Mosquito Control Program Description

Mosquito Control Program Description

Program Description

The Maryland Department of Agriculture (MDA), Mosquito Control Section, is responsible for 

administering and implementing mosquito control within the State of Maryland. Typical projects 

undertaken for mosquito control include mosquito surveillance activities, source reduction, biological 

control initiatives, ground and aerial application of insecticides and public education. The Mosquito 

Control Program has existed since July, 1956 and currently operates under authority of Sections 5-401 

through 5-404, Agriculture Article, Maryland Annotated Code. Participation in the program is voluntary 

and requires local government and/or community funding. The Department in 2006 entered into 

cooperative agreements with 22 counties for mosquito control services and conducted activities in more 

than 2,100 communities with a total estimated population of 725,000 residents. The program employs 

20 MDA classified positions and 60-70 seasonal technicians. The administrative office, and operation 

headquarters for Anne Arundel County, is located in Annapolis. Regional offices are located in 

Hollywood, Riverdale, and Salisbury. 

Mosquito control in Maryland is conducted according to the concept of Integrated Pest Management 

(IPM). IPM is based on ecological, economic and social criteria and integrates these multidisciplinary 

methodologies to develop pest management strategies that are practical and effective to protect public 

health and the environment and improve the quality of life for Maryland residents and visitors. An IPM 

program consists of surveillance for larvae and adult mosquitoes; establishment of action thresholds; 

and selection of appropriate control strategies, using the best available technology. A practitioner of 

IPM must be knowledgeable of the biology and ecology of mosquitoes, monitoring techniques and best 

management practices. 

Mosquito Biology

Mosquitoes are members of the family Culicidae in the order Diptera (true flies). Adult mosquitoes are 

distinguished from other flies by the presence of a long proboscis and scales on the margins and veins 

of the wing. Males differ from females by having feathery antennae and mouthparts not suited for 

piercing skin. 

Mosquitoes are insects that develop through four distinct life stages - egg, larva, pupa and adult. Only 

adult females feed on blood which is a required source of protein for egg development. Males and 

females feed on plant nectar as a source of carbohydrates. 

There are three basic types of mosquito eggs - those laid singly on the water surface, each egg being 

buoyed by floats; eggs laid on the water surface in groups or rafts; and eggs laid singly out of the 

water on a surface that will subsequently flood. Mosquitoes which deposit eggs on the water surface 

are commonly known as permanent water breeders and include the genera Anopheles, Coquillettidia, 

Culex and Culiseta. Floodwater mosquitoes lay their eggs on a moist substrate, out of the water, and 

represent one of the most successful reproductive strategies in the animal kingdom. Female floodwater 

mosquitoes are attracted by chemical stimuli to oviposition sites and are not dependent on water for 

oviposition, hence weather has less impact on the reproductive success of floodwater species than on 

permanent water breeders. Floodwater mosquito genera include Aedes, Ochlerotatus and Psorophora.

All mosquito larvae are aquatic. The 62 species known to occur in Maryland have adapted to a wide 

range of larval habitats, including swamps, marshes, tree holes, septic ditches, rock pools, etc. All of 

the breeding sites have a common characteristic of stagnant pools not subject to significant wind or 

wave action or water flow. Additionally, the breeding sites generally have a low or non-existent 

population of parasites or predators that prey on mosquito larvae. Consequently, flowing streams, tidal 

creeks, large ponds, lakes and other large water bodies are not typical mosquito breeding sites. Larvae 

feed on microorganisms and particles of organic matter. Mosquito larvae are not completely aquatic 

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Mosquito Control Program Description

because they must have access to atmospheric oxygen, which is obtained by means of a siphon tube 

that penetrates the water surface or, in some species, pierces the roots of aquatic plants. The larval 

stage lasts from 4 to several days and contains four separate developmental periods termed instars. 

The pupal stage is also aquatic but the pupa can complete development on a moist surface. It is during 

the pupal phase that the transformation from an aquatic larvae to a terrestrial adult takes place. The 

pupal stage lasts only a few days. 

Adult female mosquitoes mate once during their lifetime. This occurs shortly after emergence from the 

pupal case. The blood feeding habits of the female vary between species. Some are general feeders 

while others feed only on specific groups of vertebrates such as birds or reptiles. The flight habits are 

also variable, with some species rarely flying more than one-half mile from their breeding sites and 

others flying 20 miles or more. 

Mosquito Surveillance

Modern pest management requires surveillance data in order to plan and evaluate control work. Field 

surveys are the foundation of an effective program. Data on the mosquitoes with the greatest potential 

to adversely affect public health and comfort, including data on mosquito density and distribution, are 

essential in order to plan and conduct effective control measures. In Maryland, the species occurring in 

the greatest abundance, or that have the greatest impact on human comfort, economic growth and 

public health, are Ochlerotatus sollicitans, Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus, Aedes albopictus, Aedes 

vexans, Ochlerotatus canadensis, Anopheles crucians/bradleyi, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, Culex 

pipiens, Culex salinarius, Coquillettidia perturbans and Psorophora columbiae. Several Aedes and 

Ochlerotatus spp. and Coq. perturbans are implicated in the transmission of eastern equine encephalitis 

to humans and equines. Dog heartworm in canines is the most common mosquito-transmitted disease 

in Maryland, with several vector species. Culex species are important vectors of West Nile encephalitis 

and St. Louis encephalitis. Aedes albopictus, popularly known as the Asian tiger mosquito, is a recent 

introduction to the Maryland mosquito fauna. It was introduced into the United States from Asia by the 

international used-tire trade and has spread throughout much of the country via interstate tire 

shipments. This species has become a major pest in several urban areas of Maryland and is a vector of 

West Nile encephalitis. The newest addition to the mosquito fauna of Maryland is Aedes japonicus, first 

found in Frederick County in 2000. Ae. japonicus is also a beneficiary of the international tire trade and 

an excellent vector of disease. 

Larval surveillance requires extensive logistical preparation due to the size and remoteness of many 

breeding areas. The largest expanse of breeding area exists in the southern Eastern Shore region of 

Maryland. In general, mosquito larval habitat is most widespread in the coastal plain. High-level aerial 

photography and satellite imagery are used for rural areas to locate potential breeding areas based on 

soil and plant community associations. In urban environments, Ae. albopictus and Cx. pipiens are found 

in obscure breeding sites in yard to yard searches. 

Potential breeding areas are subject to "ground truthing" to confirm the location of the sites and 

measure the presence of mosquito larvae. Confirmed breeding areas are mapped on United States 

Coast and Geodetic topographic maps (scale 1:24,000), or larger scale city maps, and used as a 

reference for future surveillance. Frequent and regular inspections of breeding areas are carried out 

from March through September to determine larval density and species composition. 

Larval surveillance data are used to guide the course of the control program and are the most 

important field data available to the mosquito control manager. This information is used in the decisionmaking process of whether or not to initiate control efforts, what type of control to employ and in 

evaluating the effectiveness of the control. 

Breeding areas that consistently produce large numbers of important pest or vector species and are 

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located within flight range of a community are considered as potential sites for control. Several Aedes

and Ochlerotatus spp. are capable of long distance (up to 20 miles or more) dispersal flights. Other 

species, such as Ae. albopictus, Oc. canadensis, and Coq. perturbans are weaker fliers (1-5 miles). 

Culex and Anopheles mosquitoes have a much more restricted flight range than do most Aedes and 

Ochlerotatus mosquitoes and breeding areas for the former species more than two miles from a 

community are not considered for control. All breeding sites within a community, or close to the 

perimeter of a community, are designated as primary control sites for control of mosquito larvae. 

Meteorological conditions significantly affect breeding sites. A prolonged drought will evaporate the 

surface water from a wetland and temporarily halt mosquito larval production. However, a drought will 

also eliminate the population of mosquito predators and exacerbate mosquito breeding, particularly in 

areas producing salt marsh Ochlerotatus species, when surface water returns. A summer with frequent 

rainfall and/or flooding tides will maintain a higher water level, which usually favors larval production of 

Anopheles and Culex species, but may also boost the population of predators and eliminate mosquito 

production. Therefore, a good larval surveillance program cannot be static. It must be dynamic and 

flexible to accommodate fluctuations in weather and land use patterns. 

Surveillance for adult mosquitoes is conducted using traps and landing rate counts. Traps are an easy, 

relatively low cost way to obtain an index of the number of mosquitoes in an area. But, data are 

subject to wide variation. Trap data provide a good historical record, if trap locations are constant from 

year to year. Trap collections are time-consuming to process and the information on mosquito 

abundance is often delayed for several days after the catch is made and of reduced value from the 

standpoint of operational control. Such traps utilize carbon dioxide as an attractant. 

In Maryland, a trap designed by the Communicable Disease Center (CDC) is the trap type generally 

used to monitor pest and vector adult mosquitoes. The CDC trap is battery-powered and easily 

portable. For pest surveillance, the trap uses no source of attraction other than a small light. A 

collection of more than 10 anthropophagous (human biting) female mosquitoes per night of trap 

operation is considered to be the level which causes discomfort and/or complaints from the majority of 

people. The light trap action threshold for ground spraying of adult mosquitoes is 10-20 per trapnight. 

The action threshold to suppress pest populations of adult mosquitoes by aeiral spraying (application of 

insecticide by an aircraft) is a light trap collection of 100 female mosquitoes. 

Landing rate counts provide immediate indicators of adult mosquito activity. The counts are taken for a 

short period of time at specific, predetermined locations. Inspectors serve as "bait" to attract 

mosquitoes which attempt to blood feed. A count is made of the number of mosquitoes landing on the 

frontal portion of the inspectors' bodies, below the waist, during a two minute interval. Landing rate 

counts for salt marsh Ochlerotatus species and Ae. albopictus can be taken during daylight because 

these species will actively attempt to blood feed at that time. However, most other species, particularly 

Anopheles spp. and Culex spp., must be sampled during twilight periods, or at night, because of their 

nocturnal activity. The action threshold for landing rate counts to justify ground spraying for the control 

of adult mosquitoes is 1 to 3 in 1 minute. The action threshold for aerial spraying is 12 mosquitoes per 

minute. 

Mosquito-Borne Disease Surveillance

The Maryland Department of Agriculture (MDA) and the Maryland Department of Health and Mental 

Hygiene (DHMH) collaborate to conduct a surveillance program to detect mosquito- borne viruses of 

public health concern. The program monitors the occurrence of eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) virus, 

West Nile virus (WNV), and St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) virus in mosquitoes, wild birds, domestic 

animals and humans. These virus are maintained in nature in wild bird-mosquito cycles. Isolation of 

virus in the bird-mosquito cycle provides an early warning of virus transmission and is cause for 

increasing public awareness campaigns to reduce risk of disease and to take proactive steps for 

mosquito control to further reduce the risk to humans, domestic animals and zoo animals. 

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West Nile virus has affected every retion of Maryland and is now considered as being established 

throughout the state. During the period 2001 to 2006 there were 146 human cases of disease caused 

by the West Nile virus, including 19 fatalities. 

Mosquito Control Options

The primary goal of the Mosquito Control Section of MDA is to prevent the occurrence of mosquitoborne disease in humans and domestic animals. When evidence of mosquito-borne disease is detected, 

measures are taken to reduce vector mosquito populations to as low a level as practical. If the 

surveillance and demographic data are analyzed and a decision is made that control efforts are 

justified, several options are available. These range from complex to simple, inexpensive to costly, and 

short-term to long-term. What option to utilize is dictated by the extent of the mosquito problem and 

the available resources. 

Source Reduction Using Open Marsh Water Management (OMWM) - Is a water management 

technique directed toward the control of salt marsh Ochlerotatus larval mosquitoes without using 

pesticides. OMWM is an example of applied ecology. It accomplishes control by incorporating physical 

control (digging ditches and ponds in the marsh) and biological control (fish live in the ditches and 

ponds and eat mosquito larvae). It is a long lasting form of control and a system that, when properly 

designed, has a life expectancy of 20 years or longer. Due to this longevity, OMWM is the most 

economical form of control, despite the initial high investment. OMWM not only provides excellent 

control of mosquitoes at their source, it utilizes wildlife management techniques to enhance the high 

salt marsh habitat for a variety of game and non-game species of fish and wildlife. The ponds 

constructed for OMWM projects provide habitat for submerged aquatic grasses, and the ditches 

enhance the tidal marsh food web. 

OMWM will alter the hydrology and ecology of the tidal marsh environment. Some scientists accept the 

change and argue that the benefits outweigh the risk. Other environmental scientists argue that no 

physical change of the tidal marsh environment is acceptable. For example, there is concern that 

OMWM changes may adversely impact the black rail, a species listed as in need of conservation by the 

Natural Heritage Program of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources. Although never 

researched, the possibility of an adverse impact to black rails has practically stopped the OMWM 

program in Maryland since 1991. All source reduction projects since 1991 have been maintenance of 

previously managed areas. 

Biological Control - Larvivorous fish, invertebrate predators, parasites and diseases to control 

mosquitoes have been widely used throughout the world. Almost always, biological control agents are 

used against mosquito eggs, larvae and pupae. Biological control of adult mosquitoes using birds, bats, 

dragonflies and frogs has been advocated, but supportive data is anecdotal. There is no documented 

study to show that bats, purple martins, or other predators consume enough adult mosquitoes to be 

effective control agents. The Mosquito Control Section does not advocate the establishment of bat 

boxes by the public due to the increased risk of human exposure to rabies. 

The use of fish is particularly effective. The Mosquito Control Program maintains several rearing ponds 

throughout Maryland to propagate Gambusia holbrooki for distribution to appropriate mosquito 

breeding sites. The widespread use of larvivorous fish such as Gambusia has been discouraged by the 

Maryland Department of Natural Resources due to concern the fish may prey upon threatened or 

endangered species of amphibians and fish. As a consequence of this concern, the biological control 

initiative using fish has been reduced to stocking them only in artificial wetlands, such as stormwater 

retention ponds. 

Temporary Control- Control of mosquitoes with the use of insecticides is commonly referred to as 

temporary control because the non-residual insecticides used in the Maryland program provide only 

short-term reduction of mosquito numbers. The temporary control program is divided into two 

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categories - larviciding and adulticiding. Insecticide applications are made under the supervision of 

certified pesticide applicators, pest control category VIII, and regulated by State and federal laws. 

Several certified applicators are employed by the Mosquito Control Section. No restricted use pesticides 

are applied in Maryland for mosquito control by State or local government agencies. 

Larviciding - Insecticide application directed against larval mosquitoes is an important component of 

an IPM mosquito control program. Larviciding is the most efficient type of temporary control. An 

important part of the mission of the Maryland Mosquito Control Program is to prevent, or significantly 

reduce, adult mosquito annoyance to humans, pets and domestic livestock. It is easier and more 

economical to eradicate or substantially diminish a brood of mosquitoes while they are concentrated as 

larvae in the aquatic habitat than to control them as adults. For example, the adult mosquitoes 

produced on one acre of breeding area can disperse over 50,000 acres, assuming a flight range of five 

miles. 

All larvicide applications are based on a demonstrated presence of mosquito larvae. No spraying is done 

on a scheduled basis. Larval inspections are conducted by trained personnel capable of identifying 

instar stages of mosquitoes and distinguishing among various genera. Inspections for Aedes and 

Ochlerotatus larvae must be conducted quickly after heavy rains or flooding tides because, during the 

summer, larvae can develop at a rate of one instar per day. Therefore, breeding sites must be located 

and treated within five days after flooding. In most instances, when widescale flooding has occurred, 

only a small portion of the breeding area can be inspected and a determination made on the need for 

treatment. 

Larvicides are applied using manually carried or vehicle-mounted spraying equipment or from specially 

equipped aircraft. Ground equipment application is economical and has the advantage of being able to 

specifically apply insecticides to larval breeding sites only, as opposed to aerial application where an 

entire area is treated and much insecticide falls on dry ground. However, aircraft are needed when 

large areas must be treated within the short time available for treatment. Aircraft are able to apply 

insecticide evenly over large areas that would be difficult or impossible to traverse on the ground. 

All larvicide applications are made under permits issued by the Maryland Department of the 

Environment. Permit applications are made on a county basis for specific areas within the county and 

for individual insecticides. The permit allows a limited number of insecticide applications within a 

specific time frame. The permit review process is time consuming and often prevents the timely 

application of mosquito larvicides to new or previously undocumented breeding sites. 

The insecticides currently used for larviciding in Maryland include Bacillus thuringensis var. israelensis 

(B.t.i.), a naturally produced bacterial toxin, and methoprene (Altosid), a synthetically produced insect 

growth regulator. B.t.i. is one of the least toxic materials available for larviciding and, when applied 

from the ground, it is usually effective. It is the most commonly used larvicide for ground application. B.

t.i. must be ingested by the larvae in sufficient concentration to cause death by disruption of the 

function of the larval midgut. Due to the poor operational results found in our quality control 

evaluations, B.t.i. is seldom applied by aircraft in Maryland. 

Bacillus sphaericus is a recently registered bacteria larvicidal product that is very effective against 

Culex mosquitoes. It is used in Maryland primarily to control Culex salinarius and Culex pipiens.

Methoprene is the most commonly used larvicide for aerial application and is also commonly applied by 

ground equipment. This product provides 90-100% control of emergence of adult floodwater 

mosquitoes. There has been no observed negative environmental impact as a result of the use of 

methoprene for mosquito control in Maryland to our knowledge. 

Larviciding is not allowed on certain State parks, or Assateague Island National Seashore. This is an 

important factor impacting mosquito control near these State and federal lands, which serve as a 

source of adult mosquitoes to the nearby residential areas. 

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Adulticiding - Despite all efforts to prevent adult mosquito populations from reaching annoyance 

levels, it is inevitable that outbreaks will occur. When this happens, it is the mosquito control 

manager's responsibility to reduce mosquito numbers to a point below the action threshold to protect 

public health and comfort. Adulticiding is most effective when the adult mosquito population is localized 

or when spraying is carried out uniformly over a large area to prevent reinfestation of treated areas. 

Multiple spraying, spaced 2 to 3 days apart, may be necessary to reduce the population of adult 

mosquitoes to a low level, particulary if mosquito-borne disease transmission is possible. 

Localized adult mosquito populations which exceed the action threshold can be managed with an 

application of insecticide dispersed from truck-mounted, ultra low volume (ULV), aerosol generators. 

The principle insecticide applied for adult mosquito control in Maryland is permethrin, synergized with 

piperonyl butoxide (PBO). Sumithrin, synergized with PBO, is another pyrethroid insecticide applied by 

ground ULV spraying. ULV units disperse the synergized pyrethroid insecticides (0.003 lb. active 

ingredient per acre) over an effective swath width of 300 feet. Applications ideally are made when 

mosquito activity is high, wind velocity is 2 to 10 mph, air temperature is between 60 to 85 degrees F, 

relative humidity is high and a temperature inversion exists. 

Aerial spraying for adult mosquito control can be conducted when a large number of mosquitoes, 

exceeding the aerial spray action threshold, infest a community or populated area of 500 acres, or 

more. Spraying is conducted with a Department-owned Beechcraft King-Air, twin-engine, fixed-wing 

aircraft equipped with an Ag-Nav global positioning system. The principal insecticide used for aerial 

adulticiding is naled (Trumpet EC) applied at the rate of 1.0 to 1.2 fluid ounce per acre (0.08 to 0.10 lb. 

a.i./acre). Aerial spraying is conducted when weather conditions favor high mosquito activity and 

maximum retention of the spray particles within the treatment area. Night vision technology has 

enabled the aircraft to be operated at night since 2005, resulting in a higher degree of mosquito 

control. Due to the high mosquito population needed for justification (12 mosquitoes per minute 

landing rate count and/or 100 mosquitoes per light trap), most aerial spraying is conducted in the 

southern Eastern Shore region of Maryland. 

Public Education - Mosquito control staff members meet with the press, attend community meetings 

and communicate one to one with residents to emphasize what steps can be taken by individuals to 

reduce mosquito problems. Cleanup of old tires, buckets, cans and any other water holding containers 

can significantly reduce mosquito breeding sites in a community, particularly in parts of the State with 

few natural wetlands. Window screening will keep mosquitoes outdoors. Pet owners are urged to have 

their dogs protected against dog heartworm disease, which is transmitted by mosquitoes. Owners of 

horses and other equine are urged to have their animals vaccinated twice a year to prevent occurrence 

of eastern equine encephalitis. 

An initiative in 2000 and 2001 conducted large scale mailing of information about Ae. albopictus and its 

control. This information was distributed in communities known to be infested with Ae. albopictus and 

included parts of Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Calvert and Prince George's counties and Baltimore City. 

Residents were urged to conduct neighborhood cleanups to remove containers used as mosquito 

breeding sites. The evaluation of this effort has not been able to demonstrate any appreciable effect on 

reducing the mosquito breeding containers in residential areas. 

Traditionally, homes and commercial developments were sited away from wetlands and located in 

breezy, open areas. However, during the past four decades, there has been a shift in development 

areas. Homes frequently are built adjacent to, or in, wetland areas. This occurs because of several 

possible factors, including: (1) lack of, or greater expense for, upland sites; (2) a desire to live on or 

near waterfront property; (3) diminished public concern about mosquito bites or mosquito-transmitted 

disease; and (4) reliance on government, private contractors or self to alleviate problems associated 

with wetlands. In addition to mosquitoes, residences near wetlands frequently are impacted negatively 

by the presence of deer flies, horse flies, stable flies, biting midges ("no-see-ums"), black flies and 

ticks. 

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The Mosquito Control Section receives numerous service requests from residents of communities in or 

near wetlands who were unaware that their community was prone to infestation by biting arthropods 

prior to moving there. Planning and zoning agencies could restrict development in areas known to be 

potential sites of arthropod-borne disease and nuisance. At the very least, it should be an ethical 

obligation of realtors to disclose to buyers that living in or near some types of wetlands will subject 

residents to greater than normal exposure to insect and tick bites. The Mosquito Control Section is 

available to advise planning and zoning agencies and realtors on known mosquito producing wetlands. 

This public education would reduce insecticide use by government agencies, contractors and 

homeowners, and have other ecological benefits. 

Products Advertised for Mosquito Control - There are numerous products being advertised today 

alleging that they are effective for mosquito control. Unfortunately, these products have limited or no 

value in reducing mosquito annoyance. 

A mechanical trap (the Mosquito Magnet(R)) is promoted as being capable of "controlling" adult 

mosquitoes in an area of up to 1 acre. This trap was evaluated by MDA in 2001 and, while it was found 

to be a good tool for collecting mosquito specimens for surveillance purposes, the claim of control could 

not be corroborated. 

Electronic devices that emit a high frequency sound are advertised as being effective to repel 

mosquitoes, as well as other pests. These claims are false. The devices do not deter female mosquitoes 

from attempting to bite, nor do they cause mosquitoes to flee from the sound. 

Electrocuting devices, popularly known as "bug zappers", do not control mosquitoes. Studies have 

shown that mosquitoes make up less than one percent of the insects killed by the zappers. Beneficial 

insects such as beetles and moths make up the bulk of the catch. 

Plants such as the Citrosa plant are claimed to have a mosquito-repelling quality. The Citrosa plant is a 

genetically engineered houseplant that incorporates tissue cultures of the grass that produces citronella 

oil into hybrid varieties of geranium to produce a cultivar that emits a citronella-like odor. Citronella oil 

does repel mosquitoes, and it is a logical assumption that the Citrosa plant's aroma would produce 

similar results. However, the citronella-like aroma of the Citrosa plant does not repel mosquitoes. 

Mosquitoes land on the Citrosa leaves. Crushing the Citrosa leaf and rubbing it on the skin does not 

repel mosquitoes. The idea of the Citrosa plant was sound, but the results do not prove the hypothesis 

that it is effective in repelling mosquitoes. 

Future Prospects and Program Issues

Most people in Maryland are not willing to accept large populations of nuisance mosquitoes or the 

possibility of mosquito-borne disease occurring in their family. The demand for mosquito control as a 

quality of life issue is likely to remain strong in many areas. Strategies for future control should ideally 

continue to diversify to cope with insecticide resistance management and changing societal 

expectations. However, the diversity of control options continues to diminish as a result of regulations 

and markets. 

Creation of artificial wetlands in suburban areas for stormwater management and restoration of 

wetlands in agricultural fields further complicate the issue by providing new mosquito production areas. 

Best management practices ( BMP's) should be established that incorporate mosquito control concerns 

in the planning and maintenance of these created wetland habitats. 

It will be a significant challenge to provide a satisfactory mosquito control program in the future. The 

most significant issue impacting the Mosquito Control Program is the increased difficulty of controlling 

mosquitoes at the breeding site. Wetland management, or source reduction, has virtually ceased to be 

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a significant program component due to wetland protection regulations and opposition by the Maryland 

Department of Natural Resources and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Larviciding is effective, but 

costly, in terms of money and labor and a comprehensive statewide larvicide program is beyond the 

scope of the current program resources. The occurrence of new diseases (West Nile virus) or the 

resurrection of old diseases (malaria, yellow fever, etc.) are real threats that may pose significant 

problems in the future. 

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