opt e r

. 2

- D m a ps va r i e d i n t he i r c e nt e r ( he l i

- c e nt e r e d vs

. U A V c e nt e r e d) a nd

or i e nt a t i on ( no r t h up vs

. he l i c opt e r he a di ng up vs

. U A V he a di ng up)

. T he s ubj e c t 's t a s k

w a s t o m oni t or di s pl a ys t hr ough a 40

- 60 s a ut om a t e d f l i ght pe r i od t he n a ns w e r que s t i onsH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 25

a

bout l oc a t i ons of va r i ous i t e m s

. Q ue s t i ons c oul d a s k a bout e i t he r a bs ol ut e ( w o r l d

c e nt e r e d) or i e nt a t i on or r e l a t i ve pos i t i ons of t he f o ur i t e m s ons c r e e n.

R e s u l t s

N or t h

- up di s pl a ys w e r e be t t e r f o r a bs ol ut e or i e nt a t i on que s t i ons

, a s a s s e s s e d by a ngul a r j udgm e nt e r r o r s a nd by R T s

. I n ge ne r a l

, a bs ol ut e j udgm e nt s w e r e s l ow e r t ha n r e l a t i ve

j udgm e nt s

, e xc e pt i n c a s e w he r e m a p i s nor t h

- up a nd t he r e w a s no 3

- D s e l f

- m ot i on. 3

- D

s e l f m ot i on i nc r e a s e d e r r o r s i n m os t c ondi t i ons ( pe r ha ps pr oduc i ng a n S A T i n s om e

c a s e s ) but i m pr ove d j udgm e nt s of r e l a t i ve di r e c t i o n f r om he l i c opt e r

, a nd ha d no e f f

e c t on j udgm e nt s r e l a t i ve t o t he U A V

.

11) Wi c k e n s , C

. D

. , & D i xon , S

. ( 2003)

. I m

pe r f

e c t au t om at i on i n u n m an n e d ae r i al

v e h i c l e f l i gh t c on t r ol ( T

e c h n i c al re por t A H F

D

- 03

- 17/ M A D

- 03

- 2)

. S avoy, I L :

U n i ve r s i t y of I l l i n oi s , I n s t i t u t e of A vi at i on , A vi a t i on H u m an F ac t or s D i vi s i on

.

E m pl o ye d t he s i ngl e

- U A V t a s k of W i c ke ns & D i x on ( 2002) t o e xa m i ne t he e f f

e c t s o f

i m pe r f e c t a ut om a t e d a i ds f or de t e c t i ng s ys t e m f a i l ur e s a nd c ont r ol l i ng U A V f l i gh t pa t h.

S ubj e c t s f l e w s i m ul a t e d U A V m i s s i ons t o a c om m a nd t a r ge t ( C T ) l oc a t i ons w hi l e

c onc ur r e nt l y s e a r c hi ng f o r t a r ge t s o f oppor t uni t y ( T O O s ) a nd m oni t o r i ng a s e t of ga uge s

f

or s ys t e m f a i l u r e s ( S F s )

. I n a ba s e l i ne m a nua l c on di t i on, s ubj e c t s f l e w w i t hout

a

ut om a t e d a i ds

. T h r e e gr oups of s ubj e c t s w e r e pr o vi de d a n a i d t o s i gna l s ys t e m f a i l ur e s

. F or one g r ou p, a i d w a s pe r f e c t l y r e l i a bl e

. F or a not he r gr oup

, a i d w a s 67 % r e l i a bl e a nd

pr one t o c om m i t t i ng f a l s e a l a r m s

. F o r t he t hi r d gr o up, a i d w a s 67 % r e l i a bl e a nd pr one t o

c om m i t t i ng m i s s e s

. T w o a ddi t i ona l gr oups w e r e pr ovi de d a n a ut opi l ot t o c ont r o l U A V

f l i ght pa t h

. F o r one g r oup, a ut opi l ot w a s pe r f e c t l y r e l i a bl e

. F o r t he ot he r g r oup, a ut opi l ot

w a s 67% r e l i a bl e ( i

. e

. , pr one t o goi ng o f f

- c ou r s e )

. A f i na l g r oup w a s pr ovi de d bot h f or m s

of a ut om a t i on, w i t h bot h be i ng pe r f e c t l y r e l i a bl e

.

R e s u l t s

D a t a i ndi c a t e d t ha t pe r f e c t l y r e l i a bl e a i ds i m pr ove d pe r f or m a nc e r e l a t i ve t o ba s e l i ne

, a nd

t ha t e ve n t he i m pe r f e c t a ut opi l ot w a s be ne f i c i a l

. F ur t he r m or e

, a ut om a t e d f l i ght c ont r ol

i m pr ove d pe r f o r m a nc e on t he c onc ur r e nt T O O s e a r c h t a s k. I n c ont r a s t

, i m pe r f e c t l y

r e l i a bl e a i ds f or S F de t e c t i on pr oduc e d no ga i ns r e l a t i ve t o ba s e l i ne

, a nd e ve n pe r f e c t l y

r e l i a bl e S F de t e c t i on f a i l e d t o i m p r ove T O O de t e c t i on. R e s ul t s s ugge s t t ha t t he be ne f i t s

of l a t e r s t a ge a ut om a t i on ( i

. e

. , a ut om a t i on of t a s k e xe c ut i on) m a y be g r e a t e r a nd m or e

r obus t t ha n t he be ne f i t s of e a r l y s t a ge a ut om a t i on.

12) D i xon , S

. R

. , & Wi c k e n s , C

. D

. ( 2004)

. R e l i abi l i t

y i n au t om at e d ai ds f or

u n m an n e d ae r i al v e h i c l e f l i gh t c on t r ol : E v al u at i n g a m ode l of au t om at i on de pe n de n c e

i n h i gh w or kl

oad ( T

e c h n i c al re por t A H F

D

- 04

- 05 / M A A D

- 04

- 1)

. S avoy , I L : U n i ve r s i t y

of I l l i n oi s , I n s t i t u t e of A vi a t i on , A vi at i on H u m a n F ac t or s D i vi s i on

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 26

E m pl oye d t he s i ngl e

- U A V t a s k of W i c ke ns & D i x on ( 2002) t o e xa m i ne t he e f f

e c t s o f a n

i m pe r f e c t a ut om a t e d a i d f or de t e c t i on of s ys t e m f a i l ur e s

. S ubj e c t s f l e w s i m ul a t e d U A V

m i s s i ons t o a c om m a nd t a r ge t ( C T ) l oc a t i ons w hi l e c onc ur r e nt l y s e a r c hi ng f or t a r ge t s of

oppor t uni t y ( T O O s ) a nd m oni t or i ng a s e t of ga uge s f or s ys t e m f a i l u r e s ( S F s )

. I n A 80

c ondi t i on, a ut om a t e d a i d w a s 80% r e l i a bl e a nd w a s e qua l l y l i ke l y t o c o m m i t a m i s s or a

f

a l s e a l a r m

. I n A 60f c ondi t i on

, a i d w a s 60 % r e l i a bl e a nd w a s 3x m or e l i ke l y t o c om m i t a

f

a l s e a l a r m t ha n a m i s s

. T hi s s houl d ha ve e nc our a g e d hi gh r e l i a nc e / l ow c om pl i a nc e

. I n

A 60m c ondi t i on, a i d w a s 60% r e l i a bl e a nd w a s 3x m or e l i ke l y t o c o m m i t a m i s s t ha n a

f

a l s e a l a r m

. T hi s s houl d ha ve e nc our a ge d l ow r e l i a nc e / hi gh c om pl i a nc e

. I n a ba s e l i ne

c ondi t i on, s ubj e c t s pe r f or

m e d w i t h no a ut om a t e d a i d.

R e s u l t s

T r a c ki ng e r r or w a s una f f

e c t e d by a ut om a t i on c ond i t i on.

T he num be r of i ns t r uc t i on r e f r e s he s ( pr e s e nt e d vi s ua l l y) w a s hi ghe r i n t he A 60 m ( M

=

8. 5) c ondi t i on t ha n i n t he ba s e l i ne ( M

= 3)

. T he nu m be r of r e f r e s he s f or A 80 ( M

= 5. 57 )

a nd A 60f ( M

= 5. 25 ) c ondi t i ons w e r e m a r gi na l l y l ow e r t ha n i n A 60m c ondi t i on

, a nd

w e r e non

- s i gni f i c a nt l y hi ghe r t ha n i n ba s e l i ne c on di t i on.

T O O de t e c t i on r a t e w a s hi ghe r i n t he A 80 c ondi t i o n t ha n i n ba s e l i ne

. N o ot he r

di f f

e r e nc e s i n de t e c t i on r a t e be t w e e n gr oups w e r e s i gni f i c a nt

. T O O de t e c t i on t i m e s w e r e

hi ghe r i n t he A 60f a nd A 60m c ondi t i ons t ha n i n ba s e l i ne

. D a t a s how e d a non

- s i gni f i c a nt

t r e nd t ow a r d l a r ge r de c r e m e nt i n A 60 f c ondi t i on

, s ugge s t i ng t ha t a hi gh f a l s e a l a r m r a t e

i nduc e d s ubj e c t s t o i nve s t m or e vi s ua l r e s our c e s i n i ns pe c t i ng ga uge s i n r e s pons e t o a n

a l a r m t ha n a h i gh m i s s r a t e d i d.

C T de t e c t i on t i m e s w e r e s i gni f i c a nt l y a nd s ubs t a nt i a l l y ( 2 s e c onds ) l onge r i n A 60 f a nd

A 60m c ondi t i ons t ha n i n t he ba s e l i ne a nd A 80 c ondi t i ons

.

S F de t e c t i on r a t e s w e r e hi ghe r w he n w or kl oa d w a s hi gh ( i

. e

. , du r i ng l oi t e r i ng/ i ns pe c t i on)

, but t hi s di d not i nt e r a c t w i t h a ut om a t i on c o ndi t i on

. S F de t e c t i on t i m e s w e r e a l s o hi ghe r

w he n w or kl oa d w a s hi gh, a nd s how e d a n i nt e r a c t i on w i t h c ondi t i on

, r e f l e c t i ng t he f a c t

t ha t l oa d i nc r e a s e d de t e c t i on t i m e s i n A 60f c ondi t i on m or e t ha n i n a ny ot he r c ondi t i on.

E f f

e c t s of l oa d w e r e s i m i l a r on a l l o t he r c ondi t i ons

. C om pa r i s on of A 60f a nd A 60m

c ondi t i ons s how e d t ha t i n bot h c a s e s

, de t e c t i on t i m e s w e r e i nc r e a s e d w he n a ut om a t i on

m i s s e d t he S F

. D e t e c t i on t i m e s w he n t he a ut o m a t i on de t e c t e d t he f a i l u r e w e r e l onge r i n

t he A 60f c ondi t i on t ha n i n t he A 60m

, r e f l e c t i ng g r e a t e r c om pl i a nc e w i t h a l a r m s i n t he

l a t e r c ondi t i on.

A c om put a t i ona l m ode l a c c ount e d f or t he da t a w e l l

. R e s ul t s of t he m ode l i ng s ugge s t t ha t

c om pl i a nc e a nd r e l i a nc e a r e l i ne a r l y r e l a t e d t o t he a ut om a t i on's F A R a nd H R

,

r e s pe c t i ve l y, a nd a r e l a r ge l y i nde pe nde nt o f one a n ot he r

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 27

13) D ow e l l

, S

. R

. , S h i ve l y , R

. J.

, & C as e y, D

. P

. ( 2003)

. U A V gr ou n d c on t r ol s t at i on

p ayl oad s ym b ol ogy e val u at i o n

. P ape r pres e n t e d at t h e A n n u a l A U V S

I C on f

e re n c e , Ju l y 15

- 17

, B al t i m or e , M D

. C om pa r e d t he e f f

e c t s of f l oa t i ng c om pa s s r os e a nd he a di ng t a pe s ym bol ogy on m i s s i on

pa yl oa d ope r a t or s ' a bi l i t y t o r e s pond t o c ha nge c o m m a nds a nd S A que r i e s

. S ym bol ogy

f

or m a t s a l s o di f f

e r e d i n t he i r r e pr e s e nt a t i on of s e ns or pi t c h: c om pa s s r os e di s pl a ys ga ve

pi t c h a s a di gi t a l r e a dout

, he a d i ng t a pe di s pl a ys de pi c t e d i t w i t h a w e dge r e p r e s e nt a t i on

i ndi c a t i ng t he a ngl e o f de c l i na t i on. C om m a nde d c h a nge s c oul d be t o s e ns or he a di ng,

s e ns or pi t c h, s e ns or he a di ng r e l a t i ve t o a i r ve hi c l e ( s e ns or be a r i ng a ngl e )

, or t o A V

he a di ng. M P O di d not pe r f or m A V he a di ng c ha ng e s

, but c a l l e d t he m out t o c onf e de r a t e

pi l ot

. S ubj e c t i ve m e a s ur e s of w or kl oa d ( N A S A

- T L X ) a nd S A ( S A R T ) w e r e a l s o

c ol l e c t e d.

R e s u l t s

C ha nge s t o s e ns or he a di ng a nd s e ns or be a r i ng a ngl e w e r e m or e a c c ur a t e w i t h he a di ng

t a

pe t ha n w i t h c om pa s s r os e s ym bol ogy, w i t h no S A T

. U ne xpe c t e dl y, c ha nge s t o s e ns or

pi t c h w e r e m or e a c c ur a t e w i t h c om pa s s r os e s ym b ol ogy. P os t

- e xpe r i m e nt i nt e r vi e w s w i t h

s ubj e c t s s ugge s t t hi s m i ght be due t o s i z e a nd g r a di e nt of m a r ke d i nc r e m e nt s on he a di ng

t a

pe s ym bol ogy. C ont r ol r e ve r s a l s w e r e m or e f r e q ue nt w i t h c om pa s s r os e t ha n w i t h

he a di ng t a pe

. S A pr obe s di dn't s how m uc h, a nd no di f f

e r e nc e s w e r e f ound i n s ubj e c t i ve

r a t i ngs

.

14) D r ap e r , M

. , C al h ou n , G

. , R u f f

, H

. , Wi l l i am s on , D

. , & B ar r y, T

. ( 2003)

. M an u al ve r s u s s p e e c h i n p u t f or u n m an n e d ae r i al ve h i c l e c on t r ol s t at i on op e r at i on s

. P

r oc e e di n gs of t h e H u m an F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s S oc i e t y 47t h A n n u a l M e e t i n g , 109

- 113.

E m pl oye d a U A V s i m ul a t i on t o e xa m i ne be ne f i t s of m a nua l ( ke yboa r d) a nd s pe e c h i nput

m oda l i t i e s f or i nt e r m i t t e d da t a e nt r y t a s ks dur i ng a c ont i nuous f l i ght / na vi ga t i on c ont r ol

t a s k. A m a nua l c om m a nd c om pr i s e d a s e r i e s of but t on pr e s s e s

. A voi c e c om m a nd

c om pr i s e d a s i ngl e w or d o r s hor t phr a s e

. S ubj e c t s r e c e i ve d i nt e r m i t t e nt s i gna l s t o pe r f or m

da t a e nt r y t a s ks dur i ng f l i ght t a s k. A r e s pons e t o e a c h a l e r t w a s r e qui r e d w i t hi n 10

s e c onds

, a nd t he t a s k w a s r e qui r e d t o be c om pl e t e d w i t hi n a n a l l ot t e d a m ount of t i m e

t he r e a f t e r

. A f a i l u r e t o a c know l e dge a l e r t w a s c ons i de r e d a m i s s

, a nd a f a i l u r e t o

c om pl e t e t he t a s k w a s c ons i d e r e d a t i m e

- out

.

R e s u l t s

T a s k c om pl e t i on t i m e s w e r e on a ve r a ge 40% s hor t e r w i t h voi c e c om m a nds

. B e ne f i t s

r a nge d i n m a gni t ude f r om 3. 14 t o 21. 43 s e c onds

. N um be r of t i m e

- out s w a s a l m os t 10

t i m e s hi ghe r w i t h m a nua l e nt r y ( M

=

. 95 vs

. M

=

. 1)

, a nd t he num be r of t a s ks c om pl e t e d

i nc or r e c t l y w a s a ppr oxi m a t e l y 23 t i m e s g r e a t e r

. R e s pons e t i m e t o a l e r t s w a s f a s t e r f o r

m a nua l e nt r y m ode

, but di f f

e r e nc e w a s l e s s t ha n 1 s e c ond. R M S a i r s pe e d e r r or

, pa t h

e r r or

, a nd a l t i t ude e r r o r w e r e a l l s m a l l e r i n s pe e c h e nt r y c ondi t i o ns

. S ubj e c t i ve da t a a l s o

f

a vor e d s pe e c h e nt r y.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 28

A s s t udy w a s de vi s e d, s pe e c h e nt r y m ode ge ne r a l l y r e qui r e d f e w e r c om m a nds t ha n

m a nua l e nt r y. D a t a do not i ndi c a t e i f s pe e c h e nt r y w oul d s t i l l be s upe r i o r i f m oda l i t i e s

w e r e e qua t e d f or num be r o f s t e ps r e qui r e d t o e xe c ut e c om m a nds

.

15) D r ap e r , M

. H

. , G e i s e l m an , E

. E

. , L u , L

. G

. , R oe , M

. M

. , & H aas , M

. W

. ( 2000)

. D i s p l ay c on c e p t s s u p p or t i n g c r e w c om m u n i c at i on s of t ar ge t l oc at i o n i n u n m an n e d

ai r ve h i c l e s

. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e I E

A 2000/ H F

E

S 2000 C on gres s , 3. 85

- 3

. 88

. U A V s f or i nt e l l i ge nc e

, r e c onna i s s a nc e

, a nd s ur ve i l l a nc e ( I S R ) us ua l l y ha ve t w o

ope r a t or s

, a s e ns or ope r a t o r ( S O ) a nd a n a i r ve hi c l e ope r a t or ( A V O )

. T he A V O c ont r ol s

t he a i r f r a m e

, m oni t o r s s ubs ys t e m s

, a nd c om m uni c a t e s w i t h t he gr ound c ont r ol s t a t i on

( G C S )

. T he S O s e a r c he s f or t a r ge t s us i ng a U A V

- m ount e d c a m e r a

.

T he A V O ge ne r a l l y v i e w s s c e ne w i t h a l a r ge r F O V t ha n t he S O

, a nd c a n t he r e f o r e a s s i s t

i n t a r ge t de t e c t i on by di r e c t i ng t he S O 's a t t e nt i on t o t a r ge t s out s i de t he S O 's c u r r e nt F O V

. U s ua l l y, t he A V O a t t e m pt s t o c om m uni c a t e t he t a r ge t l oc a t i on ve r ba l l y

. T he goa l o f

pa pe r w a s t o a s s e s s a pa i r of di s pl a y c onc e pt s m e a nt t o f a c i l i t a t e A V O / S O

c om m uni c a t i on a bout t a r ge t l oc a t i on. T w o k i nds o f a dva nc e d di s pl a ys w e r e t e s t e d:

• C om pa s s r os e ove r l a y on t he S O 's c a m e r a di s pl a y A l l ow s A V O t o gi ve di r e c t i on

i n w or l d

- c e nt e r e d r e f e r e nc e s ( N

, S

, E

, W )

, a nd s ho ul d m a ke t r a ns l a t i on t o s c r e e n

c e nt e r e d r e f e r e nc e s e a s i e r f or t he S O

• T e l e s t r a t or A l l ow s A V O t o de s i gna t e t a r ge t l oc a t i o n on hi s di s pl a y us i ng a m ous e

,

t he n pr e s e nt s a l oc a t or l i ne on t he S O 's di s pl a y i nd i c a t i ng t he di r e c t i on a nd

di s t a nc e i n w hi c h S O s houl d s hi f t c a m e r a t o f i nd t a r ge t

F our c ondi t i ons w e r e t e s t e d: ba s e l i ne ( c ont r ol )

, c o m pa s s r os e

, t e l e s t r a t or

, c om pa s s r os e +

t e l e s t r a t or

R e s u l t s

T e l e s t r a t or r e duc e d t he t i m e ne c e s s a r y t o de s i gna t e t he t a r ge t

, i m p r ove d c a m e r a pa t h

e f

f i c i e nc y i m pr ove d

, a nd r e duc e d w or kl oa d. C om p a s s r os e w a s of l i t t l e be ne f i t

.

16) D r ap e r , M

. H

. , N e l s on , W

. T

. , A b e r n at h y , M

. F

. , C al h ou n , G

. L

. ( 2004 )

. S yn t h e t i c vi s i on ove r l ay f or i m p r ovi n g U A V o p e r at i on s

. T he a ut hor s di s c us s pot e nt i a l be ne f i t s of s ynt he t i c vi s i on s ys t e m s ( S V S s ) f or U A V s

. T he s e i nc l ude :

• S V S c oul d i m p r ove S A by hi ghl i ght i ng i t e m s of i n t e r e s t i n c a m e r a i m a ge

.

• S V S c oul d a l l ow ope r a t or t o m a i nt a i n S A i f vi s ua l da t a l i nk i s l os t

.

• S V S c oul d f a c i l i t a t e c om m uni c a t i ons be t w e e n us e r s w ho a r e not c o

- l oc a t e d.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 29

17) D r ap e r , M

. H

. , R u f f

, H

. A

. , F on t e j o n , J. V

. , & N a p i e r , S

. ( 200 2)

. T h e e f f

e c t s of

h e ad

- c ou p l e d c on t r ol an d a h e ad

- m ou n t e d d i s p l ay ( H M D ) on l ar ge

- ar e a s e ar c h

t as k s

. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e H u m a n F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s S oc i e t y 46t h A n n u al

M e e t i n g , 2139

- 2143.

C om pa r e d e f f

e c t s of va r i ous he a d

- c oupl e d a nd m a nua l l y

- c ont r ol l e d c a m e r a / di s pl a y

c onf i gur a t i ons on a bi l i t y t o l oc a t e t a r ge t s i n a 360

- de gr e e s e a r c h t a s k i n a s i m ul a t e d

U A V

. T a r ge t a c qui s i t i on w a s be t t e r w i t h m a nua l j oys t i c k/ s t a t i ona r y C R T c om bi na t i on

t ha n w i t h he a d

- c oupl e d H M D c onf i gu r a t i ons

. W o r kl oa d r a t i ngs

, S A r a t i ngs

, a nd

s i m ul a t or s i c kne s s da t a a l s o ge ne r a l l y f a vor e d t he non

- H M D c onf i gur a t i ons

.

18) D r ap e r , M

. H

. , R u f f

, H

. A

. , & L a F l e u r , T

. ( 2001 )

. T h e e f f

e c t s o f c am e r a

c on t r ol an d d i s p l ay c on f i gu r at i o n on t e l e op e r at e d t ar ge t s e ar c h t as k s

. P r oc e e di n gs of

t h e H u m an F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s S oc i e t y 45t h A n n u al M e e t i n g , 1872

- 1876

. S ubj e c t s pe r f or m e d f or w a r d

- f i e l d a nd r e a r

- f i e l d s e a r c h t a s ks i n a U A V s i m ul a t i on us i ng

e i t he r A ) j oys t i c k c ont r ol l e d c a m e r a w i t h s t a t i ona r y C R T di s pl a y, B ) 1. 0x ga i n he a d

c oupl e d c a m e r a w i t h H M D

, C ) 1. 5x ga i n he a d c oupl e d c a m e r a w i t h H M D

, or D ) 1

. 0x

ga i n he a d c oupl e d c a m e r a w i t h H M D i n c onj unc t i on w i t h c om bi ne d w i t h m a nua l j oys t i c k

c ont r ol

.

R e s u l t s

C onf i gur a t i on A p r oduc e d be s t pe r f o r m a nc e f or f o r w a r d

- f i e l d s e a r c h. D a t a s how e d no

s i gni f i c a nt di f f

e r e nc e s be t w e e n c onf i gur a t i ons f or r e a r

- f i e l d s e a r c h.

19) F on g, T

. , & T h or p e , C

. ( 2001)

. V e h i c l e t e l e op e r at i on i n t e r f ac e s

. A u t on om ou s

R obot s

, 11

, 9

- 18.

P a pe r di s c us s e s va r i ous f or m s of i nt e r f a c e s f or ve h i c l e t e l e ope r a t i on. T he s e i nc l ude :

• D i r e c t O pe r a t or m a nua l l y c ont r ol s a i r c r a f t

, t ypi c a l l y us i ng c ont r ol s t ha t a r e

s i m i l a r t o t hos e o f a m a nne d ve hi c l e

. T hi s f o r m o f c ont r ol / i nt e r f a c e i s a ppr op r i a t e

w he n 1) r e a l

- t i m e hum a n c ont r ol or i n t e r ve nt i on i s r e qui r e d, a nd 2 ) t he c ont r ol

s t a t i on a nd ve hi c l e a r e c onne c t e d by a hi gh

- ba ndw i dt h, l ow

- de l a y

c om m uni c a t i ons l i nk.

• M ul t i m oda l / m ul t i s e ns or M ul t i m oda l i nt e r f a c e s " pr ovi de t he ope r a t or w i t h a

va r i e t y of c ont r ol m ode s ( i ndi vi dua l a c t ua t or

, c oor di na t e d m ot i on, e t c

. ) a nd

di s pl a ys ( t e xt

, vi s ua l

, e t c

. )

. . . M ul t i s e ns or di s pl a ys c om bi ne i nf or m a t i o n f r om

s e ve r a l s e ns or s or da t a s our c e s t o pr e s e nt a s i ngl e i nt e gr a t e d vi e w

. "

• S upe r vi s or y c on t r ol O pe r a t o r s pe c i f i e s s ubt a s ks w hi c h t he ve hi c l e t he n pe r f o r m s

on i t s ow n. T hi s i s a pp r opr i a t e w he n da t a l i nk ba nd w i dt h i s l ow o r

c om m uni c a t i ons a r e de l a ye d.

• N ove l T he s e i nc l ude ps yc hophys i ol ogi c a l l y

- dr i ve n c ont r ol

, ge s t ur e

- ba s e d c ont r ol

,

w e b

- ba s e d i nt e r f a c e s

, P D A

- ba s e d i nt e r f a c e s

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 30

20) F on t e j on , J

. , C al h ou n , G

. , R u f f

, H

. , D r ap e r , M

. & M u r p h y , K

. ( 2004)

. T ac t i l e

al e r t s f or m on i t or i n g t as k s i n c o m p l e x s ys t e m s

. A n e a r l i e r s t udy ( C a l houn, e t a l

, 2002) f ound t ha t t a c t i l e a l e r t s c oul d s pe e d de t e c t i on of

s y s t e m f a

ul t s i n a m ul t i

- t a s k e nvi r onm e nt

. I n t ha t e xpe r i m e nt

, s ubj e c t s w e r e r e qui r e d t o

de t e c t & i de nt i f y s ys t e m f a

ul t s w hi l e a l s o pe r f or m i ng a m a nua l t r a c ki ng t a s k. T w o t a c t or s

w e r e us e d t o s i gna l f ou r pos s i bl e s ys t e m f a

ul t s : c o m bi na t i on of t a c t or l oc a t i on a nd

vi br a t i on f r e que nc y s i gna l e d w hi c h of f our s ys t e m pa r a m e t e r s w a s i n f a

ul t

. P e r f or m a nc e

w a s be s t ( R T s hor t e s t ) w he n one t a c t or w a s l oc a t e d on e a c h a r m

. W he n bot h w e r e on a

s i ngl e a r m

, pe r f or m a nc e w a s be t t e r w i t h t he r i ght t ha n t he l e f t a r m

.

I n t he s t u dy de s c r i be d a bove

, a l l pa r t i c i pa nt s w e r e r i ght

- ha nde d. A ddi t i ona l l y, m a nua l

t r a c ki ng w a s pe r f or m e d w i t h t he r i ght ha nd. T he c ur r e nt s t udy w a s c onduc t e d t o

de t e r m i ne i f s i m i l a r r e s ul t s w oul d obt a i n f or A ) l e f t

- ha nde d s ubj e c t s

, a nd B ) w he n s ubj e c t

pe r f or m e d t he t r a c ki ng t a s k us i ng t he l e f t ha nd.

R e s u l t s

R T s w e r e s hor t e s t w he n t a c t or s w e r e l oc a t e d on di f f

e r e nt a r m s

. W he n t he y w e r e on t he

s a m e a r m

, t he r e w a s no s i gni f i c a nt di f f

e r e nc e i n R T s f or l e f t & r i ght a r m s

. H a nd us e d f o r

t r a c ki ng di d not ha ve a ny a f f

e c t on R T t o f a

ul t s

.

21) G aw r on , V

. J

. ( 1998)

. H u m an f ac t or s i s s u e s i n t h e d e ve l op m e n t

, e val u a t i on ,

an d op e r at i on of u n i n h ab i t e d ae r i al ve h i c l e s

. A U V S

I ' 98: P r oc e e di n gs of t h e

A s s oc i at i on f or U n m an n e d V e h i c l e S y

s t

e m s I n t e r

n at i on al

, 431

- 438

. T he a ut hor di s c us s e s a num be r of uni que hum a n f a c t or s c onc e r ns uni que t o U A V f l i ght

. T he s e i nc l ude :

• D a t a l i nk dr op out s m a y be di f f i c ul t f o r ope r a t o r t o not i c e

.

• U A V m i s s i on t i m e s m a y e xc e e d hum a n vi gi l a nc e c a pa bi l i t y.

• H um a ns c a n a t t e nd t o/ i ns pe c t onl y one s t r e a m of i m a ge s a t a t i m e

, w hi l e s om e

U A V s m a y pr ovi de m ul t i p l e i m a ge s t r e a m s

.

• O pe r a t or s a r e s om e t i m e s gi ve n w i t h unpr i or i t i z e d l i s t s of m ul t i pl e of t a r ge t s t o

s e a r c h f or

. T hi s m a y be e s pe c i a l l y pr obl e m a t i c w h e n t he ope r a t or i s a s ke d t o

c ont r ol m ul t i pl e U A V s s i m ul t a ne ou s l y.

• C r e w c oor di na t i on de pe nds on a ppr op r i a t e c om m u ni c a t i ons f l ow be t w e e n c r e w

m e m be r s

, w hi c h c a n be di f f i c ul t w he n c r e w i s l a r g e or w he n c r e w m e m be r s a r e

not c o

- l oc a t e d.

• V i s ua l i m a ge r y i s di f f i c ul t t o obt a i n du r i ng r oc ke t l a unc hi ng or U A V

, a nd dur i ng

ne t or c a bl e a r r e s t

. W or k l oa d i s a l s o hi gh dur i ng l a unc h a nd r e c ove r y. F i na l l y

,

s m a l l s e ns or F O V c a n r e duc e S A a nd m a ke na vi ga t i on, t a r ge t a c qui s i t i on, a nd

t r a f f i c de t e c t i on di f f i c ul t

.

• M a nua l c ont r ol of ve hi c l e s w i t h t i m e de l a ys i s di f f i c ul t

.

• C ont r ol i nt e r f a c e on s om e s ys t e m s i s poor l y de s i gn e d.

• S of t w a r e i s not s t a nda r di z e d, e ve n be t w e e n i ns t a nc e s of t he s a m e U A V s ys t e m

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 31

P r opos e d m i l i t a r y us e s f or U A V s i nc l ude s pe c i a l o pe r a t i ons ; poi nt r e c onna i s s a nc e

, c ue d

s ur ve i l l a nc e

, a nd t a r ge t a c qui s i t i on. N on

- m i l i t a r y u s e s a r e pos s i bl e i n t he f i e l ds s uc h a s

l a w e nf or c e m e nt

, f i r e f i ght i ng

, a gr i c ul t ur e

, c ons t r u c t i on, a r c ha e ol ogy, ge ol ogy, a nd pos t a l

de l i ve r y.

22) G l u c k

, K

. A

. , B al l

, J

. T

. , K r u s m ar k

, M

. A

. , R od ge r s , S

. M

. , & P u r t e e , M

. D

. ( 2003)

. A c om p u t at i on al p r oc e s s m od e l o f b as i c ai r c r af t m an e u ve r i n g

. P r oc e e di n gs

of t h e F i f

t h I n t e r

n at i on al C on f

e re n c e on C ogn i t i v e M ode l i n g , 117

- 122

. P a pe r pr e s e nt s a n A C T

- R m ode l of P r e da t or U A V f l i ght

. T he m ode l i s ba s e d on

s i m ul a t i on us e d t o t r a i n A i r F or c e P r e da t or ope r a t o r s

. T he s i m ul a t i o n i nvol ve s t h r e e

t a s ks : ba s i c m a ne uve r i ng, l a ndi ng, a nd r e c onna i s s a nc e

. T he m ode l i ng e f f

or t pr e s e nt e d i n

t hi s pa pe r f oc us e s on ba s i c m a ne uve r i ng. P i l ot i s r e qui r e d t o m a ke c ons t a nt

- r a t e c ha nge s

i n a i r s pe e d, a l t i t ude

, a nd he a di ng

. A t ot a l o f s e ve n m a ne uve r s a r e i nvol ve d. T he f i r s t

t hr e e r e qui r e pi l ot t o c ha nge one f l i ght pa r a m e t e r a nd hol d t he ot he r t w o c ons t a nt

. T he

s e c ond t hr e e m a ne uve r s r e qui r e pi l o t t o c ha nge t w o f l i ght pa r a m e t e r s a nd hol d t hi r d

c ons t a nt

. T he s e ve nt h m a ne uve r r e qui r e s t he pi l ot t o c ha nge a l l t hr e e f l i ght pa r a m e t e r s

s i m ul t a ne ous l y.

T he m ode l us e s a f l i ght s t r a t e gy c a l l e d " C ont r ol a n d P e r f o r m a nc e C onc e pt "

. F i r s t

, t he

ope r a t or e s t a bl i s he s a ppr opr i a t e c ont r ol s e t t i ngs f o r de s i r e d pe r f o r m a nc e

. N e xt

, t he

ope r a t or c r os s c he c ks i ns t r um e nt s t o de t e r m i ne i f t he de s i r e d pe r f or m a nc e i s be i ng

a c hi e ve d. T he r a t i ona l e i s t ha t c ont r ol i ns t r u m e nt s ha ve a f i r s t

- o r de r e f f

e c t on a i r c r a f t

be ha vi or

, w hi c h s how s up on l y a s a s e c ond

- or de r e f f

e c t i n pe r f or m a nc e i ns t r um e nt s

.

R e s u l t s

R M S D f or a i r s pe e d, a l t i t ude

, a nd he a di ng w e r e no r m a l i z e d a nd s um m e d t o p r ovi de a n

ove r a l l m e a s ur e of pe r f or m a nc e

. G r a nd m e a n pe r f or m a nc e on t hi s m e a s ur e ove r 20 r uns

of t he m ode l w a s a l m os t i de nt i c a l t o gr a nd m e a n p e r f or m a nc e of 7 s ubj e c t s

. A c r os s

m a ne uve r s

, r

- s qua r e d f or p r e di c t i ng hum a n pe r f or

m a nc e f r om m ode l w a s

. 64

. T he m ode l

w a s a l s o s e ns i t i ve t o m a ne uve r c om pl e xi t y i n t he s a m e w a y t ha t hum a n s ubj e c t s w e r e

,

s how i ng be t t e r pe r f o r m a nc e f or one

- a xi s m a ne uve r s t ha n f or t w o a xi s

- m a ne uve r s a nd

be t t e r pe r f o r m a nc e f or t w o

- a xi s m a ne uve r s t ha n f o r t hr e e

- a xi s m a ne uve r s

.

23) G or m an , J

. C

. , F ol t z , P

. W

. , K i e k e l

, P

. A

. , M ar t i n , M

. J.

, & C ook e , N

. J

. ( 2003 )

. E val u at i on of l at e n t

- s e m an t i c an al ys i s

- b as e d m e as u r e s of t e am c om m u n i c at i o n s

. P

r oc e e di n gs of t h e H u m an F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s S oc i e t y 47t h A n n u a l M e e t i n g , 424

- 428.

T he a ut hor s us e d L a t e nt S e m a nt i c A na l ys i s t o de v e l op m e t hods of a s s e s s i ng

c om m uni c a t i ons c ont e nt be t w e e n t e a m m e m be r s i n a P r e da t or U A V s i m ul a t i on

. M e a s ur e s us e d w e r e c om m uni c a t i ons de ns i t y ( C D )

, t he a ve r a ge t a s k r e l e va nc e of t he

t e a m 's c om m uni c a t i ons

, a nd l a g c ohe r e nc e ( L C )

, a m e a s ur e of t a s k

- r e l e va nt t opi c

s hi f t i ng. D a t a c a m e f r om t w o e xpe r i m e nt s i n w hi c h t e a m s of t h r e e

- ope r a t or s ( a i r ve hi c l e

ope r a t or

, pa yl oa d ope r a t or

, a nd na vi ga t o r ) f l e w s i m ul a t e d P r e da t or U A V r e c onna i s s a nc eH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 32

m i s s i ons

. I n t he s e c ond e xpe r i m e nt

, w or kl oa d l e ve l s w e r e m a ni pul a t e d ( l ow vs

. hi gh ) a nd

s om e t e a m s of ope r a t or s w e r e di s t r i but e d r a t he r t h a n c ol oc a t e d.

R e s u l t s

C om m uni c a t i ons de ns i t y

T e a m pe r f o r m a nc e i n E xpe r i m e nt 1 w a s r e l a t e d t o C D by a qua dr a t i c f unc t i on, i ndi c a t i ng

t ha t be yond s om e poi nt pe r f or

m a nc e de c l i ne d w i t h a ddi t i ona l c om m uni c a t i on

. S i m i l a r

r e s ul t s w e r e f ound f or c o

- l oc a t e d a nd l ow

- w o r kl oa d t e a m s i n E xpe r i m e nt 2

. U nde r hi gh

w or kl oa d c ondi t i ons

, pe r f or m a nc e c ont i nue d t o i nc r e a s e a s C D i nc r e a s e d, s how i ng no

e vi de nc e of a qua dr a t i c t r e nd o r a n o pt i m a l C D l e v e l

. D a t a f r om di s t r i but e d t e a m

c ondi t i ons w a s t oo noi s y t o i n t e r pr e t c l e a r l y.

L a g c ohe r e nc e

C ohe r e nc e w a s pos i t i ve l y c or r e l a t e d w i t h t e a m pe r f or m a nc e

, i ndi c a t i ng t ha t l ow

pe r f or m i ng t e a m s t e nd t o s h i f t t opi c s m o r e w i t hi n a s hor t w i ndow t ha n hi gh

- pe r f or m i ng

t e a m s

.

24) G u ge r t y, L

. & B r ook s , J. ( 2004)

. S e e i n g w h e r e you ar e h e ad i n g : I n t e gr at i n g

e n vi r on m e n t al a n d e goc e n t r i c r e f e r e n c e s f r am e s i n c ar d i n al d i r e c t i on j u d g m e n t s

. Jou r n al of E xpe r i m e n t al P s y c h ol ogy : A ppl i e d, 7

, 251

- 266.

N a vi ga t i ona l t a s ks of t e n r e qui r e ope r a t or s t o m a ke c a r di na l di r e c t i on j udg m e nt s

, w hi c h

da t a s ugge s t a r e di f f i c ul t

. T he goa l o f t he e xpe r i m e nt s r e por t e d he r e w a s t o e xa m i ne t he

s t r a t e gi e s by w hi c h pe opl e m a ke c a r di na l di r e c t i o n j udgm e nt s

.

E xp e r i m e n t 1

S ubj e c t s pe r f or m e d a s t a t i c j udgm e nt t a s k. S t i m ul i e a c h t r i a l w e r e A ) a no r t h

- up m a p

s how i ng t he i r a i r c r a f t a nd a f oot p r i nt o f a f or w a r d

- f a c i ng ve hi c l e

- m ount e d c a m e r a

, a nd

B ) a 3

- D vi e w of t he t e r r a i n a s s e e n t hr ough t he ve hi c l e

- m ount e d c a m e r a

. T he vi e w

pr e s e nt e d e a c h t r i a l c ont a i ne d a bui l di ng w i t h a pa r ki ng l ot on e a c h s i de ( N

, S

, E

, W )

. O ne of t he pa r ki ng l ot s c ont a i ne d ve hi c l e s w hi l e t h e ot he r s w e r e e m pt y

. T he s ubj e c t s ' j ob

w a s t o i ndi c a t e t he c a r di na l di r e c t i on o f t he oc c upi e d pa r ki ng l ot

, r e l a t i ve t o t he bui l di ng

. R e s u l t s

T hr e e not e w or t hy e f f

e c t s w e r e e vi de nt i n bot h t he e r r or r a t e a nd t he R T da t a

. T he f i r s t

w a s a m i s a l i gnm e nt e f f

e c t

, w he r e by pe r f or m a nc e d e c l i ne d a s c a m e r a he a di ng de vi a t e d

f r om no r t h

- up

. T he s e c ond w a s a s out h

- a dva nt a ge e f f

e c t

, w he r e by pe r f or

m a nc e w a s

s ubs t a nt i a l l y be t t e r w he n c a m e r a w a s or i e nt e d s out h t ha n w he n i t w a s a t ne a r by

or i e nt a t i ons

. T he t hi r d w a s c a r di na l

- di r e c t i on a dva nt a ge e f f

e c t

, w he r e by j udgm e nt s w e r e

m or e s l i ght l y a c c ur a t e w he n t he c a m e r a w a s or i e nt e d e a s t or w e s t t ha n w he n i t w a s a t

ne a rby or i e nt a t i ons

.

E xp e r i m e n t 2

T he goa l o f e xpe r i m e nt 2 w a s t o de t e r m i ne i f dyna m i c s pa t i a l i nf or m a t i on

, s uc h a s t ha t

pr ovi de d by c ont r ol l i ng a ve hi c l e

, i m pr ove s c a r di n a l di r e c t i on j udgm e nt s

. T he dyna m i cH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 33

t a s k us e d w a s a s i m ul a t e d U A V m i s s i on. S ubj e c t s w e r e pr ovi de d t h r e e vi s ua l c ha nne l s

, A ) a nor t h

- up m a p s i m i l a r t o t ha t us e d i n E xpe r i m e nt 1, B ) a 3

- D vi e w of t e r r a i n f r om a

r ot a t a bl e ve hi c l e

- m ount e d c a m e r a

, s i m i l a r t o t ha t u s e d i n E xpe r i m e nt 1, a nd C ) a s t a nda r d

f l i ght di s pl a y. T he s ubj e c t s ' t a s k w a s t o pi l ot t he U A V t o a 10 t a r ge t ob j e c t s a nd a ns w e r

que s t i ons a bout e a c h one

. T h r e e of t he 10 que s t i ons r e qui r e d c a r di na l di r e c t i on j udgm e nt s

.

S ubj e c t s a l s o pe r f or m e d a s t a t i c j udgm e nt t a s k i de nt i c a l t o t ha t of E xpe r i m e nt 1.

R e s u l t s

S t a t i c j udgm e nt t a s k r e pl i c a t e d t he r e s ul t s of t he f i r s t e xpe r i m e nt

. C a r di na l

- di r e c t i on j udgm e nt s i n t he dyna m i c t a s k s how e d e f f

e c t s s i m i l a r t o t hos e of t he s t a t i c t a s k, t hough

t he c a r di na l di r e c t i on a dva nt a ge w a s w e a ke r

.

E xp e r i m e n t 3

S ubj e c t s pe r f or m e d t he c a r di na l di r e c t i on t a s k of E xpe r i m e nt 1 a nd 2 w hi l e pr ovi di ng

ve rba l pr ot oc ol s

.

R e s u l t s

P r ot oc ol s ga ve e vi de nc e f or f i na l s t r a t e gi e s

. T he f i r s t w a s a m e nt a l r o t a t i on s t r a t e gy,

w he r e by s ubj e c t s m e nt a l l y t r a ns f or m e d i m a ge s t o be i n a l i gn m e nt w i t h one a not he r a nd

nor t h

- up. T he s e c ond w a s a he a di ng r e f e r e nc i ng s t r a t e gy, w he r e by s ubj e c t s a s s i gne d t he

c ur r e nt he a di ng t o t he f or w a r d v i e w i n t he c a m e r a

, t he n m a ki ng j udgm e nt s r e l a t i ve t o t ha t

he a di ng ( " I f f or w a r d i s nor t he a s t

, t he n t hi s i s no r t h [ poi nt i ng t o t he uppe r l e f t l o t ]

, a nd

t hi s i s e a s t [ poi nt i ng t o t he uppe r r i ght l ot ]

. " T he t h i r d w a s a s out h

- r e ve r s a l s t r a t e gy

,

w he r e by s ubj e c t s not e d t ha t c a m e r a he a di ng w a s s out h a nd t he n r e ve r s e d t he a ns w e r s

t he y w oul d ha ve gi ve n f or a nor t hw a r d he a di n g ( t h i s w a s pos s i bl e onl y w he n c a m e r a w a s

or i e nt e d t ow a r d t he s out h, ob vi ous l y)

. T he f i na l s t r a t e gy w a s a nor t h

- he a di ng s t r a t e gy

,

w he r e by s ubj e c t s not e d t ha t c a m e r a w a s or i e nt e d t o t he nor t h a nd t he n s i m pl y m a de

j udgm e nt s w i t hi n a c a noni c a l no r t h

- up f r a m e

.

25) G u n n , D

. V

. , N e l s on , W

. T

. , B ol i a, R

. S

. , War m , J

. S

. , S c h u m s k y, D

. A

. , &

C or c or an , K

. J

. ( 2002)

. T ar ge t ac q u i s i t i o n w i t h U A V s : V i gi l an c e d i s p l ays an d

ad van c e d c u e i n g i n t e r f ac e s

. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e H u m an F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s

S oc i e t y 46t h A n n u a l M e e t i n g , 1541

- 1545

. T he a ut hor s not e t ha t U A V ope r a t o r s w i l l pr oba bl y s pe nd m uc h of t he i r t i m e i n

s upe r vi s or y c ont r ol m ode

, but w i l l be r e qui r e d t o s w i t c h t o m a nua l c ont r ol s udde nl y i n

r e s pons e t o s ys t e m m a l f unc t i ons

, t a r ge t a c qui s i t i on

, e ne m y a c t i ons

, a nd ot he r i nt e r m i t t e nt

e ve nt s

. A s s uc h, U A V ope r a t i on w i l l be a f o r m o f vi gi l a nc e t a s k. T he goa l s of s t udy w e r e

A ) t o e xa m i ne va l ue of di s pl a y t ype ( c ogni t i ve or s e ns or y) on pe r f or m a nc e i n a vi gi l a nc e

t a s k a nd i n s ubs e que nt m a nua l c ont r ol m ode

, B ) t o c om pa r e t he e f f

e c t s of v i s ua l

,

a

udi t or y, a nd ha pt i c c ue i ng o f t a r ge t l oc a t i on i n a 3 60 de gr e e t a r ge t a c qui s i t i on t a s k.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 34

S ubj e c t s f l e w s i m ul a t e d U A V m i s s i ons

. I n s upe r vi s or y c ont r ol m ode

, t he y w e r e r e qui r e d

t o m oni t or a s t r e a m o f di gi t pa i r s f or a t hr e a t w a r ni ng i ndi c a t i n g t he pr e s e nc e of a n e ne m y

a i r c r a f t

. I n t he s e ns or y t a s k, t he t hr e a t w a r n i ng w a s s i gna l e d by a s i z e di f f

e r e nc e be t w e e n

t he t w o di gi t s

. I n t he c ogni t i ve t a s k, t he t hr e a t w a r ni ng w a s s i gna l e d by a n e ve n

- odd di gi t

pa i r i ng. A f t e r de t e c t i ng a t hr e a t w a r ni ng, t h e s ubj e c t w a s r e qui r e d t o t a r ge t t he hos t i l e

a i r c r a f t w i t h a j oys t i c k

- c ont r o l l e d c r os s ha i r

. I n t he vi s ua l c ue i ng c ondi t i on, a l oc a t or l i ne

on t he bot t om r i ght of s c r e e n i ndi c a t e d t he di r e c t i o n of t he t a r ge t

. I n t he a udi t o r y c ue i ng

c ondi t i on, b r oa dba nd noi s e pul s e s w e r e pr e s e nt e d f r om t he t a r ge t l oc a t i on

. I n t he ha pt i c

c ue i ng c ondi t i on, f or c e f e e dba c k on c ont r ol s t i c k g ui de d t he s ubj e c t t ow a r d t he t a r ge t

. I n

t he c ont r ol c ondi t i on

, no c ue i ng w a s pr ovi de d

.

R e s u l t s

H i t r a t e s f or w a r ni ngs s how e d no e f f

e c t of s i gna l r a t e

, but a s i gni f i c a nt be ne f i t of s e ns or y

di s pl a y f or m a t r e l a t i ve t o t he c ogni t i ve f or m a t

. F a l s e a l a r m s w e r e l ow e r f o r c ogni t i ve

t ha n f or s e ns or y di s pl a ys

. T a r ge t a c qui s i t i on t i m e s w e r e s hor t e r f o r s e ns or y di s pl a ys t ha n

f

or c ogni t i ve

. V i s ua l

, a udi t or y

, & ha pt i c c ue c ondi t i ons pr oduc e d s i m i l a r be ne f i t s i n

t a r ge t a c qui s i t i on t i m e s

, a l l of w hi c h w e r e s hor t e r t ha n i n c ont r ol c ondi t i on. S ubj e c t i ve

w or kl oa d w a s hi ghe r w i t h c ogni t i ve t ha n w i t h s e ns or y di s pl a ys

.

26) H an s m an , R

. J.

, & We i b e l

, R

. E

. ( 2004)

. P a n e l 1: U A V c l as s i f i c at i on t h ou g h t s

. P

ape r pr es e n t e d at N R C W or ks h op on U A V s

. P r opos e s a c l a s s i f i c a t i on s c he m e f or U A V s i n N A S

.

H i gh a l t i t ude

, l ong e ndur a nc e

• A bove F L 500

, a bove m a j or i t y of c om m e r c i a l a i r t r a f f i c

• P ot e nt i a l a ppl i c a t i ons i nc l ude l ong

- dw e l l m i s s i ons s uc h a s c om m uni c a t i ons r e l a y,

pr e c i s i on m a ppi ng/ i m a gi ng, a nd a t m os phe r i c r e s e a r c h

M e di um a l t i t ude e ndur a nc e

• F L 180

- F L 500, C l a s s A a i r s pa c e

• P ot e nt i a l a ppl i c a t i ons i nc l ude m e t e or ol ogy

, d i s a s t e r m oni t o r i ng, bor de r pa t r ol

,

a nd r e gi ona l m a ppi ng

T a c t i c a l

• 1000 t o F L 180/ 10

, 000 f t

. , m i xe d a i r s pa c e

• P ot e nt i a l a ppl i c a t i ons i nc l ude l a w e n f or c e m e nt s ur ve i l l a nc e

, pi pe l i ne / r a i l

m oni t or i ng, s e a r c h a nd r e s c ue

, a gr i c ul t ur e

M i ni

• B e l ow 1200/ 700 f t

. A G L

•

- - P ot e nt i a l a ppl i c a t i ons i nc l ude l a w e nf o r c e m e nt

, l oc a l i m a ge r y, a nd

c i ne m a t ogr a phy

M i c r o

• B e l ow 1200/ 700 f t

. A G LH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 35

• P ot e nt i a l a ppl i c a t i ons i nc l ude r e c r e a t i on

, a nd l oc a l i m a ge r y

R ot or c r a f t

• U p t o 2000 f t

. A G L

• P ot e nt i a l a ppl i c a t i ons i nc l ude s e a r c h & r e s c ue

, l a w e nf or c e m e nt

, t r a f f i c

m oni t or i ng, c i ne m a t ogr a phy, a nd a gr i c ul t u r e

27) H an s m an , R

. J.

, & We i b e l

, R

. E

. ( 2004)

. P a n e l 2: O p e r at i n g an d f l i gh t r u l e s

. P

ape r pr es e n t e d at N R C W or ks h op on U A V s

. P r e s e nt s s a f e t y a na l ys e s of U A V

, de r i vi ng a c c e pt a bl e f a i l ur e r a t e s ( m e a n num be r s of

hour s unt i l f a i l ur e s ) f or va r yi ng c l a s s e s of U A V s

. N ot e a num be r o f s a f e t y i s s ue s f or

U A V s ope r a t i ng unde r i ns t r um e nt a nd vi s ua l f l i ght r ul e s

.

I F R

• C ont r ol l a t e nc y

• C om m uni c a t i on pa t hs

• C ont r ol l e r w or kl oa d a nd r e p r e s e nt a t i on

• S e pa r a t i on s t a nda r ds

• T r a f f i c l oa d

• F l i ght pl a n f i l i ng

• C os t r e c ove r y

V F R

• S e e a nd be s e e n e qui va l e nc e

• R ul e s of t he r oa d

• O pe r a t i on a t c ont r ol l e d a nd unc ont r o l l e d a i r f i e l ds

28) K i e k e l

, P

. A

. , G or m an , J

. C

. , & C ook e , N

. J

. ( 200 4)

. M e as u r i n g s p e e c h f l ow of

c o

- l oc at e d an d d i s t r i b u t e d c om m an d an d c on t r ol t e am s d u r i n g a c om m u n i c at i on

c h an n e l gl i t c h

. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e H u m an F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s S oc i e t y 48t h

A n n u al M e e t i n g , 683

- 687.

A n e xpe r i m e nt us e d c om m uni c a t i on f l ow m e a s ur e s de ve l ope d by t he a ut hor s i n e a r l i e r

pa pe r s t o e xa m i ne e f f

e c t s of c o

- l oc a t i on a nd c om m uni c a t i on c ha nne l di s r upt i ons on t e a m

c om m uni c a t i ons i n a s i m ul a t e d U A V r e c on t a s k. T e a m s of t hr e e m e m be r s f l e w a

s i m ul a t e d U A V

, t a ki ng pi c t u r e s of t a r ge t i t e m s

. E a c h t e a m c om pr i s e d t hr e e m e m be r s : t he

da t a e xpl oi t a t i on, m i s s i on pl a nni ng a nd c ont r ol ( D E M P C ) m e m be r p l a nne d t he r ou t e

, a i r

ve hi c l e ope r a t or ( A V O ) f l e w t he a i r c r a f t

, a nd t he p a yl oa d ope r a t or ( P L O ) c ont r ol l e d t he

c a m e r a a nd t ook pi c t u r e s

. M a ni pul a t i ons w e r e A ) t e a m s c ol oc a t e d vs

. t e a m s di s t r i but e d,

B ) w or kl oa d hi gh vs

. l ow ( w or k l oa d e f f

e c t not f ur t he r di s c us s e d i n t hi s pa pe r )

, a nd C )

c om m uni c a t i ons nor m a l or di s r upt e d by gl i t c h i n c ha nne l f r om D E M P C t o A V O

.

T hr e e t ype s of a na l ys i s w e r e c onduc t e d. T he f i r s t u s e d P a t hf i nde r a l gor i t hm t o i de nt i f y

c om m on s e que nc e s of c om m uni c a t i ons e ve nt s : X L oop ( pe r s on X be gi ns a nd e nds a

c om m un i c a t i on, t he n be gi ns a not he r )

, X Y c yc l e ( pe r s on X pr oduc e s a c om pl e t eH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 36

c om m uni c a t i on, t he n pe r s on Y doe s )

, a nd X i Y ( pe r s on X i nt e r r upt s pe r s on Y )

. C H U M S

a na l ys i s m e a s ur e d t he s t a bi l i t y of c om m uni c a t i ons

, a s r e f l e c t e d i n t he r e l a t i ve pr opor t i on

of s pe e c h pr od uc e d by e a c h m e m be r i n a one

- m i nu t e w i ndow

. A na l ys i s of dom i na nc e

m e a s ur e d t he i nf l ue nc e t ha t e a c h t e a m m e m be r 's c om m uni c a t i ons ha d ove r ot he r

m e m be r 's

.

E xpe c t a t i on w a s t ha t oc c ur r e nc e o f gl i t c h w oul d m odi f y c om m uni c a t i on pa t t e r n, t ha t

D E M P C s houl d ha ve h i gh dom i na nc e s c or e

, a nd t ha t dom i na nc e of D E M P C s houl d dr op

i n di s t r i but e d t e a m s a nd w he n gl i t c h oc c ur s

.

R e s u l t s

P a t hf i nd a na l ys i s f ound t ha t c ol oc a t e d t e a m s pr odu c e d m or e ut t e r a nc e s i n ge ne r a l t ha n

di s t r i but e d t e a m s

. G l i t c h c a us e s de c r e a s e i n D A c y c l e s ( c om m uni c a t i ons be t w e e n

D E M P C a nd A V O )

, i nc r e a s e i n D P c yc l e s

, i nc r e a s e i n P A c yc l e s

, a nd de c r e a s e i n

P D c yc l e s

. T hi s i s ge ne r a l l y w ha t w oul d be e xpe c t e d i f c om m un i c a t i ons t ha t nor m a l l y

w oul d ha ve gone f r om D E M P C t o A V O w e r e r e

- r out e d t hr ough t he P L O f ol l ow i ng t he

gl i t c h.

C H U M S a na l ys i s pr oduc e d m or e m ode l s f or di s t r i but e d t e a m s

, s ugge s t i ng l e s s s t a bl e

c om m uni c a t i ons pa t t e r ns

. T he c om m uni c a t i ons gl i t c h a l s o r e duc e d s t a bi l i t y.

A na l ys i s of dom i na nc e f ound t ha t i n c o

- l oc a t e d t e a m s unde r nor m a l c ondi t i ons

, t he

D E M P C i s m ode r a t e l y dom i na nt a nd t he A V O i s r e a c t i ve

. I n di s t r i but e d t e a m s unde r

nor m a l c ondi t i ons

, A V O i s di s t r i but e d a nd D E M P C i s r e a c t i ve

. D ur i ng t he

c om m uni c a t i ons gl i t c h, c o

- l oc a t e d t e a m s be c om e A V O dom i na nt a nd P L O r e a c t i ve

.

29) L aF l e u r , T

. , D r ap e r , M

. H

. , & R u f f

, H

. A

. ( 2001 )

. E val u at i on of e ye

d om i n an c e e f f

e c t s on t ar ge t

- ac q u i s i t i on t as k s u s i n g a h e ad

- c ou p l e d m on oc u l ar

H M D

. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e H u m an F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s S oc i e t y 45t h A n n u al

M e e t i n g , 1433

- 1437.

S ubj e c t s pe r f or m e d a t a r ge t a c qui s i t i on t a s k i n a U A V s i m ul a t i on. A l a r ge F O V di s pl a y

w a s pr e s e nt e d w i t h a m onoc ul a r H M D

. I m a ge w a s pr ovi de d by t he U A V 's gi m ba l e d

c a m e r a

, w i t h c a m e r a c ont r ol by ope r a t or 's he a d m o ve m e nt s

. A f t e r s pot t i ng a pot e nt i a l

t a r ge t i n t he H M D

, t he ope r a t or w a s r e qui r e d t o I D a nd de s i gna t e i t on a hi gh

- r e s ol ut i on,

s m a l l F O V C R T di s pl a y w i t h c a m e r a vi e w c ont r ol l e d by j oys t i c ks

. S e ve r a l de pe nde nt

va r i a bl e s r e c or de d. O f pr i m a r y i nt e r e s t w e r e e f f

e c t s of dom i na nc e of H M D vi e w i ng e ye

on pe r f or m a nc e

.

R e s u l t s

E ye

- dom i na nc e ha d no e f f

e c t

.

30) M i l l e r , C

. A

. , F u n k

, H

. B

. , G ol d m an , R

. P

. , & Wu

, P

. ( 2004)

. A " p l ayb oo k " f or

var i ab l e au t on o m y c on t r ol of m u l t i p l e h e t e r oge n e ou s u n m an n e d ai r ve h i c l e s

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 37

P

r oc e e di n gs of t h e S e c on d H u m an P e r

f

or m an c e , S i t u at i on A w are n es s , an d

A u t om at i on C on f

e re n c e ( H

P

S

A A I I )

, D ayt o n a B e ac h

, F L

, M ar c h 22

- 25

. D i s c us s e s " de l e g a t i on" a s a t e c hni que f or c ont r ol o f m ul t i pl e U A V s

. C ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of

de l e ga t i on a r e t ha t s upe r vi s or s e t s a ge nda f or s ubo r di na t e s

, but s ubor di na t e s a r e gi ve n

a

ut hor i t y t o de c i de e xa c t l y how t o c a r r y out c om m a nds

. T he a ut hor s no t e f i ve

m a nne r s / c om pone nt s of de l e ga t i on t ha t c a n be e m pl oye d i n va r yi ng c om bi na t i ons :

1. S t i pu l a t i on of goa l

2. S t i pu l a t i on of a pl a n t o pe r f or m

3. S t i pu l a t i on of c ons t r a i nt s ( vi a s pe c i f i c a t i on of a c t i ons or s t a t e s t ha t s hou l d be a voi de d)

4. S t i pu l a t i on of a c t i ons or s t a t e s t o be a c hi e ve d ( i

. e

. , s ubgoa l s )

5. S t i pu l a t i on of a n obj e c t i ve f unc t i on t ha t w i l l a l l o w t he s ubor di na t e t o a s s e s s t he

de s i r a bi l i t y of va r i ous s t a t e s a nd a c t i ons

T he a ut hor s de s c r i be t he i r w or k on de ve l opi ng a " pl a ybook" a r c hi t e c t ur e f or de l e ga t i ng t o

U A V s

. P l a ybook w oul d i nvol ve a s s i gni ng a na m e t o c om pl e x be ha vi or pa t t e r ns

, t he n

a l l ow i ng U A V s t o a ut onom ous l y i m pl e m e nt a pl a y w he n i t i s c a l l e d. T he P l a ybook

s ys t e m w oul d a s s e s s t he f e a s i bi l i t y of a c om m a nde d be ha vi or be f o r e a t t e m pt i ng t o

pe r f or m i t

. W he n gi ve n a hi gh

- l e ve l c om m a nd

, P l a ybook w oul d a s s e s s va r i ous m e t hods

of a c hi e vi ng goa l

, t he n w oul d i s s ue s s pe c i f i c c om m a nds t o ve hi c l e s unde r i t s c ont r ol

. W he n gi ve n m or e hi gh l y

- s pe c i f i e d l ow e r

- l e ve l c o m m a nds

, P l a ybook w oul d r e por t t o t he

hum a n ope r a t or i f t he c om m a nds w e r e i nf e a s i bl e

, or w oul d i s s ue s t he c om m a nds t o t he

ve hi c l e s i f t he y w e r e f e a s i bl e

, f i l l i ng i n a ddi t i ona l de t a i l s a s ne c e s s a r y.

31) M or p h e w , M

. E

. , S h i ve l y, J. R

. , & C as e y, D

. ( 200 4)

. H e l m e t m ou n t e d d i s p l ays

f

or u n m a n n e d ae r i al ve h i c l e c on t r ol

. P ape r pres e n t e d at t h e I n t e r

n at i on al S oc i e t y f or

O

pt i c al E n gi n e e r i n g ( S

P

I

E

) c on f

e re n c e , A p r i l 12

- 16, O r l a n d o, F L

. C om pa r e d pe r f or m a nc e on a t a r ge t s e a r c h & I D t a s k w he n s ubj e c t s us e d a c onve nt i ona l

C R T di s p l a y & j oys t i c k c ont r o l ve r s us w he n t he y us e d a he a d

- s l a ve d H M D

. U A V f l i ght

w a s a ut om a t e d. S ubj e c t s ' t a s k w a s t o s e a r c h f or i t e m s i n t he vi r t ua l w or l d di s pl a y a nd I D

t he m a s t a r ge t

, non

- t a r ge t

, o r di s t r a c t or

. A f t e r s pot t i ng a t a r ge t or n on

- t a r ge t

, s ubj e c t w a s

t o c e nt e r c r os s ha i r s on t he i t e m a nd pr e s s a but t on on c ont r ol box t o c l a s s i f y i t

. I nde pe nde nt va r i a bl e s w e r e m e t hod o f di s pl a y/ c ont r ol ( C R T / j oys t i c k vs

. H M D / he a d

s l a ve d)

, vi r t ua l w or l d s e a r c h w i dt h ( 2500 vs

. 5000 f t

. )

, a nd m i s s i on dur a t i on ( 3 vs

. 9

m i n ut e s )

. D e pe nde nt va r i a bl e s w e r e t a r ge t de t e c t i o n a c c ur a c y ( H R

, C R R )

, c ur s or di s t a nc e ( di s t a nc e of c r os s ha i r s f r om c e nt e r o f obj e c t w he n obj e c t w a s c l a s s i f i e d)

, s l a nt r a nge

( di s t a nc e f r om a i r c r a f t a t w hi c h s ubj e c t s w e r e a bl e t o c l a s s i f y t a r ge t )

,

R e s u l t s

A c c ur a c y w a s hi gh ( > 98% ) f or bot h f or m s o f di s pl a y/ c ont r ol

. H ow e ve r

, c ur s or di s t a nc e

w a s s m a l l e r a nd s l a nt r a nge w a s l a r ge r ( i

. e

. , pe r f o r

m a nc e w a s be t t e r i n bot h c a s e s ) f or t he

C R T / j oys t i c k c onf i gur a t i on. H M D c onf i gur a t i on a l s o pr oduc e d hi ghe r l e ve l s o f na u s e a

,

e ye s t r a i n, di s or i e nt a t i on, a nd ove r s i m ul a t or s i c kne s s r a t i ng t ha n t he C R T c onf i gur a t i on

.

W i de s e a r c h w i dt h pr oduc e d s m a l l e r c ur s or di s t a n c e t ha n di d na r r ow w i dt h

, but e f f

e c t di d

not i nt e r a c t w i t h a ny ot he r s

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 38

32) M ou l ou a, M

. , G i l s on , R

. , D as k ar ol i s

- K r i n g, E

. , K r i n g, J

. , & H an c oc k

, P

. ( 2001)

. E r gon om i c s of U A V / U C A V m i s s i on s u c c e s s : C on s i d e r at i on s f or d at a l i n k

,

c on t r ol

, an d d i s p l ay i s s u e s

. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e H u m an F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s

S oc i e t y 45t h A n n u a l M e e t i n g , 144

- 148

.

L i s t s a num be r o f c ons i d e r a t i ons a nd r e c om m e nda t i ons f or opt i m a l de s i gn of

U A V / U C A V s ys t e m i nt e r f a c e a nd da t a t r a ns f e r

.

D at a

- l i n k t i m i n g

I f s a t e l l i t e

- U A V o r U A V

- U A V r e l a ys a r e us e d, va r i a bl e t i m e de l a ys of 1 s e c ond o r

l onge r a r e pos s i bl e

. T hi s e l i m i na t e s r e a l

- t i m e f e e d ba c k t o c o nt r ol s i nput s

. O ne w a y o f

c i r c um ve nt i ng t hi s pr obl e m i s t o t a s k ope r a t or w i t h s upe r vi s or y m oni t or i ng of on

- boa r d

a

ut om a t i on us i ng pr e

- p r ogr a m m i ng f l i ght pa r a m e t e r s s uc h a s s pe e d, a l t i t ude

, di r e c t i on.

P r e di c t i ve gr a phi c s di s pl a ys m a y a l s o be us e f ul

.

C on t r ol s

N e i t he r f ul l a ut om a t e d c ont r ol nor f ul l m a nua l c on t r ol i s p r a c t i c a l

. F ul l a ut om a t i on

pr e ve nt s t he ope r a t or f r om i nt e r ve ni ng i n f l i ght c o nt r ol w he n ne c e s s a r y, w hi l e f ul l

m a nua l c ont r ol c a n p r oduc e e xc e s s i ve w or kl oa d a nd m a ke c ont r ol s us c e pt i bl e t o

c om m u ni c a t i ons de l a ys

. T he a ut hor s r e c om m e nd h ybr i d c ont r ol i n w h i c h hum a n ope r a t o r

s upe r vi s e s a ut om a t i on by c a l l i ng s ubr out i ne s of pr e

- pr ogr a m m e d s of t w a r e

.

D i s pl a y/ c ont r ol i nt e r f a c e s s houl d be ba s e d on a s t a nda r di z e d gr oup o f c or e f unc t i ons

de s c r i be d w i t h c o m m on t e r m i nol ogy. K e yboa r ds

, t ouc hs c r e e ns

, poi nt i ng de vi c e s

, a nd

j oys t i c ks / pe da l s a r e a ppr opr i a t e c ont r ol s

, bu t m us t be de s i gne d t o r e s i s t di r t

, da m a ge

, e t c

. ,

e s pe c i a l l y f or f i e l d ope r a t i ons

. K e yboa r d i nput s s h oul d be r e pl a c e d w i t h m e nu

- or

s pe e c h

- i nput s f or on

- l i ne ve hi c l e c ont r ol

.

A s s um i ng s e m i

- a ut om a t i c f l i ght

, f l i ght

- m a na ge m e nt s ys t e m s a nd t e r m i nol ogy s houl d

e m ul a t e t ha t of A R I N C a nd D O D

. S i nc e c om m a nd s a r e a nt i c i pa t or y, t hi s a ppr oa c h a l l ow s

f

or p r e vi e w a nd e s c a pe a c t i ons

. I f m a nua l f l i ght c o nt r ol i s us e d, a G C S w i t h f ul l

- t i m e j oys t i c k/ pe da l / pow e r c ont r ol s w i l l be ne c e s s a r y, a nd r e a l

- t i m e c om m uni c a t i on w i t h

U A V / U C A V w i l l be r e qui r e d

.

I f m e nus a r e us e d f or i n

- f l i ght s upe r vi s or y c ont r ol

, i t w i l l be ne c e s s a r y t o de t e r m i ne

opt i m a l num be r of m e nus a nd m e nu i t e m s

. F i ve s e e m s l i ke r e a s ona bl e s t a r t i ng poi nt

, ba s e d on M i l l e r 's m a gi c num be r

.

D i s p l ays

D i s pl a ys ne e d t o r e duc e a nd f o r m a t da t a f or e a s y i nt e r pr e t a t i on. O t he r p r i nc i pl e s t o

f

ol l ow i nc l ude m i ni m i z i ng s c e ne m ove m e nt & unn e c e s s a r y c ha nge s i n vi e w poi nt ; us i ng

hi gh

- qua l i t y di s pl a ys t o he l p I D a r e a s of i nt e r e s t ; e m pl oyi ng a l e r t s / a l a r m s f o r s ys t e m

f

a

ul t s ; pr ovi di ng m e c ha ni s m s of s e l e c t i on, c om pa r i s ons

, pa r s i ng, s c a l i ng of di s pl a ye d

i nf o.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 39

I n a ddi t i on t o hi gh

- qua l i t y s e ns or

- i m a ge di s pl a ys

, c ont e nt s houl d i n c l ude :

• s ys t e m c ondi t i ons a nd c om m uni c a t i ons s t a t us

• f l i ght da t a

• t hr e a t a dvi s or i e s

• w e a pons s t a t us

33) M ou l ou a, M

. , G i l s on , R

. , K r i n g , J

. , & H an c oc k

, P

. ( 2001)

. Wor k l oa d

,

s i t u at i on aw ar e n e s s , an d t e am i n g i s s u e s f or U A V / U C A V op e r at i on s

. P r oc e e di n gs of

t h e H u m an F ac t or s an d E r gon om i c s S oc i e t y 45t h A n n u al M e e t i n g , 162

- 165

. T he a ut hor s di s c us s U A V de s i gn c ons i de r a t i ons r e l e va nt t o w or kl oa d

, S A

, a nd t e a m i ng.

S om e of t he s e i s s ue s pe r t a i n s pe c i f i c a l l y t o c om ba t U A V s

.

P h ys i c al & c ogn i t i ve w or k l oad

A s s um i ng t ha t t he U A V c ont r ol w i l l be hi ghl y a ut om a t e d, t he n t he ope r a t or 's t a s k w i l l

c ons i s t pr i m a r i l y of s upe r vi s or y m oni t or i ng a nd m a ki ng s m a l l c our s e a dj us t m e nt s

. T hi s i s

l i ke l y t o be t e di ous

, p r oduc i ng vi gi l a nc e f a i l ur e s

. U A V s ys t e m s m us t t he r e f or e be

de s i gne d not j us t t o a voi d ove r l oa d, but unde r l oa d a s w e l l

. T hi s m i ght be done by

c om bi ni ng m a nua l a nd a ut om a t e d c ont r ol

. O pe r a t o r w oul d be r e s pons i bl e f or hi ghe r

or de r t a s ks ( t a r ge t r e c ogni t i on, m uni t i ons de pl oym e nt ) a nd a ut om a t i on w oul d be

r e s pons i bl e f or l ow e r

- or de r t a s ks ( f l i ght c ont r ol

, o bs t a c l e a voi da nc e )

. O n

- boa r d

a

ut om a t i on s houl d r e qui r e ope r a t or a c t i on onl y a s ne e de d.

S i t u at i o n aw ar e n e s s

P oor S A i s l i ke l y t o c ont r i bu t e t o U A V m i s ha ps

. O ne w a y t o he l p m a i nt a i n S A i s t o

pr ovi de di s pl a ys t ha t ke e p t he ope r a t or a w a r e of t h e pr oc e s s e s be i ng c ont r ol l e d by t he

a

ut om a t i on, w i t h t he goa l " t o m a ke t he de e p r e l a t i ona l s t r uc t ur e of t he s ys t e m

e nvi r onm e nt vi s i bl e t o ope r a t or s a nd he l p t o i de nt i f y opt i ons f o r a c t i on a nd i ndi c a t e t he

bounda r i e s f or s uc c e s s f ul pe r f or m a nc e

. " U A V s m a y a l s o be a bl e ha ve a nd a dva nt a ge

r e l a t i ve t o m a nne d s ys t e m s i n p r ovi di ng good S A s i nc e l a r ge num be r s of on

- boa r d a nd

of f

- boa r d s e ns or da t a s t r e a m s a r e a va i l a bl e

.

T e am i n g

R e s e a r c h i s ne e de d t o de t e r m i ne t he a ppr op r i a t e c r e w s i z e a nd s t r uc t ur e f o r U A V c ont r ol

,

a nd t o e ns ur e e f f

e c t i ve c om m uni c a t i ons

. O ne pa r t i c ul a r s our c e of m i s c om m uni c a t i on i s

t he l a r ge a m ount da t a pr ovi de d t o t he va r i ous U A V ope r a t or s

. T hi s de m a nds t ha t

i m por t a nt i n f or m a t i on be s ha r e d a ppr opr i a t e l y a m o ng ope r a t or s

. W a ys t o do t h i s i nc l u de

" c r e a t i ng a m e c ha ni s m f or c om m un i c a t i ng unde r s t a ndi ng t he r e a l

- t i m e s i t ua t i on a t a

hi ghe r l e ve l a c r os s s e ve r a l c onne c t e d t e a m s or i nd i vi dua l s "

, c r e a t i ng t e a m s of s pe c i a l i s t s

f

or t a r ge t de t e c t i on/ a ut he nt i c a t i on a nd f or e m e r ge n c y ope r a t i ons

.

34) N e l s on , W. T

. , A n d e r s on , T

. R

. , M c M i l l an , G

. R

. ( 2003)

. A l t e r

n at i v e c on t r ol

t e c h n ol ogy f or u n i n h abi t e d ae r i al v e h i c l e

s : H u m an f ac t or s c on s i de r at

i on s

. B ook

c h ap t e r

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 40

D i s c us s e s pot e nt i a l a l t e r na t i ve c ont r ol t e c hnol ogi e s f or U A V s

. T he s e i nc l ude pos i t i on

a nd or i e nt a t i on t r a c ki ng, e ye

- pos i t i on t r a c ki ng

, s pe e c h r e c ogni t i on, ge s t ur e r e c ogni t i on,

a nd e l e c t r ophys i ol ogi c a l m e a s ur e s

. T he a ut ho r s a dvoc a t e i nc r e a s i ngl y i m m e r s i ve

e nvi r onm e nt s f or U A V pi l ot s

, w i t h e ve nt ua l pos s i b i l i t y t ha t a l t e r na t i ve c ont r ol

t e c hnol ogi e s w i l l r e pl a c e t r a di t i ona l c ont r ol s

. P os s i bl e i m pe di m e nt s t o t he s e goa l s i nc l ude

t i m e de l a ys i n di s pl a y upda t i ng

, s i m ul a t or s i c kne s s

.

35) N e l s on , J

. T

. , L e f e b vr e , A

. T

. , & A n d r e , T

. S

. ( 2004)

. M an ag i n g m u l t i p l e

u n i n h ab i t e d ae r i al ve h i c l e s : C h an ge s i n n u m b e r of ve h i c l e s an d t yp e of t ar ge t

s ym b ol ogy. I n t e r

s e r v i c e / I

n du s t r y T r

ai

n i n g, S i m u l at

i on , an d Edu c at i on C on f

e re n c e

( I

/ I

T

S

E C )

. T he a ut hor s de s c r i be a n e xpe r i m e nt c onduc t e d w i t h t w o goa l s

. T he f i r s t w a s t o e xa m i ne

c ha nge s i n pe r f or m a nc e t ha t r e s ul t f r om i nc r e a s i ng t he n um be r of U A V s unde r a n

ope r a t or 's s upe r vi s i on. C ont r a r y t o e xpe c t a t i ons

, p a s t r e s e a r c h ( D r a pe r

, C a l houn, & R uf f

, 2003) f ound l i m i t e d pe r f or

m a nc e c ons e que nc e s w he n t he num be r of U A V s unde r a s i ngl e

ope r a t or 's s upe r vi s i on i nc r e a s e d f r om 2 t o 4. T he p r e s e nt e xpe r i m e nt c om pa r e d

pe r f or m a nc e us i ng 3 a nd 5 U A V s

, i n a n e f f

or

t t o i n c r e a s e t he w or kl oa d de m a nds of t he

hi ghe r

- l oa d c ondi t i on

. T he s e c ond w a s t o c om pa r e pe r f or m a nc e w i t h a nove l s e t of

s t yl i z e d i c ons t o pe r f or

m a nc e w i t h a s e t o f s t a nda r di z e d i c ons ( M I L

- S T D _2525B )

. T he

a

ut hor s hypot he s i z e d t ha t t he s t yl i z e d i c ons

, de s i gne d t o ha ve a phys i c a l r e s e m bl a nc e t o

t he obj e c t s t he y r e pr e s e nt e d, w oul d pr oduc e be t t e r pe r f or m a nc e

.

A f t e r t r a i ni ng, s ubj e c t s f l e w t w o m i s s i ons i n t he M ul t i

- m oda l I m m e r s i ve I nt e l l i ge nt

I nt e r f a c e f o r R e m ot e O pe r a t i on ( M I I I R O )

. O ne m i s s i on i nvol ve d c ont r ol of 3 U A V s

, t he

ot he r i nvol ve d c ont r ol o f 5 U A V s ( or de r of m i s s i ons c ount e rba l a nc e d)

. F l i ght c ont r ol w a s

a

ut om a t e d. S ubj e c t s w e r e r e s pons i bl e f or s e ve r a l a ddi t i ona l t a s ks : i de nt i f yi ng unknow n

a i r c r a f t

, a ppr ovi ng r e pl a ns of U A V r out e s

, i de nt i f y i ng a nd s e l e c t i ng t a r ge t s i n t he

i m a ge r y f r o m U A V s e ns or s

, c om pl e t i ng t a s ks on a m i s s i on m ode i ndi c a t or

, a nd c ount i ng

s ym bol s on t he T a c t i c a l S i t ua t i on D i s pl a y ( t op

- do w n m a p of t e r r a i n w i t h U A V s a nd

r out e s de pi c t e d) f o r l a t e r r e c a l l

. S ubj e c t i ve w or k l o a d m e a s ur e s w e r e a l s o c ol l e c t e d.

R e s u l t s

D a t a s how e d no di f f

e r e nc e be t w e e n t he 3 U A V a n d 5 U A V c ondi t i ons i n t he nu m be r o f

e ne m y t a r ge t s i de nt i f i e d a nd s e l e c t e d. O t he r de pe n de nt va r i a bl e s s how e d s i gni f i c a nt

e f

f

e c t s f a vor i ng t he 3 U A V c ondi t i on. S pe c i f i c a l l y

, t he t i m e t o r e s pond t o uni de nt i f i e d

a i r c r a f t w a s s hor t e r

, t he num be r o f M i s s i on M ode I ndi c a t or t a s ks c om pl e t e d w a s hi ghe r

,

t he t i m e t o c he c k a nd a ppr ove U A V r e pl a n r out e s w a s s hor t e r

, a nd a l l s ubj e c t i ve

pe r f or m a nc e m e a s ur e s ( r a t i ngs o f s i t ua t i on a w a r e n e s s

, pe r c e i ve d t a s k di f f i c ul t y

,

pe r c e i ve d pe r f or m a nc e

, a nd pe r c e i ve d w or k l oa d l e ve l ) w e r e be t t e r

.

R e c a l l of s ym bol s on t he T S D w a s be t t e r w i t h t he s t a nda r di z e d i c ons t ha n w i t h t he

s t yl i z e d s e t

. T he a ut ho r s s p e c ul a t e t ha t t hi s m i ght h a ve ha ppe ne d be c a us e t he

s t a nda r di z e d i c ons w e r e e a s i e r t o pe r c e pt ua l l y s e gr e ga t e f r om t he ba c kgr ound.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 41

36) P u r t e e , M

. D

. , G l u c k

, K

. A

. , K r u s m ar k

, M

. A

. , K of f

e , S

. A

. , & L e f e b vr e , A

. T

. ( 2003)

. V e r b al p r ot oc ol an al ys i s f or val i d at i o n o f U A V op e r at or m od e l

. P r oc e e di n gs

of t h e 25 t h I n t e r

s e r v i c e / I

n du s t r y T r

ai

n i n g, S i m u l at

i on , a n d Edu c at i on C on f

e re n c e , 1741

- 1750.

U s e d c onc ur r e nt a nd r e t r os pe c t i ve ve r ba l r e por t s f r om s ubj e c t m a t t e r e xpe r t s p i l ot i ng a

P r e da t or U A V s i m ul a t i on t o de t e r m i ne how a c c ur a t e l y t he l a b's A C T

- R m ode l of

P r e da t or pi l ot pe r f o r m a nc e r e pr e s e nt s t he c ogni t i o n/ i nf or m a t i on pr oc e s s i ng of a c t ua l

pi l ot s

.

R e s u l t s

O ve r a l l

, a t t e nt i on t o pe r f or m a nc e i ns t r um e nt s w a s ve r ba l i z e d m or e of t e n t ha n a t t e nt i on t o

c ont r ol i ns t r um e nt s dur i ng c onc ur r e nt r e por t s

. H o w e ve r

, r e t r os pe c t i ve r e por t s s ugge s t e d

t ha t S M E s w e r e us i ng t he C ont r ol a nd P e r f or m a nc e c onc e pt i m pl e m e nt e d by t he m ode l

. R e s ul t s a l s o de m ons t r a t e t ha t di s t r i but i on of ope r a t or a t t e nt i on, a s r e f l e c t e d i n c onc ur r e nt

ve rba l r e por t s

, i s i nf l ue nc e d by goa l s / de m a nds of m a ne uve r be i ng i m pl e m e nt e d. I de a s f o r

i m pr ovi ng t he c ogni t i ve m ode l i nc l ude i nc or po r a t i ng us e of t r i m a nd a m e t a c ogni t i ve

a w a r e ne s s of pa s s a g e

- of

- t i m e t o i m pr ove us e of t i m i ng c he c kpoi nt s f or m oni t or i ng

pr ogr e s s t ow a r d goa l

.

37) Q u i gl e y , M

. , G ood r i c h

, M

. A

. , & B e ar d

, R

. W. ( 2004 )

. S e m i

- au t on o m ou s h u m an

U A V i n t e r f ac e s f or f i xe d

- w i n g m i n i

- U A V s

. P r oc e e di n gs of I R O S 2004

, S e p 28

– O c t

2, S e n d a i

, Jap an

.

T he pa pe r de s c r i be s w or k pr ot ot ypi ng a nd t e s t i ng s e ve r a l f or m s o f i nt e r f a c e f or c ont r ol of

s m a l l ( 32" w i ngs pa n, i n t hi s c a s e ) s e m i

- a ut onom o us U A V s

.

C on t r ol t e c h n i q u e s

N um e r i c pa r a m e t e r

- ba s e d i nt e r f a c e s pr ovi de t e xt b oxe s i n w hi c h ope r a t or t ype s de s i r e d

f l i ght pa r a m e t e r s

.

P D A di r e c t m a ni pul a t i on i nt e r f a c e pr e s e nt s f i xe d

- h or i z on w i ng

- vi e w r e pr e s e nt a t i on f r om

t he vi e w poi nt of a n obs e r ve r be hi nd t he U A V

. D i s pl a y a l s o i nc l ude s a c om pa s s a nd

s pe e dom e t e r a l ongs i de t he w i ng

- vi e w di s pl a y. T h e us e r c ont r ol s t he U A V t hr ough dr a g

a nd

- dr op m a ni pul a t i on of t he U A V i c on or t he c o m pa s s / s p e e dom e t e r

. C ol or di f f

e r e nc e s

( bl ue vs

. r e d) a r e us e d t o di s t i ngui s h c u r r e nt s t a t e o f U A V f r om de s i r e d s t a t e s pe c i f i e d by

us e r m a ni pul a t i on. T hi s m a ke s t he f ut ur e s t a t e o f t he U A V e a s y t o pr e di c t

. T h i s i nt e r f a c e

w a s a l s o t e s t e d w i t h a l a pt op us i ng t r a c kpa d a nd m ous e

.

V oi c e c ont r ol l e r i s a l l ow s U A V c ont r ol us i ng a gr a m m a r of t w e nt y w or ds ( e

. g

. , " c l i m b"

,

" go nor t h" )

. V oi c e s ynt he s i z e r pr ovi de s i m m e di a t e f e e dba c k i n p r e s e nt pr ogr e s s i ve t e ns e

( e

. g.

, " c l i m bi ng"

, " goi ng nor t h" )

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 42

A t t i t ude j oys t i c k c ont r ol l e r m i m i c s a f l y

- by

- w i r e c ont r ol l e r by m a ppi ng de f l e c t i on i n j oys t i c k t o de f l e c t i on i n a i r c r a f t a t t i t ude

. T hi s f o r m of i n t e r a c t i on i s e s pe c i a l l y good f or

novi c e s

, non

- e xpe r i e nc e pi l ot s

.

T r a c kpoi nt c ont r o l l e r us e s a t r a c kpoi nt poi nt i ng de vi c e f r om T hi nkP a d l a pt op, w i t h

hor i z ont a l i nput s m a ppe d t o U A V r ol l a nd ve r t i c a l i nput s m a ppe d t o U A V pi t c h.

T he phys i c a l i c on i nt e r f a c e i s a ha nd

- he l d m ode l o f U A V

. O r i e nt a t i on o f m ode l i n 3

- D

s pa c e i s t r a c ke d, a nd c onve r t e d i n t o pi t c h / r ol l c o m m a nds f or U A V

. S houl d pr ovi de good

S A s i nc e t he ope r a t or i s hol di ng a r e pr e s e nt a t i on o f U A V i n i t s a c t ua l or i e nt a t i on. A n

a c c om pa nyi ng ( opt i ona l ) di s pl a y he l ps t he us e r di s t i ngui s h a c t ua l a nd de s i r e d U A V s t a t e s by pr e s e nt i ng t he c ur r e nt s t a t e i n one c ol or a nd t he de s i r e d s t a t e ( i

. e

. , s t a t e of phys i c a l

i c on c ont r ol ) i n a not he r

.

A s s e s s m e n t s

T he a t t i t ude j oys t i c k

, phys i c a l i c on, a nd t r a c kpoi nt c ont r ol l e r pr oduc e t he f a s t e s t ope r a t or

r e s pons e t i m e s f or U A V m a ni pul a t i ons

. H ow e ve r

, t he s e r e pr obl e m a t i c w he n U A V i s

t r a ve l i ng t ow a r d t he ope r a t or

, s i nc e t he y r e qui r e r e ve r s a l of c ont r ol i nput s

.

D i r e c t m a ni pul a t i on i n t e r f a c e s a r e us e f ul be c a us e t he y don't r e qui r e d s us t a i ne d a t t e nt i on.

A f t e r t he us e r ha s s pe c i f i e d t he de s i r e d U A V s t a t e

, no f u

r t he r i nt e r a c t i on i s ne c e s s a r y

unt i l a not he r c ha nge o f s t a t e i s de s i r e d. T hi s c a n m a ke t he s e i nt e r f a c e s e s pe c i a l l y

a

ppr opr i a t e f o r c ont r ol of m ul t i pl e U A V s

. T he onl y di f f i c ul t y i s t ha t s ubj e c t m us t s hi f t

ga z e be t w e e n i nt e r f a c e a nd U A V

. T hi s c r e a t e s de m a nd f or f r e que nt a c c om m oda t i on

c ha nge s

.

V oi c e c ont r ol a l l ow s ope r a t or t o m a i nt a i n ga z e on U A V

, a nd, a s s um i ng c om m a nds c a n

be i s s ue d i n w or l d

- c e nt e r e d c oo r di na t e s ( e

. g

. , " go nor t h" )

, doe s not r e qui r e m e nt a l

t r a ns f or m a t i on of c om m a nds de pe ndi ng on he a di ng of U A V

.

P a r a m e t e r ba s e d i nt e r f a c e s a r e di f f i c ul t be c a us e t he y r e qu i r e ope r a t o r t o t ype

, a nd a l s o

de m a nd m e nt a l m a t h.

38) R u f f

, H

. A

. , C al h ou n , C

. L

. , D r ap e r , M

. H

. , F on t e j on , J. V

. , G u i l f oos , B

. J

. ( 2004)

. E xp l or i n g a u t om a t i on i s s u e s i n s u p e r vi s or y c on t r ol of m u l t i p l e U A V s

. P

r oc e e di n gs of t h e S e c on d H u m an P e r

f

or m an c e , S i t u at i on A w are n es s , an d

A u t om at i on C on f

e re n c e ( H

P

S

A A I I )

, D ayt o n a B e ac h

, F L

, M ar c h 22

- 25

.

E xp e r i m e n t 1

E xa m i ne d t he e f f

e c t s of a ut om a t i on on t a s k c om pl e t i on t i m e a nd s ubj e c t i ve w or kl oa d

l e ve l s i n c ont r ol o f 2 or 4 U A V s

. T w o l e ve l s of a ut om a t i on ( L O A ) w e r e c om pa r e d,

m a na ge m e nt by c ons e nt ( M B C ) a nd m a na ge m e nt by e xc e pt i on ( M B E )

. A ut om a t i on w a s

pr ovi de d f or t w o t a s ks

, i m a ge pr os e c ut i on a nd r out e r e

- pl a ns

. T i m e l i m i t s f o r ove r r i di ngH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 43

a

ut om a t i on i n t he M B E c ondi t i on w e r e 40 s f or i m a ge pr os e c ut i on a nd 15 s f or r ou t e r e

pl a n. A ut om a t i on r e l i a bi l i t y w a s e i t he r 75 % or 98 % f o r i m a ge p r os e c ut i on, 75 % or 100%

f

or r out e r e

- p l a n.

O ve r a l l t a s k i nvol ve d f ou r s ub

- t a s ks

1. R e s pondi ng t o uni de nt i f i e d a i r c r a f t

2. R out e r e

- pl a nni ng

3. I m a ge pr os e c ut i on

4. M oni t or i ng M i s s i on M ode I ndi c a t or ( M M I )

R e s u l t s

A n i nc r e a s e i n num be r of U A V s i nc r e a s e d c om pl e t i on t i m e s f or i m a ge p r os e c ut i on, r ou t e

r e

- pl a nni ng, a nd M M I m oni t o r i ng, a nd a l s o i nc r e a s e d t he a m ount of t i m e w a s s pe nt i n

t hr e a t z one s

. S ubj e c t s w e r e m o r e l i ke l y t o r e s pond be f or e M B E a ut om a t i on a c t e d ( i

. e

. ,

s ubj e c t s w e r e m or e l i ke l y t o c a r r y out t he a ut om a t i on's r e c om m e nda t i on t ha n t o s i m pl y

l e t t he a ut om a t i on c a r r y out t he a c t i on i t s e l f ) w he n t he r e w e r e 2 U A V s t ha n w he n t he r e

w e r e 4. S ubj e c t i ve w or kl oa d r a t i ngs w e r e hi ghe r f or 4 U A V s t ha n f or 2.

F e w e r i m a ge s w e r e pr os e c ut e d a nd m o r e e r r o r s c o m m i t t e d w he n a ut om a t i on w a s l e s s

r e l i a bl e

. S ubj e c t i ve t r us t r a t i ngs w e r e a l s o l ow e r

.

N o c ons i s t e nt di f f

e r e nc e s obt a i ne d be t w e e n M B C a nd M B E

. T hi s m i ght be be c a us e t he

t i m e l i m i t f or ove r r i di ng M B E a ut om a t i on w a s t oo l ong. A s not e d a bove

, s ubj e c t s of t e n

pr e

- e m pt e d t he a ut om a t i on unde r M B E by c a r r yi n g out t he r e c om m e nde d a c t i on

t he m s e l ve s

. E xpt 2 t he r e f or e r e duc e d t i m e l i m i t s f or M B E

.

E xp e r i m e n t 2

A ut om a t i on r e l i a bi l i t y a nd L O A s w e r e s a m e a s i n E xpt 1

, but t he t i m e l i m i t f o r

ove r r i di ng M B E w a s now i nc l ude d a dde d a s a de p e nde nt va r i a bl e

. T i m e l i m i t s f o r i m a ge

pr os e c ut i on w e r e 15 a nd 40 s e c onds

. T i m e l i m i t s f or r out e r e

- pl a n w e r e 10 a nd 15

s e c onds

. E xe c ut i on of r out e r e

- pl a n t a s k w a s a l s o m a de m or e di f f i c ul t

. O nl y t he 4 U A V

c ondi t i on w a s us e d.

R e s u l t s

O nl y one m e a s ur e

, t he pe r c e nt a ge of i m a ge s c or r e c t l y pr os e c ut e d, s how e d a n e f f

e c t of

a

ut om a t i on r e l i a bi l i t y

.

W i t h M B C

, s ubj e c t i ve r a t i ngs w e r e s i m i l a r a c r os s t i m e l i m i t s

. W i t h M B E

, s hor t e r t i m e

l i m i t s pr oduc e d hi ghe r w or kl oa d r a t i ngs a nd poo r e r pe r f o r m a nc e on bot h t a s ks

. S ubj e c t s

w e r e f a s t e r t o c om pl e t e t a s ks i n M B E / s hor t t i m e l i m i t c ondi t i on t ha n i n a ny ot he r

c om bi na t i on of a ut om a t i on/ t i m e l i m i t

, s ugge s t i ng t ha t t he y f e l t t i m e p r e s s ur e

. T hi s m a y

ha v e c ont r i but e d t o hi ghe r s ubj e c t i ve w or k l oa d. M B E a ut om a t i on w a s m or e l i ke l y t o

e xe c ut e a c t i on i n s hor t t i m e l i m i t c ondi t i on

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 44

39) R u f f

, H

. A

. , D r ap e r , M

. H

. , L u , L

. G

. , P oo l e , M

. R

. , & R e p p e r ge r , D

. W. ( 2000)

. H ap t i c f e e d b ac k as a s u p p l e m e n t al m e t h od o f al e r t i n g U A V op e r at or s t o t h e on s e t of

t u r b u l e n c e

. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e I E

A 2000/ H F

E

S 2000 C on gre s s , 3. 41

- 3. 44

.

U A V ope r a t or s a r e de ni e d m a ny of t he s e ns or y c u e s a va i l a bl e t o t he pi l ot of a m a nne d

a i r c r a f t

. O ne i ns t a nc e i n w hi c h t hi s m i ght be c ons e que nt i a l i s i n de t e c t i ng t urbul e nc e

. D ur i ng f l i gh t of a m a nne d a i r c r a f t

, t he ons e t of t u r bul e nc e t ypi c a l l y pr oduc e s

ki ne s t he t i c / ha pt i c f e e dba c k. D ur i ng U A V f l i ght

, t u r bul e nc e i s s i gna l e d t o t he ope r a t or

onl y by pe r t u r ba t i ons of c a m e r a i m a ge

.

C ur r e nt e xpe r i m e nt m e a s u r e d va l ue of ha pt i c a l e r t ( vi a c ont r ol s t i c k) f o r de t e c t i on of

t urbul e nc e ons e t

. P a r t i c i pa nt s f l e w s i m ul a t e d U A V l a ndi ngs

. W he n t u r bul e nc e oc c ur r e d,

s ubj e c t s r a t e d t he i r l e ve l o f S A

. A f t e r e a c h t r i a l

, pa r t i c i pa nt s r a t e d t he d i f f i c ul t of

di f f i c ul t y, a s s e s s e d t he i r pe r f or m a nc e

, a nd j udge d t he s t r e ngt h ( m i l d or s e ve r e ) a nd a xi s

of pe r t ur ba t i on ( ho r i z ont a l o r ve r t i c a l ) of t he t u r bul e nc e

. N ot e t ha t t he m ul t i m oda l di s pl a y

di d not m i m i c t he ha pt i c s i gna l s e xpe r i e nc e d i n r e a l f l i ght

, but w a s s i m pl y m e a nt a s a n

a l e r t i ng s i gna l

.

R e s u l t s

H a pt i c f e e dba c k i m pr ove d S A r a t i ngs

, but i f w he n t ur bul e nc e oc c ur r e d w he n U A V w a s

f

a r f r om t he r unw a y. W he n U A V w a s ne a r r unw a y, no be ne f i t o f f e e dba c k. A ut hor s

s ugge s t t ha t he i ght e ne d a l e r t ne s s ne a r r unw a y m i g ht f a c i l i t a t e t u rbul e nc e de t e c t i on,

m i t i ga t i ng t he e f f

e c t s of ha pt i c f e e dba c k. R T s f or t ur bul e nc e de t e c t i on w oul d ha ve

pr ovi de d us e f ul da t a t o t e s t t hi s hypot he s i s

.

S ubj e c t i ve r a t i ngs of l a ndi ng pe r f or m a nc e w e r e un a f f

e c t e d by ha pt i c a l e r t

, but r a t i ngs of

l a ndi ng di f f i c ul t y i nc r e a s e d w he n ha pt i c a l e r t w a s pr ovi de d. P e r c e i ve d t ur bul e nc e

s t r e ngt h a nd j udgm e nt s of t ur bul e nc e di r e c t i on w e r e una f f

e c t e d by ha pt i c f e e dba c k.

40) R u f f

, H

. A

. , N ar ayan an , S

. , & D r ap e r , M

. H

. ( 2002)

. H u m a n i n t e r ac t i on w i t h

l e ve l s of au t o m at i on an d d e c i s i on

- ai d f i d e l i t y i n t h e s u p e r vi s or y c on t r ol o f m u l t i p l e

s i m u l at e d u n m an n e d ai r ve h i c l e s

. P res e n c e , 11

, 335

- 351

S ubj e c t s f l e w s i m ul a t e d U A V m i s s i ons

, w i t h t a s k of a c qui r e f our t a r ge t s a t unknow n

l oc a t i ons ( 3 e ne m y a nd 1 f r i e ndl y) w hi l e a voi di ng e ne m y f i r e

. N um be r of U A V s w a s 1,

2, or 4. F l i ght pa t h w a s pr e p r ogr a m m e d. S ubj e c t s w e r e r e qui r e d t o r e s pond t o/ m a na ge

e ve nt s a s t he y oc c ur r e d t hr ough c our s e of s c e na r i o. A ut om a t i on w a s pr ovi de d t o s om e

s ubj e c t s t o he l p m a na ge e ve nt s

. T w o f or m s of a ut o m a t i on w e r e us e d, i n a ddi t i on t o t he

no

- a ut om a t i on ba s e l i ne : m a na ge m e nt by c ons e nt

, a nd m a na ge m e nt by e xc e pt i on. T w o

l e ve l s of a ut om a t i on r e l i a bi l i t y w e r e us e d: 100% a nd 95%

.

R e s u l t s

M a na ge m e nt by c ons e nt pr oduc e d t he hi ghe s t l e ve l of m i s s i on e f f i c i e nc y ( num be r of

e ne m y t a r g e t s de s t r oye d di vi de d by num be r o f m i s s i l e s f i r e d)

. M a na ge m e nt

- by

- e xc e pt i onH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 45

a nd m a nua l m oni t or i ng pr oduc e d s i m i l a r e f f i c i e nc y s c or e s

. D e c i s i on a i d f a l s e a l a r m s i n

t he 95% r e l i a bi l i t y a ut om a t i on c ondi t i on w e r e m o r e l i ke l y t o be de t e c t e d unde r

m a na ge m e nt

- by

- c ons e nt t ha n m a na ge m e nt

- by

- e xc e pt i on.

I n m a nua l c ondi t i on

, e ve nt m a na ge m e nt be c a m e p oor e r a s t he num be r of U A V s

i nc r e a s e d. S ubj e c t i ve w or kl oa d e s t i m a t e d by N A S A _T L X a l s o i nc r e a s e d w i t h num be r o f

U A V s i n t he m a nua l a nd m a na ge m e nt by c ons e nt c ondi t i ons

. S W O R D r a t i ngs of

w or kl oa d w e r e hi ghe r f o r m a nua l c ont r ol t ha n f or e i t he r f or m of a ut om a t i on, a nd w e r e

hi ghe r f or m a na ge m e nt

- by

- c ons e nt t ha n f or m a na ge m e nt

- by

- e xc e pt i on w he n r e l i a bi l i t y

w a s l e s s t ha n pe r f e c t

. S w or d r a t i ngs a l s o i nc r e a s e d a s t he num be r of U A V s i nc r e a s e d.

M a na ge m e nt

- by

- c ons e nt pr oduc e d hi ghe r l e ve l s of s e l f

- r a t e d s i t ua t i on a w a r e ne s s t ha n di d

m a nua l c ont r ol o r m a na ge m e nt

- by

- e xc e pt i on

. M a na ge m e nt

- by

- e xc e pt i on pr oduc e d

e s pe c i a l l y l ow r a t i ngs of S A w he n a ut om a t i on r e l i a bi l i t y w a s onl y 95 %

. S A r a t i n gs a l s o

de c r e a s e d a s t he num be r of U A V s i nc r e a s e d.

T r us t i n a ut om a t i on de c r e a s e d a s t he num be r of U A V s i nc r e a s e d.

41) R yd e r , J. M

, S c ol ar o, J. A

. , S t o k e s , J

. M

. ( 2001)

. A n i n s t r u c t i on al age n t f or

U A V c on t r ol l e r t r ai n i n g

. U A V s

-

S

i xt e e n t h I n t e r

n at i on al C on f

e re n c e , 3

. 1

- 3

. 11. B r i s t ol

, U K : U n i ve r s i t y o f B r i s t ol

.

D e s c r i be s de ve l opm e nt of a n a ut om a t e d a ge nt

, E A G L E

, t o t r a i n pi l ot s on a s i m ul a t e d

P r e da t or U A V l a ndi ng t a s k. T he a ut hor s no t e t ha t be c a us e t he r e a r e m i ni m a l di f f

e r e nc e s

be t w e e n ope r a t i ng a c ons ol e du r i ng r e a l m i s s i ons a nd s i m ul a t i ons

, s i m ul a t i ons m a y be

i de a l f or U A V ope r a t or t r a i ni ng

. T he c ur r e nt i ns t r u c t i ona l a ge nt w a s de ve l ope d us i ng

C H I S ys t e m s ' C O GN E T f r a m e w or k.

42) S c h r e i b e r , B

. T

. , L yon , D

. R

. , M ar t i n , E

. L

. , & C on f e r , H

. A

. ( 2002)

. I m

pac t o f

pr i or f l i gh t e xpe r i e n c e on l e ar n i n g P re dat or U A V ope r at

or s ki l l s ( A F R

L

- H

E

- A Z

- T R

2002

- 0026)

. M e s a, A Z : A i r F or c e R e s e ar c h L ab or at or y, War f i gh t e r T r ai n i n g

R e s e ar c h D i vi s i on

.

E xa m i ne d s ubj e c t s a bi l i t y t o l e a r n & pe r f o r m m a n e uve r s on a P r e da t or U A V

. C om pa r e d

s e ve r a l gr oups of s ubj e c t s i nc l udi ng e xpe r i e nc e d P r e da t or pi l ot s ; e xpe r i e nc e d U S A F

pi l ot s s e l e c t e d t o f l y t he P r e da t o r ; s t ude nt s w ho ha d r e c e nt l y c om pl e t e d U S A F T

- 38

t r a i ni ng; s t ude nt s w ho ha d r e c e nt l y c om pl e t e d U S A F T

- 1 t r a i ni ng ; s t ude nt s w ho r e c e nt l y

c om pl e t e d s i ngl e

- e ngi ne i ns t r um e nt t r a i ni ng a t E m br y

- R i ddl e ; s t ude nt s w ho r e c e nt l y

c om pl e t e d r e qui r e m e nt s f or pr i va t e pi l ot 's l i c e ns e ; E m br y

- R i ddl e R O T C s t ude nt s w ho

pl a nne d t o j oi n U S A F but ha d no f l i ght t r a i ni ng or e xpe r i e nc e

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 46

S ubj e c t s f l e w ba s i c m a ne uve r s a nd l a ndi ngs unt i l r e a c hi ng a c r i t e r i on l e ve l of

pe r f or m a nc e

, t he n f l e w 30 r e c onna i s s a nc e m i s s i on s

. O f i n t e r e s t w a s t he num be r of t r i a l s

ne c e s s a r y t o r e a c h c r i t e r i on pe r f or m a nc e on t he t r a i ni ng t a s k, a nd t he t r a ns f e r of t r a i ni ng

pe r f or m a nc e t o t he r e c onn a i s s a nc e t a s k.

R e s u l t s

T r a i ni ng

A s e xpe c t e d, pr e da t or pi l o t s r e qui r e d t he f e w e s t t r i a l s t o r e a c h c r i t e r i on pe r f or m a nc e

, a nd

nonpi l ot R O T C s t ude nt s r e qui r e d t he m os t

. T hi s c om pa r i s on de m ons t r a t e s t he va l i di t y o f

t he s i m ul a t i on a nd t a s k. P r e da t or s e l e c t e e s a nd c i vi l i a n i ns t r um e nt pi l o t s r e qui r e d f e w e r

t r i a l s t ha n T

- 1 g r a ds

, r e qui r e d f e w e r t r i a l s

. T

- 38 gr a ds a nd pr i va t e pi l ot s w e r e not

s i gni f i c a nt l y w or s e t ha n P r e da t or s e l e c t e e s / c i vi l i a n i ns t r um e nt pi l o t s

, nor w e r e t he y

s i gni f i c a nt l y be t t e r t ha n T

- 1 gr a ds

. R e s ul t s de m ons t r a t e t ha t p r i or f l i ght e xpe r i e nc e c a n

r e duc e t he num be r of t r i a l s t o be c om e pr of i c i e nt a t m a ne uve r i ng & l a ndi ng t he P r e da t or

s i m ul a t i on.

T r a ns f e r

D e pe nde nt va r i a bl e w a s m e a n a m ount of t i m e t ha t s e ns or w a s f oc us e d on t a r ge t dur i ng

e a c h t r i a l

. P r e da t or pi l ot s

, P r e da t or s e l e c t e e s

, a nd T

- 38 g r a ds ha d m or e t i m e on t a r ge t

t ha n ot he r g r oups

. R O T C nonpi l ot s ha d l e s s t i m e o n t a r ge t t ha n P r e da t or pi l ot s

, s e l e c t e e s

, T

- 38 g r a ds

, a nd T

- 1 gr a ds

. R e s ul t s s how t ha t e ve n a f t e r s ubj e c t s a c hi e ve d m a t c he d l e ve l s

of pe r f o r m a nc e on t he t r a i ni ng t a s k, p r i or f l i ght e xpe r i e nc e i m pr ove d pe r f or m a nc e i n t he

r e c on t a s k. A ut hor s s ugge s t t ha t good pe r f o r m a nc e of T

- 38 gr a ds a s c om pa r e d t o T

- 1

gr a ds m a y r e f l e c t t he de gr e e t o w hi c h pe r f or m a nc e c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of t he T

- 38 a nd T

- 1 a r e

s i m i l a r t o t hos e o f t he P r e da t or

.

43) T var yan as , A

. P

. ( 2004 )

. V i s u al s c an p a t t e r n s d u r i n g s i m u l at e d c on t r ol of a n

u n i n h ab i t e d ae r i al ve h i c l e ( U A V )

. A v i at i on , S pa c e , an d E n v i r on m e n t al M e di c i n e , 75

, 531

- 538.

A n e xpe r i m e nt e xa m i ne d pi l o t s ' e ye m o ve m e nt s d ur i ng a s i m ul a t e d P r e da t or U A V f l i ght

t a s k. G oa l s w e r e t o de t e r m i ne A ) how e f f i c i e nt l y o pe r a t or s pr oc e s s t he m ovi ng t e xt box

i ns t r um e nt di s pl a ys us e d i n t he P r e da t or H U D

, B ) w he t he r w or kl oa d ( a s de t e r m i ne d by

w i ndi ne s s dur i ng f l i ght a nd by t he di f f i c ul t y o f f l i g ht m a ne uve r s ) a f f

e c t e d s c a n pa t t e r ns

,

a nd C ) w he t he r t he a bs e nc e of a udi t or y a nd ha pt i c c ue s c a us e d U A V pi l ot s t o i nc r e a s e

t he i r dw e l l f r e que nc y on t he e ngi ne i ns t r um e nt ( R P M ) r e l a t i ve t o pi l ot s i n a m a nne d

a i r c r a f t

. O f pa r t i c ul a r i nt e r e s t w a s w he t he r or not t he m ovi ng t e xtbox i ns t r um e nt s w oul d

be pr oc e s s e d a s di gi t a l / qua nt i t a t i ve di s pl a ys or a s a na l og/ qua l i t a t i ve di s pl a ys

. P a s t da t a

ha s s ugge s t e d t ha t qua nt i t a t i ve di s pl a ys a r e pr oc e s s e d l e s s e f f i c i e nt l y ( i

. e

. , r e qui r e l onge r

dw e l l t i m e s ) t ha n qua l i t a t i ve di s pl a ys

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 47

S ubj e c t s w e r e 5 i ns t r um e nt r a t e d pi l o t s

. S ubj e c t s f l e w a n e i ght

- l e g f l i ght pl a n t w i c e

, onc e

i n no

- w i nd c ondi t i ons a nd onc e i n w i ndy c ondi t i on s ( or de r r a ndom i z e d)

. D i f f

e r e nt

s e gm e nt s of t he f l i ght pr o f i l e i nc l ude d c ha nge s i n he a di ng

, a l t i t ude

, a nd a i r s pe e d,

s om e t i m e s s i ngl y a nd s om e t i m e s i n c om bi na t i on. C ha nge s i nvol vi ng m ul t i pl e pa r a m e t e r s

w e r e pr e s um e d t o i m pos e hi ghe r w or kl oa d

, a s w e r e w i ndy f l i gh t c ondi t i ons

.

R e s u l t s

D e pe nde nt va r i a bl e s w e r e dw e l l t i m e s a nd dw e l l f r e que nc i e s

. I n de pe nde nt va r i a bl e s w e r e

f l i ght c ondi t i ons ( no w i nd vs

. w i ndy )

, f l i ght s e gm e nt ( one

, t w o, or t hr e e pa r a m e t e r s

c ha nge d)

, a nd i ns t r um e nt

. B ot h dw e l l t i m e s a nd d w e l l f r e que nc i e s s how e d a s i gni f i c a nt

m a i n e f f

e c t o f i ns t r um e nt

, a nd ne i t he r s how e d a ny ot he r m a i n e f f

e c t s or i nt e r a c t i ons

.

D w e l l f r e que nc y w a s hi ghe s t f or t he A D I

, f ol l ow e d by t he V S I

, A S

, H I

, A L T

, R P M

, a nd

A O A

.

T o de t e r m i ne w he t he r m ovi ng t e xtboxe s w e r e pr oc e s s e d a s qua l i t a t i ve or qua nt i t a t i ve

di s pl a ys

, dw e l l t i m e s f or t he s e i ns t r um e nt s w e r e c o m p a r e d t o dw e l l t i m e f or t he he a di ng

i ndi c a t or

, a n i ns t r um e nt t ha t i s c l e a r l y qua nt i t a t i ve

. I f m ovi ng t e xtboxe s a r e pr oc e s s e d a s

qua l i t a t i ve di s pl a ys

, t he y s houl d ha ve dw e l l t i m e s s hor t e r t ha n t hos e f o r t he H I

. O nl y t he

A O A a nd R P M ha d s i gni f i c a nt l y s hor t e r dw e l l t i m e s

, s ugge s t i ng t ha t ot he r m ov i ng

t e xtboxe s w e r e pr oc e s s e d a s qua nt i t a t i ve di s pl a ys

.

T he a ut hor a l s o c om pa r e s t he c ur r e nt da t a t o t he r e s ul t s of e a r l i e r s t udi e s of i ns t r um e nt

s c a nni ng i n m a nne d a i r c r a f t

. I n t he pr e s e nt s t udy, A D I w a s t he m os t f r e que nt l y f i xa t e d

i ns t r um e nt

, but s t i l l a c c ount e d f o r onl y 30% of a l l dw e l l s

. I n c ont r a s t

, pr e vi ous r e s e a r c h

ha s f ound t ha t t he A D I c a n a c c ount f or ove r 50 % o f a l l dw e l l s i n m a nne d f l i ght

. C onve r s e l y, V S I w a s f i xa t e d m or e o f t e n i n t he p r e s e nt s t udy ( 16% o f a l l dw e l l s ) t ha n i n

s t udi e s of m a nne d f l i ght ( 22 % )

. T he a ut hor s ugge s t s t w o pos s i bl e r e a s ons f or t he s e

di f f

e r e nc e s

. F i r s t

, A D I i n t he P r e da t o r H U D w a s v e r y s i m pl e

, s how i ng on l y a ho r i z ont a l

l i ne w i t hout a ny pi t c h or ba nk s c a l e

. V S I s c a nni ng m i ght t he r e f o r e be ne c e s s a r y t o

a c qui r e or ve r i f y c l i m b a nd de s c e nt r a t e s

. S e c ond, pi l ot s m i ght r e l y on t he V S I m or e

he a vi l y i n U A V gi ve n t he i nhe r e nt s ys t e m de l a ys

. I n ot he r w or ds

, de l a ys i n t he s ys t e m

r e s pons e s t o c ont r ol i nput s m i ght r e qui r e ope r a t or s t o r e l y m or e he a v i l y on t he pr e di c t i ve

V S I i ns t r um e nt t ha n i n m a nne d f l i gh t

.

D a t a a l s o s ugge s t t ha t t he e ngi ne i ns t r um e nt w a s not s c a nne d m or e he a vi l y i n t he c ur r e nt

t a s k t ha n i n pr e vi ous s t udi e s of s c a nni ng i n m a nne d f l i ght

. T hi s s ugge s t s t ha t ope r a t or s

di d not us e t he R P M t o c om pe ns a t e f or t he a bs e nc e of a udi t o r y a nd ha pt i c i nf o r m a t i on,

a nd m a y i ndi c a t e a s ub

- opt i m a l pe r f or m a nc e s t r a t e gy.

T he a ut hor s pe c ul a t e s t ha t t he hi gh s ki l l l e ve l of t h e pa r t i c i pa nt s i n t he c ur r e nt e xpe r i m e nt

m i ght e xpl a i n t he nul l e f f

e c t of w or kl o a d on s c a nni ng be ha vi or

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 48

44) V an E r p , J

. B

. F

. ( 2000)

. C on t r ol l i n g u n m an n e d ve h i c l e s : T h e h u m an f ac t or s

s ol u t i on

. R T O M e e t i n g P r oc e e di n gs 44 ( R T O

- M P

- 44)

, B 8. 1

- B 8. 12.

T he a ut hor not e s t ha t ba ndw i dt h c ons t r a i nt s on t he da t a l i nk be t w e e n a g r ound c ont r o l

s t a t i on a nd U A V w i l l l i m i t t he qua l i t y of s e ns or i n f or m a t i on di s pl a ye d t o U A V ope r a t or s

. T w o r e m e di e s t o t hi s pr obl e m a r e pos s i bl e

. T he f i r s t i s t o r e duc e ba ndw i dt h ne e ds by

i de nt i f yi ng t a s k

- c r i t i c a l s e ns or i nf or m a t i on a nd e ns ur i ng t ha t onl y t hi s i s t r a ns m i t t e d. T he

s e c ond i s t o de s i gn a dva nc e d i nt e r f a c e s t ha t a s s i s t t he ope r a t or i n c om pe ns a t i ng

de gr a da t i ons or l i m i t s i n s e ns or i m a ge r y

.

S e ve r a l s pe c i f i c w a ys i n w hi c h t he i nf o r m a t i on p r o vi de d t o a U A V ope r a t or i s de gr a de d

a r e de s c r i be d. F i r s t

, t hi s i nf or m a t i on t ypi c a l l y i nc l ude s onl y i m a ge r y f r om a n on

- boa r d

c a m e r a

. I nput f r om ot he r s e ns or y m oda l i t i e s ( a udi t i on, ki ne s t he s i a ) i s l os t

. S e c ond, t he

s e ns or i m a ge r y pr ovi de d t o t he ope r a t o r i s o f t e n o f l ow r e s ol ut i on

, a c hr om a t i c

, a nd

l i m i t e d t o a s m a l l F O V

. T h i r d, s e ns or i m a ge r y i s o f t e n of l ow t e m por a l r e s ol ut i on.

F our t h, t he c ont r ol de vi c e s us e d t o m a ni pul a t e s e n s or c a m e r a s do not p r ovi de

pr opr i oc e pt i ve / ki ne s t he t i c f e e dba c k s i m i l a r t o t ha t obt a i ne d i n us i ng t he s c a nni ng t hr ough

he a d a nd e ye m ove m e nt s

.

T he a ut hor ne xt de l i ne a t e s a va r i e t y of s e ns or i m a g e c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s t ha t c ont r i but e t o

ve hi c l e c ont r ol : f i e l d s i z e

, m a gni f i c a t i on f a c t o r

, c hr om a t i c i t y, t e m por a l r e s ol ut i on, s pa t i a l

r e s ol ut i on, m onos c opi c vs

. s t e r e os c opi c pr e s e nt a t i on, f i xe d vs

. va r i a bl e vi e w i ng di r e c t i on,

a nd pl a c e m e nt / a i m i ng. T o opt i m i z e pe r f o r m a nc e

, ope r a t or c a n be g i ve n t he c a pa bi l i t y t o

m a nua l l y a dj us t t he t e m por a l a nd s pa t i a l di s pl a y r e s ol ut i on, r e duc e t he i m a ge f i e l d s i z e

,

a nd t oggl e be t w e e n c ol or / g r a ys c a l e a nd be t w e e n s t e r e os c opi c / m onos c opi c di s pl a y m ode s

.

T he U A V ope r a t or i s a l s o c onf r ont e d w i t h di f f i c ul t i e s i n pa yl oa d s e ns or c ont r ol

. F i r s t

,

c ont r ol s do not pr ovi de f e e dba c k on c a m e r a r e s pons e s t o us e r i nput s

. S e c ond, t he

ope r a t or doe s not r e c e i ve ve s t i bul a r f e e dba c k t o s pe c i f y ve hi c l e a t t i t ude

. T hi r d, t he

ope r a t or ha s no p r opr i oc e pt i ve f e e dba c k t o i ndi c a t e vi e w i ng di r e c t i on

. F ou r t h, c ont r ol

i nput s do not p r oduc e i m m e di a t e c ha nge s i n s e ns or i m a ge r y. F i f t h

, s pa t i a l i nf or m a t i on

w i t hi n t he s e ns or i m a ge r y i s l ow i n r e s ol ut i on. S i xt h, t he s e ns or F O V i s of t e n s m a l l

, i m pos i ng t he ne e d f o r a ddi t i ona l c ont r ol i nput s t o s c a n a s c e ne a nd de gr a di ng t he

ope r a t or 's a bi l i t y t o i nt e gr a t e s e ns or i m a ge s i nt o a c ohe r e nt a nd ve r i di c a l m e nt a l

r e pr e s e nt a t i on. S e ve nt h, c a m e r a i m a ge r y m a y be z oom e d

- i n, d i s t urbi ng t he no r m a l

r e l a t i ons hi p be t w e e n c a m e r a t r a ns l a t i on a nd i m a ge m ot i on. F i na l l y

, i m a ge upda t e r a t e s

m a y be l ow

, de gr a di ng t he t e m por a l r e s ol ut i on ne c e s s a r y f or dyna m i c t r a c ki ng t a s ks

. T he

a

ut hor di s c us s e s a num be r of a dva nc e d di s pl a y de s i gns t o a ddr e s s t he di f f i c ul t i e s i n

c a m e r a c ont r ol pr oduc e d by t he s e de gr a da t i ons

. T w o of t he s e i nvol ve c om put e r

s ynt he s i z e d i m a ge r y s upe r i m pos e d upon or e m be d di ng t he c a m e r a i m a ge r y

. T he va l ue of

s uc h " a ugm e nt e d r e a l i t y" di s pl a ys i s t ha t t he y c om put e r

- ge ne r a t e d c om pone nt s c a n be

upd a t e d i m m e di a t e l y i n r e s pons e t o us e r i nput s

, e ve n i f t he s e ns or i m a ge r y i t s e l f i s not

upda t e d unt i l a f t e r a de l a y

. T he c om put e r

- ge ne r a t e d c om pone nt s t hus c a n pr ovi de r e a l

t i m e f e e dba c k t o a s s i s t i n gui di ng t he s e ns or f oo t pr i nt

. T he t hi r d nove l di s pl a y di s c us s e d

i s a r a da r i m a ge t ha t i nc l ude s a c t ua l a nd pr e di c t i ve s e ns or y f oot pr i nt s

. T hus

, m ot i on of

t he c om put e r

- ge ne r a t e d p r e di c t i ve s e ns or f oot pr i nt a ga i n pr ovi de s ope r a t o r w i t h

i m m e di a t e f e e dba c k t o a i d c a m e r a t a r ge t i ng

, de s pi t e de l a ys i n c a m e r a upda t e r a t e

. H e a d

-H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 49

c oupl e d c a m e r a c ont r ol

, t he a ut ho r not e s

, doe s not i m pr ove c a m e r a c ont r o l i n a s e a r c h

t a s k ( e f f

e c t of t he he a d

- c oupl e d c ont r ol i s a s pe e d

- a c c ur a c y t r a de of f )

, a nd m a y de gr a de

pe r f or m a nc e be c a us e of m i s m a t c he s i n pr op r i oc e pt i ve a nd vi s ua l i nf o r m a t i on p r oduc e d

by s e ns or de l a ys

.

45) V an E r p , J

. B

. F

. , & V an B r e d a, L

. ( 1999)

. H u m a n f ac t or s i s s u e s an d adv an c e d

i n t e r

f

ac e des i gn i n m ar i t

i m e u n m an n e d ae r i al v e h i c l es : A pr oj e c t ov e r v i e w

. T N

O

re

por t T M

- 99

- A 004

. S oe s t e r b e r g, T h e N e t h e r l an d s : T N O H u m a n F ac t or s R e s e ar c h

I n s t i t u t e

.

R e por t pr e s e nt s a s um m a r y of hum a n f a c t o r s i s s ue s i n U A V c ont r ol

, a nd a n ove r vi e w o f

r e l e va nt r e s e a r c h c onduc t e d a t T N O

.

H u m an f ac t or s c on c e r n s

T he a ut hor s a s s um e t ha t ve hi c l e c ont r o l w i l l ge ne r a l l y be hi ghl y a ut om a t e d, a nd s o f oc us

t he i r di s c us s i on of on m a nua l c ont r ol of pa yl oa d c a m e r a

. T he s t udi e s r e por t e d a s s um e

t ha t t he m os t i m po r t a nt s our c e o f i n f or m a t i on f or c a m e r a c ont r ol w i l l be t he i m a ge r y

f r om t he on

- boa r d c a m e r a

.

T he a ut hor s not e t ha t t he pe r c e pt ua l i nf o r m a t i on t h e ope r a t or r e c e i ve s f r om t he r e m ot e

e nvi r onm e nt i s l i ke l y t o be de gr a de d i n s e ve r a l w a ys :

- - no p r opr i oc e pt i ve f e e dba c k f r om c ont r ol s

- - no ve s t i bul a r i nput ba s e d on a t t i t ude

- - no p r opr i oc e pt i ve f e e dba c k ba s e d on vi e w i ng di r e c t i on

- - l i m i t e d s pa t i a l or i e nt a t i on

- - no di r e c t f e e dba c k ( i

. e

. , f e e dba c k de l a ye d) i n r e s pons e t o c ont r ol i n put s

- - no a udi t o r y i nput

- - l i m i t e d r e s ol ut i on of c a m e r a i m a ge s

- - l i m i t e d ge om e t r i c a l f i e l d of vi e w

- - z oom e d

- i n c a m e r a i m a ge

- - f e w poi nt s of r e f e r e nc e a t s e a

- - l i m i t e d i m a ge upda t e r a t e

P os s i bl e c ons e que nc e s f or hum a n pe r f or m a nc e i nc l ude poor t r a c ki ng; di f f i c ul t y i n j udgi ng c a m e r a

, p l a t f or m

, a nd t a r ge t m o t i on; c onf us i on a bout di r e c t i on o f pl a t f or m f l i ght ;

c onf us i on a bout vi e w i ng di r e c t i on of c a m e r a ; di s or i e nt a t i on; de gr a de d s i t ua t i on

a w a r e ne s s

.

E xp e r i m e n t s

E xp e r i m e n t 1

E xa m i ne d t he be ne f i t s o f s ynt he t i c vi s ua l m ot i on i n gui di ng pa yl oa d c a m e r a

. A

c om put e r

- ge ne r a t e d gr i d of pe r pe ndi c ul a r l i ne s w a s ove r l a i d on c a m e r a i m a ge

, a ndH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 50

m ove d i n r e s pons e t o c a m e r a i nput s

. I n t he f i r s t e x pe r i m e nt

, s ubj e c t s ha d t o t r a c k a

m ovi ng s hi p w i t h a s i m ul a t e d U A V s e ns or c a m e r a

. P e r f o r m a nc e w a s i m pr ove d by

s ynt he t i c i m a ge a ugm e nt a t i on, a nd be ne f i t s w e r e l a r ge s t w he n t he upda t e f r e que nc y of

t he c a m e r a w a s l ow

. I n a s e c ond e xpe r i m e nt

, s ubj e c t s s a w a t a r ge t s hi p, t he n ha d t o poi nt

c a m e r a a t a f t e r a 15 s de l a y t ha t i nc l ude d s e ve r a l t r a ns l a t i ons a nd r ot a t i ons of t he M U A V

. A ga i n, pe r f o r m a nc e w a s i m pr ove d by t he s ynt he t i c i m a ge ove r l a y.

E xp e r i m e n t 2

A s ke d w he t he r a c om put e r

- s ynt he s i z e d w or l d e m b e ddi ng t he c a m e r a i m a ge ( c a l l e d a n

e c ol ogi c a l di s pl a y, ba s e d on t he not i on t ha t vi s ua l c ue s pr ovi de d by e m be ddi ng w o r l d a r e

di r e c t l y pe r c e i ve d) c a n a i d i n gui di ng c a m e r a

. S ubj e c t s ha d t o s e a r c h f or t a r ge t s hi ps w i t h

c a m e r a

. P e r f o r m a nc e w i t h e c ol ogi c a l di s pl a y w a s c om pa r e d t o pe r f or m a nc e w i t h

he a di ng/ pi t c h i ndi c a t or s a dj a c e nt t o c a m e r a i m a ge

. S uc h i ndi c a t or s r e qui r e c ogni t i ve

i nf e r e nc e

, i n c ont r a s t t o e c ol ogi c a l di s pl a y. E c ol og i c a l di s pl a y r e duc e d s e a r c h t i m e a nd

t ot a l num be r o f c a m e r a m ot i ons

. I ndi c a t or s di d not s i gni f i c a nt l y i m p r ov e pe r f o r m a nc e

r e l a t i ve t o ba s e l i ne

.

E xp e r i m e n t 3

A s ke d w he t he r a n e c ol ogi c a l di s pl a y c a n a l l ow a n ope r a t or t o c ont r ol U A V a i r f r a m e a nd

c a m e r a s i m ul t a ne ous l y. T he t a s k r e qui r e d t he s ubj e c t t o t r a c k a t a r ge t s hi p w hi l e c i r c l i ng

i t

. F ou r di s pl a y t ype s w e r e u s e d: t w o w i t hout a ug m e nt a t i on ( nor t h up & t r a c k up)

, a nd

t w o w i t h a ugm e nt a t i on ( 2D s ynt he t i c w o r l d a nd a 3D s ynt he t i c w or l d)

. D a t a s how e d t ha t

a

ugm e nt e d di s pl a ys a i de d a i r f r a m e c ont r ol w i t hout de gr a di ng t r a c ki ng. A ugm e nt e d

di s pl a ys a l s o a l l ow e d e f f

e c t i ve m a nua l c ont r ol w i t h hi gh a i r f r a m e s pe e ds

.

E xp e r i m e n t 4

E xpe r i m e nt e xa m i ne d m a nua l c ont r ol of s e ns or unde r c ondi t i ons of l ow upda t e r a t e s a nd

de l a ye d vi s ua l f e e dba c k, a nd m e a s ur e d t he be ne f i t s of a p r e di c t i ve c a m e r a f oot p r i nt

. D a t a

s how e d t ha t upda t e r a t e s be l ow 2 H z a nd de l a ys l o nge r t ha n 2 s e c onds de gr a de d t r a c ki ng

pe r f or m a nc e

. P r e di c t or di s pl a y e l i m i na t e d c os t s of s l ow upda t e r a t e a nd t i m e de l a y e xc e pt

a t t he m os t e xt r e m e va l ue s

.

E xp e r i m e n t 5

E xa m i ne d t he e f f

e c t s of he a d

- s l a ve d c a m e r a c ont r ol

, t i m e de l a ys

, a nd a dva nc e d i nt e r f a c e

de s i gn on s i t ua t i ona l a w a r e ne s s

. T he a ut hor s s pe c u l a t e t ha t pr op r i oc e pt i ve f e e dba c k f r om

he a d

- s l a ve d c ont r ol m a y a i d S A

. H ow e ve r

, he l m e t

- m ount e d di s pl a ys m i ght be

unc om f or t a bl e

, a nd t r a ns m i s s i on de l a ys c oul d m a k e t he pe r c e pt i on o f s pa t i a l i n f or m a t i on

di f f i c ul t

. I n t he e xpe r i m e nt

, H M D w a s c om pa r e d t o he a d

- s l a ve d dom e pr oj e c t i on

. T o

ove r c om e t he pr obl e m s o f de l a ye d i m a ge t r a ns m i s s i on, a m e t hod of c om pe ns a t i on c a l l e d

de l a y ha ndl i ng w a s i nt r oduc e d. D e l a y ha ndl i ng p r e s e r ve s s pa t i a l r e l a t i ons hi ps be t w e e n

i nput i m a ge s by pr e s e nt i ng t he m i n t he vi e w i ng d i r e c t i on of t he c a m e r a a t t he m om e nt

i m a ge w a s r e c or de d, r a t he r t ha n t he m om e nt a t w h i c h i m a ge t r a ns m i s s i on i s r e c e i ve d.

D a t a i ndi c a t e t ha t de l a y ha ndl i ng i m pr ove s S A

. N o be ne f i t w a s f ound f or dom e

pr oj e c t i on r e l a t i ve t o he l m e t

- m oun t e d di s pl a y.

E xp e r i m e n t 6H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 51

C om pa r e d he a d

- c oupl e d c ont r ol / he l m e t

- m oun t e d d i s pl a ys t o m a nua l c ont r ol of c a m e r a

. S ubj e c t s ha d t o l oc a t e f i ve t a r ge t s hi ps a s qui c kl y a s pos s i bl e

. I n m a nua l c ont r ol

c ondi t i on, i m a ge r y w a s pr oj e c t e d on a dom e

, s o t h a t pr opr i oc e pt i ve i nf o w a s a va i l a bl e i n

bot h c ondi t i ons

. H e a d

- s l a ve d c a m e r a c ont r o l i nc r e a s e d s e a r c h s pe e d but e nl a r ge d t he

s e a r c h pa t h a s c om pa r e d t o m a nua l c ont r ol

.

46) V e l t m an , J. A

. , & O vi n g, A

. B

. ( 2002 )

. A u gm e n t i n g c a m e r a i m age s f or

op e r at or s of u n m an n e d ae r i al ve h i c l e s

. R T O M e e t i n g P r oc e e di n gs ( R T O

- M O

- 088)

.

U A V s f l i ght pa t h i s of t e n p r e

- pr ogr a m m e d, but c a m e r a m us t s t i l l be s t e e r e d m a nua l l y.

T hi s c a n be di f f i c ul t be c a us e of l ow c a m e r a upda t e r a t e s a nd c om m uni c a t i on t i m e de l a ys

be t w e e n G C S a nd ve hi c l e

. O ne m e t hod of a ddr e s s i ng t he s e di f f i c ul t i e s i s t o pr ovi de

c ur r e nt a nd p r e di c t i ve c a m e r a vi e w f oot pr i nt s on a 2D m a p. T hi s pr ovi de s m o t i on

f

e e dba c k w he n c a m e r a m ove s

, a l ong w i t h i n f or m a t i on pr e vi e w of w he r e t he c a m e r a w i l l

be s hi f t i ng. T he a ut ho r s not e t ha t a 2D m a p pr ovi d e s pr i m a r i l y e xoc e nt r i c ( a ut hor s us e

t he t e r m " l oc a l " ) s pa t i a l i n f or m a t i on

, w hi l e a 3D m a p pr ovi de s e goc e nt r i c ( " gl oba l " ) i nf o.

A ut hor s s pe c ul a t e t ha t pr ovi di ng a pr e di c t i ve c a m e r a f oot pr i nt w i t hi n a 3D m a p m i ght

t he r e f or e i m p r ove c a m e r a s t e e r i ng pe r f or m a nc e be yond t ha t obs e r ve d w i t h a 2D m a p.

T he goa l o f t he e xpe r i m e nt w a s t o t e s t t hi s s pe c ul a t i on.

S ubj e c t s f l e w a s i m ul a t e d U A V r e c on m i s s i on w hi c h r e qui r e d t he m t o s e a r c h f or m i l i t a r y

ve hi c l e s a l ong r oa ds a nd e dge s of w oods

. T w o s i de

- by

- s i de di s pl a ys w e r e us e d. O n t he

l e f t w a s a 2D m a p w hi c h pr e s e nt e d w a ypoi nt s a nd r out e pl a n; f l i ght d i r e c t i on; a nd a c t ua l

a nd pr e di c t e d c a m e r a f oo t pr i nt s

. O n t he r i ght ( i n s om e c ondi t i ons ) w a s a 3D m a p w hi c h

pr e s e nt e d a n i m m e r s e d vi e w f r om va nt a ge poi n t of U A V c a m e r a

, a l ong w i t h a c t ua l a nd

pr e di c t e d f oot pr i n t s

. I n e xpe r i m e nt a l c ondi t i ons

, s u bj e c t s w e r e pr ovi de d t he 3D di s pl a y i n

a ddi t i on t o t he 2D m a p

. I n c ont r ol c ondi t i ons

, onl y t he 2D m a p w a s pr ovi de d. T he

c a m e r a i m a ge w a s pr e s e nt e d i n l ow e r r i ght di s pl a y. C a m e r a i m a ge qua l i t y ha d t hr e e

l e ve l s : nor m a l

, 3 H z upda t e r a t e

, 1 s e c ond de l a y. I n s om e c ondi t i ons

, s ubj e c t s a l s o

pe r f or m e d a s e c onda r y m oni t or i ng/ m e m o r y t a s k.

R e s u l t s

W he n c a m e r a qua l i t y w a s nor m a l

, 3D c a m e r a pr od uc e d a s m a l l i nc r e a s e i n t he pe r c e nt a ge

of r oa ds a nd w ood e dge s t ha t w e r e i ns pe c t e d (

~ 35 % vs

. ~ 40 % )

. W he n c a m e r a i m a ge

qua l i t y w a s de gr a de d, t he be ne f i t s of t he 3D m a p w e r e l a r ge r (

~ 20% vs

. ~ 30% )

. S e c onda r y t a s k pe r f or m a nc e w a s be t t e r w i t h 3D m a p, s ugge s t i ng t h a t m a p p r oduc e d

s pa r e m e nt a l c a pa c i t y, a nd s ubj e c t i ve w or kl oa d r a t i ngs w e r e l ow e r w i t h 3D c a m e r a t ha n

w i t hout

. E O G s i ndi c a t e d t ha t s ubj e c t s i ns pe c t e d 3 D m a p f r e que nt l y, e s pe c i a l l y w he n

c a m e r a qua l i t y w a s l ow

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 52

47) Wal t e r s , B

. A

. , H u b e r , S

. , F r e n c h

, J

. , & B ar n e s , M

. J. ( 2002)

. U s i

n g s i m u l at

i on

m ode l s t o an al y

z e t h e e f f

e c t s of c re w s i z e an d c re w f at

i gu e on t h e c on t r ol of t ac t i c al

u n m an n e d ae r i al v e h i c l es ( T U A V s ) ( A R L

- C R

- 04 83)

. A b e r d e e n P r ovi n g G r ou n d

, M D :

A r m y R e s e ar c h L ab or at or y.

A s t udy us e d s i m ul a t i on m o de l i ng t o de t e r m i ne ho w f a t i gue

, c r e w s i z e

, a nd r ot a t i on

s c he dul e a f f

e c t ope r a t or w o r kl oa d a nd pe r f or m a nc e on a T U A V c ont r ol t a s k. S i m ul a t i ons

w e r e c onduc t e d us i ng M i c r oS a i nt m ode l i ng a r c hi t e c t ur e

, f r om M i c r o A na l ys i s a nd

D e s i gn. 18 s ubj e c t m a t t e r e xpe r t s ( S M E s ) pr ovi de d A ) a l i s t of t a s ks t ha t a r e i nvo l ve d i n

c ont r ol l i ng a T U A V dur i ng nor m a l ope r a t i ons a nd dur i ng e m e r ge nc i e s

, B ) t he or de r i n

w hi c h t he t a s ks a r e pe r f o r m e d, C ) t he v i s ua l

, a udi t or y, c ogni t i ve

, a nd ps yc hom ot or

w or kl oa d i m pos e d by t a s ks

, D ) t he t ype s of e m e r g e nc i e s t ha t c a n oc c ur dur i ng m i s s i ons

,

a nd E ) t he pr oba bi l i t i e s of m i s ha ps oc c ur r i ng dur i n g e m e r ge nc i e s w he n s ol di e r s a r e

f

a t i gue d.

T he f a t i gue a l go r i t hm us e d by s i m ul a t i on p r e di c t s hum a n r e s pons e c a pa bi l i t y f or t a s ks

ove r a n e xt e nde d pe r i o d of s l e e p de pr i va t i on. T he f oc us of a l gor i t hm i s t he i nt e r a c t i on of

s l e e p de pr i va t i on w i t h c i r c a di a n r hyt hm s

.

T he m ode l us e d s i m ul a t e s t he t a c t i c a l ope r a t i ons c e nt e r ( T O C ) a nd l a unc h/ r e c ove r s t a t i on

( L R S ) ( i nc l udi ng m i s s i on c om m a nde r [ M C ]

, a e r i a l ve hi c l e ope r a t or [ A V O ]

, a nd m i s s i on

pa yl oa d ope r a t or [ M P O ] dut i e s )

, a nd s e ve r a l f unc t i ons : l a unc h, t r a ns f e r

, r e c ove r y,

m i s s i on s uppor t

, e m pl a c e m e nt

, d i s pl a c e m e nt

, e m e r ge nc i e s

, m i s ha ps

, a nd m a i nt e na nc e

dur i ng e m pl a c e m e nt

. T he m ode l w a s us e d t o s i m ul a t e 12

- a nd 18

- hr m i s s i ons ove r a 24

-

hr pe r i od unde r 15 di f f

e r e nt c ondi t i ons f or t hr e e c o ns e c ut i ve da ys

. D ur i ng t he m i s s i ons

,

t he r e w e r e t i m e s w i t h 2 U A V s i n

- f l i ght : one obs e r vi ng t he t a r ge t s

, a nd one f l yi ng t o

a s s um e c ont r ol of s e a r c h. S ol di e r s w e r e m ode l e d t o w or k 2

- , 3

- , 4

- , o r 6

- hr r ot a t i on

s c he dul e s

. T he m ode l doe s not s i m ul a t e s ol di e r a c t i vi t y i n be t w e e n s hi f t s

.

M ode l s s i m ul a t e one m ove ( j um p) pe r da y f or t he T O C a nd one m ove e ve r y ot he r da y f or

t he L R S

. E a c h m ove c om pr i s e s a 1/ 2 br e a k

- dow n, 1/ 2

- hr m ove

, a nd a 1

- h r s e t up. T he

T U A V s pe nds 5 hr s of s i m ul a t i on t i m e i n t he a i r : 4 hr s of s ur ve i l l a nc e a nd 1 hr i n t r a ns i t

t o/ f r om de s t i na t i on. T he out put of m ode l i nc l ude s pe r f or m a nc e t i m e s

, t a r ge t de t e c t i on

r a t e s

, a nd A V m i s ha ps unde r e a c h s i m ul a t e d c ondi t i on. S e ve r a l c r e w c onf i gu r a t i ons

( di f f

e r e nt num be r s of M C s a nd A V O s / M P O s ) w e r e t e s t e d.

S om e c ondi t i ons t ha t c a n a f f

e c t a T U A V m i s s i on i nc l ude

- - t ype of s e a r c h: a r e a s e a r c h, pe r s on s e a r c h, a i r f i e l d, t a nks

, bu i l di ng, r oa d s e a r c h, br i dge

,

m i s s i l e s i t e

, c om m a nd pos t

, a i r de f e ns e a r t i l l e r y, c he c k poi nt s

, ba t t l e da m a ge a s s e s s m e nt

on S A M

, a r t i l l e r y s e a r c h

- - e m e r ge nc i e s : i c i ng, ge ne r a t or f a i l ur e

, s i gna l de gr a da t i on or i nt e r m i t t e nt l i nk l os s

,

pa yl oa d f a i l ur e

, A V O or M P O c ons ol e f a i l ur e

, G P S f a i l ur e

- - w e a t he r : hum i di t y, s un, gus t i ng w i nds

, c r os s w i nds

, f l a t c l ouds

, r a gge d c l ouds

- - t e r r a i n: hi gh ve ge t a t i on

, de s e r t ( s a nd)

, h i gh de s e r t

, c i t y

, t ow n

, vi l l a geH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 53

W or kl oa d e s t i m a t e s w e r e obt a i ne d f r o m S M E s us i ng a s c a l e de ve l ope d t o be c om pa t i bl e

w i t h W i c ke ns ' ( 1984) m ul t i pl e r e s our c e s t he or y of a t t e nt i on. F ou r r e s our c e pool s w e r e

a s s um e d: vi s ua l

, a udi t or y, c ogni t i ve

, a nd ps yc hom ot or

.

T he m ode l s i m ul a t e s 5 T U A V l a unc he s pe r da y f o r a n 18

- hr m i s s i on. E a c h l a unc h, t h r e e

t ype s of t a r ge t s e a r c h w e r e pe r f o r m e d. M i s s i ons w e r e r e pe a t e d e ve r y da y f or 3 da ys f o r

e a c h c r e w r ot a t i on s c he dul e

.

R e s u l t s

D e c r e a s i ng c r e w s i z e de c r e a s e d t a r ge t hi t r a t e s a nd i nc r e a s e d t a r ge t de t e c t i on t i m e s

.

W or kl oa d e s t i m a t e s s ugge s t e d t ha t w he n t he r e w a s no M C i n t he L R S

, t he T O C M C w a s

i nt e r r upt e d

~ 50% of t he t i m e t o pe r f or m t a s ks t ha t t he L R S M C w oul d o t he r w i s e ha ve

pe r f or m e d. W he n t he r e w a s 1 M C i n t he L R S

, t he T O C M C w a s i nt e r r upt e d

~ 20% of t he

t i m e w i t h L R S M C t a s ks

. A ddi ng a t hi r d A V O t o t he L R S ( c om pa r e d t o ba s e l i ne

c ondi t i on of 2 A V O s ) di d not i m pr ove pe r f or m a nc e

.

T he m ode l w a s a dj us t e d t o s i m ul a t e 12

- hr m i s s i on pr of i l e s w i t h a nd w i t hout 1

- hr ga ps

be t w e e n f l i ght s

. T hr e e l a unc he s w e r e s i m ul a t e d pe r da y i ns t e a d of 5. R e s ul t s w e r e s i m i l a r

t o t hos e f r om 18

- h r m i s s i on c ondi t i ons

. N o pe r f or

m a nc e di f f

e r e nc e s w e r e pr oduc e d by 1

-

hr ga ps be t w e e n m i s s i ons

.

48) We e k s , J. L

. ( 2000)

. U n m a n n e d ae r i al v e h i c l e op e r at

or qu al i f

i c at i on s ( A F R

L

H

E

- A Z

- T R

- 2000

- 0002 )

. M e s a, A Z : A i r F or c e R e s e ar c h L ab or at or y, War f i gh t e r

T r ai n i n g R e s e ar c h D i vi s i on

.

R e por t c om pa r e s s e l e c t i on c r i t e r i a f or U A V ope r a t or s a c r os s br a nc he s of t he U

. S

.

m i l i t a r y a nd B r i t i s h a r m y

.

P i on e e r , U S N L E P c a ndi da t e s go t hr ough a 24

- w e e k t r a i ni ng c our s e

. P a yl oa d ope r a t o r

a nd A V O c om pe t e di f f

e r e nt 8

- w e e k c ou r s e s

. M i s s i on c om m a nde r ha s t o be a f l i ght

of f i c e r

. H e a l t h c ondi t i ons r e l a t e d t o hypoxi a or pr e s s ur e c ha nge s a r e not di s qua l i f yi ng.

H e a l t h s t a nda r ds i nc l ude c or r e c t e d vi s ua l a c ui t y o f 20/ 20 i n e a c h e ye

, no r m a l c ol or

vi s i on, nor m a l he a r i ng, c l e a r & di s t i nc t s pe e c h, a n d voi c e w e l l m odul a t e d

. E P r e qui r e s

nor m a l de pt h pe r c e p t i on.

P i on e e r , U S M C A V O a nd P O c om pl e t e t he s a m e 8

- w e e k t r a i ni ng c ou r s e

. C a ndi da t e s f or

E P ha ve t o de m ons t r a t e s a t i s f a c t or y a s A V O o r P O

, de m ons t r a t i ng go od 3

- D

c ogni t i on/ pe r c e pt i on, t he n c om pl e t e a 19

- w e e k t r a i ni ng c our s e

. M C ha s t o be a n a vi a t i on

of f i c e r

. P hys i c a l s t a nda r ds a r e t he s a m e a s f o r U A N U A V ope r a t or s

.

H u n t e r , U S A A V O a nd P O ha ve t o c om pl e t e a 23

- w e e k t r a i ni ng c ou r s e

. C a ndi da t e s f or

E P ha ve t o de m ons t r a t e s s a t i s f a c t or y pe r f o r m a nc e a s A V O or P O

, a nd a r e s c r e e ne d byH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 54

i nt e r vi e w a nd by pe r f or

m a nc e us i ng a r a di o

- c ont r o l l e d m ode l a i r pl a ne

. I f s e l e c t e d, t he y

m us t c om pl e t e a 16

- w e e k t r a i ni ng c our s e

. T he A V O a nd P O a r e r e qui r e d t o pa s s a c l a s s

I V f l i ght phys i c a l

, w hi c h i nc l ude s r e qui r e m e nt s f o r m e di um phys i c a l de m a nds

, a nor m a l

phys i c a l pr of i l e

, a nd nor m a l c ol or vi s i on. T he E P i s r e qui r e d t o pa s s a c l a s s I I I phys i c a l

,

s i m i l a r t o t ha t r e qui r e d f or a i r t r a f f i c c ont r ol l e r s

.

P h oe n i x, B r i t i s h A r m y A V O i s r e qui r e d t o t a ke a 3

- w e e k c our s e

. F l i ght c r e w s a r e not

r e qui r e d t o t a ke phys i c a l s

.

P r e d at or , U S A F A V O c a ndi da t e ha s t o be a pi l ot of a f i xe d

- w i ng a i r c r a f t o r a na vi ga t or

w i t h F A A i ns t r um e nt r a t e d c om m e r c i a l l i c e ns e

. B e yond unde r gr a dua t e f l i ght t r a i ni ng,

f

ol l ow

- on t r a i ni ng, t he n 9 w e e ks of P r e da t or ba s i c t r a i ni ng. D E M P C a nd S O c om pl e t e 24

w e e ks of i ni t i a l

- s ki l l s t r a i ni ng a s a n I m a ge r y I nt e r p r e t a t i on A ppr e nt i c e

, t he n 9 w e e ks of

P r e da t or ba s i c t r a i ni ng

. A V O ha s t o pa s s a C l a s s I phys i c a l

. D E M P C a nd S O ha ve t o pa s s

a C l a s s I I I f l i ght phys i c a l

, but w i t h vi s ua l a c ui t y a n d de pt h pe r c e pt i on s t a nda r ds

e qui va l e nt t o C l a s s I s t a nda r ds

.

49) Wi c k e n s , C

. D

. , & D i xo n , S

. ( 2002 )

. W or kl

oad de m an ds of re m ot e l

y pi l ot

e d

v e h i c l e s u pe r v i s i on an d c on t r ol : ( 1

) S i n gl e v e h i c l e pe r f

or m an c e ( T

e c h n i c al re por t

A H F

D

- 02

- 10/ M A D

- 02

- 1)

. S avoy, I L : U n i ve r s i t y of I l l i n oi s , I n s t i t u t e of A vi a t i o n , A vi at i on H u m an F ac t or s D i vi s i on

.

E xa m i ne d t he be ne f i t s o f o f f l oa di ng t a s ks f r om vi s ua l c ha nne l i n a s i ngl e

- U A V c ont r ol

t a s k, a nd c om pa r e d t he r e s ul t s t o t he pr e di c t i ons of s i ngl e

- c ha nne l t he or y ( S C T )

, s i ngl e

r e s our c e t he or y ( S R T )

, a nd m u l t i pl e

- r e s our c e t he o r y ( M R T ) of a t t e nt i on. S ubj e c t s e a c h

f l e w a s e r i e s of m i s s i ons i nvol vi ng t hr e e t a s ks : m i s s i on c om pl e t i on ( f l i ght pa t h t r a c ki ng)

, i ns pe c t i ng c om m a nd t a r ge t s ( C T s ) / s e a r c hi ng f o r t a r ge t s of oppor t un i t y ( T O O s )

, a nd

m oni t or i ng s ys t e m ga uge s f or s ys t e m f a i l ur e s ( S F s ) ( i

. e

. , out of bounds va l ue s )

. F l i ght

i ns t r uc t i ons ( f l y

- t o c oor di na t e s of ne xt t a r ge t a nd a que s t i on a bout t he t a r ge t t o be

a ns w e r e d) w e r e pr ovi de d du r i ng t he t a s k. I ns t r uc t i ons c oul d be r e f r e s he d w i t h a but t o n

pr e s s

. I n ba s e l i ne c ondi t i on, pi l ot s f l e w w i t h a l l m a nua l f l i ght c ont r ol s a nd a l l vi s ua l

di s pl a ys

. I n a udi t or y c ondi t i on

, S F a l e r t s a nd f l i ght i ns t r uc t i ons w e r e pr ov i de d a ur a l l y

. I n

a n a ut om a t i on c ondi t i on

, f l i ght c ont r ol w a s of f l oa de d t o a n a ut om a t e d s ys t e m

. A l l

a l e r t s / i ns t r uc t i ons / a ut o m a t i on w e r e pe r f e c t l y r e l i a b l e

.

R e s u l t s

F l i ght pa t h t r a c ki ng w a s una f f

e c t e d by a udi t or y of f l oa di ng.

B ut t on

- pr e s s r e f r e s he s of i ns t r uc t i ons w e r e r e duc e d i n bot h t he a udi t o r y of f l oa di ng a nd

t he a ut om a t i on c ondi t i ons

. I n a udi t or y c ondi t i on, t hi s m i ght ha ve be e n be c a us e a ur a l

pr e s e nt a t i on r e duc e d vi s ua l c onf l i c t du r i ng t i m e t h a t i ns t r uc t i ons w e r e f i r s t pr e s e nt e d. I n

a

ut om a t i on c ondi t i on, i t m a y ha ve be e n be c a us e t h e s ubj e c t w a s not r e qui r e d t o

r e m e m be r t a r ge t c oor di na t e s

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 55

T O O de t e c t i on r a t e s i m p r ove d unde r a ut opi l ot f l i g ht c ont r ol bot h f o r s i ngl e a nd dua l

U A V t a s ks

. T hi s w a s i n pa r t due t o t he f a c t t ha t t h e a ut opi l ot f l e w di r e c t l y ove r e a c h

t a r ge t

, w hi l e t he hum a n ope r a t or s om e t i m e s di d no t

. H ow e ve r

, a n a ut opi l ot be ne f i t w a s

e vi de nt e ve n r e s t r i c t i ng a na l ys i s t o t hos e t r i a l s on w hi c h t he T O O a ppe a r e d i n t he 3D

di s pl a y. T hi s s ugge s t s a r ol e f or t he a ut opi l ot i n i m pr ovi ng c ogni t i ve / a t t e nt i ona l

pe r f or m a nc e i n T O O de t e c t i on

.

A udi t or y a l e r t s s i gni f i c a nt l y i m pr ove d S F de t e c t i on r a t e s a nd S F r e s pons e t i m e s

c om pa r e d t o ba s e l i ne

, e xc e pt i n c a s e s w he r e t he s ubj e c t w a s l oi t e r i ng/ i ns pe c t i ng a t a r ge t

a t t i m e of S F oc c ur r e nc e

. T hi s s ugge s t s t ha t di f f i c u l t i m a ge i nt e r p r e t a t i on p r oduc e d

c ogni t i ve t unne l i ng. A ut om a t i on c ondi t i on a l s o i m pr ove d S F de t e c t i on r a t e s ( t hough not

und e r a l l c i r c um s t a nc e s )

, bu t di d not a f f

e c t S F r e s p ons e t i m e s

.

50) Wi c k e n s , C

. D

. , D i xon , S

. , & C h a n g, D

. ( 2003)

. U s i

n g i n t e r

f

e re n c e m ode l s t o

pre di c t pe r f

or m an c e i n a m u l t i pl e

- t as k U A V e n v i r on m e n t

- 2 U A V s ( T

e c h n i c al re por t

A H F

D

- 03

- 09/ M A A D

- 03

- 1)

. S avoy , I L : U n i ve r s i t y of I l l i n o i s , I n s t i t u t e of A vi at i o n , A vi at i on H u m an F ac t or s D i vi s i on

.

E xa m i ne d t he be ne f i t s o f t a s k o f f l oa di ng t o pi l ot s pe r f or m i ng s i ngl e

- a nd m u l t i pl e

- U A V

t a s ks a nd c om pa r e d t he r e s ul t s t o p r e di c t i ons of s i n gl e

- c ha nne l a t t e nt i on t he or y ( S C T )

,

s i ngl e

- r e s our c e t he or y ( S R T )

, a nd m ul t i pl e

- r e s our c e t he or y ( M R T ) of a t t e nt i on. S ubj e c t s

e a c h f l e w a s e r i e s of m i s s i ons i nvol vi ng t hr e e t a s k s : m i s s i on c om pl e t i on ( f l i ght pa t h

t r a c ki ng)

, i ns pe c t i ng c om m a nd t a r ge t s ( C T s ) / s e a r c hi ng f or t a r ge t s of oppor t un i t y ( T O O s )

, a nd m oni t o r i ng s ys t e m ga uge s f or s ys t e m f a i l ur e s ( S F s )

. F l i ght i ns t r uc t i ons ( f l y

t o c oor di na t e s of ne xt t a r ge t & a que s t i on a bout t h e t a r ge t t o be a ns w e r e d) w e r e p r ovi de d

dur i ng t he t a s k. I ns t r uc t i ons c oul d be r e f r e s he d w i t h a but t on pr e s s

. I n t he ba s e l i ne

c ondi t i on, pi l o t s f l e w w i t h a l l m a nua l f l i ght c ont r o l s a nd a l l vi s ua l di s pl a ys

. I n t he

a

udi t or y c ondi t i on

, S F a l e r t s a nd f l i ght i ns t r uc t i ons w e r e pr ovi de d a ur a l l y. I n t he

a

ut om a t i on c ondi t i on, f l i ght c ont r ol w a s of f l oa de d t o a n a ut om a t e d s ys t e m

. A l l

a l e r t s / i ns t r uc t i ons / a ut om a t i on w e r e pe r f e c t l y r e l i a b l e

.

R e s u l t s

F l i ght pa t h t r a c ki ng w a s una f f

e c t e d by a udi t or y of f l oa di ng. B ut t on

- p r e s s r e f r e s he s of

f l i ght i ns t r uc t i ons w e r e r e duc e d i n bot h t he a udi t or y of f l oa di ng a nd t he a ut o m a t i on

c ondi t i ons

, s ugge s t i ng t ha t t he s e c ondi t i ons f r e e d u p pr oc e s s i ng r e s our c e s

. T he num be r of

r e f r e s he s w a s hi ghe r i n dua l

- U A V c ondi t i ons

, bu t t

he e f f

e c t w a s pr i m a r i l y i n t he ba s e l i ne

& a udi t or y of f l oa di ng c ondi t i ons

, no t i n t he a ut om a t i on c ondi t i on. T O O de t e c t i on r a t e s

i m pr ove d unde r a ut opi l ot f l i ght c ont r ol bo t h f o r s i ngl e a nd dua l

- U A V t a s ks

. T hi s w a s i n

pa r t due t o t he f a c t t ha t t he a ut opi l ot f l e w di r e c t l y ove r e a c h t a r ge t

, w hi l e t he hum a n

ope r a t or s om e t i m e s di d not

. H ow e ve r

, a n a ut op i l ot be ne f i t w a s e vi de nt e ve n r e s t r i c t i ng

a na l ys i s t o t hos e t r i a l s on w hi c h t he T O O a ppe a r e d i n t he 3D di s pl a y. T hi s s ugge s t s a r ol e

f

or a ut opi l ot i n i m pr ovi ng c ogni t i ve / a t t e nt i ona l pe r f or m a nc e i n T O O de t e c t i on.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 56

A udi t or y a l e r t s i m p r ove d S F de t e c t i on r a t e s a nd r e duc e d de t e c t i on t i m e s

. A ut opi l ot ha d

no e f f

e c t

. D ua l

- U A V c os t s t o S F de t e c t i on t i m e ob t a i ne d i n t he ba s e l i ne a nd a ut opi l ot

c ondi t i ons

, but not i n t he a udi t or y a l e r t c ondi t i on. S F de t e c t i on t i m e s w e r e l onge r f or

f

a

ul t s t ha t oc c ur r e d dur i ng t a r ge t i ns pe c t i on t ha n f or f a

ul t s t ha t oc c ur r e d unde r nor m a l

f l i ght

, l e ndi ng s om e s uppor t t o C S T a nd S R T

. H o w e ve r

, t hi s e f f

e c t w a s m i t i ga t e d

s om e w ha t by a udi t or y a l e r t s

, c ons i s t e nt w i t h M R T

.

51) Wi l l i am s , K

. W. ( 2004 )

. A s u m m ar y of u n m a n n e d ai r c r af t ac c i d e n t / i n c i d e n t

d at a: H u m an f ac t or s i m p l i c at i o n s

.

E xa m i ne s m i l i t a r y U A V a c c i de nt / i nc i de nt da t a f o r va r i ous U A V s ys t e m s

.

A r m y

H unt e r

H unt e r t a ke s of f & l a nds us i ng a n e xt e r na l pi l o t ( E P ) i n vi s ua l c ont a c t us i ng c ont r ol l e r

s i m i l a r t o t ha t us e d f or r e m ot e c ont r ol l e d hobby pl a ne s

. A f t e r t a ke of f a nd c l i m b

, i nt e r na l

pi l ot ( I P ) a s s um e s c ont r ol s f r om G C S

. T he I P c ont r ol s t he a i r c r a f t us i ng knobs t o s e l e c t

a l t i t ude

, he a di ng, & a i r s pe e d. 47% of a c c i de nt s w e r e H F r e l a t e d. T he l a r ge s t pe r c e nt a ge

( 47% ) of H F i s s ue s a r os e dur i ng l a ndi ng

. A n a ddi t i ona l 20% a r i s e dur i ng t a ke of f

. C ont r ol

di f f i c ul t i e s a r e c a us e d i n pa r t by t he ne e d f or t he o pe r a t or t o r e ve r s e c ont r ol i nput s w he n

a i r c r a f t i s he a de d t ow a r d hi m / he r

. O t he r p r obl e m s i nc l ude :

- - pi l ot

- i n

- c om m a nd i s s ue s

- - f a i l ur e of a l e r t s / a l a r m s t o i n f or m ope r a t or of non

- nor m a l c ondi t i ons

- - m ode di s pl a y e r r or s

- - c r e w f a i l u r e t o f ol l ow pr ope r pr oc e dur e

S ha dow

T he S ha dow us e s a l a unc he r f or t a ke of f a nd a n a ut om a t e d s ys t e m

, t he t a c t i c a l a ut om a t e d

l a ndi ng s ys t e m ( T A L S )

, f o r r e c ove r y

. L a ndi ng ge n e r a l l y doe s not r e qui r e i nt e r ve nt i on

f r om t he ope r a t or i n t he G C S

. I n f l i ght

, t he a i r c r a f t i s c ont r ol l e d t hr ough a m e nu

- ba s e d

i nt e r f a c e t ha t a l l ow s ope r a t o r t o s e l e c t a l t i t ude

, he a di ng, & a i r s pe e d. D ur i ng l a ndi ng

,

ope r a t or i n G C S ha s no vi s ua l c ont a c t w i t h a i r c r a f t

, a nd r e c e i ve s no da t a f r om onboa r d

s e ns or s

. A n e xt e r na l obs e r ve r i s r e qui r e d t o c om m uni c a t e t o t he ope r a t o r w he n t he c r a f t

ha s t ouc he d dow n, a t w hi c h t i m e t he ope r a t or gi ve s a c om m a nd t o s t op t he e ngi ne

. H F

e r r or s w e r e l e s s f r e que nt w i t h S ha dow t ha n w i t h H unt e r

.

N avy

P i one e r

T he P i one e r r e qui r e s a n E P f or t a ke of f & l a ndi ng

. A f t e r t a ke of f

, I P c ont r ol s t he ve hi c l e

f r om t he G C S i n one of t hr e e m ode s : a ut onom ous l y us i ng pr e pr og r a m m e d w a ypoi nt

c oor di na t e s ; s e m i

- a ut onom ous l y us i ng a i r s pe e d, a l t i t ude a nd he a di ng va l ue s s pe c i f i e d

w i t h r ot a r y knobs ; m a nua l l y, w i t h a j oys t i c k. T he r e a r e pl a ns t o i m pl e m e nt a n a ut om a t e dH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 57

s ys t e m f or s hi p

- ba s e d l a ndi ngs

. 28% of a c c i de nt s w e r e H F r e l a t e d. O f t he s e

, 68%

oc c ur r e d dur i ng l a ndi ng a nd 10% dur i ng t a ke of f

. A n a ddi t i ona l 13% w e r e due t o a i r c r e w

c oor di na t i on l a ps e s ( pr oc e dur a l & c om m uni c a t i on e r r or s ) a nd 10% w e r e w e a t he r r e l a t e d

e r r or s r e s ul t i ng f r om e r r o r s i n pi l ot de c i s i on m a ki n g.

F i r e S c out

A ve r t i c a l t a ke of f & l a ndi ng ve hi c l e

, t he F i r e S c ou t w a s i nvol ve d i n one a c c i de nt

. A nt e nna w a s da m a ge d dur i ng gr o und ha ndl i ng ( hu m a n e r r or )

, c a us i ng i nc or r e c t a l t i m e t e r

r e a di ng w he n ve hi c l e w a s a i r bor ne

.

A i r F or c e

P r e da t or

T he P r e da t or i s f l ow n f r om a G C S us i ng a j oys t i c k a nd r udde r pe da l s a nd a f or w a r d

l ooki ng c a m e r a w i t h a 30

- de g F O V

. T he c a m e r a i s a l s o us e d f or t a ke of f

s a nd l a ndi ngs

. H um a n f a c t or s l a ps e s c ont r i but e d t o 67% o f a c c i de nt s

. A m a j or i t y of t he s e ( 75% ) w e r e

pr oc e dur a l e r r o r s

, i nc l udi ng a f a i l ur e t o f ol l ow c he c kl i s t s t e ps dur i ng ha ndof f be t w e e n

c r e w s a nd a n a c c i de nt a l a c t i va t i on of a pr og r a m t h a t e r a s e d t he a i r c r a f t c om put e r 's

i nt e r na l R A M

.

I nt e r f a c e i s s ue s a r e di s c us s e d i n 89% of P r e da t or a c c i de nt s

, a nd a r e c i t e d a s a

c ont r i but i ng f a c t o r i n 44%

. F ou r c a t e gor i e s of i nt e r f a c e i s s ue s : de s i gn of H U D ; de s i gn of

H D D ; a l e r t s a nd a l a r m s ; f unc t i oni ng o f t he a ut op i l ot

.

- - H U D pr obl e m s : F O V ( 30 de gs ) i s t oo na r r ow ; a t t i t ude i ndi c a t or i s i na de qua t e ; R P M

i ndi c a t or ne e ds i m pr ove m e nt ; s ym bol ogy obs c ur e d dur i ng l ow

- l i nk c ondi t i ons ;

s ym bol ogy c ont r a s t t oo l ow ; s ym bol ogy i na de qua t e

.

- - H D D pr obl e m s : t oo m a ny l e ve l s t o m a ne u ve r t hr ough t o r e a c h ne e de d i n f o; i nf o di s pl a y

uni nt ui t i ve ; c r i t i c a l c om m a nds unpr ot e c t e d o r une m pha s i z e d; ope r a t i ona l va l ue r a nge s

i nc ons i s t e nt w i t hi n di s pl a y.

- - A l e r t s / a l a r m s pr obl e m s : do not c a pt ur e a t t e nt i on; a udi o w a r ni ngs i ns uf f i c i e nt or a bs e nt ;

i nf o pr ovi de d i na de qua t e or poor l y pr i or i t i z e d; i nf o pr ovi de d i nva l i d ; da t a t ha t ne e d t o be

c om pa r e d not a l w a ys c ol l oc a t e d on s a m e di s pl a y p a ge

.

- - A ut opi l ot pr obl e m s : no i ndi c a t i on o f a ut opi l ot s t a t us on H U D ; f l i ght c ont r ol s a r e

di s a bl e d w hi l e a ut opi l ot i s e ng a ge d ( i

. e

. , no ove r r i de c a pa bi l i t y) a nd f our s e pa r a t e m e nus

ha ve t o be t r a ve r s e d i n or de r t o de a c t i va t e a ut opi l o t ( r e qui r e s a bout M

= 7 s e c onds ) ;

a

ut opi l ot t e nds t o c om m a nd e xt r e m e m e a s ur e s a nd ove r s t r e s s a i r c r a f t ; a ut opi l ot

f unc t i ona l i t y doe s not c onf or m t o A F s t a nda r ds

.

G l oba l H a w k

G l oba l H a w k i s t he m os t f ul l y a ut o m a t e d of U A V s ys t e m s

. A l l pha s e s of f l i ght a r e

a

ut om a t e d, i nc l udi ng t a ke of f & l a ndi ng

. T he c r e w ' s t a s k i s t o m oni t or t he a i r c r a f t a nd

c ont r ol pa yl oa d. T hi s m a ke s f l yi ng t he r e l a t i ve l y e a s y, b ut m a ke s m i s s i on pl a nni ng

e xc e e di ngl y di f f i c ul t

. M i s s i on pl a nni ng pr oc e s s be gi ns up t o 270 da ys pr i or t o m i s s i on.

O nc e t he t a r ge t s e t i s f i na l i z e d, 3

- 5 w e e ks a r e r e qui r e d t o w r i t e a nd va l i da t e m i s s i on pl a n.

O f t hr e e a c c i de nt r e por t s a va i l a bl e f o r G l oba l H a w k, onl y one i nvol ve d H F i s s ue s

. A i r c r a f t w a s f o r c e d t o pe r f or m a n e m e r ge nc y l a ndi ng a t a p r e pr ogr a m m e d a l t e r na t e

a i r por t

. A t poi nt of a i r por t

, a t a xi s pe e d of 155 kno t s ha d be e n s e t due t o s of t w a r e bugH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 58

dur i ng pr e p r ogr a m m i ng

. W he n a i r c r a f t w a s c om m a nde d t o be gi n t a xi i ng f o r t a ke of f

, i t

r e a c he d a s pe e d w he r e i t w a s una bl e t o t ur n a t a ppr opr i a t e poi nt a nd r a n o f f t he r unw a y

. F unda m e nt a l H F pr ob l e m w i t h t he G l oba l H a w k i s t ha t t he s ys t e m doe s not e nc our a ge

c l os e m oni t or i ng by ope r a t or s

, r e s ul t i ng i n r e duc e d S A

. A n a ddi t i ona l pr obl e m i s t ha t

s t a t us r e por t s a r e pr ovi de d i n he xa de c i m a l a nd do not i nc l ude t r e nd da t a

.

52) Wi l s on , G

. F

. , & R u s s e l l

, C

. A

. ( 2004 )

. P s yc h op h ys i ol ogi c al l y d e t e r m i n e d

ad ap t i ve ai d i n g i n a s i m u l at e d U C A V t as k

. P r oc e e di n gs of t h e S e c on d H u m a n

P

e r

f

or m an c e , S i t u at i on A w are n es s , an d A u t om at i on C on f

e re n c e ( H

P

S

A A I I )

, D ayt on a

B e ac h

, F L

, M ar c h 22

- 25

.

A n e xpe r i m e nt t e s t e d t he be ne f i t s of a da pt i ve a i di n g ba s e d on ps yc hophys i ol ogi c a l

a s s e s s m e nt of ope r a t or w or kl oa d. T he t a s k r e qui r e d s ubj e c t s t o m on i t or 4 ve hi c l e s f l y i ng

pr e pl a nne d r out e s

. W he n ve hi c l e s r e a c he d de s i gna t e d poi nt s

, r a da r i m a ge s of t a r ge t a r e a

w e r e pr e s e nt e d t o s ubj e c t

. S ubj e c t s e a r c he d t a r ge t a r e a t he n s e l e c t e d t a r ge t s f or bom bi ng.

T he s e a r c h/ t a r ge t de s i gna t i on t a s k w a s c onduc t e d unde r t i m e s t r e s s

. T he s ubj e c t s c hos e

t he or de r i n w hi c h i m a ge s f r om t he ve hi c l e s w e r e pr e s e nt e d. I m a ge s w e r e pr e s e nt e d a t

t w o l e ve l s of di f f i c ul t y

. T he m or e di f f i c ul t l e ve l i n c l ude d m or e di s t r a c t or s a nd r e qui r e d

m or e di f f i c ul t de c i s i ons r e ga r di ng t a r ge t p r i or i t y

.

S ubj e c t s w e r e a l s o r e qui r e d t o m oni t o r ve hi c l e s f o r pot e nt i a l e m e r ge nc i e s ( e

. g

. , l os s of

c om m uni c a t i on)

. M e m or y l oa d w a s m a ni pul a t e d b y ha vi ng s ubj e c t hol d up t o 4

a i r c r a f t /

pr obl e m c om bi na t i ons s i m ul t a ne ous l y unt i l a c om m a nd w a s gi ve n s pe c i f yi ng

w hi c h pr obl e m t o a ddr e s s

.

E E G

, E C G

, a nd E O G da t a w e r e r e c or de d. A n a r t i f i c i a l ne ur a l ne t w or k w a s t r a i ne d t o

r e c ogni z e pe r i ods of l ow a nd hi gh t a s k di f f i c ul t y u s i ng t he s e da t a

. D ur i ng c r i t e r i on t a s k

pe r f or m a nc e

, t hr e e l e ve l s of a da pt i ve a i di ng w e r e us e d: 1) n o a i di ng

, 2 ) a i di ng dur i ng

t i m e s of hi gh w or kl oa d, a nd 3 ) r a ndom a i di ng. A i d i ng i nvol ve d de c r e a s i ng ve l oc i t y o f

ve hi c l e s o t ha t t i m e s t r e s s w a s r e duc e d. S ubj e c t i ve w or kl oa d w a s m e a s ur e d w i t h N A S A

T L X

.

R e s u l t s

T he ne ur a l ne t w a s 70% a c c ur a t e a t c l a s s i f yi ng hi g h/ l ow t a s k di f f i c ul t y l e ve l s dur i ng t a s k

pe r f or m a nc e

. F or a l l c ondi t i ons

, t he num be r of c or r e c t l y s e l e c t e d t a r ge t s w a s l ow e r w he n

t he t a s k w a s di f f i c ul t

. T he num be r of de s i gna t e d p oi nt s of i m pa c t w a s l ow e r f o r t he

di f f i c ul t t a s k l e ve l i n t he una i de d a n d t he r a ndom l y

- a i de d c ondi t i ons

, but w a s una f f

e c t e d

by t a s k di f f i c ul t y i n t he a da pt i ve l y

- a i de d c ondi t i on

. S i m i l a r l y, t he num be r of m i s s e d

w e a pons r e l e a s e s w a s hi ghe r i n t he d i f f i c ul t l e ve l f or t he una i de d a nd r a ndom l y

- a i de d

c ondi t i ons but w a s una f f

e c t e d by di f f i c ul t y i n t he a da pt i ve l y a i de d c ondi t i on. D i f f

e r e nc e s

i n s ubj e c t i ve w or kl oa d w e r e m a r gi na l a nd i nc ons i s t e nt

.H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 59

A p p e n d i x B

R e s e ar c h M at r i x

T hi s a ppe ndi x pr ovi de s a c r os s

- i nde x of t he r e s e a r c h i s s ue s di s c u s s e d i n t he m a i n body o f

t he t e xt w i t h t he r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t ur e de s c r i be d i n A ppe ndi x A

. O nl y t hos e a r t i c l e s de e m e d

di r e c t l y r e l e va nt t o e a c h que s t i on a r e i nc l ude d. B ol d

- f a c e d i t a l i c s i ndi c a t e r e s e a r c h

a r t i c l e s t ha t pr e s e nt e m pi r i c a l da t a

.

1. T o w h a t e xt e n t s h ou l d e n r ou t e f l i gh t c on t r ol b e au t om a t e d ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 2

, 7

, 19

, 25

, 32

, 33

, 38

, 40

, 49

, 5 0, 51

, 52

2. Wh a t ar e t h e c on s e q u e n c e s of d e gr ad e d r e l i a b i l i t y o f au t om a t e d U A V f u n c t i on s

f

or p e r f or m an c e o f t h e au t om at e d t as k a n d o f c on c u r r e n t t as k s ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 11

, 12

, 40

3. H ow w i l l s e e an d avoi d r e q u i r e m e n t s b e ad d r e s s e d i n U A V f l i gh t ? C an au t o m at e d

d e t e c t

, s e e , an d avo i d ( D

S

A ) t e c h n ol ogy al l ow a U A V op e r at or t o m ai n t ai n

ac c e p t ab l e l e ve l s of s e p ar at i on ? Wh at ar e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of i m p e r f e c t l y r e l i ab l e

D S A au t om a t i on on c on f l i c t d e t e c t i on an d on p e r f or m an c e of c on c u r r e n t t as k s ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 27

4. T o w h a t e xt e n t s h ou l d t ak e o f f an d l an d i n g b e au t om a t e d ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 2

, 51

5. T h r ou gh w h at f or m of c on t r ol i n t e r f ac e s h ou l d i n t e r n al an d e xt e r n al p i l ot s

m an i p u l a t e a U A V ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 37

, 51

6. Wh a t c om p r o m i s e s s h ou l d b e a d op t e d b e t w e e n s p at i al r e s ol u t i on , t e m p or al

r e s ol u t i on , t i m e d e l ay , a n d f i e l d

- o f

- vi e w ( F O V ) i n t h e d i s p l ay o f vi s u al i m age r y f or

f l i gh t c on t r ol a n d / or c on f l i c t d e t e c t i on ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 10

, 32

, 44

, 45

, 4 6

, 51

7. C an au gm e n t e d r e al i t y d i s p l ays or s yn t h e t i c vi s i on s ys t e m s s u c c e s s f u l l y

c om p e n s at e f or t h e d e gr ad e v i s u al i m age r y p r o vi d e d b y on b oar d s e n s or s ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 3, 13

, 15

, 16

, 17

, 18

, 29

, 44

, 45

, 46

8. C an m u l t i m od al d i s p l ay t e c h n ol ogy b e u s e d t o c om p e n s at e f or t h e d e ar t h of

s e n s or y i n f or m at i on ava i l ab l e t o a U A V op e r at o r ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 4

, 5

, 11

, 12

, 14

, 19

, 20

, 25

, 32

, 3 4, 39

, 43

, 44

, 49

, 50

, 51

9. T o w h a t e xt e n t c an d i s p l ays an d c on t r ol s b e s t an d ar d i z e d ac r os s U A V s ys t e m s ?

Wh at l e ve l o f s t an d ar d i z at i on s h ou l d b e m an d a t e d ? ( B as i c T i n s t r u m e n t p an e l ?

H U D ove r l ay?)

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 21H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 60

10. Wh a t ar e t h e c on s e q u e n c e s f or s ys t e m s af e t y of p i l ot j u d g m e n t w h e n t h e p i l o t n o

l on ge r h as a “s h ar e d f at e ” w i t h t h e ve h i c l e ? Wi l l t h e r e b e s u b t l e s h i f t s i n r i s k t ak i n g

t h at m i gh t af f

e c t ove r al l a i r s p ac e s af e t y?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : none

11. H ow w i l l h a n d

- o f f

s b e t w e e n c r e w s b e ac c om p l i s h e d d u r i n g l on g

- e n d u r an c e

f l i gh t s ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : none

12. Wh a t ar e t h e e f f

e c t s of var i a b l e t o t al l oo p t i m e d e l ays on r e s p on s e t o A T C

i n s t r u c t i on s ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 19, 27

, 32

, 43

, 44

, 45

13. Wh a t f or m of p r e d i c t ab l e au t o n om ou s b e h a vi or s h ou l d a U A V ad op t f o l l ow i n g a

l os s of gr ou n d

- t o

- ai r c o m m u n i c a t i on s ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : none

14. H ow m an y m e m b e r s w i l l e ac h c r e w c om p r i s e , an d w h at w i l l b e e ac h

c r e w m e m b e r ’ s r e s p on s i b i l i t i e s ? C an an o p e r at o r s u p e r vi s e m u l t i p l e U A V s

s i m u l t an e ou s l y w h i l e m ai n t ai n i n g an ac c e p t a b l e l e ve l of p e r f or m an c e ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 7, 8

, 15

, 21

, 23

, 28

, 30

, 33

, 38

, 4 7

, 51

, 52

15. Wh a t ar e t h e c or e k n ow l e d ge , s k i l l s , an d ab i l i t i e s ( K S A s ) t h at s h ou l d b e

r e q u i r e d f or U A V p i l ot c e r t i f i c at i on ? Wh at K S A s s h ou l d b e r e q u i r e d f or

c e r t i f i c at i on t o f l y p ar t i c u l ar U A V s ys t e m s or c l as s e s of s ys t e m s ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 2

, 26

, 48

16. S h o u l d e xp e r i e n c e p i l ot i n g a m an n e d ai r c r af t b e p r e r e q u i s i t e f or U A V p i l ot

c e r t i f i c at i on ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 2

, 42

, 48

17. Wh a t m e d i c al q u al i f i c at i o n s s h ou l d a U A V op e r at or b e r e q u i r e d t o m e e t ?

R e l e va nt a r t i c l e s : 25

, 47

, 48H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 61

A p p e n d i x C

C on t ac t I n f or m a t i on

T hi s a ppe ndi x pr ovi de s a v a i l a bl e c ont a c t i nf or m a t i on f or f i r s t a nd/ or s e ni or a ut hor s on

t he r e s e a r c h a r t i c l e s s um m a r i z e d i n A ppe ndi x A

.

B a l l

, J e r r y T

. A i r F or c e R e s e a r c h L a bor a t or y

6030 S

. K e nt S t

. M e s a

, A Z 85212

( 480) 988

- 6561

B a r ne s

, M i c ha e l J

. A r m y R e s e a r c h L a bor a t or y

4656 S

. C he r oke e

S i e r r a V i s t a

, A Z 85650

( 520) 538

- 4702

C ooke

, N a nc y J

. C ogni t i ve E ngi ne e r i ng R e s e a r c h I ns t i t ut e

5865 S

. S os s a m a n R d.

M e s a

, A Z 85212

( 480) 727

- 1331

C um m i ngs

, M a r y J

. M a s s a c hus e t t s I ns t i t ut e of T e c hnol ogy

77 M a s s a c hu s e t t s A ve 33

- 305

C a m br i dge

, M A 02139

( 617) 253

- 4196

de V r i e s

, S j oe r d

T N O H um a n F a c t or s

P

. O

. B ox 23

3769 Z G S oe s t e r be r g, T he N e t he r l a nds

+ 31 346 356 300

de vr i e s @ t m

. t no. nl

D r a pe r

, M a r k H

. A i r F or c e R e s e a r c h L a bor a t or y/ H E C

2255 H S t

. W r i ght P a t t e r s on A F B

, O H 45433

( 937) 255

- 5779

G l uc k, K e vi n

A i r F or c e R e s e a r c h L a bor a t or yH um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 62

6030 S out h K e nt S t

. M e s a

, A Z 85212

( 480) 988

- 6561

ke vi n. gl uc k@ m e s a

. a f m c

. a f

. m i l

G oodr i c h, M i c ha e l A

. B r i gha m Y oung U ni ve r s i t y

3361 T M C B

, B Y U

P r ovo, U T 84602

( 801) 422

- 6468

m i ke @ c s

. byu. e du

G uge r t y, L e o

C l e m s on U ni ve r s i t y

P s yc hol ogy D e pt

. 418 B r a c ke t t H a l l

C l e m s on, S C 29634

guge r t y@ c l e m s on. e du

H a nc oc k, P e t e r A

. U ni ve r s i t y of C e nt r a l F l or i da

P a r t ne r s hi p I I

3100 T e c hnol ogy P kw y

, S ui t e 337

O r l a ndo, F L 32826

- 0544

( 407) 823

- 2310

pha nc oc k@ pe ga s u s

. c c

. uc f

. e du

H a ns m a n, R

. J ohn

M a s s a c hus e t t s I ns t i t ut e of T e c hnol ogy

33

- 303 M I T

C a m br i dge

, M A 02139

( 617) 253

- 2271

r j ha ns @ m i t

. e du

M a r t i n, E l i z a be t h

A i r F or c e R e s e a r c h L a bor a t or y

6030 S out h K e nt S t

. M e s a

, A Z 85212

( 480) 988

- 6561

e l i z a be t h. m a r t i n@ m e s a

. a f m c

. a f

. m i l

M oul oua

, M us t a pha

U ni ve r s i t y of C e nt r a l F l or i da

P hi l l i ps H a l l 302M

O r l a ndo, F L

( 407) 823

- 2910H um a n F a c t or s of U A V s 63

m oul oua @ pe ga s us

. c c

. uc f

. e du

R

yde r

, J oa n

C H I S ys t e m s

1035 V i r gi na D r

. F or t W a s hi ngt on, P A 19002

( 215) 542

- 1400

j r i de r @ c hi s ys t e m s

. c om

S hi ve l y, J a y

U

. S

. A r m y/ N A S A A m e s

M S

- 243

- 11

M of f

e t t F i e l d, C A 94035

( 650) 604

- 6249

j s hi ve l y@ m a i l

. a r c

. na s a

. gov

T va r ya na s

, A nt hony P

. U S A F

2602 L oui s B a ue r D r

. B r ooks

- C i t y

- B a s e

, T X 78235

- 5251

a nt hony. t va r ya na s @ br ooks

. a f

. m i l

W e e ks

, J os e ph L

. A i r F or c e R e s e a r c h L a bor a t or y

6030 S

. K e nt S t

M e s a

, A Z 85212

- 6061

W i c ke ns

, C

. D

. U ni ve r s i t y of I l l i noi s

I ns t i t ut e of A v i a t i on, A vi a t i on H um a n F a c t or s D i v i s i on

#1 A i r por t R d

S a voy, I L 61874

( 217) 244

- 8617

c w i c ke ns @ ui uc

. e du

W i l l i a m s

, K e vi n W

. F A A C A M I

5801 N W 31 s t T e r r a c e

O kl a hom a C i t y, O K 73122

( 409) 954

- 6843

ke vi n. w i l l i a m s @ f a a

. gov