Importation of Fresh Pepper – Capsicum annuum L., 

Capsicum baccatum L., Capsicum chinense Jacq., Capsicum 

frutescens L., and Capsicum pubescens Ruiz & Pav. – Fruit 

with Stems from Central America into the United States

A Qualitative, Pathway-Initiated Risk Analysis

April 27, 2009

Rev. 001

Agency Contact

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

United States Department of Agriculture 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

1730 Varsity Dr. Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27606
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. 001 April 27, 2009 ii

Executive Summary

In this document we present an analysis of the risks associated with the importation of fresh 

pepper fruit with stems, specifically the domesticated species Capsicum annuum L., C. baccatum

L., C. chinense Jacq, C. frutescens L., and C. pubescens Ruiz & Pav., from the Central American 

countries of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. We 

updated a 2004 assessment, added Panama as an exporting country, and added a description of 

mitigation options. In a search of available sources of information, we identified 12 quarantine 

pests that were likely to follow the pathway: eight arthropods, one bacterium and one fungus, 

and two viruses.

We estimated Consequences of Introduction by assessing five elements of pest biology and 

ecology: climate/host interaction, host range, dispersal potential, economic impact, and 

environmental impact, resulting in the calculation of a risk value. We estimated Likelihood of 

Introduction by considering both the quantity of the commodity to be imported annually and the 

potential for pest introduction and establishment, resulting in the calculation of a second risk 

value. We summed the two values to estimate an overall Pest Risk Potential, which is an 

estimation of risk in the absence of mitigation. We list quarantine pests likely to follow the 

import pathway and their Pest Risk Potentials in the following table.

Type Pest Taxonomy Pest risk

potential

Arthropods Anastrepha ludens (Loew) Diptera: Tephritidae High

Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann Diptera: Tephritidae High

Faustinus ovatipennis

(Champion)

Coleoptera: Curculionidae High

Liriomyza huidobrensis

(Blanchard)

Diptera: Agromyzidae High

Neoleucinodes elegantalis 

(Guenée)

Lepidoptera: Crambidae High

Phenacoccus parvus Morrison Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae High

Planococcus minor (Maskell) Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae High

Thrips palmi Karny Thysanoptera: Thripidae High

Fungi Puccinia pampeana Speg. Urediniomycetes: 

Uredinales

High

Viruses Andean potato mottle virus 

(APMoV)

Comoviridae High

Tomato severe leaf curl virus 

(ToSLCV)

Geminiviridae High

Bacteria Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 

biovar 2 (Smith) Yabuuchi et 

al.

Burkholderiales Lowa

a Rated High using the guidelines but functionally Low risk; see below
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. 001 April 27, 2009 iii

Adherance to the guidelines required that Ralstonia solanacearum race 3, biovar 2 (Smith) 

(R3B2) Yabuuchi (Burkholderiales: Ralstoniaceae) be analyzed. However, in June of 2005, 

APHIS evaluated the risk Korean pepper fruits pose for introducing R3B2. The analysis 

concluded: 

“... that there is evidence as well as expert judgement to support the low likelihood of R3B2 

entering the United States via the importation of fresh pepper fruit for consumption. Even when 

infected geraniums entered the U.S. in large quantities in 2003, and then came into contact 

with susceptible crops, there was no evidence that R3B2 was established as a consequence.

Furthermore, given the large volumes of tomatoes already imported into the United States 

from R3B2 countries without establishment of this pathogen, it seems unlikely that fruit for 

consumption is an effective pathway for introduction of R3B2.” 

Because the pathogen behaves the same on peppers as it does on tomatoes, we applied the same 

justification to conclude that no extra mitigations need to be applied to this pathogen beyond 

those that are standard industry practice. 

The remaining quarantine pests pose high phytosanitary risks to American agriculture. Port-ofentry inspections, as a sole mitigation measure, are insufficient to safeguard U.S. agriculture 

from the listed pests; additional phytosanitary measures are necessary to reduce risks to 

acceptable levels. Risk mitigation options for the quarantine pests of concern are provided. The 

detailed examination and selection of appropriate measures to mitigate risk are part of the risk 

management phase within APHIS and are not addressed within this risk assessment document.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. 001 April 27, 2009 iv

Table of Contents

Executive Summary...................................................................................................................... ii

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1

2. Risk Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 2

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action...................................................................................... 2

2.2. Assessment of Weediness Potential of Peppers, Capsicum spp. ....................................... 2

2.3. Previous Risk Assessments, Decision History, Current Status, and Pest Interceptions. ... 3

2.4. Pest Categorization—Identification of Pests..................................................................... 6

2.5. Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway.............................................................. 53

2.6. Consequences of Introduction.......................................................................................... 54

2.7. Likelihood of Introduction............................................................................................... 68

2.8. Pest Risk Potential and Conclusion ................................................................................. 72

3. Risk Mitigation........................................................................................................................ 73

3.1. Risk Management Strategy for Quarantine Pests. ........................................................... 73

3.2. Risk Mitigation Options for Peppers from Central America ........................................... 74

3.3. Research Options............................................................................................................. 81

3.4. Oversight.......................................................................................................................... 82

3.5. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 82

4. Author and Reviewers............................................................................................................ 84

5. Acknowledgement................................................................................................................... 85

6. References................................................................................................................................ 85

7. Appendices............................................................................................................................. 104

Appendix A. Pests intercepted on species of Capsicum from 1984 to 2007 ........................ 104

Appendix B. Pests present in this risk analysis that were not in the 2004 risk assessment.. 149
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 1

1. Introduction

In 2004, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States 

Department of Agriculture (USDA) prepared a commodity risk assessment to examine plant pest 

risks associated with the importation of fresh pepper fruit with stems (Capsicum spp., 

specifically the domesticated species Capsicum annuum L., C. baccatum L., C. chinense Jacq, C. 

frutescens L., and C. pubescens Ruiz & Pav.) from Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, 

Honduras and Nicaragua into the United States. The present document is an updating of the 

above document, and includes Panama as exporting country. This document considered the risk 

associated for several species of Capsicum—C. annuum, C. frutescens, C. baccatum, and C. 

chinense—due to some taxonomic uncertainty regarding the species status (Walsh and Hoot, 

2001) and because wild populations of C. annuum integrate with that of C. frutescens and C. 

chinense (Eshbaugh, 1993). Furthermore, because of the wide overlap of common name usage 

among all domesticated Capsicum species (Bosland, 1996), we also included the other two 

cultivated species, C. pubescens and C. baccatum.

International plant protection organizations such as the North American Plant Protection 

Organization (NAPPO), the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) of the United 

Nations, and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) provide guidance for conducting pest 

risk analyses. The IPPC guidelines describe three stages of pest risk analysis: Stage 1 (initiation), 

Stage 2 (risk assessment), and Stage 3 (risk management) (IPPC, 2007: ISPM #2 and #11). This 

document satisfies the requirements of IPPC Stages 1 and 2. The methodology and rating criteria 

for Stages 1 and 2 are explained in the Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, 

Version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000). We also discuss the available risk management options, based on 

known mitigation measures for quarantine pests. Risk management is considered elsewhere. 

This is a qualitative risk assessment, where estimates of risk are expressed by the terms “high”, 

“medium” or “low”, rather than probabilities or frequencies. The methods used to initiate, 

conduct, and report this plant pest risk analysis are consistent with the guidelines provided by

NAPPO and the IPPC. The use of biological and phytosanitary terms conforms to ISPM No. 5: 

Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms (IPPC, 2007).

Peppers, Capsicum, belong to the family Solanaceae. Capsicum includes 25 species, five of 

which have been domesticated. The most economically important and most widely cultivated 

species is C. annuum L. The center of genetic diversity of this species is in Mexico; a secondary

center is in Mesoamerica. The other four domesticated species are C. baccatum L. and C. 

pubescens Ruiz & Pav., from the Peruvian Andes, C. chinense Jacq. in the Amazon Basin, and 

C. frutescens L. in Central America. The other 20 species are used sparingly by humans but are a 

great reservoir of genes for resistance of diseases and pests (Pernezny et al., 2003).

Two of the domesticated species, C. annuum and C. frutescens, are grown on every continent; 

the three remaining species, C. baccatum, C. pubescens and C. chinense, are rarely found outside 

of South America (CABI, 2007). Peppers are an important economic crop in many parts of the 

world (Pernezny et al., 2003), and world production of fresh pepper fruit was estimated at 24 

million metric tons in 2005 (FAO, 2006), with Asia producing about 18 million metric tons of 

this total. United States and Mexico are principal producers in the Americas (CABI, 2007). 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 2

Peppers are harvested with their stems intact to prevent bacterial infection (Schooley, 2003). 

Stems were considered as a potential pathway for the introduction of exotic pests in this 

document.

2. Risk Assessment

We begin the pest risk assessment with identification of the initiating event, a weediness 

screening, and a discussion of the decision history. We then identified the pests reported as 

attacking peppers in any part of the world, listed those that are present in the relevant countries 

including Panama, and then analyzed the quarantine pests that are likely to follow the pathway. 

We assess the Consequences of Introduction of the pests with five Risk Elements, and the 

Likelihood of Introduction with six Sub-Elements. Together, the Consequences of Introduction 

and the Likelihood of Introduction values estimate the Pest Risk Potential.

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action

This commodity-based, pathway-initiated risk analysis was conducted as an updating of the 

previous pest risk assessment for peppers from certain Central American countries, in order to 

include Panama as exporting country and in response to a request by the Ministry of Agricultural 

Development of Panama (MIDA, 2006). Importation of fresh pepper, Capsicum spp., fruits with 

stems from Panama and the others Central American countries mentioned, presents a potential 

pathway for the introduction of plant pests in the United States. Title 7 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations 319 Part 56 (7 CFR § 319, 2007) provides regulatory authority for the importation of 

fruits and vegetables from foreign sources into the United States.

2.2. Assessment of Weediness Potential of Peppers, Capsicum spp.

The potential of the commodity to become a weed after it enters the United States was examined 

in this step, and a weed pest-initiated risk assessment was not conducted because the analysis did 

not indicate that the commodity had significant weed potential (Table 1).

Table 1. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Capsicum or Pepper species (Solanaceae).

Scientific names, Synonyms, and Common names (NGRP, 2008; NRCS, 2008):

Capsicum annuum L. (Syn.: C. cordiforme Mill) Bell pepper, sweet pepper, chili pepper, green 

pepper, paprika, cayenne pepper, aji, chiltepines

C. baccatum L. Aji; Yellow Aji; Aji limon; Aji mono; Aji norteno; Locoto

C. chinense Jacq. Bonnet pepper; Datil pepper; Habanero pepper; Piripiri pepper; Squash 

pepper; Yellow squash pepper; Rocotillo

C. frutescens L. (Syn.: C. fastigiatum Blume; C. annuum L. var. frutescens (L.) Kuntze; C. 

minimum) Bird pepper; Cayenne pepper; Chili pepper; Tabasco pepper; Aji; Chile

C. pubescens Ruiz. & Pav. (Syn.: Brachistus lanceaefolius Miers; C. guatemalense Bitter; C. 

lanceaefolium (Miers) Kuntze; C. violaceum Kunth.) Apple chile; Rocoto; Lacoto; Chile 

caballo

Phase 1: Distribution in the USA

C. annuum is widely cultivated throughout the world and the United States (CABI, 2007; 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 3

NRCS, 2008). 

C. baccatum is a popular condiment in South America (Eshbaugh, 1993), but is not officially

grown in the United States. It likely occurs in private gardens. 

C. chinense is cultivated in Brazil, Colombia and throughout the Caribbean (Bosland and 

Votava, 2000; NGRP, 2008). It is not known to be in the United States. 

C. frutescens is distributed worldwide and cultivated in the United States (NRCS, 2008).

C. pubescens is native to South America (Bosland and Votava, 2000). It is probably grown in 

private gardens in the United States.

Phase 2: Invasive / Weed Status: Listing as weed

C. annuum C. baccatum, 

C. frutescens

C. chinense, 

C. pubescens

References

No No No Gunn and Ritchie, 1988; Holm et al., 1977; Holm et 

al., 1997; ISSG, 2008; PPQ, 2006; Reed, 1977; 

Skinner et al., 2008; Weber, 2003; WSSA, 2007

Yes Yes No Holm et al., 1979; Randall, 2002

Yes No No Swearingen, 2008

Phase 3: Summary and Conclusions:

Although C. annuum, C. baccatum, and C. frutescens, have been listed as a weed and a 

naturalized species for some countries (Holm et al., 1979; Randall, 2002; Swearingen, 2008), 

they do not appear to be particularly invasive in either natural or agricultural systems (PERAL, 

2005b; PERAL, 2004a; PERAL, 2004c). For C. chinense, and C. pubescens, we found no 

evidence in the literature of invasive behavior by these species, and they are not likely to 

become a problematic species in the United States (PERAL, 2004b; PERAL, 2004d).

Conclusion: Proceed with the pest risk assessment.

2.3. Previous Risk Assessments, Decision History, Current Status, and Pest Interceptions.

2.3.1. Previous Risk Assessments

2005 Importation of Fresh Paprika Pepper Fruit (Capsicum annuum L. var. annuum) from the 

Republic of Korea into the continental United States

2004 Importation of Fresh Pepper Fruit with Stems (Capsicum annuum L., C. frutescens L., C. 

baccatum L., C. pubescens Ruiz & Pav., and C. chinense Jacq.) from Costa Rica, El 

Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua into the United States

2000 Importation of Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Fruit from New Zealand into the United States

1997 Importation of Pepper Fruits, Capsicum spp., from Spain into the United States

1996 Importation of fresh pepper fruit, Capsicum annuum from Chile into the continental United 

States.

2.3.2. Decision History

The United States has taken several decisions about entry of peppers from Central American 

countries over the years (Table 2).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 4

2.3.2. Current Status of Importations

Currently fresh pepper fruit appears authorized into the United States in the Fresh and Vegetable 

Manual under the broader category “Pepper”. 

Conditions governing the entry of peppers from Central American countries such as: Costa Rica, 

El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, are described in § 319.56–2oo. (7 CFR § 

319, 2007). Peppers are imported from these countries only under conditions established in a 

systems approach which include free areas of Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata, 

inspection by the NPPO of the exporting country certificating that the commodity is free of 

quarantine pests, product packed in insect-proof cartons or containers or covered with insectproof mesh or plastic tarpaulin at the packinghouse, export certification, and issuance of 

phytosanitary certificates by the NPPO of the exporting country. For Capsicum annuum, C. 

frutescens, C. baccatum, C. chinense, and C. pubescens from areas in which Medfly is 

considered to exist they must be grown in approved production sites and pest-exclusionary

greenhouses must be used. Peppers of Capsicum pubescens from areas in which Anastrepha 

ludens, mexican fruit fly or Mexfly, is known to exist must be grown in approved production 

sites and pest-exclusionary greenhouses must be used. Registered sites must contain traps for the 

detection of Mexfly and Medfly within and around the production site.The exporting country’s 

NPPO must maintain records of trap placement, checking of traps, and any medfly and/or mexfly 

captures. The peppers must be packed within 24 hours of harvest in a pest-exclusionary

packinghouse. During the time the packinghouse is in use for exporting peppers to the United 

States, the packinghouse may accept peppers only from registered approved production sites. 

The exporting country’s NPPO is responsible for export certification, inspection, and issuance of 

phytosanitary certificates. We summarized conditions governing the entry of peppers from 

countries other than those in Central America countries below (Table 3). Countries with no 

treatments, restrictions, or notes are as follows: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, 

Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guyana, Haiti, Martinique, Montserrat, Saint 

Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Barthelemy, and Trinidad 

and Tobago.

Table 2. Decision history on requests to import peppers from Central America

Year Country Decision Reason / Conditions

1996 Costa Rica Deny entry No approved treatment against medfly

1992 Belize Approved Fruit only, from Medfly free district

1988 Guatemala Deny entry Lack of acceptable treatment for C. capitata

1984 Panama Deny entry Lack of acceptable treatment for C. capitata

1984 Honduras Deny entry Lack of acceptable treatment for C. capitata

1971 Nicaragua Deny entry Lack of acceptable treatment for C. capitata

1971 Costa Rica Deny entry Lack of acceptable treatment for C. capitata

1936 Costa Rica Approved
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 5

Table 3. Current status of peppers importations from countries with permit of entry into the 

United States

Country Treatments, restrictions, notes

Australia Tasmania only

Belgium Fruit

Belize Fruit. Rocoto pepper or chamburoto (C. pubescens) is prohibited

Chile Fruit. All provinces except Arica (Region 1). C. annuum only, with 

phytosanitary certificate.

Costa Rica C. annum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, and C. frutescens. Consignments 

must meet other conditions, including phytosanitary certificate.

Dominican Republic Fruit. Bell peppers are eligible for NARP (National Agricultural Release 

Program). Others = ‘Inspect and Release’

El Salvador Bell peppers are eligible for NARP. Others = ‘Inspect and Release’

Ghana Fruit. Commercial consignments only. T105-a-2: precleared and 

irradiated, with phytosanitary certificate. Currently no preclearance 

program exists in Ghana. The pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum R3B2 is 

not likely to become established, therefore mitigation of the R3B2 in peppers 

(Capsicum spp.) or tomatoes for consumption from countries where R3B2 

occurs is not currently required by APHIS.

Guatemala Department of Peten only. Bell peppers are eligible for NARP. Others = 

‘Inspect and Release’

Hawaii Capsicum spp. T105-a-1: irradiated at an approved facility

Honduras Bell peppers are eligible for NARP. Others = ‘Inspect and Release’

Israel Fruit. Arrava Valley. Several conditions, including phytosanitary

certificate

Jamaica T104-a-2, or precleared.

Mexico, all areas Fruit. C. pubescens is prohibited. Bell peppers are eligible for NARP. 

Others = ‘Inspect and Release’

Netherlands Pepper color determines quarantine action.

New Zealand Requires phytosanitary certificate.

Nicaragua Bell peppers are eligible for NARP. Others = ‘Inspect and Release’

Poland Fruit

Republic of Korea Fruit. Includes Cheju Island. Only commercially grown C. annuum var. 

annuum. Must have phytosanitary certificate and other conditions.

Ralstonia solanacearum R3B2 is not likely to become established; therefore 

APHIS does not currently require mitigation of the R3B2 in peppers 

(Capsicum spp.) or tomatoes for consumption from countries with R3B2.

Spain Fruit. Almeria and Alicante Provinces only, Dec 1 through Apr 30. 

Several conditions, including phytosanitary certificate.

2.3.3. Pest Interceptions

Pest species intercepted between 1985 and 2008 on C. annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. 

frutescens, C. pubescens, and Capsicum sp. entering the United States are listed in Appendix 1. 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 6

Over that time, 839 different species of pests were intercepted 20,689 times from different 

countries (PestID, 2008). Most of these interceptions (11,285) were of species in five families, 

two species of Anthonomus and Cryptophlebia genus, and species of Ceratitini tribe. 

2.4. Pest Categorization—Identification of Pests

Below we list the pests associated with peppers (in any country) that occur in Costa Rica, El 

Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama on any host (Table 4). In this list we 

identify 1) the pest’s scientific name, 2) the presence of pests in Costa Rica, El Salvador, 

Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and/or Panama relative to their presence in the United States,

3) the reference(s) that report the pest on the host, 4) the quarantine status of the pest in the 

United States, 5) the generally affected plant part or parts, and 6) if the pest is likely to follow the 

pathway into the United States on pepper fruit with stems. Each pest report has the pertinent 

citation for the distribution, record on the host, and plant part association.

Many organisms are not sources of phytosanitary risk on peppers from Central America 

countries because they do not satisfy the definition of a quarantine pest. A quarantine pest is 

defined as “a pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet 

present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled” (IPPC, 2007: 

ISPM #5).

The abbreviation N/A (Not Applicable) is used for non-quarantine pests under the heading Plant 

Part(s) Association. Even if non-quarantine pests are able to follow the pathway, phytosanitary

measures against these pests would not be justified considering the pest already occurs in the 

United States; therefore, information on plant part association and whether the pest is likely to 

follow the pathway is not needed for non-quarantine pests. 

Pest risk analyses must focus on organisms for which biological information is available. Lack of 

specific information or identification to the specific level does not indicate that a pest is not a 

phytosanitary risk to U.S. agriculture. It may reflect the poor quality of the specimen or the limits 

of current taxonomic identification. If pests identified to higher taxa are intercepted in the future, 

APHIS may take action at the port of entry and we may reevaluate their risk.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 7

Table 4. Pests reported on the peppers Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, C.

pubescens, and Capsicum sp., and reported as present in the pertinent countries.

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

ARTHROPODS

ARACHNIDA

Acari: Eriophyidae

Aculops lycopersici 

(Tryon)

EL (Arevalo, 2003), 

US (CABI, 2007)

A (Saninet, 2002), 

A, F (Armine and 

Stansy, 1994) 

No N/A N/A

Acari: Tarsonemidae

Phytonemus pallidus

(Banks)

CR (CABI, 2007; 

Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Polyphagotarsonemus 

latus Banks

CR, NI, PN (CABI, 

2007), EL (Arevalo, 

2003), HO 

(SENASA, 2003), 

US (CABI, 2007) 

A (Saninet, 2002), 

A, F (CABI, 

2007), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Acari: Tetranychidae

Tetranychus 

cinnabarinus

(Boisduval)

CR (CABI, 2007), 

EL (Berry, 1959), 

US (CABI, 2007)

A (Saninet, 2002), 

S (CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Tetranychus ludeni

Zacher

CR, EL, HO, NI, US 

(Bolland et al., 1998)

S (Bolland et al., 

1998)

No N/A N/A

Tetranychus marianae

McGregor

CR (Bolland et al., 

1998), HO, NI 

(Bolland et al., 1998; 

CABI, 2007), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Bolland et al., 

1998; CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Tetranychus 

neocaledonicus André

CR, HO, US 

(Bolland et al., 1998)

A (Bolland et al., 

1998)

No N/A N/A

Tetranychus urticae

Koch

CR, EL, GU, PN

(Bolland et al., 1998) 

HO (SENASA, 

2003), US (Bolland 

et al., 1998)

A, S (Bolland et 

al., 1998; CABI, 

2007), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

 

1 Geographic Distribution: CAm = widely distributed in Central America; CR = Costa Rica; EL = El Salvador; GU = 

Guatemala; HO = Honduras; NI = Nicaragua; PN = Panama; US = United States (specific states are listed for those pests 

that have limited distribution and are considered quarantine pests: AR = Arkansas; CA = California; FL = Florida; GA = 

Georgia; HI = Hawaii; LA = Louisiana; MS = Mississippi; MT = Montana; TX = Texas)

2 A = Capsicum annuum; B = C. baccatum; C = C. chinense; F = C. frutescens; P = C. pubescens; S = Capsicum sp.

3

F = Fruit; I = Inflorescence/Flower; L = Leaf; P = Peduncle; R = Root; S = Stem; Se = Seed; Sd = Seedling; Sh = Shoot; W 

= Whole plant/Systemic
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 8

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Acari: Tenuipalpidae

Brevipalpus californicus 

(Banks)

CR, HO, US (CABI, 

2007)

F (Vasquez and 

Amante, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Brevipalpus obovatus

Donnadieu

CAm (Childers et al., 

2003), US (CABI, 

2007)

A, S (Childers et 

al., 2003) S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Brevipalpus phoenicis 

(Geijskes)

CR (CABI, 2007) 

EL (Berry, 1959), 

US (CABI, 2007)

A, F (Childers et 

al., 2003)

No N/A N/A

INSECTA

Coleoptera: Anobiidae

Lasioderma serricorne

Fabricius4

GU, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (Padwal et al., 

1987), S (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Coleoptera: Bostrichidae

Rhyzopertha dominica

(Fabricius)4

HO, NI, US (CABI, 

2007)

F (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Coleoptera: Bruchidae

Callosobruchus 

maculatus (Fabricius)

NI (CABI, 2007), 

US (Arnett, 2000)

A, S (PestID, 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Cerotoma atrofaciata 

Jacoby

EL (Arevalo, 2003), 

GU, NI (Maes, 

2004), HO 

(SENASA, 2003)

A (Arevalo, 2003) Yes L (Arevalo, 

2003)

No

Cerotoma ruficornis 

(Olivier)

Syn.: Andrector 

ruficornis (Olivier)

CR, EL, GU, NI 

(Maes, 2008), HO 

(SENASA, 2003)

A (Saninet, 2002) Yes L (Heyer et 

al., 1990), I, 

L, S, Sh5

(Coto and 

Saunders, 

2004)

No6

Diabrotica balteata 

Leconte

CAm (CABI, 2007), 

HO (SENASA, 

2003), US (CABI, 

2007)

A (Arevalo, 2003; 

Saninet, 2002)

No N/A N/A

 

4

Stored product pest. It is unlikely to be associated with fresh Capsicum.

5 We found no information for Capsicum; this data is from Central America for a different host. 

6 Adult C. ruficornis feed on flowers, leaves, and shoots of seedlings, and larvae feed on roots and base stems (Coto and 

Saunders, 2004). Therefore, the pest is unlikely to follow the pathway.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 9

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Diabrotica porracea 

Harold

CR (McGuire and 

Crandall, 1967), HO 

(SENASA, 2003)

S (McGuire and 

Crandall, 1967)

Yes L (Eben and 

Gámez, 

2007)

No7

Diabrotica sp. CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), HO 

(SENASA, 2003)

A, F (SENASA, 

2003), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes F, I, L, R, S 

(Arevalo, 

2003, 

CABI, 

2007; UAQ, 

2008)

No7

Diabrotica speciosa

Germar

CR, PN (CABI, 

2007)

S (CABI, 2007) Yes F, I, L, R 

(CABI, 

2007; 

EPPO, 

2005)

No7

Diabrotica 

undecimpunctata 

Mannerheim

EL, GU, NI, US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Antonious and 

Byers, 1994)

No N/A N/A

Disonycha eximia 

Harold

Syn.: D. laevigata

(Jacoby)

CR, PN (Virkki et 

al., 1991) CR, PN

NI, (Maes, 2004)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Saninet, 2002)

Yes L, R 

(Triplehorn 

and 

Johnson, 

2005)8

No

Epitrix cucumeris 

(Harris)

EL (Arevalo, 2003), 

HO (SENASA, 

2003), NI (Maes and 

Tellez, 1988), US 

(Arnett Jr. et al., 

2002; CABI, 2007)

A (Arevalo, 2003; 

CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

 

7 Diabrotica species mainly attack leaves of their hosts. Larvae feed on the roots, and adults feed externally on fruit and can 

fly (CABI, 2007; Eben and Gámez, 2007; EPPO, 2005; UAQ, 2008). Larvae are unlikely to be present because soil and 

underground parts of peppers from Central America are prohibited (7 CFR § 330, 2008). Adults are likely to be removed 

by minimal processing and normal inspection of the commodity (EPPO, 2005).

8 We found no specific information about plant part(s) affected for D. eximia. Therefore we assumed it was similar to 

members of the subfamily Alticinae. Adult flea beetles feed on the leaves, while larvae usually feed on the roots 

(Triplehorn and Johnson, 2005).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 10

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Epitrix sp. CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

S (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes L, R (CABI, 

2007; 

Triplehorn 

and 

Johnson, 

2005) 

No

Glyptoscelis 

chontalensis Jacoby

PN (PestID, 2008) A (PestID, 2008) Yes F (PestID, 

2008)

No9

Leptinotarsa 

decemlineata Say

GU (CABI, 2007), 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Webb et al., 2007)

S (Webb et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Typophorus nigritus 

(Fabricius)

CAm (Arnett Jr. et 

al., 2002), US 

(Arnett Jr. et al., 

2002; CABI, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Anthonomus eugenii

Cano

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002) EL, 

GU, HO, NI, US 

(CABI, 2007) 

A, F, S (CABI, 

2007), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Diaprepes abbreviatus

(Linnaeus)10

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), HO 

(SENASA, 2003), 

US (FL, MS CABI, 

2007)

A (CABI, 2007) [Yes]11 L, R 

(OIRSA, 

1994)

No

Faustinus ovatipennis

(Champion)

Syn.: Euxenus 

ornatipennis 

(Hustache)

GU, HO 

(Blackwelder, 1945; 

McGuire and 

Crandall, 1967; 

O'Brien and 

Wibmer, 1982)

S (McGuire and 

Crandall, 1967)

Yes F, L, S12

(Capinera, 

2008c; 

Davis, 

1996)

Yes13

Geraeus sp. HO (SENASA, 

2003), US (Arnett, 

2000)

A, F (SENASA, 

2003)

Yes F (Jimenez 

et al., 

1993)14

No15

 

9 The only evidence that C. annuum is a host of G. chontalensis is one interception (PestID, 2008). This is insufficient 

evidence that it would follow the pathway.

10 Quarantine pest for El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Panama (SENASA, 2003). Central America Regional Plant 

Protection Organization (OIRSA) also considers this insect as a Quarantine Pest (OIRSA, 1994). 

11 Quarantine significant species, with a limited distribution in the United States. Reportable and actionable (PestID, 2008).

12 We found no specific information on this pest (O'Brien and Wibmer, 1982), so we assumed it would behave similarly to 

other members of the genus. Adults feed externally on foliage, fruit and stems while larvae bore into stems and fruit 

(Capinera, 2008c; Davis, 1996).

13 Seems likely to follow the pathway because the genus has been intercepted 59 times on fresh fruit of Capsicum.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 11

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Phyrdenus muriceus 

Germar

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), NI 

(Maes and Tellez, 

1988)

A (Maes and 

Tellez, 1988), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes L, R (Maes 

and Tellez, 

1988; Novo 

et al., 2002)

No

Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae

Sitophilus zeamais 

Motschulsky

EL, GU, HO, NI, US 

(CABI, 2007)

S

16 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Coleoptera: Elateridae

Aeolus mellilus (Say) EL (Arevalo, 2003), 

US (Ingerson et al., 

1997)

A (Arevalo, 2003) No N/A N/A

Aeolus nigromaculatus 

Drapiez

CR, HO, NI, PN

(Johnson, 1999)

S (PestID, 2008) Yes R, Sd 17

(Ingerson et 

al., 1997)

No

Conoderus rodriguezi 

Candeze

CR, NI, GU, PN

(Johnson, 1999), HO 

(PestID, 2008)

S (PestID, 2008) Yes R, Se, Sd18

(Invasive.or

g, 2008)

No

Coleoptera: Meloidae

Epicauta carmelita 

(Haag)

GU (Maes, 2008), 

HO (SENASA, 

2003), NI, PN

(Blackwelder, 1945)

A, F (SENASA, 

2003)

Yes I, L19

(Arnett, 

2000; 

Ratcliffe et 

al., 2008; 

Triplehorn 

and 

Johnson, 

2005)

No

 

14 We found no specific information about Capsicum plant part(s) affected for this pest. Species of Geraeus attack Bactris 

gasipaes, an exotic fruit from the Colombian Pacific. The larvae bore into young fruits and cause them to fall (Caballero 

and Toro, 1994; Jimenez et al., 1993). 

15 This pest was only identified to genus and that genus is already present in the United States. Only one citation exists that 

Capsicum is a host (SENASA, 2003), and the plant part association is unknown. Geraeus spp. have not been intercepted on 

Capsicum from any country (PestID, 2008). Thus, we think this pest is unlikely to follow the pathway.

16 The only evidence that Capsicum is a host of S. zeamais is one interception in passenger baggage. Sitophilus zeamais

develops on cereals and processed cereal products, such as pasta, and is primarily associated with maize grain.

17 We found no specific information about plant part(s) affected. Therefore, we assumed it would behave like other members 

of the genus.. The larvae feed on the roots and seedling of the host plant (Ingerson et al., 1997), and are found in soil, forest 

duff, or decaying plant materials, especially fibrous stems and wood (Johnson, 1999).

18 The only evidence that Capsicum is a host of C. rodriguezi is an interception of one alive adult in permit cargo from 

Honduras, which could have been a contaminating pest. Lacking other infomation, we assumed it behaved like other 

members of Conoderus. Conoderus larvae feed on the roots, seeds and seedling of the host plant (Invasive.org, 2008).

19 We found no specific information on E. carmelita and its synonym. Therefore we assumed it would behave similarly to 

other Epicauta spp., which feed on foliage and flowers as adults, and bee or grasshopper eggs as larvae (Arnett, 2000; 

Ratcliffe et al., 2008; Triplehorn and Johnson, 2005).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 12

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Coleoptera: Mycetophagidae

Typhaea stercorea 

(Linnaeus)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, S20 (PestID, 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

Macrodactylus sp. CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

S (Chinchilla and

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes F, L, R 

(Arce and 

Moron, 

2000; 

Triplehorn 

and 

Johnson, 

2005)

No21

Phyllophaga menetriesii 

(Blanchard)

CAm (King, 1984), 

EL (Arevalo, 2003), 

NI (Maes and Tellez, 

1988)

A (Arevalo, 2003) Yes R (Abarca 

and 

Quesada, 

1997; 

Arevalo, 

2003; King, 

1984)

No

Phyllophaga sp. CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

S (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes F, L, R 

(Arce and 

Moron, 

2000; 

Triplehorn 

and 

Johnson, 

2005)

No21

Coleoptera: Scolytidae

Ips calligraphus 

(Germar)

GU, HO, NI, US 

(CABI, 2007)

S

22 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Ips lecontei Swaine EL, GU, HO, US 

(CABI, 2007)

S

22 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Xyleborus volvulus 

(Fabricius)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007)

S

23 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

 

20 The only evidence for host status are two adults intercepted in permit cargo from Israel and The Netherlands (PestID, 

2008). Because it is a stored product pest (CABI, 2007), T. stercorea is unlikely to be associated with fresh Capsicum sp.

21 The larvae are white grubs that feed in the soil on the roots of grasses and other plants (Arce and Moron, 2000; Triplehorn 

and Johnson, 2005). Adults fly and feed on foliage, flowers, and externally on fruits only occasionally. Given minimal 

post-harvest processing, adults of Macrodactylus and Phyllophaga are unlikely to follow the pathway on fresh pepper.

22 The only evidence that Capsicum is a host are single interceptions of adults in permit cargo from Honduras (Ips 

calligraphus) and Mexico (I. lecontei) (PestID, 2008). Ips are pests of Pinus (CABI, 2007), consequently, they are unlikely 

to be associated with fresh Capsicum sp.

23 One adult intercepted in general cargo from Honduras is the only evidence that Capsicum is a host of X. volvulus (PestID, 

2008). It is unlikely to be associated with fresh Capsicum sp.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 13

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Coleoptera: Silvanidae

Oryzaephilus 

surinamensis 

(Linnaeus)

EL, US (CABI, 

2007)

F, S (PestID, 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae

Tribolium castaneum

Herbst

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007)

A

24 (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Diptera: Agromyzidae

Liriomyza huidobrensis

(Blanchard)

CAm (CABI, 2007), 

US25 (CA, CABI, 

2007)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Saninet, 2002; 

Steck, 2004a), F 

(He et al., 2002)

Yes F, L, S 

(CABI, 

2007), L

(Saninet, 

2002; 

Spencer, 

1983)

Yes26

Liriomyza sativae

Blanchard

CR (Spencer, 1983), 

CR, NI, PN (CABI, 

2007), EL (Arevalo, 

2003), HO 

(SENASA, 2003), 

US (CABI, 2007)

A (Arevalo, 2003), 

A, S (CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Liriomyza sp. CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), HO 

(SENASA, 2003)

A, F (SENASA, 

2003), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes F, L, S 

(CABI, 

2007), L

(Saninet, 

2002)

Yes27

Liriomyza trifolii

Burgess

CR (Spencer, 1983), 

CR, GU (CABI, 

2007), HO 

(SENASA, 2003)

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Diptera:Cecidomyiidae

Clinodiplosis capsici 

Gagné

CR (Gagne et al., 

2000)

A, F (Gagne et al., 

2000)

Yes I, L, S 

(Gagne et 

al., 2000)

No28

 

24 T. castaneum is a stored product pest that is associated with dry commodities (CABI, 2007).

25 Although L. huidobrensis Blanchard has been reported as occurring in California (CABI, 2007), studies suggest that those 

records really refer to L. langei Frick, which is a cryptic species within L. huidobrensis (Scheffer, 2000; Scheffer and 

Lewis, 2001; Scheffer et al., 2001; Scheffer, 2004).

26 This pest mainly attacks leaves, but is likely to follow the pathway because adults and larvae can be transported in stems 

(CABI, 2007). Liriomyza spp. (pupae and adults) have been intercepted 55 times on fresh Capsicum fruit (PestID, 2008).

27 This pest was not identified to species, but the genus is present in the United States (Arnett, 2000). These pests may or may

not be quarantine pests. This pest is likely to follow the pathway but we did not consider it for further analysis because the 

risk has probably been well characterized by analyzing L. huidobrensis.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 14

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Diptera: Lonchaeidae

Neosilba certa (Walker) CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

S (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes I, F 

(McAlpine 

and 

Steyskal, 

1982; White 

and ElsonHarris, 

1992)

No29

Neosilba pendula

(Bezzi)

Syn.: N. glaberrima

(Wiedemann); Silba 

pendula (Bezzi)

CR, GU, HO, NI 

(Maes, 2008), EL

(Arevalo, 2003)

A (Arevalo, 2003), 

F (Korytkowki 

and Ojeda, 1971)

Yes F

30

(Arevalo, 

2003; 

Korytkowki 

and Ojeda, 

1971)

No29

Neosilba sp. CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

S (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes F

31

(Korytkowk

i and Ojeda, 

1971; 

McAlpine 

and 

Steyskal, 

1982)

No29

Diptera: Muscidae

Atherigona orientalis

Schiner

EL, PN, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, F (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

 

28 C. capsici is unlikely to follow the pathway because it forms galls at the base of flowers (Gagne et al., 2000). It has never 

been detected in commercial pepper plantations perhaps because C. capsici is controlled by insecticides in commercial use 

for the pepper weevil, Anthonomus eugenii (Gagne et al., 2000). Accordingly, it has never been intercepted in permit or 

commercial cargo, and only 10 times on Capsicum spp. in baggage (PestID, 2008).

29 Neosilba species are unlikely to follow the pathway because they are secondary pests that attack hosts previously damaged 

by other pests, particularly fruit flies and lepidopterans (Korytkowki and Ojeda, 1971; McAlpine and Steyskal, 1982; 

White and Elson-Harris, 1992). Damaged fruits should be culled under standard post-harvest procedures, which should 

remove Neosilba species from the pathway.

30 This fly affects fruit previously infested and damaged by Scrobipalpula absoluta.

31 Chinchilla and Ujueta (2002) did not report the plant part affected by this fly. We assumed it behaved similarly to other 

Neosilba spp., which feed on fruits previously damaged by primary invaders. Identified only to sp. level, so not further 

analysed.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 15

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Diptera: Tephritidae

Anastrepha ludens 

(Loew)

CR, EL, GU, HO, NI 

(CABI, 2007), PN

(Norrbom, 2004),

US (TX, APHIS, 

2006; CA, Norrbom, 

2004)

P (Steck, 2004b) 32 Yes33 F (Steck, 

2004b)

Yes

Anastrepha sp. EL, GU (PestID, 

2008)

A, P, S (PestID, 

2008)

Yes F (PestID, 

2008)

Yes34

Ceratitis capitata 

Wiedemann

CAm (CABI, 2007; 

Thomas et al., 2008) 

A (CABI, 2007), 

A, B, F (Thomas 

et al., 2008)

Yes F (CABI, 

2007; 

Thomas et

al., 2008)

Yes

Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae

Aleurocanthus woglumi 

Ashby

CR, EL, GU, NI, PN

(CABI, 2007), US

(FL, TX, (Mound 

and Hasley, 1978)

S (PestID, 2008) [Yes]11 L (PestID, 

2008)

No35

Aleurodicus dispersus

Russell

CR, GU, NI, PN

(CABI, 2007), US 

(FL, Mound and 

Hasley, 1978)

S (CABI, 2007; 

Mound and 

Hasley, 1978; 

Russell, 1965)

[Yes]11 L

36

(Russell, 

1965)

No

Aleurotrachelus 

trachoides (Back)

CR, PN (CABI, 

1991), NI (Maes, 

2008), US (FL 

Hodges and Evans, 

2005)

A, F (Mound and 

Hasley, 1978), S 

(CABI, 2007; 

Maes, 2008)

No N/A N/A

Bemisia tabaci

(Gennadius)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007) 

A (Arevalo, 2003; 

CABI, 2007), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

 

32 The only known field host of A. ludens is C. pubescens (Steck, 2004b). Capsicum annuum is a host of A. ludens, and other 

Anastrepha species, such as A. distincta, A obliqua, and A. serpentina, but only under laboratory conditions with artificial 

infestation (Norrbom and Kim, 1988; Norrbom, 2004), so we did not include those species here. We found no evidence 

that A. ludens or the other species affect Capsicum annuum in the field.

33 Quarantine significant species, with a limited distribution in Texas and California (Norrbom, 2004). It is under eradication

from Texas and northern Mexico along the Lower Rio Grande Valley (APHIS, 2006).

34 This pest was not identified to species. It is likely to follow the pathway, but we did not analyze it further, because the risk 

was accounted for by analyzing A. ludens.

35 The only evidence for host status is a single interception each in baggage and permit cargo (PestID, 2008). In one of those, 

leaves were the part plant affected. This is insufficient evidence that it would follow the pathway.

36 Plant part affected from original report of this pest as host of Capsicum sp. (Russell, 1965), which was cited by CABI, 

(2007) and Mound and Hasley (1978).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 16

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Bemisia tabaci 

Gennadius (Biotype 

B)

Syn.: B. argentifolii

Bellows & Perring37

CR, GU, HO, NI, 

PN, US (CABI, 

2007), CAm, US 

(McAuslane, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Jovicich et al., 

2004)

No N/A N/A

Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum

Westwood

CR, EL, GU, HO, 

PN, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, S (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Trialeurodes sp. CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

S (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes F, L, S 

(CABI, 

2007)

Yes38

Hemiptera: Aphididae

Acyrthosiphon pisum 

(Harris)

EL, US (CABI, 

2007)

F

39 (Blackman and 

Eastop, 2000)

No N/A N/A

Aphis craccivora Koch NI, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (Saninet, 2002) 

S (CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Aphis fabae Scopoli EL, GU, PN (Jensen 

et al., 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A, S (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Aphis gossypii Glover CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), EL 

(Arevalo, 2003), CR 

GU, HO, NI, PN, US 

(CABI, 2007)

A, F (Blackman 

and Eastop, 2000; 

CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Aphis nerii Boyer De 

Fonscolombe

CAm, US (Jensen et 

al., 2008)

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Aphis spiraecola Patch CR, EL, HO, NI, 

PN, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Aulacorthum solani

Kaltenbach

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, F (Blackman 

and Eastop, 2000)

No N/A N/A

 

37 This whitefly was thought to be a new biotype of B. tabaci (designated variously as B biotype, Florida biotype, or 

poinsettia biotype). It quickly moved into other southern states with intensive agricultural and horticultural industries, such 

as Texas, Arizona, and California, and displaced the original B. tabaci (A biotype), which is no longer in the United States. 

The B biotype was described in 1994 as a new species, B. argentifolii. Its common name is the silverleaf whitefly, because 

it induces silverleaf disorder in squash. This new species designation is not universally accepted; here we refer to B. tabaci 

B biotype (= B. argentifolii) as Bemisia (McAuslane, 2007).

38 The only species in Central America known to attack Capsicum spp. is T. vaporariorum (CABI, 2007), which is a nonquarantine pest. In addition, this genus is present in the United States. Consequently, we did not further analyze this pest. 

39 A. pisum, may occur as small colonies on C. frutescens (Blackman and Eastop, 2000)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 17

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Macrosiphum 

euphorbiae (Thomas)

CR, PN (McGuire 

and Crandall, 1967), 

HO (SENASA, 

2003), US (CABI, 

2007)

A, F (Blackman 

and Eastop, 2000; 

SENASA, 2003) 

No N/A N/A

Myzus persicae Sulzer

Syn.: Aphis persicae

Sulzer

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), EL 

(Arevalo, 2003), CR, 

EL, HO, GU, PN, 

US (CABI, 2007)

A, F (Blackman 

and Eastop, 2000) 

A (Arevalo, 2003)

No N/A N/A

Rhopalosiphum maidis 

(Fitch)

EL, GU, HO, NI 

(CABI, 2007), US 

(CABI, 2007; Kagezi 

et al., 1999)

A (Kagezi et al., 

1999), A, F (Ong 

et al., 1978)

No N/A N/A

Toxoptera citricida 

(Kirkaldy)

Syn.: T. citricidus

Kirkaldy

CR, HO, NI, PN

(CABI, 2007), US 

(FL CABI, 2007)

A, F40 (Ong et al., 

1978)

[Yes]11 L (CABI, 

2007; Ong 

et al., 1978)

No

Hemiptera: Coccidae

Ceroplastes rubens 

Maskell

HO, US (FL Dekle, 

2001)

A (Dekle, 2001) [Yes]11 F, L, S 

(CABI, 

2007)

No41

Coccus hesperidum

Linnaeus

EL, PN (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008) CAm, US 

(CABI, 2007)

F (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008), S (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Coccus viridis (Green) CR, EL, HO, GU, 

PN, US (FL BenDov et al., 2008)

A, S (PestID, 

2008)

[Yes]11 F, L, S 

(CABI, 

2007)

No42

Parasaissetia nigra

(Nietner)

CAm, US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2008; CABI, 

2007)

F, S (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008; CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Pulvinaria psidii

Maskell

CR, GU, US (BenDov et al., 2008)A, F (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

 

40 Primary hosts of T. citricida are Rutaceae (CABI, 2007). C. annum and C. frutescens are non-hosts of T. citricida, but they 

are significant, as a vector of Chili venial mottle virus (Ong et al., 1978).

41 Only one record exists of C. rubens in Central America (which country?) as a pest of solanaceus species (Dekle, 2001). We 

found no specific information that it affects Capsicum spp., or about its presence in Central America (which country?)

beyond Mexico (Ben-Dov et al., 2008; CABI, 2007). In addition, it has been intercepted more than 4,500 times from 

different countries on different commodities, but never on Capsicum species. Thus, we found insufficient evidence that it 

would follow the pathway.

42 The only evidence that Capsicum spp. is a host of C. viridis are three interceptions in passenger baggage PestID, 2008). 

This was insufficient evidence that the species would follow the pathway.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 18

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Pulvinaria urbicola

Cockerell

NI (Maes, 2008), US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

F (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008), S (Maes, 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Saissetia coffeae

(Walker)

CR, EL, GU, HO, 

PN (CABI, 2007), 

NI (Maes, 2008), US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

A, F (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Saissetia neglecta 

Delotto

CR, EL, GU, HO, 

PN, US (US (BenDov et al., 2008)

S

43 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Coreidae

Anasa sp. HO (SENASA, 

2003)

S (SENASA, 

2003)

Yes L (Arnett, 

2000)

No 44

Hemiptera: Diaspididae

Aspidiotus destructor

Signoret

CR, GU, HO, NI, 

PN, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, F, S (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2008), S 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Hemiberlesia lataniae 

(Signoret)

CR, GU, HO, NI, PN

(CABI, 2007)

F (Williams and 

Watson, 1988)

No N/A N/A

Lepidosaphes tokionis 

(Kuwana)

CR, GU, PN

(Watson, 2005), US 

(CAm45, MS BenDov et al., 2008)

S (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

[Yes]11 L (Watson, 

2005)

No

Pinnaspis aspidistrae 

(Signoret)

PN, US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008; Watson, 

2005)

A (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008; Watson, 

2005)

No N/A N/A

Pinnaspis strachani

(Cooley)

EL, PN (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008), NI (Maes, 

2004), US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2008)

A, F, S (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2008), A, F 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Pseudaonidia 

trilobitiformis (Green)

CR, EL, GU (BenDov et al., 2008), PN

(Watson, 2005), US 

(Fl Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

A, F, S (Williams 

and Watson, 1988)

[Yes]11 L (Watson, 

2005)

No

 

43 The only evidence for host status is one interception in passenger baggage (PestID, 2008).

44 This genus is present in the United States. Pests of this genus are associated with leaves (Arnett, 2000) and therefore are 

unlikely to follow the pathway. Not IDd to species level, so not further analysed.

45 This pest is reported as eradicated from California (Ben-Dov et al., 2008)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 19

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Pseudaulacaspis 

cockerelli (Cooley)

GU (CABI, 2007), 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

S (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Pseudaulacaspis 

pentagona (Targionitozzetti)

CR, HO, PN, US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2008; CABI, 2007)

A, S (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008), S 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Unaspis citri

(Comstock)

EL, HO, PN, US 

(CABI, 2007)

A

46 (EPPO, 2007), 

S (CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Membracidae

Antianthe expansa

(Germar)

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), HO 

(SENASA, 2003), 

NI (Maes, 2008), US 

(Arnett, 2000)

S (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Miridae

Creontiades sp. NI (Maes, 2008) S (Maes, 2008) Yes I, Sh 

(Malipatil 

and Cassis,

1997)

No 47

Halticus bractatus (Say) EL, NI (Maes, 

2004), CAm, US 

(Capinera, 2008a)

S (Capinera, 

2008a;Maes, 

2004)

No N/A N/A

Lygus lineolaris (Palisot 

De Beauvois)

EL, GU, HO, US 

(CABI, 2007)

S (Dixon and 

Fasulo, 2006)

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Ortheziidae

Insignorthezia insignis 

(Browne)

Syn.: Orthezia 

insignis Browne

CR, EL, GU, HO, 

PN, US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008)

S (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Orthezia pseudinsignis

Morrison

GU, US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008)

S (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008; Rung et al., 

2007)

[Yes]11 L, S (Rung 

et al., 2007)

No 48

 

46 EPPO (2007) reports C. annuum as an incidental host of U. citri.

47 This pest was not identified to species, and the genus is present in the United States (Arnett, 2000). Maes (2003) does not 

specify the affected plant part(s), so we assumed it would behave like other Creontiades spp. Generally, these insects 

attacks growing points, causing severe stunting, destroying axillary buds and preventing growth of blossom-carrying 

branchlets. On cotton, adults and nymphs feed on the growing points of young plants, destroying vegetative buds and 

abscising flower buds (Malipatil and Cassis, 1997). Not identified to species, so not further analyzed.

48 The fruit of Capsicum species have been imported into the United States for over 70 years from Mexico. Although O. 

pseudinsignis occurs there (Morrison, 1952; Ben-Dov et al., 2008), during this time it has only been intercepted once in 

passenger baggage (PestID, 2008). Therefore, this pest is unlikely to follow the pathway.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 20

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Praelongorthezia 

praelonga Kozar

Syn.: Orthezia 

praelonga Douglas

PN (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

S (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008; PestID, 

2008)

Yes L (PestID, 

2008)

No

Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

Acrosternum 

marginatum (Palisot 

de Beauvois)

CAm, US (Schaefer 

and PNnizzi, 2000)

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Euschistus bifibulus 

(Palisot De Beauvois)

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), GU, 

HO, PN (McGuire 

and Crandall, 1967)

A (CABI, 2007), S 

(PestID, 2008)

Yes49 F, I, S, Se, 

(Gomez and 

Mizell, 

2008)

No50

Nezara viridula

(Linnaeus)

CR, EL, GU NI 

(CABI, 2007), HO 

(SENASA, 2003), 

US (CABI, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Piezodorus guildinii

(Westwood)

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae

Dysmicoccus brevipes

(Cockerell)

CR, EL, GU, HO, 

NI, US (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008; CABI, 

2007)

S (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008; CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Dysmicoccus grassii 

(Leonardi)

CR, PN, HO (BenDov et al., 2008), US 

(Miller and Miller, 

2002)

S

51 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Dysmicoccus 

neobrevipes Beardsley

CR, EL, GU, HO, 

PN (Williams and 

Granara, 1992), US 

(FL Miller, 2005)

S (PestID, 2008) [Yes]11 F, I, L, S, R 

(Kessing 

and Mau, 

1992)

No52

 

49 Quarantine significant species, recategorized as reportable on 5/6/2008 (PestID, 2008).

50 CABI (2007) did not report the plant part affected, so we assumed it would behave like other stink bugs. They often feed 

on the vegetative parts, flowers, stems, and foliage of the plant, as well as the seed, nut or fruit (Gomez and Mizell, 2008). 

An E. bifibulus adult was intercepted once on Capsicum sp. from Jamica (PestID, 2008). Giving that E. bifibulus is a 

medium sized stink bug (8-10 mm) (Perez-Gelabert and Thomas, 2005), and it feeds externally, it could be removed by 

minimal processing. Consequently, this pest is unlikely to follow the pathway. 

51 The only evidence that Capsicum sp. is a host of D. grassii is one interception at a U.S. port-of-entry in permit cargo 

(PestID, 2008). This is insufficient evidence that peppers are a host.

52 The only evidence that Capsicum sp. is a host of D. neobrevipes are two interceptions at U.S. ports-of-entry in baggage 

(PestID, 2008). This is insufficient evidence of host status, so this species is unlikely to follow the pathway.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 21

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Ferrisia virgata

(Cockerell)

CR, GU, HO, NI, 

PN, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (Blanco et al., 

2003), S (Hill, 

1987) 

No N/A N/A

Geococcus coffeae

Green

CR, EL, GU, HO, 

PN (Williams and 

Granara, 1992), US 

(FL Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

A (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008; Ben-Dov, 

1994)

[Yes]11 R (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2008; 

Ben-Dov, 

1994)

No

Paracoccus marginatus

Williams and Granara 

de Willink

CR, GU (Williams 

and Granara, 1992), 

US (FL, MT CABI, 

2007; Walker et al., 

2006)

A (CABI, 2007), S 

(Walker et al., 

2006)

[Yes]11 F, I, L, S 

(CABI, 

2007)

No53

Phenacoccus 

madeirensis Green

CR, GU, PN, US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2008; CABI, 2007)

A (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008; CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Phenacoccus parvus

Morrison

CR (Williams and 

Granara, 1992), NI, 

PN (Williams and 

Cox, 1984) US (FL)

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

A, F (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008), F 

(Williams and 

Cox, 1984; CABI, 

2007), S 

(Williams and 

Granara, 1992)

[Yes]11 F (PestID, 

2008); L, S 

(Fletcher, 

2003)

Yes54

Phenacoccus solenopsis

Tinsley

PN (Williams and 

Granara, 1992), US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

S (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Planococcus citri 

(Risso)

CR, GU, HO 

(Williams and 

Granara, 1992), EL 

(CABI, 2007), US 

(CABI, 2007)

F (MAF 

Biosecurity, 2000)

No N/A N/A

Planococcus minor

(Maskell)

CR, GU, HO (BenDov et al., 2008; 

Williams and 

Granara, 1992)

A, F (Ben-Dov, 

1994; Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008)

Yes F, I, R, S 

(Ooi et al., 

2002)

Yes55

 

53 C. annuum is a secondary host of P. marginatus (CABI, 2007). This pest has only been intecepted twice, on baggage from 

Puerto Rico (PestID, 2008), and never on Capsicum fruit imported from Mexico, where it occurs (Ben-Dov et al., 2008,

CABI, 2007; Williams and Granara, 1992). Therefore, P. marginatus is highly unlikely to follow the pathway.

54 This pest mainly attacks leaves and stems of hosts, but it is likely to follow the pathway because immature stages and 

adults have been intercepted 21 times on fresh Capsicum fruit at U.S. ports-of-entry (PestID, 2008).

55 Planococcus minor has been intercepted more than 50 times on Capsicum spp. from different countries (PestID, 2008).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 22

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Pseudococcus elisae 

Borchsenius

CR, GU, HO, PN

(CABI, 2007), NI 

(Williams and 

Granara, 1992)

S (PestID, 2008) Yes F, L (CABI, 

2007)

No56

Pseudococcus 

jackbeardsleyi Gimpel 

and Miller

CAm, US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2008; CABI, 

2007)

F, S (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008; CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Pseudococcus 

longispinus Targioni 

Tozzetti

CR, GU, HO 

(Williams and 

Granara, 1992), US 

(Ben-Dov, 1994; 

CABI, 2007)

A (Ben-Dov, 

1994)

No N/A N/A

Pseudococcus viburni 

(Signoret)

CR, GU, PN, US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

S (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Saccharicoccus sacchari 

(Cockerell)

CAm (CABI, 2007; 

Ben-Dov et al., 

2008), US (Arnett, 

2000; CABI, 2007)

S

57 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Tingidae

Corythucha gossypii

(Fabricius)

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), HO 

(CABI, 2007), NI 

(Maes, 2008), US 

(Schaefer and 

PNnizzi, 2000)

A (Maes, 2008), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Lepidoptera: Arctiidae

Estigmene acraea Drury CR, EL, GU, HO, 

NI, US (CABI, 

2007)

S (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Lepidoptera: Cosmopterigidae

Pyroderces rileyi

(Walsingham)

EL, NI (Maes, 

2008), HO 

(SENASA, 2003), 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Robinson et al., 

2007)

S (Maes, 2008; 

Robinson et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

 

56 The only evidence that Capsicum sp. is a host of P. elisae are two interceptions at U.S. ports-of-entry in baggage from 

Jamaica and in permit cargo from the Dominican Republic (PestID, 2008). This is insufficient evidence of host status, so 

this species is unlikely to follow the pathway.

57 The only evidence that Capsicum sp. are a host of S. sacchari are two interceptions at U.S. ports-of-entry in baggage 

(PestID, 2008). This is insufficient evidence that peppers are a host of S. sacchari.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 23

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Lepidoptera: Crambidae

Herpetogramma 

bipunctalis (Fabricius)

Syn.: Psara 

bipunctalis (Fabricius)

HO (SENASA, 

2003), NI (Maes, 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007; Zhang, 1994)

F (Robinson et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Maruca vitrata 

(Fabricius)

CR, EL, GU, HO, 

PN (CABI, 2007)

A (PestID, 2008) Yes F, (CABI, 

2007)

No58

Neoleucinodes 

elegantalis (Guenée)

CR, EL (McGuire 

and Crandall, 1967), 

PN (PestID, 2008),

A, S (Robinson et 

al., 2007)

Yes F (Eiras and 

Blackmer, 

2003)

Yes

Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

Keiferia lycopersicella

Walsingham

CR (Zhang, 1994), 

NI (Maes, 2008), US 

(Zhang, 1994)

A (Robinson et al., 

2007; Zhang, 

1994)

No N/A N/A

Phthorimaea operculella

(Zeller)

CR (CABI, 2007), 

GU, NI (Maes, 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Robinson et al., 

2007), S (Maes, 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Sitotroga cerealella 

(Olivier)

CR, EL, HO, NI 

(McGuire and 

Crandall, 1967), US 

(CABI, 2007; 

Robinson et al., 

2007)

A

59 (Seenappa et 

al., 1979)

No N/A N/A

Symmetrischema capsica

(Bradley and Povolny)

HO, US (Bennett, 

1995)

A (Bennett, 1995; 

Robinson et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae

Tmolus echion 

(Linnaeus)

Syn.: Ministrymon 

echion (Linnaeus)

GU (Zhang, 1994), 

US (Opler et al., 

2006)

A (Robinson et al., 

2007), S (Zhang, 

1994)

No N/A N/A

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Agrotis ipsilon

(Hufnagel)

CAm, US (Zhang, 

1994)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Robinson et al., 

2007), S (Zhang, 

1994)

No N/A N/A

 

58 Maruca vitrata usually affects leaves, flowers, and pods of Fabaceae. The only evidence associating M. vitrata with 

Capsicum spp. is one interception on C. annuum in passenger baggage (PestID, 2008). That pest may have been a 

contaminating pest in non-commercial fruit. Therefore, this pest is unlikely to be present on commercial Capsicum spp.

59 This insect is a stored-product pest (Seenappa et al., 1979), and is unlikely to be associated with fresh Capsicum fruit.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 24

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Agrotis malefida Guenée

Syn.: Rhizagrotis 

malefida (Guenée)

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), HO 

(CABI, 2007), NI 

(Maes, 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Robinson et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Agrotis repleta Walker

Syn.: Feltia repleta 

Walker

CR, EL (McGuire 

and Crandall, 1967), 

US (Kimball, 1953; 

Poole and Gentili, 

1996)

A (Saninet, 2002) No N/A N/A

Agrotis sp. CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

S (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes F, L, R, S 

(CABI, 

2007)

Yes60,

Chrysodeixis includens 

(Walker)

Syn.: Pseudoplusia 

includens (Walker)

HO, NI, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (Saninet, 2002; 

CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Feltia subterranea 

(Fabricius)

Syn.: Agrotis 

subterranea

(Fabricius)

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), EL 

(Arevalo, 2003), HO, 

NI (Maes, 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007; Zhang, 

1994)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Robinson et al., 

2007; Saninet, 

2002)

No N/A N/A

Helicoverpa zea

(Boddie)

Syn.: Chloridea 

obsoleta Fabricius)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007; Zhang, 1994)

A, S (CABI, 

2007), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Heliothis virescens 

(Fabricius)

Syn.: Chloridea 

virescens (Fabricius)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007; Zhang, 1994)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Saninet, 2002), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Heliothis sp. CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

S (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes F, I, L, S 

(CABI, 

2007)

Yes61

Mythimna unipuncta

Haworth

Syn.: Pseudaletia 

unipuncta (Haworth)

CR, GU, PN, US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Robinson et al., 

2007), S (Cook et 

al., 2004)

No N/A N/A

 

60 Agrotis species known to attack Capsicum spp. in Central America are A. ipsilon, A. malefida, and A. replete, which are all 

non-quarantine pests. Consequently, we did not further analyze this pest.

61 This pest belongs to a genus that is present in the United States (Arnett, 2000), so we did further analyze it.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 25

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Peridroma saucia

(Hübner)

CR, GU, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Robinson et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Spodoptera albula 

(Walker)

Syn.: S. sunia Guenée

CR, EL, HO, NI, US 

(Teixeira et al., 

2001)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Spodoptera dolichos 

(Fabricius)

HO, NI, CR, PN

(Maes, 2008), US 

(Heppner and 

Habeck, 1976)

S

62 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Spodoptera eridania

Stoll

CAm, US (Capinera, 

2008b)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Robinson et al., 

2007), F 

(Robinson et al., 

2007), S 

(Capinera, 2008b; 

Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Spodoptera exigua

(Hübner)

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), EL, 

GU, HO, NI (Maes, 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007)

A, S (CABI, 

2007), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Spodoptera frugiperda 

J.E. Smith

Syn.: Laphygma 

frugiperda Guenée

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007; Zhang, 1994)

A (CABI, 2007), S 

(Maes, 2008; 

Pashley, 1988)

No N/A N/A

Spodoptera latifascia

(Walker)

CAm, US (Zhang, 

1994)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002; 

Robinson et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Spodoptera ornithogalli

(Guenée)

Syn.: Prodenia 

ornithogalli Guenée

CAm, US (Capinera, 

2001)

A (CABI, 2007), F 

(Robinson et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Spodoptera sp. CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

S (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002)

Yes F, I, L, S, 

Sh (Ellis, 

2004)

Yes63

 

62 The only evidence that Capsicum sp. is a host of S. dolichos are two interceptions at a U.S. ports-of-entry (PestID, 2008). 

This is insufficient evidence of host status.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 26

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), HO, 

NI (Maes, 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002; 

Maes, 2008)

No N/A N/A

Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae

Ithomia celemia

(Hewitson)

CR (Robinson et al., 

2007)

A (Robinson et al., 

2007)

Yes L

64

(DeVries, 

1989)

No

Pteronymia notilla 

Butler and Druce

CR (Robinson et al., 

2007)

A (Robinson et al., 

2007)

Yes L

64

(DeVries, 

1989)

No

Lepidoptera: Pieridae

Ascia monuste 

(Linnaeus)

CAm (McGuire and 

Crandall, 1967; 

Robinson et al., 

2007), US (Opler et 

al., 2006)

A

65 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Leptophobia aripa 

(Boisduval)

CAm (Santiago et 

al., 2006), US (TX 

Opler et al., 2006)

S (McGuire and 

Crandall, 1967)

[Yes]11 L

66

(Ramírez et 

al., 2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Psychidae

Oiketicus kirbyi

Guilding

CAm (CABI, 2007; 

Mexzón et al., 2003; 

Zhang, 1994)

A (Saninet, 2002) Yes L (Mexzón 

et al., 2003)

No

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Ancylostomia stercorea 

(Zeller)

CR, GU, PN (CABI, 

2007), US (CABI, 

2007; Robinson et 

al., 2007)

A

67 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Cadra cautella Walker CAm (Maes, 2008), 

US (CABI, 2007)

S (Robinson et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

 

63 The species of Spodoptera reported attacking Capsicum spp. in Central America are S. albula, S. dolichos, S. eridania, S. 

exigua, S. frugiperda, S. latifascia, and S. Ornithogalli, which are all non-quarantine pests. Consequently, we did not 

further analyze.this pest. 

64 Broad patterns of host plant use in the family Nymphalidae are well known, and the Ithomiinae subfamily is largely 

composed of specialist pests on the Solanaceae, with a few species that use the Apocynaceae. Most ithomiines eat round 

holes in the interior of the leaf blades (DeVries, 1989).

65 The only evidence that Capsicum sp. is a host of A. monuste is one interception at a U.S. port-of-entry (PestID, 2008). This 

is insufficient evidence that peppers are a host of A. monuste.

66 L. aripa is a leaf feeder, reported as pest of Brassica oleracea var. capitata L. (Ramírez et al., 2001; Santiago et al., 2006)

67 The only evidence that Capsicum sp. is a host of A. stercorea is one interception at a U.S. port-of-entry (PestID, 2008). 

This is insufficient evidence that peppers are a host of A. stercorea.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 27

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Corcyra cephalonica 

(Stainton)

NI (Maes, 2008), 

HO, US (CABI, 

2007) 

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Elasmopalpus 

lignosellus (Zeller)

CR, EL, GU, NI, 

PN, US (CABI, 

2007)

S (Maes, 2008) No N/A N/A

Ephestia elutella Hübner NI (Maes, 2008), US 

(Arnett, 2000)

S

68 (Robinson et 

al., 2007)

No N/A N/A

Ephestia kuehniella

Zeller

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007; Walker, 2007)

S (CABI, 2007; 

Zhang, 1994)

No N/A N/A

Etiella zinckenella

(Treitschke)

EL, HO, NI (Maes, 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007)

A (Robinson et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Lineodes integra (Zeller) NI (Maes, 2008), US 

(Robinson et al., 

2007)

A, S (Robinson et 

al., 2007)

No N/A N/A

Pilemia periusalis 

(Walker)

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), PN

(McGuire and 

Crandall, 1967), US 

(Arnett, 2000; CABI, 

2007)

F (Martorell, 

1976)

No N/A N/A

Plodia interpunctella

(Hübner)

NI (Maes, 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A, S (Robinson et 

al., 2007)

No N/A N/A

Lepidoptera: Sphingidae

Manduca sexta

(Linnaeus)

CR, GU (Maes, 

2008), HO, NI, PN, 

US (CABI, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007;

Maes, 2008), S 

(Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002; 

Robinson et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Lepidoptera: Tineidae

Opogona sacchari Bojer CAm (EPPO/CABI, 

1997), US (FL, HI 

CABI, 2007)

S (CABI, 2007; 

EPPO/CABI, 

1997)

[Yes]11 I, L, S 

(CABI, 

2007)

No69

 

68 E. elutella Larva feeds on stored tobacco leaves and other products, particularly chocolates, seeds, and prepared cereals 

(Arnett, 2000). It is found less commonly in grains and flour, and in rotten wood.

69 We think O. sacchari is unlikely to follow the pathway for several reasons. Capsicum is reported as an minor host of O. 

sacchari (CABI, 2007). Larvae are scavengers of dried/harvested vegetable material, and feed only occasionally on living 

material. Opogona sacchari in other hosts (e.g., bananas) attacks the peduncles, but it is especially abundant in decaying 

pseudostems (EPPO/CABI, 1997). In ornamental plants like cacti and Dracaena, larvae feed on dead and living portions of 

the cortex. Peduncles of Capsicum are not woody or fleshy, and damaged fruits and tissues are likely to be culled during

postharvest processing. O. sacchari has never been intercepted on Capsicum spp., and only twice in baggage on any 

commodity (PestID, 2008). 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 28

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae

Lorita scarificata 

(Meyrick)

Syn.: L. abornana 

Busck

CR (Zhang, 1994), 

US (Pogue, 1988; 

Zhang, 1994)

A (Pogue, 1988) No N/A N/A

Platynota rostrana

Walker

GU, HO, NI, PN

(Maes, 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007; Zhang, 

1994)

A, F (Robinson et 

al., 2007), S 

(Maes, 2008)

No N/A N/A

Orthoptera: Acrididae

Orphulella punctata 

(Degeer)

CR (Rowell, 1998), 

GU, HO, NI (Maes, 

2004)

S

70 (PestID, 2008) Yes L (Bulacio 

et al., 2005)

No

Orthoptera: Gryllidae

Gryllus assimilis

(Fabricius)

Syn.: Acheta assimilis 

Fabricius

CR, GU, NI, PN

(Maes, 2004), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Narváez, 2003) No N/A N/A

Orthoptera Gryllotalpidae

Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa

Linnaeus

EL (Arevalo, 2003), 

US (CABI, 2007)

A (Arevalo, 2003), 

S (CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Neocurtilla hexadactyla 

(Perty)

Syn.: Gryllotalpa 

hexadactyla Perty

CR (Chinchilla and 

Ujueta, 2002), US 

(Walker and Moore, 

2008

A (Saninet, 2002) No N/A N/A

Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Chaetanaphothrips 

orchidii (Moulton)

CR, HO, US (CABI, 

2007)

S

71 (PestID, 2008) No N/A N/A

Chaetanaphothrips 

signipennis (Bagnall)

CR, HO, PN (CABI, 

2007), NI (Maes, 

2008), US (FL 

Howard and McCoy, 

1992)

S (Pernezny et al., 

2003)

[Yes]11 F, I, L 

(Pernezny et 

al., 2003)

No72

 

70 The only evidence that Capsicum sp. is a host of O. punctata is one interception at a U.S. port-of-entry (PestID, 2008). 

This is insufficient evidence that peppers are a host of O. punctata.

71 Two interceptions at U.S. ports-of-entry are the only evidence that Capsicum sp. is a host of C. orchidii (PestID, 2008). 

This is insufficient evidence that peppers are a host of C. orchidii.

72 C. signipennis is a pest of Anthurium, Musa (banana), and Musa x paradisiaca (plantain) (CABI, 2007). The only evidence 

that this thrips is a pest of Capsicum spp. is a record in Pernezny et al. (2003), which was later acknowledged as a mistake 

(Nuessly, 2008). Consequently, we have no evidence that peppers are a host of C. signipennis.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 29

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Frankliniella 

occidentalis

(Pergande)

CR, GU (CABI, 

2007), NI (Maes, 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007)

A, S(CABI, 2007), 

S (Maes, 2008)

No N/A N/A

Frankliniella insularis 

(Franklin)

NI, PN, US (Maes, 

2008)

A (CABI, 2007), S 

(Maes, 2008)

No N/A N/A

Thrips palmi Karny CAm (EPPO, 2001, 

US (FL, HI CABI, 

2007)

A (EPPO, 2001; 

Pernezny et al., 

2003), A, S 

(CABI, 2007), F 

(Salas, 2003)

[Yes]11 F, I, L 

(CABI, 

2007; 

EPPO, 

2001)

Yes

Thrips tabaci Lindeman CR (CABI, 2007), 

EL, GU, HO, NI 

(Maes, 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Deligeorgidis, 

2002; Pernezny et 

al., 2003)

No N/A N/A

PLANT PATHOGENS

BACTERIA

Clavibacter 

michiganensis subsp. 

michiganensis Smith 

and Davis, et. al.

(Actinomycetales)

CR, PN, US 

(Bradbury, 1986; 

CABI, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Young and 

Fletcher, 1997)

No N/A N/A

Erwinia carotovora 

subsp. atroseptica

(van Hall) Dye.

Syn.: E. carotovora

(Jones) Holl. Berg.

(Enterobacteriales)

CR, HO, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, B, F (Wellman, 

1977)

No N/A N/A

Erwinia carotovora 

subsp. carotovora

(Jones) Bergey et al.

(Enterobacteriales)

CR, HO, PN, US 

(CABI, 2007)

A, S (Bradbury, 

1986; CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Erwinia chrysanthemi 

(Burkh.) Young et al.

(Enterobacteriales)

CR, GU, HO, PN, 

US (CABI, 2007)

A

73 (Bradbury, 

1986; CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

 

73 E. chrysanthemi is a minor pest of C. annum (CABI, 2007)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 30

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Erwinia chrysanthemi 

pv. paradisiaca 

(Victoria & Barros) 

Dickey & Victoria

(Enterobacteriales)

GU, HO, PN (CABI, 

2007)

A (Bradbury, 

1986; CABI, 

2007)

Yes F, S74

(Bradbury, 

1986), S 

(Young and 

Fletcher, 

1997)

No75

Pseudomonas cichorii 

(Swingle) Stapp

(Pseudomonadales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A, S (CABI, 

2007), S 

(Bradbury, 1986)

No N/A N/A

Pseudomonas syringae 

pv. syringae van Hall

(Pseudomonadales)

EL (CABI, 2007), 

GU, HO, PN

(Bradbury, 1986), 

US (CABI, 2007)

A (Bradbury, 

1986; CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Ralstonia solanacearum

(Smith) Yabuuchi

Syn.: Pseudomonas 

solanacearum (Smith) 

Smith; Xanthomonas 

solanacearum (Smith) 

Dowson

(Burkholderiales)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (Bradbury, 

1986; CABI, 

2007), A, B, F 

(Wellman, 1977), 

A, F (Young and 

Fletcher, 1997)

No N/A N/A

Ralstonia solanacearum 

race 1 (Smith) 

Yabuuchi et. al.

(Burkholderiales)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Ralstonia solanacearum 

race 3 biovar 2 

(Smith) Yabuuchi et 

al.

(Burkholderiales)

CR76 (CABI, 2007), 

GU (Sanchez Perez 

et al., 2008), US77

(Ambuzs, 2003; 

NAPPO, 2005)

S (Ambuzs, 2003; 

Canadian Food 

Inspection 

Agency, 2007)

Yes L, R, S 

(Invasive.or

g, 2008; 

Martin et 

al., 2005)

Yes

 

74 We found no reports of the Capsicum spp. plant part affected by this bacterium. We assumed E. chrysanthemi pv.

paradisiaca could affect pseudostems and green fruit, based on its effects on Musa sp (Bradbury, 1986; Young and 

Fletcher, 1997). 

75 Capsicum annuum is susceptible to E. chrysanthemi pv. paradisiaca when artificially inoculated (Bradbury, 1986), but we 

found no evidence that natural infection occurs. E. chrysanthemi pv. paradisiaca occurs in Honduras on the pseudostems 

and fruit of Musa sp. (Bradbury, 1986; Young and Fletcher, 1997), but has not been reported on Capsicum sp. 

Consequently, this pest is unlikely to follow the pathway.

76 Reported as Ralstonia solanacearum race 3. No biovar specified for this country.

77 This bacteria has been erradicated from all territories of the United States (Ambuzs, 2003; CABI, 2007; NAPPO, 2005).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 31

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Rhizobium radiobacter 

(Beijerinck & van 

Delden) Young et al.

Syn.: Agrobacterium 

tumefaciens (Smith & 

Townsend) Conn

(Rhizobiales)

PN (Wellman, 

1977), US (CABI, 

2007)

A (Bradbury, 

1986; CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Xanthomonas 

vesicatoria (Doidge) 

Dowson

(Xanthomonadales)

Syn.: X. campestris

pv. vesicatoria

(Doidge) Dye

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), EL, 

GU, HO, NI, US 

(CABI, 2007)

A, S (CABI, 

2007), F (McGuire 

and Crandall, 

1967) 

No N/A N/A

FUNGI78

Alternaria alternata 

(Fr.:Fr.) Keissl.

Syn.: A. tenuis Nees

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), GU, 

HO, PN (Farr et al., 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F, S (Farr et al., 

2008), A, S 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Alternaria brassicae

(Berk.) Sacc.

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CR, GU, HO, NI, PN

(CABI, 2007; Farr et 

al., 2008) EL (Farr et 

al., 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007; Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Alternaria solani

Sorauer

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CAm (Farr et al., 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F, S (Calderón 

and Díaz, 2002; 

Farr et al., 2008), 

A, S (CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Alternaria sp.

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

Yes L (Calderón 

and Díaz, 

2002)

No

Alternaria tenuissima 

(Nees & T. Nees: Fr.) 

Wiltshire

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

PN (Cantrell et al., 

2006), US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

 

78 Fungal taxonomic classification as in Farr et al. (2008), and Index fungorum database (CABI, 2008).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 32

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Apiospora montagnei 

Sacc.

(Ascomycetes:

Incertae sedis)

PN, US (Farr et al., 

2008)

S (Kirk, 1991a) No N/A N/A

Ascochyta gossypii

Woron.

(Dothideomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

GU, PN, US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F, P (Holliday, 

1980)

No N/A N/A

Aspergillus flavus Link: 

Fr.

(Eurotiomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

HO (CABI, 2007), 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr et al., 2008)

F, S (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Aspergillus niger Tiegh.

(Eurotiomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

CAm (Farr et al., 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008), A, F 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Aspergillus sp.

(Eurotiomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

Yes F (Calderón 

and Díaz, 

2002)

Yes79

Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu 

& Kimbr.

Syn.: Corticium rolfsii 

Curzi; Pellicularia 

rolfsii (Curzi) E. 

West.; Sclerotium 

rolfsii Sacc.

(Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Arevalo, 2003; 

CABI, 2007;

Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F 

(Farr et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Botryosphaeria rhodina

(Berk. & M.A. Curtis) 

Arx

Syn.: Botryodiplodia 

theobromae Pat.; 

Diplodia natalensis

Pole-Evans.; 

Lasiodiplodia 

theobromae (Pat.) 

Griffiths & Maubl.; 

(Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

CAm (Farr et al., 

2008, CR, EL, HO, 

NI, PN (CABI, 

2007), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008), A, S 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

 

79 This pest may or may not be quarantine pest, but the genus is present in the United States (Farr et al., 1989). We did not 

further analyze it because we found no evidence that other pests in the genus were quarantine pests in the region examined. 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 33

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Botryotinia fuckeliana 

(de Bary) Whetzel

Syn.: Botrytis cinerea

Pers.

(Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales)

CAm, US (Farr et 

al., 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F, 

S (Farr et al., 

2008), S (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Cercospora apii Fresen.

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

GU, PN, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008) 

No N/A N/A

Cercospora capsici 

Heald & F.A. Wolf.

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

CAm, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, B, 

F, S (Farr et al., 

2008), A, S 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Cercospora sp.

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F, 

S (Farr et al., 

2008)

Yes L (Calderón 

and Díaz, 

2002)

No

Chaetomium 

bostrychodes Zopf

(Ascomycetes: 

Sordariales)

PN (Minter, 2006), 

US (Farr et al., 2008;

Minter, 2006)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Choanephora 

cucurbitarum (Berk. 

& Ravenel) Thaxt.

(Zygomycetes: 

Mucorales)

PN, US (Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F, S (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Cladosporium 

cladosporioides 

(Fresen.) G.A. De 

Vries.

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

PN (Cantrell et al., 

2006), US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Cladosporium 

cucumerinum Ellis & 

Arthur

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

EL, PN (CABI, 

2007), PN, US (Farr 

et al., 2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 34

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Cladosporium herbarum

(Pers.: Fr.) Link

Syn.: Davidiella 

tassiana (De Not.) 

Crous & U. Braun

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

EL, NI, PN, US (Farr 

et al., 2008)

A, B, F (Wellman, 

1977), A, F, S 

(Farr et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Cladosporium 

oxysporum Berk. & 

M.A. Curtis

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

CR, EL, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Cochliobolus 

geniculatus R. R. 

Nelson

Syn.: Curvularia 

geniculata (Tracy & 

Earle) Boedijn

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

PN, US (Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008), S (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Cochliobolus lunatus 

R.R. Nelson & Haasis

Syn.: Curvularia 

lunata (Wakker) 

Boedijn

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

PN (CABI, 2007), 

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), CAm, 

US (Farr et al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F 

(Farr et al., 2008), 

F, S (CABI, 2007; 

S (Young and 

Fletcher, 1997)

No N/A N/A

Colletotrichum capsici

(Syd.) E.J. Butler & 

Bisby

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), US 

(CABI, 2007; Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (CABI, 2007), 

A, F, S (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Colletotrichum coccodes 

(Wallr.) S. Hughes

(Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

PN (Farr et al., 2008, 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr et al., 2008)

A (Young and 

Fletcher, 1997), A, 

F (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Colletotrichum 

dematium (Pers.: Fr.) 

Grove

(Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

EL, GU, NI, PN, US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007), 

A, F, S (Farr et al., 

2008; Young and 

Fletcher, 1997)

No N/A N/A
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 35

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Colletotrichum nigrum

Ellis & Halst.

(Sordariomycetes: 

Incertae sedis)

CAm, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A, F (Oduro, 

2000), A, F, S 

(Farr et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Colletotrichum 

truncatum (Schwein.) 

Andrus & W.D. 

Moore.

(Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

EL, NI, PN, US (Farr 

et al., 2008), GU, 

HO, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Corynespora cassiicola

(Berk. & M.A. Curtis) 

C.T. Weir

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

GU, PN, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F 

(Farr et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Didymella lycopersici 

Kleb.

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

PN (CABI, 2007), 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr et al., 2008) 

A, S (Farr et al., 

2008), S (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Erysiphe betae (Vaňha) 

Weltzien

Syn.: E. polygoni auct. 

p.p. (Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), EL, 

GU, US (CABI, 

2007), PN, US (Farr 

et al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Erysiphe cichoracearum 

DC. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

CAm, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Alfieri et al., 

1994), A, S (Farr 

et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Fulvia fulva (Cooke) 

Cif.

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

CR, GU, HO, NI, 

PN, US (CABI, 

2007), CAm, US 

(Farr et al., 2008), 

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Fusarium incarnatum

(Desm.) Sacc.

Syn.: F. 

pallidoroseum 

(Cooke) Sacc.

(Ascomycetes, 

Hypocreales)

CR, GU, HO, US 

(Farr et al., 2008), 

HO, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, F, S (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Fusarium moniliforme J. 

Sheld.

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR, GU, HO, NI, US 

(Farr et al., 2008, 

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, S (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 36

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Fusarium oxysporum 

Schlechtendahl

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CAm, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002),A, F, 

S (Farr et al., 

2008), S (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Fusarium oxysporum f. 

sp. lycopersici (Sacc.) 

W.C. Snyder & H.N. 

Hansen

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

PN, US (Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Fusarium oxysporum 

f.sp. radicislycopersici Jarvis & 

Shoemaker

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Fusarium oxysporum 

f.sp. vasinfectum (G.F. 

Atk.) W.C. Snyder & 

H.N. Hansen

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR, GU, PN

(Wellman, 1977), 

EL, GU, NI, US 

(CABI, 2007), EL, 

NI, US (Farr et al., 

2008)

A, S (CABI, 2007; 

Farr et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Fusarium spp.

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

Yes F, R 

(Calderón 

and Díaz, 

2002)

Yes80

Galactomyces 

geotrichum (E.E. 

Butler & L.J. 

Petersen) Redhead & 

Malloch

Syn.: Geotrichum 

candidum Link

(Saccharomycetes: 

Saccharomycetales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), US 

(Farr et al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002; Farr et 

al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Gibberella fujikuroi 

(Sawada) Ito.

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

S (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

 

80 This pest may or may not be quarantine pest, but belongs to a genus that is present in the United States (Farr et al., 1989). 

We did not analyze it further because we found no evidence of other pests in the taxon being quarantine pests in the region 

examined. 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 37

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Gibberella intricans 

Wollenw. 

Syn.: Fusarium 

equiseti (Corda) Sacc.

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

GU, PN (Farr et al., 

2008), HO (CABI, 

2007), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F, S (Farr et al., 

2008), S (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Gibberella zeae

(Schwein. : Fr.) Petch

Syn.: Fusarium 

graminearum

Schwabe.

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CAm, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

F (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Gloeosporium piperatum 

Ellis & Everh.

(Leotiomycetes: 

Helotiales)

GU, PN (Farr et al., 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008), S (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Glomerella acutata

Guerber & J.C. 

Correll 2001 

Syn.: Colletotrichum 

acutatum Simmonds 

ex Simmonds

(Ascomycetes: 

Incertae sedis)

CR (CABI, 2007; 

Calderón and Díaz, 

2002), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F, 

S (Farr et al., 

2008), F, S 

(Young and 

Fletcher, 1997), S 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Glomerella cingulata

(Stoneman) Spauld. & 

H. Schrenk

Syn.: Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides

(Penz.) Penz. & Sacc.

(Ascomycetes: 

incertae sedis)

CR, GU, HO, NI, PN

(CABI, 2007), CAm, 

US (Farr et al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F 

(Young and 

Fletcher, 1997), A, 

F, S (Farr et al., 

2008), A, S 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Glomerella 

lindemuthiana Shear 

Syn.: Colletotrichum 

lindemuthianum

(Sacc. & Magn.) 

Scribn.

(Ascomycetes, 

Incertae sedis)

CAm, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

F (Oduro, 2000) No N/A N/A
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 38

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Haematonectria 

haematococca (Berk. 

& Broome) Samuels 

& Rossman

Syn.: Fusarium solani 

(Wollenw.) Gerlach; 

Nectria haematococca 

Berk. & Broome

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR, HO, NI, PN

(Farr et al., 2008), 

HO, US (CABI, 

2007),

A, F, S (Farr et al., 

2008), A, S 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Hypocrea rufa (Pers. : 

Fr.) Fr.81

Syn.: Trichoderma 

viride

(Ascomycetes, 

Hypocreales)

PN (Cantrell et al., 

2006), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Leptoxyphium fumago

(Woron.) R.C. Srivast.

Syn.: Caldariomyces 

fumago Woron.

(Ascomycetes: 

Capnodiales)

PN (Farr et al., 2008) A (Farr et al., 

2008)

Yes L (Farr et 

al., 2008)

No

Leveillula taurica (Lév.) 

G. Arnaud

(Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), HO, NI 

(CABI, 2007), PN

(Farr et al., 2008),

US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr et al., 2008)

A (Oduro, 2000), 

A, B, F (Wellman, 

1977), A, F, S 

(Farr et al., 2008), 

S (CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

 

81 The major host of H. rufa is the fungus Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom); it is “associated” with several genera of 

plants (CABI, 2007). The substrate reported of this fungus is wood (Farr et al., 2008) of several species of plants.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 39

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Macrophomina 

phaseolina (Tassi) 

Goid

Syn.: Macrophoma 

phaseoli Maubl.

(Ascomycetes:

Incertae sedis)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), EL, HO 

(CABI, 2007), NI, 

PN (Farr et al., 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (CABI, 2007), 

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008), S 

(Pernezny et al., 

2003)

No N/A N/A

Moniliophthora 

perniciosa (Stahel) 

Aime & PhillipsMora

Syn.: Crinipellis 

perniciosa (Stahel) 

Singer

(Basidiomycetes: 

Agaricales)

PN82 (Williams, 

2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

Yes F, I, L, S 

(CABI, 

2007)

Yes83

Mycena citricolor (Berk. 

& M.A. Curtis) Sacc.

(Basidiomycetes: 

Agaricales)

CAm (CABI, 2007), 

US (FL CABI, 2007)

A, B, F84

(Wellman, 1977)

Yes85 L 

(Wellman, 

1977)

No

Mycovellosiella fulva 

(Cooke)

(Dothideomycetes: 

Capnodiales)

CR, GU, HO, NI, 

PN, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, F86 (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Nematospora coryli 

Peglion.

(Saccharomycetes: 

Saccharomycetales)

CR (CABI 2007), 

US (CABI 2007; 

Farr et al., 2008)

F (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

 

82 Witches broom fungus of cacao, caused by C. perniciosa (Stahel) Singer, is a serious disease in Latin America. Indigenous 

to the Amazon, it is now present in most cocoa growing regions in South America and several Caribbean islands. It occurs 

in Central America only in Panama (on the South American side of the canal) (Williams, 2008).

83 M. perniciosa affects leaves, flowers, stems and fruits of cocoa, Theobroma cacao. The only reported host association is on 

C. annuum (Farr et al., 2008), and we found no information about the part plant affected. Given its distribution in Central 

America and the lack of evidence that it affects Capsicum spp, we did not further analyze it.

84 Although Wellman (1977) reports this fungus on Capsicum, it is common on woody perennials in the cool humid 

equatorial forests, several of which are shade trees in coffee plantations (CABI, 2007). We found no more information 

about the association between Capsicum and this pathogen.

85 M. citricolor is reportedly present in Florida (CABI, 2007) but it has not been detected there since 1926 (Schubert, 2002). 

It is not known to occur in the United States (Farr et al., 1989; Farr et al., 2008, Alfieri et al., 1994).

86 M. fulva was isolated from tomato, red pepper (C. annuum), and bell pepper (C. frutescens), but tests did not show P. fulva

to be pathogenic.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 40

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Nigrospora oryzae

(Berk. & Broome) 

Petch.

(Ascomycetes: 

Trichosphaeriales)

CAm, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Nigrospora sphaerica

(Sacc.) E.W. Mason

(Ascomycetes: 

Trichosphaeriales)

EL, PN, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

S (Kirk, 1991b) No N/A N/A

Oidium sp.

(Leotiomycetes)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), GU 

(Farr et al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002; Farr et 

al., 2008)

Yes L

87

(Calderón 

and Díaz, 

2002)

No

Passalora diffusa (Ellis 

& Everh.) U. Braun & 

Crous

Syn.: Cercospora 

diffusa Ellis & Everh.

(Ascomycetes, 

Mycosphaerellales)

EL, US (Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F, S (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Phaeoramularia 

capsicicola 

(Vassiljevsky) 

Deighton

Syn.: Cercospora 

unamunoi Castell. 

Ellis. Chupp; 

Passalora capsicicola 

(Vassiljevsky) U. 

Braun & F.O. Freire.

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

HO (SENASA, 

2003), PN (Farr et 

al., 2008), US (Farr 

et al., 2008)

A, B, F (Wellman, 

1977), A, F, S 

(Farr et al., 2008), 

A, S (CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Pellicularia koleroga

Cooke.

(Agaricomycetes: 

Incertae sedis)

CAm, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Penicillium decumbens 

Thom.

(Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

PN (Cantrell et al., 

2006), US (Farr et 

al., 1989; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

 

87 Oidium sp. cause powdered mildew in leaves (Calderón and Díaz, 2002).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 41

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Penicillium oxalicum 

Currie & Thom

(Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

PN (Cantrell et al., 

2006), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Penicillium spp.

(Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), EL, PN

(Wellman, 1977)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, B, 

F (Wellman, 

1977)

Yes F (Calderón 

and Díaz, 

2002; 

Wellman, 

1977)

Yes88

Periconia byssoides 

Pers. 

Syn.: P. pycnospora

Fresen.

(Ascomycetes:

Incertae sedis)

EL, PN, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Peronospora hyoscyami 

f.sp. tabacina (D.B. 

Adam) Skalicky

Syn.: Peronospora 

tabacina D.B. Adam

(Oomycetes: 

Peronosporales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), EL, 

GU, HO, NI, US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Pestalotiopsis palmarum

(Cooke) Steyaert

(Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

EL, HO, PN

(Mordue and 

Holliday, 1971), US 

(Farr et al., 2008)

S (Mordue and 

Holliday, 1971)

No N/A N/A

Pestalotiopsis sp.

(Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

Yes F (Calderón 

and Díaz, 

2002) L

(Mordue 

and 

Holliday, 

1971)

Yes89

 

88 This pest may or may not be a quarantine pest but belongs to a genus that is present in the United States (Farr et al., 1989). 

We did not analyze it further because we found no evidence that other pests in the taxon were quarantine pests in the region 

examined.

89 This pest may or may not be a quarantine pest but belongs to a genus that is present in the United States (Farr et al., 1989). 

The only evidence that Pestalotiopsis species affect Capsicum spp. is for P. palmarum, which is not a quarantine pest. 

Although this pest likely follows the pathway, we did not analyze it further because we found no evidence of other 

quarantine pests in the taxon in the region examined.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 42

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Phoma destructiva 

Plowr.

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CR, PN, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F, 

S (CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Phoma exigua Desm.

Syn.: Ascochyta 

phaseolorum Sacc.

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

EL, GU, PN, NI, US 

(Farr et al., 2008) 

A, B, F (Wellman, 

1977),

A, F, S (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Phomopsis vexans (Sacc. 

& Syd.) Harter

(Ascomycetes: 

Diaporthales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), PN, US 

(Farr et al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002; Farr et 

al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora cactorum 

(Lebert & Cohn) J. 

Schröt.

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

EL, US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora capsici 

Leonian

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CR, EL, GU, PN

(CABI, 2007), US 

(CABI, 2007; Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F, 

S (CABI, 2007; 

Farr et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora 

citrophthora (R.E. 

Sm. & E.H. Sm.) 

Leonian.

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CR, EL, GU, PN, US 

(CABI, 2007; Farr et 

al., 2008)

A, P (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora drechsleri 

Tucker.

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

PN (CABI, 2007), 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Farr et al., 2008)

A, S (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora infestans 

(Mont.) de Bary

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F 

(Farr et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 43

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Phytophthora nicotianae 

Breda de Haan.

Syn.: P. nicotianae 

var. nicotianae Breda 

de Haan.; P. 

parasitica Dastur.; P. 

terrestris Sherb.

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales) 

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, B, 

F (Wellman, 

1977), A, F (Farr 

et al., 2008), S 

(CABI, 2007) 

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora palmivora 

(E.J. Butler) E.J. 

Butler

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Pseudocercospora 

atromarginalis (Atk.) 

Deighton

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

PN, US (Farr et al., 

2008)

A, S (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Puccinia pampeana

Speg.

Syn.: Aecidium 

capsici Kern & 

Whetzel; A. solaninum

Speg.; A. pampeanum

Speg.; Dicaeoma 

pampeana (Speg.) 

Kuntz.; Endophyllum 

pampeanum (Speg.) 

J.C. Lindquest; 

Puccinia araucana

Dietel & Neger; P. 

capsici Mayor; P. 

capsicicola Kern & 

Thurston; P. 

gonzalezii Mayor; P. 

paulensis Rangel; P. 

solanina Speg.

(Urediniomycetes: 

Uredinales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002; Farr et 

al., 2008), GU 

(Hernández and 

Hennen, 2003; Farr 

et al., 2008)

A, B, F, S (Farr et 

al., 2008; 

Hernández and 

Hennen, 2003)

Yes F, L, S 

(Figueiredo 

et al., 1987), 

L, S 

(Figueiredo, 

2000)

Yes
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 44

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Pythium 

aphanidermatum 

(Edson) Fitzp.

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CR, HO, PN, (Farr et 

al., 2008), US (Farr 

et al., 1989; Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F, 

S (Farr et al., 

2008), S (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Pythium debaryanum R. 

Hesse

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CR (CABI, 2007), 

CR, GU, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (CABI, 2007), 

A, F, S (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Pythium sp.

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

Yes R (Calderón 

and Díaz, 

2002)

No

Pythium vexans de Bary.

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

GU (CABI, 2007), 

US (Farr et al., 2008)

F (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Rhizopus stolonifer 

(Ehrenb.) Lind

(Zygomycetes: 

Mucorales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), PN, US 

(Farr et al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Rhytidhysteron rufulum

(Spreng.: Fr.) Speg.

Syn.: Tryblidiella 

rufula (Spreng.: Fr.) 

Sacc.

(Ascomycetes: 

Patellariales)

CR, EL (Wellman, 

1977), US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Rosellinia bunodes 

(Berk. & Broome) 

Sacc.

(Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

CAm (CABI, 2007) A, B, F (Wellman, 

1977)

Yes R (Farr et 

al., 2008;

Wellman, 

1977)

No

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 

(Lib.) de Bary

(Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F 

(CABI, 2007; Farr 

et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Septoria lycopersici 

Speg.

Syn.: S. lycopersici

var. lycopersici Speg.

(Ascomycetes, 

Mycosphaerellales)

CR, EL, GU, NI, 

PN, US (Farr et al., 

2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 45

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Spongospora 

subterranea f. sp. 

subterranea

Tomlinson

(Plasmodiophoromyce

tes: 

Plasmodiophorales)

CR (Farr et al., 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Stemphylium botryosum 

Wallr

(Dothideomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

GU, US (Farr et al., 

2008)

A, B, F (Wellman, 

1977), A, F (Farr 

et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Stemphylium lycopersici

(Enjoji) W. Yamam. 

Syn.: S. floridanum 

Hannon & G.F. Weber

(Ascomycetes, 

Pleosporales)

CR (McGuire and 

Crandall, 1967), US 

(Farr et al., 2008)

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008), F (McGuire 

and Crandall, 

1967)

No N/A N/A

Stemphylium solani G.F. 

Weber

(Ascomycetes, 

Pleosporales)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), US 

(Farr et al., 2008)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), F 

(Farr et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Thanatephorus 

cucumeris (A.B. 

Frank) Donk

Syn.: Rhizoctonia 

solani J.G. Kühn. 

(Basidiomycetes: 

Ceratobasidiales)

CAm, US (Farr et 

al., 2008)

A (Arevalo, 2003; 

CABI, 2007; 

Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002;), A, 

B, F (Wellman, 

1977), A, F, S 

(Farr et al., 2008) 

No N/A N/A

Thielaviopsis basicola 

(Berk. & Broome) 

Ferraris

Syn.: Chalara elegans

Nag Raj & W.B. 

Kendr.

(Ascomycetes: 

Microascales)

CR (CABI, 2007), 

PN (Cantrell et al., 

2006), US (CABI, 

2007; Farr et al., 

2008)

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008), S (CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Ulocladium consortiale

(Thüm.) E.G. 

Simmons

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

PN (David, 1995), 

US (Farr et al., 2008)

A (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 46

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Verticillium albo-atrum

Reinke & Berthier

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

EL, GU, NI, US 

(CABI, 2007; Farr et 

al., 2008)

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

Verticillium dahliae 

Kleb.

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

NI (CABI, 2007), 

US (Farr et al., 2008)

A (CABI, 2007), 

A, F (Farr et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

NEMATODES

Aphelenchoides besseyi 

Christie

(Aphelenchoididae)

EL, PN (CABI, 

2007), HO (Handoo 

et al., 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007; 

Handoo et al., 2008)

A (Hockland and 

Eng, 1997)

No N/A N/A

Aphelenchus sp.

(Aphelenchidae)

HO (SENASA, 

2003)

A, F (SENASA, 

2003)

Yes R 

(Velasquez 

et al., 2005)

No

Belonolaimus 

longicaudatus Rau

(Belonolaimidae)

CR (CABI, 2007),

US (CABI, 2007; 

Handoo et al., 2008)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Ferris et al., 2007)

No N/A N/A

Criconemella spp.

(Criconematinae)

CR (Fernández et al., 

2002)

A, F (Fernández et 

al., 2002)

Yes R (CABI, 

2007; 

Pinochet et 

al., 1987)

No

Ditylenchus dipsaci

(Kühn) Filipjev

(Anguinidae)

CR (CABI, 2007), 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Handoo et al., 2008)

A (Ferris et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Globodera rostochiensis

(Wollenweber) 

Behrens

Syn.: Heterodera 

rostochiensis 

Wollenweber

(Heteroderidae)

CR90, PN (CABI, 

2007), US91 (NY 

Handoo et al., 2008)

A (Ferris et al., 

2007), S (Atwal, 

1976)

[Yes]11 R (Atwal, 

1976)

No

Helicotylenchus 

dihystera (Cobb) Sher

(Hoplolaimidae)

CR, EL, GU, HO 

(Handoo et al., 

2008), PN (CABI, 

2007), US (CABI, 

2007; Handoo et al., 

2008)

A (CABI, 2007), F 

(Ferris et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

 

90 Formerly present in Costa Rica but now absent (CABI, 2007).

91 In the United States, G. rostochiensis is reported only in New York (CABI, 2007; Handoo et al., 2008). It was eradicated in 

Delaware (CABI, 2007).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 47

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Helicotylenchus 

multicinctus (Cobb) 

Golden

(Hoplolaimidae)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007)

F (Qamar et al., 

1985)

No N/A N/A

Helicotylenchus 

pseudorobustus

(Steiner) Golden

(Hoplolaimidae)

CR (Handoo et al., 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007; Handoo et al., 

2008)

F, S (Handoo et 

al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Helicotylenchus spp.

(Hoplolaimidae)

CR (Fernández et al., 

2002)

A (Fernández et 

al., 2002) 

Yes R (Pinochet 

et al., 1987)

No

Hemicycliophora sp.

(Criconematinae)

CR (Fernández et al., 

2002)

A (Fernández et 

al., 2002)

Yes R (Handoo 

et al., 2008)

No

Hoplolaimus seinhorsti

Luc

(Hoplolaimidae)

GU (CABI, 2007) A (CABI, 2007) Yes R (CABI, 

2007)

No

Longidorus sp.

(Longidoridae)

CR, PN (CABI, 

2007)

A (CABI, 2007), Yes L, R (CABI, 

2007)

No

Meloidogyne arenaria

(Neal) Chitwood

(Meloidogynidae)

CR, GU, PN, US 

(Handoo et al., 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007)

A, B, C, F (Ferris 

et al., 2007), F 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Meloidogyne exigua

Goeldi

(Meloidogynidae)

CR, EL, GU, HO, NI 

(CABI, 2007)

A (CABI, 2007) Yes R (CABI, 

2007)

No

Meloidogyne hapla

Chitwood

(Meloidogynidae)

CR, PN, (CABI, 

2007), GU (Handoo 

et al., 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007; 

Handoo et al., 2008)

A (CABI, 2007), 

A, B, C, F, S 

(Ferris et al., 

2007), S (Handoo 

et al., 2008)

No N/A N/A

Meloidogyne incognita

(Kofoid & White)

(Meloidogynidae)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007), CR, EL, GU, 

HO, US (Handoo et 

al., 2008)

A (Fernández et 

al., 2002), A, B, F, 

C (Ferris et al., 

2007), A, F, S 

(Handoo et al., 

2008) 

No N/A N/A

Meloidogyne javanica

(Treub) Chitwood

(Meloidogynidae)

CAm, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (CABI, 2007), 

A, B, C, F (Ferris 

et al., 2007)

No N/A N/A

Meloidogyne sp.

(Meloidogynidae)

CR (Fernández et al., 

2002)

A (Ferris et al., 

2007)

Yes R (Pinochet 

et al., 1987)

No

Paratrichodorus minor

(Colbran) Siddiqi

(Trichodoridae)

NI (CABI, 2007), 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Handoo et al., 2008)

F (Ferris et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 48

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Paratrichodorus sp.

(Trichodoridae)

CR (Fernández et al., 

2002)

A (Fernández et 

al., 2002)

Yes R (CABI, 

2007)

No

Pratylenchus brachyurus

(Godfrey) Filipjev & 

Schuurmans 

Stekhoven

(Pratylenchidae)

CR, GU, HO, 

(CABI, 2007), US 

(CABI, 2007; 

Handoo et al., 2008)

F (Ferris et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Pratylenchus coffeae

(Zimmermann) 

Filipjev & 

Schuurmans 

Steckhoven

(Pratylenchidae)

CAm (CABI, 2007), 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Handoo et al., 2008)

(Qamar et al., 

1985)

No N/A N/A

Pratylenchus penetrans

(Cobb) Filipjev & 

Schuurmans 

Stekhoven

(Pratylenchidae)

CR, US (CABI, 

2007; Handoo et al., 

2008)

A (Arevalo, 2003), 

A, F (CABI, 2007; 

Ferris et al., 2007) 

No N/A N/A

Pratylenchus sp.

(Pratylenchidae)

CR (Fernández et al., 

2002)

A (Fernández et 

al., 2002)

Yes R (Pinochet 

et al., 1987)

No

Pratylenchus zeae

Graham

(Pratylenchidae)

CR, EL, PN (CABI, 

2007), US (CABI, 

2007; Handoo et al., 

2008)

A (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Radopholus similis 

(Cobb) Thorne

(Pratylenchidae)

CAm (CABI, 2007), 

US (FL, HI, LA, TX 

CABI, 2007)

A, F (Ferris et al., 

2007)

[Yes]11 R (CABI, 

2007)

No

Rotylenchulus reniformis

Linford & Oliveira

(Hoplolaimidae)

CR, HO, PN, (CABI, 

2007), GU (Handoo 

et al., 2008), US 

(CABI, 2007; 

Handoo et al., 2008)

A, F (Ferris et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Scutellonema bradys

(Steiner & Le Hew) 

Andrássy

(Hoplolaimidae)

GU (CABI 2007), 

US (AR, FL, LA 

CABI, 2007; Handoo 

et al., 2008)

F (Ferris et al., 

2007)

[Yes]11 R (CABI, 

2007)

No

Trichodorus sp.

(Trichodoridae)

CR (Fernández et al., 

2002)

A (Fernández et 

al., 2002)

Yes R (Pinochet 

et al., 1987)

No

Tylenchorhynchus 

annulatus (Cassidy) 

Golden

(Dolichodoridae)

CR, EL (CABI, 

2007), US (CABI, 

2007; Handoo et al., 

2008)

A (Handoo et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 49

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Tylenchorhynchus 

claytoni Steiner

(Dolichodoridae)

HO, US (CABI, 

2007; Handoo et al., 

2008)

F (Ferris et al., 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Tylenchus sp.

(Tylenchindae)

HO (SENASA, 

2003)

A, F (SENASA, 

2003)

Yes R

92 (CABI, 

2007)

No

Xiphinema americanum

Cobb.

(Xiphinematidae)

GU, PN (Handoo et 

al., 2008), HO 

(CABI, 2007), US 

(CABI, 2007; 

Handoo et al., 2008)

S (Handoo et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A

VIRUSES

Andean potato mottle 

comovirus (APMoV)

(Comoviridae)

CR, NI (CABI, 

2007), HO (Valverde 

et al., 1995), HO, NI 

(EPPO, 2007)

A, F (CABI, 

2007), F (EPPO, 

2007; Valverde et 

al., 1995), S 

(Pernezny et al., 

2003) 

Yes L (Valverde 

et al., 1995), 

W (CABI, 

2007)

Yes93

Beet curly top 

hybrigeminivirus

Syn.: Beet curly top 

virus (BCTV)

(Geminiviridae)

CR, US (Brunt et al., 

1996; CABI, 2007)

A, F (CABI, 

2007), S (Brunt et 

al., 1996; 

Pernezny et al., 

2003) 

No N/A N/A

Cucumber mosaic

cucumovirus (CMV)

(Bromoviridae)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), EL, 

HO, US (Brunt et al., 

1996; CABI, 2007)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Impatiens necrotic spot 

tospovirus (INSV)

(Bunyaviridae)

CR (CABI, 2007), 

US (CABI, 2007; 

Brunt et al., 1996)

A, S (CABI, 2007) No N/A N/A

Pepper golden mosaic

begomovirus 

(PepGMV)

Syn.: Pepper Texas

bigeminivirus; Texas 

pepper virus (TPV); 

Serrano golden 

mosaic virus (SGMV)

(Geminiviridae)

CR94, HO (CABI, 

2007), GU 

(Maxwell, 2001), NI 

(Ala-Poikela et al., 

2005), US (AR, TX, 

CABI, 2007; AR, 

Brunt et al., 1996; 

Büchen-Osmond, 

2008)

A (Ala-Poikela et 

al., 2005; Brunt et 

al., 1996), A, F 

(CABI, 2007; 

Polston and 

Anderson, 1997), 

S (Pernezny et al., 

2003)

No N/A N/A

 

92 Part plant affected by species in this genus, based on CABI (2007).

93 Andean potato mottle comovirus (APMoV) is a systemic desease that expresses symptoms in several parts of the plant. It is 

not transmitted by true seeds (CABI, 2007). APMoV is vectored by polyphageous beetles of Diabrotica genus (Valverde 

and Fulton, 1996).

94 Restricted distribution (CABI, 2007).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 50

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Pepper huasteco yellow 

vein virus PHYVV

Syn.: Pepper huasteco 

virus PHV

(Geminiviridae)

CAm (Maxwell, 

2001), US (Polston 

and Anderson, 1997; 

Torres-PNcheco et 

al., 1996)

A (BüchenOsmond, 2008; 

Jones, 2003),S 

(Pernezny et al., 

2003)

No N/A N/A

Pepper mild mottle

tobamovirus [PMMoV 

(PMMV)]

(Unassigned virus 

family)

HO (SENASA, 

2003) PN (HerreraVásquez et al., 

2008), US (CABI, 

2007; Brunt et al., 

1996)

A (HerreraVásquez et al., 

2008), A, B, C, F, 

P (Brunt et al., 

1996)

No N/A N/A

Pepper mottle potyvirus

(PepMoV)

(Potyviridae)

EL, US (Brunt et al., 

1996; CABI, 2007)

A (Brunt et al., 

1996), A, S 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Potato leafroll 

luteovirus

Syn.: Potato leafroll 

virus (PLRV)

(Luteoviridae)

CR, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (CABI, 2007; 

Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002)

No N/A N/A

Potato Y potyvirus

Syn.: Potato virus Y 

(PVY)

(Potyviridae)

CR, EL, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, S (CABI, 

2007), F (Latorre, 

2003), S (Brunt et 

al., 1996; 

Pernezny et al., 

2003)

No N/A N/A

Potato X potexvirus

(PVX)

(Flexiviridae)

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), A, F 

(CABI, 2007)

No N/A N/A

Tobacco etch potyvirus 

(TEV)

(Potyviridae)

CAm, US (Brunt et 

al., 1996), EL, US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Brunt et al., 

1996; CABI, 

2007), S 

(Pernezny et al., 

2003) 

No N/A N/A

Tobacco leaf curl

bigeminivirus (TLCV)

(Geminiviridae)

PN, US (CABI, 

2007)

A (Brunt et al., 

1996; CABI, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Tobacco mild green 

mosaic tobamovirus

(TMGMV)

(Unassigned virus 

family)

PN (HerreraVásquez et al., 

2008), US (Wetter, 

1984)

A (Brunt et al., 

1996; HerreraVásquez et al., 

2008)

No N/A N/A
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 51

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Tobacco mosaic 

tobamovirus

Syn.: Tobacco mosaic 

virus (TMV)

(Unassigned virus 

family) 

CR (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002), US 

(CABI, 2007)

A (Calderón and 

Díaz, 2002; CABI, 

2007), S 

(Pernezny et al., 

2003)

No N/A N/A

Tomato leaf curl Sinaloa 

virus ToLCSinV 

Syn.: Sinaloa tomato 

leaf curl virus STLCV

(Geminiviridae)

CR, GU (Maxwell, 

2001), NI (AlaPoikela et al., 2005), 

US95 (TX, Idris and 

Brown, 1998)

A (Idris and 

Brown, 1998), A, 

F (Jones, 2003), S 

(Ala-Poikela et al., 

2005; Pernezny et 

al., 2003)

No N/A N/A

Tomato severe leaf curl 

virus (ToSLCV)

(Geminiviridae)

GU, HO, NI 

(Mauricio-Castillo et 

al., 2006)

S (Ala-Poikela et 

al., 2005)

Yes W (AlaPoikela et 

al., 2005; 

MauricioCastillo et 

al., 2006)

Yes

Tomato spotted wilt

tospovirus (TSWV)

(Bunyaviridae)

CR (CABI, 2007), 

US (Brunt et al., 

1996; CABI, 2007)

A (Brunt et al., 

1996), A, S 

(CABI, 2007), S 

(Pernezny et al., 

2003)

No N/A N/A

 

95 A geminivirus isolate, designated PVW-C, has incited STLCV-like symptoms in pepper near Weslaco, TX, and shares 

greater than 95 percent sequence AV1 identity with STLCV. This indicates STLCV was present in Texas pepper fields as 

early as 1988 and 1989 (J. K. Brown, unpublished data), just after the B. tabaci B biotype vector invaded the Rio Grande 

Valley and northern Mexico (Idris and Brown, 1998).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 52

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Capsicum spp. 

host 2

Quarantine pestPlant part 

association3

Follow 

pathway

Tomato yellow leaf curl 

bigeminivirus 

(TYLCV)

(Geminiviridae)

CR, US (CABI, 

2007)

A, F (EPPO, 

2007)

No N/A N/A

Tomato yellow mosaic 

virus (TYV)96

EL97 (Arevalo, 2003) A

98 (Arevalo, 

2003)

Yes W99

(ICTVdB 

Managemen

t, 2006)

No100

 

96 The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) (ICTVdB Management, 2006) does not report Tomato 

yellow mosaic virus ToYMV, with acronym (TYV). The virus identification from El Salvador in Arevalo (2003) is 

uncertain. Tomato yellow mosaic virus (ToYMV) is the current accepted name for this virus in the Americas. Therefore, 

TYV is a mistaken acronym for this virus and is not used in this document

97 Only one record exists that the virus called “Tomato yellow mosaic virus” is present in Central America (Arevalo 2003). 

Specialized literature only report theTomato yellow mosaic virus (ToYMV) in Brazil and Venezuela, isolated from 

Lycopersicon esculentum (Brunt et al., 1996; ICTVdB Management, 2006). EPPO (2007) reports this virus as present (no 

details) in: Guadeloupe, Martinique, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela. The TYV was included in the list of 

pest of peppers from Central America as ToYMV based on information presented by the El Salvador NPPO (Arevalo, 

2003).

98 The only evidence that Capsicum is a host is the report of Arevalo (2003), which does not clearly identify the virus. We 

found no other evidence of this virus affecting any species of Capsicum (Brunt et al., 1996; EPPO, 2007; ICTVdB 

Management, 2006). Additionally, C. frutescens is insusceptible (Brunt et al., 1996).

99 Systemic virus, assuming that Arevalo (2003) report, refers to the Tomato yellow mosaic virus ToYMV.

100 We did not further analyze this virus for a few reasons. First, because of the uncertainty about its identification in Arevalo 

(2003). Second, the virus “Tomato yellow mosaic virus ToYMV” is not reported to occur in Central America. Third, we 

found no evidence that this virus affects Capsicum spp., and C. frutescens is insusceptible (Brunt et al., 1996). Finally, this 

virus is unlikely to follow the pathway, because it is not transmitted by true seeds or by contact between hosts (Brunt et al., 

1996; ICTVdB Management, 2006). The virus is also poorly transmitted when inoculum is from old tissue.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 53

2.5. Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway

We analyzed quarantine pests expected to follow the pathway, i.e., be included in commercial 

shipments of Capsicum spp. fruit (Table 5), in detail [Steps 5-7 (PPQ, 2000)]. We excluded 

many of the organisms from further analysis because they did not satisfy the definition of a 

quarantine pest, or they were unlikely to follow the pathway. For example, pests were associated 

mainly with plant parts other than the commodity; they were associated with the commodity, but 

were not reasonably to expected to remain with the commodity during processing; or they were 

intercepted as biological contaminants during inspection at ports-of-entry but would not be 

expected to be present with every shipment. 

We did not further analyze some other plant pests because organisms identified only to the genus 

or less detailed taxonomic level are typically not analyzed further, even though some individual 

species in those taxa are potential pests that do not occur in the United States. The lack of 

identification at the specific level does not rule out the possibility that either a high-risk 

quarantine pest was intercepted or that the intercepted pest was not a quarantine pest. By

necessity, pest risk assessments focus on those organisms for which adequate biological and 

taxonomic information is available. Often there are many species within a genus, and it is not 

reasonable to assume that the biology of all organisms within a genus is identical. The IPPC 

guidelines do not require risk assessment of pests identified only by genus name (IPPC, 2007). 

The lack of species identification may indicate the limits of current taxonomic knowledge, the 

life stage or the quality of the specimen submitted for identification. 

Pests for Capsicum spp. that are likely to follow the pathway, but reported only at the genus or 

less detailed taxonomic level, that already occur in the United States are included in Table 4, but 

not further analyzed in this risk assessment, included the arthropods Agrotis sp., Diabrotica sp., 

Heliothis sp., Spodoptera sp., and Trialeurodes sp., and the fungi Aspergillus sp., Fusarium spp., 

Penicillium spp., and Pestalotiopsis sp. The analyses of Liriomyza huidobrensis and Anastrepha 

ludens reasonably account for Liriomyza sp. and Anastrepha sp. If the pests identified in this risk 

assessment at a genus level are intercepted on peppers from Central America in the future, 

species specific determination may follow. Quarantine action can be taken where appropriate and 

we may need to reevaluate their risk.

Finally, Bemisia tabaci is a vector of Tomato severe leaf curl virus, and Diabrotica balteata is a 

vector of Andean potato mottle comovirus. Because neither pest was likely to follow the pathway

(not shown), however, we retained their non-quarantine status in the pest list.

Table 5. Quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway and selected for further analysis.

Type Scientific name of pest Taxonomy

Arthropods Anastrepha ludens Diptera: Tephritidae

Ceratitis capitata Diptera: Tephritidae

Faustinus ovatipennis Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Liriomyza huidobrensis Diptera: Agromyzidae

Neoleucinodes elegantalis Lepidoptera: Crambidae
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 54

Type Scientific name of pest Taxonomy

Phenacoccus parvus Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae

Planococcus minor Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae

Thrips palmi Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Bacteria Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 biovar 2 (Burkholderiales)

Fungi Puccinia pampeana (Urediniomycetes: Uredinales)

Viruses Andean potato mottle virus (APMoV) (Comoviridae)

Tomato severe leaf curl virus (ToSLCV) (Geminiviridae)

2.6. Consequences of Introduction

In this section we assessed the potential consequences of introduction and likelihood of 

introduction. We determined these ratings using the criteria in the Guidelines for PathwayInitiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000). We estimated pest risk potential by

summing the consequences of introduction and likelihood of introduction risk values. 

For each risk element assdociated with the Consequences of Introduction, we assigned a rating of 

Low (1 point), Medium (2), or High (3) (PPQ, 2000). We calculated a cumulative risk rating by

summing the risk element values, and summarized the ratings below (Table 6). In the following 

tables we describe the basis for each rating.

Anastrepha ludens (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae) Risk ratings

Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction

The Mexican fruit fly, or Mexfly, is indigenous to Mexico and much of Central 

America; it is widely distributed from Panama to Mexico (Thomas, 2003; Weems 

et al., 2004). It has spread also into the cultivated citrus sections of the west coast 

of Mexico and northward toward Arizona, California, and Texas, resulting in 

continual detection, survey, and eradication campaigns in these areas (Weems et 

al., 2004). This fruit fly could become established in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 

7-11 (PERAL, 2007), where some of its potential hosts occur.

High (3)

Risk Element 2: Host Range

Anastrepha ludens attacks numerous hosts in multiple plant families. Its preferred 

hosts include: Annona cherimola (Annonaceae), Citrus spp. (Rutaceae), 

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) and Prunus persica (Rosaceae). Other hosts 

include Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae), Annona (Annonaceae), Carica 

papaya (Caricaceae), Casimiroa edulis (Rutaceae), Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae), 

Cydonia oblonga (Rosaceae), Diospyros kaki (Ebenaceae), Feijoa sellowiana 

(Myrtaceae), Inga (Fabaceae), Malus domestica (Rosaceae), Mammea americana 

(Clusiaceae), Passiflora edulis (Passifloraceae), Persea americana (Lauraceae), 

Pouteria sapota (Sapotaceae), Psidium (Myrtaceae), Punica granatum 

(Punicaceae), Pyrus communis (Rosaceae), Sargentia greggii (Rutaceae), 

Spondias purpurea (Anacardiaceae) and Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae) (CABI, 

2007; White and Elson-Harris, 1992).

High (3)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 55

Anastrepha ludens (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae) Risk ratings

Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential

Mature Mexfly females can deposit up to 155 eggs during its life (Thomas, 

2003). In its native habitat Mexfly normally completes two generations per year, 

although it can complete up to three (Thomas, 2003). Larval development is 

faster with higher temperatures, and in general shorter fruit maturation periods 

mean more rapid larval development (Weems et al., 2004). Adults can fly up to 

135 km, and international trade is another important means of dispersal, because 

the larvae can be transported over long distances in infested fruit (CABI, 2007).

High (3)

Risk Element 4: Economic Impact

Mexfly destroys about 25 percent of the citrus, mango and guava crops each year 

in Mexico (Steck, 2004b). The newly hatched larvae eat and burrow into the pulp 

of the fruit. Many larvae may be found in a single fruit. When fully grown, the 

larvae emerge to pupate through conspicuous exit holes, usually after the fruit has 

fallen to the ground (Weems et al., 2004). In addition, Mexfly lowers crop values 

by requiring controls, and widespread establishment in the United States would 

cause the loss of foreign and domestic markets. Researchers estimated that 

Mexfly establishment in the United States would cost about $928 million 

(Erickson et al., 2000 in Sequeira et al., 2001). Mexfly is an A1 quarantine pest 

for Europe (CABI/EPPO, 1997a; EPPO, 2007), and the United States enacted 

Federal Quarantine Number 64 to prevent shipment of certain fruits from infested 

areas of Texas to other parts of the country (Weems et al., 2004). Both these facts 

indicate that markets could be lost as a result of establishment.

High (3)

Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact

Mexfly is extremely polyphagous and could potentially attack plants listed as 

Threatened or Endangered (e.g., Cucurbita okeechobeensis ssp. okeechobeensis,

Prunus geniculata) (USFWS, 2008). Its introduction into the United States would 

undoubtedly initiate chemical or biological control programs.

High (3)

Andean potato mottle virus (APMoV) (Comoviridae) Risk ratings

Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction

Andean potato mottle virus (APMoV) occurs in the South and Central American 

countries of Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nicaragua, 

Peru and Uruguay (Avila et al., 1984; CABI, 2007; Fribourg et al., 1977; García 

et al., 1999; Valverde et al., 1995). In Brazil and Colombia it has restricted 

distribution (CABI, 2007; García et al., 1999). APMoV could establish in U.S. 

Plant Hardiness Zones 8-12 (PERAL, 2007). One or more of its potential hosts

lives within this range (NRCS, 2008).

High (3)

Risk Element 2: Host Range

The host range of APMoV is restricted to the Solanaceae family including: 

Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens (CABI, 2007; Pernezny et al., 2003), 

Lycopersicon chilense, Nicandra physaloides (Valverde and Fulton, 1996), 

Nicotiana bigelovii (Fribourg et al., 1977), N. clevelandii (Valverde and Fulton, 

1996), Solanum melongena, and S. tuberosum (CABI, 2007; García et al., 1999; 

Medium (2)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 56

Andean potato mottle virus (APMoV) (Comoviridae) Risk ratings

Pernezny et al., 2003).

Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential

This virus is transmitted by mechanical inoculation and by contact between 

plants in experimental conditions but not through seed (Brunt et al., 1996). 

APMoV is vectored by the polyphageous beetles, Diabrotica balteata Leconte 

and D. viridula Fabricius (Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera), found in Central 

America, Caribbean, Mexico and southern states of the United States (Valverde 

et al., 1995; Valverde and Fulton, 1996). Other species of Diabrotica are also 

suspected to be vectors (Valverde and Fulton, 1996). Diabrotica sp. are very

unlikely to arrive with the commodity, since adults are capable of flight and feed 

externally on fruit (CABI, 2007; Eben and Gámez, 2007; EPPO, 2005; UAQ, 

2008) and are likely to be removed by minimal processing of the commodity. 

Thus, populations already present within the United States would have to move 

the virus into the environment. 

Low (1)

Risk Element 4: Economic Impact

We found no specific information on economic losses in solanaceous crops 

caused by APMoV infections. APMoV is highly virulent, and is a concern for 

potato seed production regions (Avila et al., 1984). Its presence in the United 

States may cause foreign and domestic markets to be lost.

High (3)

Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact

APMoV could attack plants in the Solanaceae family listed as Threatened or 

Endangered, including Goetzea elegans (Puerto Rico); Nothocestrum 

breviflorum and N. peltatum (Hawaii); Solanum drymophilum (Puerto Rico), and 

S. incompletum and S. sandwicense (Hawaii) (USFWS, 2008). Control programs 

would undoubtedly be initiated if it were to be introduced into new areas of the 

United States, because it is a major pathogen of several economic crops.

High (3)

Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) Risk ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate - Host Interaction

Ceratitis capitata, or Medfly, is widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean 

region, southern Europe, the Middle East, Western Australia, South and Central 

America, and Hawaii (CABI, 2007; PPQ, 1993; White and Elson-Harris, 1992). 

Repeated eradication programs in California, Florida, and Texas have prevented 

it from becoming established (APHIS, 2002; CDFA, 2008). We estimate Medfly

could establish in Zones 8-11 in the United States (PERAL, 2007), and its hosts 

occur in these zones (NRCS, 2008).

High (3)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Medfly is highly polyphagous (White and Elson-Harris, 1992). Hosts include the 

following plant species: Acca sellowiana, Anacardium occidentale, Annona spp., 

Averrhoa carambola, Banksia prionote, Calophyllum spp., Capsicum spp., 

Carica papaya, Carissa edulis, Casimiroa spp., Chrysophyllum cainito,

Chrysophyllum oliviforme, Citrus spp., Coffea spp., Cyphomandra betacea, 

Diospyros spp., Dovyalis caffra, Eriobotrya japonica, Eugenia spp., Ficus 

High (3)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 57

Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) Risk ratings

carica, Fortunella japonica, Garcinia livingstonei, Juglans spp., Litchi 

chinensis, Lycium spp., Lycopersicon esculentum, Malpighia glabra, Malus 

domestica, Mangifera indica, Manilkara zapota, Mespilus germanica, Morus

spp., Muntingia calabura, Opuntia spp., Persea americana, Phoenix dactylifera,

Physalis peruviana, Pouteria spp., Prunus spp., Psidium spp., Punica granatum,

Pyrus communis, Rubus spp., Santalum album, Solanum incanum, Solanum 

nigrum, Spondias spp., Syzygium spp., Terminalia catappa, Thevetia peruviana,

and Vitis spp. (CABI, 2007; Liquido et al., 1990; Thomas et al., 2008; White and 

Elson-Harris, 1992). 

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Females may deposit up to 22 eggs per day and as many as 800 eggs in lifetime 

(Weems, 1981). Populations from different areas worldwide are sexually

compatible (CABI, 2007). Natural movement is an important means of spread 

for Medfly, since adults can fly 20 miles (Christenson and Foote, 1960; Steiner 

et al., 1962). In addition, transportation of infested fruit is a major means of 

dispersal into uninfested areas (CABI/EPPO, 1997b). 

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Because of its wide distribution, and its wide host range, Medfly is the highestranked economically important fruit fly (CABI, 2007; Weems, 1981). It may

also transmit fruit-rotting fungi (CABI, 2007). The species is a quarantine pest 

for many countries (NAPIS, 2008), and control costs would definitely be 

incurred to minimize crop production losses toMedfly. The presence of larvae 

may make the fruit unmarketable, and result in the loss of international and 

domestic markets (Andrew et al., 1977). 

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Potential hosts of Medfly may be threatened or endangered plant species in the 

United States. These endangered species include Opuntia treleasei in California, 

Prunus geniculata in Florida, and Solanum drymophilium, S. incompletum, and 

S. sandwicense in Puerto Rico and Hawaii (USFWS, 2008). In addition, Medfly

establishment would undoubtedly initiate chemical or biological control 

programs (Vo and Miller, 1993).

High (3)

Faustinus ovatipennis (Champion) (Curculionidae: Coleoptera) Risk ratings

Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction

Faustinus ovatipennis, a weevil, is present in Central American countries such as 

El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico (O'Brien and Wibmer, 1982; 

Saunders et al., 1998). Based on this distribution, we estimate it could establish in 

the United States in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9 to 11 (PERAL, 2007). Hosts of 

this pest are present in these zones in the United States (NRCS, 2008).

Medium (2)

Risk Element 2: Host Range

This weevil has been reported on solanaceous plants such as Capsicum sp.,

Solanum lycopersicum, and S. tuberosum (Saunders et al., 1998). 

Medium (2)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 58

Faustinus ovatipennis (Champion) (Curculionidae: Coleoptera) Risk ratings

Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential

No information was available on reproductive and dispersal potentials of F. 

ovatipennis, so we used information from congeners. For F. apicalis the egg 

stage averages 4.5 days, the larvae stage 18.5 days, and pupal stage 7 days; the 

female lifecycle is 23-28 days (Giraldo, 1993). Therefore, species of Faustinus

could have several generations per year. Species such as F. cubae disperse short 

distances under their own power (Benavent, 2004). Additionally, members of the 

genus can be transported over long distances via anthropogenic activities, as 

evidenced by 60 interceptions of Faustinus sp. on Capsicum fruit (PestID, 2008).

High (3)

Risk Element 4: Economic Impact

This weevil attacks crops such as chilies, potatoes and tomatoes (Saunders et al., 

1998). It can damage the buds, leaves and stems and sometimes causes plant 

death (Saunders et al., 1998). Its establishment in the United States is likely to 

cause the loss of foreign and domestic markets, since it is limited to the 

Americas, and would be considered a quarantine pest by most governments.

Medium (2)

Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact

Faustinus ovatipennis could attack Solanaceae listed as Threatened or 

Endangered, including Solanum drymophilum, S. incompletum, and S. 

sandwicense (USFWS, 2008). The establishment of this pest could lead to the 

implementation of chemical and biological control programs.

High (3)

Liriomyza huidobrensis Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Risk ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate - Host Interaction

Liriomyza huidobrensis, or pea leafminer, is a pest in tropical to warm temperate 

regions, and it has been found up to 3000 m (9,842,52 ft.) above sea level. The 

pest can survive a freeze of -18.7°C (-65.66°F), and its behavior gives it a greater 

climatic range for survival (CABI, 2007). Pea leafminer could establish in U.S. 

Plant Hardiness Zones 7-11 (PERAL, 2007), and hosts occur in those zones.

High (3)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Pea leafminer is polyphagous. Fifteen families of plants have been recorded as 

hosts, without a clear preference for any particular family. Primary hosts affected 

by this pest include: Allium cepa. A. sativum, Amaranthus retroflexus, Apium 

graveolens, Aster sp., Beta vulgaris, Calendula sp., Capsicum annuum, 

Chenopodium quinoa, Chrysanthemum x morifolium, Cucumis melo, C. sativus, 

Cucurbita pepo, Datura sp., Galinsoga sp., Gerbera sp., Lactuca sativa, 

Lathyrus sp., Linum sp., Lycopersicon esculentum, Medicago sativa, Melilotus 

sp., Petunia sp., Phaseolus vulgaris, P. vulgaris var. humilis, Pisum sativum, P. 

sativum var. arvense, Solanum melongena, S. tuberosum, Spinacia oleracea, 

Tagetes sp., Tropaeolum majus, Valerianella locust, Verbena sp., Vicia faba, 

Viola sp., and Zinnia elegans (CABI, 2007; EPPO, 2007; Steck, 2004a).

High (3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

L. huidobrensis has multiple generations per year. Depending on temperature, 

the egg stage takes 2.9 to 6 days, the larval stage 6 to 13 d, and the pupal stage 

High (3)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 59

Liriomyza huidobrensis Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Risk ratings

7.4 to 21.1 d. The longevity is 3.5 to 32.6 d for females, and 2.1 to 15.1 d for 

males depending on temperature and food availability (Braun and Shepard, 

1997). Adult emergence ranges from 36 to 74 percent, depending greatly on the 

host plant (Steck, 2004a). In Peru the mean number of eggs laid per female is 

117 in winter, and 161 in spring (CABI, 2007). Pea leafminer is likely to be 

carried in fruit, leaves, and stems in trade or transport (CABI, 2007), as 

demonstrated by 55 interceptions of pupae and adults of Liriomyza spp. on fresh 

Capsicum fruit (PestID, 2008). It disperses long distances on plant material, cut 

flowers, and soil, as well as on improperly cleaned equipment and containers 

(Tømmerås et al., 2002).

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Liriomyza leafminers affect crops by destroying young seedlings, reducing crop 

yields, reducing the aesthetic value of ornamental plants, and causing some plant 

species to be quarantined (Parrella, 1982). Adult stings and larval mining of 

leaves reduce photosynthetic capacity and provide an entrance for disease 

organisms (Mou and Ryder, 2003). Severely infested leaves may fall, exposing 

plant stems to wind action (CABI, 2007). In young plants and seedlings, mining 

may cause considerable delay in plant development, leading to plant loss. Pea 

leafminer is a quarantine pest in many areas of the world (CABI, 2007), and has 

spread to other continents where established populations are growing and more 

difficult to control. This is at least partly due to a shift in the susceptibility of this 

pest to insecticides (Steck, 2004a). 

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Some host genera of L. huidobrensis that are listed as endangered and threatened 

in the United States include Allium, Amaranthus, Cucurbita, Eryngium, Phlox,

Primula, Senecio, Taraxacum, and Verbena (USFWS, 2008). These plants may

be potential hosts, although no specific data are reported in the literature. New 

control programs might be initiated if it is introduced.

High (3)

Neoleucinodes elegantalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) Risk ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate - Host Interaction

Neoleucinodes elegantalis, or eggplant stem borer, is the most important pest in 

several tomato growing regions in South America and the Caribbean. It occurs in 

the Antilles, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela (CABI, 2007; Revelo, 

2003). The climatic conditions in Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 are likely to be 

suitable for the survival and establishment of this insect in the United States 

(PERAL, 2007). Some of its hosts are found within these zones (NRCS, 2008). 

Medium (2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range 

This fruit borer attacks only plants in the Solanaceae family (CABI, 2007; 

Marcano, 2005). Hosts include: Solanum lycopersicum L. (Syn.: Lycopersicon 

esculentum), S. hirtum, S. melongena, S. quitoense, and S. betaceum (Syn.: 

Cyphomandra betacea) and Capsicum annuum (CABI, 2007; Castaño, 1996; 

Marcano, 2005). 

Medium (2)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 60

Neoleucinodes elegantalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) Risk ratings

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

In the laboratory, the total time for development of the insect was 110 d at 14oC, 

51 d at 20oC, and 27 d at 32oC (Marcano, 1991a), so multiple generations per

year are possible. The number of eggs per female was 75 on eggplant and 34 on 

tomato. In Venezuela, eggplant stem borer was detected in 1934 with populations 

which increased every year (Marcano, 1991a), and in 1961, it damaged tomato 

crops in the State of Lara and is now the most important pest for this crop 

(Marcano, 1991a). We found no studies on dispersal capacity, but the major 

means of dispersal to previous uninfested areas is through the movement of 

living larvae in commercial trade. 

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

This pest is the major economic pest in tomato-growing regions in Brazil, 

Colombia, and Venezuela (Eiras and Blackmer, 2003; Franco et al., 2002; 

Marcano, 1991b). Control programs in affected areas increase production costs 

(Franco et al., 2002). The larva penetrates the fruit, making it unmarketable and 

causing fruit fall (Castaño, 1996). During rainy seasons the population damages 

up to 40 percent of the fruits and reduces yield (Marcano, 2005). Eggplant stem 

borer would likely cause the loss of international markets if it established in the 

United States. 

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Of the two host genera in the Solanaceae family attacked by eggplant stem borer 

(CABI, 2007; Castaño, 1996), only one (Solanum) is congeneric with plant 

species listed by the USFWS as either threatened, endangered or candidates for 

listing. Solanum drymophilium, S. incompletum and S. sandwicense are 

Threatened and Endangered species in Puerto Rico and Hawaii (USFWS, 2008).

The introduction of this pest in the United States would stimulate the use of 

biological measures to detect and control the pest, including releasing of 

Trichogramma species (Marcano, 2005).

High (3)

Phenacoccus parvus Morrison (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Risk ratings

Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction

Phenacoccus parvus, or lantana mealybug, occurs in Africa (Congo, Gabon and 

Senegal), Australia, Central America (Belize, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and 

Panama), North America (Florida and Mexico) and South America (Argentina, 

Chile, Guyana, Paraguay and Uruguay) (Ben-Dov et al., 2008; Williams and 

Granara, 1992). Based on the distribution of this pest and the interaction of hosts 

in the United States, we estimate that lantana melybug could establish in Plant 

Hardiness Zones 8-11 (PERAL, 2007).

High (3)

Risk Element 2: Host Range

Lantana mealybug is extremely polyphagous, attacking the following plant 

families: Actinidiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Apocynaceae, 

Asclepiadaceae, Asteraceae, Bignoniaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Convolvulaceae, 

Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Leguminosae, Liliaceae, Malvaceae, 

High (3)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 61

Phenacoccus parvus Morrison (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Risk ratings

Musaceae, Myrtaceae, Orchidaceae, Piperaceae, Poaceae, Polygonaceae, 

Rhamnaceae, Rutaceae, Solanaceae, Umbelliferae, and Verbenaceae (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2008).

Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential

Fecundity and generation times vary with host, but lantana mealybug, which is 

facultatively parthenogenetic, can produce an average of 337 crawlers when 

reared on tomato plants (Marohasy, 1997). Generation times are 25-33 days 

under laboratory conditions. Consequently, we think lantana mealybug has a 

high biotic potential. Although mealybugs have limited powers of natural 

dispersal, lantana mealybug can be transported over long distances in shipments 

of infested commodities, as evidenced by 20 interceptions on Capsicum fruit, 

and 42 total interceptions (PestID, 2008).

High (3)

Risk Element 4: Economic Impact

Lantana mealybug has wrongly been labeled as a pest because it attacks several 

crops, such as eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), potato (S. tuberosum L.), 

soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Miller) 

(Marohasy, 1997). Despite this, it has never caused economic damage to any 

plant (Marohasy, 1997). This mealybug developed large populations on and 

damaged the weed, Lantana camara, in Australia, to the extent that it was 

considered a biological control agent. 

Low (1)

Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact

Lantana mealybug attacks 25 plant families. The families containing Endangered 

and Threatened plant species present in the United States are as follows: 

Amaranthaceae (Amaranthus brownii, A. pumilus), Asclepiadaceae (Asclepias 

meadii, A. welshii), Asteraceae (Helianthus paradoxus, H. schweinitzii, Vernonia 

proctorii), Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbia haeleeleana, E. telephioides), Liliaceae 

(Allium munzii), Poaceae (Panicum niihauense), Solanaceae (Solanum 

drymophilum, S. incompletum, S. sandwicense) (USFWS, 2008). The 

establishment of this pest could lead to the implementation of chemical and 

biological control programs.

High (3)

Planococcus minor (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Risk ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Planococcus minor, or passionvine mealybug, is distributed in the Afrotropical, 

Australasian, Nearctic, Neotropical, and Oriental regions (Ben-Dov, 1994; BenDov et al., 2008; CABI, 2007; Granara and Claps, 2003; Williams and Granara, 

1992; Williams and Watson, 1988). It occurs in south Asia (Bangladesh, the 

British Indian Ocean Territories, Burma, India, Indonesia, Kalimantan, Sumatra, 

Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand), Australia and islands 

of the South Pacific (American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, 

Kiribati, New Caledonia, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, 

Tokelau, Tonga, Vanuatu, Western Samoa), Africa (Madagascar, Rodriques 

Island, Seychelles), tropical areas of the New World (Antigua and Barbuda, 

Medium (2)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 62

Planococcus minor (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Risk ratings

Argentina, Bermuda, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Galapagos 

Islands, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, 

Saint Lucia, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Uruguay), 

and tropical areas of Mexico (Ben-Dov, 1994; Ben-Dov et al., 2008; CABI, 

2007). Consequently, we estimate this species could establish in U.S. Plant 

Hardiness Zones 9-11 (PERAL, 2007). One or more of its potential hosts occurs 

in these zones (NRCS, 2008).

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Passionvine mealybug has been reported on more than 250 host plants in nearly

80 families (Ben-Dov, 1994; Ben-Dov et al., 2008; CABI, 2007; Granara and 

Claps, 2003; Williams and Granara, 1992; Williams and Watson, 1988). It 

shows some preference for avocado (Persea americana), beans (Phaseolus spp., 

P. vulgaris, P. lunatus), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), cantaloupe (Cucumis 

melo), citrus (Citrus spp.), corn (Zea mays), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), 

grapes (Vitis spp.), potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato (S. lycopersicum), rice 

(Oryza sativa), and soybean (Glycine max). These species are widely cultivated 

in the United States (NRCS, 2008; Venette and Davis, 2004). 

High (3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Passionvine mealybug completes 10 generations in a year and fecundity ranges 

from 200 to over 400 eggs per female, depending on the host plant (Martinez 

and Suris, 1998; Sahoo et al., 1999). The insect is transported long distances in 

fruit shipments (Sugimoto, 1994), and was likely introduced to the Neotropics 

by trade (Cox, 1989). 

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Passionvine mealybug is a common pest of many economic plants throughout its 

range, particularly cocoa (Ben-Dov, 1994). It is a phloem feeder, and may

reduce yields and plant or fruit quality, or cause stunting, discoloration, and 

defoliation. Secondary damage is caused by sooty mold growth on honeydew 

produced by the mealybug. Important plant viruses may also be vectored by

passionvine mealybug (Venette and Davis, 2004). It is a quarantine pest that 

could cause the loss of foreign or domestic markets (MAF Biosecurity, 2007).

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Passionvine mealybug may harm Federal Threatened and Endangered plants 

species in the continental United States, particularly congeners of current hosts: 

Amaranthus pumilus (DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA), Cucurbita 

okeechobeensis ssp. okeechobeensis (FL), Euphorbia telephioides (FL), 

Helianthus paradoxus (NM, TX), H. schweinitzii (NC, SC), Manihot walkerae 

(TX), Rhus michauxii (GA, NC, SC, VA), and Verbena californica (CAm)

(USFWS, 2008). Control strategies include chemical and biological control 

(CABI, 2007; Cunningham and Harden, 1999; Paul and Ghosh, 2004; Shukla 

and Tandon, 1984; Williams and Watson, 1988). Consequently, its introduction 

into the United States would stimulate chemical and biological control programs.

High (3)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 63

Puccinia pampeana Speg. (Urediniomycetes: Uredinales) Risk ratings

Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction

Puccinia pampeana occurs in South America in the following countries: 

Argentina (Catamarca, Córdoba y Salta), Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, 

Ecuador, Peru and Uruguay (Hernández and Hennen, 2003). In Central America 

it is reported in Costa Rica (Farr et al., 2008; Calderón and Díaz, 2002), 

Guatemala, and Mexico (Farr et al., 2008; Hernández and Hennen, 2003). Based 

on its distribution, P. pampeana could establish in Plant Hardiness Zones 7-11 

(PERAL, 2007).

High (3)

Risk Element 2: Host Range

Rust fungi are generally host-specific, often causing disease on certain genera or 

even on certain cultivars (Agrios, 2004). Puccinia pampeana infects genera in 

the Solanaceae family, including Acnistus arborescens, A. breviflorus, A. 

parviflorus, Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. ciliatum, C. frutescens, C. 

microcarpum, C. pendulum, Cestrum sp., Dunalia breviflora, D. lycioides, 

Salpichroa diffusa, S. origanifolia, S. rhomboidea, Solanum cyrtopodium, S. 

lycioides, and S. valdiviense (Farr et al., 2008; Hernández and Hennen, 2003). 

Medium (2)

Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential

Puccinia pampeana is autoecious and microcyclic (Ono, 2002). 

Aecia/aeciospores and uredinia/urediniospores are not seen (Figueiredo, 2000; 

Hernández and Hennen, 2003). The fungus has a dimorphic telial state, 

producing Endophyllum-type and Puccinia-type teliospores, both of which 

germinate to produce basidiospores (Figueiredo, 2000; Ono, 2002). With no 

dormancy, under appropriate conditions the spores germinate and produce

basidiospores and repeat the infective process for several generations. Thus, the 

disease can rapidly disseminate in field conditions. Later, after infection, the 

Puccinia-like pedicelate teliospores develop. They have dormancy and tolerate

high summer temperatures in subtropical areas. They over-summer and 

germinate after rain, producing basidiospores which infect the host plants in the 

autumn when mild temperatures predominate (Figueiredo et al., 1987; 

Figueiredo, 2000). Hence multiple generations can occur in a year. 

We found no specific information about spore dispersal for this species. Rust 

fungi spread from plant to plant mostly by windblown spores, although insects, 

rain, and animals may play a role. Some spores (uredospores) are transported 

over long distances by strong winds and can start new infections (Agrios, 2004). 

An example is the early-sown wheat in Canada and the Dakotas became infected 

by urediospores of Puccinia graminis tritici blown from Mexico and Texas in 

early spring, a distance of at least 2000 miles (~3200 km) (Staples, 2000).

High (3)

Risk Element 4: Economic Impact

Puccinia pampeana occurs on many members of the Solanaceae and causes an 

economically important disease of Capsicum in Central and South America 

(Hernández and Hennen, 2003). The disease causes curling and distortion of the 

buds (Hernández and Hennen, 2003). Related Puccinia species significantly

reduce yield and product quality, and require control through removal of 

alternate hosts, host resistance, and/or chemical control (Agrios, 2004; Staples, 

High (3)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 64

Puccinia pampeana Speg. (Urediniomycetes: Uredinales) Risk ratings

2000). The presence of P. pampeana in the United States may result in loss of 

foreign and domestic markets.

Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact

Puccinia pampeana could attack plants in the Solanum genus listed as 

Threatened or Endangered (USFWS, 2008), such as S. drymophilum (Puerto 

Rico); and S. incompletum and S. sandwicense (Hawaii). Control programs 

would undoubtedly be initiated if it were introduced into new areas of the United 

States, because it affects an economically important crop (Capsicum sp.).

High (3)

Ralstonia solanacearum (Smith) Yabuuchi Race 3 Biovar 2 (R3B2) Risk Ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

R. solanacearum R3B2 is widely distributed in Asia, the Caribbean, Central 

America, Europe, Africa, and South America (CABI, 2007; NSF, 2008). 

Commercially cultivated hosts of the bacterium are grown in more than six plant 

hardiness zones of the United States (NRCS, 2008). Climatic conditions and host 

range are suitable for the survival and establishment of this pest in Zones 7-11 in 

the United States (PERAL, 2007).

High (3)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

R. solanacearum R3B2 has a wide range of natural hosts, and include both crops 

and weeds (Janse et al., 2004). Hosts belong to several plant families: 

Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Capparadidaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, 

Convolvulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, Geraniaceae, Labiatae, Poaceae, 

Polygonaceae, Portulacaceae, Solanaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Tropaeolaceae, 

Urticaceae, and Verbenaceae (Janse et al., 2004). The Solanaceous agricultural 

hosts of R. solanacearum R3B2 are: Capsicum annuum, Solanum lycopersicum, 

S. tuberosum, S. melongena, S. phureja, S. betaceum and S. quitoense (Janse et 

al., 2004; Massachusetts.org, 2008). Other Solanaceous weed hosts reported in 

the literature are Datura stramonium, Physalis sp., P. angulatum, Solanum 

carolinense, S. cinereum, S. dulcamara, and S. nigrum. Non-solanaceous host 

plants include Bidens pinnata, Brassica rapa, Chenopodium spp., Melampodium 

perfoliatum, Momordica charantia, Pelargonium sp., P. zonale, Phaseolus 

vulgaris, Portulaca oleracea, Salvia reflexa, and Urtica dioica (Janse et al., 

2004; Massachusetts.org, 2008).

High (3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Ralstonia solanacearum R3B2 spreads through contaminated soil, irrigation 

water, equipment or personnel, infected potato tubers, transplanting or

propagating infected plants, by cutting infected plant material then cutting 

healthy plant material without disinfecting cutting tools, plant-to-plant through 

soil, and on infected weed hosts (CSREES, 2008; Floyd, 2008). Ralstonia 

solanacearum R3B2 does not easily spread from plant to plant contact, by water 

splashing, nor is it spread aerially (Floyd, 2008). Entry into plants is by way of 

injured roots, stem wounds or through stomata. Sound sanitation practices 

reduce transmission of this pathogen (CSREES, 2008). 

Medium (2)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 65

Ralstonia solanacearum (Smith) Yabuuchi Race 3 Biovar 2 (R3B2) Risk Ratings

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact 

Ralstonia solanacearum (R3-B2) is a serious pathogen that causes brown rot or 

bacterial wilt of potato. Bacterial wilt of potato has affected at least 3.7 million 

acres of potatoes in more than 80 countries (DEFRA, 2003). Annual global 

damage estimates exceed $950 million (DEFRA, 2003). The pathogen is adapted 

to cooler temperatures and would be damaging to potato production regions of 

the United States (Floyd, 2008). In February 2003, R. solanacearum (R3-B2) 

was detected in the United States in geraniums imported from Kenya; later that 

year the pathogen was also found in geraniums from Guatemala and Costa Rica. 

The resulting response cost growers and regulators $10 million and involved the 

destruction of around 5 million plants (CSREES, 2008; Swanson et al., 2005).

The bacterium is an A2 quarantine pest for Europe and a quarantine pest for 

Canada (EPPO, 2007). Losses are aggravated by, the extensive host distribution, 

broad geographical potential range and limited control measures. 

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact 

R. solanacearum is known to affect nineteen plant families (Janse et al., 2004). 

Families containing Endangered and Threatened plant species present in the 

United States are: Asteraceae (Bidens micrantha ssp. kalealaha, Bidens wiebkei) 

(HI); Portulacaceae (Portulaca sclerocarpa) (HI); and Solanaceae (Solanum 

drymophilum (PR), Solanum incompletum (HI), Solanum sandwicense) (HI) 

(USFWS, 2008). The establishment of this pathogen in the United States would 

cause the implementation of eradication and management programs.

High (3)

Thrips palmi Karny (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Risk ratings

Risk Element #1. Climate - Host interactions

Thrips palmi, or melon thrips, is distributed in fifteen countries in Asia, five 

countries in Africa, Oceania, and twenty-six countries in the Western 

Hemisphere, including the United States (Hawaii and Florida) (CABI, 2007). In 

Florida, conditions favor a generation time of about 20 days (Capinera, 2000). 

Melon thrips has low cold tolerance (McDonald et al., 2000). The Plant 

Hardiness Zones with the highest likelihood of establishment are 9-11 (PERAL, 

2007), where hosts are present (NRCS, 2008). 

Medium (2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Melon thrips has a very wide range of host plants, including vegetables, flowers, 

and weeds but mainly attacks Cucurbitaceae and Solanaceae plants. The host 

plants include: Anacardiaceae (Mangifera indica), Asteraceae (Chrysanthemum,

Helianthus, Lactuca), Cucurbitaceae (Cucumis, Cucurbita), Fabaceae (Glycine,

Phaseolus, Vigna), Lauraceae (Persea), Liliacea (Allium), Malvaceae 

(Gossypium), Poaceae (Oryza), Rutaceae (Citrus), and Solanaceae (Capsicum,

Lycopersicon, Nicotiana, Solanum) (CABI, 2007).

High (3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal potential

Female melon thrips can deposit up to 204 eggs during their life, and generation 

times range from 11 to 20 days depending on temperature and host plant 

High (3)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 66

Thrips palmi Karny (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Risk ratings

(Capinera, 2000; CABI, 2007). Consequently, several generations per year are 

possible. Melon thrips is bisexual and females reproduce with or without 

copulation. Unmated females produce progeny by parthenogenesis. Only males 

are produced by unmated females, while mated females mostly produce females 

(Martin and Mau, 1992). The most important factors for thrips dispersal process 

are temperature, light, and wind, most of the temperate species can take-off 

when temperatures reach 17°C (62°F) to 21°C (69°F) (Lewis, 1997). The rapid 

spread of melon thrips since the mid-1980s to many parts of the subtropics may

have been assisted by airborne dispersal, particularly where violent storms occur 

as in the Caribbean Sea (Lewis, 1997). Detecting adult larvae or eggs of melon 

thrips is difficult, so commercial activity results in long-distance distribution. 

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Melon thrips is a pest of economic importance in many countries because 

although it prefers Cucurbits and Solanaceous plants, it causes yield losses in a 

wide range of host plants (CABI, 2007). In Trinidad, crop losses on aubergine 

and cucumber reach 50 percent, and 90 percent respectively (CABI, 2007). In 

Florida, this pest has caused tremendous losses on potato, aubergine, Capsicum, 

Phaseolus vulgaris, yellow squash and several weeds (CABI, 2007). The species 

is a vector of tomato spotted wilt tospovirus, Peanut bud necrosis, and Calla lily

chlorotic spot virus (CABI, 2007). It is an A1 quarantine pest for Europe (EPPO, 

2007), thus exporting countries affected by this pest could result in the loss of 

international markets. 

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Evironmental Impact

Melon thrips is already present in Florida and Hawaii; as a result, further 

importation would have no effects in those areas. In other areas, it could feed on 

the following endangered species: Allium munzii (Munz's onion) in California, 

Solanum drymophilum in Puerto Rico, S. incompletum, and S. sandwicense in 

Hawaii, as well as the Threatened species H. paradoxus (Pecos sunflower) in 

New Mexico and Texas (USFWS, 2008). Endangered species Helianthus 

schweinitzii (Schweinitz's sunflower) in North and South Carolina was not 

considered because T. palmi, with low cold tolerance, could not establish in 

those areas. The introduction of this species in the United States would not 

require chemical or biological control programs beyond those already are used 

for Frankliniella species.

Medium (2)

Tomato severe leaf curl virus (ToSLCV) (Geminiviridae) Risk ratings

Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction

ToSLCV has been reported to occur only in Central American countries such as 

Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico and Nicaragua (Mauricio-Castillo et al., 2006; 

Maxwell, 2001 Maxwell et al., 2002). Based on its distribution, ToSLCV could 

establish in Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (PERAL, 2007). Hosts of ToSLCV are 

present within these zones (NRCS, 2008).

Medium (2)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 67

Tomato severe leaf curl virus (ToSLCV) (Geminiviridae) Risk ratings

Risk Element 2: Host Range

ToSLCV has only been reported causing disease on plants in the Solanaceae 

family, such as Capsicum spp. (Ala-Poikela et al., 2005) and Solanum 

lycopersicum L. (Mauricio-Castillo et al., 2006).

Medium (2)

Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential

ToSLCV is vectored by the polyphageous Bemisia tabaci Gennadius, which is

widely distributed in Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, 

Nicaragua, and Panama) and the United States (CABI, 2007). We found no 

information about mechanical transmission of this virus; geminiviruses are not 

seed-transmitted (Gilbertson et al., 2007).

Medium (2)

Risk Element 4: Economic Impact

Economic losses caused by ToSLCV infection in solanaceous crops have not 

been quantified in the literature; however ToSLCV infects tomato in different 

horticultural regions of Guatemala, Mexico, and Nicaragua (Mauricio-Castillo et 

al., 2006; Maxwell, 2001). ToSLCV causes stunting and leaf curling/crumpling. 

These symptoms are associated with large populations of whiteflies, Bemisia 

tabaci Gennadius, in the fields (Mauricio-Castillo et al., 2006). The presence of 

ToSLCV in the United States is likely to cause foreign and domestic markets 

lost, as it has a limited distribution and affects important economic crops. It 

would likely be considered a quarantine pest by most governments.

High (3)

Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact

ToSLCV infection could attack Solanum species listed as Threatened or 

Endangered (USFWS, 2008), including S. drymophilum (Puerto Rico); and S. 

incompletum and S. sandwicense (Hawaii). Control programs would 

undoubtedly be initiated if it were to be introduced into the United States, 

because it is a major pathogen of two economically important crops (Capsicum

sp. and Solanum lycopersicum).

High (3)
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Rev. Original April 27, 2009 68

Table 6. Summary risk ratings for Consequences of Introduction.

Pest Risk elements Cumulative 

Risk 

Ratingsa

Climate/

host 

interaction

Host 

range

Dispersal 

potential

Economic 

impact

Environmental

Impact

Anastrepha ludens High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15)

Andean potato mottle virus High (3) Med (2) Low (1) High (3) High (3) Medium (12)

Ceratitis capitata High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15)

Faustinus ovatipennis Med (2) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) Medium (12)

Liriomyza huidobrensis High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15)

Neoleucinodes elegantalis Med (2) Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (13)

Phenacoccus parvus High (3) High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (3) High (13)

Planococcus minor Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (14)

Puccinia pampeana High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (14)

Ralstonia solanacearum 

R3B2

High (3) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (14)

Thrips palmi Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (3) Med (2) High (13)

Tomato severe leaf curl virus Med (2) Med (2) Med (2) High (3) High (3) Medium (12)

a

Low is 5-8 points, Medium is 9-12 points, and High is 13-15 points.

2.7. Likelihood of Introduction

We rated each pest for the Likelihood of Introduction based on two separate components. First, 

we rated the amount of commodity likely to be imported (sub-element 1). Secondly, we 

estimated ‘pest opportunity’ using five biological features (sub-elements #2-6). Details of the 

rating criteria are explained in PERAL (2000). Our sub-element ratings and the overall values for 

the Likelihood of Introduction are summarized below (Table 7).

2.7.1. Quantity of commodity imported annually

Estimated average export volumes range from 3,000 to over 11,000 metric tons per year per 

country (Table 7). The sea shipping containers that are typically used for estimating the volume of 

commodity shipments are 40 feet (12.2 m) in length and hold approximately 40,000 pounds 

(18,182 kg or 20 tons) (FAS, 2003). The annual quantity of Capsicum spp. to be shipped from 

Central America is projected to fill approximately 1,050 of the 40-foot shipping containers. The 

cumulative total for the quantity to be imported from these Central American countries was 

assigned a risk rating of High.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 69

Table 7. Estimated export volumes of Capsicum spp. from Central America.

Country Commodity Amount

(annual metric tons)

Reference

Costa Rica fresh pepper fruit 6,000 Gonzalez, 2003

El Salvador pepper fruit, C. annuum 5,400 Arevalo, 2003

Guatemala C. annuum, C. frutescens, Capsicum spp. 11,240 Aldana, 2003

Honduras C. annuum 3,000 Puerto, 2003

Nicaragua C. annuum (88 percent) and C. frutescens 5,400 Fonseca, 2003

Panama C. annuum N/A

2.7.2. Survive post-harvest treatment

For this sub-element, post-harvest treatment refers to any manipulation, handling or specific 

phytosanitary treatment to which the commodity is subjected. Examples of post-harvest 

treatments include culling, washing, chemical treatment, cold storage, etc. 

Arthropods that feed internally were expected to survive minimal post-harvest treatments, such 

as washing and culling. We rated the flies, A. ludens, C. capitata and L. huidobrensis, the moth, 

N. elegantalis, and the weevil, F. ovatipennis, High for this sub-element.

External feeding arthropods would have a lower probability of surviving postharvest treatment 

than internal feeding arthropods. However, minute arthropods like mealybugs and thrips may 

survive post-harvest treatment by hiding in recesses on the fruit (e.g., the calyx) (Lewis, 1997; 

CABI, 2007). Thus, we gave the mealybugs, P. parvus and P. minor, and the thrips, T. palmi, 

risk ratings of Medium.

Standard post-harvest measures are unlikely to affect internal bacterial infection of fruit or stems. 

Likewise, both APMoV and ToSLCV cause systemic infections (Ala-Poikela et al., 2005; CABI, 

2007; Mauricio-Castillo et al., 2006; Valverde et al., 1995) and would survive post-harvest 

treatments on the commodity (Agrios, 2004). Thus, we gave both viruses and Ralstonia 

solanacearum R3B2 ratings of High. 

Puccinia pampeana produces subepidermal fungal structures (Figueiredo et al., 1987; Figueiredo, 

2000) which are likely to survive post-harvest treatments. The Puccinia-type teliospores can remain 

viable for a long time (Figueiredo et al., 1987). While washing or other debris removal may occur, 

we found no evidence suggesting that would eliminate latent infection. We gave P. pampeana a risk 

rating of High.

2.7.3. Survive shipment

The commodity will be transported via cargo ship in about 2.5 days to travel from Costa Rica to 

Miami, Florida, assuming fair weather, a distance of 1,118 miles and a constant speed of 16 

knots. Fresh peppers are typically stored at 4oC and 95 percent relative humidity (CABI, 2007). 

If these conditions are maintained during transport some individuals of each pest would likely

survive. For example, the USDA currently recommends that fruit be treated at 1.11oC for 15 d 

for C. capitata, and 0.58oC for 18 d for A. ludens, to kill all larvae (PPQ, 2008).
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 70

For Faustinus ovatipennis, Liriomyza huidobrensis, Neoleucinodes elegantalis, Phenacoccus 

parvus, Planococcus minor, and Thrips palmi, evidence of the ability of these pests to survive 

shipment is indicated by records of alive insects intercepted on different commodities from 

different countries (PestID, 2008).

R. solanacearum R3B2 strains are more cold tolerant than other races (Swanson et al., 2005). 

The fungal pathogen P. pampeana and the viruses APMoV and ToSLCV can be found in the subepidermal layers or become systemic (Ala-Poikela et al., 2005; CABI, 2007; Figueiredo et al., 

1987; Hernández and Hennen, 2003), surviving shipment within the tissue of pepper fruit and 

stems. In addition, Puccinia-type teliospores of P. pampeana may survive shipping conditions in 

a dormant state (Figueiredo, 2000). We gave all these species High risk ratings.

2.7.4. Not be detected at the port of entry

The probability that an arthropod pest is detected at the port of entry is a function of their size 

and degree of concealment. Because internal feeders are well concealed, they have a high 

probability of escaping detection. Thus, we gave A. ludens, C. capitata, F. ovatipennis and N. 

elegantalis High risk ratings for this sub-element. Larvae of N. elegantalis create large exit holes 

and/or deform the fruit, which can be detected, but requires a specific inspection protocol. 

External feeders that hide in the calyx or in packing material are unlikely to be noticed. Thus, we 

gave T. palmi a pest risk rating of High.

Scale insects such as Phenacoccus parvus and Planococcus minor should be detectable by

inspectors, but because of their small size and sessile nature, low population densities may

escape detection. Therefore, we rated these mealybug species Medium.

For Liriomyza huidobrensis, feeding punctures appear as white speckles between 0.13 and 0.15 

mm in diameter. Oviposition punctures are smaller (0.05 mm) and are more uniformly round. 

The larva is primarily a leaf miner, but if peduncles are affected L. huidobrensis can be visually 

detected. We rated this pest Medium.

Plants may harbor Ralstonia solanacearum R3B2 bacteria without any symptoms of infection 

(Swanson et al., 2005). We gave it a risk rating of High.

For Puccinia pampeana, infection sites with signs of sporulation, leaf and stem lesions and rotting 

fruit are easily identified at the port of entry (Agrios, 2004), but latent infections and the presence of 

spores on fruit or packing materials are likely to go undetected. We gave this pest a rating of 

Medium for this risk element.

On pepper, APMoV causes mottling (CABI, 2007; Pernezny et al., 2003) and ToSLCV causes 

stunting and leaf curling/crumpling (Mauricio-Castillo et al., 2006). APMoV can reach a high

titer in the plant which can remain symptomless (Pernezny et al., 2003). Virus symptoms can 

sometimes be mistaken for abiotic problems, such as natural genetic variation, nutritional 

deficiency, temperature or other environmental factor. Diagnosis can be confirmed through 

serological testing (Agrios, 2004; Pernezny et al., 2003). We gave both viruses High risk ratings.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 71

2.7.5. Imported or moved subsequently to an area with an environment suitable for survival

Risk ratings for this sub-element are based on the proportion of the commodity that is likely to 

move to locations suitable for pest survival. Peppers have widespread acceptance among 

consumers in the United States, which means that markets exist in all parts of the United States, 

and infested or infected fruits are likely to arrive in areas that are suitable for pest survival. 

Therefore, we estimated risk based on population distributions in the United States in areas 

suitable for pest survival.

For all pests one or more of its potential hosts occurs in zones where they potentially could 

establish a colony (NRCS, 2008). Given that all of the pest could establish at least in Plant 

Hardiness Zones 9-11, with almost 27 percent of the U.S. population (PERAL, 2008), we gave 

them all risk ratings of High. 

2.7.6. Come into contact with host material suitable for reproduction

Even if the final destination of infested commodities is suitable for pest survival, pests must still 

come into contact with suitable host material. This process depends on two factors: the pest’s 

potential for dispersal and the presence of host material in the region.

Anastrepha ludens, C. capitata, L. huidobrensis, N. elegantalis, and T. palmi are polyphagous 

pests or attack very common hosts, and are capable of long distance aerial dispersal. Thus we 

assigned them pest risk ratings of High. 

We rated F. ovatipennis Low because of low dispersal potential and a narrow host range. 

The sessile nature of scale insects reduces their chances of coming into contact with hosts 

(Gullan and Kosztarab, 1997; Miller, 1985). They are unlikely to establish unless mobile forms 

(i.e., crawlers) are present on imported commodities and placed close to a susceptible host 

(Blank et al., 1993; Miller, 1985). Dispersal by air to a host is unlikely because of small 

populations expected on fruit. Therefore, we rated P. parvus and P. minor Low risk.

For R. solanacearum (R3B2), disposal of infected host material near agricultural areas, 

greenhouses, or unmanaged ecosystems are pathways to other susceptible hosts, such as 

cultivated potato, tomato, and pepper or weed hosts. The main path for international spread is by 

infected plant parts. R. solanacearum (R3B2) can easily be spread by water in field and 

greenhouse settings (Janse et al., 2004). We rated this pest High.

Puccinia pampeana occurs on 6 genera and 17 species within the Solanaceae family. The 

dispersal potential for P. pampeana is not known, however related Puccinia species mostly

spread from plant to plant by windblown spores. Insects, rain, and animals may play a role. Some 

of their spores (uredospores) are transported over long distances by strong winds and can start 

new infections (Agrios, 2004). Overall, we gave this fungus a risk rating of Medium.

APMoV is vectored by species of Diabrotica and mechanically transmitted (Pernezny et al., 

2003). Likewise, ToSLCV is only transmitted through its vector Bemisia tabaci. Both vectors are 

highly unlikely to arrive with the commodity, so they would have to contact infected fruit in the 

United States to acquire the viruses and disperse them to a host in the environment (CABI, 2007; 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 72

Pernezny et al., 2003). Both viruses have a limited host range, affecting mostly plants within the 

Solanaceae family. Thus, we gave these viruses risk ratings of Low.

Table 8. Risk ratings for Likelihood of Introduction. The ratings for ‘Quantity Imported 

Annually,’ ‘Survive Shipment,’ and ‘Moved to suitable Habitat’ were High (3 pts) for all pests.

Pests Subelements Cumulative risk 

ratingsa

Survive 

post-harvest 

treatment

Not detected 

at port-ofentry

Contact 

host 

material

Anastrepha ludens High (3) High (3) High (3) High (18)

Andean potato mottle virus High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (16)

Ceratitis capitata High (3) High (3) High (3) High (18)

Faustinus ovatipennis High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (16)

Liriomyza huidobrensis High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (17)

Neoleucinodes elegantalis High (3) High (3) High (3) High (18)

Phenacoccus parvus Med (2) Med (2) Low (1) Medium (14)

Planococcus minor Med (2) Med (2) Low (1) Medium (14)

Puccinia pampeana High (3) Med (2) Med (2) High (16)

Ralstonia solanacearum R3B2 High (3) High (3) High (3) High (18)

Thrips palmi Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (17)

Tomato severe leaf curl virus High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (16)

a

Low is 6-9 points, Medium is 10-14 points, and High is 15-18 points (PPQ, 2000).

2.8. Pest Risk Potential and Conclusion

We summed the Consequences of Introduction and the Likelihood of Introduction values to 

produce the Pest Risk Potentials which are recorded below (Table 9). Pest Risk Potential is a 

baseline estimate of the risks associated with importation of the commodity in the absence of 

phytosanitary mitigation measures beyond standard post-harvest processing.

Ralstonia solanacearum Race 3 Biovar 2 received a High Pest Risk Potential based on the 

guidelines. A more detailed study on the Likelihood of Entry, Introduction, and Establishment of 

this bacterium concluded that it is not likely to establish in the United States via this pathway 

(PERAL, 2005a). Therefore, we gave it an overall rating of Low.

The pest risk potential was estimated to be High for all other pests. A rating in the High range 

indicates that specific phytosanitary measures, supplemental to port-of-arrival inspection, are 

strongly recommended.

APHIS risk management programs are risk based and dependent on the availability of 

appropriate mitigation methods. Details of APHIS risk management programs are published, 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 73

primarily, in the Federal Register as quarantine notices. The choice of appropriate measures to 

mitigate risks is part of the Risk Management within APHIS.

Table 9. Pest Risk Potentials for quarantine pests on Capsicum spp. from Central America.

Pest Consequences of 

Introduction

Likelihood of 

Introduction

Pest Risk 

Potentialsa

Anastrepha ludens High (15) High (18) High (33)

Andean potato mottle virus Medium (12) High (16) High (28)

Ceratitis capitata High (15) High (18) High (33)

Faustinus ovatipennis Medium (12) High (16) High (28)

Liriomyza huidobrensis High (15) High (17) High (32)

Neoleucinodes elegantalis High (13) High (18) High (31)

Phenacoccus parvus High (13) Medium (14) High (27)

Planococcus minor High (14) Medium (14) High (28)

Puccinia pampeana High (14) High (16) High (30)

Thrips palmi High (13) High (17) High (30)

Tomato severe leaf curl virus Medium (12) High (16) High (28)

Ralstonia solanacearum R3B2 High (14) High (18) Lowb

a

Low is 11-18 points, Medium is 19-26 points, and High is 27-33 points

b While the guidelines-based rating is High, the realized rating is Low, based on a very low 

likelihood of establishing in the United states via this pathway. See text for more details.

3. Risk Mitigation

We begin the pest risk management with identification of the pest risk potential estimated for 

pests of quarantine significance to the United States and deemed likely to follow the pathway in 

Capsicum spp. from Central America. The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular 

pest depends on the risk posed by that pest. We describe the current USDA approved alternatives 

for pest mitigation on Capsicum from Central American countries. All possible alternatives for 

mitigation of quarantine pests, and disclosed in the Code of Federal Regulations, CFR are also 

described. We indicate alternative options for pest mitigation used on other commodities or by

other countries, even though they do not have scientific verification for peppers or exporter 

country. Nonetheless, it is indicated in the text that research must be required to demonstrate 

efficacy on Capsicum spp.

3.1. Risk Management Strategy for Quarantine Pests.

The list of pests that attack Capsicum spp. and are present in Central America was developed by 

searching scientific literature, previous APHIS commodity risk assessments for similar 

commodities, U.S. port interception records, and information provided by the exporting country. 

We analyzed twelve quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway in the risk assessment stage. 

The pest risk potential was estimated to be High for all pests (Table 9). According to PPQ 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 74

(2000), pests with a Low Pest Risk Potential (e.g., Ralstonia solanacearum R3B2), do not 

typically require mitigation measures, other than port-of-arrival inspection. Still, we listed some 

control strategies for Ralstonia solanacearum (R3B2) in peppers. A value within the Medium 

range indicates that specific phytosanitary measures may be necessary. A rating in the High 

range indicates that specific phytosanitary measures, supplemental to port-of-arrival inspection, 

are strongly recommended. 

3.2. Risk Mitigation Options for Peppers from Central America

3.2.1. Current systems approaches

PPQ uses systems approaches to allow the importation into the United States of fresh peppers 

(Capsicum spp.) from Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua (7 CFR § 

319, 2007). Systems approaches are employed by importing countries as an alternative to the use 

of single measures that achieve an appropriate level of phytosanitary protection when a single 

phytosanitary measure is non existent, infeasible or undesirable. The combinations of specific 

mitigation measures that provide overlapping or sequential safeguards are distinctly different 

from single mitigation methodologies such as fumigation or inspection. Systems approaches 

require the integration of different measures, at least two of which act independently, with a 

cumulative effect and are often tailored to specific commodity-pest-origin combinations. The 

Central American program was approved in March 2006 and it is described below.

(a) For peppers of the species Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens, C. baccatum, and C. chinense 

from areas free of Mediterranean fruit fly (Medfly), terms of entry are: 

(1) The peppers must be grown and packed in an area that has been determined by APHIS to 

be free of Mediterranean fruit fly (Medfly) in accordance with the procedures described in § 

319.56–2(f) of this subpart.

(2) A pre-harvest inspection of the growing site must be conducted by the national plant 

protection organization (NPPO) of the exporting country for the weevil Faustinus 

ovatipennis, pea leafminer, tomato fruit borer, banana moth, lantana mealybug, passionvine 

mealybug, melon thrips, the rust fungus Puccinia pampeana, Andean potato mottle virus, and 

tomato yellow mosaic virus, and if these pests are found to be generally infesting the growing 

site, the NPPO may not allow export from that production site until the NPPO has 

determined that risk mitigation has been achieved.

(3) The peppers must be packed in insect- proof cartons or containers or covered with insectproof mesh or plastic tarpaulin at the packinghouse for transit to the United States. These 

safeguards must remain intact until arrival in the United States. 

(4) The exporting country’s NPPO is responsible for export certification, inspection, and 

issuance of phytosanitary certificates. Each shipment of peppers must be accompanied by a 

phytosanitary certificate issued by the NPPO and bearing the declaration, ‘‘These peppers 

were grown in an area recognized to be free of Medfly and the shipment has been inspected 

and found free of the pests listed in the requirements.’’

(b) For peppers of the species Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens, C. baccatum, C. chinense, and 

C. pubescens from areas in which Medfly is considered to exist: 
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(1) The peppers must be grown in approved production sites registered with the NPPO of the 

exporting country. Initial approval of the production sites will be completed jointly by the 

exporting country’s NPPO and APHIS. The exporting country’s NPPO will visit and inspect 

the production sites monthly, starting 2 months before harvest and continuing through until 

the end of the shipping season. APHIS may monitor the production sites at any time during 

this period.

(2) Pepper production sites must consist of pest-exclusionary greenhouses, which must have 

self-closing double doors and have all other openings and vents covered with 1.6 (or less) 

mm screening.

(3) Registered sites must contain traps for the detection of Medfly both within and around the 

production site. (i) Traps with an approved protein bait must be placed inside the 

greenhouses at a density of four traps per hectare, with a minimum of two traps per 

greenhouse. Traps must be serviced on a weekly basis. (ii) If a single Medfly is detected 

inside a registered production site or in a consignment, the registered production site will lose 

its ability to export peppers to the United States until APHIS and the exporting country’s 

NPPO mutually determine that risk mitigation is achieved. (iii) Medfly traps with an

approved lure must be placed inside a buffer area 500 meters wide around the registered 

production site, at a density of 1 trap per 10 hectares and a minimum of 10 traps. These traps 

must be checked at least every 7 days. At least one of these traps must be near the 

greenhouse. Traps must be set for at least 2 months before export and trapping must continue 

to the end of the harvest. (iv) Capture of 0.7 or more Medflies per trap per week will delay or 

suspend the harvest, depending on whether harvest has begun, for consignments of peppers 

from that production site until APHIS and the exporting country’s NPPO can agree that the 

pest risk has been mitigated. (v) The greenhouse must be inspected prior to harvest for the 

weevil Faustinus ovatipennis, pea leafminer, tomato fruit borer, banana moth, lantana 

mealybug, passionvine mealybug, melon thrips, the rust fungus Puccinia pampeana, Andean 

potato mottle virus, and tomato yellow mosaic virus. If any of these pests, or other quarantine 

pests, are found to be generally infesting the greenhouse, export from that production site 

will be halted until the exporting country’s NPPO determines that the pest risk has been 

mitigated.

(4) The exporting country’s NPPO must maintain records of trap placement, checking of 

traps, and any Medfly captures. The exporting country’s NPPO must maintain an APHISapproved quality control program to monitor or audit the trapping program. The trapping 

records must be maintained for APHIS’ review.

(5) The peppers must be packed within 24 hours of harvest in a pest-exclusionary

packinghouse. The peppers must be safeguarded by an insect-proof mesh screen or plastic 

tarpaulin while in transit to the packinghouse and while awaiting packing. Peppers must be 

packed in insect-proof cartons or containers, or covered with insect proof mesh or plastic 

tarpaulin, for transit to the United States. These safeguards must remain intact until arrival in 

the United States or the consignment will be denied entry into the United States.

(6) During the time the packinghouse is in use for exporting peppers to the United States, the 

packinghouse may accept peppers only from registered approved production sites. 

(7) The exporting country’s NPPO is responsible for export certification, inspection, and 

issuance of phytosanitary certificates. Each shipment of peppers must be accompanied by a 

phytosanitary certificate issued by the NPPO and bearing the declaration, ‘‘These peppers 

were grown in an approved production site and the shipment has been inspected and found 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 76

free of the pests listed in the requirements.’’ The shipping box must be labeled with the 

identity of the production site.

(c) For peppers of the species Capsicum pubescens from areas in which Mexican fruit fly

(Mexfly) is considered to exist:

(1) The peppers must be grown in approved production sites registered with the NPPO of the 

exporting country. Initial approval of the production sites will be completed jointly by the 

exporting country’s NPPO and APHIS. The exporting country’s NPPO must visit and inspect 

the production sites monthly, starting 2 months before harvest and continuing through until 

the end of the shipping season. APHIS may monitor the production sites at any time during 

this period.

(2) Pepper production sites must consist of pest-exclusionary greenhouses, which must have 

self-closing double doors and have all other openings and vents covered with 1.6 (or less) 

mm screening.

(3) Registered sites must contain traps for the detection of Mexfly both within and around the 

production site. (i) Traps with an approved protein bait must be placed inside the 

greenhouses at a density of four traps per hectare, with a minimum of two traps per 

greenhouse. Traps must be serviced on a weekly basis. (ii) If a single Mexfly is detected 

inside a registered production site or in a consignment, the registered production site will lose 

its ability to ship under the systems approach until APHIS and the exporting country’s NPPO 

mutually determine that risk mitigation is achieved. (iii) Mexfly traps with an approved 

protein bait must be placed inside a buffer area 500 meters wide around the registered 

production site, at a density of 1 trap per 10 hectares and a minimum of 10 traps. These traps 

must be checked at least every 7 days. At least one of these traps must be near the 

greenhouse. Traps must be set for at least 2 months before export, and trapping must 

continue to the end of the harvest. (iv) Capture of 0.7 or more Mexflies per trap per week will 

delay or suspend the harvest, depending on whether harvest has begun, for consignments of 

peppers from that production site until APHIS and the exporting country’s NPPO can agree 

that the pest risk has been mitigated. (v) The greenhouse must be inspected prior to harvest 

for the weevil Faustinus ovatipennis, pea leafminer, tomato fruit borer, banana moth, lantana 

mealybug, passionvine mealybug, melon thrips, the rust fungus Puccinia pampeana, Andean 

potato mottle virus, and tomato yellow mosaic virus. If any of these pests, or other quarantine 

pests, are found to be generally infesting the greenhouse, export from that production site 

will be halted until the exporting country’s NPPO determines that the pest risk has been 

mitigated.

(4) The exporting country’s NPPO must maintain records of trap placement, checking of 

traps, and any Mexfly captures. The exporting country’s NPPO must maintain an 

APHISapproved quality control program to monitor or audit the trapping program. The 

trapping records must be maintained for APHIS’s review.

(5) The peppers must be packed within 24 hours of harvest in a pest-exclusionary

packinghouse. The peppers must be safeguarded by an insect-proof mesh screen or plastic 

tarpaulin while in transit to the packinghouse and while awaiting packing. Peppers must be 

packed in insect-proof cartons or containers, or covered with insectproof mesh or plastic 

tarpaulin, for transit to the United States. These safeguards must remain intact until arrival in 

the United States or the consignment will be denied entry into the United States.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 77

(6) During the time the packinghouse is in use for exporting peppers to the United States, the 

packinghouse may accept peppers only from registered approved production sites.

(7) The exporting country’s NPPO is responsible for export certification, inspection, and 

issuance of phytosanitary certificates. Each shipment of peppers must be accompanied by a 

phytosanitary certificate issued by the NPPO and bearing the declaration, ‘‘These peppers 

were grown in an approved production site and the shipment has been inspected and found 

free of the pests listed in the requirements.’’ The shipping box must be labeled with the 

identity of the production site. 

We recommend including Panama as an exporter country in the systems approaches above, if it 

meets requirements. Likewise we recommend including Tomato severe leaf curl virus (ToSLCV)

in the list of regulated pests in the system approach. We also recommend removing from the list 

of regulated pests the banana moth, Opogona sacchari, and the virus Tomato yellow mosaic virus

(ToYMV), because we did not find sufficient evidence that they would follow the pathway

(above).

3.2.2. Phytosanitary Certification Inspections and Monitoring

Each shipment should be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate issued by the exporting 

country’s NPPO. The certificate should contain additional declarations stating that the pepper 

fruits were treated and/or grown in accordance with any phytosanitary measures required by 

APHIS. Inspection could be combined with other measures to ensure the absence of pests of

concern. Example measures include Integrated Pest Management, culling for damage and insect 

infestation during harvest and post-harvest, periodic unannounced inspections by certified 

inspectors from PPQ or Ministries of Agriculture from exporter countries to production areas and 

Packinghouses.

3.2.3. Post-Harvest Safeguards and Packinghouse Procedures

Containers of harvested fruit should be covered with screens, plastic tarpaulins, or other pestproof covers while in transit to the packinghouse and while awaiting packing. The peppers 

should be packed within 24 hours of harvest in a pest exclusionary packinghouse. All fruit 

should be inspected prior to packing and packed in pest-proof containers for shipment to the 

United States. Peppers should be sized and culled to remove damaged and deformed fruit. The 

fruits can be washed with brushes and cleansing to remove external pests, and then immersed in 

a water bath containing a surfactant, followed by air-drying. While packing the peppers for 

export to the United States, the packinghouse should only accept fruits from registered approved 

production sites.

Details regarding post-harvest safeguards for external feeders include:

 To reduce the likelihood of the external feeders, Phenacoccus parvus, Planococcus minor 

and Thrips palmi potential packinghouse procedures for pepper include washing, waxing, 

and cold storage. Additionally, mechanical brushing and cleansing with compressed air or 

other treatment methods can be utilized. External insect pests like aphids, mites, 

mealybugs, scales, and thrips can often be removed or greatly reduced in number with a 

brisk water spray (Townsend, 1994).

 Neoleucinodes elegantalis larva can be detected during post-harvest process inspecting for 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 78

malformed or damaged fruits, as it produces large holes (Marcano, 2008).

Figure 2. Pepper fruit affected by N elegantalis (Marcano, 2008)

 Peppers should be culled without quality defects, such as mechanical damage, bruising, 

scarring, disease or pest presence, dehydration, or immature, decaying, deformed, split, 

heavily soiled, or blemished fruit

 Washing with detergent-water solutions (1 teaspoon detergent/1 gallon water) is effective 

in removing or killing scales, aphids, mealybugs, or other small insects on plants 

(Townsend, 1994).

Field and high care packhouse procedures and measures may be use to protect the fruit against 

internal and external feeders. However, research is required to demonstrate efficacy of the 

elimination of pests.

3.2.4. Suppression/Control

Pest-exclusionary greenhouses: Production sites of Pepper from certain Central American 

countries consist of pest-exclusionary greenhouses, which must have double self-closing doors 

and have all other openings and vents covered with 1.6 mm (or less) screening(7 CFR § 319, 

2007). The use of pest-exclusionary greenhouses, with 1.6mm (0.063 inches) or less screening 

may result in an effective measure to prevent the entry into the greenhouses of adults due to their 

size, this apply for Anastrepha ludens (CABI, 2007), Ceratitis capitata (Thomas et al., 2008), 

Faustinus ovatipennis (Saunders et al., 1998), Liriomyza huidobrensis (CABI, 2007), 

Neoleucinodes elegantalis (Marcano, 2008), Phenacoccus parvus (Tanwar et al., 2007) and

Planococcus minor (Venette and Davis, 2004). 

The sterile insect technique (SIT): it was successfully applied to Mexican fruit fly (Anastrepha 

ludens) to maintain a fly-free zone in Mexico, Texas and California (Weems et al., 2004); in 

mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) this technique has been employed to assure the flyfree status of Mexico, U.S.A. and a large part of Guatemala (Hendrichs et al., 2002). In 

Lyriomyza huidobrensis SIT could be applied since in other leafminers such as L. trifolii SIT 

combined with parasitoids release, reduced successfully the size of adult populations (Kaspi and 

Parrella, 2006).

Inherited sterility (also known as F1 sterility) is common in members of the order Lepidoptera 

after treatment with radiation, all females will be sterile; and all males will be fertile and carry a

gene for sterility that is passed to the next generation (Ellis, 2004); therefore Neoleucinodes 

elegantalis could be good candidate to be controlled with SIT, however research is required to 

demonstrate efficacy of this control strategy.
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Rev. Original April 27, 2009 79

Control alternatives for pathogens: Control strategies for Ralstonia solanacearum (R3B2) in 

sweet peppers include the use of resistant varieties; good soil drainage and raised beds; rotation 

with non-host crops (Berke et al., 2003). Bacterial wilt, caused by the soilborne bacterium 

Ralstonia solanacearum, limits production of many economically important crops including 

potato, tomato, banana and tobacco. It is considered the world’s single most destructive bacterial 

plant disease. The bacterium enters host plant roots from the soil and colonizes the xylem vessels 

in the vascular system. Control of bacterial wilt is difficult; the best management strategy is 

planting disease-resistant hosts. Ralstonia solanacearum has been isolated from roots, stem, 

tubers and leaves of infected plants. However, the presence of this pathogen in tomato fruits 

collected from naturally infected plants has not been reported, and a previous study using PCR 

did not detect R. solanacearum in fruits or seeds from infected tomato plants (Sanchez Perez et 

al., 2008). 

There are not reported specific control strategies for Puccinia pampeana in specialized literature. 

However it could be controlled using similar management practices applied for other rusts of the 

Puccinia genus; an example is the control strategy used for P.horiana (chrysanthemum white 

rust) which includes maintain production areas at less than optimum humidity for rust growth; if 

the infestations have been detected in a place of production, commodity fungicidal dip treatment, 

should be considered. Before planting, soil steaming at 70°C can destroy most pathogenic 

microorganisms, including rust spores and other fungus structures (APHIS, 2005). However, 

research is required to demonstrate efficacy of this control strategies in peppers for P. pampeana.

Distancing pepper fields from tomato and other solanaceous crop production areas is probably 

the best way to limit begomovirus infection. Transplants should be produced free of the virus and 

plants must be free of the whitefly vector. Another important control strategy is to reduce or 

eliminate whitefly populations. Removal of solanaceous weeds that can harbor begomoviruses 

and whiteflies is advised when practical. Pepper and tomato crop residue should be removed 

promptly and destroyed at the end of the season (Roberts et al., 2004).

Detailed strategies for geminiviruses management are described by Polston and Andreson (1997) 

in tomato. They anticipated that for most of geminiviruses, management strategies will need to 

be multi-component in nature and based on a thorough understanding of the pathosystems 

involved. Deployment of resistant cultivars will have to be accompanied by vector management 

schemes, which currently rely almost entirely on chemical insecticides. Unfortunately, whitefly 

populations are already developing resistance to the widely used chemical imidacloprid, as they

have done with many other insecticides. The lack of available vector management strategies is 

related in part to a shortage of knowledge regarding the epidemiology of geminiviruses. It is 

probable that only through this multi-component approach will economically and 

environmentally sound approaches be developed for the successful management of 

geminiviruses (Polston and Anderson, 1997). 

In hot pepper cultural techniques can alter the crop environment, improve plant vigor and 

resistance, and reduce survival and virulence of harmful agents. Plant raising practices examples 

are the use of screen covered cages will exclude sucking insects and infection with insecttransmitted viruses during the nursery stage and the use of mulch to reduce soil evaporation and 

leaching of nutrients; light-reflective mulch to alleviate thrips injury and virus problems and the 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 80

application of balanced fertilization to improve growth, development and resistance level of the 

crop (Vos and Duriat, 1995; Vos et al., 1995).

3.2.5. Establishment of Pest-Free Areas or Free Production Sites

As a sole mitigative measure, the establishment of pest-free areas or pest-free places of 

production may be effective in satisfying an importing country’s appropriate level of 

phytosanitary protection. The establishment and maintenance of pest-free areas or production 

sites should be in compliance with international standards (e.g., IPPC, 2007: ISPM # 10).

Establishment and maintenance of pest free areas should include survey plans. Surveys to detect 

internal and external pepper pests may be aided by the use of APHIS-approved unbaited, active, 

or passive traps.

3.2.6. Establishment of Areas of Low Pest Prevalence/Pest Suppression

According to IPPC (2007), an area of low pest prevalence may comprise all of a country, part of 

a country, or all or parts of several countries in which a particular pest species occurs at low 

population densities and which is or are subject to effective surveillance and control or 

eradication measures. Procedures for the establishment and maintenance of areas of low pest 

prevalence should comply with international standards (e.g., IPPC, 2007: ISPM # 4, 26). For 

example, elements of an operational plan for establishment and maintenance of such areas might 

include a geographic description to delimit the area, specification of an upper limit to pest 

densities, means to document and verify all necessary procedures and maintain records; 

specification of phytosanitary procedures (e.g., survey, pest control), and movement controls to 

prevent pest entry or re-entry into the area. IPPC (2007) recommends that the exporting country

consult with the importing country in the early stages of implementation to ensure that importing 

country requirements are met. In particular, target or threshold population densities defining an 

area of low pest prevalence should be established in consultation with the importing country.

Cultural, chemical, or mechanical means (e.g., crop sanitation, pruning of dead and diseased 

branches, pre-harvest application of pesticides, fruit bagging) may be used to suppress pest 

populations in crops or prevent fruit infestation. Sanitation and pesticide applications, as 

essential components of best management practices, are mainstays of commercial fruit 

production (IPPC, 2007).

3.2.7. Quarantine Treatments

Generic Dose Irradiation: PPQ recognizes T105-a-2 Irradiation for fruit flies from the family 

tephritidae and all insect pests except pupae and adults of the order Lepidoptera. Pepper is an 

approved commodity from Ghana under this treatment (PPQ, 2008).

Methyl Bromide Fumigation: PPQ recognizes the treatment MB (T101-a-3) (maximum dosage 

4 pounds/1,000 ft3at 40-49°F) which is approved to treat internal feeders for peppers (except 

fruit flies) and external pests (except mealybugs) (PPQ, 2008); however, certain varieties of 

peppers are sensitive to methyl bromide and may develop darkening of the seed cavity.

Methyl bromide MB (T104-a-1) (maximum dosage, 4 pounds/1,000 ft3at 40°F or above): 

applies to hitchhikers and surface pests such as: thrips, aphids, scale insects, leafminers, spider 

mites, lygaeid bugs, ants, earwigs, surface feeding caterpillars and slugs. Liriomyza 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 81

huidobrensis, Phenacoccus parvus, Planococcus minor and Thrips palmi could be mitigated 

under this treatment in peppers. MB (T104-a-2) (maximum dosage, 4 pounds/1,000 ft3at 60-

69°F or above) is approved for Pseudococcidae (Phenacoccus parvus and Planococcus minor) 

mitigation in peppers (PPQ, 2008).

Cold treatment: cold treatment T107-a-1 is approved for mitigate Ceratitis capitata and 

Anastrepha ludens on multiple commodities; this treatment demands to treat the commodity

under temperatures of 34oF for 15 days (PPQ, 2008)..

Methyl bromide plus cold treatment are also approved for Ceratitis capitata on multiple 

commodities (T108-a and T108-b fumigation plus refrigeration, T109-d-1 cold treatment plus 

fumigation) (PPQ, 2008).

3.3. Research Options 

Possible options for research for quarantine pests on pepper fruit include sterile insect technique 

(SIT), irradiation below 400 Gy, hot water immersion, and insecticidal dips. This statement is 

based on the following evidence:

3.3.1. Sterile insect technique (SIT)

For Lyriomyza huidobrensis SIT, could be used since, on other leafminers such as L. trifolii, SIT 

combined with parasitoids releasing, reduced successfully the size of adult populations (Kaspi 

and Parrella, 2006).At the same way inherited sterility (also known as F1 sterility) is common in 

members of the order Lepidoptera, after treatment with radiation all females will be sterile; and 

all males will be fertile and carry a gene for sterility that is passed to the next generation (Ellis, 

2004); therefore Neoleucinodes elegantalis could be good candidate to be controlled with SIT.

3.3.2. Irradiation Below 400 Gy

Research indicates that Coccus viridis would be effectively controlled by irradiation at a dose of 

250 Gy (Hara et al., 2002). The reported minimum dose of irradiation needed to ensure 

quarantine security against Maconellicoccus hirsutus is between 100 and 250 Gy (Jacobsen and 

Hara, 2003). No information was found in the literature regarding the effect of irradiation on the 

other scale species of concern; however, adults of the species Planococcus citri, which is in the 

same genus as Planococcus minor, that are irradiated at 40 Gy or higher produce no offspring 

(Arthur and Wiendl, 1996).

3.3.3. Cold treatment

PPQ recognizes Cold treatment (T107-a-1) for fruit flies C. capitata and A. ludens on multiple 

commodities (PPQ, 2008). Cold effect research would be required to demonstrate efficacy on 

peppers. 

3.3.4. Insecticidal Dips or Sprays

Gould and McGuire, (2000) studied the efficacy of different insecticidal coatings (soap, 

petroleum based oil, and vegetable oil) against the mealybugs Planococcus citri and 

Pseudococcus odermatti on limes. These coatings, applied at a 3 percent (vol: vol) rate in 

approximately 10 liters of water, and then followed by a 10-minute rinsing in tap-water resulted 

in mortalities of 30, 57, and 65 percent, respectively (Gould and McGuire, 2000). The authors 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 82

stated that the fruit’s calyx provided shelter for the mealybugs, preventing higher mortalities. If 

peppers are exported with peduncle and calyx they could protect mealybugs; we assume that 

mortality rates for mealybugs caused by these insecticidal coatings would be lesser on fruit with 

peduncle and calyx than peppers without them. Efficacy data based on research would be needed 

for this option.

3.4. Oversight

3.4.1. Pre-shipment Programs

Inspection, treatment, or other mitigative measures performed in the field and/or packinghouse 

should be under the direct supervision of qualified APHIS officials, and in accordance with 

specified phytosanitary procedures. Such programs require monitoring of all aspects of the 

application of any required phytosanitary measures; the aim is to identify shortcomings or 

opportunities for program modifications (IPPC, 2007). Provision should be made for the formal 

recognition of approved areas, sites, or producers, as well as the specification of conditions for 

revoking approvals or refusing certification for export to the continental United States.

3.4.2. Point-of-Entry Sampling and Inspection

Upon arrival in the United States, consignments should be inspected as provided in § 319.56-6. 

Particular attention should be given to paperwork and seals on vehicles to ascertain that the chain 

of custody has remained intact.

3.4.3. Shipments Traceable to Place of Origin in any Central American country

Each box of pepper fruit should be clearly labeled indicating the specific place of origin. 

Labeling is necessary to ensure traceability to each production site.

In Table 10 we summarize the available risk mitigation options for peppers from Central 

America. All mitigation measures assume that good integrated pest management practices are 

being used and that pest pressure is low. These measures cannot be expected to be effective in 

high pest pressure situations.

3.5. Conclusion

Multiple options exist for mitigating pests of concern on peppers from Central America (Table 

10). A combination of measures, including production place monitoring and management 

programs to achieve and maintain area pest freedom or low pest prevalence, packinghouse 

inspection and treatments, phytosanitary certification, quarantine treatments, maintenance of 

consignment security and traceability in transit, and port-of-entry inspection is more feasible 

than the use of a single measure. It is demonstrated in the systems approach approved for export 

peppers from Central American countries such as Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, 

Honduras, and Nicaragua, consequently, we recommend include to Panama as exporter country 

if it fulfills requirements of a systems approach.

This document does not purport to establish specific work plans or to evaluate the reliability of a 

specific program or systems approach. It provides information regarding known or possible 

mitigation measures that could be used for mitigate quarantine pests that affect peppers. The 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 83

specification and implementation of measures, as would be present in an operational work plan, 

is beyond the scope of this document.

Table 10. Summary of risk mitigation options for peppers.

Measure(s) Pests Efficacy

Systems Approach All Systems approaches require the integration of 

different measures, at least two of which act 

independently, with a cumulative effect and 

are often tailored to specific commodity-pestorigin combinations. Considering that this 

measure has been approved for certain Central 

American countries, it could be a strategy for 

peppers exportations from Panama.

Phytosanitary

Certification 

Inspections and 

Monitoring

Liriomyza huidobrensis, 

Phenacoccus parvus 

Planococcus minor and 

Thrips palmi

L. huidobrensis damage can be visually 

detected. As external pests, scale insects and 

thrips should be detectable by trained 

inspectors; however, because of their small 

size, may escape detection. Inspection could be 

combined with other measures to ensure the 

absence of pests of concern

Post-harvest and 

packinghouse 

procedures 

(inspection, 

cleansing)

External feeders P. 

parvus, P. minor and T. 

palmi. Internal feeder 

Neoleucinodes 

elegantalis

Likely to significantly lower population levels, 

but research required to demonstrate efficacy.

Suppression/Control All Insects Production sites of Pepper consist of pestexclusionary greenhouses, which must have 

double self-closing doors and have all other 

openings and vents covered with 1.6 mm (or 

less) screening

Fruit flies A. ludens, and

C. capitata

L. huidobrensis

N. elegantalis

The sterile insect technique (SIT) has been 

used successfully on Fruit flies, leaf miners 

and lepidopterous. Research is required to 

demonstrate efficacy of this control strategy on 

L. huidobrensis, and N. elegantalis

Puccinia pampeana Management practices applied for other rusts 

of the Puccinia genus could be used. However 

research is required to demonstrate efficacy of 

control strategies on P. pampeana in peppers.

Ralstonia solanacearum 

(R3B2) 

This bacteria could be controlled with resistant 

varieties; good soil drainage and raised beds; 

rotation with non-host crops

Geminivirus Deployment of resistant cultivars, 

accompanied by vector management schemes. 
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 84

Measure(s) Pests Efficacy

Distancing pepper fields from tomato and other 

solanaceous crop. Removal of solanaceous 

weeds and pepper and tomato crop residues. 

Research is required to demonstrate efficacy of 

control strategies on ToSLCV

Pest-free areas or 

places of production

All May satisfy requirements for appropriate level 

of protection.

Areas of low 

prevalence

All. May satisfy requirements for appropriate level 

of protection alone or in combination with 

other measures 

Irradiation All insects above PPQ-recognized generic dose (400 Gy) 

quarantine treatment on all regulated plant 

articles for all insect pests except for 

Lepidopteran pupae and adults. Research is 

required to demonstrate efficacy of irradiation 

treatment below 400 Gy.

Fumigation Some internal feeders 

(no fruit flies) and 

external pests

PPQ-recognized MB fumigation as a 

quarantine treatment for surface pests in 

peppers

Cold Treatment Fruit Flies Cold treatment T107-a-1 is approved to 

mitigate C. capitata and A. ludens on multiple 

commodities. Research required to 

demonstrate efficacy on peppers

Methyl bromide plus 

cold treatment

Ceratitis capitata Methyl bromide plus cold treatment are also 

approved for medfly control on multiple 

commodities (T108-a and T108-b fumigation 

plus refrigeration, T109-d-1). Research 

required to demonstrate efficacy on peppers

4. Author and Reviewers

Author:

Luis E. Forero, Risk analyst a

Reviewers:

Guiovanni A. Zambrano, Risk analyst a

John Rogers, Plant pathologist b

a USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST-PERAL, Colombia

b USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST-PERAL, Raleigh
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 85

5. Acknowledgement 

The author thanks Efrain Torres, Biologist, for his professional support at CPHST-Colombia. 

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7. Appendices

Appendix A. Pests intercepted on species of Capsicum from 1984 to 2007

Pests from any country, by host part and where intercepted (PestID, 2008). We did not include

interceptions which had “Where intercepted” = Unknown here.

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Abgrallaspis 

flabellata

Ghana S F 1 1

Abiotic sp. Cuba, India, Mexico A, P, 

S

F 3 2 5

Acanthocephala 

confraterna

Mexico S F 1 1

Acanthococcus sp. St. Kitts and Nevis S F 1 1

Acanthoderes sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Acanthoscelides 

obtectus

Mexico S F 1 1

Acari spp. Netherlands A 1 1

Aceratagallia sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Achryson sp. Mexico S L 1 1

Acleris sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Acremonium sp. Spain A F 1 1

Acrididae spp. Mexico S F 1 1

Acroleucus sp. Trinidad and Tobago S F 4 4

Acrolophus sp. Dominican Republic S F 2 2

Adoretus sinicus Hawaii S L 1 1

Aeolothripidae 

spp.

India S F 1 1

Aeolus 

nigromaculatus

Dominican Republic S 1 1

Aeolus sp. Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, Trinidad and 

Tobago

A, S F 1 13 14

Aetalion sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Agriolimax 

reticulatus

Peru S 1 1

Agroiconota 

propinqua

Dominican Republic S F 1 1

Agromyzidae spp. Albania, Bahamas, 

Belgium, Brazil,, 

Chile, Colombia, 

A, F, 

P, S

I, F, 

L, L, 

Sd, St

428 235 39 3831

10

4543

 

101 F = Fruit; I = Inflorescence/Flower; L = Leaf; P = Peduncle; R = Root; S = Stem; Se = Seed; Sd = Seedling; Sh = Shoot; 

W = Whole plant/Systemic

102 BG= Baggage; GC= General Cargo; HD= Holds; ML= Mail; MS= Miscellaneous; PC= Permit Cargo; and QS= Quarters 

or Stores.
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

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Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Costa Rica, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Dominican 

Republic, El Salvador, 

Ethiopia, Europe 

Country, France, 

Germany, Ghana, 

Grenada, Guyana, 

Haiti, Hawaii, Israel, 

Italy, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

New Zealand, Nigeria, 

Peru, Puerto Rico, 

Romania, Spain, St. 

Lucia, Trinidad and 

Tobago, Turkey, 

Unknown, Venezuela

Agrotis malefida Jamaica S 1 1

Agrotis sp. Korea, South S F 3 3

Ahasverus advena Guinea, Liberia, 

Mexico

S F 2 1 3

Aleurocanthus 

woglumi

Antigua and Barbuda, 

Dominican Republic

S L 1 1 2

Aleurodicus 

dispersus

Hawaii, Philippines, 

Puerto Rico

A, S L 96 2 98

Aleuroplatus sp. Mexico A L 1 1

Aleurotrachelus 

trachoides

Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, Puerto Rico

S L 8 2 10

Aleyrodidae spp. Dominican Republic, 

El Salvador, Hawaii, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Philippines, Puerto 

Rico, Spain, US 

Virgin Islands

A, S F, L 9 1 2 18

1

31

Aleyrodinae spp. Canada, Mexico, 

Spain

A, S F, L 2 1 3

Alitocoris parvus Mexico A F 1 1

Alitocoris sp. Trinidad and Tobago S 1 1

Allonemobius sp. Mexico A 1 1

Alternaria 

alternata

Netherlands S F 1 1

Alternaria sp. Egypt, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Peru, 

Puerto Rico, St. Kitts 

and Nevis

A, S F, L 4 1 1 3

1

10

Alternaria Dominican Republic F 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 106

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

tenuissima

Altica sp. Guatemala, Mexico A, S F 2 3 5

Amaranthus sp. Myanmar, Unknown S Sd 1 1 2

Amblyomma 

cajennense

Jamaica S F 1 1 2

Amblyomma sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Amblyseius sp. Netherlands S F 3 3

Amnestus sp. Mexico A, S F 2 2

Amorbia sp. Cote D`Ivoire, El 

Salvador, Grenada, 

Guatemala, Mexico

A, P, 

S

F 20 1 1 11 33

Amphelasma sp. Mexico S 1 1

Amphipyrinae 

spp.

Israel S F 1 1

Anarsia sp. Mexico, Nigeria F, S F 2 2

Anasa sp. Mexico S 1 1

Anastrepha ludens Mexico A, S F 2 2 4

Anastrepha 

serpentina

Mexico P, S 2 2

Anastrepha sp. Dominican Republic, 

El Salvador, 

Guatemala, Guyana, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Nigeria, Peru, Puerto 

Rico, Unknown, 

Venezuela

A, P, 

S

F 49 1 13

1

64

Anastrepha 

suspensa

Ghana S F 1 1

Anaxipha sp. Dominican Republic S 1 1

Anchonidium sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Ancylostomia 

stercorea

Jamaica S F 1 1

Anelaphus sp. Mexico A 1 1

Anobiidae spp. Dominican Republic S 1 1

Anoecia sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Anomala sp. Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, Peru

A, S F 14

1

15

Anthicidae spp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Anthocoridae spp. Canada, Israel, 

Netherlands, Spain, 

Unknown

A, S F 1 8 57 66

Anthomyiidae spp. Costa Rica, Ghana, 

India, Jamaica, 

A, S F 12 6

1

19
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 107

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Nicaragua, Nigeria, 

Thailand, Unknown

Anthonomus 

eugenii

Dominican Republic, 

El Salvador, 

Guatemala, Guyana, 

Hawai, Honduras, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Nicaragua, Nigeria, 

Panama, Puerto Rico, 

Unknown

F, L 71 2 1 1 25

4

104

Anthonomus sp. Belice, Costa Rica, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, El Salvador, 

Guatemala, Hawai, 

Honduras, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Nicaragua, 

Peru, Philippines, 

Puerto Rico, Spain, St. 

Kitts and Nevis, 

Trinidad and Tobago, 

Unknown, Venezuela

A, F, 

P, S

F, Sd, 

St

303 66 2 1693

18

2082

Anthrenus 

verbasci

Mexico S Sd 1 1

Anthribidae spp. Australia S F 1 1

Antianthe expansa Mexico A 1 1

Antillocoris sp. Netherlands A 1 1

Apamea 

monoglypha

Netherlands S F 1 1

Aphididae spp. Bahamas, Chile, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, El Salvador, 

France, Germany, 

Grenada, Guatemala, 

Guyana, Haiti, 

Honduras, Hungary, 

Israel, Italy, Jamaica, 

Japan, Korea, South, 

Malawi, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Nigeria, 

Panama, Peru, 

Philippines, Puerto 

Rico, Spain, St. Lucia, 

St.Vincent&Grenadine

s Trinidad and 

Tobago, Turkey, 

Unknown, West Indies 

A, F, 

P, S

F, L, 

WP, 

St

62 33 1 1 183

4

284
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 108

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Aphidiinae spp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Aphidius sp. Jamaica S F 1 1

Aphidoletes 

aphidimyza

Netherlands S F 1 1

Aphis gossypii Dominican Republic, 

Mexico

S F 1 1 2

Aphis sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Apion sp. Mexico, Netherlands A, S F 3 3

Apis mellifera Mexico A, S F 1 4 5

Araneae spp. Jamaica, Netherlands S F 1 1 2

Araneidae spp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Archimerus sp. Mexico A 1 1

Archipini spp. Belgium, Canada, 

Netherlands

F 14 14

Arctiidae spp. Ghana, Mexico, 

Puerto Rico

A, S F 5 1 6

Argas sanchezi Mexico A 1 1

Arphnus 

melanostylus

Africa Country S F 1 1

Artipus sp. Jamaica S F 1 3 4

Arvelius 

albopunctatus

Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica, Puerto Rico

S F 1 2 3

Arvelius sp. Jamaica S F, St 3 3

Ascia monuste St. Lucia A 1 1

Ascidae spp. Dominican Republic S 1 1

Ascochyta sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Asphodelus 

fistulosus

India S 2 2

Asphondylia sp. El Salvador, Grenada, 

Guatemala

S F 4 1 5

Aspidiotus nerii Mexico S WP 2 2

Asteraceae spp. Mexico S F 1 1

Asterolecanium 

sp.

US Virgin Islands S 1 1

Astigmata spp. Israel S F 1 1

Atherigona 

orientalis

Trinidad and Tobago S F 1 1

Atherigona sp. Cameroon, Cape 

Verde, Cote D`Ivoire, 

Guatemala, Mexico, 

Netherlands, St. Lucia, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, S F 5 11 16

Auchenorrhyncha Dominican Republic, F, S 2 1 3
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 109

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

spp. Puerto Rico, Trinidad 

and Tobago

Aulacorthum 

solani

Mexico, Netherlands, 

St. Lucia

A, S F 1 19 20

Aulacorthum sp. Netherlands S 1 1

Autographa 

gamma

Netherlands A, S F 1 5 6

Autographa sp. Hungary, Netherlands A, S F 1 1 4 6

Bactericera 

cockerelli

El Salvador, Mexico A, S F 43 7 50

Bactericera sp. Mexico A 1 1

Bactrocera 

cucurbitae

Hawaii A, S F 2 2 4

Bactrocera 

dorsalis

Hawaii, Thailand A, S F 6 2 8

Bactrocera 

latifrons

Hawaii A, S F 21 5 1 27

Bactrocera oleae Indonesia S F 1 1

Bactrocera sp. Asia Country, 

Bangladesh, Bhutan, 

Cambodia, China, Fiji, 

Ghana, Guatemala, 

Hawai, India, 

Indonesia, Japan, 

Malaysia, Nepal, 

Philippines, 

Singapore, Taiwan, 

Thailand, Tonga, 

United Kingdom, Viet 

Nam

A, B, 

F, P, 

S

F 198 1 5 204

Balanogastris sp. Nigeria S F 1 1

Baridinae spp. Trinidad and Tobago S F 6 6

Batocera sp. Philippines S F 1 1

Bdellidae spp. Netherlands A, S 2 2

Bemisia tabaci Mexico, Netherlands A, S L, F 5 5

Berecynthus 

hastator

Mexico A F 1 1

Betula sp. Netherlands A F 1 1

Blapstinus sp. Dominican Republic, 

Guyana, Honduras, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Trinidad and Tobago 

A, F, 

S

F 1 4 1 52 58

Blattodea spp. Trinidad and Tobago S 1 1

Blissus sp. Mexico A F 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 110

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Bostrichidae spp. Mexico S 2 1 3

Bothrotes sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Botrytis cinerea Belgium, Spain S F 2 2

Brachymyrmex sp. Dominican Republic S 1 1

Bracon sp. Guatemala S F 1 1

Braconidae spp. Guatemala, India, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Nigeria

A, S F 4 3 7

Bradybaenidae 

spp.

Mexico S 1 1

Brevipalpus sp. Philippines, Unknown S F 1 1 2

Brochymena sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Bruchidae spp. India, Jamaica S F 1 1 2

Bryocorinae spp. Netherlands A F 1 1

Bulimulus sp. Belize S 2 2

Buprestidae spp. Jamaica, Mexico P, S F 1 2 3

Cacoecimorpha 

pronubana

Belgium, Israel, Italy, 

Netherlands, Spain

A, S F 1 97 98

Cadra calidella Israel A F 1 1

Cadra cautella Bangladesh, Bolivia, 

Brazil, China, 

Guatemala, Hong 

Kong, Italy, Mexico, 

Peru, South Africa, 

Thailand, Zimbabwe

A, S F 10 1 2 4 17

Cadra figulilella Ghana, Mexico S F 2 2

Calcisuccinea aff. Mexico A, S F 1 3 4

Calcisuccinea 

dominicensis

Dominican Republic A, S F 4 4

Calcisuccinea 

luteola

Mexico S F 2 2

Calcisuccinea sp. Mexico A F 2 2

Calligrapha sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Calliphoridae spp. Ghana, Mexico, 

Nigeria, Sierra Leone

F, S F 6 1 7

Callosobruchus 

maculatus

Mexico, Nigeria A, S F 2 2

Calyptocephala 

gerstaeckeri

Brazil S F

1

1

Calyptocephala 

sp.

Nigeria S F 1 1

Camponotus vagus Netherlands A F 1 1

Cantharidae spp. Puerto Rico S 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 111

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Carabidae spp. Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, Netherlands

S F 5 5

Carcinophoridae 

spp.

Netherlands S 1 1

Carpomya sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Cassidinae spp. Mexico S F 2 2

Caulophilus sp. Mexico P F 1 1

Cecidomyiidae 

spp.

Cote D`Ivoire, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, Ecuador, 

Guatemala, Haiti, 

Honduras Jamaica, 

Liberia, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Nigeria, 

Puerto Rico

A, S F, St 65 10 75

Cepaea sp. Spain A F 1 1

Cerambycidae 

spp.

Mexico A F 1 1

Ceratitini spp. Africa, Angola, 

Cameroon, Congo 

Republic, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Egypt, 

Gambia, Ghana, 

Guinea, Israel, 

Jamaica, Kenya, 

Liberia, Morocco, 

Níger, Nigeria, Papua 

New Guinea, Senegal, 

Sierra Leone, Togo, 

Uganda, United 

Kingdom, Unknown, 

Zambia

A, F, 

S

F 763 3 1 1

1

769

Ceratitis capitata Afganistán, Africa, 

Azores, Belgium, 

Cameroon, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Egypt, El 

Salvador, Europe 

Country, France, 

Gambia, Ghana, 

Guyana, Iran, Israel, 

Italy, Jamaica, Jordan, 

Lebanon, Liberia, 

Mexico, Middle East 

Co, Nigeria, Peru, 

Portugal, Qatar, 

Senegal, Sierra Leone, 

S F 128 3 1 3 135
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 112

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Spain, Togo, Tunisia, 

Unknown

Ceratitis sp. Africa, Benin, 

Cameroon, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Ghana, 

Liberia, Nigeria, 

Senegal, Sierra Leone, 

Togo

S F 62 62

Ceratocapsus sp. Mexico A, S F 2 2

Ceratothripoides 

brunneus

Nigeria S F 1 1

Cercopidae spp. Netherlands S F 3 3

Cercospora apii Dominican Republic F F 1 1

Cercospora 

capisici

Dominican Republic, 

Italy

S F, L 1 5

1

7

Cercospora sp. Dominican Republic, 

Peru, Puerto Rico 

A, F, 

S

F 3 1 1 5

Chaetanaphothrip

s leeuweni

Antigua and Barbuda, 

Dominica, Grenada, 

Guyana, Jamaica, St. 

Lucia, St.Vincent & 

Grenadines, Trinidad 

and Tobago, US 

Virgin Islands

S F, St 2 38 40

Chaetanaphothrip

s orchidii

Jamaica, Trinidad and 

Tobago

S F, St 2 2

Chaetanaphothrip

s sp.

Grenada, Guyana, 

Jamaica, Puerto Rico, 

St. Lucia, St.Vincent 

& Grenadines, 

Trinidad and Tobago

S F 1 42 7 50

Chaetocnema sp. Mexico A, S F, L 3 4 7

Chaitophorus sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Chalcididae spp. Malaysia S F 1 1

Chalcidoidea spp. Canada A F 1 1

Chalcodermus 

angulicollis

Dominican Republic S F 1 1

Chalcodermus sp. Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica

S F 1 2 3

Charidotella sp. Mexico S F 2 1 3

Charidotis sp. Unknown S F 1 1

Cheyletidae spp. St.Vincent & 

Grenadines

S F 1 1

Chironomidae spp. Netherlands A, S F 1 3 4
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 113

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Chlorochroa 

ligata

Mexico A, S F 3 3

Chlorochroa sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Chloropidae spp. Brazil, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Netherlands

A, F, 

S

F 2 1 12 15

Chlorops sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Choristoneura sp. Netherlands S F 2 2

Chrysauginae spp. Mexico S F 1 1

Chrysobothris 

debilis

Mexico S F 1 1

Chrysodeixis 

chalcites

Netherlands A, S F 12 12

Chrysodeixis sp. Netherlands S F 7 1 8

Chrysomela sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Chrysomelidae 

spp.

Honduras, Mexico, 

Netherlands, 

Nicaragua, Peru, 

Trinidad and Tobago, 

Unknown, US Virgin 

Islands

A, S F 8 6 14

Chrysopidae spp. Dominican Republic S F 2 2

Cicadellidae spp. Belgium, Cuba, 

Dominican Republic, 

Guatemala, Hawai, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Trinidad 

and Tobago

A, S F, L 6 1 35 42

Cladosporium 

cladosporioides

Dominican Republic, 

Netherlands 

S F 1 1 2

Cladosporium 

herbarum

Mexico S F 1 1

Cladosporium 

oxysporum

Peru S F 1 1

Cladosporium sp. Belgium, BosniaHerzegovina, Brazil, 

Colombia, Dominican 

Republic, Germany, 

Guatemala, India, 

Israel, Italy, Jamaica, 

Korea South, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Peru, 

Puerto Rico, Spain, 

Turkey, United 

Kingdom, Unknown, 

Venezuela, Viet Nam

A, S, 

P

F, L, 

Sd

27 2 17

31

77
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 114

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Cladosporium 

sphaerospermum

Netherlands A, F F 2 2

Clastoptera sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Cleogonus 

armatus

Honduras S F 1 1

Clepsis sp. Netherlands A, S F 5 30 35

Clepsis spectrana Netherlands A, S F 21 21

Cleridae spp. Nigeria S F 1 1

Clinodiplosis sp. China, Guatemala, 

Jamaica, Mexico

A, F, 

S

F 10 10

Coccidae spp. Chile, Dominican 

Republic, Ghana, 

Guam, Guatemala, 

Guyana, Jamaica, 

Japan, Mexico, 

Netherlands, 

Philippines, Puerto 

Rico, St. Lucia, 

St.Vincent & 

Grenadines

A, S F, L 14 3 1 8 26

Coccinellidae spp. Dominican Republic, 

Ecuador, Honduras, 

Italy, Mexico, 

Netherlands, St. Lucia, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, F, 

S

F 6 1 7 14

Coccinellinae spp. Mexico S F 1 1

Coccinellini spp. Dominican Republic S F 1 1 2

Coccus sp. Hawai, Jamaica, 

Mexico, St. Lucia

F F, St 3 1 4

Coccus viridis Grenada, Puerto Rico A, S F 3 3

Cochlicella acuta Spain S F 1 1

Cochylini spp. Mexico A F 1 1

Cochylis sp. India S F 1 1

Coelomycetes spp. Curacao S F 1 1

Colaspis sp. Honduras, Mexico, A, S F 1 2 3

Coleoptera spp. Costa Rica, 

Dominican Republic 

Jamaica Mexico, 

A, S F 2 3 5

Collembola spp. Belgium, Canada, 

Israel, Italy, Mexico, 

Netherlands, 

Nicaragua, Spain

A, S F 1 7 9 17

Colletotrichum 

capsici

Dominican Republic, 

Puerto Rico, Thailand, 

A, F, 

S

F 3 5 8
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 115

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Trinidad and Tobago, 

Venezuela 

Colletotrichum 

coccodes

Panama S 1 1

Colletotrichum 

crassipes

Dominican Republic F, S F 4 4

Colletotrichum 

dematium

Peru, St. Lucia S F 1 1 2

Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides

Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Puerto Rico, St. Lucia, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, S F 7 11 18

Colletotrichum sp. Bolivia, Brazil, 

Dominican Republic, 

India, Jamaica, 

Malaysia, Mexico, 

Peru, Puerto Rico, 

Taiwan, Tajikistan, 

Thailand, Unknown

A, S F 14 5 19

Collops sp. Mexico S 1 1

Condylostylus sp. Netherlands S I 1 1

Conocephalus sp. Guyana, Honduras S F 2 2

Conoderus 

rodriguezi

Honduras S 1 1

Conoderus sp. Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, St. Lucia, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, S F 2 9 11

Conotrachelus sp. Mexico, Trinidad and 

Tobago

A, S F 1 2 3 6

Contarinia 

lycopersici

Jamaica S F 19 19

Contarinia sp. Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, El Salvador, 

Grenada, Guatemala, 

Guyana, Haiti, 

Jamaica, Korea South, 

Philippines, Puerto 

Rico, St. Kitts and 

Nevis, Trinidad and 

Tobago, Venezuela

A, F, 

S

F 349 11 107 467

Conyza sp. Netherlands S 1 1

Copitarsia 

decolora

Mexico S F 1 1

Copitarsia sp. Brazil, Colombia, 

Dominican Republic, 

A, S F 6 1 45

7

59
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 116

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Guatemala, Honduras, 

Jamaica, Mexico, St. 

Lucia, Venezuela

Coreidae spp. Jamaica, Korea South, 

Mexico, Trinidad and 

Tobago

S F, L 2 3 5

Cornu aspersum Mexico A F 1 1

Corticariidae spp. Belgium, China, 

Netherlands

S F, Sd 4 3 7

Corylophidae spp. Belgium, Guyana, 

Netherlands, Trinidad 

and Tobago

A, S F 3 36 39

Corynespora 

cassiicola

Dominican Republic S 1 1

Corythaica 

cyathicollis

St. Lucia S F 1 1

Cosmopterigidae 

spp.

Brazil, Dominican 

Republic 

S F 1 1 2

Cossoninae spp. Colombia B F 1 1

Crambidae spp. Bahamas, Belgium, 

Brazil, Colombia, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Nigeria, Peru, St. 

Lucia, Thailand, 

Venezuela, Viet Nam

A, S F 10 1 1 19

3

34

Crambinae spp. Grenada S 1 1

Crambus sp. Ghana S F 1 1

Crematogaster sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Creontiades 

rubrinervis

Mexico S F 1 1

Cryptoblabes 

gnidiella

Israel A 1 1

Cryptoblabes sp. Nigeria A F 1 1

Cryptocephalinae 

spp.

Guinea S 1 1

Cryptolestes sp. India S F 1 1

Cryptophlebia 

leucotreta

Africa Country, 

Benin, Cameroon, 

Cote D`Ivoire, 

Gambia, Ghana, 

Guinea, Liberia, 

Madagascar, Nigeria, 

Senegal, Sierra Leone, 

A, F, 

S

F 92 1 2 95
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 117

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Tonga, Unknown

Cryptophlebia sp. Africa, Country, 

Angola, Benin, 

Burundi, Cameroon, 

Cape Verde, Central 

Africa, Congo 

Republic Cote 

D`Ivoire, Egypt, 

Etiopía, Gambia, 

Ghana, Guinea, India, 

Italy, Jamaica, Kenya, 

Liberia, Netherlands, 

Nigeria, Philippines, 

Senegal, Sierra Leone, 

South Africa, 

Tanzania, Togo, 

Uganda, United 

Kingdom, Unknown, 

Zambia, Zimbabwe

A, F, 

S

F 799 3 1 1 1

3

808

Cryptothelea sp. Nigeria S F 1 1

Cucurbitaria sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Culicidae spp. Peru P F 1 1

Curculio sp. Greece, Netherlands S Sd 1 1 2

Curculionidae spp. Algeria, Belize, 

Bolivia, Brazil, China, 

Colombia, Costa Rica, 

Dominican Republic, 

El Salvador, Grenada, 

Guatemala, Hawaii, 

Honduras, India, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Nigeria, Peru Puerto 

Rico, Trinidad and 

Tobago, Unknown, 

Venezuela

A, B, 

F, P, 

S

F, Sd 89 2 1 57

6

155

Curculioninae spp. Jamaica S F 1 1

Curvularia lunata Dominican Republic S 1 1

Cuscuta sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Cyclocephala sp. Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica, Mexico

A, S F 16 16

Cyclorrhapha spp. Belice, Dominican 

Republic, Ecuador, 

Ghana, Guatemala, 

Guyana, Jamaica, 

Korea, South Mexico, 

Nigeria, Peru, St. 

S F, St 15 27

1

43
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 118

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Lucia, St.Vincent & 

Grenadines, Togo, 

Trinidad and Tobago

Cydia sp. Ghana, Hawaii, 

Mexico, Netherlands 

A, S F 3 1 4

Dacinae spp. Africa Country, 

Bahrain, Benin, 

Cameroon, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Ghana, 

Malawi, Nigeria, 

Sierra Leone, Uganda, 

Unknown

A, S F 24 24

Dacus dorsalis Thailand Viet Nam S F 3 3

Dacus sp. Ghana, Hawaii, Hong 

Kong, India, 

Indonesia, Japan, 

Malaysia, Nigeria, 

Philippines, Sierra 

Leone, Singapore, 

Taiwan, Thailand

A, F, 

S

F 81 4 85

Dallasiellus 

bacchinus

Dominican Republic, 

Mexico

A, S F 2 2

Dallasiellus 

lugubris

Mexico A F 1 1

Dasineura sp. Guatemala, Malaysia, 

Netherlands 

S F 2 1 3

Dead organism Dominican Republic, 

Netherlands 

S F 3 3

Delia sp. Venezuela S F 1 1

Deloyala guttata Mexico, US Virgin 

Islands

A, S F 1 2 3

Deloyala sp. Jamaica, Mexico, A, S F 5 5

Delphacidae spp. Mexico, Netherlands, 

Thailand 

A, S F 2 1 3 6

Delphacodes sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Dendrocoris sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Deroceras laeve Jamaica, Netherlands A, S F 2 2

Diabrotica sp. Mexico, Netherlands A, S F 3 3

Diabrotica 

undecimpunctata

Mexico A, S F, L 1 5 6

Diabrotica 

variegata

Mexico S 1 1

Diaphania 

nitidalis

Dominican Republic S 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 119

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Diaphania sp. Mexico, Netherlands A, S St, L 3 3

Diaprepes sp. Dominica A, S 1 1

Diaspididae spp. China, Guatemala, 

Jamaica, Nigeria, 

Puerto Rico, Unknown

A, S F, L 11 11

Diatraea sp. Brazil, Mexico, St. 

Lucia, St.Vincent & 

Grenadines

A, S F 1 3 4

Didymella 

lycopersici

Jamaica S F 1 1

Dieuches 

armatipes

Jamaica S F 1 1

Dieuches sp. Netherlands S 1 1

Digeria sp. Mexico S 1 1

Diplotaxis sp. Mexico, Trinidad and 

Tobago 

A, S F 1 8 9

Dipropus sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Diptera spp. Angola, Bolivia, 

Brazil, Cameroon, 

Costa Rica, Dominica, 

Dominican Republic, 

El Salvador, Ghana, 

Guatemala Guyana, 

Haiti, Honduras, India, 

Israel, Jamaica, 

Kenya, Liberia, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Nicaragua, Nigeria, 

Peru, Philippines, 

Puerto Rico, Sierra 

Leone, St. Lucia, 

Trinidad and Tobago, 

Unknown, Venezuela, 

Zambia

S F 66 4 21

3

94

Disonycha sp. Mexico S F 1 3 4

Dolichopodidae 

spp.

Belgium, Jamaica A, S F 1 1 2

Drosophilidae spp. China, Guyana, 

Malaysia, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Nigeria, 

St. Lucia, Togo, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, S F 4 3 15 22

Drymaeus 

(mesembrinus)

Belize S 1 1

Duponchelia Belgium, France, A, F, F 2 4 217 223
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 120

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

fovealis Macedonia, 

Netherlands, Spain

S

Dynastinae spp. Mexico S 1 1

Dyscinetus picipes Mexico A F 1 1

Dyscinetus sp. Dominican Republic, 

Mexico 

A, S F 4 4

Dysdercus 

andreae

Dominican Republic S F 1 1

Dysdercus 

mimulus

Mexico S F 1 1

Dysdercus 

obscuratus

Belize S 1 1

Dysmicoccus 

brevipes

Mexico A 1 1

Dysmicoccus 

grassii

Grenada S F 1 1

Dysmicoccus 

neobrevipes

Dominican Republic, 

Puerto Rico 

S F 2 1 3

Dysmicoccus sp. Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica ,Mexico, 

Netherlands

A, S F 1 5 6

Ecdytolopha sp. Bolivia, El Salvador, 

Ghana, Guatemala, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Unknown

S F 7 1 8

Echinothrips 

americanus

Netherlands A, S F 1 7 8

Ectomyelois 

ceratoniae

Ghana, Mexico, A, S F 4 4

Edessa sp. Mexico S 1 1

Elachiptera sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Elateridae spp. Brazil, Dominican 

Republic, Mexico 

A, S F 2

1

3

Eleodes sp. Mexico S F 2 2

Eleusine indica Mexico S 1 1

Empoasca sp. Mexico, Netherlands A, S F, L 1 9 10

Entiminae spp. Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, Netherlands 

A, S 3 3

Entomobryidae 

spp.

Netherlands, Spain 3 3

Ephestia elutella Dominican Republic, 

Italy, Peru 

S F 4 1 5

Ephydridae spp. Thailand S F 1 1

Epicaerus sp. Mexico A F 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 121

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Epicauta sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Epilachna sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Epilachninae spp. St. Lucia S 1 1

Epitrix sp. Mexico A, S F 3 8 11

Eragrostis sp. Mexico S 1 1

Eremobelba sp. Jamaica S F 1 1

Eriococcus dubius Guyana S F 1 1

Erotylidae spp. Dominican Republic, 

Italy 

A, S F 1 1 2

Erysiphe 

cichoracearum

Dominican Republic S 1 1

Erythraeidae spp. Mexico S F 1 1

Erythroneura sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Etiella sp. Indonesia, Viet Nam S F 4 4

Etiella zinckenella Honduras, Nigeria A F 3 3

Euclea sp. Trinidad and Tobago S 1 1

Eudiagogus sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Euetheola sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Eurytoma sp. Guatemala, Nigeria S F 2 2

Euschistus 

bifibulus

Jamaica S 1 1

Euschistus 

crenator

Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica, Trinidad and 

Tobago

S 3 3

Euschistus sp. Jamaica, Mexico A, S F, L, 

St

9 6 15

Euschistus 

strenuus

Mexico A 1 1

Eustromula 

validum

Mexico A F 1 1

Exitianus exitosus Netherlands A F 1 1

Faustinus cubae Grenada S F 1 1

Faustinus sp. Brazil, Dominican 

Republic, Grenada, 

Honduras, Jamaica, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, F, 

S

F 34 8 17 59

Ferrisia sp. Guyana, Haiti, St. 

Lucia 

S F 1 3 1 5

Ferrisia virgata Antigua and Barbuda, 

Dominican Republic

A, S F 6 6

Fiebrigella sp. Dominican Republic S F 1 1

Formicidae spp. Netherlands S 1 1

Frankliniella Dominican Republic S 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 122

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

cephalica

Frankliniella 

fallaciosa

Dominican Republic S 1 1

Frankliniella fusca Netherlands S F 1 1

Frankliniella 

insularis

Dominican Republic S 2 2

Frankliniella

intonsa

Dominican Republic, 

Japan, Netherlands

S F 2 1 3

Frankliniella 

occidentalis

Belgium, Canada, 

Dominican Republic, 

Israel, Japan, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Spain, 

Unknown

A, F, 

S

F 2 16 98 116

Frankliniella 

panamensis

Puerto Rico S 1 1

Frankliniella 

parvula

Ecuador S I 1 1

Frankliniella 

schultzei

Dominican Republic, 

Nigeria, Spain 

A, S 2 19 21

Frankliniella sp. Belgium, Brazil, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, Germany, 

Grenada, Guatemala, 

Italy, Jamaica, Japan, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Poland, Puerto Rico 

Spain, St. Lucia, 

St.Vincent & 

Grenadines, Trinidad 

and Tobago, United 

Kingdom, Unknown

A, S F, L, 

St 

14 9 131

4

158

Franklinothrips 

vespiformis

Mexico A F 1 1

Fulgoridae spp. Puerto Rico A F 1 1

Fusarium sp. Belgium, Belize, 

Dominican Republic, 

France, Jamaica, 

Kenya, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Peru, 

Spain, Taiwan, 

Unknown

A, S F, L 9 9 19

2

39

Galerucinae spp. Netherlands, Puerto 

Rico 

A, S 1 1 2

Galinsoga sp. Unknown A, S 1 1

Galleria Dominican Republic S 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 123

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

mellonella

Gelechiidae spp. Argentina, Araba, 

Belgium, Bolivia, 

Brazil, Burundi, 

Cameroon, Costa 

Rica, Curacao, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, Ecuador, El 

Salvador, Guatemala, 

Honduras, India, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Netherlands, 

Nicaragua, Nigeria, 

Peru, Puerto Rico, 

Singapore, St. Lucia, 

Thailand Trinidad and 

Tobago, United 

Kingdom, Unknown, 

Venezuela

A, F, 

S

F, L, 

Pallet

, St

116 1 4 10

8

139

Gelechioidea spp. Brazil, Mexico, S F 1 1 1 3

Geocoris sp. Israel S F 1 1

Geometridae spp. Honduras, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Spain, 

St.Vincent & 

Grenadines

A, S F, St 3 7 10

Glyptoscelis 

chontalensis

Mexico A F 1 1

Gnathotrichus 

perniciosus

Honduras S 1 1

Gnathotrichus sp. Honduras, Mexico A, S F 1 1 2

Gnorimoschema 

sp.

Bolivia, Ecuador, El 

Salvador, Guatemala, 

Peru

S F 8 1

1

10

Gnorimoschemini 

spp.

Venezuela S F

1

1

Golofa pusilla Mexico S 1 1

Gracillariidae spp. El Salvador, Mexico, 

Peru

A, S F, L 3 5 8

Granodomus lima Puerto Rico, A 1 1

Gryllidae spp. Belize, Colombia, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, Guinea, 

Haiti, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Thailand, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, F, 

S 

F 4 2 42 48
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 124

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Gryllodes 

sigillatus

Trinidad and Tobago, S 4 4

Gryllus assimilis Dominican Republic, S 1 1

Gryllus sp. Colombia, Honduras, 

Mexico, 

A, F, 

S

F 1 10 89 100

Guignardia 

citricarpa

China, S F 1 1

Hadeninae spp. Korea, South, Mexico, A, S F 2 1 3

Haplothrips 

gowdeyi

Dominican Republic, S 1 1

Haplothrips 

kurdjumovi

Hawaii S 1 1

Helicella sp. Italy S F 1 1

Helicidae spp. Australia, France, 

Mexico, Netherlands

S F 2 2 4

Helicoverpa 

armigera

Albania, BosniaHerzegovina, 

Bulgaria, Israel, Italy, 

Korea, South, Spain, 

Tunisia, Turkey, 

United Kingdom, 

Yugoslavia

A, S F 9 1

5

15

Helicoverpa 

gelotopoeon

Romania A F 1 1

Helicoverpa sp. Asia, Country, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Dominican 

Republic, Ecuador, 

Egypt, Ghana, Haiti, 

India, Iran, Israel, 

Japan, Korea, South, , 

Lithuania, Mexico, 

Middle, East, Co., 

Netherlands, Nigeria, 

Pakistan, Peru, 

Philippines, Romania, 

Senegal, SerbiaMontenegro, Sierra 

Leone, South, Africa, 

Spain, Taiwan, 

Thailand, Trinidad and 

Tobago, Tunisia, 

Turkey, Unknown, 

Venezuela, 

Yugoslavia

A, F, 

S

F, L 129 1 1 13

2

146

Helicoverpa zea Colombia, Dominican 

Republic, Mexico, 

A, S F, L 2 53

1

56
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 125

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Peru, St. Lucia, 

Trinidad and Tobago

Heliothinae spp. India, Korea, South S F 2 2

Heliothis sp. China, Germany, 

Korea, South, 

Philippines, Spain, 

Turkey

A, S F 38

4

42

Heliothis virescens Mexico, Unknown A, S F 2 4 6

Heliothrips 

haemorrhoidalis

Trinidad and Tobago S 1 1

Helminthoglyptida

e spp.

Dominican Republic S 1 1

Hemiptera spp. Netherlands A, S F 1 3 4

Hepialidae spp. Mexico A, S F 1 1 2

Heraeus sp. Mexico S L 1 1

Herculia sp. Ecuador S F 1 1

Herpetogramma 

sp.

Honduras S 1 1

Hesperiidae spp. Trinidad and Tobago S 1 1

Heterogaster 

urticae

Netherlands A, S F 1 1 2

Heteroptera spp. Dominican Republic, 

Guatemala, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Nigeria

A, S F, L, 

St

4 18 22

Heterosporium sp. Italy S F 1 1

Homoptera spp. Antigua, and, 

Barbuda, Canada, 

Dominican Republic, 

Guyana, Israel, 

Netherlands, Puerto 

Rico, St., Lucia, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, S F 1 2 9 12

Hoplandrothrips 

sp.

Trinidad and Tobago S F 1 1

Hoplosphyrum sp. Jamaica S 1 1

Hygromiidae spp. Spain A F 1 1

Hymenoptera spp. Dominican Republic, 

Guatemala, Jamaica, 

Netherlands

A, S F 2 1 1 4

Hypera postica Mexico A 1 1

Hypoaspis sp. Netherlands S 1 1

Hypothenemus sp. Dominica, Jamaica, 

Puerto Rico

S F 3 3
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 126

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Injury sp. Honduras, Jamaica, 

Netherlands

A, S F 1 4 5

Insect spp. Peru A 1 1

Insecta spp. China, Dominican 

Republic, El Salvador, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Portugal, 

Puerto Rico, St., 

Lucia, Trinidad and 

Tobago

A, B, 

S

F, L, 

St

8 1 23 32

Iphiseius 

degenerans

Belgium, Netherlands A, S F 1 15 16

Ipomoea sp. Thailand S Sd 1 1

Ips bonanseai Mexico A, S 2 2

Ips calligraphus Honduras S 1 1

Ips integer Mexico A, S F 3 3

Ips lecontei Mexico S 1 1

Ips sp. Honduras S 1 1

Jadera coturnix Mexico S F 1 1

Karnyothrips sp. Trinidad and Tobago S F 1 1

Kleemannia sp. India S F 2 2

Kleidocerys 

resedae

Netherlands S F 1 1

Knulliana cincta Mexico A F 1 1

Lactuca sativa Netherlands S 1 1

Laelapidae spp. Netherlands A 2 2

Lagriinae spp. Mexico S F 1 1

Largus cinctus Mexico A F 1 1

Lasioderma 

serricorne

Cote D`Ivoire, 

Guatemala, India, 

Unknown

S F 3 1 4

Lasioseius sp. Dominican Republic, 

Netherlands

S F 2 2

Lehmannia 

valentiana

Nigeria A F 1 1

Lepidoptera spp. Belgium, Belize, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, Egypt, El 

Salvador, Ghana, 

Guatemala, Haiti, 

Israel, Jamaica, 

Kuwait, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Nigeria, 

Peru, Puerto Rico, 

A, F, 

S

F, L 19 1 34

2

56
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 127

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Sierra Leone, Spain, 

St., Lucia, Trinidad 

and Tobago, 

Unknown, Venezuela

Lepidosaphes 

rubrovittata

Jamaica S 1 1

Leptochloa sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Leptoglossus sp. Dominican Republic S 1 1

Lestodiplosis sp. Jamaica S 1 1

Leucania sp. Spain S F 1 1

Leucinodes 

orbonalis

Africa, Country, 

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 

Cote D`Ivoire, 

Ethiopia, Europe, 

Country, Ghana, 

Guatemala, Italy, 

Liberia, Mali, 

Netherlands, Nigeria, 

Papua, New, Guinea, 

Philippines, Senegal, 

Serbia-Montenegro, 

Sierra Leone, South, 

Africa, Thailand, 

Uganda, United 

Kingdom, Unknown, 

Zambia

A, F, 

S

F 92 1 2

3

98

Leucinodes sp. Guinea, Yugoslavia F, S F 2 2

Leveillula taurica Mexico A L 1 1

Ligyrocoris sp. Mexico, Spain A F 2 2

Ligyrocoris 

sylvestris

Netherlands A F 1 1

Ligyrus sp. Dominican Republic, 

Mexico

A, S F 4 4

Limosininae spp. Netherlands A F 1 1

Limothrips 

cerealium

Netherlands S 1 1

Lineodes integra Peru, Puerto Rico, St., 

Lucia

S F, L 7 1 8

Lineodes sp. Mexico, Peru S L, St 3 3

Liriomyza 

bryoniae

Netherlands A, S F, I 14 14

Liriomyza sp. Mexico, Netherlands A, S F 2 6 46 54

Lissorhoptrus 

oryzophilus

Dominican Republic S F 2 2
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 128

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Listroderes 

costirostris

Mexico S F 1 1

Listronotus sp. Honduras, Mexico F, S F 1 1 2

Lobiopa sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Lobometopon 

metallicum

Mexico A, S F 1 3 4

Lobometopon sp. Mexico S F 4 4

Lonchaea sp. Ghana S F 1 1

Lonchaeidae spp. Africa, Country, 

Angola, Bangladesh, 

Belize, Brazil, 

Cameroon, Chile, 

Congo, Republic, 

Costa Rica, Cote

D`Ivoire, Dominica, 

Dominican Republic, 

Ecuador, El Salvador, 

Gambia, Ghana, 

Greece, Guatemala, 

Guyana, Honduras, 

India, Jamaica, Jordan, 

Liberia, Mexico, 

Nicaragua, Nigeria, 

Peru, Puerto Rico, 

Senegal, Sierra Leone, 

Somalia, St., Lucia, 

Togo, Trinidad and 

Tobago, Unknown, 

Venezuela, Viet Nam

A, F, 

P, S

F 271 36 145

4

456

Lorita sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Lucilia sp. Ghana, Mexico A, S F 3 1 4

Lycaenidae spp. Congo, Republic, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Dominican 

Republic, Ghana, 

Guinea, Mexico, 

Nigeria, Sierra Leone, 

Togo, Unknown

S F, L 13 2 2

1

18

Lygaeidae spp. Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, Peru, St., 

Lucia, Trinidad and 

Tobago

A, S F 2 9 11

Lygaeoidea spp. Bolivia, Dominican 

Republic, Haiti, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Nigeria, St., Lucia, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, S F 2 1 1 9 13
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 129

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Lygus lineolaris Netherlands A, S F 2 2

Lygus sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Lytta sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Maconellicoccus 

hirsutus

Grenada, St., Kitts, 

and, Nevis, 

St.Vincent, &, 

Grenadines

S F 1 4 5

Macrolophus 

melanotoma

Netherlands A, S 2 2

Macrolophus 

pygmaeus

Spain A 1 1

Macrolophus sp. Belgium, Netherlands A, S F 37 37

Macrophoma sp. Thailand S L 1 1

Macrosiphum 

euphorbiae

Netherlands A, S F 2 2

Macrosteles sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Magnoliophyta sp. Germany, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Spain, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, S F 1 3 3 7

Mamestra 

brassicae

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 

Netherlands, Spain

A, S F 1 1 7 9

Mamestra sp. Netherlands A F 1 1 2

Manduca sp. Mexico A, S F, St 1 1 2

Margarodidae spp. Curacao, Grenada, 

Viet, Nam

A, F, 

S

F 1 1

1

3

Marmara sp. Mexico S F 10 10

Maruca vitrata Bolivia, A F 1 1

Mecidea major Mexico A F 1 1

Megaselia sp. Colombia F 1 1

Melacoryphus 

circumlitus

Honduras S F 1 1

Melacoryphus 

lateralis

Mexico S 1 1

Melalgus sp. Honduras S 1 1

Melanaethus sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Melanophila sp. Mexico S 1 1

Meliola sp. Puerto Rico A 1 1

Melipotis sp. Dominican Republic S F 1 1

Meloidae spp. Venezuela S 1 1

Membracidae spp. El Salvador, Mexico, 

Yugoslavia

S St 4 4

Mesostigmata spp. Canada, Israel, 

Netherlands, Spain

A, S F 1 5 9 15
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 130

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Metamasius sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Metriona 

trisignata

Mexico A L 1 1

Microconidia sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Microlepidoptera 

spp.

Dominican Republic S 1 1

Microplax sp. Ghana S F 1 1

Microsphaeropsis 

sp.

Mexico A F 1 1

Micrutalis sp. Mexico S 1 1

Mikania 

micrantha

Dominican Republic S F 3 3

Miridae spp. Belgium, Canada, 

Dominican Republic, 

Ecuador, Egypt, 

Guatemala, Haiti, 

Honduras, Israel, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Sierra 

Leone, St., Lucia, 

Thailand, Trinidad and 

Tobago

A, F, 

S

F, L, 

Sd, St

12 4 66 82

Mollusca spp. Mexico S F 1 1

Monacha 

cartusiana

Italy A F

1

1

Monomorium 

floricola

Puerto Rico A F 1 1

Monomorium 

pharaonis

Guinea, Mexico A, S F 1 1 2

Monoxia sp. Mexico A, S F 2 1 3

Mordellistena sp. Mexico S L 1 1

Musca domestica Ghana, Panama S F 1 1 2

Muscidae spp. Africa, Country, 

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 

Ghana, Guyana, 

Jamaica, Jordan, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Nigeria, Philippines, 

Thailand, Trinidad and 

Tobago

S F 14 8

1

23

Muscina sp. Trinidad and Tobago S 1 1

Mussidia 

nigrivenella

Ghana S F 2 2

Mycetophagidae Canada, Ecuador, A, B F, L 2 2 4
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 131

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

spp. Germany, Laos

Mycosphaerella 

sp.

Dominican Republic, 

Mexico

A, S L 1 2 3

Myochrous sp. Dominican Republic, 

Guyana, Mexico, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, S F 2 1 10 13

Myodocha 

intermedia

Mexico S 1 1

Myzus persicae Brazil, Israel, Mexico, 

Netherlands

A, F, 

S

F 1 2 21

1

25

Myzus sp. Netherlands A, S F 6 6

Nasonovia 

ribisnigri

France, Greece A, S

2

2

Nasutitermes sp. St., Lucia S F 1 1

Nematocera spp. Peru S 1 1

Nemobiinae spp. Mexico S F 2 2

Neoconocephalus 

sp.

Dominican Republic S 1 1

Neoleucinodes 

elegantalis

Argentina, Brazil, 

Colombia, Costa Rica, 

Ecuador, El Salvador, 

Guatemala, Mexico, 

Nicaragua, Venezuela

A, S F, St 10 2

50

62

Neoleucinodes sp. Argentina, Brazil, 

Colombia, French, 

Guiana, Mexico, Peru, 

Spain, Venezuela

A, F, 

S

F 1

35

36

Neopamera 

bilobata

Mexico S F 1 1

Neopamera sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Neortholomus 

jamaicensis

Jamaica S F 1 1

Neoseiulus sp. Mexico, Netherlands A, S F, L 1 2 3

Neotephritis 

finalis

Mexico S F 1 1

Nesidiocoris 

tenuis

Israel A F 1 1

Neuroptera spp. Dominican Republic S F 2 2

Nezara viridula Italy S F 1 1

Nitidulidae spp. Canada, China, 

Germany

A, S Dried 

fruit

1 2 3

No identifiable Belgium, Dominican 

Republic, India, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

A, P, 

S

F 6 1 17

1

25
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 132

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Netherlands, Peru, 

Spain, Trinidad and 

Tobago, Unknown

No noxious Dominican Republic S 1 1

No pathogen China, Cuba, 

Dominican Republic, 

Honduras, Iran, 

Mexico

A, F, 

S

F 5 1 5 11

No specimen Dominica, El Salvador S 1 1 2

Noctua pronuba Netherlands A F 1 1

Noctuidae spp. Africa, Country, 

Antigua, and, 

Barbuda, Bahamas, 

Bangladesh, Barbados, 

Belgium, Belize, 

Brazil, Canada, China, 

Colombia, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Dominican 

Republic, Ecuador, 

Egypt, El Salvador, 

France, Ghana, 

Greece, Grenada, 

Guatemala, Guinea, 

Honduras, Indonesia, 

Israel, Italy, Jamaica, 

Korea, South, , 

Malawi, Mexico, 

Morocco, Netherlands, 

Nigeria, Peru, 

Philippines, Puerto 

Rico, Senegal, Sierra 

Leone, Spain, St., 

Kitts, and, Nevis, St., 

Lucia, Taiwan, Togo, 

Trinidad and Tobago, 

Turkey, Unknown, 

Venezuela, 

Yugoslavia

A, F, 

P, S

I, F, 

L, St

81 20 1 2 323

47

474

Nolidae spp. Dominican Republic S 1 1

Nymphalidae spp. Mexico S F 1 1

Nysius sp. Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, Netherlands

A, S F 1 14 15

Ochrimnus sp. Mexico S 1 1

Ocrasa nostralis Dominican Republic S 1 1

Odontomachus sp. Mexico S 1 1

Odontothrips sp. Spain S 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 133

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Oebalus ornatus Dominican Republic S 2 2

Oecophoridae spp. Armenia, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Dominican 

Republic, El Salvador, 

Guatemala, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Peru

A, P, 

S

F 6 2 8

Ogdoecosta sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Olethreutinae spp. Africa Country, 

Bulgaria, Congo 

Republic, Costa Rica, 

Cote D`Ivoire, 

Dominican Republic, 

Gambia, Ghana, Italy, 

Jamaica, Korea, 

South, Liberia, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Nigeria, Peru, 

Senegal, Sierra Leone,

Thailand, Togo, 

Trinidad and Tobago, 

Turkey, Unknown

A, F, 

S

F, Sd 108 2 8 118

Onthophagus sp. Mexico S 1 1

Opatrinus sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Ophiderma sp. Netherlands S 1 1

Opogona sp. Hawaii, Peru A, S F 2 2

Oribatida spp. Israel S F 1 1

Orius sp. Netherlands A, S F 11 11

Orphulella 

punctata

Guatemala S F 1 1

Orthalicus 

jamaicensis

Jamaica S F 1 1

Orthezia 

praelonga

US Virgin Islands S L 2 2

Orthezia 

pseudinsignis

Mexico S 1 1

Orthezia sp. Mexico, Trinidad and 

Tobago

S F 2 1 3

Ortheziidae spp. Grenada S F 1 1

Orthoptera spp. Dominican Republic, 

Puerto Rico, 

Venezuela

A, S 1 1

1

3

Oryza sp. China S Sd 1 1

Oryzaephilus 

surinamensis

Africa Country, 

Germany, Morocco

F, S F 2 1 3
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 134

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Ostrinia nubilalis Bosnia-Herzegovina, 

Canada, Croatia, Italy, 

Korea, South, 

Macedonia, Portugal, 

Yugoslavia

A, S F 13 4 4 21

Ostrinia sp. Mexico, Netherlands A, S F 1 1 1 3

Otiorhynchus sp. Netherlands A, F, 

S

F 3 3

Otitidae spp. Colombia, Dominican 

Republic, Ghana, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Netherlands, St. Lucia, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, S F 8 8 16

Ovatus 

crataegarius

Israel S F 1 1

Oxycarenus 

hyalinipennis

Gambia, Israel S F, L 2 2 4

Oxycarenus sp. Togo A F 1 1

Oxygrylius 

ruginasus

Mexico S 1 1

Ozophora 

burmeisteri

Jamaica S F 2 2

Ozophora sp. Dominica S 1 1

Pachybrachis sp. Mexico A, S F 2 2

Pagiocerus sp. Peru S F 1 1

Pallifera sp. Venezuela S F 1 1

Pangaeus 

bilineatus

Mexico A F 2 2

Pangaeus sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Pantomorus sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Paracoccus 

marginatus

Puerto Rico A, S F,L 2 2

Paracoccus solani Jamaica S F 1 1

Paracoccus sp. Grenada, Jamaica S F 2 2

Paralipsa gularis China, Ghana, 

Nigeria, Philippines

A, S 2 2 4

Paranapiacaba sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Parapiesma 

cinereum

Mexico S F 1 1

Paratrechina sp. Mexico S F 2 2

Parkia sp. Indonesia S F 1 1

Pectinophora 

gossypiella

Puerto Rico A 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 135

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Pelidnota sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Pentatomidae spp. Antigua and Barbuda, 

Barbados, Belice, 

Brazil, Costa Rica, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, Fiji, 

Grenada, Guatemala, 

Haiti, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Nicaragua, 

Nigeria, Panama, 

Puerto Rico, St. Lucia, 

St. Vincent & 

Grenadines, Trinidad 

and Tobago, Turkey, 

US Virgin Islands

A, F, 

S

F, St 41 14 130 185

Pentatomoidea 

spp.

Dominican Republic, 

Ecuador, Grenada, 

Jamaica, Philippines, 

Trinidad and Tobago

S L, F 1 14 15

Periconia sp. Mexico S L 1 1

Pheidole sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Phenacoccus 

gossypii

Mexico S F 1 1

Phenacoccus 

helianthi

Mexico A F 1 1

Phenacoccus 

madeirensis

Mexico A, S F 4 4

Phenacoccus 

parvus

Dominican Republic, 

Grenada, Guyana, 

Jamaica, St. Lucia, 

St.Vincent&Grenadine

s, Trinidad and 

Tobago

S F, St 2 8 10 20

Phenacoccus 

solani

Mexico, Netherlands A, S 1 1 2

Phenacoccus 

solenopsis

Mexico, Puerto Rico A, S F 1 9 10

Phenacoccus sp. Dominican Republic, 

Grenada, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Puerto Rico

A, S F 1 2 5 8

Phlaeothripidae 

spp.

Dominican Republic, 

El Salvador, Grenada, 

India, Jamaica, Japan, 

Mexico, Philippines, 

Puerto Rico, Spain

S F, L, 

St

8 1 13 22

Phlugis sp. Trinidad and Tobago S 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 136

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Phoma destructiva Dominican Republic, 

Mexico

S F 3 3

Phoma sp. Germany, Jamaica, 

Korea South, 

Malaysia, Mexico, 

Peru, St. Lucia, 

Venezuela

A, S F 8 3

2

13

Phomopsis capsici Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Thailand

S F 1 5 6

Phomopsis sp. Dominican Republic, 

Netherlands, Nigeria, 

Viet Nam

F, S F 2 2 4

Phoradendron sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Phoridae spp. Cote D`Ivoire, 

Dominican Republic, 

Ecuador, Guyana, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Puerto Rico, Spain, St. 

Lucia, 

St.Vincent&Grenadine

s, Trinidad and 

Tobago

S F 5 6

1

12

Phthorimaea 

operculella

Venezuela S F 1 1

Phycitinae spp. Brazil, Guatemala, 

Israel, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, 

Puerto Rico, South 

Africa, Venezuela, 

Zambia

F, P, 

S

F, L 7 1 5 13

Phylinae spp. Israel A 1 1

Phyllophaga sp. Cuba, Mexico A, S F 3 11 14

Phyllosticta sp. Dominican Republic, 

St. Lucia, Viet Nam

S F, L 1 2 3

Phyllostictina 

capsici

Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica

F, S F 1 1 2

Phyllotreta sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Phylloxera sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Phytocoris sp. Mexico S F, L 2 2

Phytophthora 

capsici

Puerto Rico S 1 1

Phytoseiidae spp. Belgium, Canada, 

Mexico, Netherlands

A, S F, L, 

St

2 3 18 23

Picris sp. Mexico A F 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 137

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Pinnaspis sp. St. Lucia S L 1 1

Pinnaspis 

strachani

Jamaica S F 1 1

Piophilidae spp. Jamaica S F 1 1

Pityophthorus sp. Mexico A, S F 6 20 26

Plagiometriona 

sp.

Mexico S L 1 1

Planicephalus 

flavicosta

Trinidad and Tobago S 1 1

Planococcus citri Jamaica B, S F 7 4 11

Planococcus halli Nigeria S 1 1

Planococcus 

minor

Antigua and Barbuda, 

Dominica, Fiji, 

Grenada, Guadeloupe, 

Jamaica, Puerto Rico, 

St. Lucia, St.Vincent 

& Grenadines, Tonga, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, B, 

F, S

F 10 12 26 48

Planococcus sp. Dominican Republic, 

Grenada, Jamaica, 

Japan, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Trinidad 

and Tobago

A, S F 5 13 5 23

Platynota rostrana St. Lucia S F 1 1

Platynota sp. China, Dominican 

Republic, Guatemala, 

Jamaica, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Puerto 

Rico, St. Lucia, 

Thailand, Trinidad and 

Tobago

A, P, 

S

F 18 6 28

1

53

Platynota stultana Mexico S 1 1

Platypodidae spp. Mexico S F 1 1

Pleurodonte 

guadeloupensis

Dominica S 1 1

Plodia 

interpunctella

Bolivia, China, 

Dominican Republic, 

Guatemala, Mexico, 

Peru

A, S F 7 3 1 2

1

14

Plusia sp. Netherlands S 1 1

Plusiinae spp. Jamaica, Netherlands A, S F 1 2 5 8

Plutella sp. Venezuela S F 1 1

Plutellidae spp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Podisus sp. Mexico S F 1 1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 138

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Pogonomyrmex 

rugosus

Mexico A F 1 1

Polygyridae spp. Mexico A F 1 1

Polymerus 

testaceipes

Dominica S 1 1

Polyphagotarsone

mus latus

Dominican Republic S L 1 1

Polyphylla sp. Mexico A, S F 1 1 2

Praticolella 

griseola

Dominican Republic, 

Mexico

F, S F 10 10

Praticolella sp. Mexico S 2 2

Proba sp. Mexico S L 1 1

Prodiplosis sp. Haiti, Jamaica S F 3 2 5

Prosterninae spp. Mexico S 1 1

Protopulvinaria 

longivalvata

Puerto Rico S 1 1

Prytanes sp. Mexico A F 2 2

Pseudaletia 

unipuncta

Netherlands A F 1 1

Pseudatomoscelis 

seriatus

Netherlands S F 1 1

Pseudocaeciliidae 

spp.

Netherlands S F 1 1

Pseudococcidae 

spp.

Anguila, Antigua and 

Barbuda, Bahamas, 

Belice, Costa Rica, 

Cuba, Dominica, 

Dominican Republic, 

Ecuador, El Salvador, 

Fiji, Grenada, 

Guatemala, Guyana, 

Haiti, Hawaii, Israel, 

Italy, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Nigeria, Peru, 

Philippines, Puerto 

Rico, Seychelles, St. 

Kitts and Nevis, St. 

Lucia, 

St.Vincent&Grenadine

s, Syrian Arab 

Republic, Togo, 

Trinidad and Tobago, 

Turkey, United 

Kingdom, US Virgin 

A, F, 

S

F, L, 

St, 

161 91 3 224

1

480
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 139

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Islands

Pseudococcus 

elisae

Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica

S F 2 1 3

Pseudococcus 

jackbeardsleyi

Cote D`Ivoire, 

Dominica, Jamaica, 

Puerto Rico, Trinidad 

and Tobago

A, S F 2 5 7

Pseudococcus sp. Bahamas, Brazil, 

Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica, Netherlands, 

Trinidad and Tobago, 

Viet Nam

A, S F 7 6 13

Pseudococcus 

viburni

Netherlands A, S F 2 8 10

Pseudomyrmex 

mexicanus

Mexico A 1 1

Pseudopachybrac

hius vinctus

Jamaica S 1 1

Pseudopamera sp. Mexico A, S F 1 1 2

Psilidae spp. Mexico S L 1 1

Psocidae spp. Netherlands A F 1 1

Psocoptera spp. Dominican Republic, 

Honduras, India, 

Netherlands, Nigeria, 

Spain

A, S F, Sd, 

St

3 1 15 19

Psychidae spp. Mexico S L 1 1

Psylla sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Psyllidae spp. El Salvador, Hungary, 

Mexico, Panama, 

Unknown, Viet Nam

A, S F, L, 

St

86 1 260 347

Psylliodes sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Psylloidea spp. Mexico A, S 3 3

Pteromalidae spp. Guatemala S F 1 1

Pteronemobius sp. Mexico S F 2 2

Pterophoridae spp. Jamaica, Nicaragua, 

St.Vincent & 

Grenadines, Trinidad 

and Tobago, United 

Kingdom

S F 3 1 1 5

Ptochiomera 

nodosa

Netherlands S 1 1

Pulvinaria sp. Guyana, Honduras, 

Mexico

A, S F, L, 

St

3 1 4

Pulvinaria Antigua and Barbuda, S F 3 6 9
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 140

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

urbicola Dominican Republic, 

Grenada, Jamaica, 

Mexico, St. Lucia

Puto barberi Puerto Rico S F 1 1

Pyralidae spp. Antigua and Barbuda, 

Bolivia, Brazil, China, 

Colombia, Costa Rica, 

Dominican Republic, 

Ghana, Guatemala, 

Guyana, Honduras, 

India, Italy, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Nigeria, Panama, 

Peru, Sierra Leone, 

Taiwán, Thailand, 

Unknown, Venezuela

A, S F, L 21 7 2 12

8

50

Pyralinae spp. Guatemala S F 1 1

Pyrausta sp. Netherlands, 

Unknown

A, F, 

S

F 1 4 5

Pyraustinae spp. Africa Country, 

Australia, Belgium, 

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 

Brazil, Colombia, 

Croatia, Ghana, 

Grenada, Guatemala, 

Guinea, Hungary, 

Israel, Jamaica, Korea, 

South, Mexico, 

Netherlands, 

Nicaragua, Nigeria, 

Peru, Poland, Puerto 

Rico, Romania, 

Slovenia, Spain, 

Unknown, Venezuela, 

Yugoslavia

A, S I, F, 

L, St

33 1 1 56

9

100

Rhabdopterus sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Rhamphothrips 

pandens

St. Lucia S F 1 1

Rhaphigaster 

nebulosa

Netherlands A F 1 1

Rhizopus sp. Dominican Republic S F 1 1

Rhopalapion 

longirostre

Greece S F 1 1

Riodinidae spp. Nigeria S F 2 2

Rottboellia 

cochinchinensis

Thailand S Sd

1

1
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 141

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Saccharicoccus 

sacchari

Jamaica S F 2 2

Saccharum 

spontaneum

Unknown S

1

1

Saissetia coffeae Jamaica S F 1 1

Saissetia neglecta Jamaica S 1 1

Sancassania sp. Romania S 1 1

Sarcophagidae 

spp.

Mexico S 1 1

Sarcophaginae

spp.

Spain S F 1 1

Saturniidae spp. Mexico S 1 1

Scatella sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Scatopsidae spp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Schizocerella 

pilicornis

Mexico A F 1 1

Schizomyia sp. El Salvador S L 1 1

Sciaridae spp. Canada, Israel, 

Netherlands, Spain

A, S F 6 6

Sciocoris 

maculatus

India S F 1 1

Scirtothrips 

dorsalis

St. Lucia, St.Vincent 

& Grenadines, 

Trinidad and Tobago

S F 5 5

Scirtothrips sp. St. Lucia, St.Vincent 

& Grenadines, 

Trinidad and Tobago, 

US Virgin Islands

S F 1 7 8

Sclerotium rolfsii Unknown S F 1 1

Scolytidae spp. Mexico A, S F 3 37 40

Scolytus sp. Mexico S 1 1

Scymninae spp. Trinidad and Tobago S F 1 1

Scyphomphorus 

sp.

Mexico A F 1 1

Scythridinae spp. Canada S F 1 1

Secondary fungi Mexico, Netherlands S F 1 3 4

Sennius sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Septoria sp. Venezuela A F 2 2

Serica sp. Mexico A F 1 1

Sericoderus sp. Netherlands S F 2 2

Sesamia 

nonagrioides

Italy S F 2 2

Setaria sp. Chile, Myanmar A, S Sd 1 1 2
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 142

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Silvanidae spp. Germany S F 1 1

Sitona lineatus United Arab Emirates S F 1 1

Sitona sp. Belgium, Israel, 

Netherlands, Pakistan

A, S F 2 1 1 4

Sitophilus sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Sitophilus zeamais Ghana S F 1 1

Sminthuridae spp. Canada S F 1 1

Solanum torvum Ghana, Sierra Leone S F 2 2

Solenopsis 

geminata

Ghana S F 1 1

Solenopsis invicta Mexico A 1 1

Solenopsis sp. Costa Rica S F 1 1

Sparganothis sp. Jamaica S F 1 1

Sphenophorus sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Sphingidae spp. Jamaica, Mexico, 

Puerto Rico

S F 1 1 2 4

Spilomelinae spp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Spilosoma sp. Canada S L 1 1

Spodoptera albula Dominican Republic S F 2 2

Spodoptera 

androgea

Dominican Republic S F 1 1

Spodoptera 

dolichos

Dominican Republic, 

St. Lucia

S F 2 2

Spodoptera 

eridania

Dominican Republic, 

Grenada

A, S F 3 3

Spodoptera exigua Belgium, Dominican 

Republic, Guatemala, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Spain

A, F, 

S

F 3 1 49

1

54

Spodoptera 

frugiperda

Brazil, Canada, 

Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, Trinidad and 

Tobago, Venezuela

A, S F 3 2 36

3

44

Spodoptera 

latifascia

Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica, Mexico, St. 

Lucia,

S F 1 14 15

Spodoptera 

littoralis

Egypt, Ghana, Spain, A, S F 2 1

1

4

Spodoptera litura Japan, Korea, South, 

Thailand

S F 3 3

Spodoptera sp. Dominican Republic, 

Ecuador, Egypt, India, 

Israel, Jamaica, 

Jordan, Mexico, 

A, S F 14 3 1 19

2

39
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 143

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Netherlands, Spain, 

Unknown, Venezuela

Staphylinidae spp. Asia Country, 

Dominican Republic, 

Netherlands

A, S 1 2 3

Stegobium 

paniceum

Egypt A 1 1

Stemphylium 

botryosum

Italy, Mexico A, S 1

1

2

Stemphylium sp. Brazil, Colombia, 

Italy, Mexico, Spain

A, S F

6

6

Stenozygum sp. Dominican Republic S 1 1

Stephanopachys 

sp.

Mexico S 2 2

Sternorrhyncha

spp.

Mexico A 1 1

Stratiolaelaps sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Succinea 

costaricana

Belize S 1 1

Succinea cuvieri Trinidad and Tobago S F 1 1

Succinea luteola Mexico S 1 1

Succinea sp. Dominican Republic, 

Grenada, Italy, 

Mexico, Trinidad and 

Tobago

S F 2 1 11 14

Suspect disease Korea, South S 1 1

Symmetrischema 

capsicum

Brazil, Colombia, 

Ecuador, El Salvador, 

Guatemala, Mexico, 

Peru

A, S F 17 17

Symmetrischema 

sp.

Guatemala, Mexico S F 2 2

Syrphidae spp. Belgium, Dominican 

Republic, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Panama, 

St. Kitts and Nevis, 

Trinidad and Tobago

A, S F 3 1 23

1

28

Syrphinae spp. Belgium, Dominican 

Republic, Netherlands

A, S F 5 5

Syrphini spp. Dominican Republic S 1 1

Systena sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Tachinidae spp. Mexico S 1 1

Tachyporinae spp. Dominican Republic S 1 1

Tapinoma Jamaica, Mexico S F 2 2
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 144

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

melanocephalum

Tarsonemus sp. Dominican Republic, 

Mexico, Panama

A, S L, F 4

1

5

Telenomus sp. Dominican Republic S F 1 1

Tenebrionidae

spp.

Mexico S F 1 1

Tepa sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Tephritidae spp. Africa Country, 

Angola, Asia Country, 

Bangladesh, Benin, 

Bolivia, Cameroon, 

Canada, Cape Verde, 

China, Congo 

Republic, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Dominican 

Republic, Egypt, El 

Salvador, Etiopía, 

France, Gabon, 

Gambia, Ghana, 

Greece, Guinea, 

Haiti,Hawaii, India, 

Indonesia, Italy, 

Jamaica, Kenya, 

Korea, South, Libera, 

Madagascar, Malawi, 

Malaysia, Mexico, 

Nepal, Netherlands, 

Nigeria, Peru, 

Philippines, Portugal, 

Puerto Rico, Rwanda, 

Senegal, Sierra Leone, 

Singapore, South 

Africa, Spain, 

Thailand, Togo, 

Turkey, Uganda, 

United Kingdom, 

Unknown, Viet Nam, 

Zambia

A, F, 

S

I, F, 

WP

895 5 4 2

2

908

Tetramorium 

bicarinatum

Australia, Colombia B, S F 1 1 2

Tetramorium 

caespitum

Puerto Rico A 1 1

Tetranychidae spp. Netherlands S 1 1

Tetranychus 

ludeni

Dominican Republic S 1 1

Tetranychus sp. Dominican Republic, A, S F, L 1 13 14
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 145

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Honduras, Mexico,

Netherlands

Tettigometridae 

spp.

Trinidad and Tobago S 1 1

Tettigoniidae spp. Dominican Republic, 

Grenada, Guatemala, 

Guyana, Haiti, 

Jamaica, Trinidad and 

Tobago

S F, L 1 18 19

Thaumatotibia 

leucotreta

Africa Country, 

Angola, Benin, 

Cameroon, Cote 

D`Ivoire, Gambia, 

Ghana, Liberia, 

Netherlands, Nigeria, 

Sierra Leone, South 

Africa, Togo, Uganda, 

United Kingdom, 

Unknown

A, F, 

S

F 139 1 2 142

Thaumatotibia sp. Africa Country, Czech 

Republic, Ghana, 

Nigeria, Senegal, 

Sierra Leone

A, S F 12 12

Theba pisana Algeria, Italy, 

Portugal

S F

5

5

Thelidomus asper Jamaica S F 1 1

Thripidae spp. Antigua and Barbuda, 

Belgium, Costa Rica, 

Cote D`Ivoire, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, El Salvador, 

Ghana, Grenada, 

Guatemala, Guyana, 

Haiti, India, Israel, 

Italy, Jamaica, Japan, 

Korea, South, Malawi, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Nigeria, Philippines, 

Spain, St. Lucia, 

St.Vincent&Grenadine

s, Thailand, Trinidad 

and Tobago

A, S F, L, 

WP

49 9 101 159

Thrips angusticeps Germany A F 1 1

Thrips fuscipennis Netherlands S F 1 1

Thrips major Trinidad and Tobago S F 1 1

Thrips palmi Antigua and Barbuda, A, S F, L, 4 62 67 133
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 146

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Dominican Republic, 

Jamaica, Puerto Rico, 

St. Lucia, Trinidad 

and Tobago, West 

Indies

St

Thrips sp. Dominican Republic, 

St. Lucia

S F 1 1 22 25

Thrips tabaci Belgium, Canada, 

Dominican Republic, 

Netherlands, Spain

A, S F 1 7 8

Thyanta sp. Mexico A 1 1

Thylodrias 

contractus

Mexico S F 1 1

Thysanoptera spp. Guam, Israel, Jamaica, 

Mexico, Netherlands, 

Philippines, Puerto 

Rico, 

St.Vincent&Grenadine

s, Thailand

A, S F 6 2 4 12

Thysanura spp. Mexico A 1 1

Tineidae spp. India, Mexico, 

Trinidad and Tobago, 

Unknown, Yugoslavia

S F 4 3 7

Tingidae spp. Brazil, Jamaica A F, L 1 1 2

Tomarus sp. Mexico S F 3 3

Tomolips sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Tortricidae spp. Africa Country, 

Argentina, Armenia, 

Belgium, Belize, 

Bolivia, Brazil, 

Cameroon, Colombia, 

Cote D`Ivoire, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, Ecuador, El 

Salvador, Ethiopia, 

Gabon, Ghana, 

Guatemala, Guyana, 

Haiti, Honduras, India, 

Israel, Italy, Jamaica, 

Liberia, Malawi, 

Malaysia, Mexico, 

Netherlands, New 

Zealand, Nigeria, 

Peru, Romania, 

Senegal, Sierra Leone, 

South America 

A, F, 

P, S

F, L, 

St

117 30 6 141

3

297
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 147

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

Country, Spain, St. 

Lucia, Thailand, 

Trinidad and Tobago, 

Unknown, Venezuela, 

Viet Nam

Tortricinae spp. Belgium, Bolivia, 

Brazil, Colombia, 

Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, Ghana, 

Grenada, Guatemala, 

Jamaica, Korea, 

South, Mexico, 

Netherlands, Nigeria, 

Puerto Rico, Senegal, 

South Africa, St. 

Lucia, Unknown, 

Venezuela

A, F, 

P, S

F, St 34 80 10 188

3

315

Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum

Unknown S

1

1

Tribolium 

castaneum

Africa Country, 

Germany, Guinea

F, S F 1 1 1 3

Trichobaris 

mucorea

Mexico A 1 1

Trichoptera spp. Netherlands A 1 1

Trimerotropis 

pallidipennis

Mexico S F 1 1

Trioza sp. Mexico A, S F 4 1 5

Triozidae spp. El Salvador, Mexico A, S F, L, 

St

550 16 655 1221

Trogoderma 

granarium

Iran S Sd 1 1

Trogoderma sp. Mexico S 1 1

Trombidiinae spp. Jamaica S F 1 1

Typhaea stercorea Israel, Netherlands A, S F 2 2

Typhlocybinae 

spp.

Netherlands A, S F 2 2

Typhlodromus sp. Israel S F 1 1

Typophorus sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Udea sp. Algeria S F 1 1

Udea testacea Netherlands S F 1 1

Veronicella 

sloanei

Jamaica S F 1 1

Veronicella sp. Dominica, Puerto Rico S F 5 1 6

Veronicellidae Dominican Republic, S 1 1 2
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 148

Pest Origin Host Part

101

Where Intercepted102 Total

BG GC HD ML MS PC QS

spp. Jamaica

Xanthochilus 

saturnius

Greece, A F 1 1

Xanthomonas 

campestris

Mexico, 

St.Vincent&Grenadine

s, Tortola

A, S F 1 3 4

Xenotarsonemus 

sp.

Dominican Republic S 1 1

Xerotricha 

conspurcata

Greece, Italy A St 1 1 2

Xestia sp. Spain S F 1 1

Xestocephalus sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Xyleborus intrusus Honduras S 1 1

Xyleborus volvulus Honduras S 1 1

Xylodiplosis sp. Ghana S F 1 1

Xyonysius sp. Mexico S F 1 1

Zabrotes sp. Mexico A 1 1

Zachrysia 

auricoma

Puerto Rico S 1 1

Zachrysia sp. Dominican Republic S F 1 1

Zercoseius sp. Netherlands S F 1 1

Zonitoides 

arboreus

Netherlands S 1 1

Zygogramma sp. Mexico A F 1 1 2
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 149

Appendix B. Pests present in this risk analysis that were not in the 2004 risk assessment 

Pest type Taxonomy Scientific Name

Arthropod Arachnida Brevipalpus californicus (Banks)

Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes)

Coleoptera Aeolus nigromaculatus Drapiez

Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius)

Conoderus rodriguezi Candeze

Diabrotica porracea Harold

Glyptoscelis chontalensis 

Ips calligraphus (Germar)

Ips lecontei Swaine

Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say

Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Linnaeus)

Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky

Typhaea stercorea (Linnaeus)

Typophorus nigritus (Fabricius)

Xyleborus volvulus (Fabricius)

Hemiptera Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris)

Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby

Aphis fabae Scopoli

Aphis nerii Boyer

Ceroplastes rubens Maskell

Coccus viridis (Green)

Dysmicoccus grassii (Leonardi)

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Beardsley

Euschistus bifibulus (Palisot De Beauvois)

Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret)

Lygus lineolaris (Palisot)

Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas)

Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley

Pinnaspis aspidistrae (Signoret)

Planococcus citri (Risso)

Praelongorthezia praelonga Kozar Beauvois)

Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis (Green)

Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli (Cooley) De Beauvois)

Pseudococcus elisae Borchsenius

Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret)

Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch)

Saccharicoccus sacchari (Cockerell)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 150

Pest type Taxonomy Scientific Name

Arthropod Hemiptera Saissetia neglecta Delotto

Toxoptera citricida (Kirkaldy)

Lepidoptera Ancylostomia stercorea (Zeller)

Ascia monuste (Linnaeus)

Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton)

Leptophobia aripa (Boisduval)

Maruca vitrata (Fabricius)

Pilemia periusalis (Walker)

Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier)

Spodoptera dolichos (Fabricius)

Orthoptera Orphulella punctata (Degeer)

Thysanoptera Chaetanaphothrips orchidii (Moulton)

Chaetanaphothrips signipennis (Bagnall) (van Hall) Dye

Frankliniella insularis (Franklin)

Bacteria Erwinia carotovora subsp.Atroseptica Yabuuchi

Ralstonia solanacearum (Smith) & van Delden) Young et al.

Rhizobium radiobacter (Beijerinck Sacc.

Fungus Alternaria brassicae (Berk.)

Alternaria sp. & T. Nees: Fr.) Wiltshire 

Alternaria tenuissima (Nees

Apiospora montagnei Sacc.

Ascochyta gossypii Woron.

Aspergillus flavus Link:Fr

Aspergillus niger Tiegh.

Cercospora apii Fresen.

Chaetomium bostrychodes Zopf & Ravenel) Thaxt.

Choanephora cucurbitarum (Berk. G.A. De Vries.

Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen.) & Arthur

Cladosporium cucumerinum Ellis

Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.:Fr) & M.A. Curtis

Cladosporium oxysporum Berk. R. Nelson

Cochliobolus geniculatus R. S. Hughes

Colletotrichum coccodes (Wallr.) Grove

Colletotrichum dematium (Pers.:Fr) & Halst.

Colletotrichum nigrum Ellis Andrus & W.D. Moore.

Colletotrichum truncatum (Schwein.)

Didymella lycopersici Kleb.

Erysiphe cichoracearum DC.

Fusarium incarnatum (Desm.)
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 151

Pest type Taxonomy Scientific Name

Fungus Fusarium moniliforme J.

Fusarium oxysporum f.

Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada)

Gibberella intricans Wollenw. : Fr.) Petch

Gibberella zeae (Schwein. & Everth

Gloeosporium piperatum Ellis

Glomerella lindemuthiana Shear Fr.) Fr.

Hypocrea rufa (Pers.: R.C. Srivast.

Leptoxyphium fumago (Woron.) Aime & Phillips- Mora

Moniliophthora perniciosa (Stahel) & M.A. Curtis) Sacc.

Mycena citricolor (Berk).

Mycovellosiella fulva (Cooke)

Nematospora coryli Peglion. & Broome) Petch.

Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. E.W. Mason

Nigrospora sphaerica (Sacc.)

Passalora diffusa (Ellis & Everh.) U. Braun & Crous

Pellicularia koleroga Cooke.

Penicillium decumbens Thom. & Thom

Penicillium oxalicum Currie

Periconia byssoides Pers. Steyaert

Pestalotiopsis palmarum (Cooke)

Phoma exigua Desm. & Cohn) J. Schröt.

Phytophthora cactorum (Lebert

Phytophthora citrophthora (R.E.

Phytophthora drechsleri Tucker. Butler) E.J. Butler

Phytophthora palmivora (E.J. Deighton

Pseudocercospora atromarginalis (Atk.) Bary

Pythium vexans de Fr.) Speg.

Rhytidhysteron rufulum (Spreng.: & Broome) Sacc.

Rosellinia bunodes (Berk.

Septoria lycopersici Speg. sp. subterranea Tomlinson

Spongospora subterranea f.

Stemphylium botryosum Wallr W. Yamam.

Stemphylium lycopersici (Enjoji) E.G. Simmons

Ulocladium consortiale (Thüm.) & Berthier

Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke

Nematode Aphelenchoides besseyi Christie Filipjev

Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kühn) Behrens

Globodera rostochiensis (Wollenweber) Siddiqi
Pest risk assessment for Peppers from Central America

Rev. Original April 27, 2009 152

Pest type Taxonomy Scientific Name

Paratrichodorus minor (Colbran)

Paratrichodorus sp. Filipjev & Schuurmans Stekhoven

Pratylenchus brachyurus (Godfrey) Filipjev & Schuurmans Stekhoven

Pratylenchus coffeae (Zimmermann) Thorne

Radopholus similis (Cobb) & Le Hew) Andrássy

Scutellonema bradys (Steiner

Tylenchorhynchus annulatus (Cassidy)

Tylenchorhynchus claytoni Steiner

Xiphinema americanum Cobb. bigeminivirus

Virus Pepper huasteco yellow vein virus PHYVV

Tomato leaf curl Sinaloa virus ToLCSinV

Tomato severe leaf curl virus ToSLCV

Tobacco leaf curl bigeminivirus (TLCV)