# Patent

## Title
Enhanced work function layer supporting growth of rutile phase titanium oxide

## Abstract

This disclosure provides a method of fabricating a semiconductor stack and associated device, such as a capacitor and DRAM cell. In particular, a bottom electrode has a material selected for lattice matching characteristics. This material may be created from a relatively inexpensive metal oxide which is processed to adopt a conductive, but difficult-to-produce oxide state, with specific crystalline form; to provide one example, specific materials are disclosed that are compatible with the growth of rutile phase titanium dioxide (TiO2) for use as a dielectric, thereby leading to predictable and reproducible higher dielectric constant and lower effective oxide thickness and, thus, greater part density at lower cost.

## Background
This document is a continuation in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/708,872, filed for “Inexpensive Electrode Materials To Facilitate Rutile Phase Titanium Oxide,” having a first named inventor of Sunil Shanker and filed on 19 Feb. 2010, hereby incorporated by reference as though set forth herein.
This document also relates to the subject matter of a joint research agreement between Intermolecular, Inc. and Elpida Memory, Inc.


BACKGROUND
The obtainable density of DRAM and other semiconductor devices is strongly tied to the ability to miniaturize their component structures, among them capacitors. In turn, thinner and smaller area capacitors are obtained using high dielectric constant materials. Certain metal oxides show promising application as these high dielectric constant materials, but these metal oxides can vary greatly in terms of obtainable and reproducible dielectric constant.
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is one such oxide. Titanium oxide can be produced in an amorphous form, but also has anatase and rutile crystalline phases. The anatase phase has a dielectric constant on the order of forty, whereas the rutile phase can have a dielectric constant ranging from eighty to one-hundred-seventy, well more than twice than that of anatase
A need therefore exists for ways to produce specific forms of metal oxides; ideally, such methods could be inexpensively implemented in a manufacturing context; this would lead to consistently higher dielectric constant and therefore greater, reproducible device density. The present invention addresses these needs and provides further, related advantages.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 is an illustrative diagram that shows a metal-insulator-metal (“MIM”) stack 101, configured as a capacitor. The depicted stack includes a bottom electrode 103, a metal oxide layer 105 and a top electrode 107. The stack 101 uses a specific layer 111 as a part of or as all of the conductor 103, in effect forming an interface layer to help promote better dielectric constant (and related to this concept, better effective oxide thickness or “EOT”). If desired, the bottom electrode 103 may also include a relatively inexpensive base layer 113 such as titanium nitride (TiN) and the interface layer 111 may be configured as a relatively thin “capping layer” or “flash layer,” to promote desired surface or lattice matching characteristics; whether the interface layer 111 forms all of the electrode or just a top surface, it is chosen to have specific characteristics that enhance the likelihood of obtaining a specific form of metal oxide for the metal oxide layer 105.
FIG. 2 presents an overview 201 of several different embodiments associated with the MIM stack of FIG. 1. In particular, a first embodiment 203 is obtained using one or more specific materials in the interface layer 111 from FIG. 1 in concert with a titanium dioxide (TiO2) dielectric layer. A second embodiment 205 is obtained using a metal oxide dielectric layer, and an electrode “interface” layer having a lattice structure consistent with rutile phase TiO2, a work function of at least 4.8 eV, and a Gibbs free energy of at most −400 kiloJoules (kJ) per mole. A third embodiment 207 is obtained using a titanium oxide dielectric TiOx (e.g., TiO2) and in situ processing of a material to become an electrode material having a suitable lattice structure (this processing can be performed before the dielectric is created, e.g., to surface treat a previous deposition to have an interface layer that is operable as part of or all of an electrode). As with other FIGS. in this disclosure, the use of dashed lines indicates optional processes that can be employed to obtain still more specific embodiments.
FIGS. 3a-3e illustrate steps of forming a capacitive structure, similar to that seen in FIG. 1. In FIGS. 3a-3e, like numbers represent like elements.
FIG. 3a introduces fabrication of a bottom electrode 305 on a substrate 303; the bottom electrode, or “BEL” precedes the formation of other device layers (collectively represented by numeral 307).
FIG. 3b shows that the bottom electrode 305 is fabricated to have at least a layer 317 that will provide a suitable interface 313 for a dielectric layer (not seen in FIG. 3). Underneath the interface layer 317, a base layer 315 can be made from inexpensive conductive or non-conductive materials, depending on desired device properties.
FIG. 3c is similar to FIG. 3b, except the bottom electrode 305 is fabricated to consist entirely of interface layer 317.
FIG. 3d shows a dielectric layer 311 atop the electrode surface 313. As indicated by a set of downward-facing arrows, 319, the dielectric layer 311 can be “grown” atop the interface or surface 313, for example, via chemical vapor deposition (“CVD”), physical vapor deposition (“PVD”), atomic layer deposition (“ALD”) evaporative, or other processes. As indicated by matching lattice symbols 321, the layer 317 is specifically chosen or fabricated such that the interface will engender the formation of the desired metal oxide form; for example, the interface 313 can be chosen to have a lattice structure compatible with rutile phase TiO2, to thereby promote the grown of rutile phase TiO2 over other forms of TiO2.
FIG. 3e shows the addition of a top electrode 309 over the dielectric layer, to complete the formation of a capacitive structure.
FIG. 4 shows methodology for fabricating the structure seen in FIG. 3e. In particular, three branches, represented by processes 411, 413 and 417, represent alternatives for producing a completed device. As represented by a process 427, an anneal completes this methodology, irrespective of branch, to produce a finished capacitive device.
FIG. 5 shows an ALD chamber, which provides one mechanism for building a structure seen in FIG. 1 or FIG. 3e. 
FIG. 6 shows a flowchart corresponding to the use of the chamber of FIG. 5.
FIG. 7 shows a process for fabricating a layer molybdenum dioxide (MoO2) using an ALD chamber. As indicated respectively by boxes 703 and 711, Mo(CO)6 can be used as a precursor for this process, and an oxygenating anneal or other process may be used to form crystal MoO2 that will engender growth of rutile phase TiO2.
FIG. 8 illustrates a process of identifying suitable deposition parameters for a closed-loop PVD process, that is, one that relies on specifically controlled deposition parameters used to obtain difficult-to-produce oxidation states and associated crystalline structures. Once a hysteresis curve is plotted and associated deposition parameters identified, per processes 803 and 805, a fabrication process can be implemented on a reproducible basis.
FIG. 9 shows an exemplary hysteresis curve. Generally, depending on materials and process parameters, the hysteresis curve may be either upward sloping or downward sloping, with reactive gas partial pressure represented by the horizontal axis and poisoned mode represented by a region 909.
FIG. 10 shows a process of obtaining a suitable electrode interface, first by depositing molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) and then by in situ modifying a surface of this material (via a reducing anneal) to both become a conductor (MoO2) and to have a lattice structure compatible with rutile phase TiO2.
FIG. 11 shows a process of obtaining a suitable electrode interface based on manganese dioxide MnO2, where Mn2O3 or Mn3O4 is first deposited by ALD or CVD, and where a surface or interface layer is then created in situ by an oxygenating anneal to become MnO2, again, to have a lattice structure compatible with TiO2.
FIG. 12 shows a process where a metal nitride “MNx” (e.g., Mo2N) is first deposited by ALD or CVD, and where a surface or interface is then in situ modified by an oxygenating anneal to become MoO2, again, to have a lattice structure compatible with TiO2. An advantage presented by this process embodiment is that the metal nitride MNx represents an inexpensive electrode material, such that a base electrode may be inexpensively formed and then processed using standard semiconductor fabrication equipment to be compatible with, and to help grow, a metal oxide of a specific form; for example, the embodiment of FIG. 12 may be used to help grow rutile phase TiO2.
FIG. 13 shows a graph 1301 having two curves, 1303 and 1305, which respectively indicate process boundaries associated with the use of MoO2; in particular, a dashed-line curve 1303 represents a transition differentiating the formation of MoO3 and MoO2, and a solid curve 1305 represents a transition differentiating the formation of MoO2 and metal molybdenum (Mo). As indicated by FIG. 13, appropriate selection of process temperature and oxygen rate, when combined with appropriate process materials, may be used to fabricate a specific metal oxide, for example, molybdenum dioxide (MoO2), tungsten dioxide (WO2), chromium dioxide (CrO2), manganese dioxide (MnO2), iron dioxide (FeO2), tin dioxide (SnO2), cobalt dioxide (CoO2) or nickel dioxide (NiO2).
FIG. 14 shows an embodiment 1401 where a high work function material is used as an enhancement layer 1423 between a bottom electrode 1405 and a dielectric layer 1407, to promote growth of a desired dielectric through lattice matching principles while permitting use of electrode materials that might otherwise create unacceptably high leakage.
FIG. 15 is a plot that shows how thickness of the enhancement layer from FIG. 14 influences both leakage and dielectric constant.
FIG. 16 is a x-ray diffraction plot 1601 for different enhancement layer thicknesses; FIG. 16 helps show that as enhancement layer thickness becomes greater than about one nanometer (nm), the layer increasingly interferes with lattice matching principles, represented by decreased presence of rutile crystalline phase in the finished dielectric layer (expected peak location represented by line 1603).
FIG. 17 is a diagram used to illustrate fabrication of a dynamic random access memory (“DRAM”) cell according to the principles introduced herein.
FIG. 18 shows an array of DRAM cells, made according to the technology presented herein.
FIGS. 19-21 respectively illustrate memory cells including different capacitor configurations.
FIG. 19, in particular, illustrates a memory cell 1901 including a cylinder-shaped capacitor 1921.
FIG. 20 illustrates a memory cell 2001 using a pillar- or pedestal-shaped capacitor 2021.
FIG. 21 illustrates a memory cell 2101 using a crown-shaped capacitor 2121.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION
The invention defined by the enumerated claims may be better understood by referring to the following detailed description, which should be read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. This description of one or more particular embodiments, set out below to enable one to build and use various implementations of the invention or inventions set forth by the claims, is not intended to limit the enumerated claims, but to exemplify their application to certain methods and devices. The description set out below exemplifies (i) a method of forming at least part of an electronic device stack, namely, one having a dielectric layer and a conductive layer or layers operative as an electrode, and (ii) a semiconductor stack, for example, employed as a capacitor, a DRAM cell, or similar device. The invention, however, may also be applied to other examples as well.
I. Introduction
This disclosure provides a semiconductor stack or assembly conducive to the growth of specific material, such as a specific crystalline phase dielectric, based on lattice matching principles. That is to say, in some embodiments presented below, the production of a specific crystalline phase of a dielectric is facilitated using relatively inexpensive electrode materials which are processed during deposition or in situ to have lattice matching characteristics compatible with a specifically desired dielectric; when the dielectric is to be formed, a deposited material more readily adopts the desired crystalline phase, leading to a better dielectric (and electronic device with better performance characteristics).
Many of the embodiments discussed below use titanium dioxide (TiO2) as a primary constituent of the dielectric. Titanium dioxide has a number of crystalline forms, including anatase (having a dielectric constant on the order of about 40) and rutile (dielectric constant of about 170). By using a growth medium “compatible with” or “similar to” the crystalline structure of rutile phase titanium dioxide, “lattice matching” characteristics can be used to favor the formation of rutile phase titanium dioxide over other crystalline forms; this produces a high dielectric constant and better capacitors, transistors, and other similar components, or components built from these structures (e.g., dynamic random access memory or “DRAM” cells).
Oxides rooted in Noble metals may be used as such a grown medium. For example, co-pending application PCT/US09/57371 for Fabrication Of Semiconductor Stacks With Ruthenium-Based Materials, assigned in common with this disclosure, presents structures where rutile phase titanium dioxide (TiO2) can be grown atop ruthenium dioxide; this co-pending application is hereby incorporated by reference.
Unfortunately, ruthenium-based materials (as well as source material other “Noble” metals) are relatively expensive, and may be cost-prohibitive as a scalable process used in large volume products (e.g., in the fabrication of DRAM devices); as further mentioned in the co-pending application, the use of ruthenium can also cause nucleation delay, which further detracts from the scalability of ruthenium-based solutions. Other, less expensive metals can be used to promote lattice matching tend to yield a growth medium, but at the expense of a lower work function (e.g., sometimes less than 5 electron Volts or simply “eV”) relative to typical Noble metals; thus, devices based in these materials may exhibit greater leakage (and thus, have reduced ability to retain charge, which negatively impacts device performance).
This disclosure therefore provides alternative materials suitable for use in lattice matching growth of dielectric materials. In some embodiments presented below, to address the issue of relatively low work function associated with some of these less expensive metals, a layer or barrier is used to raise the effective work function of an electrode. Thus, as seen from the vantage point of a dielectric, a less expensive metal may be used to form a lattice matching growth medium, notwithstanding a tendency of the metal to produce a lower work function growth medium.
In the discussion that follows, an overview of lattice matching techniques will first be presented, followed by specific structures, fabrication processes and applications.
Notably, in many of the embodiments presented below, a dielectric formed principally of rutile phase TiO2 will be the focus. However, the principles presented in this disclosure may be extended to other desired dielectric materials, that is, where it is desired to promote the growth of a specific material other than TiO2. Thus, while many embodiments are couched in terms of using TiOx as a dielectric, it should be understood that the principles provided below are not so limited.
II. Overview: The Use of Lattice Matching to Form a MIM Assembly.
FIG. 1 presents a semiconductor assembly 101 having at least one electrode (a bottom electrode 103) and a dielectric 105. While the assembly can be applied to a variety of uses, in this example, the assembly is further configured as a capacitor, meaning that it also has a top electrode 107 with the two electrodes being controlled so as to store a charge between them, represented by the notations V1 or V2 for each respective electrode. As represented by the use of ellipses 109, the assembly may additionally include other layers, depending on desired application, such as smoothing layers, adherence layers, current steering layers, or other mechanisms, layered between the top electrode 107 and the dielectric 105, or potentially between other pairs of layers. The bottom electrode 103 can be mounted on a silicon-based substrate (not shown in FIG. 1). Preferably, the bottom electrode includes a layer of material 111 selected to provide an interface for the dielectric material. That is to say, the layer of material 111 can be selected to encourage the growth of a desired metal oxide (MOx) form, for example, using lattice matching principles. The bottom electrode 103 can be entirely composed of this layer of material 111 or, if desired, the bottom electrode can further include a base layer 113 that can be a conductive material in some embodiments. For example, if a conductive base layer is used, the base layer can be made of a relatively inexpensive material (e.g., a metal nitride) and a bitline or other conductor can be connected to (or form a continuous portion of) this base layer 113 instead of the layer of material 111, as denoted by dashed line connector 115. Thus, if desired, the layer of material 111 can be made to be a “flash” or “capping” layer.
In one embodiment, the interface layer 111 can be made relatively thin (e.g., less than fifty Angstroms in thickness) with the inexpensive “base layer” being at least this thick (such that the layer of material 111 makes up less than fifty percent of overall electrode thickness); in yet another embodiment, a base layer may be made several times thicker than layer of material 111 (such that the base layer makes up eighty percent or more of overall electrode thickness). Finally, as alluded to earlier, if it is desired to enhance the work function of the bottom electrode as seen from the vantage point of the dielectric 107, while still retaining lattice matching properties and associated dielectric growth benefits of layer 111, a thin barrier (not shown) may be formed between one of the electrodes (such as on top of the layer 111) and the dielectric for that purpose. The barrier if used is made thin enough so as to not change the lattice matching properties of the underlying layer 111, while at the same time providing an effective work function higher than that provided by layer 111; that is to say, while it might be suspected that a barrier between the interface 111 and the dielectric would interfere with lattice matching properties of layer 111, it has been found that any interference can be minimized while nonetheless enhancing work function of the electrode as long as the barrier is kept sufficiently thin.
Irrespective of whether an inexpensive base or other layers are used in the electrode, the electrode is to provide an exposed conductor surface suitable for the growth of a desired dielectric form. Where a layer of titanium oxide is grown above this surface (e.g., using an ALD process), lattice matching provided by interface with the electrode promotes the growth of rutile-phase titanium oxide, which has high and desirable dielectric constant. Electrode materials can be used (with a barrier if necessary) to provide a very high work function, and, thus, promote lower leakage and effective application of these materials to fabricate capacitors and structures based on capacitors, such as memory (e.g., DRAM cells). The use of these materials therefore promotes high device density, and thereby facilitates the trend toward increased miniaturization alluded to earlier.
FIG. 2 helps provide further detail on methods for building a semiconductor assembly, such as the MIM stack seen in FIG. 1. A diagram 201 indicates three embodiments, respectively numbered 203, 205 and 207. In a first embodiment 203, the assembly can include a TiOx dielectric, where one or more specific materials are used as the primary constituent of an electrode interface, for example, a constituent selected from the group of molybdenum dioxide (MoO2), tungsten dioxide (WO2), chromium dioxide (CrO2), manganese dioxide (MnO2), or tin dioxide (SnO2). Each of these latter materials, it is believed, has forms with specific lattice matching characteristics that should help grow a TiOx layer having improved dielectric properties. Although untested, it is also believed that iron dioxide (FeO2), tin dioxide (SnO2), cobalt dioxide (CoO2) and nickel dioxide (NiOx or NiO2) may also constitute suitable members of this group. In a second embodiment 205, a MIM stack is fabricated using TiO2 and an electrode material to provide an interface for the TiO2 where the electrode material satisfies specific constraints, that is, has a work function greater than 4.8 eV, a Gibbs free energy of at most −400 kilojoules per mole (kJ/mole), and lattice compatibility with TiO2. [What this latter condition means is that the Gibbs free energy, ΔG, should be more negative than −400 kJ/mole, i.e., ΔG≦−400 kJ/mole.] More will be stated below about how lattice compatibility is determined. A metal oxide (MOx) dielectric, such as TiOx, can be used in a third embodiment, 207, with an electrode material that is processed in situ to adopt a suitable lattice matching characteristics and, thus, provide a suitable electrode interface for a MOx dielectric; such a process for example, can be used where it is difficult to deposit the specifically desired electrode materials using conventional processes. FIG. 2 also illustrates a number of other options (denoted using dashed lines), including a first option 209 where the electrode can include both an interface layer and a base layer, and a second option 211, where an electrode interface is fabricated using a material that is initially non-conductive (e.g., is deposited in a thermodynamically favored form that is not suitable for use as the electrode interface, such as an insulator) but that is processed in situ to become conductive in addition to providing appropriate lattice matching characteristics; for example, molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) can be deposited as an insulator and via in situ processing, a MoO2 surface can be formed in the MoO3 and then crystallized so as to have desired “interface layer” lattice properties. In yet other another variation 213, the interface may be deliberately “roughened” to increase electrode surface area by introducing deformities, so as to effectively increase effective capacitance. That is to say, an exposed electrode surface may be subjected to a surface treatment process that effectively scratches (i.e., roughens) the exposed material so as to increase its effective surface area. By increasing the effective surface area of a relatively thin metal layer (e.g., a ruthenium-based capping layer), capacitor plate surface area may be increased without using processes to create hemispherical polysilicon or related etch processes. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,794,245 to Zheng. These and other options will be further discussed below.
Notably, the term “MIM” as used herein should be understood to encompass any combination of layers that utilize a dielectric with two electrodes, whether or not additional layers are present; for example, the term “MIM” should be understood to encompass metal-insulator-insulator-metal, metal-insulator-insulator-insulator-metal, metal-insulator-metal-insulator-metal and other, similar structures, with or without further insulators, enhancement layers, smoothing or adherence layers or other structures between them. An oxide “layer” (whether used in the context of part or all of an electrode or the dielectric) should be understood to refer to either (a) an entire layer, which may consist of a single layer or one or more “monolayers” that together cooperate to form an oxide layer, as well as (b) individual monolayers layers, e.g., an oxide of titanium, yttrium/aluminum, or both. Thus, a “layer” may refer to a single layer, to an aggregate combination of layers, or to one monolayer. The term “nanolayer” refers to a thin deposition that may achieve sparse or complete layer coverage—for example, a single ALD cycle may be used to deposit a nanolayer. The “substrate” may be any material capable of supporting a layer of semiconductor material, and may include a metal conductor, insulator, glass, previously deposited layer (dielectric, or otherwise) or another material, but generally in this disclosure will refer to a metal electrode mounted above a SiO2 or other base. “Preparation,” “treatment” or “pretreatment” of a layer typically includes cleaning or oxidizing a substrate to promote good adhesion between a to-be-deposited layer and the substrate, and to otherwise ready the substrate's surface for a semiconductor deposition; in the context of the discussion below, this term is also used to encompass scrubbing under pressure to render the surface somewhat abrasive, i.e., to scratch or roughen the surface. It should also generally be noted that when the term “ozone” is used in this disclosure, it is being used not to necessarily require “pure, 100%” ozone—that is, generally speaking, ozone is typically not used in pure form, i.e., it is typically mixed with other gasses such as oxygen in an approximately 1⁄5 ratio, and that such a mixture is typically the instantiation of “ozone” in the specific processes advanced by this disclosure. Also, it should be understood that the various atomic ratios expressed in this disclosure are approximate but may vary and may encompass both varying stoichiometries and non-stoichiometric compounds; without limiting this principle, as used herein, MOx and MOx (i.e., where “x” is used as a subscript) should both be understood to refer to oxides of a metal “M” of unknown stoichiometry, e.g., encompassing both multiple ratios (e.g., NiO, NiO2) as well as varying ratios (e.g., NiO0.95-1.95). Finally, the expression “primary” constituent or “primary” metal should be understood to refer to a constituent or metal (as appropriate) that is present in terms of composition in greater amounts than any other single constituent or metal (as appropriate).
FIGS. 3a-3e present views illustrating the fabrication of different layers of a stack, similar to the device of FIG. 1. In particular, FIG. 3a shows a basic MIM stack assembly 301 having a substrate 303, a bottom electrode or “BEL” 305, and a number of additional layers 307, typically including a top electrode “TEL” 309 and one or more layers of dielectric material 311. In accordance with the techniques mentioned above, the BEL has a top surface 313 that provides an interface for the dielectric materials, to provide for preferred growth and development of specific metal oxide forms for use as the dielectric. In one example, the dielectric can have a primary constituent of rutile phase TiO2 as previously mentioned, and the BEL can have at least a top surface formed from a specific, relatively inexpensive material such as molybdenum dioxide (MoO2), tungsten dioxide (WO2), chromium dioxide (CrO2), manganese dioxide (MnO2), or tin dioxide (SnO2). Depending on the specific crystalline form desired for the dielectric, nearly any electrode material can be used having (or formable to have) a crystalline structure compatible with (i.e., that engenders growth of) the desired dielectric form (i.e., rutile phase TiO2), depending on fabrication parameters such as cost, deposition rate, optimal dielectric constant and leakage, and other factors.
To elaborate on the issue of crystalline compatibility, rutile phase TiO2 has lattice parameters of approximately 4.5933, 4.5933 and 2.9592 Å (“a,” “b” and “c,” which are standard angle-based measures, derived from “Bragg's Law,” used to express crystalline shape). Conventionally, another crystalline form would be “compatible” with this structure if its “a,” “b” and “c” measurements were each within five percent of the corresponding “a,” “b” and “c” parameters of rutile phase TiO2; as used in this disclosure, however (unless otherwise specifically indicated), “compatibility,” or the fact that lattice parameters “approximate” or “approach” those of another structure, should be understood to mean that each parameter is within about ten percent of the other structure's lattice parameters. For example, a latticed material “compatible” with, or approximating, that for rutile phase TiO2 would mean that the material would have a crystal structure (1) with an “a” value of between 4.14497 and 5.05263 Å, (2) with a “b” value of between 4.14497 and 5.05263 Å, and (3) with a “c” value of between 2.66328 and 3.25512 Å. Again, these values represent the range of 90%-110% the crystal parameter values for rutile phase TiO2, and they would be different if another dielectric material was instead used or if it was desired to promote growth of some other material. For some of the materials mentioned above, the lattice crystal parameters are as set forth in Table 1, below.









TABLE 1









Lattice constants



(Å)












Material
a
b
C







Rutile
4.59
4.59
2.96



TiO2



WO2
4.86
4.86
2.77



MoO2
4.86
4.86
2.81



CrO2
4.42
4.42
2.92



SnO2
4.74
4.74
3.19



ReO2
4.79
4.79
2.81



MnO2
4.40
4.40
2.88










Having a lattice constant within ten percent of the corresponding value for rutile phase TiO2 does not on its own guarantee suitability of a material for growth of a desired metal oxide form, nor does the above-stated lattice compatibility criteria mean that other materials are not suitable; rather, the “compatibility” merely is one criteria for selecting possibly suitable materials.
Another criterion used to select suitable materials can include the relative stability of the material for the fabrication processes used, related to the material's Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG). Generally speaking, the more negative the ΔG value for a material, the more stable it will be and the more suitable for semiconductor manufacturing processes. For some of the materials including many of those mentioned above, the ΔG value is given in Table 2, below.










TABLE 2








ΔGf



Material
(kJ/mole)









Rutile
−888



TiO2



WO2
−530



MoO2
−528



CrO2
−544



SnO2
−475



ReO2
−378



MnO2
−465



OsO2
−238



RuO2
−253



IrO2
−161



RhO2
−205



PtO2
−164










Not all of these materials may be desirable; for example, as alluded to earlier, it is generally desired to use materials that are low cost; Noble metal oxides, such as RuO2 tend to be expensive, and thus may not be desirable as a method of producing low-cost devices. Also of note, generally speaking, it is believed that a ΔG of at most −400 kJ/mole is desired for materials that are to serve as the growth surface for rutile phase TiO2 (again, “at most” as used in this context means having an energy that is equal to or more negative than −400 kJ/mole, i.e., −500 kJ/mole would satisfy this criterion, whereas −300 kJ/mole would not). For example, rhenium dioxide (ReO2) generally satisfies the lattice criteria articulated above, but not the ΔG criterion just mentioned.

A high work function is also a desired parameter, for growth surfaces that are also to serve as an electrode material. In this regard, leakage in the context of a capacitor is directly related to the ability of a capacitor to store charge; for many structures, including DRAM cells, a leakage as close to zero as possible is desired as this maximizes the ability of DRAM cells to store charge over longer duration and relaxes refresh requirements. Noble metals, such as platinum and ruthenium, generally provide very high work function, on the order of 5.0 eV or higher, but these source materials for these metals as mentioned are also generally expensive. Where a specific metal oxide form is to be used as a dielectric, in contact or close proximity to a conductor, it would be desirable to also have the associated interface material have a work function as high as possible. Table 3, below, lists work function for some of the materials identified above.










TABLE 3








Typical



Material
WF




















WO2
4.8
eV



MoO2
4.8-5.0
eV



CrO2
4.9
eV



SnO2
4.6
eV



MnO2
5.0
eV










As alluded to earlier, a work function enhancement layer may be used to help boost the effective work function of an electrode surface; provided that the material selected for such a layer improves work function without interfering with the lattice matching function of any underlying layer(s), nearly any material may be used as such an enhancement layer. For example, it has been found that certain metals (e.g., NiOx) used in a sufficiently thin layer can be used to boost the work function of an electrode based in the materials presented in Table 3, above, to above 5.0 eV without interfering with lattice matching characteristics of these materials. The use of such an enhancement layer in select embodiments will be further described below.
With reference back to FIG. 3a, the interface 313 is preferably selected based on application, i.e., in this example, to be a conductor upon which a metal oxide dielectric (rutile phase TiO2) can be grown. As will be explained further below, a variety of processes can be used to deposit the various materials and their associated MIM stack layers, including physical vapor deposition (“PVD”), chemical vapor deposition (“CVD”), atomic layer deposition (“ALD”), evaporative or other processes. For purposes of discussion of FIGS. 3a-3e, it is assumed that an ALD process is used.
FIG. 3b presents a view of the structure 301 of FIG. 3a, but where only the BEL 305 has been deposited atop a substrate 303. In this example, the BEL 305 consists of two layers, including a base layer 315 and an interface layer 317. The interface layer represents that material that encourages growth of the desired metal oxide form, e.g., that material having lattice structure, Gibbs free energy and so forth, that engenders the formation of rutile phase TiO2, whether the layer 317 is deposited with these properties, or represents a portion of BEL 305 that is modified in situ to have the desired properties. As mentioned, the base layer 315 can be conductive in one embodiment and non-conductive in another. In capacitor or DRAM cell applications, it may be desired to have the base layer 315 consist of a relatively cheap, easily fabricated, highly conductive material, for example, titanium nitride (TiN), with the interface layer 317 added on top. Alternatively, the interface layer can be formed in situ from the base layer—for example, in one embodiment, Mo2N can be deposited as the base layer 315, with a top region formed by controlled oxygen treatment to replace the nitrogen atoms with oxygen atoms and convert a thin surface layer of the Mo2N to MoO2, and thus form the interface layer in situ. In yet another embodiment, the base layer can be made non-conductive—for example, a relatively thick layer of MoO3 (an insulator) can be deposited as the base layer 315, with the interface layer processed by reducing this material to form conductive MoO2 as the interface layer 317. Generally speaking, if a base layer 315 is used as part of the electrode, or to support a conductive interface layer 317 for an electrode, the base layer typically makes up at least 50% of overall electrode thickness; in one embodiment, the base layer can make up 80% or more of the overall electrode thickness, meaning that the base layer can be at least four times as thick as the interface layer. The interface layer can be on the order of 5-50 Angstroms thick. Irrespective of specific process, the BEL 305 is formed to have a surface or other suitable interface 313 upon which to grow the desired material.
FIG. 3c provides a view similar to that of FIG. 3b, but in which there is no base layer. That is to say, FIG. 3c shows the structure 301 having the BEL 305 deposited atop the substrate 303, but where the electrode consists entirely of the interface layer 317. To provide an example, several deposition processes are described below including one where MoO2 is originally fabricated on the substrate and then crystallized to have the desired properties as a growth medium for rutile phase TiO2. Whichever material is used, once again, the desired growth surface 313 is presented to whichever material is to be deposited atop the BEL, so as to engender formation of the desired metal oxide form (or other material form, depending on application).
FIG. 3d provides a view which shows the deposition of the dielectric atop the BEL 305. In particular, the structure 301 is now seen to consist of the substrate 303 (e.g., a silicon substrate or other support medium), the BEL 305 and the dielectric 311. If produced by an ALD process, the dielectric 311 may include a number of nanolayers or other depositions which after many cycles, builds a dielectric of suitable thickness. For this example, it should be assumed that a dielectric of rutile phase TiO2 is created, of approximately 50-80 Angstroms thickness, but of course other materials can be used instead or in addition if desired. Each layer may be on the order of 1⁄2 Angstrom thickness, so it may take one hundred or more ALD cycles to deposit the dielectric (e.g., a TiO2 layer of about 50 Angstroms). Also, the desired dielectric can also be doped so as to enhance its leakage or other properties, for example, with aluminum, yttrium, or another substance. In FIG. 3d, numeral 313 again represents the growth surface for the desired dielectric, and numeral 319 represents the selected deposition process, assumed to be ALD in this example. As represented by matching “lattice” “symbols” or “icons” 321 in FIG. 3d, the BEL presents lattice matching properties with the desired dielectric form, so as to provide a repeatable process for ensuring the production of a metal oxide having a sufficiently high dielectric constant.
FIG. 3e provides a view of the completed structure; a MIM stack 301 is formed atop the substrate 303 and includes a BEL 305, a dielectric 311, and a top electrode (“TEL”) 309; the TEL can be formed to have the same approximate thickness as the BEL, but need not have the same lattice properties since it is typically added after dielectric formation. Preferably, the TEL is a relatively high—work function material that if possible is also formed from a relatively inexpensive conductive material and has a thickness of 20-50 Angstroms or more. As with preceding FIGS., the growth surface for the dielectric and the lattice matching properties are respectively denoted by numerals 313 and 321.
With the use of lattice matching principles to fabricate a MIM assembly now introduced, additional details on manufacturing processes will now be presented, with reference to FIG. 4-13.
III. Materials And Process Considerations
FIG. 4 shows methodology for fabricating a MIM assembly, including a number of process options. In particular, a general method is designated with numeral 401 with various options indicated in dashed lines, and a number of branches (represented by processes 411, 413 and 417) presenting fabrication alternatives. A silicon substrate is first prepared, as indicated by numeral 403. Preparation can consist of a cleaning process, such as for example using an ozone scrubbing process to remove any surface contaminants. The first electrode is then fabricated as the BEL, per numeral 405. As represented by dashed line optional processes 407 and 409, the BEL may be fabricated to have a base layer that is different from the material that provides the dielectric interface. As part of the electrode fabrication process, one of three basic alternate “branches” can be employed to fabricate the dielectric. First, as indicated by numeral 411, a CVD or ALD process can be used to deposit a conductor such as MoO2; again, there are alternatives to the use of this specific material and if it is desired to have rutile phase TiO2 serve as the dielectric, other conductive materials (such as the conductive oxides listed earlier or meeting the lattice, energy and work function criteria mentioned earlier) may also be used. Second, as indicated by reference numeral 413, a non-conductive material may be deposited and used to in situ fabricate a suitable growth surface for the desired dielectric form. As indicated by numerals 413 and 415 together, MoO2 may once again be obtained as a conductor by first depositing MoO3 and then in situ processing the deposited material to convert it to become a conductor. The deposited MoO3 may be subjected to a reducing anneal under controlled circumstances to remove just the “right amount” of oxygen, thereby converting nonconductive MoO3 to conductive MoO2. Third, one may also deposit a conductor such as a metal nitride and apply a conversion process to convert this material to provide a suitable growth surface, as represented by step 417. This option presents the advantage that metal nitrides are commonly used as conductors, and the process chemistry is well understood, and it also provides an effective “base layer” conductor for use as a bitline or other access element within a DRAM array. This option is separated from the second option mentioned above, because instead of a reducing anneal, an oxidation process is performed per block 419 to remove nitrogen atoms from an “interface layer” and to replace those nitrogen atoms with oxygen; once again in this example, a conductor of MoO2 can be formed, this time upon a base layer of Mo2N.
As with other materials, MoO2 as a material does not necessarily inherently possess the crystalline structure suitable for dielectric growth but, rather, can be amorphous, especially, in as-deposited state. Thus, as indicated by process 421, the BEL once deposited is subjected to a RTN process to crystallize the interface layer as appropriate, to create a lattice structure matching that of the desired dielectric (or other material) and, if desired, a work function enhancement layer may then be fabricated, per numeral 422. With the growth surface thus readied, the dielectric and top electrode can be added, per processes 423 and 425, and the entire assembly can be subjected to an anneal, as indicated by numeral 427.
As mentioned, a number of different alternatives exist for fabrication the MIM layers as described above, including CVD and ALD, and including the use of materials other than MoO2 and MoO3. While it should be understood that these and other equivalent processes may be used, to facilitate a complete description of an entire fabrication process, ALD and associated options will be primarily discussed below.
A. One Exemplary Deposition Process: ALD.
Atomic Layer Deposition, or “ALD,” refers to a process used to deposit conformal layers with atomic scale thickness during semiconductor processing operations. ALD may be used to deposit barrier layers, adhesion layers, electrode layers, seed layers, dielectric layers, conductive layers, etc. ALD is generally regarded a multi-step, self-limiting process in the sense that a reaction terminates once a transferred material is consumed by the one or more reagents. Generally, a first material is first introduced into a processing chamber and adsorbed to a substrate. Excess material is then purged or pumped away, as appropriate, and then a second material is then introduced into the chamber, to react with the first material. Formation of a reacted film or monolayer using the aforementioned steps constitutes one deposition (or ALD cycle), and the process can then be repeated as necessary to form additional monolayers, with the number of cycles (and number of atomic layers) determining the film's total thickness. The ALD can be used to deposit each of the electrode and the dielectric, as well as the other stack layers referenced above.
FIG. 5 presents a schematic 501 of an ALD chamber and an associated timing graph 519 that may be used to create oxide monolayers of titanium oxide, a dopant oxide or each of them. While discussed in the context of deposition of a dielectric, it should be understood that the same basic principles apply to fabrication of one or more layers of an electrode (e.g., an electrode having an interface layer of WO2, SnO2, CrO2 or MnO2). FIG. 5 shows a reaction chamber 503 having an evacuation pump 505 and an inlet 507, to introduce precursors and reagents into the chamber. Three valves, 509, 511 and 513 are depicted to each respectively supply a reagent (e.g., vaporized water, oxygen or ozone), a dopant precursor or a titanium precursor, as controlled by software. Each gas is selectively introduced into the chamber and forms a self-saturating layer as it flows over the substrate, which may be mounted on a suitable holder or pedestal 517 and, if desired, may be rotated or otherwise robotically manipulated during deposition or between cycles.
The timing diagram presented at the left-hand side of FIG. 5 shows relative timing pulses that may be used in one embodiment to fabricate oxide layers of titanium and a dopant (i.e., assuming it is desired to create a doped titanium oxide). In particular, a first waveform 521 represents the timing of reagent pulses, e.g., ozone (O3), oxygen gas (O2), vaporized water, or some other material, as mentioned above. Second and third waveforms, 523 and 525, respectively represent the operation of control valves 511 and 513 to supply primary metal (M) and dopant (D) precursors (e.g., as organometallics). Finally, a final waveform 527 represents a digital control over the purge gas functions, used to control both the injection and evacuation pumps (505 and 507). The process depicted in FIG. 5 may be used to introduce organometallics deposited together or sequentially without an intervening reagent and/or purge cycle. Solid lines 523 and 525 indicate the use of a sequential introduction of organometallics, for example, to deposit distinct layers of a primary metal (e.g., as a metal oxide) and a dopant (e.g., a dopant metal oxide, if desired) alternating between these materials to thereby build up an aggregated oxide (or other material) layer, e.g., via forty or more cycles; alternatively, as indicated by dashed line pulses 529, injection of organometallics into the deposition chamber may in some embodiments be simultaneous, so as to deposit a number of M-D-Ox monolayers. Generally speaking, the use of a dopant is not strictly required, and depending on desired implementation, a layer may be fabricated using a primary metal oxide. Generally speaking, each monolayer in these embodiments can be expected to be on the order of about 1⁄2 Angstrom thick, such that forty layers would produce an oxide layer approximately two nanometers thick. Typical oxide layers can be expected to be at least this thick, with a conventional range being on the order of 4-12 nanometers thickness.
FIG. 5 illustrates that, if desired, a sequence of monolayers may be deposited by introducing a metal precursor, an oxygen source, a dopant precursor, an oxygen source, a metal precursor, an oxygen source, and so-on, in a repeating manner, to deposit MOX with occasional depositions of a dopant oxide, with intervening purge or other cycles as necessary. As alluded to earlier, dopants such as yttrium oxide, aluminum oxide, magnesium oxide or scandium oxide may also be employed, and the ALD process may also be used to deposit the electrode layers or their base materials as has been previously described.
FIG. 6 illustrates this general method, denoted by reference numeral 601. As indicated by block 603, a substrate may first be prepared and introduced into a clean room environment. The preparation steps may include any steps suitable to the substrate and other materials at issue, for example, as may be necessary to prepare for deposition of a first electrode on a substrate (e.g., via a wet or dry cleaning process). The substrate may include any material suitable for use in supporting a semiconductor layer, including metal, glass, some other insulator, or another material, conventional or otherwise; generally speaking, when fabricating a MIM stack for use as an electronic component (e.g., capacitor, DRAM cell), an electrode layer is first deposited or readied. For example, any of the processes mentioned earlier may be used to prepare an electrode surface for use as a suitable growth surface, with lattice matching properties. This surface may be crystallized via a RTP process, and if desired, “roughened” so as to increase effective capacitance. Once ready, the electrode surface may be cleaned or prepared. As mentioned, the preparation may also include a scrubbing step depending on exposed surface, to clean, oxidize and otherwise prepare the electrode surface.
Following preparation and pretreatment, the chamber is purged (if necessary) using a vacuum process, as indicated by function block 605. One or more precursors are then introduced to the chamber to adsorb to surface of the substrate, as indicated by block 607. Then chamber is purged to leave only a conformal amount of the precursor(s) on the top surface of the substrate, as indicated by block 609. A reagent (such as oxygen gas, ozone gas, water vapor, or some other oxygen source) is then introduced to the chamber to react with precursor(s) on the surface of the substrate per reference numeral 611. Some designs may benefit from the use of multiple reagent pulses, separated if desired by a purge cycle. This process is indicated in FIG. 6 as a dashed-line (optional step) block 612. After step 611 (or 612), chamber is purged again, indicated as block 621, to remove extra reagent and byproduct of the reaction and leave only one monolayer of desired material on top the substrate. The process from 607 to 621 is considered as one ALD cycle.
The cycle's result is a layer having a thickness on the order of a fraction of an Angstrom to a few Angstroms. Cycles may be then repeated as necessary to deposit any number of desired layers (e.g., forty times to produce a 2 nm thick dielectric layer for a hypothetical growth rate of 0.5 A/ALD cycle). When the dielectric layer of the appropriate thickness and metal electrode have been formed, the assembly can be subjected to a surface treatment or an anneal process in an oxygen/ozone-rich environment, identified by reference numeral 623 and 625 respectively, which further oxidizes the fabricated film to fill remaining oxygen vacancies and reduce defects in the film, as will be described below.
FIG. 7 presents additional detail on a method 701 used to fabricate a conductor such as MoO2 using an ALD process. In particular, a molybdenum precursor such as Mo(CO)6 may be used as a metal precursor, using the ALD process just described. There exist a number of stable molybdenum forms, including MoO3 (a thermodynamically favored state for molybdenum, also a nonconductive state), MoO2, which is conductive and which in suitable crystalline form presents excellent lattice matching characteristics (for rutile phase TiO2), and metal molybdenum (Mo). Thus, for the deposition process employed, it may be desired to use controlled process parameters to ensure that the desired material and state is produced. As indicated in FIG. 7 by numerals 705, 707 and 711, for an ALD process using Mo(CO)6, this can be achieved using a pedestal heated to at least 150 degrees Centigrade (C), preferably about 200 C, ALD process using Mo(CO)6 as precursor and oxygen, ozone or H2O gas as a oxidizing reagent, and a crystallization process (an anneal process at 400-600 C, in an environment of O2, N2, a combination of O2 and N2, or in another suitable gas environment) to arrive at the MoO2 having the desired crystalline form; the various anneal options are variously indicated by optional steps 713, 715 and 717 in FIG. 7.
ALD or CVD can be used for deposition of these materials and can be accomplished by using variety of precursors, as set forth below.

    
    
        1. Metal-organic precursors: Amides, acac-, carbonyls, Cyclopentadienyl based, Alkyl-Cyclopentadienyl, diketonates, Alkyl-amides and combination of two or more of the above.
        2. Metal halides: Chlorides, fluorides and bromides.
    
    


B. Other Deposition Processes: PVD (Sputtering).
FIG. 8 provides a flow diagram 801 for a sputtering process. In this example, as before, it will be assumed that it is desired to produce crystalline MoO2 as a desired growth medium for a material (such as rutile phase TiO2). As mentioned, MoO3 is the thermodynamically favored state for molybdenum and thus it is expected that a conventional reactive sputter process would result in the deposition of nonconductive MoO3 in poisoned mode or metal molybdenum in metal mode. FIG. 8 therefore represents use of a closed-loop sputter process, that is, where target cathode voltage is measured and fed back to continuously regulate the sputter process parameters to a desired point of a hysteresis curve.
As indicated in FIG. 8, to determine process parameters, a number of test structures can be first fabricated at different pedestal temperatures, oxidizer flow rates and sputtering power, with these process parameters held constant throughout the associated deposition instance. The obtained structures are evaluated for suitability, and a hysteresis curve is then plotted, to determine optimal process parameters. In this regard, an optimal process will be one that produces the desired material (e.g., MoO2) with the best reasonable deposition rate. These processes are represented by numerals 803 and 805 in FIG. 8 and represent an offline process, denoted by the area vertically above a horizontal line 807. Once the optimal process parameters are determined, these parameters are then applied in run-time fab processes, denoted by the area below horizontal line 807. For example, these parameters may be applied in a closed-loop manufacturing run sputter process and used to fabricate working devices (e.g., capacitors or DRAMs), per numerals 809 and 811.
FIG. 9 provides further detail on the plotting of a hysteresis curve and selection of process parameters. FIG. 9 depicts a graph 901 that illustrates a normal hysteresis curve 905 (positive direction, meaning continuously increase reactive gas partial pressure) at a fixed sputtering power using a metal sputtering target. Notably, the hysteresis curve 905 features an increasing slope—the increasing slope indicates that cathode voltage for certain combinations of materials may increase for greater reactive gas concentrations, as the oxides of certain materials may reduce secondary electron production (relative to metal mode). The graph 901 identifies a metal mode region 907 and a poisoned mode region 909, with a transition region 911 there between. It is typically in this region that it would be desired to deposit MoO2. In accordance with the teachings provided above, each hysteresis curve may be plotted in advance, via empirical determinations, and analyzed to determine how desired deposition influences desired electrical properties. For example, for the curve 905, different regions of tolerance may be established for desired electrical properties, as exemplified by hypothetical ranges 917 and 919 and point 921; the point 921 represents an optimal process, but one may also operate within ranges 917 and 919 to the extent these produce results within acceptable tolerances. With appropriate ranges determined, a closed-loop sputtering process may be employed, with concentration of the reactive gas used to modulate cathode voltage to control the deposition to a specifically desired voltage (or voltages). A voltage profile may be developed, consisting of one or more desired voltages, changed if desired with respect to time. For example, such a profile can consist of a constant, single voltage used throughout the deposition process, or it may include one or more transitions between different voltage points during a continuous deposition process.
As mentioned above, both ALD and CVD present well established processes, and the use of sputtering as a PVD process is illustrated here merely to illustrate that different options exist for creating the structures discussed herein.
C. Other Materials or Process Considerations.
As mentioned earlier, a number of other options also exist for fabricating the structures discussed herein. FIGS. 10-13 are used to illustrate these other materials and process considerations.
More particularly, FIG. 10 illustrates the second branch alluded to earlier, and provides an example where a nonconductive, thermodynamically favored form may be deposited and then processed in situ to provide the desired growth medium. Generally depicted by numeral 1001, the method may use a CVD, PVD or ALD process to deposit a material such as MoO3 atop a substrate (or atop one or more base layers if desired). Once this process is complete, or in a contemporaneous manner, this material may then be partially or fully reduced to form MoO2, as represented by numerals 1003 and 1005. As indicated, the reducing anneal may be performed within a window of 400-600 C under forming gas (Ar/H2) environment. For MoO2, and specific equipment and processes used for evaluation of this material, the data for appropriate anneal process parameters is given in Table 5, below. As indicated in Table 5, for the experiments run, it was found preferable to use an anneal temperature closer to 600 C for a period of 3-10 minutes.










TABLE 5





Phase
3 min
10 min
15 min







450 C.
Amorphous
MoO3 + Mo4O11 + MoO2
MoO3 + Mo4O11 +





MoO2


600 C.
MoO2
MoO2
MoO2 + Mo


700 C.
Mo + MoO2
Mo + MoO2
Mo









It is also believed that reduction can also be achieved in an anneal or depositing environment where a very low oxygen partial pressure is provided, for example, by relying on H2/H2O or CO/CO2 gas mixtures (e.g., using a vacuum and/or forming gas environment).

General electrical data for the processes and structures set forth above, showing improvements obtained using MoO2 as an interface layer with aluminum doped TiO2 and a TiN base layer, are set forth in Table 6, below.











TABLE 6






RTN

EOT



Structure
(C.)
Thickness(nm)
(nm)
K







TiN/Al—TiO2/
460 C.
12
1.37
34


TiN/MoO2/Al—TiO2/
460 C.
12
0.67
69


TiN/MnO2/Al—TiO2/
460 C.
12
0.66
71









The process depicted by FIGS. 4 and 10 may be attractive for a variety of reasons. As transition metals may have several oxidation states, a metal oxide with a lattice structure compatible with rutile phase TiO2 may not be the easiest material to fabricate due to governing thermodynamics. For example, the processing space for MoO2 deposition is narrow when compared to process space for MoO3 which, as mentioned is thermodynamically favored.
MoO2 is not the only material that can be produced using the methods of FIG. 4 (second branch) or FIG. 10; a number of other suitable materials exist, including the oxides mentioned earlier (at least molybdenum dioxide, tungsten dioxide, chromium dioxide, manganese dioxide, tin dioxide or). To provide an example relating to manganese, with reference to FIG. 11, Mn, Mn2O3 and Mn3O4 are relatively stable states with broad process windows. In order to obtain MnO2, desired for capacitor applications based on lattice matching characteristics with TiO2, Mn2O3 or Mn3O4 can first be deposited using a CVD or ALD process and then oxidized to MnO2, as generally indicated by method 1101 Here again, oxidation can be accomplished by anneal in oxygen or any oxygen bearing environment such as ozone or water. Experiments were performed to demonstrate that ozone anneal can result in oxidation of Mn2O3 to MnO2; these experiments were also run using oxygen gas (O2) but without adequate results. Using much the same process, WO3 can be reduced to WO2, and it is believed this approach can be applied for the other “difficult to produce” oxides indicated above, for use as an interface layer. Once the suitable interface material has been formed, an anneal process is then once again applied to produce the desired crystalline form. Generally speaking, the deposition, oxidation and crystallization steps are represented in FIG. 11 by numerals 1103, 1105 and 1107.
FIG. 12 presents another method 1201 used to form a desired interface layer, again using the example of MoO2. For example, per step 1203, CVD or an ALD process may be used to deposit a metal nitride such as Mo2N to form a general conductor. As represented by process step 1205, this material can then be subjected to an oxidizing anneal (again with controlled process parameters) to replace nitrogen atoms (in principle, reducing the nitrogen) with oxygen atoms to form MoO2. As with the processes described previously, after the appropriate metal oxide has been formed, the resultant layer can then be subjected to an RTN process (per numeral 1207) to appropriately crystallize the conductor surface. Again, while an anneal temperature window of 400-600 C may be generally used for this purpose, it has been found that a 600 degree anneal for approximately 3-10 minutes produces appropriate results.
The use of a conversion process described in FIG. 12 presents several advantages. First, metal nitrides have significantly lower resistivity as compared to metal dioxides. Having a bulk of electrode in metal nitride form with metal dioxide layer on top would meet all requirements for an electrode fabrication (low resistivity due to metal nitride, high work function and rutile-like surface to the “converted” metal dioxide (i.e., the interface layer). Second, such a process wouldn't require any special requirements to form the metal oxide material used for the interface—a MNx/metal oxide stack electrode can be formed by CVD/ALD deposition of the metal nitride, followed by oxidation treatment of the nitride so as to form a thin metal oxide layer on the top. The temperature and oxygen partial pressure of the anneal environment can be controlled to form the specifically desired oxide such that further reduction or oxidation is not needed.
The processing windows associated with this processing, and with the other processes described above for molybdenum, are further illustrated in FIG. 13. FIG. 13 shows a graph 1301 having two curves, 1303 and 1305, which respectively indicate process boundaries associated with the use of MoO2; in particular, dashed-line curve 1303 represents process boundaries between the formation of MoO3 and MoO2, and curve 1305 represents process boundaries between the formation of MoO2 and metal molybdenum (Mo). As indicated by FIG. 13, appropriate selection of process temperature and oxygen rate, when combined with appropriate process materials, may be used to fabricate a desired class of electrode materials based on a metal oxide, for example, based on molybdenum dioxide (MoO2), tungsten dioxide (WO2), chromium dioxide (CrO2), manganese dioxide (MnO2) or tin dioxide (SnO2). Generally speaking, through appropriate control of processing parameters, including process temperature and materials supply, an oxide having the desired properties may be formed, in lieu of a different oxidation state that perhaps might otherwise be thermodynamically favored. Once formed, the deposited material may then be crystallized as appropriate (using an anneal process) and the stack or assembly may thereafter serve as the host for a dielectric fabrication process, and the subsequent addition of a top electrode or other layers as has been previously introduced.
D. Roughening to Increase Effective Dielectric Constant.
Another process variation used to improve device properties is the roughening of an electrode/dielectric interface to increase effective capacitor area. In particular, for a capacitor of given width, length and plate separation, effective capacitance can be increased by increasing capacitor plate surface area; by increasing surface roughness of one or both of the capacitor plates, which effectively increases the surface area of the electrode, additional effective dielectric constant of a resultant semiconductor stack can be obtained. U.S. Pat. No. 6,794,245 to Zheng was referenced earlier as relating to a hemispherical silicon process. In the context of the current embodiments, however, one way electrode surface roughness can be increased is through the use of an ozone scrubbing or pretreatment process applied to scratch the surface of an electrode or the dielectric, that is, to create roughness on a microscopic scale as opposed to a hemispherical silicon process. This roughness can be created either subsequent to BEL formation but prior to dielectric fabrication, or subsequent to dielectric formation but prior to TEL formation.
For some experiments run in the context of PCT/US09/57371, it was found that the rougher the electrode surface, the higher the effective dielectric constant and the higher the leakage. For some designs, it may be desired to maximize dielectric constant up until a point where leakage reaches a level that is unacceptable. Below this roughness level (RMS median roughness of about 3.0 nanometers), it was found that dielectric constant can be maximized for a given set of materials without violating maximum leakage requirements of 10−6 Amps per square centimeter, at 1 Volt, with a preferred range of 1.5 to 3.0 nanometer RMS roughness. Clearly, a different median roughness can be used to maximize effective dielectric constant depending upon specification constraints for leakage. As to the duration and concentration of an agent used for the pretreatment process, it is believed that a source of approximately 10% ozone to oxygen ratio can be used, with an exposure time selected on the order of one to hundreds of seconds, depending on the electrode materials. The specific exposure variables should be selected based on the materials used and other design constraints (such as maximum desired leakage), with the goal being to scratch or displace only some of the exposed electrode or dielectric surface in order to increase its effective surface area. While a scrubbing process that utilizes ozone to remove this material has been described above, it is believed that many processes may be equivalently suited to this process if they increase the RMS variation of the electrode surface in the manner indicated that increases electrode or dielectric surface area without significantly affecting the ability of that surface to mechanically and electrically interface with the dielectric layer.
The processes discussed above present an effective way to increase effective dielectric constant for given capacitor design, and should present an attractive alternative to using other processes, such as those that rely upon hemispherical polysilicon.
E. Use of a Work Function Enhancement Layer.
As mentioned earlier, it is generally desired to use inexpensive materials for the growth medium lattice-matched to the desired dielectric (e.g., rutile TiO2). Thus, in some embodiments, it may be desired to use non-Noble materials to form the growth medium or interface with an additional layer as necessary to help improve work function of the electrode/dielectric interface, and thereby help minimize charge leakage. Further, it is generally desired to use a material that (a) will remain substantially unaffected by subsequent processing steps (e.g., ozone treatment in connection with ALD or other formation of a dielectric), and (b) will not unacceptably interfere with the lattice matching properties of the growth medium.
FIG. 14 therefore presents a structure similar to the embodiment of FIGS. 3b and 3e, but that also relies upon a work function enhancement layer. More specifically, FIG. 14 shows a cross section of a MIM stack 1401 having a substrate 1403, bottom and top electrodes 1405 and 1409, and a dielectric layer 1407. A thin layer 1423 of a material is used between one electrode (e.g., BEL 1405 in FIG. 14) and the dielectric layer 1407 to increase the effective work function of the dielectric/electrode interface by providing a charge leakage barrier. As was the case with the embodiments discussed above, the bottom electrode 1405 is selected to provide lattice matching characteristics to grow a desired dielectric crystalline structure (as denoted by lattice icons 1421), and may optionally be formed as either a single “interface” or as a layered structure, with a base metal 1415 and interface or lattice matching layer or region 1417. The work function enhancement layer 1423 is added atop this structure, for example, via an ALD process, as previously discussed (CVD and PVD processes may also be used).
In one embodiment, the work function enhancement layer is formed to have a primary constituent from the group consisting of nickel oxide (NiOx), metal nickel, molybdenum trioxide (MoO3), niobium disellenide (NbSe2), gallium sellenide (GaSe), vanadium disellenide (VSe2) and titanium disellenide (TiSe2). This list is not exhaustive and as represented by the “x” in NiOx, some variation in the identified stoichiometries may be accommodated. In the context of a rutile phase titanium dioxide dielectric, one material that has proven especially useful where the materials for these purposes is metal nickel or an oxide of nickel (NiO)x. A variety of fabrication processes including ALD may be used to deposit this material, preferably to an average thickness of no more than 2.0 nanometers, and ideally to an average thickness of about 1.0 nanometers or less. The oxide may be directly formed as part of the deposition process, or may be deposited in another form (e.g., metal nickel) and later processed to adopt the desired form (e.g., by exposing deposited metal nickel to ozone to form a nickel oxide layer). In one embodiment, an ALD process may be used to deposit a nickel precursor (e.g., a nickel nitride), with an oxygen source (e.g., ozone) used as a reagent, to deposit nanolaminates of nickel oxide.
FIG. 15 provides data on appropriate thickness of a work function enhancement layer. More particularly, FIG. 15 provides a graph 1501 that plots both leakage and dielectric constant across a range of thicknesses for the work function enhancement layer. A left-side axis 1503 and first plot line 1505 represent dielectric constant “K” while a right-hand axis 1507 and second plot line 1509 represents leakage “J.” The test samples serving as the basis for the Figure reflect nickel oxide (NiOx) as the work function enhancement layer (thickness expressed in nanometers), as well as use of a MoO2 bottom electrode and 5% AL-doped TiO2 as the dielectric material. As can be seen from FIG. 15, dielectric constant is inversely proportional to enhancement layer thickness, meaning that as the enhancement layer becomes increasingly thick, it masks the lattice matching properties of the underlying electrode, with the result that the dielectric represents increased presence of other crystalline structures, with lower consequent dielectric constant. At the same time, the thicker the enhancement layer, the smaller the leakage, as represented by plot line 1509. As it is generally desired to have as low a leakage as possible, preferably less than 10−7 or 10−8 A/cm2 at 0.6 volts, the data from FIG. 15 suggests a number of specific possible ranges that may be used, depending on application and embodiment:

    
    
        (a) a range of 0 through approximately 2.0 nanometers (<2.0 nm, “good” observed results);
        (b) a range of 0.2 through approximately 1.0 nm, based on observation of relatively constant leakage for nickel oxide thicknesses of about 0.20 through 2.0 nm, with a step up in dielectric constant for barrier thicknesses below about 1.0 nm on average and a leakage for thicknesses below about 0.2 nm RMS (“better” observed results); and
        (c) an average thickness of “about” 0.20-0.50 nm, which reconciles maximum dielectric constant with minimum leakage (“best” observed results).

These ranges are respectively depicted by numerals 1511, 1513 and 1515 in FIG. 15.

    
    


FIG. 16 provides further data that underscores these results. More particularly, FIG. 16 presents an x-ray diffraction plot 1601 for varying thicknesses of the enhancement layer using the same test materials, and presents a vertical line 1603 showing the expected location of a data associated with the presence of rutile in the dielectric material; FIG. 16 shows plots for layer thicknesses of 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 nanometers, each represented by a respective plot line 1605, 1607, 1609, 1611 and 1613. As indicated by two ellipses 1615 and 1617, a rutile peak was observed for enhancement layer thicknesses of below 1.0 nanometers (line 1607), but disappeared for thicknesses exceeding about 1.0 nanometers (line 1609). With reference again to FIG. 15, this data suggests that the fall off of dielectric constant below about 1.0 nm, and the consistently lower dielectric constant seen for layer thicknesses above about 1.0 nm are due to inhibition of the lattice matching effect of the bottom electrode.
The observed data clearly suggests that a work function enhancement layer may facilitate the use of inexpensive electrode materials that provide desired lattice matching characteristics, but that would otherwise present unacceptably high leakage. By providing a way to mitigate leakage without significantly impeding the desired lattice matching characteristics, the embodiment of FIG. 14 provides a path to obtaining exactly these results without requiring the use of electrodes rooted in Noble metals. Notably, while the charge leakage barrier or enhancement layer is depicted between the lattice matching growth surface and the dielectric grown on top of it, designs may also be feasible where the enhancement layer is positioned between the dielectric layer and the second electrode (e.g., the top electrode of a capacitor or other device).
While certain materials have been introduced as providing a suitable enhancement layer (e.g., NiOx), it should be readily apparent that other materials may also be used, depending on desired dielectric material and end device application. For example, the materials introduced above may help boost effective work function to greater than 5.0 eV when the effective work function of an electrode is below 5.0 eV; however, in some applications, it may be desired to boost an already high work function (i.e., >5.0 eV) to even higher levels, and for these applications, suitable barrier materials may readily be selected by one having skill in the art. In one embodiment, the chosen material provides a boost in work function to at least 0.1 eV greater than any underlying growth medium, and in a second embodiment, the chosen material is sufficient to bring the apparent electrode work function to a value from below 5.0 eV to a value equal to or greater than 5.0 eV.
With both basic MIM assemblies and associated process materials and considerations thus presented, attention will now be directed to forming devices and structures based on these materials, including DRAM cells and associated arrays.
IV. Fabrication of a DRAM Cell and Associated Memory Array
As mentioned above, two specific applications of the principles discussed herein are to the fabrication of capacitors and to the fabrication of memory cells, including dynamic random access memory (“DRAM”) cells (which form the basis for volatile memory in most contemporary computer systems). FIGS. 17 and 18 will be used for this initial discussion. DRAM memory cells use a capacitor to store charge for a period of time, with the charge being electronically “read” to determine whether a logical “one” or “zero” has been stored in the associated cell. Conventionally, a cell transistor is used to access the cell, i.e., the cell transistor is turned “on” in order to store data on each associated capacitor and is otherwise turned “off” to isolate the capacitor and preserve its charge. More complex DRAM cell structures exist, but this basic DRAM structure will be introduced below, for purposes of illustrating the application of the principles of this disclosure to capacitor manufacturing and to DRAM manufacturing. Following this introduction, several specific structures will be described, with reference to FIGS. 19-21.
FIG. 17 is used to illustrate one DRAM cell 1701, namely, one built using a dielectric layer 1703. The cell 1701 is depicted to schematically include two principal components, including a cell capacitor 1705 and the cell transistor 1707 (seen at the left-hand side of FIG. 17). The cell transistor is usually constituted by a MOS transistor having gate 1709, source 1711 and drain 1713, the gate 1709 being connected to a word line (“WL”) and one of the source 1711 and drain 1713, being connected to a bit line (“BL”); in this example, it is the source 1711 that is depicted as coupled to the bitline. The cell capacitor has a lower or storage electrode 1715 and an upper or plate electrode 1717; in this example, the storage electrode is connected to the other end of the cell transistor (i.e., to the drain 1713 in this example), such that the cell transistor acts as a switch for storing and destructively reading charge from the storage electrode and the plate electrode is coupled to a reference potential 1719 (e.g., ground). When selected for reading or writing, the cell transistor is turned “on” by an active level of the word line “WL” to access the storage electrode of the cell capacitor 1705 via the bit line “BL.” The memory cell according to each of embodiments described below includes each of these basic elements, including a cell capacitor 1707, configured to have an insulating layer (e.g., a dielectric layer) 1703 sandwiched between two metal electrodes (e.g., storage and plate electrodes, 1715 and 1717).
As was introduced earlier, the cell capacitor 1707 is fabricated by initially depositing a bottom electrode (e.g., storage electrode 1715) upon a substrate 1721 using one of many well-known processes. This electrode includes a layer of material 1723 that provides an interface area suitable for the growth of a particular metal oxide form, rutile phase TiO2 per many of the examples discussed above, to provide desired dielectric constant in the dielectric layer 1703. That is to say, the dielectric layer 1703 formed between the conductors is enhanced through lattice matching through the use of layer of material 1723. As mentioned earlier, the material used for this layer can be made to have a primary constituent selected from the group of molybdenum dioxide (MoO2), tungsten dioxide (WO2), chromium dioxide (CrO2), manganese dioxide (MnO2) or tin dioxide (SnO2) and processed as necessary to have a desired lattice structure, with advantages presented by generally low-cost of materials and fabrication, and compatibility with existing semiconductor manufacturing processes, i.e., it can be easily implemented and scaled. The layer 1723 can be made itself the entire electrode (e.g., the storage electrode 1715 consists entirely of layer of material 1723) or the storage electrode can have an inexpensive layer of base material 1725 that is in some embodiments conductive (e.g., fabricated from Mo2N or a similar base metal). Furthermore, if desired, the layer 1723 may have a top surface which is roughened as indicated by arrow 1727, so as to increase effective dielectric constant by effectively increasing capacitor plate area without increasing overall capacitor dimensions; alternatively, the arrow 1727 may also (additionally or in lieu or roughening) represent a work function enhancement layer or barrier. Irrespective of specific process, the storage electrode 1715 and especially layer 1723 is used to selectively store charge to represent a logic state, i.e., it is normally electrically isolated from other components and is accessed using the cell transistor 1705. The dielectric layer 1703 helps maintain an electric field between this plate and the second conducting layer or plate electrode 1717, which may be connected to ground. As with the case with each of the embodiments herein, depictions are drawn to explain principles only, and should not be understood to denote relative sizes.
The cell transistor 1707 receives two inputs, respectively representing column and row selection lines used to access a matrix of DRAM cells (not shown in FIG. 17). In particular, activation of a column select signal via wordline “WL” causes the transistor to conduct, and to electrically couple the bitline “BL” with a drain terminal 1713 of the cell transistor, to connect the row selection line to the storage electrode 1715 of the cell capacitor. As is known, the bitline “BL” may be coupled to this conducting layer either to provide charge for storage purposes, or to “sense” the stored value of the capacitor. As is typical with DRAM devices, the cell capacitor retains charge only for a short amount of time and refresh procedures may be used if it is desired to retain charge for any significant period.
DRAM technology is relatively cheap to manufacture and usually allows a significant density to be achieved, which are primary reasons why DRAM technology is so commonly used in contemporaneous computer and other digital systems. By enabling a greater dielectric constant to be achieved, and thinner dielectric layers to be used, the principles provided by this disclosure facilitate even smaller and cheaper memory cells.
FIG. 18 illustrates a memory array 1801 formed of DRAM cells, where each cell may be (for example) identical to the cell 1701 presented in FIG. 17. While only four such cells 1811 are illustrated in FIG. 18, it should be understood that a great many cells would typically be presented on a memory device, e.g., millions. Each memory cell 1811 is accessed by a particular combination of row selection line (1803 or 1805) with column selection line (1807 and 1809); while only four address lines have been presented in FIG. 18, a great many more will typically be presented (e.g., 64 columns for memory devices that utilize a 64-bit wide parallel data bus, and a much larger number of row selection lines).
FIGS. 19-21 respectively illustrate memory cells 1901, 2001 and 2101, each illustrating different capacitor configurations. Each memory cell 1901, 2001 and 2101 is formed on a semiconductor substrate 1905, 2005 or 2105, for example, a silicon substrate. Above this substrate, a source or drain region of a cell transistor (1911, 2011 or 2111) is selectively formed. It should be noted that the gate and the other of the source and drain of the cell transistor are omitted in order to avoid the complexity of the drawings. It should be further noted that other memory cells and word and bit lines as well as memory control circuits are also not shown for the same purpose. Each cell capacitor 1921, 2021 or 2121 is formed over the substrate and is connected to the cell transistor region 1907, 2007 or 2107 through a contact plug (1919, 2019 or 2119), formed selectively in an interlayer insulating film 1917, 2017 or 2117 on the substrate. The contact plug may be made of poly-silicon and/or metal such as Tungsten, and the interlayer insulating film may be made of silicon oxide. Each capacitor 1921, 2021 or 2121 is further connected to reference potential wiring 1931, 2031 or 2131. The cell transistor of each of the memory cells is generally the same for FIGS. 19-21 and may be constituted by any one of a planer type, a recess type, a pillar type, a fin type and any other types. However, the configuration of the storage capacitors is different for each of these FIGS.; the memory cell of FIG. 19 includes a cylinder-shaped capacitor 1921, while the memory cells of FIGS. 20-21 are respectively depicted to include a pillar-shaped capacitor 2021 and a crown-shaped capacitor 2121.
FIG. 19 illustrates a memory cell 1901 having a cylinder-shaped capacitor 1921. The capacitor 1921 has cylindrical electrodes 1923 and 1927 surrounding a dielectric layer 1925. The electrodes 1923 and 1927 and dielectric layer 1925 may be formed of the materials described herein using the processes described herein; for example, the electrodes may feature a roughened surface or work function enhancement layer (or charge leakage barrier), as represented by the interface between the dielectric 1925 and either electrode 1923 or 1927.
As an example of a general process for forming a cylinder-shaped capacitor, an etching stopper film 1922 such as silicon nitride is formed on the interlayer insulating film 1917, followed by another insulating film 1924 such as silicon oxide. The film 1924 is used to determine the height of the cell capacitor 1901. Selective etching is performed on the insulating film 1924 and the stopper film 1922 to form a cylinder hole. The upper surface of the contact plug 1919 is thereby exposed. A conductive layer is then deposited inside of the cylinder hole and on the upper surface of the contact plug 1919, followed by further selective etching, such that the lower or storage electrode 1923 is formed. The electrode may have a surface consisting of an exposed lattice matching growth material as has previously been discussed, and a pretreatment process may then be utilized so as to increase effective capacitive plate area (or a work function enhancement layer may be deposited, as described earlier). The dielectric layer 1925 is formed on the storage electrode 1923 and the upper surface of the insulating film 1924. The upper or plate electrode 1927 and the wiring 1931 are thereafter formed to complete the cylinder type cell capacitor. If desired, additional processes can be utilized for the interface between the dielectric layer and the upper electrode, though this is not required.
FIG. 20 illustrates a memory cell 2001 using a pillar- or pedestal-shaped capacitor 2021. The capacitor 2021 includes a pillar-shaped bottom electrode 2023, a dielectric layer 2025, and a top electrode 2027. The dielectric layer 2025 and top or plate electrode 2027 are deposited to conform with the pillar-shaped bottom electrode 2023. As with the capacitor 1921 from FIG. 19, the electrodes 2023 and 2027, and the dielectric layer 2025 may be formed of the materials and/or the processes described herein, including the use of a work function enhancement layer.
As an example of a general process for forming a pillar-shaped capacitor, a metal pad 2026 such as tungsten is selectively formed to cover the upper surface of the contact plug 2019, followed by an insulating layer (not shown) deposited over the entire surface. Thereafter, a capacitor hole for each memory cell is formed in the insulating layer by selective etching, and a conductive layer is then deposited over the insulating layer to fill each capacitor hole. The CMP (Chemical Mechanical Polishing) method is then performed on the conductive layer thus deposited, so that the pillar electrode 2023 for each memory cell is formed. Here also, the roughening, work function enhancement layer, and/or pretreatment processes may be employed as has been previously introduced. After removing the insulating layer, a dielectric layer 2025 is formed on each pillar electrode 2023 and the insulating film 2017, followed by the upper electrode 2027 and the wiring 2031. The pillar type cell capacitor is thus formed.
FIG. 21 illustrates a memory cell 2101 using a crown-shaped capacitor 2121. The capacitor 2121 includes a crown-shaped bottom electrode 2123, a dielectric layer 2125, and a top electrode 2127. The dielectric layer 2125 and the top electrode 2127 conform to the crown shape of the bottom electrode 2123. As with the capacitor 1921 from FIG. 19, the electrodes 2123 and 2127 and the dielectric layer 2125 may be formed of the materials and/or the processes described herein.
The methodology for forming a crown-shaped capacitor may be similar to that depicted in FIG. 19, i.e., a lower or storage electrode for each memory cell can be first formed using etching stopper 1922 and an interlayer insulating film 1924 (see, e.g., FIG. 19). The insulating film is then, however, removed. As depicted in FIG. 21, a dielectric layer 2125 can then be deposited above the lower or storage electrode 2123, to form the crown shape. The upper or plate electrode 2127 and the wiring 2131 are then formed to complete the formation of the crown-shaped cell capacitor.
Although cylinder-, pillar-, and crown-shaped storage capacitors are described above, it is understood that these descriptions are given only as examples, and that the materials and processes described herein can be used to form any style of type of memory storage device.
IV. Conclusion
What has been described are methods of fabricating a semiconductor assembly that can be used as part of a capacitive device, memory device or similar structure. Specific materials have been presented for use as a dielectric, enabling smaller and more efficient capacitors, memory devices and other structures to be constructed, characterized by high dielectric constant and excellent leakage characteristics. While not limited to the use of these materials, specific manufacturing processes have also been presented, including the use of processes that facilitate the growth of specific metal oxide forms for use as a dielectric, e.g., the growth of rutile phase TiO2, leading to improved device characteristics. Other applications will readily occur to those having skill in the art in view of the teachings provided above, or in view of the invention defined by the claims set forth below.
In addition, while not specifically claimed in the claim section, the applications reserve the right to include in the claim section at any appropriate time the following methods and apparatuses:
XX. A method of fabricating a semiconductor stack, comprising: forming a conductive metal oxide layer having a lattice structure approximating rutile-phase titanium dioxide and having a first work function; forming a metal oxide-based dielectric above the conductive metal oxide layer, the dielectric consisting primarily of rutile phase titanium dioxide (TiO2); and forming a barrier between the conductive metal oxide layer and the dielectric, the barrier having a second work function that is greater than the first work function.
XX+1. The method of clause XX, where the barrier is formed to have a thickness of less than approximately two nanometers.
XX+2. The method of clause XX, where the barrier is formed such that the second work function is greater than 5.0 eV and is at least 0.1 eV greater than the first work function.
XX+3. The method of clause XX, where the conductive metal oxide layer is an interface layer, the method further comprising forming an electrode, the electrode including the interface layer and a base layer, the base layer to consisting primarily of a conductive material selected from the group of molybdenum nitride, tungsten nitride, titanium nitride, chromium nitride or cobalt nitride.
XX+4. The method of clause XX, where the conductive metal oxide layer includes molybdenum dioxide (MoO2).
XX+5. The method of clause XX+4, where the conductive metal oxide layer consists primarily of molybdenum dioxide (MoO2).
XX+6. The method of clause XX+5, where the barrier consists primarily of nickel oxide (NiOx).
XX+7. The method of clause XX+4, where the barrier consists primarily of a material selected from the group consisting of metal nickel, molybdenum trioxide (MoO3), niobium disellenide (NbSe2), nickel oxide (NiOx), gallium sellenide (GaSe), vanadium disellenide (VSe2) and titanium disellenide (TiSe2).
XX+8. The method of clause XX, where forming the conductive metal oxide layer includes forming an electrode and annealing the electrode prior to forming the dielectric.
XX+9. The method of clause XX, where at least one of forming the conductive metal oxide layer or forming the barrier includes depositing a conductive material and oxygenating the conductive material to create the conductive metal oxide.
XX+10. The method of clause XX, where forming the conductive metal oxide layer includes forming an electrode layer to have a thickness of no more than approximately 20 nanometers, and where forming the metal oxide-based dielectric includes forming the metal oxide-based dielectric to have a thickness of no more than 15 nanometers.
XX+11. The method of clause XX, where forming the barrier includes using an atomic layer deposition process to deposit a metal precursor, and using an oxygen-atom based reagent to form a second conductive metal oxide, the second conductive metal oxide having a primary metal constituency different from a primary metal constituency of the first metal oxide.
XX+12. The method of clause XX, where forming the barrier includes using a physical deposition process to deposit a material selected form the group of metal nickel, molybdenum trioxide (MoO3), niobium disellenide (NbSe2), nickel oxide (NiOx), gallium sellenide (GaSe), vanadium disellenide (VSe2) and titanium disellenide (TiSe2).
XY. A method, comprising: forming an electrode layer primarily based in a material having a lattice structure substantially compatible with rutile-phase titanium dioxide (TiO2), the material presenting at least an interface region for the growth of rutile phase titanium dioxide, the material having a non-Noble primary constituent; forming a barrier at the interface region, the barrier having an average thickness of less than two nanometers and a work function of at least five electron volts (5 eV); and fabricating a dielectric based in titanium dioxide (TiO2) on an opposite side of the barrier from the electrode.
XY+1. The method of clause XY, where forming the electrode layer includes forming the electrode layer to have a primary lattice structure with lattice constants each within ten percent of lattice constants for rutile-phase titanium dioxide (TiO2).
XY+2. The method of clause XY, where forming the electrode layer includes forming the electrode layer to have a primary lattice structure with lattice constants each within five percent of lattice constants for rutile-phase titanium dioxide (TiO2).
XY+3. The method of clause XY, where forming at least one of the barrier or the electrode layer includes using a closed-loop sputter deposition process using voltage feedback to form the layer in a conductive state.
XY+4. The method of clause XY, where forming at least one of the barrier or the electrode layer includes using an atomic layer deposition process.
XY+5. The method of clause XY, where fabricating the dielectric includes using an atomic layer deposition process, the atomic layer deposition process including reacting a nitrogen-containing metal precursor with a source of oxygen and heating a pedestal, and further, at least one step that involves exposing the an assembly including the barrier to ozone.
XY+6. The method of clause XY, where forming at least one of the barrier or the electrode includes using a chemical vapor deposition process.
XY+7. The method of clause XY, where the material is to form an interface layer and where forming an electrode layer includes forming at least two discrete layers, one of which is the interface layer, each of the at least two discrete layers having different compounds as primary constituents.
XY+8. The method of clause XY, where forming the barrier including forming the barrier using a surface modification process.
XY+9. The method of clause XY, where forming the electrode layer is formed such to have a work function of less than 5.0 eV.
XY+10. The method of clause XY, where forming the electrode layer is formed such to have a work function of at least 5.0 eV.
YA. An electronic device, comprising: a first electrode having a first conductive metal oxide with a lattice structure approximating rutile-phase titanium dioxide and having a first work function; a dielectric layer formed substantially of titanium dioxide (TiO2); and a barrier between the first conductive metal oxide and the dielectric layer, the barrier having a primary metal that is a non-Noble metal, the barrier having a second work function greater than the first work function; and a second electrode, the dielectric layer between the first electrode and the second electrode.
YA+1. The electronic device of clause YA, where the barrier has an average thickness of less than two nanometers.
YA+2. The electronic device of clause YA, where the second work function is at least 5.0 eV and is greater than the first work function by at least 0.1 eV.
YA+3. The electronic device of clause YA, where the barrier includes a primary constituent that is a second metal oxide.
YA+4. The electronic device of clause YA+3, where the second metal oxide is nickel oxide (NiOx).
YA+5. The electronic device of clause YA, where the barrier includes a primary constituent selected from the group consisting of metal nickel, molybdenum trioxide (MoO3), niobium disellenide (NbSe2), gallium sellenide (GaSe), vanadium disellenide (VSe2) and titanium disellenide (TiSe2).
YA+6. The electronic device of clause YA, where the first conductive metal oxide includes molybdenum dioxide (MoO2).
YA+7. The electronic device of clause YA, where the barrier has an average thickness of less than one nanometer.
YA+8. The electronic device of clause YA, where lattice constants associated with the first conductive metal oxide are each within ten percent of lattice constants for rutile-phase titanium dioxide.
YA+9. The electronic device of clause YA, where lattice constants associated with the first conductive metal oxide are each within five percent of lattice constants for rutile-phase titanium dioxide.
YA+10. The electronic device of clause YA, where: the first conductive metal oxide includes molybdenum dioxide (MoO2); the barrier is formed to have a primary constituent of nickel oxide (NiOx); and the first conductive metal oxide and second conductive metal oxide cooperate to form the first electrode.
YA+11. The electronic device of clause YA, where the first conductive metal oxide includes a primary metal that is non-Noble.
YA+12. The electronic device of clause YA, where the first electrode includes an interface layer and a base layer, the interface layer having the first conductive metal as its primary constituent, the base layer having a primary constituent of a conductive material selected from the group of molybdenum nitride (MoN), tungsten nitride (WN2), chromium nitride (CrN), titanium nitride (TiN), or cobalt nitride (CoN).
YA+13. The electronic device of clause YA+12, where the interface layer has a thickness of less than or equal to five nanometers, and where the first conductive metal oxide includes molybdenum dioxide (MoO2).
YA+14. The electronic device of clause YA, where the first electrode has a thickness of no more than approximately 20 nanometers and where the dielectric has a thickness of no more than approximately 15 nanometers.
YA+15. The electronic device of clause YA, where the second electrode also includes the first conductive metal oxide as a primary constituent.
YA+16. The electronic device of clause YA, where the first work function is less than 5.0 eV.
YA+17. The electronic device of clause YA, where the first work function is at least 5.0 eV.
YB. An electronic device, comprising: a first electrode having molybdenum dioxide (MoO2), the molybdenum dioxide forming the primary constituent of at least an interface region of the first electrode; a dielectric layer formed substantially of titanium dioxide (TiO2); a barrier between the interface region and the dielectric layer, the barrier having a primary metal that is a non-Noble metal, the barrier having a thickness of less than two nanometers and a work function of at least five electron volts; and a second electrode.
YB+1. The electronic device of clause YB, where the barrier has an average thickness of less than one nanometer and where the primary nickel is metal.
YB+2. The electronic device of clause YB, where the first electrode has a primary metal constituency that is non-Noble.
YB+3. The electronic device of clause YB, where the barrier is composed primarily of a metal oxide.
YB+4. The electronic device of clause YB, where the barrier is composed principally of nickel oxide.
YB+5. The electronic device of clause YB, where the barrier primary has a primary constituent of a conductive material selected from the group of molybdenum nitride (MoN), tungsten nitride (WN2), chromium nitride (CrN), titanium nitride (TiN), or cobalt nitride (CoN).
YB+6. The electronic device of clause YB, embodied in a substrate, the electronic device further comprising a MOS transistor on the substrate, wherein the first electrode connecting electrically to the MOS transistor.
YB+7. The electronic device of clause YB, where the first electrode has an effective work function, and the work function of the barrier is at least 0.1 eV higher than the effective work function.
YC. A memory device, comprising: an array of memory cells, where each memory cell includes a capacitor and an access device; and array control circuitry; where the capacitor for each memory cell includes a first electrode having molybdenum dioxide (MoO2), the molybdenum dioxide forming the primary constituent of at least an interface region of the first electrode, a dielectric layer formed substantially of titanium dioxide (TiO2), a barrier between the interface region and the dielectric layer, the barrier having a primary metal that is a non-Noble metal, the barrier having a thickness of less than two nanometers and having a work function of at least five electron volts, and a second electrode.
YD. A memory device, comprising: an array of memory cells, where each memory cell includes a capacitor and an access device; and array control circuitry; where the capacitor for each memory cell includes a first electrode having a first conductive metal oxide with a lattice structure approximating rutile-phase titanium dioxide and having a first work function, a dielectric layer formed substantially of titanium dioxide (TiO2), a barrier between the first conductive metal oxide and the dielectric layer, the barrier having a primary metal that is a non-Noble metal, the barrier having a thickness of less than two nanometers and a second work function that is greater than the first work function, and a second electrode, the dielectric layer between the first electrode and the second electrode.
YD+1. The memory device of clause YD, where the first conductive metal oxide has a lattice structure with lattice constants each within ten percent of lattice constants for rutile-phase titanium dioxide (TiO2).
YD+2. The memory device of clause YD, where the first conductive metal oxide has a lattice structure with lattice constants each within ten percent of lattice constants for rutile-phase titanium dioxide (TiO2).
Accordingly, the foregoing discussion is intended to be illustrative only; other designs, uses, alternatives, modifications and improvements will also occur to those having skill in the art which are nonetheless within the spirit and scope of the present disclosure, which is limited and defined only by the following claims and equivalents thereto.

## Claims

1. A semiconductor stack, comprising:
a first conductive metal oxide having a lattice structure approximating rutilephase titanium dioxide and having a first work function;
a dielectric layer formed substantially of titanium dioxide (TiO2); and
a barrier between the first conductive metal oxide and the dielectric layer, the barrier having a primary metal that is a non-Noble metal, the barrier having a thickness of less than two nanometers and a second work function greater than the first work function,
wherein the first conductive metal oxide is embodied in an electrode,
wherein the first conductive metal oxide includes a primary metal that is non-Noble, and
wherein the first work function is less than approximately 5.0 eV.

2. The semiconductor stack of claim 1, where the barrier includes a primary constituent that is a second metal oxide, and where the second work function is at least 0.1 eV greater than the first work function.

3. The semiconductor stack of claim 2, where the second metal oxide is nickel oxide (NiOx).

4. The semiconductor stack of claim 1, where the barrier is formed to have a primary constituent selected from the group consisting of metal nickel, molybdenum trioxide (MoO3), niobium disellenide (NbSe2), gallium sellenide (GaSe), vanadium disellenide (VSe2) and titanium disellenide (TiSe2).

5. The semiconductor stack of claim 1, where the first conductive metal oxide includes molybdenum dioxide (MoO2).

6. The semiconductor stack of claim 1, where the barrier has an average thickness of less than one nanometer.

7. The semiconductor stack of claim 1, where lattice constants associated with the first conductive metal oxide are each within ten percent of lattice constants for rutile-phase titanium dioxide.

8. The semiconductor stack of claim 1, where lattice constants associated with the first conductive metal oxide are each within five percent of lattice constants for rutile-phase titanium dioxide.

9. The semiconductor stack of claim 1, where:
the first conductive metal oxide includes molybdenum dioxide (MoO2);
the barrier is formed to have a primary constituent of nickel oxide (NiOx);
the first conductive metal oxide and second conductive metal dioxide cooperate to form a first electrode.

10. The semiconductor stack of claim 1, where the electrode includes an interface layer and a base layer, the interface layer having the first conductive metal oxide as its primary constituent, the base layer having a primary constituent of a conductive material selected from the group of molybdenum nitride (MoN), tungsten nitride (WN2), chromium nitride (CrN), titanium nitride (TiN), or cobalt nitride (CoN).

11. The semiconductor stack of claim 10, where the interface layer has a thickness of less than or equal to five nanometers, where the first conductive metal oxide includes molybdenum dioxide (Mo02), and where the second work function is at least 5.0 eV.

12. The semiconductor stack of claim 1, where the electrode has a thickness of no more than approximately 20 nanometers and where the dielectric has a thickness of no more than approximately 15 nanometers.