# Importation of Orchids

**( Oncidium**  **spp.) in Approved Growing**  **Media From Taiwan**  **Draft Environmental**  **Assessment, December**  **2013 United**  **States Department of**  **Agriculture Marketing and**  **Regulatory Programs**  **Animal and Plant Health**  **Inspection Service** 

# Importation of Orchids

**( Oncidium**  **spp.) in Approved Growing Media From**  **Taiwan**
**Draft En**  **vi ronmental**  **As sessment**  **December 2013** 
**Ag ency** **Contact:** Heather Coady Plants for Planting Import Policy Regulations, Permits and Manuals Plant Protection and Quarantine Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service U.S. Department of Agriculture 4700 River Road, Unit 133 Riverdale, MD 20737

– 1237

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- 2600 (voice and TDD). Mention of companies or commercial products in this report does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture over others not mentioned. USDA neither guarantees nor warrants the standard of any product mentioned. Product names are mentioned solely to report factually on available data and to provide specific inform ation. This publication reports research involving pesticides. All uses of pesticides mu st be registered by appropriate State and/or Federal agencies before they can be recommended. CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals,d esirable plants, and fish or other wildlife

— if they are not handled or applied properly. Use all pesticides selectively and carefully. Follow recommended practices for the disposal of surplus pesticides and pesticide containers.

## Table of Contents
I. In troduction

................................ ................................ .............. 1 A. Background

................................ ................................ ........ 1 B. Purpose and Need

................................ .............................. 2 II. Alternatives

................................ ................................ .............. 2 A. No Action

................................ ................................ ............. 2 B. Preferred Alternative

................................ ........................... 4 III. Affected Environment

................................ ............................... 6 A. Host Range of Quarantine Pests

................................ ....... 8 B. Climate and Host Interactions

................................ ........... 15 C. Thre atened and Endangered Species

.............................. 17 IV. Environmental Impacts

................................ ........................... 2 2 A. No Action

................................ ................................ ......... 2 2 B. Preferred Alternative

................................ ........................ 2 2 C. Risk Managment

................................ .............................. 26 D. Endangered Species Act

................................ ................. 34 E. Other Considerations

................................ ....................... 35 V. Listing of Agencies Consulted

................................ ................ 36 VI. Reference s ................................ ................................ ............. 37**1** 

## I **. I ntroduction**  **A. Background**  Currently in the United States, orchids are sold in pots primarily for the interior design market. It is not uncommon for these plants to be mass - produced and sold at wholesale to general merchandise retailers and specialty outlets where they are purchase d by consumers. Oncidium species and other orchids are imported into the United States from Taiwan as bare
- rooted plants (7 Cod e of Federal Regulations ( CFR) § 319.37

– 8(d)), and subject to inspection at U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) plant inspection stations at certain U.S. ports of entry . In accordance with section 319.37

– 8(a) of the regulations, USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS ) requires, with certain exceptions, that plants offered for importation into the United States be free of sand, soil, earth, and other growing media. Many U.S. potted orchid growers begin with imported plants; they purchase the bare
- rooted imports, grow them, and pot them for sale. The United States imports between 4.5 and 6 milli on kilograms (kg ) of live orchids, valued at nearly $59 million to $70 million annually

. Approximately

86 percent of these live orchids imported into the United States are sourced from Taiwan each ye ar. The United States also imports live orchids from Th ailand (approximately 4 percent), the Netherlands (approximately 2.4 percent), Canada (approximately 2.4 percent), Costa Rica (less than 2 percent), South Korea (less than 1.5 percent), and China (less than 1 percent) each ye ar. In Taiwan, most flowers are dry packed in sleeves and cardboard boxes, transported by

road to local markets, and airlifted to export destinations with varying levels of post
- harvest handling losses. Unfortunatel y, there is high mortality of bare
- rooted plants (Su et al
. , 2001). In an effort to improve the viability of orchid imports, Taiwan has requested to export to the United States orchids potted in sphagnum moss or other APHI S
- approved growing media. This environmental assessment (EA) was prepared to comply with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) 42 United States Code (U.S.C.) 4321, et seq., as prescribed in implementing regulations adopted b y the Council on Environmental Quality (40 CFR §§1500

– 1508), USDA (7 CFR part 1b) , APHI S (7 CFR part 372), and to s atisfy Executive Order (EO) 12114, “Environmental Effects Abroad of Major Federal Actions.”**2** 

### B. **Purpose and Need** USDA

–APHI S, Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) is proposing to amend the regulations for the importation of plants and plant products (7 CFR part 319). PPQ has been petitioned to add orchids of the genus Oncidium from Taiwan to the list of plants that may be imported in approved growing media, subject to specified growing, inspection, and certification requirements. Currently , bare
- rooted orchid plants from Taiwan, including Oncidium species (spp.) are generally enterable with appropriate documentation. Oncidium cut flowers are also enterable. Epiphy tic plants (including orchid plants) are imported from Taiwan into the United St ates as bare
- rooted plants growing on tree fern slabs, in coconut husk or coconut fiber, and grown in new clay pots or new wooden baskets. Phalaenops is spp. orchids in growing media from Taiwan are approved in 7 CFR 319.37
- 8(e) requiring a phyt osanitary certificate, CITES documentation, and inspection at a plant inspection station at the U.S. port of entry

by PPQ inspectors. Taiwan has requested that PPQ consider amending the regulations to allow Oncidium spp. orchids to be imported into the United State s in approved growing media under the same provisions of 7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(e). This will improve the viability

of imported plants because, currentl y, there is high mortality

of bare
- rooted plants (Su et al

. , 2001). 

## II. **Al ternati**  **ve s**  This EA anal yz es potential environmental consequences of the implementation of a proposal to amend the regulations governing the importation of plants and plant products into the United States (7 CFR part 319). Two possible alternatives are considered in this EA: maintaining the current regulation for the importation of orchids of the genus Oncidium into the United States (no action alternative) , and the implementation of regulations under the proposed rule (preferred alternative)
. 

### A. **No Ac**  **tion** The no action alternative would leave 7 CFR part 319 unchanged. Section 319.37

– 8(a) of the regulations requires, with certain exceptions, that plants offered for importation into the United States be free of sand, soil, earth , and other growing medi a . This requirement is intended to help prevent the introduction of plant pests that might be present in unapproved growing media; the exceptions to this requirement take into account factors that mitigate that risk. Those**3** exceptions, which are found in paragraphs (b ) through (e) of 7 CFR § 319.37

– 8, consider either the origin of the plants and growing media or the nature of the growing media and/or the use of a combination of growing conditions, approved media, inspections, and other requirements. Currently , Oncidiu m and other orchids are imported from Taiwan as bare
- rooted plants establ ished on tree fern slabs, in coconut husk or coconut fiber, and grown in new clay pots or new wooden baskets (7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(d)). Oncidium cut flowers are also enterable. All forms are enterable subject to inspection findings at designat ed ports of entry to the United States, that is, ports associated with facilities where propagative material can be examined (plant inspection stations). All orchid consignments must be ac companied by a USDA permit and a phyt osanitary certificate issued by

the plant protection service of the exporting country . This document certifies that the orchids have been inspected and found free of quarantine pests. As stated in 7 CFR § 319.37

– 8( e ), the following groups of plants established in approved growing media are currently allowed entry

to the United States:

 Alstroemeria , Ananas , Anthurium ;  artificially

dwarfed (penjing) plants from the People’s Republic of China of the following plant sp ecies: Buxus sinica, Ehretia microphylla, Podocarpus macrophyllus, Sageretia thea, and Serissa foetida ;  Bromeliad plants of the genera Aechmea, Cryptanthus, Guzmania, Hohenbergia, Neoregelia, Tillandsia, and Vriesea from Belgium, Denmark, and the Netherlands;  Begonia , Gloxinia (=Sinningia ), Nidularium , Peperomia ;  Dracaena from Costa Rica  Phalaenopsis spp. from Taiwan  Poly podiophy ta (=Filicales);  Rhipsalidopsis spp. from the Netherlands and Denmark,  Rhododendron from Europe;  Saintpaulia ;  Schlumbergera spp. from the Netherlands and Denmark
. Under the no action alternative, Oncidium spp. orchids from Taiwan would not be added to the list of tax a allowed entry into the United States established in approved growing media and would continue to enter the United States under current requirements (7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(d))
.**4** 

### B. **Preferred A lternative**  Th e proposed rule (preferred alternative) would change 7 CFR part 319 and thus allow importation of orchids of the genus Oncidium from Taiwan rooted in approved growing media
. O rchid plants would be shipped to a location only after passing through a PPQ plant inspection station located at the port of entry in the United States . Once consignments are cleared through a plant inspection station, orchids could be distributed to any location in the United States, including its possessions and trust territories. The orchids would be required to be produced, handled, and imported in accordance with the requirements of 7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(e) and accomp anied , at the time of importation , by a phyt osanitary

certificate issued by the Kaohsiung Branch of BAPHIQ ( Bureau of Animal and Plant Health Inspection and Quarantine, Council of Agriculture of Taiwan), declaring that the requirements have been met. The preferred alternative includes propagation, rearing, shipping, and importation of Oncidium plants in approved growing media into the United States from Taiwan
. Below are detailed requirements that must be met , as stipulated in 7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(e): (e) Oncidium orchids may be imported from Taiwan established in an approved growing medi a if the article meets the conditions of this paragraph and is accompanied b y a phyt osanitary certificate issued by BAPHIQ that declares that the article meets the conditio ns of this paragraph: (1) Approved growing media includes baked expanded clay pellets, organic and inorganic fibers, peat, sphagnum moss, vermiculite, and other media (see 7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(e)(1) for a complete list), and must not have been previousl y used. (2) Articles imported under this paragraph must be grown in compliance with a written agreement for enforcement of this section signed b y BAPHIQ an d PPQ, must be developed from mother stock that was inspected and found free from evidence of diseas e and pests by a PPQ or BAPHIQ inspector no more than 60 day s prior to the time the article is established in the greenhouse (except for articles developed from seeds germinated in the greenhouse), and must be: (i) Grown in compliance with a written agreement between the grower and BAPHIQ , in which the grower agrees to comply with the provisions of this section and to allow inspectors and representatives of BAPHIQ access to the growing facility as necessary to monitor compliance with the provisions of th is section;**5** (ii) Grown solel y in a greenhouse in which sanitary procedures adequate to exclude plant pests and diseases are alway s employed, including cleaning and disinfection of floors, benches, and tools, and the application of measures to protect ag ainst any injurious plant diseases, injurious insect pests, and other plant pests. The greenhouse must be free from sand and soil and must have screening with openings of not more than 0.6 millimeters (mm) on all vents and openings except entry

way s. All entry

way s must be equipped with automatic closing doors; (iii) Rooted and grown in an active state of foliar growth for at least 4 consecutive months immediately prior to importation into the United States, in a greenhouse unit that is used solely for articles grown in compliance with this paragraph; (iv) Grown from seeds germinated in the greenhouse unit; or descended from a mother plant that was grown for at least 9 months in Taiwan prior to importation of the descendent plants into the United State s, provided that if the mother plant was imported into Taiwan from another country , it must be: (A) Grown for at least 12 months in Taiwan prior to importation of the descendent plants into the United States, or ( B ) Treated , at the time of importation into Taiwan , with a treatment prescribed for pests of that plant by BAPHI Q and then grown for at least 9 months in Taiwan prior to importation of the descendent plants into the United States; (v) Watered onl y with rainwater that has been boiled or pasteurized, with clean well water, or with potable (municipal) water; (vi) Rooted and grown in approved growing media listed in 7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(e)(1) on benches supported by legs and raised at least 46 centimeters ( cm) above the floor; (vii) Stored and packaged only in areas free of sand, soil, earth, and plant pests; (viii) Inspected in the greenhouse and found free from evidence of plant pests and diseases by a PPQ inspector or an inspector of BAPHIQ , no more th an 30 day s prior to the date of export to the United States. The packaging commonly used in the orchid industry is cardboard boxes ; however, other alternatives, such as plastic, are possible. These**6** cardboard boxes are similar to other APHIS
- approved pack aging that excludes pests during the packing process and prevents hitchhikers from entering the packaged plants. The term “hitchhikers” is commonly

used within PPQ to mean biological contaminants, including insects that generall y are not specific to orchi ds. PPQ
approved packing material includes paper, rock wool, sawdust, and other media specified in 7 CFR § 319.37

– 9. The pots containing the plants are most likely

those that are commonly used in the orchid industry such as plastic, clay , or other composi te materials. Preshipment treatment measures (i.e., fumigation) are not included as a condition of entry

of Oncidium orchids from Taiwan because the pest risk assessment (PRA) ( APHI S, 2012 a) did not identify any quarantine pests which required these treatments in order to ensure quarantine security be yond the mitigations listed in 7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(e). 

## III. A **ffected Env ironment**  The affected environment for both the current importation of bare
rooted Oncidium orchids (no action alternative) and the proposed importation of Oncidium orchids from Taiwan in APHI S
- approved growing media (preferred alternative) is the United States , including Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands
. Oncidium is a large and diverse New World genus, comprising nearl y 400 species. These orchids may grow naturally

any where from sea level in the tropics to the high elevations of the Andes (American Orchid Society, 2013). Oncidium species occur both in lowlands an d in the tropics, hence they have varying cultural requirements, from cool
- house to warm
- house, depending on the species; they usually require considerable sun and air (Bailey and Bailey , 1976). In their natural habitats, Oncidium orchids are epiphyt es (H ydro - orchids.com, 2013). Epiphy

tes, or epiphy

tic plants, grow on rocks or other plants (such as trees) and use their specialized roots to take water and nutrients from the air, rain, and debris that may accumulate around the plant. Oncidium are bee
- polli nated; their ecology includes pollination by carpenter bees (Xylocopa), bumble bees ( Bombus ), and digger bees (Centris). Pollination by

digger bees is most commonly observed (Dressler, 1981). Carpenter bees, bumble bees, and digger bees are found through out North and South America, although digger bees are considered primarily

a tropical group. Carpenter bees and bumble bees are generalists, pollinating many different flower types, including those found on some important agricultural crops such as legume s and cucurbits (Dal y et al., 1971).**7** Upon receiving Taiwan ’s request to allow importation of Oncidium orchids established in approved growing media into the United States, APHI S conducted a pest risk assessment ( PRA) (APHI S, 2012 a) to examine the potential plant pest risk associated with unmitigated importations of orchids in growing media. The risk assessment prepared b y APHIS examined the plant pest risk associated with the importation of Oncidium orchids established in APHI S
- approved growing media from Taiwan into the United States
. The PRA characterizes risks as high, medium, or low, based up on supporting evidence regarding climate
- host interactions, host range, dispersal potential, economic impact, and environmental impact of plant pests
. The methods used to initiate, conduct, and report the risk assessment are consistent with guidelines provided by the North American Plant Protection Organization and the International Plant Protection Convention administered by the Food and Agriculture Organiz ation of the United Nations. The PRA (APHI S, 2012 a) anal yz es the quarantine pests reasonabl y expected to follow the pathway (i.e., be included in commercial shipments of Oncidium plants) were anal yz ed. A quarantine pest is defined as “a pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereb y and not yet present there, or present but not widel y distributed and being officially controlled” (FAO, 2002). The biological hazard of an organism is only assessed if the organism can be identified to the species ; however , if in the future, pests identified only to higher taxa are intercepted at the port of e ntry , then reevaluations of their risk may occur. The pests that were determined to have potential to be included in commercial shipments of Oncidium (both bare rooted or i n growing media) are listed in T able 1. **Table 1. Quarantine**  **P ests that**  **M ay**  **F ollow the**  **P athway on**  **Oncidium**

**spp. from**  **Taiwan into the United States**  **. (A**  **PHIS, 2012 a**  **). Type**  **Taxonomy Pest**  Acari Arachnida: Tetranychidae Tetranychus kanzawai Kishida Insecta Lepidoptera: Arctiidae Amsacta lactinea Cramer

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) Thysanoptera : Thripidae Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood Thrips palmi Karny Mollusca Stylomatophora: Achatinidae Lissachatina fulica (Bowdich)

Stylomatophora: Agriliomacidae Deroceras laeve (Muller) Stylomatophora: Helicarionidae Deroceras martensi Simroth Petalochlamys vesta (Pfeiffer)**8** Stylomatophora: Philomycidae Meghimatium bilineatus (Benson) Meghimatium pictum Stoliczka Stylomatophora: Veronicellidae Laevicaulis alte (Férussac) Bacteria Gammaproteobacteria:

Enterobacteriaceae Pectobacterium cypripedii (Hori) Brenner et al. Fungi Ascomycetes: Pleosporales Bipolaris zizaniae (Y. Nisik.) Shoemaker



### A **. Host Range of Quarantine Pests** The quarantine pests associated with the importation of Oncidium from Taiwan and identified in the PRA pose a potential risk to a variety of other plants. This section lists quarantine pests and the respective potential host plants found in the United States. The host range of the moth, Amsacta lactinea , is very wide. It feeds on virtually all cultivated and wild vegetation. Some of its affected hosts include :

 Oncidium sp. (Orchidaceae)  Arachis sp.  Leucaena leucocephala  Phaseolus sp.,  Glycine sp.  Camelia sinensis  Gossypium sp.  Ligustrum sinennsis  Oriza sp.  Phragmites australis  Helianthus annuus  Ocimun basilicum , and  Sapium sebiferum (APHI S, 2012a) A number of additional host plants belong to the families  Asteraceae  Euphorbiaceae  Fabaceae  Lamiaceae  Malvaceae  Oleaceae**9**  Orchidaceae  Poaceae  Rosaceae, and;  Theaceae. (APHI S, 2012a) The host range of the oriental leafworm , Spodoptera litura, includes over 40 plant families. Plant species attacked b y S. litura in the tropics include :  Oncidium sp. ,  Dendrobium sp. (Orchidaceae) ,  Colocasia esculenta (Araceae),  Brassica sp. (Brassicac eae),  Ipomea batatas (Convolvulaceae),  Cucumis sp. (Cucurbitaceae),  Ricinus sp. (Euphobiaceae),  Arachis sp.,  Glycine sp.,  Leucaena leucocephala ,  Medicago sativa ,  Phaseolus sp.,  Vigna sp . (Fabaceae),  Linum sp . (Linaceae),  Corchorus sp.,  Gossypiu m sp. (Malvaceae),  Zea mays ,  Oryza sp. (Poaceae),  Capsicum sp.,  Nicotiana tabaccum,  Solanum melongena,  Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), and  Camelia sp. (Theaceae) ( ( CABI 2011b ) ; ( EPPO 1997c ) b ). The thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis is mainly a foliage feeder; it does not feed on flower pollen (Edwards, 2010). The host range of S. dorsalis includes over 40 plant families. Plant species attached by this thrips include:

 Odontonema strictum (Acanthaceae);  Actinidia deliciosa (Actinidiaceae);  Ilex crenata , I. integra (Aquifoliaceae);  Alternanthera sessilis,  Amaranthus spp. , A

. blitum, (Amaranthaceae);  Anacardium occidentale,**10**  Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae);  Calotropis gigante a (Apocinaceae);  Schefflera arboricola (Araliaceae);  Chrysanthemum x morifolium,  Dahlia pinnata,  Imorphotheca aurantiaca,  Helianthus annuus ,  Sonchus asper (Asteraceae);  Viburnum awabuki, V. suspensum (Caprifoliaceae);  Euonymus japonicus (Celastraceae);  Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae);  onocarpus erectus ,  Laguncularia racemosa (Combretaceae);  Ipomoea batatas (Convolvulaceae);  Citrullus lanatus,  Cucumis melo, C. sativus,  Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae);  Diospyros kaki (Ebenaceae);  Pi eris japonica ,  Rhododendron sp. (Ericaceae);  Hevea brasiliensis,  Hevea sp.;  Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae);  Acacia arabica , A. brownie;  Acacia spp. A. auriculiformis,  Arachis hypogaea;  Brownea spp .;  Dolichos lablab;  Glycine max;  Melanoxylum sp.;  Melilotus indica,  Mimosa pudica,  Phaseolus vulgaris,  Saraca minor,  Saraca spp.,  Tamarindus indica,  Vigna radiata (Fabaceae);  Castanea crenata,  Quercus glauca,  Q. virginiana ,  Saraca indica (Fagaceae);  Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae);  Distylium racemosum (Hamamelidaceae);  Hydrangea spp. (Hydrangeaceae);**11**  Laurus nobilis (Lauracea),  Lamium barbatum (Lamiaceae);  Allium cepa, A. sativum,  Asparagus officinalis (Li liaceae);  Cuphea hyssopifolia (Ly thraceae);  Gossypium herbaceu, G.hirsutum (Malvace ae);  Ficus carica, F. elastic,  Morus sp. (Moraceae);  Musa sp. (Musaceae);  Syzygium malaccense , S. samarangense (M yrtaceae);  Nelumbo lutea, N. nucifera (Nelumbonaceae);  Jasminum multiflorum,  Ligustrum japonicum ,  Osmanthus heterophyllus ( Oleaceae );  Passiflora edulis (Passifloraceae);  Eurya japonica (Pentaphylacaceae);  Sauropus androgynus (Phyllanthaceae);  Pittosporum tobira (Pittosporaceae);  Plumbago auriculata (Plumbaginaceae);  Zea mays (Poaceae);  Coccoloba uvifera (Polygonaceae);  Podocarpus macrophyllus (Podocarpaceae);  Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae);  Portulaca oleracea (

Portulacaceae);  Punica granatum (Punicaceae);  Zizyphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae);  Fragaria x ananassa, F. chiloensis,  Photinia glabra,  Prunus sp., P. mume , P. persi ca , P. salicina,  Pyracantha angustifolia ,  Pyrus spp.,  Rhaphiolepis indica , R. umbellata  Rosa spp.,  Rubus spp. (Rosaceae);  Gardenia jasminoides (Rubiaceae)  Citrus aurantiifolia, C. maxima, C. sinensis, C. unshiu,  Murraya paniculata,  Zanthoxylum piperitum (Rutaceae);  Populus deltoids (Salicaceae);  Acer sp.,  Dimocarpus longan,  Litchi chinensis,  Nephelium lappaceum (Sapindaceae);  Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens,**12**  Lycopersicon esculentum,  Nicotiana tabacum,  Solanum melongena (Solanaceae),  Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae);  Camellia japonica , C. sasanqua , C. sinensis ( Theaceae )  Ampelopsis brevipedunculata ;  Cayratia japonic; and  Vitis pteroclada, V. vinifera (Vitaceae) (CABI, 2011; ( EPPO 1997 ) ; ( Edwards et al. 2010 ) ). The thrip s Thrips palmi feeds on many hosts and attacks plants in several families. Among primary hosts are species of :

 Actinidia chinensis spp. ( A. deliciosa);  Amaranthus spinosus spp. ( A. tricolor, A. viridis);  Mangifera indica ;  Ageratum spp . (

A. conyzoides);  Chrysanthemun spp . ;  Helianthus annuus;  Lactuca sativa ;  Cucumis spp. ( C. melo, C. sativus);  Cucurbita spp. (C. moschata, C. pepo ) ;  Allium cepa ;  Arachis hypogaea,;  Glycine max ;  Phaseolus vulgaris ;  Vigna ungiculat;  Persea americana ;  Gossypium spp;  Abelmoschus esculentus ;  Oryza sativa ;  Sesamum indicum ;  Citrus spp. ( C. medica, C. Sinensis );  Capsicum annuum;  Nicotiana tabacum ;  Solanum spp. (S. lycopersicum , S. melongena, and S. tuberosum ) (CABI , 2011) The fungus Bipolaris zizaniae infects water bamboo (Zizania latifolia (Famil y: Poaceae)) and petals of Oncidium orchids (Famil y: Orchidaceae)) (Hsieh et al., 2000). This fungus appears to infect Oncidium petals only when they are located near infected Z. latifolia (Hsieh et al., 2000) ; this suggests that Oncidium is not a primary host for this fungus.**13** The terrestrial snails, Deroceras laeve, Laevicaulis alte, Meghimatium bilineatum , M. pictum , Parmarion martensi , and Petalochlamys vesta , are herbivorous. They

feed on plant material (leaves, stems, soft bark, and fruits) and algae. The host range of these species covers several families, including :

 Amryllidaceae,  Araceae,  Asteraceae,  Euphorbiaceae,  Fabaceae,  Lauraceae,  Malvaceae,  Oleaceae,  Orchidaceae,  Passifloraceae, and  Zingiberaceae ( ( Hollingsworth et al. 2007 ) ). The terrestrial snail, Lissachatina fulica , has a broad range of ho st plants, and includes more than 200 plant species in about 40 families (Raut and Barke, 2002). Young snails are most predaceous on living vegetation, while very

small and older individuals prefer detritus and decaying vegetation (The Global Invasive Spe cies Database, 2006). Major hosts include:

 Amaranthus sp.,(Amaranthaceae);  Alocasia sp .,  Colocasia sculenta,  Xanthosoma brasiliensis (Araceae);  Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae);  Citrillus lanatus,  Cucumis melo, C. sativus,  Cucurbita maxima, C. pepo, Luffa sp ., (Cucurbitaceae);  Arachis hypogea,  Glycine max,  Pisum sativum (Fabaceae);  Allium cepa (Liliaceae);  Gossypium sp (Malvaceae);  Musa paradisiaca (

Musaseae );  Coffea arabica, C. canephora , (Rubiaceae);  Citrus sinensis, C. reticulata (Rutaceae);  Solanum melongena,  Lycopersicum sculentum,  Capsicum annun (Solanaceae);  Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae);**14**  Camellia sinensis (Theaceae) ( ( Raut and Barke 2002 ) ). The bacterium Pectobacterium cypripedii affects plant species within the Orchidacea e family , including Cypipedium sp . and Phalaenopsis amabilis . I

n addition, the pest will occasionally infect Carica papaya (Caricaceae). The mite, Tetranychus kanzawai , can feed on more than 160 plant species in at least 60 families (Migeon and Dorkeld, 2006), including:

 Cordyline fruticosa , C. terminalis, Draca ena fragrans, Polianthes tuberosa (

Agavaceae)  Eucharis grandiflora (Amaryllidaceae)  Annona squamosal (Annonaceae)  Nerium indicum (Apocy naceae)  Alocasia macrorhiza, A. odora , Colocasia esculenta (Araceae)  Aralia elata, A. nudicaulis , Polyscias guilfoylei (Araliaceae)  Areca catechu (Arecaceae (Palmae))  Achillea filipendulina, Ageratum sp., Ambrosia ambrosioides, Arctium lappa, Chrysanthemum sp., Dahlia sp., Helianthus annuus, Senecio cruentus, Sonchus oleraceus (Asteraceae)  Impatiens balsamina , Impatiens sp. ( Balsaminaceae)  Bambuseae, Polyanthus sp. ( Bambusaceae)  Corylus heterophylla ( Betulaceae)  Ehretia macrophylla ( Boraginaceae)  Brassica juncea ( Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)  Platycodon grandiflorum ( Campanulaceae)  Humulus japonicas , Humulus lupulus ( Cannabaceae)  Sambucus sp. ( Caprifoliaceae)  Carica papaya ( Caricaceae)  Gypsophila paniculata, Dianthus caryophyllus ( Caryophyllaceae)  Chenopodium sp. ( Chenopodiaceae)  Clethra alnifolia ( Clethraceae)  Terminalia catappa ( Combretaceae)  Commelina communis ( Comme linaceae)  Calystegia pellita, Ipomoea aquatic, I. batatas, Ipomoea sp. ( Convolvulaceae)  Benincasa hispida, Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucumis sp., Cucurbita sp., Diplocyclos palmatus, Lagenaria siceraria, Luffa acutangula, Trichosanthes cucumeroides ( Cucurbitaceae)  Cyathea sp. ( Cyatheaceae)  Dioscorea alata, D. oppposita ( Dioscoreaceae)**15**  Diospyros kaki ( Ebenaceae)  Acalypha sp., Codiaeum variegatum , Euphorbia pulcherrima, Jatropha sp. , Mallotus japonicas, Manihot esculenta , M. glaziovii, M. maritima, Melanolepis multiglandulosa ( Euphorbiaceae)  Amphicarpaea bracteata, Arachis hypogaea, Canavalia sp., Erythrina variegate, Glycine max, G. soja, Glycine sp., Lablab purpureus, Lathyrus odoratus , Mimosa invisa, Phaseolus lunatus, P. vulgaris, Phase olus sp., Pisum sativum, Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, Pueraria lobata, P. montana, P. thunbergiana, Robinia pseudoacacia, Trifolium pretense, T. repens, Trifolium sp., Vicia faba, Vigna angularis, V. catiang, V. unguiculata ( Fabaceae)  Gentiana scabra ( Gentianaceae)  Gladiolus sp. ( Iridaceae)  Perilla frutescens, Perilla sp. ( Lamiaceae (Labiatae))  Akebia quinata ( Lardizabalaceae)  Polygonatum falcatum ( Liliaceae)  Althaea rosea , Gossypium sp. , Hibiscus syriacus ( Malvaceae)  Maranta sp. ( Marantaceae)  Melia sp., Sandoricum indicum ( Meliaceae)  Artocarpus integrifolia, Ficus religiosa , Morus alba, Morus australis, Morus bombycis ( Moraceae)  Musa sp. ( Musaceae)  Averrhoa carambola ( Oxalidaceae)  Passiflora edulis ( Passifloraceae)  Sesamum indicum ( Pedaliaceae)  Saccharum officinarum, Sorghum vulgare (=bicolor), Zea mays, ( Poaceae)  Polygonum multiflorum ( Polygonaceae)  Primula sieboldii, Trientalis sp. ( Primulaceae)  Punica granatum ( Punicaceae)  Thalictrum minus ( Ranunculaceae)  Ziziphus mauritiana ( Rhamnaceae)  Eriobotrya japonica, Fragaria chiloensis (=x ananassa), Kerria japonica, Malus domestica, Prunus armeniaca, P. avium, P. campanulata, P. mume, P. persica, Pyrus communis, P. japonica, P. pyrifolia, P. serotina, Rosa hybrid, Rubus crataegifolius, R. thunber gii ( Rosaceae)  Galium spurium, Gardenia jasminoides ( Rubiaceae)  Citrus grandis , C. limon, Murraya paniculata, Orixa japonica, Poncirus trifoliate, Zanthoxylum piperitum ( Rutaceae)  Populus sp., Salix glandulosa ( Salicaceae)  Cardiospermum halicacabum ( Sapind aceae)  Hydrangea hortensia ( Saxifragaceae)**16**  Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens, Lycium chinense, Solanum melongena, S. nigrum, S. torvum ( Solanaceae)  Strelitzia reginae ( Strelitziaceae)  Camellia sinensis ( Theaceae)  Celtis sinensis (Ulmaceae)  Boehmeria nivea, Urtica thunbergiana (Urticaceae)  Clerodendrum trichotomum, Tectona grandis, Verbena hortensis , V. phlogiflora (Verbenaceae)  Viola mandshurica (Violaceae)  Cayratia japonica, Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae)  Zingiber officinale ( Zingiberaceae) (APHI S, 2012a) 

### B. Climate **- Host Interaction**  Climate limits the potential distribution and survival of pest species. The climactic limitations of the quarantine pests of concern are as follows: Scirtothrips dorsalis is a thrips that is distributed over several tropical and subtropical countries (CABI, 2011, EPPO, 1997a) that correspond to Plant Hardiness Zones 7

– 11 (USDA , 2005). This includes portions of the following States and territories: Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, Mississippi, L ouisiana, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey , Connecticut, New York, and Massachusetts. Amsacta lactinea , or red ti ger moth, is found in parts of the world that correspond to Plant Hardiness Zones 9

– 11 in the continental United States ( ( Magarey

et al. 2008 ) ). The se Plant Hardiness Zone s are currently found within portions of California, Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, Texas, Louisiana, Flori da, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (USDA, 2012c)
. The leafworm , S

. litura , is widely

distributed over several subtropical and tropical countries ( ( EPPO 1997c ) b ) corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 7

– 11 ( ( Magarey et al. 2008 ) ). This includes portions of the following States and territories: Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, Mississippi, L ouisiana, Alab ama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey , Connecticut, New York, and Massachusetts (USDA, 2012c)
. The spider mite T. kanzawai was reported in the United States in the**17** States of California and New York (Migeon and Dorkeld, 2006). However, it is estimated that the pest could establish permanent outside populations in Plant Hardiness Zones 9

– 11, which include portions of California, Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, Texas, L ouis iana, Florid a, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (USDA, 2012c ) . O ne or more of its potential hosts occur in these zones (Magarey et al., 2008). Thrips palmi ( T. palmi) is a thrips that is subtropical to tropical in distribution
. P opulations in temperate climates are able to overwinter in greenhouses or other artificial situations because it cannot survive subzero temperatures for more than a few days ( ( Lewis 1997 ) ; ( Capinera 2010 ) ). Based on this distribution, it is estimated that T. palmi could establish in the United States in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9

– 11. The s e Plant Hardiness Zones are currently found within portions of California, Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, Texas, Louisiana, Flori da, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. One or more of its potential hosts occur in these zones ( (USDA 1990 ) 2012c ; ( Magarey

et al. 2008 ) ). Among the snails D. laeve, L. alte, M. bilineatum, M. picturm, P. martensi, and P. vesta , most have been reported from countries in East Asia (Hollingsworth et al., 2007; Noseworthy and Choi, 2007; Wu and Tsai, 2003). These correspond to Plant Hardiness Zones 9

– 11, which are currentl y found within portions of California, Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, Texas, L ouisiana, Florida, Hawaii, an d Puerto Rico (USDA, 2012c)
. The snail Lissachatina fulica can inhabit ranges far outside of tropical areas, where most members of the Family Achatinidae are found. The snail is able to enter dormancy to survive temperatures as low as 2°C or 35.6°F (US DA , 2005; Raut and Barke, 2002)
. Overall, this species is likely to survive in Plant Hardiness Zones 10

– 11, which includes portions of California, Arizona, Hawaii, southern Florida, and Puerto Rico (USDA, 2012c)
. However, based on the worldwide distrib ution of L. fulica , it is most likely associated with tropical and subtropical broadleaf forests, which do not occur in the United States
. Pectobacterium cypripedii was reported in California, Florida, Idaho, New Mexico, and New York
. These Stat es f eature Plant Hardiness Zones 3

– 11, which are found throughout large portions of the United States (USDA, 2012c) . Based on this distribution, the bacterium could establish outdoors on host species found in Puerto Rico and Hawaii. The fungus B. zizaniae infects Zizania latifolia (Hsieh et al., 2000), so it can be expected to survive where Z. latifolia grows naturall y in the environment. Zizania latifolia is present in areas that correspond to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9

– 11 (USDA , 2008 ; USDA, 2012c ). The s e Plant Hardiness Zones are currently found within portions of**18** California, Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, Texas, Louisiana, Flori da, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. 

### C. Threatened and Endangered Species The following table lists threatened and/or endangered plant species that may be impacted by

the establishment of actionable pests identified by

the PRA . These pests may follow the pathway

of Oncidium from Taiwan into the United States
. **Table 2 .**  **Quarantine p**  **ests that m**  **ay f** **ollow the**  **p athway on**  **Oncidium**

**spp. plants**  **from Taiwan into the United States and the**  **associated Threatened and/or Endangered plant species that may be affected by their establishment**  **(A PHIS, 2012**  **a ).**  Actionable Pest Listed Plant Species Distribution of Listed Species A. lactinea Achyranthes mutica HI

Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata HI Crotalaria avonensis FL Cyperus trachysanthos HI Euphorbia haeleeleana HI Helianthus schweinitzii NC, SC Euphorbia telephioides FL Vigna o

- wahuensis HI Helianthus paradoxus NM, TX S. litura Trifolium amoenum CA

T. stoloniferum AR, IN, KY, MO, OH, WV T. trichocalyx CA Solanum drymophilum Puerto Rico Solanum incompletum HI Solanum sandwicense HI Allium munzii CA Amaranthus brownii HI Amaranthus pumilus DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA Helianthus paradoxus NM, TX Helianthus schweinitzii NC, SC Lilium occidentale CA, OR Lilium pardalinum ssp. pitkinense CA Manihot walkerae TX Alopecurus aequalis var. sonomensis CA Aristida chaseae Puerto Rico Aristida portoricensis Puerto Rico Calamagrostis hillebrandii HI Cenchrus agrimonioides HI Eragrostis fosbergii HI Festuca molokaiensis HI Ischaemum byrone HI Neostapfia colusana CA Neostapfia colusana CA Orcuttia inaequalis CA Orcuttia pilosa CA**19** Orcuttia tenuis CA Orcuttia viscida CA Panicum fauriei var. carteri HI Panicum niihauense HI Poa atropurpurea CA Poa mannii HI Poa napensis CA Poa sandvicensis HI Poa siphonoglossa HI Swallenia alexandrae CA Tuctoria greenei CA Tuctoria mucronata CA Vigna o

- wahuensis HI Zizania texana TX Sesbania tomentosa HI Prunus geniculate FL T. palmi Allium munzii CA

Cucurbita okeechobeensis spp. okeechobeensis FL Solanum drymophilum Puerto Rico Solanum incompletum HI Solanum sandwicense HI Vigna o

- wahuensis HI Helianthus paradoxus NM, TX Helianthus schweinitzii SC, NC Amaranthus brownie HI Amaranthus pumilus DE, NC, NJ, NY, SC, VA Cranichis ricartii Puerto Rico Isotria medeoloides CT, DE, GA, IL, MA, ME, MI, MO, NC, NH, NJ, NY, OH, PA, RI, SC, TN, VA, WV Lepanthes eltoroensis Puerto Rico Piperia yadonii CA Platanthera holochila HI Platanthera leucophaea IA, IL, IN, ME, MI, MO, OH, OK, VA, WI Platanthera praeclara IA, KS, MN, MO, ND, NE, OK, SD Spiranthes delitescens AZ Spiranthes diluvialis CO, ID, MT, NE, NV, UT, WA, WY Spiranthes parksii TX Vigna o

- wahuensis HI S. dorsalis Allium munzii CA

Amaranthus pumilus DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA Cucurbita okeechobeensis ssp. Okeechobeensis FL Amaranthus brownii HI Rhododendron chapmanii FL Helianthus paradoxus NM, TX Helianthus schweinitzii SC, NC Vigna o

- wahuensis HI**20** Solanum drymophilum Puerto Rico Solanum incompletum HI Solanum sandwicense HI Gardenia brighamii HI Gardenia mannii HI Ilex cookii Puerto Rico Ilex sintenisii Puerto Rico Quercus hinckleyi TX Pittosporum halophilum HI Pittosporum hawaiiense HI Pittosporum napaliense HI Portulaca sclerocarpa HI Ziziphus celata FL Prunus geniculate FL Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum HI Zanthoxylum hawaiiense HI Zanthoxylum oahuense HI Zanthoxylum thomasianum HI T. kanzawai Zizania texana TX D. laeve Cucurbita okeechobeensis ssp.

Okeechobeensis FL Solanum drymophilum HI Solanum incompletum HI Solanum sandwicense HI L. fulica Cucurbita okeechobeensis ssp.

okeechobeensis FL Amaranthus pumilus DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA Amaranthus brownii HI Solanum drymophilum PR Solanum incompletum HI Solanum sandwicense HI Vigna o

- wahuensis HI Opuntia treleasei CA Scirpus ancistrochaetus MD, MA, NH, NY, PA, VT, VA, WV Cereus eriophorus var. fragrans FL Manihot walkerae TX Allium munzii CA Clitoria fragrans FL Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus HI Hibiscus brackenridgei HI Hibiscus clayi HI Hibiscus dasycalyx TX Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae HI Gardenia brighamii HI Gardenia mannii HI Portulaca sclerocarpa HI Eryngium aristulatum var. parishii CA Eryngium constancei CA Eryngium cuneifolium FL**21** Asplenium fragile var. insulare HI Asplenium scolopendrium var. americanum AL, MI, NY, TN Pteris lidgatei HI L. alte Listed plants of the Families Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae,

Lauraceae, Malvaceae, Oleaceae, and Orchidaceae **Genus and species -**  **level data unspecified** M. bilineata M. pictum P. martensi P. vesta P. cypripedii Cranichis ricartii Puerto Rico, HI

Lepanthes eltoroensis Puerto Rico, HI Platanthera holochila Puerto Rico, HI B. zizaniae Zizania texana TX P otential negative effects to listed members of the Family Orchidaceae may result from the introdu ction and establishment of pest species associated with the preferred alternative , or habitat encroachment, should imported Oncidium plants establish. Currently , member s of Family Orchidacea are listed as threatened or endangered, including: Small Whorled begonia (

Isotria medeoloides ), Ute ladies’
- tresses (Spiranthes diluvialis ), Canelo Hills ladies’
- tresses (Spiranthes delitescens ), Navasota ladies’
- tresses (Spiranthes parksii), Yadon’s piperia ( Piperia yadonii), white fringeless orchid (Platanthera integrilabia ), Eastern prairie fringed orchi d ( Platanthera leucophaea ), Platanthera holochila, and Western prairie fringed orchid ( Platanthera praeclara )
. The listed species Isotria medeoloides occurs in many places within the continental United States
. However, none features the habitat requirements of Oncidium

. Major threats to the recovery of I. medeoloides do not include h erbiv ory , predation , or habitat encroachment b y invasive species (FWS, 1992). However, slugs are considered serious pest s of the orchid in New England (FWS, 1992) , which features Plant Hardiness Zones that may accommodate D. laeve . The listed species, Spiranthes diluvialis, which was originally known only to Colorado, Utah, and Nevada is now reported to also occur in Wyoming, Montana, Nebraska, Idaho, and Washington where the temperatures are likely

to support Oncidium . H owever, S. diluvialis grows in moist soils and wet meadow habitats (NatureServe, 2002) which is unlikely

habitat for Oncidium
. Similarly , Spiranthes delitescens , or Canelo Hills ladies’
- tresses, occurs in marshy wetland in Arizona (NatureServe, 2002). Currentl y, p redation has not been identified as a threat to recovery efforts ( US FWS, 1995). Spiranthes parksii occur s i n open, lightly wooded, seasonall y moist soils along open w ooded margins of stream banks of the Brazos and Navasota Rivers in Texas (NatureServe, 2002). The soil moisture and average low temperatures of the region would not meet the habitat**22** requirements of Oncidium. Currentl y, p redation has not been identified a s a threat to recovery efforts (USFWS, 1984). Piperia yadonii , or Yadon’s piperia, is endemic to the pine forest and maritime chaparral communities of Monterrey County in California. This habitat would not support outdoor growth of Oncidium plants. The distribution of P. yadonii overlaps with the climate
- host distribution of each quarantine pest identified in the PRA
. Orchidaceae are identified as possible host plants for A. lactinae, B. zizaniae, L. fulica (Gregoric et al., 2013), P. cypripedii, S. litura, and T. palmi. Herbivory has been identified as a potential threat to the recovery of the listed species, although this is generall y associated with grazing b y mule deer (USFWS, 2009). Platanthera holochila is found on the islands of H awaii, in montane wet forests or bogs. This habitat is not suitable for outdoor growth of Oncidium plants. Predation by slugs has been identified as a potential threat to this species (USFWS, 1999 b ). Platanthera leucophaea occurs in cooler climates, such as Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, Virginia, and Wisconsin , which are not conducive to Oncidium (NatureServe, 2002). However, this distribution overlaps with the climate
- host range of S. litura , S. dorsalis , and D. laeve , three of the quarantine pests identified in the PRA . Members of the Family Orchidaceae are identified as host plants for S. litura and D. varians , a similar species to D. laeve . Pred ation , however, has not been identified as a threat to the recovery of P. leucophaea (USFWS, 1999 a). The taxonomically

related P. praeclara also occurs in areas with average nighttime temperatures that are likel y too low for Oncidium orchids to establish , such as Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Oklahoma (NatureServe, 2002). These states overlap the climate
- host range of P. cypripedii , whose plant host range includes members of Family Orchidaceae. Predation, however, has not been identified as a threat to re covery efforts (USFWS, 1996)
. 

## IV. Env **ironmental Impacts A.**  **No Ac**  **tion** There have been no reports of invasiveness of Oncidium orchids in the United States since bare
- rooted importations have been allowed to**23** enter the country . The importation of orchids into the United States has occurred for decades, and they are shipped to all known habitats. The PLANTS database ( http://plants.usda.gov) and other weed reporting services do not include reports of imported Oncidium orchids as invasive or having weed potential. A screening performed by PPQ for the weed potential of Oncidium from Taiwan showed that these plants did not me et the criteria of a weed pest (APHI S, 2012a). The screening took into account that the Oncidium plants that are already present in the United States are not reported as weeds. 

### B. **Preferred A lternative**  Within the United S tates , nonindigenous species have had major impacts including degradation of wildlife habitat, decreased biological diversity , altered natural ecos ys tems, and negative effects on fishing and water sports (OTA, 1993). There is concern that , because Taiwan is climatically

simi lar to portions of Florida, Hawaii , and Puerto Rico, the preferred alternative may allow for the introduction and s ubsequent establishment of nonindigenous species i n these areas. Many plants that are classified as weeds have a suite of characteristics associated with colonization capabilities, some of which characterize orchids in general, including abundant seed production and distance dispersal. Most orchids occur in frequentl y disturbed habitats, including pastures, roadsides, citrus groves, and coffee and tea farms (Ackerman, 2007). Reports of orchids as weeds inclu de Oeceoclades maculata , which has recently naturalized in central and southern Florida (Pemberton et al
. , 2008). Itis not known whether it escaped from cultivation or arrived in Florida via windblown seeds from the Greater Antilles or the nearb y Bahaman Archipelago (FNA, 2003). Monadenia bracteata is a species in Australia that flowers more abundantly

after fire (Bates, 1996). The introduced Epipactis helliborine is an orchid with few growth requirements and high environmental adaptability that grows as a weed across much of the Eastern United States (McCartney , 2010). However, c haracteristics of weedy orchid species, such as limited growth requirements and high environmental adaptability , do not represent the basic biology of Oncidium
. The greenhouse conditions that favor Oncidium feature temperatures between 55 degrees Fahrenheit and 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Plants prefer moderate humidity, between 30 and 60 percent (American Orchid Society, 2013)
. Oncidium ty pically require a two to ten - day “wet
- to - dry

cycle”, meaning before the roots are exposed to water, they must have remained completely dry for a period of two to ten**24** day s. For this reason, Oncidium species are most successful when grown in a coarse, porous medium (American Orchid Society , 2013)
. In addition, Oncidium plants require 20 to 60 percent shade , depending on the species. These environmental conditions are limited to portions of Florida, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. This c onstrain s the potential of this g enus to become invasive (Mooney an d Hobbs, 2000; Cox, 1999; Zimdahl, 1999; Devine, 1998; Radosevich et al ., 1997 ) and create s environmental and spatial barriers to plant introduction into native ecos ys tems
. Several arthropod pests ( S. litura, T. palmi , A. lactinea, S. dorsalis, and T. kanzawai), mollusk s ( D. varians , L. alte, M. bilineatum , M. pictum , P. martensi , L. fulica, and P. vesta , ), a bacteria ( P. cypripedii

) , and a fungus (

B. zizaniae ) were identified as quarantine pests likely to be imported with unmitigated shipments of Oncidium orchids. To help protect against accidental importation, phy tosanitary measures are required to minimize risk. Thrips palmi is subtropical to tropical in distribution, and cannot survive subzero temperatures for more than a few day s. U.S. populations are restricted to American Samoa, southern Florida, Guam, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (APHI S, 2012 a). Thrips palmi is a serious pe st of cucurbits and eggplant. The species is a vector of tomato spotted wilt tospovirus (CABI, 2001), which is difficult to control chemicall y, requiring repeated applications of insecticides to achieve acceptable levels of control (Sakimura et al., 1986)
. It s introduction would undoubtedly initiate control programs in areas of the United States because it is a major pest of numerous economic crops (e.g., beans, peppers, and tomatoes ). Outbreaks in crops with in the affected environment area would likely trigger increased chemical control programs similar to those now in effect for other caterpillars. H eav y infestations of thrips could cause dieback or death of host plants; however, outbreaks in other horticultural crops and orchids are not likely to occur due to its restricted host range. Spodoptera litura (S. litura) , is distributed over a number of U.S. trade cooperators that feature subtropical and tropical climates. The leafworm causes major damage to tobacco, cotton, chilis, cabbage, and other crops , and has a host range of at least 120 species (CPC, 2002). Most damage b y S. litura is caused b y larval foliar feeding, but larvae may also injure cotton bolls , and corn stalks and ears. This insect has high dispersal capability and potential for a h igh level of economic impact if it were to become established in the United States. Spodoptera litura is similar in biology and host range to arm y worms already present in the United States. Outbreaks in crops would likely **1. Insects 25**  trigger increased chemical control programs similar to those now in effect for other caterpillars. The host range of A. lactinea is very wide. Itfeeds on virtually all cultivated and wild vegetation , and is distributed over several subtropical and tropical countries
. Amsacta lactinea may reproduce several times each ye ar. This pest has a high reproductive potential, but because it is not a strong flier, its potential for dispersal is relativel y low
. The dispersal potential of S. dorsalis is informed by its ability to reprod uce large numbers of offspring over a relatively short period of time, and is capable of flying long distances. It has a very large host range, including several crop species, and has been reported as a serious pest of numerous commodities in several countries. The majority of these commodities occur in the United States , and include onions, t omatoes, tamarind, cashews, castor beans , cotton, citrus, peanuts, peppers, chilies, mangos, litchis, strawberries, tea, soy beans, capsicum, and grapevines ( (USDA
- APHIS
- PPQ
- CPHST 2005 ) ). Tetranychus kanzawai feeds on more than 160 plant species, and has caused serious damage to cherries in China and strawberries in Taiwan (USDA, 2012a). The range of host species of this pest includes economicall y- significant crops to the United States . Its establishment in Puerto Rico and Hawaii could result in the loss of foreign markets for various agricultural commodities. This spider mite has a high reproductive potential and is able to disperse long distances in contaminated plant material. The female of T. kanzawai can mature and deposit up to 3,000 eggs during its life; several generations per ye ar are possible.
The terrestrial snails , D

. laeve , L. alte, M

. bilineatum , M. pictum , P

. martensi , L. fulica, and P

. vesta , cannot travel long distances, unaided. The most active individuals tracked in a study moved 500 meters in six months ( ( Tomiyama and Nakane 1993 ) ), and natural spread is estimated to be a few hundred meters per ye ar ( ( Lambert and Tillier 1993 ) ). Most can be transpo rted for long distances on conveyances (transport vehicles) and non
- host plant material (e.g., soil, gravel, and baggage) ( CABI, 2011). Lissachatina fulica could be introduced on: bulbs, tubers, corms, rhizomes, leaves, roots, stems (above ground), shoots, trunks, branches. All of them could carry eggs, and juveniles that could be visible to the naked eye (CABI, 2011). The natural spread of these terrestrial snails appears to be limited, but their high reproductive potential and ability to be transported long distances increases the potential risks associated with these mollusks. **2. Snails** **26** Snail feeding reduces plant quality and productive leaf area, and some snails clip off succulent plant parts ( ( Godan 1983 ) ; ( Flinth 1999 ) ) . The introduction of the mollusk Bradybeana similaris into L ouisiana and other states necessitated control treatments for this pest ( (Aguirre and Poss 2000 ) ). Parmarion cf. martensi could become an important vector of Angiosiorus cantonensis in Hawaii ( ( Hollingsworth et al. 2007 ) ). PPQ found no reports about agricultural los ses caused b y Petalochlamys vesta, but this species could be as destructive as Pomacea canaliculata because of the wide variety of plants it is able to feed upon and the huge population sizes ( ( Lee and Wu 2006 ) ). The snail s may

alter the food chain in native ecosy stems by providing an alternative food source for predators. This can have unfortunate consequences if the predator species is also invasive (APHIS, 2012 a). In Miami
- Dade County, Florida, APHIS established a quarantine to control the spread of L. fulica
. An eradication program began in late 2012, and treatments are ongoing
. In India, L. fulica, caused severe damage to vegetable crops and rice paddies during 1946
- 47 when it appeared in epidemic proportions (Pallewatta et al., 2002 ; ( The Global Invasive Species Database 2006 ) ). Lissachatina fulica may also increase the spread of certain plant diseases via its feces, such as black pod disease caused b y Phytophthora palmivora ( ( Mead 1961 ) ; Muniappan et al., 1986, in ( CABI 2011a) ). Lissachatina fulica consumes large volumes of native plants, modifies habitats, and out
competes native snails (USDA, 2013). The snail may also alter the food chain within ecos ys tems by providing an alternative food source for predators ( ( Mead 1961 ) ). Movement of P. cypripedii (bacterial brown rot) from plant to plant is sometimes faci litated by

rain or water splash. In trade, it is likely to be moved by infected plants and compost. The host species for this bacterium are primaril y l imited to orchid s, but also include the tropical papaya fruit tree. The fungus B. zizaniae produces spores on infected tissue that are dispersed b y rain or water splash and wind. The spores are very prolific and easily

dispersed, surviving for an extended period of time in debris and soil. However, Oncidium is a secondary host of the fungus; its primary

host is water bamboo, and only infects Oncidium petals when in contact with infected water bamboo plants. 

### C. **Risk Management** Although the affected environment and the environmental consequences under both the no action alternative and the preferred alternative are the same, the risk management to prevent the introduction of pests differs between the two alternatives. The **3. Bacteria**

**4. Fungus 27**  follow ing section discusses the phyt osanitary measures imposed under the current importation scheme of bare
- rooted Oncidium orchids (no action alternative) and the proposed phyt osanitary measures for the import of these plants in growing media (preferred alternative). The phy tosanitary measures of the no action alternative would leave 7 CFR part 319 unchanged. Currentl y, Oncidiu m and other orchids are imported as bare
- rooted plants , growing on tree fern slabs , or in coconut husk or fiber (7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(d). All forms are enterable subject to inspection findings at designated ports of entry , that is, ports associated with facilities where propagative material can be examined (plant inspection stations). All orchid consignments must be accompanied b y a USDA permit and a phyt osanitary certificate issued by NPQS. This document certifies that the orchids have been inspected and found free of quarantine pests before shipment to the United States. No special growing conditions are required for these plants. Oncidium plants imported bare
- rooted generall y do not have buds or flowers , and roots are not hidden from view within growing media ; as such, visual inspection of these plants at the port of entry is effective. Inspection s of bare
- rooted orchid consignments are conducted b y PPQ personnel at a plant inspection station at the first port of entry in the United States. These stations are staffed with PPQ pest identification specialists, as well as PPQ officers, who carefully e xamine orchid consignments. Inspection and examination may be limited to a verification of the contents and a review of the documentation , or may consist of a standard inspection, including an inspection of at least 2 percent of the plants in the shipment . I f quarantine pests are discovered on bare
- rooted orchid consignments, appropriate phy tosanitary measures are conducted (e.g., treatment, destruction, or return of consignments to exporting country). This section describes the phy tosanitary measures required if Oncidium plants in approved growing media are imported into the continental United States from Taiwan . Amendment of 7 CFR part 319, according to the proposed rule, would allow importation of Oncidium orchids from Tai wan rooted in approved growing media, provided the orchids were produced, handled, and imported in accordance with the requirements of 7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(e) , and are accompanied at the time of importation by a phyt osanitary

certificate issued by BAPHIQ declaring that those requirements have been met. **Sy stems A**  **pproach** To effectivel y prevent the introduction of plant pests associated with plants grown in approved media, a series of important safeguards, **1. No A cti**  **on**

**2. Preferred Al**  **ternative 28**  (phy tosanitary measures ) must be in place. The risk management program used for plants in media is the sy stems approach

—a defined set of phy tosanitary procedures, at least two of which have an independent effect in mitigating pest risk associated with the movement of commodities . This approach relies on a series of phy tosanitary measures that, individually and cumulatively , reduce the pest risk posed by

pests that may

be associated with plants. All phases associated with plants established in growing media

— before planting, duri ng the growing period, postharvest, during transport, and importation

—are considered. The APHI S regulation on plants in media requires multiple phy tosanitary measures designed to reduce the pest risk. The overall sy stems approach operates like a s a fai l
- safe sy stem in that tiered safeguards are built into the process. That is, if one mitigating measure fails, other safeguards exist to ensure that the risk is progressivel y reduced and managed. The s ys tems approach is designed to apply

all the measures to obtain the maximum risk reduction and to appl y additional safeguards , as required. The steps or measures may

overlap or be redundant to ensure an adequate reduction in pest risk , and that the reduction of risk is maintained during the entire process. These measures would be applied to the importation of Oncidium orchids from Taiwan in approved growing media. **a. Ap**  **proved Plant Sources** The orchids imported into the United States will be greenhouse
- or laboratory
- propagated plants , or may be propagated in the laboratory from aseptic tissue culture. Wild or collected specimens and nondomesticated plants are not approved for importation into the United States. The plants must come from pest
- free moth er stock, as determined b y a PPQ or an BAPHIQ inspector, no more than 60 day s prior to the time the plants are established in the greenhouse. **b. Ap**  **proved Grow ing Media**  Plants offered for importation into the United States must be free of sand, soil, earth, and other unapproved growing m edia. This requirement helps prevent the introduction of plant pests that might be present in and around the roots , and also eliminates many soil
- and root - associated saprophytic organisms. Exceptions to the growing media requirement reflect additional f actors that mitigate plant pest risk. Those exceptions consider either the origin of the plants and the growing media (7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(b)), the nature of the growing media (§§ 319.37

– 8(c), (d)), or the use of a combination of growing conditions, approved media, inspections, and other requirements (§ 319.37

– 8(e)). Soil
- less and new, unused growing media eliminate**29** an initial source for pests, including S. litura, T. palmi, A. lactinea, S. dorsalis, and T. kanzawai, D. varians, L. alte, M. bilineatum, M. pictum, P. martensi, L. fulica, and P. vesta, P. cypripedii, and B. zizaniae
. Studies on APHI S
- approved growing media found that pathogens are not present (Santacroce, 1991). **c. Ag**  **reements** The orchids must be grown in accordance with written enforcement agreements between APHI S, BAPHIQ, and Taiwanese growers. This will include the preparation of an operational work plan that outlines specific detection and eradication protocols to detect and eliminate problem pests before the orchids are expo rted to the United States. The work plan also outlines how the program will be monitored and supervised to ensure compliance. Taiwanese orchid growers who plan to export Oncidium orchids in growing media must be registered with BAPHIQ ; any grower not in compliance with the work plan requirements will be eliminated from the program. **d. Exclusionary** 

**Greenhouse** The orchids for shipment must be grown in a pest exclusionary greenhouse using the following phyt osanitary measures: “Grown solely in a greenhouse in which sanitary procedures are adequate to exclude plant pests and diseases are always employed, including cleaning and disinfection of floors, benches, and tools, and the application of measures to protect against any injurious plant diseases , and injurious insect pests, and other plant pests” (7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(e)(2)(ii)). These measures may include trapping, surveying, and scouting to determine if pests are present, and pesticide applications or other control measures to eliminate pests that are discovered. **e. Raised Benches**  The height of the benches on which the orchids are grown must be at least 46 centimeters above the floor. Raised benches reduce the chance of water being splashed onto benches from the floors that might be contaminat ed with nematodes, pathogens, and weed seeds. Also, because snails and slugs have the capability to climb up sidings and posts, higher benches make it more difficult for snails and slugs to climb and decrease the chances that such pests will invade the pl ants and media. The benches must be supported by legs that have copper plates wrapped around each leg, or an equivalent means of preventing snail infestation.**30 f.**  **Floors** Greenhouse floors must be completel y void of soil. They must be composed of permanent material that can be cleaned and sanitized to destroy pathogens and nematodes, and to prevent establishment of weeds. **g. Au**  **tomatic Doors** Automatic closing doors are required to exclude flyinginsects from entering the growing area. They are also used, to a limited extent, to keep windborne pests from being blown into the growing area and provide a phy sical barrier that reduces the exposure of the plants to splashing b y rain and irrigation water (Agrios, 1997). **h. Screens**  Greenhouses have vents or openings principall y for the exchange of outside air and for temperature control. The addition of screens to these openings lowers the risk of certain pests entering the greenhouse. Screens must have openings no larger than 0.6 mm. Screens with 0.6 mm openings do not exclude all pests; however, they will act as a deterrent or barrier to many pests, including S. litura , D. varians, and C. boninense
. **i. Sanitation**  Sanitary procedures must be used to maintain the greenhouse relativel y free of pests. A suitable disinfectant should be employed to sanitize the greenhouse interior prior to plantings to reduce pathogens, nematodes, and other pests. These procedures should also include keeping tools, hoses, benches, floors, work areas, and floor benches clean and properl y sanitized. The grower should maintain a record of the number of times disinfection takes place. **j. Detention Periods**  Plant materials are commonly detained to allow time for certain pests to develop and become visible and detectable. Moth er stock orchids must be grown in Taiwan for at least 9 months prior to export of descendant orchids to the United S tates
. Moth er plants imported into Taiwan from another country must be grown at least 12 months in Taiwan prior to the export of descendant orchids to the United States. The growing period can be reduced to 9 months, as above, provided there is a prescribed treatment of th e moth er stock upon importation of that plant into Taiwan . Descendant plants in media must be rooted and grown in an active state of foliar growth for at least 4 consecutive**31** months prior to export. Detention periods are necessary to allow ample time for the expression of disease, s ymptoms, and other signs of pests. **k. Clean Water Sources**  The water source for plant watering must be either rainwater that has been boiled or pasteurized, clean well water, or potable water. Water is considered one of the principal means for the dispersal of plant pests, including pathogens and snails ; water from clean sources must be used to ensure that phy tosanitary measures are effective. **l. Phy** **tosanitary Certificate** A phy tosanitary certificate must be issued by BAPHIQ . This document must accompany the plants during importation and certif y that the required growing conditions were met.
**m. Inspection**  Inspections are an integral phy tosanitary measure to reduce p est risk. In growing areas in Taiwan , inspection of Oncidium orchids in growing media is primarily the responsibility

of BAPHIQ
. Whenever pests of quarantine significance are found during inspection, appropriate action must be taken promptl y, as outlined in the operational work plan. Moth er stock must be inspected b y a PPQ or a BAPHI Q inspector and found free of evidence of diseases and insect pests. The rationale is to inspect the moth er stock in advance of any movement to ensure a pest free source of plant material used for descendant plants. Inspection must take place no more than 60 day s prior to the time the article is established in the greenhouse. Inspection of moth er stock is a primary measure to prevent the introduction of pests such as snails , insects, and pathogens into greenhouse crops. For descendant plants, an inspection must be performed no more than 30 day s prior to the date of export , and must be done on the premises or site where the orchids are grown to prevent contaminants and hitchhikers from entering the shipment. Because the roots cannot be visually examined while in growing media, a small number of plants will be randomly

inspected and removed from the media to examine the roots and the inside of the media ball. PPQ inspectors will visit Taiwan periodicall y to ensure the program is working adequately , including review of treatment and control records generated b y registered Taiwanese growers.**32** At the port of entry

in the United States, inspecti on of orchid consignments will be conducted b y PPQ at plant inspection stations. These stations are staffed with PPQ pest identification specialists, as well as PPQ officers, who will carefull y examine orchid consignments. Generally , initial consignments from a newl y approved importation program (e.g., orchids in APHI S
- approved growing media) are subjected to rigorous inspections that include the removal of plants from pots to examine roots and growing media. Once the program becomes established, the in s pection and examination may be limited to a verification of the contents and a review of the documentation or the inspection may

consist of a standard inspection of at least 2 percent of the plants in the consignment, including roots and growing media. Standard inspection techniques are highl y likel y to detect larger mature and juvenile forms of the snails D. laeve , L. alte, M. bilineatum , M. pictum , P. martensi , L. fulica, and P. vesta present on plants. Mollusks can also be detected b y the slime trails, excrement, chewed leaves, and lesions they leave behind on plants. This would allow snails to be detected either before they enter the greenhouse or during required inspections. Small eggs in soil are difficult to detect; however, the use o f clean, approved growing media not previously used will reduce the likelihood of their presence. In addition, plants produced in APHIS
- approved growing media under pest
- exclusionary conditions are expected to be free of snail eggs. Spider mites, such as T. kanazawa , can be detected by careful examination of the plant leaves. They are typically found on the underside of the leaf, where they feed. As a result, the upper surface of the leaf develops characteristic whitish or yellowish stippling. As mit es move around, they

spin webbing on leaves and stems
. Earl y instar larvae of the red tiger moth, A. lactinea , cause damage to host plant leaves. Their presence can be detect ed by pellets of larval excrement, or whitish leaves , a result of earl y- instar larval feeding ; heav y damage indicates the presence of late
- instar larvae, which can be readil y detected on the plants. Eggs may also be detected on the underside of the leaves, grouped in rows of 6
- 22, which make them easier to detect. Because thrips are small, S. dorsalis can hide in plant parts and can be difficult to detect b y visual inspection alone. However, plant material can be carefull y examined for signs of infestation, such as scars, deformities, and discoloration
. T. palmi , another thrips s pecies, attacks the stem, particularl y at or near the growing tip, and are also found amongst the petals and developing ovaries in flowers and on the surface of fruit. They

leave numerous scars and deformities.**33** The adult stage of the moth S. litura is 15

–2 0 mm long with a wingspan of 30

– 38 mm , and is easily detected upon inspection. Newl y hatched larvae can be detected b y the “scratch” marks left on the leaf surface. Larvae are defoliators, which feed extensively on plants and produce visible leaf dam age. Older larvae are night feeders and can be found in the soil around the base of the plants during the day
. The fungus B. zizaniae is detected b y spots on petals of Oncidium orchids, which are easily

identified by

visual inspection. Itis assumed that the fungus does not display dormancy , and that infected plants readil y express s ymptoms. The bacterium P. cypripedii causes brown rot on orc hids. Upon close inspection of the leaves, its presence easil y detected by small, water
soaked lesions. The lesions will grow in size, into large brown, greas y- looking, slightl y s unken areas. In order to protect against the introduction and spread of invasive plant pests and diseases, APHIS has established a risk
- based sampling protocol for inspecting Oncidium from Taiwan at its plant inspection stations , prior to entry

into the United S tates
. In accordance with procedures directed b y APHI S Agricultural Quarantine Inspection Monitoring (AQIM) protocol, i f the frequency of interceptions of a quarantine pest surpasses the level specified in the risk
- based sampling protocol , PPQ will require more specific mitigation against the pest(s) of concern. APHI S
- inspected,
- approved, and
- registered greenhouses in Taiwan will identify specific problem greenhouses or growers . In addition, if quarantine pests are discovered on orchid consignments at the port of entry , appropriate phy

tosanitary measures will be conducted (e.g., treatment, destruction, or return of consignment to exporting country).
**n. Packing and Storing**  Plants for export must be packed and stored in areas free of sand, soil, and plant pests. This will prevent contamination and the introduction of hitchhikers. Oncidium plants shall not be packed in the same c ontainer as prohibited articles. **Conclusions** APHI S has determined that quarantine pests are effectivel y removed from the pathway , and effectivel y precluded from establishment in the continental United States by the mitigation measures already present in**34** the applicable regulations. The PRA has determine d that importation of orchids ( Oncidium spp.) from Taiwan , under the conditions required by 7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(e) , pose no greater pest risks than the risks presented b y other epiphytic orchid material currently allowed entry

as bare
- rooted plants. The same pests identified in the PRA that may be imported with orchids in growing media may also be imported with consignments of bare
- rooted orchids currentl y being imported into the United States. The risk asses sment concluded that application of additional safeguards will reduce the risk posed by the importation of Oncidium orchids in approved growing media to a level similar to that posed by currently permitted bare
- rooted importations (APHI S, 2012b)
. If quarantine pests accompanying Oncidium shipments were to become established in the United States, an eradication program would likely be initiated. Although eradication of any nonindigenous pest would require the use of pesticides, APHI S would prepare the ne cessary environmental documentation under NEPA and the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in advance of any eradication activities. 

### D. **Endangered Species A ct**  Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act ( ESA) and the ESA’s implementing regulations require Federal agencies to consult with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and/or the National Marine Fisheries Service to ensure that their actions are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of thre atened or endangered species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat. APHI S submitted a biological assessment (BA) to FWS, Arlington, Virginia , in compliance with Section 7 of the ESA. APHI S has determined that the proposed action may affect, but is not likely

to adversel y affect federally
- listed plants and plants proposed for listing that are potential hosts of the 14 quarantine pests identified in the PRA or the designated or proposed critical habitat of those plant species. This includes all of the listed orchids and their critical habitat : Cranichis ricartii, Lepanthes eltoroensis , Platanthera holochila , Spiranthes delitescens , Spiranthes parksii , Piperia yadonii , Isotria medeoloides, Spiranthes diluvialis, Platanthera leucophaea, and Platanthera praeclara ), Allium munzii and critical habitat , Alopecurus aequalis var. sonomensis , Amaranthus brownii and critical habitat , Amaranthus pumilus, Achyranthes mutica and critical habitat, Achyra nthes splendens var. rotundata and critical habitat, Aristida chaseae , Aristida portoricensis , Asplenium fragile var. insulare and critical habitat, Asplenium scolopendrium var. americanum , Calamagrostis hillebrandii , Cenchrus agrimonioides and critical**35** habitat , Cereus eriophorus var. fragrans , Clitoria fragrans , Crotalaria avonensis , Cucurbita okeechobeensis ssp. okeechobeensis , Cyperus trach ysanthos and critical habitat, Eragrostis fosbergii and critical habitat , Eryngium aristulatum var. parishii , Eryngium constancei , Eryngium cuneifolium , Euphorbia haeleeleana and critical habitat, Euphorbia telephioides, Festuca molokaiensis , Gardenia brighamii , Gardenia mannii and critical habitat, Helianthus paradoxus and critical habitat, Helianthus schweinitzii , Helianthus verticillatus and proposed critical habitat

, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus and critical habitat, Hibiscus brackenridgei and critical habitat, Hibiscus clayi and critical habitat, Hibiscus dasyca lyx and critical habitat, Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae and critical habitat, Ilex cookii , Ilex sintenisii , Ischaemum byrone and critical habitat, Lilium occidentale , Lilium pardalinum ssp. pitkinense, Manihot walkerae, Neostapfia colusana and critical habitat, Opuntia treleasei , Orcuttia californica , Orcuttia inaequalis and critical habitat, Orcuttia pilosa and critical habitat, Orcuttia tenuis and critical habitat, Orcuttia v iscida and critical habitat, Panicum fauriei var. carteri and critical habitat, Panicum niihauense and critical habitat, Pittosporum halophilum , Pittosporum hawaiiense , Pittosporum napaliense , Poa atropurpurea and critical habitat, Poa mannii and critical habitat, Poa napensis , Poa sandvicensis and critical habitat, Poa siphonoglossa and critical habitat, Portulaca sclerocarpa and critical habitat, Prunus geniculata , Pteris lidgatei , Quercus hinckleyi , Rhododendron chapmanii, Scirpus ancistrochaetus , Sesbania tomentosa and critical habitat, Solanum drymophilum , Solanum incompletum and critical habitat, Solanum sandwicense and critical habitat, Swallenia alexandrae, Tuctoria greenei and critical habitat, Tuctoria mucronata and critical habitat , Vicia menziesii

, Vigna o

- wahuensis and critical habitat, Vio la chamissoniana ssp. chamissoniana and critical habitat, Viola helenae and critical habitat, Viola kauaiensis var. wahiawaensis and critical habitat, Viola lanaiensis , Viola oahuensis and critical habitat, Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum and critical habitat, Zanthoxylum hawaiiense and critical habitat, Zanthoxylum oahuense and critical habitat, Zanthoxylum thomasianum and critical habi tat, Ziziphus celata , and Zizania texana and critical habitat
. APHI S has requested concurrence with these determinations, and is currentl y engaged in consultation with FWS.


### E. **Other Considerations Executive Orders**  Executive Order (EO) 12898, "Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and L ow - Income**36** Populations," focuses Federal attention on the environmental and human health conditions of minority and low
- income communities , and promotes community access to publi c information and public participation in matters relating to human health or the environment. Th is EO requires Federal agencies to conduct their programs, policies, and activities that substantially affect human health or the environment in a manner so a s not to exclude persons and populations from participation in or benefitting from such programs. It also enforces existing statutes to prevent minority and low
- income communities from being subjected to disproportionately high and adverse human health or environmental effects. Neither alternative poses disproportionately

high or adverse human health or environmental effects to any specific minority or low
- income group. EO 13045, “Protection of Children from Environmental Health Risks and Safety Risks,” acknowledges that children may suffer disproportionately

from environmental health and safety risks because of their developmental stage, greater metabolic activity levels, and behavior patterns as compared to adults. The EO, (to the extent permitted by

l aw and appropriate, and consistent with the agency ’s mission) requires each Federal agency to consider environmental health risks and safety

risks that may

disproportionately

affect children. Neither alternative is expected to have disproportionately high or adverse human health or environmental effects to children. 

## V. Listing of A**gencies Consulted** Environmental and Risk Analy sis Services Policy and Program Development Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service U.S. Department of Agriculture 4700 River Road, Unit 149 Riverdale, MD 20737

– 1238 Phy tosanitary I ssues Management Plant Protection and Quarantine Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service U.S. Department of Agriculture 4700 River Road, Unit 140 Riverdale, MD 20737

– 1228 Regulations, Permits, and Manuals Plant Protection and Quarantine Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service U.S. Department of Agriculture 4700 River Road, Unit 141 Riverdale, MD 20737

– 1228**37** 

## VI. **References** Ackerman, J.D. , 2007. Invasive o rchids: Weeds we hate to love? Lankes teriana 7(1

–2):19

–21. Agrios, G.N., 1997. Plant Pathology , 4 th edition, Academic Press, NY, 656 pp. APHI S

— See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service American Orchid Society, 2013. “ Oncidium ”. Available at: http://gardens.si.edu/collections
- research/docs/orchid
- oncidium.pdf
. [2013, November 12] Bailey , L.H. and E.Z. Bailey , 1976. Hortus third: a concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. MacMillan, NY, 1290 pp. Bates, B., 1996. The history of Monadenia. Native Orchid Society of South Australia, J20.3:25

–26 CABI

— S ee Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International Capinera, J. L . 2000. Melo n thrips, Thrips palmi Karny (Thys anoptera: Thripidae). In Featured Creatures. University of Florida. Gainesville, Florida. Available at : http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/veg/leaf/melon_thrips.htm. C entre for A gricultural B ioscience International, 2011
. Wallingford, UK: CABI. C entre for A gricultural B ioscience International, 2002 . Crop protection compendium (CPC) . Wallingford, UK: CABI. Cox, G.W. , 1999. Alien species in North America and Hawaii: impacts on natural ecosystems. Is land Press, Washington. 388 pp. CPC

— See Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International Crous, P.W., S. Denman, J.E. Taylor, L. Swart, and M. E. Palm , 2004. Cultivation and diseases of Proteaceae: Leucadendron, Leucosperm um and Protea
. Centraalburea u voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Utrecht, Netherlands. 226 pp. CSA

— See Oncidium Society of America**38** Oncidium Society

of America , 2008. Oncidium s. http://www. Oncidium .org/ Oncidium .html [2 013, Feb. 15 ]
. Daly , H. V., Bohart, G. E., & Thorp, R. W., 1971. Introduction of small carpenter bees into California for pollination. Release of Pithitis smaragdula. Journal of Economic Entomology , 64 (5), 1145
- 1150. Devine, R. , 1998. Alien i nvasion: America's b attle with n on - native animals and p lants. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C ., 280 pp. Dressler, R. L., 1981. The orchids. Natural history and classification. Harvard University Press, L ondon. EPPO

— See European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization Edwards, G. B., G. Hoddle, and W. N. Dixon. 2010. Chilli thrips: Scirtothrips dorsali s Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) A new pest thrips for Florida. . Pest alert. FDACS, DPI. European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization , 19 97a. Data sheets on quarantine p ests: Erwinia chrysanthem i . Available at www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/bacteria/Erwinia_chrys anthemi/ERWI CH_ds.pdf [2013, Oct. 10] European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization , 1997b. Data s heets on quarantine p ests: Spodoptera littoralis and Spodoptera litura
. Available at : www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/insects/Spodoptera_litura/PRODLI_ds .pdf [2013, Oct. 10] FAO

— See Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Flora of North America , 2003. Oeceoclades maculate. Flora of North America. 26. p. 640

– 641. Available at: http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242101 809 [2013, Feb
. 14]. FNA

— See Flora of North America Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , 2002. Glossary of p hy tosanitary t erms . IS PM Pub. No. 5. Rome, Ital y, 76 pp. FWS

— See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service**39** The Global Invasive Species Database , 2006. Ac hatina fulica (mollusk). The Global Invasive Species Database http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology .asp?si=64 (Archived at PERAL). Gregoric, D. E. G., Beltramino, A. A., Vogler, R. E., Cuezzo, M. G., Núñez, V., Gom es, S. R., ... & Miquel, S. E., 2013 . First Records of Four Exotic Slugs in Argentina. American Malacological Bulletin, 31(2), 245
- 256. Hollingsworth, R. G., and K. T. Sewake. 2002. The Orchid Snail as a Pest of Orchids in Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. Miscellaneous Pests, MP
- 1. Hsieh, T. F., Y. C. Chang, and C. C. Tu. 2000. Petal spot of Oncidium hybridium caused b y Bipolaris ziziniae . Plant Pathology Bulletin 9:75
- 78. Hydro
- orchids.com, 2013. “Orchid care

– Oncidium”. Available at: http://www.hydro
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