An Assessment of Natural Assets in the 

Appalachian Region: Water Resources

Prepared for:

Appalachian Regional Commission

1666 Connecticut Avenue, NW

Suite 700

Washington, DC 20009-1068

September 30, 2014

Contract #CO-16812-2010

Prepared by:

Downstream Strategies

Fritz Boettner (Project Manager), Evan Hansen, Jason Clingerman, 

Anne Hereford, Sera Zegre, Roy Martin, and Nate Askins

West Virginia University 

Jinyang Deng (Principal Investigator), contributors: James Anderson, Alan 

Collins, Trevor Harris, Randall Jackson, Frank LaFone, Samuel Lamont, 

Jacquelyn Strager, Michael Strager, Walter Veselka, and Nicolas Zegre

The Northeast Regional Center for Rural Development 

Charles Abdalla and Stephan J. Goetz
Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..........................................................................................................................................V

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND KEY FINDINGS...........................................................................................................VI

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 ABOUT THIS STUDY AND REPORT ...........................................................................................................................1

1.2 IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND RESEARCH...............................................................................................................2

1.3 HOW TO USE THE REPORT AND DATA .....................................................................................................................3

1.4 DATA CAVEATS ..................................................................................................................................................3

1.5 BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................................................3

1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW ...........................................................................................................................................4

1.6.1 United States Army Corps of Engineers (1969).........................................................................................5

1.6.2 More recent research................................................................................................................................6

1.7 STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT ...............................................................................................................................7

2. WATER QUANTITY ....................................................................................................................................... 13

2.1 COMPONENTS AND FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................................................13

2.1.1 Water withdrawal and consumption......................................................................................................16

2.1.2 Water sustainability................................................................................................................................19

2.1.3 Floods......................................................................................................................................................22

2.1.4 Surface water..........................................................................................................................................23

2.2 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................................................25

2.2.1 Water quantity case study......................................................................................................................25

3. WATER QUALITY .......................................................................................................................................... 29

3.1 COMPONENTS AND FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................................................32

3.2 THRESHOLDS...................................................................................................................................................34

3.2.1 pH............................................................................................................................................................34

3.2.2 Fecal coliform..........................................................................................................................................34

3.2.3 Dissolved oxygen.....................................................................................................................................34

3.2.4 Specific conductivity................................................................................................................................35

3.3 MODELING RESULTS .........................................................................................................................................35

3.3.1 pH............................................................................................................................................................36

3.3.2 Fecal coliform..........................................................................................................................................40

3.3.3 Dissolved oxygen.....................................................................................................................................44

3.3.4 Specific conductivity................................................................................................................................48

3.4 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................................................51

4. WATER VALUE ............................................................................................................................................. 54

4.1 COMPONENTS AND FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................................................55

4.2 WATER MARKET VALUE .....................................................................................................................................55

4.2.1 Agriculture and irrigation water value ...................................................................................................59

4.2.2 Industrial water value .............................................................................................................................59

4.2.3 Domestic water value .............................................................................................................................59

4.2.4 Thermoelectric value...............................................................................................................................59

4.3 WATER NON-MARKET VALUE..............................................................................................................................60

4.4 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................................................62

5. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................... 64

REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................................... 65

APPENDIX A: DECISION SUPPORT TOOL............................................................................................................... 68

APPENDIX B: WATER QUALITY MODELING DATA DICTIONARY ............................................................................ 72

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Table of Figures

Figure 1: River basins in the Appalachian region................................................................................................. vi

Figure 2: Appalachian region hydrology .............................................................................................................14

Figure 3: (A) Total surface water withdrawal by county; (B) Total groundwater withdrawal by county ...........15

Figure 4: Total water consumption.....................................................................................................................18

Figure 5: Top county water consumers..............................................................................................................19

Figure 6: Water consumption categories for the ARC region.............................................................................19

Figure 7: Top counties with change in water withdrawal: 2005-2050 ...............................................................20

Figure 8: (A) Projected water withdrawal change (2005-2050); (B) Projected water sustainability risk with 

climate change (2050) ........................................................................................................................................21

Figure 9: Total number of floods per county......................................................................................................22

Figure 10: Stream order example .......................................................................................................................23

Figure 11: (A) Maximum mean annual flow; (B) Percent of headwater streams...............................................24

Figure 12: Comparing flooding and economic status.........................................................................................25

Figure 13: Flooding and distressed counties case study.....................................................................................26

Figure 14: Gas-bearing shale formations in Appalachia .....................................................................................27

Figure 15: Impaired streams in the ARC region..................................................................................................29

Figure 16: ARC region water sample locations...................................................................................................32

Figure 17: Modeling process...............................................................................................................................33

Figure 18: pH sample results (10th percentile) used in the model......................................................................37

Figure 19: (A) Predicted 10th percentile pH values; (B) Predicted percent of county catchments below the pH 

threshold.............................................................................................................................................................38

Figure 20: Fecal coliform sample results (90th percentile) used in the model....................................................41

Figure 21: (A) Predicted 90th percentile fecal coliform values; (B) Predicted percent of county catchments 

above the fecal coliform threshold.....................................................................................................................42

Figure 22: Summer dissolved oxygen sample results used in the model ...........................................................45

Figure 23: (A) Predicted summer dissolved oxygen values; (B) Predicted percent of county catchments below 

the dissolved oxygen threshold ..........................................................................................................................46

Figure 24: Specific conductivity sample results (90th percentile) used in the model .........................................49

Figure 25: (A) Predicted 90th percentile specific conductivity values; (B) Predicted percent of county 

catchments above the specific conductivity threshold ......................................................................................50

Figure 26: ARC water quality rank ......................................................................................................................53

Figure 27: ARC water quality hot-spots..............................................................................................................53

Figure 28: Total market value per county...........................................................................................................54

Figure 29: (A) Agricultural and irrigation value and (B) industrial value ............................................................56

Figure 30: (A) Domestic value and (B) thermoelectric value ..............................................................................58

Figure 31: (A) Willingness-to-pay per household and (B) surface water quality value ......................................61

Figure 33: Estimated revenue losses due to acid mine drainage .......................................................................63

Figure 34: Decision support tool.........................................................................................................................68

Figure 35: Screenshot of tool interface ..............................................................................................................68

Figure 36: Selecting a shapefile to be used in the ranking .................................................................................69

Figure 37: Percentage queries for the highest and lowest percentages............................................................70

Figure 38: Hot and cold spots.............................................................................................................................71

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Table of Tables

Table 1: Water assessment components............................................................................................................ vii

Table 2: Appalachian regional growth paths........................................................................................................7

Table 3: Top water resource concerns in Appalachia identified by stakeholders................................................8

Table 4: Stakeholder informational needs............................................................................................................9

Table 5: Data and reports desired by stakeholders............................................................................................10

Table 6: Top water assets in Appalachia identified by stakeholders..................................................................11

Table 7: Top water liabilities in Appalachia identified by stakeholders .............................................................12

Table 8: Water quantity assessment components.............................................................................................13

Table 9: Waters consumption coefficients.........................................................................................................17

Table 10: United States Fish and Wildlife Service habitat models .....................................................................30

Table 11: Water quality data sources.................................................................................................................31

Table 12: Water quality model results summary................................................................................................36

Table 13: Predictor variable influence for pH model..........................................................................................39

Table 14: Predictor variable influence for fecal coliform model ........................................................................43

Table 15: Predictor variable influence for dissolved oxygen model...................................................................47

Table 16: Predictor variable influence for specific conductivity model..............................................................51

Table 17: Water value assessment components................................................................................................55

Table 18: Water values by use sector.................................................................................................................57

Table 19: Percentages of counties in sextile categories based on mean county-level WTP rankings for surface 

water quality.......................................................................................................................................................62

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Abbreviations

AMD acid mine drainage

ARC Appalachian Regional Commission

cfu colony-forming unit

CP compromise programming

CV cross-validation

DARE Driftless Area Restoration Effort

DST decision support tool

FFFHP Fishers and Farmers Fish Habitat Partnership

GIS geographic information system

GWh gigawatt hour

MCA multiple criteria analysis

mgd million gallons per day

mg/L milligrams per liter

MGLP Midwest Glacial Lakes Partnership

mL milliliter

NCDC National Climatic Data Center

NERCRD Northeast Regional Center for Rural Development

NFIP National Flood Insurance Program

NHD National Hydrography Dataset

NLCD National Land Cover Database

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

NWS National Weather Service

ORBFHP Ohio River Basin Fish Habitat Partnership

SARP Southeast Aquatic Resource Partnership

TRI Toxics Release Inventory

μS/cm microsiemens per centimeter

US United States

USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

USFWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service

USGS United States Geological Survey

WTP willingness-to-pay

WVU West Virginia University

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

West Virginia University Regional Research Institute—Randall Jackson 

Downstream Strategies—Fritz Boettner (Project Manager), Evan Hansen, Anne Hereford, Sera Zegre, Roy 

Martin, Nate Askins

West Virginia University Davis College of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Design—Jinyang Deng 

(Principal Investigator), Alan Collins, James Anderson, Samuel Lamont, Jacquelyn Strager, Michael Strager, 

Walter Veselka, Nicolas Zegre

West Virginia University Department of Geology and Geography—Trevor Harris, Frank LaFone

The Northeast Regional Center for Rural Development, Pennsylvania State University—Charles Abdalla, 

Stephan J. Goetz

This project was made possible with funding from the Appalachian Regional Commission. We acknowledge 

Dr. David Carrier, former senior economist with the ARC, for initiating this project and providing technical 

guidance, overall project direction, and oversight. Thanks also go to John Cartwright, former director of ARC 

Regional Planning and Research, and Julie Marshall, ARC economist.

Thanks also go to several research assistants, including: Rogelio T. Andrada II (Ph.D. student, West Virginia 

University) for data collection and index development related to recreational water access; David Fleming 

(Ph.D. candidate, The Pennsylvania State University) for his assistance in water value estimation; Arun KC 

(Ph.D. graduate research assistant, West Virginia University); and Jason Kikel (undergraduate student, West 

Virginia University).

Many people provided information, comments, and support for this project. American Whitewater—

including Mark Singleton (Executive Director), Kevin Colburn (National Stewardship Director), and Ryan Groth

—provided whitewater recreation data from the American Whitewater National River Database to help 

identify the recreational value of waters in Appalachia. The National Park Service—including Sheila L. Lee—

provided river data from the National River Inventory that the agency houses.

We would like to thank all the organizations and agencies for submitting water quality data through the 

United States Environmental Protection Agency STORET database. We offer special thanks to the United

States Environmental Protection Agency, Virginia Department of Environmental Quality, Alabama Water 

Watch, Alliance for Aquatic Resources Monitoring, and Ohio Environmental Protection Agency.

We also thank Pamela Hileman (Northeast Regional Center for Rural Development, Pennsylvania State 

University), who provided assistance with the stakeholder outreach portions of this project.

Finally, we thank each of the stakeholders who participated in the survey and took the time to provide 

feedback on this project. We specifically thank Tom Basden (Extension Specialist, Nutrient Management, 

West Virginia University); Scott Clay (Planner, Mineral County West Virginia); Sam Dennis (Research Associate 

Professor, Soil and Water Quality, Tennessee State University); Nathaniel Gillespie (Fisheries Scientist and 

Director of Eastern Lands Protection Project, Trout Unlimited); Dawn R. Hintz (Water Quality Program 

Specialist, Susquehanna River Basin Commission); Greg Jennings (Professor of Biological and Agricultural 

Engineering, North Carolina State University); Doug Parker (Mid-Atlantic Water Program, University of 

Maryland); Colleen Peterson (Executive Director, Greater Cumberland Committee, Cumberland, Maryland); 

Herbert M. Sachs (Special Projects Coordinator, Maryland Department of the Environment); Earl Smith (Chief, 

Water Management Division, Interstate Council on Water Policy); Tom Suro (Hydrologist and Engineer, 

United States Geological Survey); Gary Springston (Water Supply Program Manager, Tennessee Valley 

Authority); and David Umling (City Planner, City of Cumberland, Maryland).

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND KEY FINDINGS

The Appalachian Regional Commission is dedicated to enhancing and promoting the economic viability of 

Appalachia, a region whose land is 42 percent rural and whose population is 18 percent below the poverty 

level (Appalachian Regional Commission, 2009a). In 1965, more than 223 counties were rated distressed; 

today that number is 98, indicating a trend towards recovery (Appalachian Regional Commission, 2009a; 

2011). Typically, economies in rural Appalachia have used natural resources for extractive purposes; 

resources (coal, timber, natural gas, minerals) are harvested and usually shipped out of the region. Water, in 

contrast, is an “in-place” resource that provides economic, environmental, recreational, health, and cultural 

benefits. This study quantifies Appalachia’s water assets, both in terms of economic development and quality 

of life. 

Figure 1: River basins in the Appalachian region

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Water is the lifeblood of all living things, and its quality and availability significantly impact the health of 

populations, ecosystems, and economies. In Appalachia, water is supplied to many cities and rural 

communities through six major water basins (Figure 1), which contain thousands of miles of headwater 

streams. These areas depend upon the wise use, control, and development of water, making it critical to 

characterize regional water resources in terms of quantity, quality, and value. 

While there are many types of water datasets across the United States, it is rare that the information 

contained within these datasets is homogeneous between regions or states. Datasets of impaired streams 

have been developed for all states, for example, but each state classifies the data according to its statespecific water quality criteria. Additionally, water resources do not follow political boundaries, nor do they 

adhere to uniform geographical units. The research team characterized water quality, quantity, and value for 

the Appalachian region using data and information collected from a variety of sources. Based on available 

datasets, we synthesized and performed analyses on several key datasets to understand the representative 

characteristics of Appalachia’s water resources. Each summary and analysis in this study lists the specific 

datasets utilized, the rationale for the methods, and the overall results. 

This report examines datasets that vary spatially, temporally, and in their intended application. Among other 

applications, the data and findings in this report can be used as a blueprint to understand water resources 

and their relationship to the economy. 

This study maps water asset metrics and values at the county level for each category of water resources. A 

geographic information system decision support tool was created to guide the user in assessing water 

resource conditions. This study and report were developed to enable practitioners across the Appalachian 

Regional Commission region to better understand their water resources so that they can develop and 

implement plans that will support a sustainable future. 

Table 1: Water assessment components

Quantity Quality Value

Water withdrawal and consumption pH Market value

Surface water withdrawal Fecal coliform Agricultural and irrigation consumption

Groundwater withdrawal Dissolved oxygen Industrial consumption

Total consumption Specific conductivity Domestic consumption

Thermoelectric consumption

Water sustainability

Projected water withdrawal change Non-market value

Projected water sustainability risk with climate change Willingness-to-pay

Meta-analysis coefficients

Floods

Surface water quantity

Mean annual maximum flow

Percent of headwater streams

As shown in Table 1, this study assesses and characterizes the water quantity, quality, and value for each 

county in the ARC region. The water quantity assessment examines, among other things, the quantity of 

water withdrawn and consumed and each county’s propensity to flood. Water quality was assessed by 

developing a statistical model that predicts several representative water quality parameters for every small 

watershed in the region. The water value in each county is an economic representation of the market and 

non-market values of water.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Key findings

The following key findings are organized by asset category.

Water quantity

Human demand for freshwater has tripled since 1950 due to population growth, irrigation, and increased

material consumption (Postel and Carpenter, 1997). The region has abundant water resources, providing 

water for commercial, domestic, and other uses.

• Water quantity in the ARC region was evaluated using five indicators: water withdrawal and 

consumption, water sustainability, floods, and surface water quantity.

• By far, thermoelectric plants withdraw the largest amount of surface water to generate electricity, 

withdrawing over 29,000 million gallons per day, or 60 percent of the total water withdrawn in the 

region. However, 98 percent of thermoelectric withdrawals are returned back to surface waters.

• Groundwater withdrawals represent only 4 percent of the total water withdrawals in the region, 

with a large portion dedicated to drinking water for public or private water supply.

• The ARC region is expected to increase water withdrawals by 92% by 2050, with 48 counties—

considering climate change—projected to have a high risk to the sustainability of county water 

supplies by 2050.

• Since 1978, more than 8 billion dollars was paid in total loss payments due to flooding in Appalachian 

counties, with nearly 8,000 floods reported from 2000-2010.

• The ARC region is a headwater region, with 65 percent of its streams classified as headwater 

streams.

Water quality

Water is a key component to sustaining life and is vital to a healthy economy. The Clean Water Act, enacted 

in 1972, set a goal “to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s 

waters.”

1 Determining water quality is a complicated process, but the Clean Water Act established water 

quality standards to identify pristine and polluted waterways.

• For this study, water quality was evaluated by developing peer-reviewed statistical models that 

predict water quality for every stream segment in the ARC region, using four commonly measured 

water quality parameters: pH, fecal coliform, dissolved oxygen, and specific conductivity.

• Water sampling data were compiled from federal water quality databases and other state and local 

data providers, which included over 11,000 sample locations with approximately 700,000 records.

• High predicted pH levels occur where the geology is dominated by limestone, and low predicted pH 

levels occur in forested areas, consistent with acid rain deposition and the low buffering capacities. 

Areas with low predicted pH levels are also found in pockets of Pennsylvania and West Virginia; 

these areas are typically associated with active and historic mining of high-sulfur coal, which can be 

expected to contribute acidity and lower pH. Different levels of pH can have synergistic effects on 

water quality and could impact aquatic life.

• Large areas of low predicted fecal coliform concentrations correspond with high forest cover and low 

population, such as National Forests. Higher fecal coliform levels are predicted in areas that are 

generally urbanized. However, several rural areas see high predicted fecal coliform concentrations,

which could be consistent with high incidences of untreated sewage discharges, failing septic 

1 33 U.S.C. 26 § 1251(a)

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

systems, or agricultural runoff. Fecal coliform contamination can pose a potential health risk for 

individuals exposed to polluted water.

• Dissolved oxygen is necessary for sustaining aquatic life. Most of the region shows high predicted 

dissolved oxygen, particularly in higher elevation and forested areas. Some low dissolved oxygen 

predictions are found in areas with low slope and warm climates or are due to organic enrichment. 

Low dissolved oxygen levels in water can stress aquatic life and can result in fish kills.

• Large areas of low predicted conductivity can be observed in areas of high forest cover. High 

predicted conductivity is found in areas associated with active and historic coal mining. Conductivity 

is a measurement of a water’s ability to carry an electrical current; this parameter is used as a water 

quality indicator.

• Throughout the region, mountainous and forested counties, and those far from large cities and large 

rivers, tend to have the best water quality. Counties that exhibit poorer water quality are generally 

those in mining, agricultural, or urbanized areas.

Water value

Water resources can have both a market and a non-market value. A market value can be placed on the use of 

water to produce a commodity, such as an industrial process. Non-market values are associated with the 

value society places on having clean water to drink, recreate in, or fish in.

Market value

An in-depth literature review identified estimates of water value per amount of water consumed. Agriculture

is valued 40 dollars per acre-foot, water supply is valued at 100 dollars per acre-foot, industrial uses are

valued at 150 dollars per acre-foot, and thermoelectric is valued at 20 dollars per acre-foot.

• The total water market value for the region is estimated at over 1.6 billion dollars per year, with 

thermoelectric value exceeding 650 million dollars, closely followed by industrial and water supply. 

Agricultural use was valued significantly less, at over 6.1 million dollars per year.

• Sullivan County, Tennessee has an industrial market value estimated at over 85 million dollars per 

year. Consumption in this county totaled over 500 mgd—nearly 72 percent of AppalachianTennessee’s total industrial withdrawal. This consumption is due in part to a large manufacturing 

base, which employs over a half-million people with an annual payroll exceeding twelve million 

dollars.

• Typically, water supply value patterns follow population; however, Delaware County, New York is an 

exception because it provides over 448 million gallons per day to New York City—a value of over 1 

billion dollars per year.

• Thermoelectric power generation has the highest water value in the ARC region, with an average 

county value of over 1.5 million dollars per year.

Non-market value

Water resources have tremendous value that is not reflected in the use of water to produce a commodity. 

These non-market values, such as recreational, aesthetic, and cultural values, are evaluated in the nonmarket value category. 

• A meta-analysis—using 49 contingent valuation studies— was performed to determine and place a 

value on people’s perceptions of what clean water is worth to them. A benefit transfer method was 

applied to estimate a county’s mean willingness-to-pay per household for existing surface water 

quality.

• Across the 420 counties of the Appalachian region, the projected annual mean willingness-to-pay for 

surface water quality averaged about $8.50 per household.

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• The value per household is higher in rural areas, but the number of households has significant 

influence in the final surface water value.

• Counties in the highest 10 percent for water use valuation were concentrated along major rivers.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 About this study and report

This study and report were initiated as part of the long-term 

research objective developed by the Appalachian Regional 

Commission (ARC) to understand Appalachia’s natural assets. 

The primary goal is to provide information that will encourage 

the development and sustainable management of natural assets 

across the Appalachian region, which requires developing and 

updating an inventory of natural assets, analyzing their value 

and usage, assessing their potential contribution to economic 

development of the region, and creating a framework to assist 

with planning their best use. 

The project team was comprised of several organizations 

representing the Appalachian region. West Virginia is the only 

state that is entirely within the ARC service area; hence, the 

large research team from West Virginia University (WVU). In 

addition to WVU staff and professors, Downstream Strategies—

an environmental consulting company from Morgantown, West 

Virginia—and Pennsylvania State University’s Northeast Regional 

Center for Rural Development (NERCRD) participated as major 

contributors to the research. Many experts in water resources 

and economics were involved throughout this project, providing 

a well-rounded and representative team. 

Merging science and policy can be a tremendous challenge. This 

study strives to summarize water resource data in a way that is 

understandable and relevant to policymakers. To enhance the 

study and its utility, a geodatabase—geographic information 

system (GIS) data—was created that contains all of the 

underlying layers and analysis results. These data can be used as 

a supplement to other research or in customized analysis or 

mapping projects. In addition to the geodatabase, a GIS decision 

support tool (DST) was created. The DST is a customized ArcMap 

GIS software tool that analyzes spatial patterns and creates an 

environment where users can weigh various decisions that could 

support or inhibit economic development. The functionality of 

this tool and technical details are presented in Appendix A. 

Throughout the report, case studies or scenarios highlight the 

DST.

“[The present and future 

economic value of water 

resources is] perhaps the most 

important consideration in 

development of water projects 

(drinking water, industrial and 

agricultural, etc.).”

Earl Smith, Chief, Water Management 

Division, Interstate Council on Water 

Policy

“There is a need for more 

quantitative information on the 

economic value of water for 

different beneficial uses, [as 

well as] improved GIS 

capabilities to access water 

resource data...and associated 

analytical tools to summarize 

and document data.”

ARC Water Asset stakeholder

“The organization I represent 

established an interest in 

understanding our regional 

water resources several years 

ago. To date, we have 

coordinated a working group of 

water resource–knowledgeable 

individuals and have established 

a working relationship with 

State offices in Maryland and 

West Virginia as well as major 

universities in the area to create 

a knowledge-based group. 

Involvement by your firm would 

enhance our ability to 

understand our water 

resources.”

Colleen Peterson, Executive Director, 

Greater Cumberland Committee

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

1.2 Implications for policy and research

This study attempts to understand water assets in the Appalachian region in order to facilitate water 

management and planning strategies. This report is not an all-encompassing analysis, but it does contribute 

toward an ongoing conversation about water resource management. Because of the ever-expanding pressure 

on water resources, steps should be taken to understand both the positive and negative human influences on 

these resources. There are many positive relationships between water resources and economic 

development, including non-economic or quality-of-life benefits.

Appalachia’s economy is based on its natural and human resources. Some of its natural resources—for 

example, its timber, coal, and natural gas—are commodities sold in international markets. Its water 

resources, in contrast, flow freely and play a more subtle role in Appalachia’s economic development. 

Understanding the relationship between the region’s water resources and its economic development is an 

important factor to consider. Local leaders and state governments are frequently faced with difficult 

questions related to clean water standards, water withdrawals, water-intensive industries, and flood control; 

by clarifying the contribution to health and well-being that clean and plentiful water provides, local and state 

policymakers can make informed decisions. 

It is also important that private sector leaders are fully aware of the impact that Appalachia’s water resources

can have on their decisions. When deciding where to site new businesses, for example, leaders might 

consider whether enough water is available to support critical industrial processes for water-intensive 

industries. Leaders might also consider the proximity of an office to accessible lakes, trout streams, and other 

recreational assets, which can provide a better quality of life to employees.

This report and its associated data can be used by local and state leaders to develop new policies related to 

water quality and quantity. It can also be used by economic development officials to attract new businesses, 

and it can be used by the private sector in business siting decisions.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Design your own maps using 

water and economic data

Create your own scenarios using 

the GIS decision support tool

This project provides an interactive, GIS-based DST that 

allows users to prioritize areas for economic 

development opportunities. The DST integrates spatial 

data, user input, and a ranking algorithm.

Project GIS datasets can be downloaded from the 

Downstream Strategies website and used to make maps; 

examine results; navigate metrics, indicators, and 

indices; or create additional analyses.

To download data, documentation, or the GIS-based 

DST, contact the Appalachian Regional Commission.

Putting the tool to work

report examples:

Throughout the document, boxes called “Putting 

the tool to work” are designed to help the reader 

identify relevant opportunities, challenges, and 

actions illuminated by the indices.

1.3 How to use the report and data

This report describes the methods and data used to assess the ARC region’s water resources. Throughout the 

document, boxes called “Putting the tool to work” are designed to help the reader identify relevant 

opportunities, challenges, and actions illuminated by the assessments.

Some of the data are combined or calculated in ways chosen by the research team. However, individuals, 

agencies, and organizations may want to examine the data without the prescribed calculations. The DST

allows users with access to ArcMap GIS software to apply their own priorities or criteria to the water asset 

data, thus reexamining the counties according to locally important factors. 

1.4 Data caveats

This study and report were developed to enable practitioners across the region to understand their water

resources and to better plan for the future. It examines many different datasets that vary spatially, 

temporally, and in their intended application. Despite the inherent difficulties in bringing together such a 

diverse set of data, this study is a comprehensive attempt that catalogs and summarizes water resource data 

across Appalachia. 

1.5 Background

The Appalachian region consists of approximately 205,000 square miles (131 million acres), covering 420 

counties in 13 states. It extends more than 1,000 miles, from southwestern New York to northeastern

Mississippi, and is home to 24.8 million people (ARC, 2009a).

Many cities and rural communities within and around the region are dependent upon the wise use, control,

and development of Appalachian water. This dependence on water resources for economic growth has 

become increasingly evident in recent decades. Human demand for fresh water has tripled since 1950 

because of population growth, irrigation, and increasing material consumption (Postel and Carpenter, 1997). 

A downsizing of critical Appalachian industries has led to a decline in traditional agricultural, forestry, and 

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

mining jobs in many rural areas, leading to a large population 

migration to urban areas over the past 50 years. According to 

Freudenberg (1992), employment in traditional farming has 

dropped about 70 percent from the early 1900s, and 

employment in other natural resource–dependent industries, 

such as mining and forestry, has been cut in half.

However, these macro-level economic and social trends are not 

uniform across all rural areas; the major factors affecting 

migration patterns across the rural landscape have changed 

substantially over the last few decades (Nord and Cromartie, 

1997). Areas rich in natural assets are more likely to experience 

substantial population growth than are areas with fewer 

natural assets. For instance, Johnson and Beale (2002), in a 

national study of rural counties, report a significant population 

rebound during the 1990s, with “recreation counties”—those 

with high tourism receipts and business activity—leading the 

way with a 20.2 percent population increase compared to a 

10.4 percent increase for all rural counties. The economic and 

population growth patterns in Appalachia also reflect this 

reality (ARC, 2009a).

Natural assets are not only linked to population growth, but 

also to economic restructuring and economic well-being 

(Johnson and Beale, 2002; Shumway and Otterstrom, 2001). For 

example, Shumway and Otterstrom (2001) report that counties 

rich in natural amenities experienced dramatic increases in 

employment in service sectors such as health care, personal 

services, recreation and entertainment, and professional 

services. 

Local or regional economic growth depends upon many factors—natural, social, economic, and political. Each 

factor’s contribution to economic growth may vary by county or region in terms of significance and 

magnitude, challenging researchers to determine the relative importance of each factor at the county or 

regional level. Water resources have multiple uses, ranging from commodity-type use in the agricultural, 

industrial, and residential sectors to social and environmental values, including biodiversity, aesthetics, and 

recreation (Young, 2005). These types of water use and corresponding values may have changed over time 

across counties in the region. While recognizing the positive contribution of water resources to economic 

growth, water may also be a threat to the quality of life and community development in the cases of 

widespread pollution or flooding. 

1.6 Literature review 

This study’s methodologies, framework, data, and approach were chosen based on a literature review. This 

section highlights regional studies on water as well as methods used in the literature for index development. 

The economic contribution of water has been recognized and estimated in many forms, including 

withdrawals (domestic, irrigation, industrial processing, and thermoelectric power generation) and in-stream 

use (hydropower, recreation, fish and wildlife habitat, navigation, and waste disposal). Ward and Michelsen

(2002), in estimating the values of different uses in the United States (US), found that the national average of 

water values per acre-foot were 3 dollars for waste disposal, 48 dollars for recreation/fish and wildlife 

Water is a necessity for life. The 

quality of life—human, plant, and 

animal—is highly dependent upon 

the quality and quantity of water 

resources. Water resources have 

multiple uses with economic, 

environmental, social, aesthetic, 

and cultural values. The United 

Nations Conference on 

Environment and Development,

held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 

1992, states:

“Integrated water resources 

management is based on the 

perception of water as an integral 

part of the ecosystem, a natural 

resource, and a social and 

economic good...” 

The International Conference on 

Water and Environment, held in 

Dublin, Ireland in 1992 concurs:

“Water has an economic value in 

all its competing uses and should 

be recognized as an economic 

good.”

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

habitat, 146 dollars for navigation, 25 dollars for hydropower, 75 dollars for irrigation, 282 dollars for 

industrial processing, 34 dollars for thermoelectric power, and 194 dollars for domestic. 

Water-related economic activities play an essential role in promoting economic development and growth 

locally and regionally. For example, in the Texas Gulf Coast Region, the total economic impact (1993-1995 

annual average) for commercial fishing activities was estimated at 265.5 million dollars in economic output, 

80.3 million dollars in personal income, and 5,558 in job creation (Robinson et al., 1996). In West Virginia, the 

economic impact of whitewater rafting activities is significant. Based on data collected in 1995 from 

commercial boaters on the Cheat, New, and Gauley Rivers, total direct expenditures associated with rafting 

these rivers were approximately 49.4 million dollars, with nearly 43 million dollars within West Virginia

(Whisman et al., 1996).

Because of its importance, water has been extensively studied in the literature. An exhaustive literature 

review is beyond the scope of this study; however, selected studies on natural assets, including water, as

specified in the Request for Proposal for this project, are reviewed. In addition, studies on water quality, 

quantity, and value are reviewed in the corresponding sections. 

1.6.1 United States Army Corps of Engineers (1969)

One of the most comprehensive studies on water in the Appalachian region was conducted by the US Army

Corps of Engineers (1969). This study divides Appalachia into four sub-regions: highlands, northern, central, 

and southern. It then examines the physical and developmental background, natural and human resources,

economic situation, and overall needs related to social development, transportation, education, health,

physical environment, and water resources. In addition, development plans for each sub-region were 

prepared for flood control and prevention, water supply, upstream watershed investigation and 

development, soil and forest conservation and development, water quality control, fish and wildlife 

enhancement, general recreation, power, navigation, and economic expansion. 

In this study, water’s role in regional economic development is clearly indicated. For instance, in 1964 there 

were 74 public or privately owned water companies in a defined region of seven counties in northeastern 

Pennsylvania: Carbon, Lackawanna, Luzerne, Monroe, Pike, Schuylkill, and Wayne counties, with a land area 

of 4,427 square miles. On average, 98 million gallons per day (mgd) of water was sold in this region. For the 

whole Appalachian region, it was estimated that municipal and industrial water use (exclusive of agricultural, 

mining, and thermal power operations) would be 7,700 mgd for the study year; and to meet the benchmark 

goals of economic development, these uses would be expected to require approximately 13,300 mgd by 

1980, 23,400 mgd by 2000, and 42,200 mgd by 2020.

The Appalachian region is rich in water bodies used for recreation, with 53,000 miles of rivers and streams, 

117 man-made reservoirs and natural lakes spanning more than 500 acres, and hundreds of smaller lakes and 

ponds. Most of the reservoirs and lakes, particularly those near urban centers, are used extensively for 

fishing, boating, swimming, and other water-dependent activities. Many rivers and lakes that, in the past,

were suitable for outdoor recreation have since been severely polluted by a wide range of sources, chiefly 

industrial and municipal. 

The 48,100 miles of fishing streams in Appalachia, when converted to acres at the assumed ratio of four acres 

per mile, represent approximately 14 percent of the region’s total surface water (or 192,000 acres). 

Reservoirs constitute about 67 percent (924,500 acres); natural lakes make up about 8 percent (115,900 

acres), while farm ponds represent almost 11 percent (153,700 acres). In 1964, an estimated 52.8 million

person-days of angling were expended on Appalachia’s 1.4 million surface acres of fishable habitat, which is 

equivalent to about 38 person-days per surface acre. Total fishing use in Appalachia during 1964 ranged from 

a low of 23.5 person-days per surface acre in Tennessee to a high of 102.2 person-days per surface acre in 

Pennsylvania. 

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

There are approximately 89,200 surface acres of usable commercial fisheries habitat in the region, capable of 

providing 43.9 million pounds of commercial fish annually. This includes reservoirs and lakes that are 1,000 

acres or larger. The total commercial fish landings of both fish and shellfish in the region during 1966 were 

estimated at 10.4 million pounds, valued at 1,283,114 dollars. 

A total of 40 units were used for comparing mean and median values for sport fishing opportunities and 

demand. These values were determined by using 1964 fishing license sales, 1960 population data, and the 

Appalachian water inventory, which includes natural waters and water development projects completed 

prior to 1965.

While the 1969 study recognized the positive aspects of water uses in the region, it also acknowledged that 

regional water quality was polluted to some extent, with the most serious issues being acid mine drainage 

(AMD) and municipal pollution. It was found that the AMD was generally coincidental with regions that have 

been, or were presently being, mined and that AMD had polluted approximately 3 percent (5,700 miles) of 

Appalachia’s streams. The worst offending areas were in the old coal fields of West Virginia and Pennsylvania 

and in a few areas of southeastern Ohio that had been strip-mined for several decades. Water users received 

4.2 million dollars annual savings from a 90 percent reduction in AMD. Another widespread problem for 

much of the region was flooding, which resulted, for example, in average annual damages of 27 million 

dollars in Water Sub-Region B, which comprises part of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia.

1.6.2 More recent research

While the study reviewed above examined many aspects of water in the region, several studies have been 

conducted to look at more specific aspects of water, such as drinking water quality and supply. For instance, 

the University of North Carolina Environmental Financing Center (Hughes et al., 2005) analyzed the 

conditions of drinking water and wastewater services in the Appalachian region to assess the available 

financial requirements and strategies for improving these services, particularly in areas that face chronic 

economic distress and clear deficiencies. The analyses were carried out at three levels: a regional level, a subregional and state level, and a community and system level (case studies). 

Several other studies, albeit not focused on water but more on land-use and economic growth, have also 

been conducted at the regional level in Appalachia. One comprehensive study—Southern Appalachian Man 

and the Biosphere Cooperative (1996)—examined the ecological conditions (i.e., atmospheric, aquatic, and 

terrestrial) and the social, economic, and cultural status in the southern Appalachian region comprised of 

northern Virginia, eastern West Virginia, northwestern South Carolina, northern Georgia, and northern 

Alabama. Federal and state natural resource agencies within the region cooperated in this assessment. In 

terms of aquatic resources, the physical setting (i.e., stream density, impoundment acres, major drainages, 

etc.); effects of human activities on aquatic resources; water quality and associated nonpoint and point 

sources of pollution; aquatic species; laws, regulations, and programs affecting aquatic resources; and water 

usage are examined. In addition, the mining impacts by hydrological unit, percent of land area occupied by 

human activities, and percent of forest cover in riparian zones are mapped.

This study examined four aspects of the social, economic, and cultural status in the region: 1) communities

and human influences, 2) the timber economy, 3) outdoor recreation supply and demand, and 4) roadless

and designated wilderness areas. To address changes in population and housing in the region, census data 

from 1970, 1980, and 1990-91 were analyzed. Other data sources included the Census of Agriculture for the 

last three decades and the US Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service data. Maps displayed 

averages for the counties in the study area as compared to averages for the seven states in which the 

southern Appalachian counties reside. In addition, surveys were conducted among organizations and 

residents to understand their attitudes toward natural resources and the environment.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Another study examines land ownership patterns and their impacts on the Appalachian community based on 

a survey of 80 counties (Appalachian Land Ownership Task Force, 1981). The study found that only 1 percent

of the local population, along with absentee land-holders, corporations, and government agencies, controlled 

at least 53 percent of the total land surface in the 80 counties; of the 13 million acres of surface sampled, 72

percent was owned by absentee owners. In addition, 7 percent of land was owned by out-of-state owners 

and 25 percent by owners who resided in the state but outside out of the county of their holdings. Four-fifths 

of the mineral rights in the survey were absentee-owned. Almost 40 percent of the land in the sample, and 

70 percent of the mineral rights, were held by corporations. Indices were developed to illustrate the 

concentration of ownership of land and minerals.

Finally, the Economic Development Research Group, Inc., Regional Technology Strategies, Inc., and 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Urban Studies and Planning (2007) examined five 

regional growth paths in the Appalachian region; these growth paths are outlined in Table 2.

Table 2: Appalachian regional growth paths

Growth path Explanation

Trade center A growth pattern emanating from a small urban cluster that provides goods and services to the exurban communities and rural hinterlands

Agglomeration Also known as cluster economy, resulting from geographic concentrations of interconnected 

businesses and institutions that enhance the productivity of the core industries

Supply-chain

Also known as dispersal economy, an economy structure wherein a remote location is chosen over the 

central metropolitan area to host a node of economic activity (distribution or assembly) that is part of 

a larger (geographic) production chain

Natural amenity or 

cultural assets

This path depends on either quality-of-place attracting new households or efforts to actively develop 

and promote cultural, recreation, and eco-tourism venues and their supporting visitor services

Knowledge assets

This path denotes the growth opportunities leveraged from the collective knowledge embodied in the 

region, including social capital, technical applications and commercialization, institutional assets 

(educational and financial), and entrepreneurial start-ups

Source: Economic Development Research Group et al. (2007).

The study presents six case studies of local economic development in Appalachia that range from single 

counties to multi-county regions: Scioto County, Ohio; Chautauqua County, New York; Pike County, Kentucky;

Marion and Monongalia Counties, West Virginia; southeast Tennessee/southwest North Carolina; and 

Alabama at the state level. The case studies document the local context and history of economic 

development in these areas in order to illuminate the processes of economic growth and change that have 

been and are occurring there. All of the case studies focus on non-metropolitan parts of Appalachia. 

1.7 Stakeholder involvement 

We solicited information and feedback from a variety of stakeholders in an effort to coordinate with outside 

institutions, as well as to ensure that our focus and efforts are aligned with regional objectives and goals.

We involved stakeholders who represent a wide variety of organizations, including federal and state 

agencies, interagency councils, universities, and non-profit institutions. An invitation to participate was 

distributed to over 70 stakeholders identified by the project team as having an important stake in the future 

of how water resources are used within the region. The invitation letter included project background as well 

as a request to participate by answering seven open-ended questions. 

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Respondents included representatives from the following groups:

• City of Cumberland, Maryland;

• Greater Cumberland Committee (Cumberland, Maryland);

• Interstate Council on Water Policy;

• Maryland Department of the Environment;

• Mineral County, West Virginia;

• North Carolina State University;

• State of Arkansas;

• Susquehanna River Basin Commission;

• Tennessee State University;

• Tennessee Valley Authority;

• Trout Unlimited;

• West Virginia University Extension Office;

• United States Geological Survey; and

• University of Maryland Agriculture and Resource Economics.

Stakeholder respondents offered a variety of information concerning informational needs, desired data, and 

report format, as well as regional water assets and liabilities. In summary, ARC water asset stakeholder 

respondents’ informational needs included the following:

• water availability information for planning purposes,

• information to conserve water resources and special areas,

• monitoring for industrial and other contaminants, and

• evaluation of hydropower.

Data desired by stakeholders included information regarding existing conditions, threatened areas, and areas 

with potential for improvement or protection. Stakeholders also wanted a report format with the following 

attributes: 

• regional dataset housed in one location;

• improved GIS capabilities to access water resource data and associated analytical tools to summarize and 

document data;

• long-term projections;

• hard numbers or case studies of examples; and

• online access to water sources, quality, and availability.

Stakeholders identified what they perceived to be the region’s top water resource concerns (Table 3).

Table 3: Top water resource concerns in Appalachia identified by stakeholders

Assets Liabilities

Available data Hydraulic fracturing concerns

Natural resources Emerging contaminants

Natural resource use Mine-related concerns

Natural resource potential Agriculture concerns

Current research Development concerns

Conservation Political and institutional concerns

Partnerships Availability concerns

Recent innovations Aging structures

Future demands

Source: Data from e-mail solicitation to ARC water asset stakeholders in summer 2010.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Responses were shared with the project team during various phases of the project to direct and ground the 

project. ARC water asset stakeholder respondents offered a variety of information, including informational 

needs (Table 4), desired data and reports (Table 5), top water assets (Table 6), and liabilities (Table 7). 

Table 4: Stakeholder informational needs

Theme Response

Water availability 

information for 

planning purposes

Availability, allocations, quality, protection options, planning

Potential contribution of water to a region, ownership, usage patterns of water, framework for planning 

best possible uses

Estimated sustainable groundwater potential for public water supply and domestic wells at any given 

location—for planning and permitting process

Information on water inflows, outflows, and water supplies/demands by state and drainage basin

More detailed and credible documentation on the quantity and quality of our water supplies and how 

much of it has already been secured by outside users

Information and data relating to long term planning (i.e., are current methods of calculation of firm yield 

of reservoirs accurate when considering climate change?)

More detailed documentation of water quantity and quality—groundwater sources, in particular

Information to 

conserve water 

resources and 

special areas

Guidance to limit development of sensitive areas along all watersheds—target local county/township 

leaders, flood plain managers, conservation groups, watershed associations and state regulators

Guidance for karst and special areas most susceptible to development—target wastewater operators, 

along with system designers and regulators

Information related to conservation of water resources

Irrigation management, private well protection, landscape buffers

Monitoring for 

industrial and 

other 

contaminants

Monitoring of surface stream and river water quality of industrial, agricultural, and emerging wastewater 

treatment plant contaminants

Monitoring of ground water extraction for industrial use such as poultry production in the region

Better documentation of the potential threats to those resources and how they have increased DESPITE 

a lack of overall growth (through continued expansion of lower intensity land development practices)

Evaluation of 

hydropower

Evaluation of Federal Lock and Dam system to be adapted to generate hydro power and assist with 

removal of anthropogenic flotsam

An economic valuation of small pond development for water storage, fish enterprises, emergency use 

and small hydro development

Source: Data from e-mail solicitation to ARC water asset stakeholders in summer 2010.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Table 5: Data and reports desired by stakeholders

Theme Response

Existing conditions

Quantity and quality of our water supplies and how much of it has already been secured by outside users

Mapping well locations, depths, volumes and water quality with interpolation in between known data 

points to give a better understanding of what is available

Threatened areas

Areas at high risk for water withdrawals in the future

Watersheds at high risk for Marcellus Shale impacts 

Areas with low buffering capacity to attenuate effects of acid deposition 

Water resources damaged by flood recovery areas (dredged and channelized) 

Documentation of the potential threats to those resources

Areas with depleted, impaired, or lack of riparian cover

Water resources with dissolved oxygen impairment 

Water resources exhibiting temperature regime impairment

Areas with 

potential for 

improvement or 

protection

Areas of groundwater recharge

Spring resources

Water resources with potential for trout restoration

Eco-tourism potential

Areas with high potential for AMD remediation

Report format

A report that could take advantage of myriad existing data sets 

A regional dataset housed in one location

Watershed-scale report pertaining to pollution impairment

Improved GIS capabilities to access water resource data (e.g., water supply, demands, wastewater 

discharges, precipitation) and associated analytical tools to summarize and document data

Long-term projections

Hard numbers or case studies of examples, not a modeling effort that runs what-if scenarios 

Online access to water sources, quality, availability

Source: Data from e-mail solicitation to ARC water asset stakeholders in summer 2010.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Table 6: Top water assets in Appalachia identified by stakeholders

Theme Response

Available data Available water quality and quantity data for the Susquehanna River

Natural resources

Quality of water resources

Our groundwater quality and quantity

Water for aquatic habitat

Existing eastern brook trout populations

Reasonable annual rainfall rate near 40 inches per year

Our headwaters streams that have very high quality, quantity, and temperature for multiple use

Rainfall and topography that allow for expanded use of small catchment impoundments

Natural resource 

use

Water for recreation

World class fisheries and whitewater recreation

Water for agriculture

Water for municipal use

Clean drinking water

Relatively low cost of water supplies relative to surrounding growth areas

The overall benefits that the river system brings to stakeholders of Tennessee River Basin (e.g.,

substantial navigational capabilities, readily available water for municipal and industrial growth, low-cost 

electricity, increased recreational opportunities)

Our river systems are navigable due the Corps lock and dam system that could be adapted to provide 

zero-carbon power

Patterson Creek and New Creek watersheds have a total of 40 flood control structures, of which 29 are 

located within the County

Natural resource 

potential

North Branch water resource potential if withdrawals were permitted 

Capacity in available public water supplies

Recreational potential of Jennings Randolph Lake and over 50 miles of shoreline on the North Branch of 

the Potomac

Extensive untapped resource potential

Proximity to urban areas with high growth and limited supplies (not from perspective of selling or 

diverting our water resources, but from the perspective of tapping into a growth-constrained engine for 

our own growth and economic revitalization)

Current capacity, perceived water quality, unanticipated rapid growth (also a threat)

Research WVU study underway of the limestone aquifer along the length of Knobley Mountain

Conservation Subwatersheds identified by Trout Unlimited’s CSI as protection priorities 

CSI-directed restoration priorities

Partnerships

Linkages to local decision-makers

Availability, cost, quality, ability to manage and state water law

Recent media regarding water quality in the US

Recent 

innovations

New and effective wastewater technologies 

Knowledge of innovations in water quality protection

Source: Data from e-mail solicitation to ARC water asset stakeholders in summer 2010.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Table 7: Top water liabilities in Appalachia identified by stakeholders

Theme Response

Hydraulic 

fracturing 

concerns

Marcellus Shale/hydraulic fracturing

Potential consumption and contamination of water capacity and untapped supplies by Marcellus Shale 

interests

Emerging interests in hydrofracking process related to natural gas extraction (need to know what we 

have to feed this interest) 

Oil and gas well development on ground water

Emerging 

contaminants

Emerging contaminants such as estrogen and other chemicals passed through wastewater treatment 

plants and dropped back into surface streams and river systems

Mining-related 

concerns

Mercury in the water column

Surface mining impacts on stream water quality 

Agriculture 

concerns

Nonpoint source runoff from farms and agriculture 

Agriculture, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment losses to surface streams

Development 

concerns

Ill-advised and implemented mountain home development

Aquatic organism passage blockages on private lands and at public road crossings

Potential threat of exploitation and diversion of water resources by outside high-growth urban areas 

with limited water capacity

Potential impacts of continued low-intensity, consumptive land development practices despite the lack 

of growth (from a perspective of both contamination and inefficient use of land and water supplies)

Raw sewage direct deposited into surface streams from low-income residents and failed/failing septic 

systems (800-pound gorilla that never gets any attention) 

Political and 

institutional 

concerns

Linkages to local decision-makers

Knowledge of innovations in water quality protection

Minimal knowledge of existing ground water resources

Availability, cost, quality, ability to manage and state water law

Lack of local financial resources to properly care for and manage water resources

Jennings Randolph and other surface supplies are vulnerable to terrorist activity

Availability 

concerns

Extended drought

Availability, impact of climate change, agricultural use, other consumptive uses, environmental impacts 

of low flows

Water shortages in high-density areas that could appeal to use our water

Aging structures 29 aging flood control structures

Future demands

Reliance on surface water for much of the county's public water supply

Potential cost of accessing and developing untapped water resources

Competing demands between water resources and economic development have the potential to hinder 

advances in both arenas

Source: Data from e-mail solicitation to ARC water asset stakeholders in summer 2010.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

2. WATER QUANTITY

Cities and rural communities within and around the region are dependent upon the wise use, management,

and development of Appalachian water resources. This dependence on water for economic growth has 

become increasingly evident in recent decades. Human demand for freshwater has tripled since 1950 due to 

population growth, irrigation, and increased material consumption (Postel and Carpenter, 1997). Many 

factors must be considered to gain an understanding of water quantity within a county and across the region. 

The Appalachian region is comprised of the headwaters of many major waterways; headwaters are important 

because they are critically linked to the quality and quantity of water resources downstream (Alexander et 

al., 2007).

As shown in Figure 1 (above in Chapter 1) and Figure 2, the region’s streams flow toward eight major 

drainages and ultimately reach the Gulf of Mexico, Chesapeake Bay, and Atlantic Ocean. The region has 

abundant water resources, providing water for commercial, domestic, and other uses. As a headwaters 

region, Appalachia plays a crucial role in providing a clean drinking water supply to over 19 million public 

water supply users and over three million groundwater users in ARC counties (Kenny et al., 2009). Also, the 

region’s power plants withdraw over 29,000 mgd of water, generating over 550,000 gigawatt hours of 

electricity. Understanding these and other uses provides a foundation for managing water resources in a 

sustainable manner.

2.1 Components and framework

Publicly available data were procured to examine water quantity across the Appalachian region; only 

regionally consistent databases were queried. Our analysis of water quantity investigates the following four

indicators. As illustrated in Table 8, each of these indicators is based on one to three metrics.

1. Water withdrawal and consumption: The United States Geological Survey (USGS) reports water 

withdrawals at the county level every five years. This indicator measures surface and groundwater 

withdrawals for a variety of uses. Using withdrawals and use type, actual consumption of water is 

calculated.

2. Water sustainability. Based on a 2010 study (Roy et al., 2010), this indicator projects the future use 

of water in the region and pinpoints areas of concern based on future supply and demand.

3. Floods: This indicator measures the number of floods per county, providing a regional overview of 

where flooding occurs and at what rate.

4. Surface water quantity: This indicator provides a simple measure of surface water flow and stream 

order, which helps distinguish counties with large rivers versus those with headwater streams.

Table 8: Water quantity assessment components

Indicator Metric Denominator

Unit of 

measurement Data source and date

Water withdrawal and 

consumption

• Surface water withdrawal

• Groundwater withdrawal

• Total consumption

n/a mgd Kenny et al., 2009

Shaffer, 2009

Water sustainability

• Projected water withdrawal

change

• Projected water sustainability risk 

with climate change

n/a • Percent change

• Narrative index Roy et al., 2010

Floods • Number of floods n/a Count, 1994-2010 National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, 2010

Surface water quantity • Mean annual maximum flow

• Percent of headwater streams County acres

• Cubic feet per 

second

• Percent

USGS National Hydrography Dataset, 

version 1, 2005

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Figure 2: Appalachian region hydrology

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Figure 3: (A) Total surface water withdrawal by county; (B) Total groundwater withdrawal by county

A

B

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

2.1.1 Water withdrawal and consumption

USGS has been collecting water withdrawal data and producing summary reports since the 1950s. The 2005

data2 were used to examine total surface and groundwater withdrawals and to calculate consumption across 

the Appalachian region. USGS collected data from a wide range of entities, including state, federal, and local 

agencies (Kenny et al., 2009).

We used these data to report two separate water withdrawal and consumption metrics: surface water 

withdrawals and groundwater withdrawals. Data are reported to the USGS as water withdrawals, or water 

that was withdrawn from a water source—river, lake, pond, or the ground—for a specific purpose or 

industry. These withdrawal statistics do not account for the water that is consumed, or water not returned to 

the source. For example, thermoelectric plants withdrawal vast amounts of water to generate electricity, but 

return 98 percent of these withdrawals back to the water source. To gain a more realistic understanding of 

water consumption, we estimate water consumption in addition to withdrawal. These metrics can provide 

stakeholders with an overview of water use in their county or region and can help inform decisions on the 

wise use and management of water resources.

Unfortunately, these metrics do not take into account the levels of increased water consumption due to 

recent natural gas well development in the Marcellus and Utica Shale regions. The most recent USGS data 

were published before the widespread development of shale gas resources in the Appalachian region. A 

follow up to this study could examine the 2010 data—slated to be published in 2014 by USGS —and quantify 

water consumption trends that incorporate gas well development in Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, and West 

Virginia.

Panel A in Figure 3 illustrates total surface water withdrawals across the following uses: irrigation, 

thermoelectric, industrial, public water supply, aquaculture, mining, and raising livestock.3 Surface water 

withdrawals account for 37,000 mgd, or 96 percent of the total water withdrawn in the region. The largest 

sector by far is thermoelectric generation, withdrawing over 29,000 mgd, or 60 percent of the total water 

withdrawn in the region. Thermoelectric is followed by public water supply (3,185 mgd) and industrial (2,910

mgd) withdrawals. The combined counties of Alabama have the highest state surface water withdrawal,

7,400 mgd, followed by Ohio with 6,502 mgd and Tennessee with 5,264 mgd.

Panel B in Figure 3 illustrates county groundwater withdrawals across the region. Groundwater withdrawals

only represent 4 percent of the total water withdrawals in the region, with a large portion dedicated to 

drinking water for public or private water supply: 655 mgd. Alabama (133 mgd) and Ohio (115 mgd) are the 

largest consumers of groundwater for public water supply. Pennsylvania (72 mgd) and North Carolina (44

mgd) are the top private ground water supply consumers, and Alabama has the highest state groundwater 

withdrawal of 204 mgd, followed by Georgia (104 mgd) and Kentucky (17 mgd). 

As discussed above, to understand the effect of human use on the hydrologic cycle, one must account for 

return flow, or the amount of water returned after withdrawal. This study used coefficients to determine 

total water consumption (see Table 9). These coefficients are based on a study (Shaffer, 2009) that quantified 

the percentage of flow not returned to the water source by category for the Great Lakes Basin and 

surrounding areas, including several Appalachian states. For this analysis, Ohio was selected to represent the 

ARC region. These coefficients were used to compute water consumption for all the states in the ARC region 

by applying them to surface water withdrawals; we assume that groundwater withdrawals are not returned. 

2 At the time of report development, the 2005 report was the most recent available. Since then, USGS has released 2010 data.

3 This map—along with all maps in this report—is categorized and displayed using equal interval classification, which allows for the interpretation of an equal 

distribution of data across the region. Each color represents the same interval. For example, the interval used in Figure 3 (A) is 325 mgd. An alternative method 

would shade counties such that the same number of counties are within each category. The equal interval method, however, provides an objective view of the 

data and allows readers to identify distributions and outliers.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Figure 4 maps total water consumption by county across the region and highlights the top eight counties. 

Figure 5 breaks down water consumption by sector for these top water-consuming counties. In these 

counties, the thermoelectric sector consumes the most water—even after considering that the sector returns 

98 percent of its water withdrawal—and the industrial sector consumes the second-most water.

Figure 6 illustrates water consumption by sector for the entire region. Thermoelectric plants account for 45

percent of all consumption across the region, and water supply accounts for an additional 30 percent.

Cities and areas with the highest consumptive water use are those containing populated and industrialized 

areas such as Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Weirton, West Virginia; Huntsville, Alabama; and the Ohio River 

Valley. County patterns emerge that show industries located in the Kanawha Valley of West Virginia and Ohio 

River Valley, among other areas, consume large amounts of water for various industrial processes.

Table 9: Waters consumption coefficients

Category Water consumption coefficient

Water supply 7 percent

Industrial 10 percent

Thermoelectric 2 percent

Irrigation 78 percent

Livestock 76 percent

Commercial 17 percent

Mining 10 percent

Aquaculture 0 percent

Source: Shaffer (2009). Note: Irrigation coefficient is the average of crop and 

golf course coefficients.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Figure 4: Total water consumption

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Figure 5: Top county water consumers

Figure 6: Water consumption categories for the ARC region

2.1.2 Water sustainability

For resource managers and planners, understanding future water supply conditions can be beneficial for 

water resource planning. As discussed earlier, water withdrawals and consumption are critical components of 

daily life, from industrial and food production to electricity generation. Understanding the limitations of that 

resource could help guide decisions based on water availability. This section highlights results for two water 

sustainability metrics obtained directly from published work (Roy et al., 2010). This study developed a 

methodology to predict supply and demand of water in 2050 under current growth conditions, as well as 

estimated conditions due to climate change. The results are not intended to predict where water deficits will 

specifically occur, but rather where they are more likely to occur. 

30%

13%

2% 2% 3% 5%

45%

Public water supply

Industrial

Irrigation

Livestock

Aquaculture

Mining

Thermoelectric

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Panel A in Figure 8 maps projected changes in water withdrawals through 2050. The projected water 

withdrawal data were only calculated by the researchers for thermoelectric and drinking water supply. Panel 

B in Figure 8 maps the water sustainability index, which is based on predicted climate change patterns, or 

areas that are at risk of withdrawing more water than is available in the future. These two projections show 

areas most vulnerable to water quantity conflicts and demands. 

Figure 7 provides additional information about the eight counties with the largest projected increases in 

water withdrawal. Both of the sectors considered in this research—thermoelectric and drinking water 

supply—show increases. It appears that increased consumption could be influenced by population growth, 

which results in additional demands for drinking water and electricity. The combined increase in energy 

production for the eight highlighted counties totals 22,830 gigawatt hours (GWh)—a nearly 45 percent 

increase. The projected drinking water consumption increases by over 350 percent in the four counties 

surrounding Atlanta, rising from 76 mgd to 274 mgd. These metrics are just one way to examine water 

withdrawal trends in the ARC region.

Figure 7: Top counties with change in water withdrawal: 2005-2050

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Figure 8: (A) Projected water withdrawal change (2005-2050); (B) Projected water sustainability risk with climate change

(2050)

A

B

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Panel B in Figure 8 maps counties with water supplies potentially at risk by 2050, particularly when 

considering the impacts from climate change. The water sustainability index is comprised of five criteria: 

available renewable precipitation, sustainable groundwater use, susceptibility to drought, growth in water 

demand, and an increased need for storage. These five factors were used to score each county across the US 

and ultimately create an index of risk. Georgia counties surrounding Atlanta stand out considerably, as do 

heavy industrial areas neighboring densely populated areas in Pennsylvania. Most rural areas with light 

industry and minimal projected population growth are largely safe from projected water availability risks, 

while areas with growing populations or large agricultural demands are at risk. 

Figure 9: Total number of floods per county

2.1.3 Floods

Flood data were provided by the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) at the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NCDC compiled storm data from 124 regional offices of the National 

Weather Service (NWS). We queried this database for events between September 2000 and August 2010 in 

the “flood” and “flash flood” categories. Figure 9 maps floods per county in this ten-year period.

NWS compiles data based on forecast zones. For the most part, these zones correspond with county 

boundaries; however, a few counties with large topographic and geographic variability are split into two 

forecast zones. For consistency, storms occurring in these split-county forecast zones were reviewed to 

ensure that a single flood event was documented and was only counted as one flood in that county.

Regions with greater than average flood counts are found in northern Alabama, South Carolina, eastern 

Kentucky, western Pennsylvania, and the eastern ARC counties in New York. 

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

2.1.4 Surface water

Large rivers are important because they provide a significant amount of water for potential withdrawals and 

consumption. Headwater streams are also important, though, because they help maintain the ecological 

integrity of downstream waters. In this section, we analyze two county-level surface water metrics: one 

focusing on large rivers and 

the second focusing on 

headwater streams.

Panel A in Figure 11 illustrates 

the maximum mean annual 

stream flow for each county. 

This metric was calculated by 

identifying the maximum 

mean annual flow from

catchments within a county. 

The Ohio River, which flows 

along the border between 

Ohio and West Virginia, stands 

out in this map, as do other 

major rivers including the 

Susquehanna River in 

Pennsylvania, the Kanawha 

River in West Virginia, and the Alabama River in Alabama.

Panel B in Figure 11 summarizes the percent of streams in each county classified as headwaters streams. 

Headwater streams can be identified by stream order, or the order in which the stream drains. Figure 10

illustrates this hierarchy, where stream order 1 is the smallest tributary and 4 is shown as a larger river. In the 

ARC region, the largest rivers are ninth-order streams. For this study, stream orders 1 through 3 are 

considered headwaters streams. The darker blue counties in Panel B show areas with the largest percentage 

of headwater streams and could be considered headwater regions. The Appalachian region contains a 

significant amount headwaters streams, with 65 percent of its streams classified as headwater streams, 

whereas 29 percent are medium sized streams, and only 6 percent are classified as larger streams. Several

counties in the region have only headwaters streams: Alcorn, Tippah, and Webster counties in Mississippi; 

Ashtabula County in Ohio; and Highland County in Virginia.

Figure 10: Stream order example

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Figure 11: (A) Maximum mean annual flow; (B) Percent of headwater streams

A

B

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

2.2 Discussion

Counties with the highest consumptive water use are those containing populated and industrialized areas 

such as Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Weirton, West Virginia; Huntsville, Alabama; and the Ohio River Valley. 

After excluding thermoelectric uses, other categories emerge as major water consumers. The four counties 

with the highest water consumption for 2005 were Allegheny, Pennsylvania (industry, public supply); 

Delaware, New York (public supply); Sullivan, Tennessee (industry); and Transylvania, North Carolina 

(aquaculture). The majority of water withdrawals in the ARC region are taken from surface water; in 2005, 

the total water withdrawn from the surface was nearly twenty-four times the amount taken from the ground.

2.2.1 Water quantity case study

Flash flooding is one of the most hazardous natural events and has environmental, social, and economic 

implications. The Buffalo Creek disaster is one of the best-documented cases of the long-term impacts of 

flooding. In February 1972, 132 

million gallons of debris-filled,

muddy water burst through an 

earthen mine dam, killing 125 

people in the small community of 

Buffalo Creek, West Virginia. 

Approximately 4,000 of the 5,000 

residents lost their homes; 93 

percent of residents suffered from 

emotional disturbance; nearly all 

had close experiences with death; 

and, following the disaster, a once–

tightly knit community ended up 

with little concern for one another 

(Gruntfest, 1995). A study by 

Erickson (1998) concluded that the 

community of Buffalo Creek 

suffered two disasters: the gradual 

deterioration of mountain culture 

and the flood disaster itself. As 

such, policymakers, regulators, and 

managers need to recognize the 

long-term impacts of floods on 

communities.

Flooding can have tremendous impacts on society. Loss of human life, injury, and endangerment, as well as 

impacts on the environment are often associated with larger floods. Every year, people are killed and 

displaced by flooding. Additional impacts of flooding include polluted water, food shortage, loss of homes, 

damage to personal property, exposure to elements, disruption of education and community cohesion, and 

loss of security, jobs, and enforcement programs. However, there is no consensus about the long-term social 

impacts of flooding. Studies generally indicate that socioeconomic trends in place prior to a flood are 

reinforced following a flood (Gruntfest, 1995). When a flood impacts a community already experiencing 

economic troubles, the flood can exacerbate or accelerate the rate of downturn. In recurrent flood-prone 

areas of Appalachia, communities can get caught in a continuing feedback cycle of disaster, relief, and repair, 

followed by another disaster (Gautam and van der Heok, 2003).

Figure 12: Comparing flooding and economic status

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

The economic impacts of flooding can be 

detected at local, regional, and national 

scales. Since 1978, more than 8 billion dollars

were paid in total loss payments in 

Appalachian counties (NFIP, 2011). 

Responding to and recovering from flood 

events can be a burden to local, county, state, 

and federal governments and can detract 

from business and residential development. 

To illustrate flood impact vulnerability across 

the region, the ARC DST was used to rank 

counties based on two parameters: ARC 

economic status and the number of floods. A 

heaver weight was placed on areas with 

frequent floods, while a slightly lesser 

emphasis was placed on a county’s economic 

status. Once each county was ranked, a spatial 

cluster analysis—part of the ARC Toolbar—

was performed to show “hot-spots” or 

clusters of counties that experience the same 

mix of flooding frequency and distressed 

economic status. Figure 13 illustrates those 

results and highlights areas of southeastern 

Kentucky.

Figure 13: Flooding and distressed counties case study

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Case study

Marcellus Shale

The water quantity index and its 

indicators lend themselves to a 

number of applied policy uses. 

Increased drilling in deep shale 

formations (Figure 14) is 

occurring in several Appalachian 

states. Natural gas drilling and 

the concurrent water withdrawal 

from streams, as well as potential 

for water quality degradation, 

can be evaluated for potential to 

impair water quality and to stress 

water quantity. Such an analysis 

could begin with a look at the 

water quantity indictors or 

metrics for each county relative 

to the number of Marcellus Shale 

permit applications. If new wells 

are proposed in counties where 

water quantity is poor or at risk,

there is a chance that the 

extraction could stress existing 

water resources. This index can, 

therefore, help identify counties 

within which extra precautions 

may be required to maintain 

water quantity.

Figure 14: Gas-bearing shale formations in Appalachia

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

3. WATER QUALITY

The relationship between water quality and human health is well-documented (Shiber, 2005; Gaffield et al., 

2003). However, links between the quality and quantity of water resources and the influence on the overall 

regional economic health and sustainability can be more confounding (Deller et al., 2008). States are required 

under section 305(b) of the Clean Water Act to report on the quality of water resources and determine if the 

waters are supporting their designated uses—including, for example, water supply, recreation, and aquatic 

life. States are also required under section 303(d) of the Act to list impaired waters, which do not meet their 

designated uses. Also, states are required to create strategies and develop plans that address these 

impairments, known as Total Maximum Daily Loads. 

Figure 15: Impaired streams in the ARC region

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Figure 15 shows 303(d)-listed impaired streams across the region (USEPA, 2008). While states are mandated 

to submit lists of impaired streams to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), many 

specifics are left up to the states. For example, surface water quality standards vary state-by-state. In 

addition, watershed assessment programs—through which data are collected to document impairments—

are quite variable. Further inconsistencies are introduced when different states specify impairments 

differently. For example, Ohio lists impaired streams using watershed boundaries, while South Carolina maps 

stream segments based on impaired point locations. Other states such as West Virginia list stream segments 

with specific starting and ending points. These inconsistencies make it problematic to use state-generated 

lists of impaired waters as a basis for assessing water quality across the Appalachian region.

To provide a consistent characterization of water quality across the region, we developed a set of statistical 

models that predict water quality for every stream segment in the ARC region. These models use boosted 

regression trees (BRTs) to predict instream conditions based on myriad natural and anthropogenic landscape 

variables (Section 3.1 further details this approach). The resulting models have regionally consistent input 

and output variables and have been peer reviewed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 

and other partner clients (Martin et al., 2012). This methodology has been used to successfully model a 

multitude of individual response variables for several regions across the country (Table 10). 

Table 10: United States Fish and Wildlife Service habitat models

Response variable Response type Client/Region Source

Brook trout Presence/absence Driftless Area Restoration Effort 

(DARE) www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Brown trout Presence/absence DARE www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Cottus (sculpin) Presence/absence DARE www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Longnose dace Presence/absence DARE www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Smallmouth bass Presence/absence DARE www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Small streams signature 

Index Index score

Ohio River Basin Fish Habitat 

Partnership (ORBFHP) & Southeast 

Aquatic Resource Partnership (SARP)

www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Modified index of center of 

diversity Index score ORBFHP & SARP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Intolerant mussels Presence/absence ORBFHP & SARP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Smallmouth bass Presence/absence ORBFHP & SARP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Great river guild Presence/absence ORBFHP & SARP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Intolerant redhorse Presence/absence ORBFHP & SARP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Intolerant fish Percentage ORBFHP & SARP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Coldwater guild Presence/absence Midwest Glacial Lakes Partnership 

(MGLP) www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Walleye Abundance Midwest Glacial Lakes Partnership 

(MGLP) www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Bluegill Presence/absence Midwest Glacial Lakes Partnership 

(MGLP) www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Northern pike Presence/absence Midwest Glacial Lakes Partnership 

(MGLP) www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Trophic state index: total 

summer phosphorus mg/L Midwest Glacial Lakes Partnership (MGLP) www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Brook trout Presence/absence Great Lakes Basin Fish Habitat 

Partnership (GLBFHP) www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Coldwater guild Presence/absence GLBFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Walleye Presence/absence GLBFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Large river guild Presence/absence GLBFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Lithophilic spawners Presence/absence GLBFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Blacknose shiner Presence/absence Fishers and Farmers Fish Habitat 

Partnership (FFFHP) www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Brook silverside Presence/absence FFFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Golden Shiner Presence/absence FFFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Smallmouth bass Presence/absence FFFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Fish richness Total richness FFFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Northern headwaters guild Presence/absence Great Plains Fish Habitat Partnership 

(GPFHP) www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

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Southern headwaters guild Presence/absence GPFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Darter guild Presence/absence GPFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Madtom guild Presence/absence GPFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Turbid river guild Presence/absence GPFHP www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Coldwater guild Presence/absence USFWS Midwest Regional 

Assessment

www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Coolwater guild Presence/absence USFWS Midwest Regional 

Assessment

www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Warmwater guild Presence/absence USFWS Midwest Regional 

Assessment

www.midwestfishhabitats.org/resources

Independent models were created to assess the following common water quality parameters:

• pH, the acidity or alkalinity of water;

• fecal coliform, an indicator of pollution from fecal matter from warm-blooded animals;

• dissolved oxygen, which is required to support aquatic life in streams and rivers; and

• specific conductivity, the ability of water to conduct electricity—a commonly used indicator of the 

quantity of dissolved ions in waters. High levels of specific conductivity could indicate pollution from 

a variety of sources including mining, urban runoff, or agriculture. 

These parameters are commonly measured across the region and enable an understanding of basic water 

quality conditions. Water sampling data were compiled from federal water quality databases and other state 

and local data providers (see Table 11); our compiled database includes over 11,000 sample locations (Figure 

16) with approximately 700,000 total samples. 

Table 11: Water quality data sources

Data source Parameter State(s) Data date range

USEPA STORET (STOrage and 

RETrieval) Data Warehouse

pH, fecal coliform, dissolved 

oxygen, and specific conductivity

Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, 

New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 

South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia

2000-2010

Alliance for Aquatic Resource 

Monitoring

Dissolved oxygen, pH, and 

turbidity Pennsylvania 2001-2008

Alabama Water Watch Dissolved oxygen and pH Alabama 2001-2012

Virginia Department of 

Environmental Quality Fecal coliform and pH Virginia 2002-2012

Using these sampling data combined with the segment-level landscape characteristics, the model predicts

current conditions across the region. Additionally, results are aggregated to the county level to provide 

information consistent with the remainder of this report.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Figure 16: ARC region water sample locations

3.1 Components and framework

The modeling framework begins with two types of inputs: response variables and predictor variables. 

Response variables are the instream measures of condition: pH, fecal coliform, dissolved oxygen, and specific 

conductivity. A separate model and assessment was created for each response variable.

Predictor variables are typically measures of land-use or land-cover derived from GIS, such as percent 

impervious surface area or road crossing density. Predictor variables are compiled at the local catchment 

scale using the 1:100k USGS National Hydrography Dataset (NHD) stream catchments. A catchment is defined 

as the land area that directly contributes runoff to a particular stream. To set-up the model, each catchment

has predictor variables allocated to its area, for example the percent forest cover per catchment. 

Additionally, the predictors—such as percent forest—are summarized for the upstream contributing 

watershed, creating cumulative statistics for each catchment (e.g. upstream percent forest cover, upstream 

density of road crossings, or upstream average imperviousness). Water sampling points were assigned to a 

specific catchment to link the appropriate predictor variables with the measured response variable.

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As shown in Figure 17, we employ a BRT statistical modeling approach to relate the instream response 

variable to the landscape-based predictor variables. This process results in a series of quantitative outcomes, 

including predictions of expected current conditions for all catchments in the region, measures the accuracy 

of those predictions, a quantification of each predictor variable’s relative influence on the predictions (i.e., 

variable importance), and a series of plots illustrating the modeled functional relationship between each 

predictor and the response (e.g., plot of impervious area versus water quality response). 

Figure 17: Modeling process

Predictive accuracy is quantified using an internal cross-validation (CV) method (Elith et al., 2008). The 

method consists of randomly splitting the input dataset into ten equally-sized subsets, developing a BRT 

model on a single subset and testing its performance on the remaining nine, and then repeating that process 

for the remaining nine subsets. Thus, the CV correlation coefficient actually averages ten separate correlation 

measurements. A standard error for the ten estimates is also given. CV measures are designed to estimate 

how well the model will perform using independent data, and are reported below in Table 12.

Landscape Variables

Geology

Soils

Land cover

Aquatic Attributes

Flow

Temperature

Drainage area

Catchments

Statistical 

Model

Water Quality Sampling 

Database

pH - Fecal coliform

Dissolved oxygen -

Specific conductivity

Variables

derived from 

GIS 

datasets

Only for a portion of 

the catchments

Relative influence of each catchment 

variable

Predictions for

every catchment

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3.2 Thresholds

To evaluate the projected conditions from each of our four models, thresholds were created for each 

parameter. The most applicable thresholds would be the water quality criteria adopted by each state; 

however, states often adopt different criteria, and for some parameters, one state may have a criterion while 

another may not. Rather than comparing the model results with a different set of thresholds for each state, 

we selected a single threshold for each model. 

3.2.1 pH

pH indicates the acidity or alkalinity of surface waters. USEPA provides a national recommended water 

quality criterion for this parameter: pH must be between 6.5 and 9 standard units (USEPA, 2012). We 

therefore adopted this range as the threshold for our model. This is the only parameter with an acceptable 

range rather than a maximum or minimum value; therefore, pH values may fail to meet this threshold if they 

are too low or too high.

3.2.2 Fecal coliform

Fecal coliform is one measure of bacteriological contamination of surface waters. It is used as an indicator of 

contamination by feces from warm-blooded animals such as humans, livestock, or wild animals. While many 

states use fecal coliform for surface water quality criteria, others use E. coli. Our model requires a consistent 

dataset across all Appalachian states, and we therefore use fecal coliform.

Rather than providing a single number in its national recommended water quality criteria table for fecal 

coliform, it provides a reference to the “Gold Book,” a USEPA report that lays the groundwork for a wide 

variety of recommended criteria (USEPA, 1986). This document proposes using a maximum geometric mean4

of 200 colony-forming units (cfu)/100 milliliter (mL) for fecal coliform, along with geometric means for E. coli

and enterococci based on limiting the number of illnesses for swimmers at both fresh water and marine 

beaches. It then proposes single-sample maximums for E. coli and enterococci, but does not explicitly 

propose a single-sample maximum for fecal coliform.

West Virginia, which still uses fecal coliform in its instream water quality criteria, applies the USEPArecommended threshold of 200 cfu/100 mL for a geometric mean of sufficient samples, along with a singlesample maximum of 400 cfu/100 mL.5 We apply this single-sample maximum of 400 cfu/100 mL for our fecal 

coliform model.

3.2.3 Dissolved oxygen

Unlike other criteria, which are set as maximums, the dissolved oxygen criterion is set as a minimum because

aquatic organisms need a certain amount of dissolved oxygen to survive. As with fecal coliform, rather than 

providing a single number in its national recommended water quality criteria table for dissolved oxygen, it 

provides a reference to the “Gold Book” (USEPA, 1986). This document, in turn, provides a variety of 

dissolved oxygen criteria that differ for coldwater versus warmwater species, for early life stages versus other 

life stages, and for different averaging periods. Instantaneous minimum values range from 3 to 8 milligrams 

per liter (mg/L), and mean values range from 5.5 to 9.5 mg/L. 

For comparison, West Virginia’s water quality criteria range from 4 mg/L in certain locations on the large 

Ohio and Kanawha Rivers, to 5 mg/L in warmwater streams, to more stringent levels in coldwater streams (6 

4 This geometric mean is to be calculated using five or more samples within a 30-day period. 5 47 Code of State Rules Series 2, Appendix E, Section 8.13. While West Virginia’s criterion of 400 cfu/100 mL cannot be exceeded in “more than ten percent of 

all samples taken during the month,” this is essentially a single-sample maximum because more than one sample are rarely collected in a single month.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

mg/L at any time and 7 mg/L in spawning areas.

6 Because our model applies to a wide range of stream types 

and sizes across a broad geographic area, we selected a threshold of 5 mg/L.

3.2.4 Specific conductivity

Specific conductivity measures the ability of water to conduct electricity and is a commonly used measure of 

dissolved ions in surface waters. These ions include a variety of positively charged cations (sodium, calcium, 

magnesium, potassium) and anions (chloride, bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate), among others. Conductivity 

typically increases in surface waters due to earth disturbances such as coal mines, road construction, and 

urbanization. 

USEPA does not provide a national recommended water quality criterion for conductivity. It does provide a 

recommended criterion for dissolved solids and salinity: 250 mg/L for chlorides and sulfates in domestic 

water supplies. While related to conductivity, the concentration of dissolved chlorides and sulfates uses 

different units and is not directly applicable to choosing a threshold for conductivity.

USEPA recently studied central Appalachian streams and calculated a field-based aquatic life benchmark of 

300 microsiemens per centimeter (μS/cm) for conductivity (USEPA, 2011). This benchmark is expected to

avoid the local extirpation of 95 percent of native species. The model was generated using state agency data 

collected in West Virginia and was validated using data collected in Kentucky. According to this report: 

The benchmark is applicable to mixtures of ions dominated by salts of Ca2+, Mg2+, SO4

2− and HCO3− at 

a circum-neutral to alkaline pH. The impetus for the benchmark is the observation that high 

conductivities in streams below surface coal mining operations, especially mountaintop mining and 

valley fills, are associated with impairment of aquatic life. However, application of the benchmark is 

not limited to that source. (USEPA, 2011, p. viii)

Given that this recent study underwent rigorous review by a panel from USEPA’s Science Advisory Board, we 

applied this threshold of 300 μS/cm to our conductivity model.

3.3 Modeling results

In this section, predictions of current conditions are visualized in a spatially explicit manner using GIS. These 

results are then summarized and mapped by county, based on the percentage of catchments within each 

county not meeting the thresholds established for each parameter. The BRT output includes a list of the 

predictor variables used in each model, ordered and scored by their relative importance in structuring the 

predictive response, which can aid in determining stressors and targeting management options. Table 12

summarizes the modeling results, including model strength (CV correlation) and the most influential 

predictor variables and their relative weights.

6 47 Code of State Rules Series 2, Appendix E, Section 8.12.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Table 12: Water quality model results summary

Parameter Model statistics Most influential variables with weights

Unit of 

measurement

pH

• 3,806 locations with at least 3 distinct sample dates 

reporting pH measurements

• Data ranged from 2000-2012

• CV correlation = 0.664 ± 0.009

• Model results extrapolated to 270,756 catchments

• Network percent carbonate geology (25.95)

• Network percent barren land (7.28)

• Network percent shale geology (7.00)

• Network percent grassland (6.28)

• Network impervious surface cover (5.35)

Predicted 10th

percentile pH 

measurement 

(standard units)

Fecal coliform

• 4,206 sample locations reporting fecal coliform 

measurements

• Data ranged from 2000-2012

• CV correlation = 0.588 ± 0.012

• Model results extrapolated to 270,756 catchments

• Network impervious surface cover (10.63)

• Catchment minimum elevation (8.11)

• Network baseflow index (7.72)

• Network percent grassland (7.49)

• Network road crossing density (7.43)

Predicted 90th

percentile fecal 

coliform 

measurement 

(cfu/100 mL)

Dissolved 

oxygen

• 6,051 sample locations reporting DO 

measurements between June and September

• Data ranged from 2000-2012

• CV correlation = 0.504 ± 0.012

• Model results extrapolated to 270,756 catchments

• Catchment mean annual temp (26.48)

• Network baseflow index (10.71)

• Network cattle density (7.23)

• Catchment minimum elevation (6.28)

• Network percent agriculture (5.37)

Predicted summer 

dissolved oxygen 

measurement 

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductivity

• 3,942 locations with at least 3 distinct sample dates 

reporting specific conductivity measurements

• Data ranged from 2000-2012

• CV correlation = 0.857 ± 0.004

• Model results extrapolated to 270,756 catchments

• Network baseflow index (16.05)

• Network impervious surface cover (14.84)

• Catchment mean annual precip (12.30)

• Network percent shale geology (10.34)

• Network percent carbonate geology (9.44)

Predicted 90th

percentile 

conductivity 

measurement 

(μS/cm)

Note: As described in Section 3.2.3, the dissolved oxygen prediction is not based on a specific percentile.

3.3.1 pH

For the pH model, 67 predictors were evaluated. From that list, 37 variables were removed due to statistical 

redundancy (r > 0.6) or logical redundancy, resulting in a final list of 30 predictor variables for the BRT model 

and assessment. A preliminary model was run to determine which additional predictor variables could be 

removed from the analysis because of minimal contribution to the final model. During this preliminary 

modeling, an additional 12 variables were indicated as very low relative influence (less than 1.0) and were 

removed from the final model. The final model therefore utilized 18 predictor variables. See Appendix B for a 

full data dictionary.

For the response variable, we compiled instream pH monitoring data for 3,806 distinct catchments, with 

collection dates for the data ranging from 2000 to 2012. 

Response data for catchments were only used if two or more pH samples were taken from that catchment 

between 2000 and 2012. A review of these pH samples shows that low pH is more common than high pH 

across the region; therefore, we used the 10th percentile value to characterize each catchment in the model. 

While not the most acidic value measured in each catchment, the 10th percentile provides an indication of a 

relatively acidic result. Figure 18 maps the sampling sites used to construct the model.

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Figure 18: pH sample results (10th percentile) used in the model

The BRT output includes a list of the predictor variables used in the model, ordered and scored by their 

relative importance. The relative importance values are based on the number of times a variable is selected 

for splitting, weighted by the squared improvement to the model as a result of each split, and averaged over 

all trees (Friedman and Meulman, 2003). The relative influence score is scaled so that the sum of the scores 

for all variables adds to 100, where higher numbers indicate greater influence, as show in Table 13.

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Figure 19: (A) Predicted 10th percentile pH values; (B) Predicted percent of county catchments below the pH threshold

A

B

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Table 13: Predictor variable influence for pH model

Variable of influence Measurement

Relative 

influence Data source

Network carbonate bedrock 

geology

Percent of network drainage area that has carbonate bedrock 

geology 26.0 USGS

Network barren land cover Percent of network drainage area that is barren land area 7.3 NLCD 2006

Network shale bedrock geology Percent of network drainage area that has shale bedrock 

geology 7.0 USGS

Network grassland cover Percent of network drainage area that is 

grassland/herbaceous area 6.3 NLCD 2006

Network impervious surface cover Percent of network drainage area that is impervious 5.4 NLCD 2006

Network baseflow index Percent of network streamflow that can be attributed to 

ground-water discharge into stream 5.2 USGS

Catchment mean annual

precipitation Mean annual precipitation per catchment, millimeters 5.1 NHD PLUS

Network sandstone bedrock 

geology

Percent of network drainage area that has sandstone bedrock 

geology 4.9 USGS

Catchment minimum elevation Minimum elevation of local catchment 4.8 NHD PLUS

Catchment forest cover Percent of the local catchment area that is forest land area 4.7 NLCD 2006

Network surface water use Total network surface water use by county, millions gallons 

per day/km2 4.3 NFHP

Network drainage area Square kilometers of network drainage area 4.0 NHD PLUS

Network shrub/scrub land cover Percent of network drainage area that is shrub/scrub area 3.5 NLCD 2006

Catchment barren land cover Percent of the local catchment area that is barren land area 2.8 NLCD 2006

Network agriculture land cover Percent of network drainage area that is agricultural area 2.8 NLCD 2006

Network ground water use Total network groundwater use by county, millions gallons 

per day/km2 2.2 NFHP

Network wetland cover Percent of network drainage area that is wetland area 1.9 NLCD 2006

Catchment road crossing density Count of road crossing per square kilometer, #/km2 in 

catchment 1.8 NFHP

Note: Network variables include the landscape data for the catchment and all upstream catchments.

We then extrapolated the BRT model to all catchments, which allowed us to predict pH results in unsampled 

catchments. Panel A of Figure 19 shows the predicted 10th percentile pH value for each 1:100k catchment in 

the ARC region. Panel B of Figure 19 shows the percentage of catchments in each county that have predicted 

values less than the threshold of 6.5 standard units.

Generally, these maps show areas of high predicted pH levels where geology type is dominated by limestone. 

Areas with high forest cover show lower predicted pH levels, consistent with acid rain deposition and the low 

buffering capacities observed in forest soils. Low predicted pH levels found in Mississippi and Alabama are 

consistent with natural background levels observed in these areas. Areas with low predicted pH levels are 

also found in pockets in Pennsylvania and West Virginia; these areas are typically associated with active and 

historic mining of high-sulfur coal, which can be expected to contribute acidity and lower pH.

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3.3.2 Fecal coliform

For the fecal coliform model, 67 predictors were evaluated. From that list, 31 variables were removed due to 

statistical redundancy (r > 0.6) or logical redundancy, resulting in a final list of 36 predictor variables for the 

BRT model and assessment. A preliminary model was run to determine which additional predictor variables 

could be removed from the analysis because of minimal contribution to the final model. During this 

preliminary modeling, an additional 17 variables were indicated as very low relative influence (less than 1.0)

and were removed from the final model. The final model utilized 19 predictor variables. See Appendix B for a 

full data dictionary.

For the response variable, we compiled instream fecal coliform monitoring data for 4,206 distinct 

catchments, with collection dates ranging from 2000 to 2012.

All fecal coliform samples taken within a catchment were analyzed, and the 90th percentile value for each 

catchment was calculated. This value was used to characterize the catchment for the model. Rather than 

using an arithmetic or geometric mean, the 90th percentile provides an indication of a relatively high result 

found in each county. Figure 20 maps all of the sampling sites that were used to construct the model.

The BRT output includes a list of the predictor variables used in the model, ordered and scored by their 

relative importance. The relative influence score is scaled so that the sum of the scores for all variables adds 

to 100, where higher numbers indicate greater influence, as show in Table 14.

We then extrapolated the BRT model to all catchments to predict fecal coliform results in unsampled 

catchments. Panel A in Figure 21shows the predicted 90th percentile fecal coliform value for each catchment. 

Panel B in Figure 21 shows the percentage of catchments in each county where the predicted fecal coliform 

value exceeds the threshold of 400 cfu/100 mL. 

Large areas of low predicted fecal coliform concentrations correspond with high forest cover, such as the 

Allegheny National Forest in Pennsylvania and the Monongahela and George Washington National Forests in 

West Virginia and Virginia. Moving south, the assessed areas in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia 

all show high predicted coliform concentrations in areas that are generally urbanized. This is likely due to 

significant loading from nonpoint and point sources associated with recent, rapid urban and suburban 

development in these areas. In eastern Kentucky, high predicted coliform concentrations could be consistent 

with high incidence of untreated sewage discharges and failing decentralized septic systems.

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Figure 20: Fecal coliform sample results (90th percentile) used in the model

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Figure 21: (A) Predicted 90th percentile fecal coliform values; (B) Predicted percent of county catchments above the fecal 

coliform threshold

A

B

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Table 14: Predictor variable influence for fecal coliform model

Variable of influence Measurement

Relative 

influence Data source

Network impervious surface cover Percent of network drainage area that is impervious 10.6 NLCD 2006

Catchment minimum elevation Minimum elevation of local catchment 8.1 NHD Plus

Network baseflow index Percent of network streamflow that can be attributed to 

ground-water discharge into stream 7.7 USGS

Network grassland cover Percent of network drainage area that is 

grassland/herbaceous area 7.5 NLCD 2006

Network road crossing density Count of road crossing per square kilometer, #/km2 in 

network 7.4 NFHP

Network agriculture land cover Percent of network drainage area that is agricultural area 7.2 NLCD 2006

Catchment road crossing density Count of road crossing per square kilometer, #/km2 in 

catchment 6.9 NFHP

Catchment population density Count of population per square kilometer, #/km2 in 

catchment 5.8 NFHP

Network ground water use Total network groundwater use by county, millions gallons 

per day/km2 5.6 NFHP

Network drainage area Square kilometers of network drainage area 5.3 NHD Plus

Catchment mean annual 

precipitation Mean annual precipitation per catchment, millimeters 5.2 NHD Plus

Network surface water use Total network surface water use by county, millions gallons 

per day/km2 4.7 NFHP

Catchment surface water Percent of catchment that has surface water area 4.0 USGS

Network sandstone bedrock 

geology

Percent of network drainage area that has sandstone bedrock 

geology 3.5 USGS

Catchment road density Count of road length per square kilometer, km/km2 in 

catchment 3.1 NFHP

Network barren land cover Percent of network drainage area that is barren land area 2.2 NLCD 2006

Network carbonate bedrock 

geology

Percent of network drainage area that has carbonate bedrock 

geology 2.0 USGS

Network shale bedrock geology Percent of network drainage area that has shale bedrock 

geology 1.6 USGS

Catchment barren land cover Percent of catchment drainage area that is barren land area 1.5 NLCD 2006

Note: Network variables include the landscape data for the catchment and all upstream catchments.

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3.3.3 Dissolved oxygen

For the dissolved oxygen model, 67 predictors were evaluated. From that list, 37 variables were removed due 

to statistical redundancy (r > 0.6) or logical redundancy, resulting in a final list of 30 predictor variables for 

the BRT model and assessment. A preliminary model was run to determine which additional predictor 

variables could be removed from the analysis because of minimal contribution to the final model. During this 

preliminary modeling, an additional 12 variables were indicated as very low relative influence (less than 1.0)

and were removed from the final model. The final model utilized 18 predictor variables. See Appendix B for a 

full data dictionary.

For the response variable, we complied instream summer dissolved oxygen data for 6,051 distinct 

catchments, with collection dates ranging from 2000 to 2012.

For catchments that had multiple summer (June-September) dissolved oxygen samples, we captured the 

most recent value. Figure 22 maps all of the sampling sites that were used to construct the model.

The BRT output includes a list of the predictor variables used in the model, ordered and scored by their 

relative importance. The relative influence score is scaled so that the sum of the scores for all variables adds 

to 100, where higher numbers indicate greater influence, as shown in Table 15.

We then extrapolated the BRT model to all catchments to predict dissolved oxygen results in unsampled 

catchments. Panel A in Figure 23 shows the predicted summer dissolved oxygen value for each catchment.

Panel B in Figure 23 shows the percentage of catchments in each county where the predicted summer 

dissolved oxygen value was less than the threshold of 5 mg/L. 

Most of the assessed area shows high predicted dissolved oxygen, particularly in higher elevation and 

forested areas such as western Virginia and eastern West Virginia. Areas with low predicted dissolved oxygen 

are found in Mississippi and Alabama, which was expected considering they are areas with low slope and 

warm climates. Mississippi in particular has low dissolved oxygen due to organic enrichment.

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Figure 22: Summer dissolved oxygen sample results used in the model

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Figure 23: (A) Predicted summer dissolved oxygen values; (B) Predicted percent of county catchments below the dissolved 

oxygen threshold

A

B

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Table 15: Predictor variable influence for dissolved oxygen model

Variable of influence Measurement

Relative 

influence Data source

Catchment mean annual air 

temperature

Mean annual air temperature in catchment, degrees 

centigrade*10 26.5 NHD Plus

Network baseflow index Percent of network streamflow that can be attributed to 

ground-water discharge into stream 10.7 USGS

Network cattle density Network average number of cattle per acre 7.2 NFHP

Catchment minimum elevation Minimum elevation of local catchment 6.3 NHD Plus

Network agriculture land cover Percent of network drainage area that is agricultural area 5.4 NLCD 2006

Network ground water use Total network groundwater use by county, millions gallons 

per day/km2 5.3 NFHP

Catchment flowline slope Total slope of catchment flowline, cm/cm 4.8 NHD Plus

Network surface water use Total network surface water use by county, millions gallons 

per day/km2 4.7 NFHP

Network grassland cover Percent of network drainage area that is 

grassland/herbaceous area 3.8 NLCD 2006

Network road crossing density Count of road crossing per square kilometer, #/km2 in 

network 3.6 NFHP

Network impervious surface cover Percent of network drainage area that is impervious 3.3 NLCD 2006

Network sandstone bedrock 

geology

Percent of network drainage area that has sandstone bedrock 

geology 3.2 USGS

Network shale bedrock geology Percent of network drainage area that has shale bedrock 

geology 3.0 USGS

Network carbonate bedrock 

geology

Percent of network drainage area that has carbonate bedrock 

geology 2.9 USGS

Network wetland cover Percent of network drainage area that is wetland area 2.6 NLCD 2006

Catchment road crossing density Count of road crossing per square kilometer, #/km2 in 

catchment 2.4 NFHP

Network barren land cover Percent of network drainage area that is barren land area 2.2 NLCD 2006

Catchment shrub/scrub land cover Percent of catchment drainage area that is shrub/scrub land 

area 2.1 NLCD 2006

Note: Network variables include the landscape data for the catchment and all upstream catchments.

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3.3.4 Specific conductivity

For the specific conductivity model, 67 predictors were evaluated. From that list, 34 variables were removed 

due to statistical redundancy (r > 0.6) or logical redundancy, resulting in a final list of 33 predictor variables 

for the BRT model and assessment. A preliminary model was run to determine which additional predictor 

variables could be removed from the analysis because of minimal contribution to the final model. During this 

preliminary modeling, an additional 18 variables were indicated as very low relative influence (less than 1.0)

and were removed from the final model. The final model utilized 15 predictor variables. See Appendix B for a 

full data dictionary.

For the response variable, we compiled instream specific conductivity monitoring data for 3,942 distinct 

catchments, with collection dates ranging from 2000 to 2012. 

Response data for catchments were only used if three or more conductivity samples were taken from that 

catchment between 2000 and 2012. We used the 90th percentile value to characterize each catchment in the 

model. While not the highest conductivity measured in each catchment, the 90th percentile provides an 

indication of a relatively high conductivity result found in each catchment. Figure 18 maps the sampling sites 

used to construct the model.

The BRT output includes a list of the predictor variables used in the model, ordered and scored by their 

relative importance. The relative influence score is scaled so that the sum of the scores for all variables adds 

to 100, where higher numbers indicate greater influence, as show in Table 16.

We then extrapolated the BRT model to all catchments to predict specific conductivity results in unsampled 

areas. Panel A in Figure 25 shows the predicted 90th percentile specific conductivity value for each 

catchment. Panel B Figure 25 shows the percentage of catchments in each county where the predicted 

specific conductivity value exceeds the threshold of 300 μS/cm. 

Large areas of low predicted conductivity can be observed in areas of high forest cover such as the Allegheny 

National Forest in Pennsylvania and the Monongahela and George Washington National Forests in West 

Virginia and Virginia. Areas with high predicted conductivity are found in eastern Kentucky, southeastern 

Ohio, southwestern Pennsylvania, southwestern Virginia and southern and northern West Virginia; these 

areas are all associated with active and historic coal mining, which can be expected to contribute to high 

conductivity. The area surrounding Birmingham, Alabama also shows high predicted conductivity due to 

runoff from impervious areas associated with urban and suburban development.

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Figure 24: Specific conductivity sample results (90th percentile) used in the model

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Figure 25: (A) Predicted 90th percentile specific conductivity values; (B) Predicted percent of county catchments above the 

specific conductivity threshold

A

B

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Table 16: Predictor variable influence for specific conductivity model

Variable of influence Measurement

Relative 

influence Data source

Network baseflow index Percent of network streamflow that can be attributed to 

ground-water discharge into stream 16.0 USGS

Network impervious surface cover Percent of network drainage area that is impervious 14.8 NLCD 2006

Catchment mean annual 

precipitation Mean annual precipitation per catchment, millimeters 12.3 NHD Plus

Network shale bedrock geology Percent of network drainage area that has shale bedrock 

geology 10.3 USGS

Network carbonate bedrock 

geology

Percent of network drainage area that has carbonate bedrock 

geology 9.4 USGS

Network barren land cover Percent of network drainage area that is barren land area 9.0 NLCD 2006

Catchment minimum elevation Minimum elevation of local catchment 5.4 NHD Plus

Network road crossing density Count of road crossing per square kilometer, #/km2 in 

network 4.6 NFHP

Network surface water use Total network surface water use by county, millions gallons 

per day/km2 4.5 NFHP

Network agriculture land cover Percent of network drainage area that is agricultural area 3.9 NLCD 2006

Catchment forest cover Percent of the local catchment area that is forest land area 2.4 NLCD 2006

Network grassland cover Percent of network drainage area that is 

grassland/herbaceous area 2.0 NLCD 2006

Network drainage area Square kilometers of network drainage area 2.0 NHD Plus

Network ground water use Total network groundwater use by county, millions gallons 

per day/km2 1.7 NFHP

Network mafic bedrock geology Percent of network drainage area that has mafic bedrock 

geology 1.6 USGS

Note: Network variables include the landscape data for the catchment and all upstream catchments.

3.4 Discussion

Throughout the region, mountainous, forested counties and those far from large cities and large rivers tend 

to have the best water quality. The simple explanation is that the higher mountainous areas are not 

conducive to agriculture or transportation infrastructure, which often limits industry and development. These 

counties also contain vast stretches of protected lands. These include the Allegheny National Forest in 

Pennsylvania, the Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia, the George Washington National Forest in 

Virginia, the Pisgah and Nantahala National Forests and Great Smoky Mountains National Park in North 

Carolina and Tennessee, the Chattahoochee National Forest in Georgia, and the Daniel Boone National Forest 

in Kentucky. 

Not all federally protected lands have high water quality. The Wayne National Forest in Ohio and the 

Bankhead National Forest in Alabama are among the exceptions. Counties that exhibit poorer water quality 

are generally those in mining, agricultural, or urbanized areas. As mentioned previously, agriculture is 

prevalent in the lower-elevation, less-mountainous, peripheral counties of the ARC region, especially in the 

southern region along the Tennessee River and its tributaries. In the north, agriculture is present in 

southwestern Pennsylvania, but the industrial boom that occurred along the major waterways of the 

Monongahela, Allegheny, and Ohio Rivers heavily influences water quality. This region is also subject to 

current and historical coal mining influences. Mining also influences water quality in the Cumberland 

Mountain region of southern West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, and southwestern Virginia. Despite being 

heavily forested, the impacts from this actively mined area are evident in our analysis. 

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The areas surrounding Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Knoxville, Tennessee, as well as the Upper Ohio River 

Valley are areas of high concern, also likely due to urbanization and industrialization. The coalfields of eastern 

Kentucky and southern West Virginia show areas of poor water quality, again likely from legacy and ongoing 

coal mining operations. The other areas of highest concern for water quality fall mainly within highly 

agricultural regions, including the Tennessee River valley, Shenandoah Valley, and the western edge of the 

ARC boundary in Ohio and Kentucky where the Appalachian Plateau transitions to farmland.

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Case study

Water quality in the ARC region

Determining regional water quality is a complex exercise, especially for an area the size of the ARC region,

given differences in development patterns and in biophysical conditions. Water quality can be defined many 

different ways. This study chose to examine four water quality parameters—from hundreds—that provide a 

general impression of overall water quality in the ARC region. Hundreds of thousands of sampling data points

were used to extrapolate conditions to the entire region. Using the ARC DST, users can gain a general 

understanding of regional water quality conditions based on these four parameters. In this example, the 

average predicted parameter value for each county was calculated and then the “CP Ranking Model”—a tool 

within the support system— was applied. The model found areas where fecal coliform and conductivity were 

predicted to be high and where pH and dissolved oxygen were predicted to be low. All four parameters were 

given equal weighting, and the results are shown in Figure 26. Each county is ranked based on an average of 

the four parameters. 

In addition to ranking counties, we used the “Spatial Clusters” tool and performed a hot-spot analysis of the 

water quality ranking output in Figure 27. The hot-spot analysis identifies statistically significant spatial 

clusters of values (hot and cold spots). For this example, the analysis used the ranking results produced from 

the previous step to determine spatial clustering of a given rank. A high-ranking county is more likely to have 

better overall water quality, as compared to a lower ranking county. The results show clusters of counties 

that rank high (blue) and counties that rank low (red). In practice, this map represents regions of predicted 

higher and lower water quality.

Figure 27: ARC water quality hot-spots Figure 26: ARC water quality rank

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4. WATER VALUE

A variety of existing methods have been used by economists to place monetary value on natural resources 

like water. These methods include information derived from markets (such as observed market prices) and 

information estimated from survey data or observed behaviors. In this section, the monetary values for 

surface water resources are based on both market information from water withdrawal uses and non-market 

information derived from contingent valuation studies. In both cases, the values reflect a willingness-to-pay 

(WTP) for the water resource. Figure 28 provides an example of the total water market values across the ARC 

region, and further explanation is provided in the following section. Industrial and drinking water uses were 

found to have the most effect on a county’s water value.

Figure 28: Total market value per county

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4.1 Components and framework

Both market and non-market methods of valuation were used to quantify a county’s water value. The market 

valuation uses imputed values for water use and county-level surface water withdrawals by sector to 

determine total valuations for water use per county. These imputed values were derived for four sectors of 

water users: agricultural, domestic, industrial processing, and thermoelectric. Non-market values were

derived using a benefits transfer process from contingent valuation studies, which were used to value surface 

water quality. This approach includes techniques such as contingent valuation, property value hedonics, and 

the travel cost method. 

Indicators or measurements for both market and non-market are listed in Table 17. These five indictors 

include:

1. Market value-agricultural/irrigation value: This value is estimated for water uses relating to 

agricultural and irrigation use across the ARC region.

2. Market value-domestic value: A value related to drinking water that includes both distributed and 

private water consumption through wells or springs.

3. Market value-industrial processing: This value reflects a dollar amount related to water withdrawn 

for manufacturing and/or the production of commodities.

4. Market value-thermoelectric generation value: This value is calculated based on the water usage for 

generating electricity from steam-driven generators.

5. Non-market value-willingness to pay per household for surface water quality: A calculated value

per household for clean surface water.

6. Non-market value-surface water quality value: The value of surface water quality per county based 

on the number of households per county and the benefits transfer process. 

Table 17: Water value assessment components

Indicator

Value

category Metric Denominator Unit of measurement Data source and date

Agricultural/irrigation 

value Market • Water consumption * 

value multiplier N/A Annual dollar value Kenny et al., 2009

Domestic value Market • Water consumption * 

value multiplier N/A Annual dollar value Kenny et al., 2009

Industrial processing 

value Market • Water consumption * 

value multiplier N/A Annual dollar value Kenny et al., 2009

Thermoelectric 

generation value Market • Water consumption * 

value multiplier N/A Annual dollar value Kenny et al., 2009

Surface water quality 

willingness to pay per 

household 

Nonmarket

• Dollar value per 

household N/A Annual dollar value Report analysis

Surface water quality 

value

Nonmarket • Total value per county N/A Annual dollar value Report analysis

4.2 Water market value

To understand market valuation, imputed values for water use and county-level data based on surface water 

withdrawals by sector were used to determine total valuations for water use per county. These imputed 

values (shown in Table 18) were derived for four sectors of water users: agricultural, domestic, industrial 

processing, and thermoelectric. 

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Figure 29: (A) Agricultural and irrigation value and (B) industrial value

A

B

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Data from Frederick et al. (1996) was used to impute reasonably accurate, relative values for water use by 

sector. In their summary of water valuation studies, national averages of water values were calculated by 

sector. Issues arise when trying to use these national averages, given the national variance in water supply.

To adjust national averages to reflect eastern water values, the average water value for the 17 studies

(Frederick et al. 1996) applicable to water values in the eastern US was computed as a percentage of the 

national average water value. This percentage was 38.5 percent (29 dollars per acre foot in the eastern US/75 

dollars per acre foot for a national average). National average water values reported were, therefore, 

multiplied by 0.385 to adjust national averages to eastern water values. A gross domestic product deflator of 

1.37 was used to adjust to the 1994 values from 2009 monetary values. Table 18 reports the water values 

used per sector that were used to compute the market value for this report. 

Table 18: Water values by use sector

Use sector

2009 Water value

(dollars per acre-foot)

Agricultural irrigation 40

Domestic self-supply and public supply 100

Industrial processing 150

Thermoelectric 20

Note: Values are rounded.

There are many important factors to consider when calculating water value based on consumption. First, and 

perhaps most important, a wide variety of valuation methods have been used in the individual studies 

summarized by Frederick et al. (1996). Thus, the values generated from this analysis do not necessarily 

provide readily comparable estimates. Second, users must take care when comparing the values over time 

(or using them in the present period) because water values obtained from a particular study are a function of 

the demand and supply (e.g., technology) available at the time of the individual study. In other words, water 

use can vary considerably over time. Other important limitations specific to the value estimates include: 

• quantity is the only dimension considered in the value estimates so that quality, which is important 

for both domestic and industrial water use values, is not directly reflected in the estimated water use 

values; 

• timing of water use affects its value, and the values from this report do not necessarily reflect the 

value of uses within different seasons of the year; 

• water use values vary widely among locations so that even within the same basin, allowances need 

to be made for the costs of transporting water from the water source to the site of use; 

• the values for domestic use may be understated relative to other uses due to the estimation 

methods used; 

• the study does not adequately reflect the fact that few water uses are completely consumptive; and

• the methods used to convert use values to 1994 dollars are imperfect. 

Because of these caveats, the water use values per sector were considered reflective of relative values 

between sectors rather than absolute measures of water value.

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Figure 30: (A) Domestic value and (B) thermoelectric value

A

B

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

4.2.1 Agriculture and irrigation water value

Panel A in Figure 29 shows the value of water used for agriculture and irrigation in Appalachian counties. 

Generally, there is a greater agricultural value in the southwestern portion of the region, with most counties 

lumped into the lower value categories of under approximately 127,000 dollars. West Virginia, with the 

exception of Jefferson County, withdraws zero gallons of water for agricultural or irrigation use. Pandola 

County, Mississippi is shown as an outlier with a value over a million dollars, consuming more than 23 mgd, 

mostly from groundwater. The next closest county, Limestone in Alabama, only consumes 6.9 mgd, where,

according to a recent USEPA study, 65 percent of the groundwater withdrawal is primarily for rice 

production.

4.2.2 Industrial water value

Panel B of Figure 29 shows the industrial use value across the ARC region. The map highlights the industrial 

centers of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and the northern panhandle and Kanawha Valley of West Virginia, which 

are home to industries dependent on large quantities of water for use in various capacities. The outlier of the 

region is Sullivan County, Tennessee, with a value estimated at over 85 million dollars per year. Sullivan 

County consumes over 500 mgd, which is nearly 72 percent of Tennessee’s total industrial withdrawal. This 

consumption is due in part to a large manufacturing base, employing over a half-million people with an 

annual payroll exceeding twelve million dollars with annual sales exceeding 140 billion dollars per year (US 

Economic Census, 2012). Manufacturing and industrial use of water resources play a significant role in the 

northeastern Tennessee economy.

4.2.3 Domestic water value

Domestic water use includes drinking water, sanitation, and lawn watering (Kenny et al., 2009). This water 

use includes both supplied water, such as water provided by a utility, and self-supplied withdrawals, such as 

private wells and springs that are mostly located in rural areas. Panel A in Figure 30 shows the market value 

for domestic consumption of water resources in the region. Generally, most counties in Appalachia that are 

more rural in nature have less-developed water resources. The value patterns follow population density, with 

one interesting exception. Delaware County, New York has the highest public water supply withdrawal of 

over 448 mgd (31 mgd when considering return), but has a very low population of 47,000, when compared to 

the regional average county population of 60,103. According to the Delaware County Soil and Water 

Conservation District, over nine million people are supplied with drinking water that comes from the 

Delaware County water system. The two Delaware county reservoirs—the Pepacton and Cannonsville—are 

part of the water system that serves New York City through a series of tunnels and aqueducts. These water 

supply resources have a market value of over 50 million dollars according to this study; however, when 

compared with consumers paying $3.39 per 748 gallons (NYC Water Board, 2013), the annual value of water 

delivered to consumers in New York City reaches over 1 billion dollars.

4.2.4 Thermoelectric value

The value of water to produce electricity was computed for each county in the region, though only a few 

counties actually have a thermoelectric plant. Panel B in Figure 30 shows the value of the water for electric

production across the region, which appears to be evenly distributed. Thermoelectric water use is the largest 

consumer of water across the region, accounting for 45 percent of all withdrawals. These values are based on 

total consumption and do not include the return analysis presented in the water quantity section. Oconee

County, South Carolina has the highest consumption value across the region. Located on Lake Keowee, the 

Oconee Nuclear Station began operation in the mid 1970s. This 2.6-gigawatt plant has produced over 500 

million MWh since completion (Duke, 2013) A large portion of the water withdrawn by this plant is returned, 

but the computation of value considers water withdrawn and not consumed. States with the highest values 

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include Alabama, where a majority of state plants are hydroelectric (Alabama Power, 2012), Ohio, where 

most of the plants are along the Ohio River, and Tennessee.

4.3 Water non-market value

In order to understand non-monetary or non-market values for water on a county-by-county basis, a metaanalysis was conducted. It is important to understand and quantify this value in order to account for the nontransactional economy and to place value on people’s perceptions of what clean water is worth to them. This 

analysis combined the results of numerous studies to arrive at a value conclusion—in this case: what the 

current surface water quality is worth to county populations in the ARC region. Economists utilize two 

approaches to estimate monetary values that reflect what individuals are either: (1) willing to pay to acquire 

the resource if it is not owned by an individual or (2) willing to give up in exchange for this resource if it is 

owned by an individual. 

Our approach calculates a monetary value based on the quality of surface water, which is estimated from

econometric models using a meta-analysis of contingent valuation studies. We then apply a benefit-transfer 

method using these models. Johnston et al. (2005) provided a template for how to conduct this meta-analysis 

in terms of what explanatory variables to include in the models and what functional forms to use for the 

econometric models to explain WTP for a surface water quality change. Three different functional forms 

(semi-log, translog, and weighted semi-log based on the number of WTP observations obtained from the 

study) were estimated in order to assess the robustness in statistical results. The estimated coefficients from 

the three models and projected values for the explanatory variables were used to estimate county mean 

WTP per household for existing surface water quality. These mean WTP values represent our estimate of 

what would have been found if a contingent valuation study had been conducted with county-level accuracy 

throughout the entire Appalachian region to value surface water quality.

Data for the meta-analysis came from a total of 49 contingent valuation studies. Johnston et al. (2005) 

provided 81 observations from 34 studies conducted between 1981 and 2001. Additionally, a data set of 27 

observations from 15 studies conducted between 2000 and 2009 were collected. The studies included 29 

journal articles, 13 research reports or academic papers, four Ph.D. dissertations, one book, and two Master’s 

theses. Only contingent valuation studies conducted in the U.S. were used. Non-published research studies 

were included if they were conducted within the Appalachian region.

Across the 420 counties of the Appalachian region, the average projected annual mean WTP for surface 

water quality was about $8.50 per household. Panel A in Figure 31 maps the per household WTP for each 

county across the Appalachian region. Cannon County, Tennessee had the highest annual mean WTP per 

household ($10.39). Counties from Tennessee and West Virginia were the most prevalent in the bottom ten 

with five and three counties, respectively. Scott County, Virginia had the lowest average mean WTP per 

household ($4.81). 

Surface water quality value was calculated by multiplying the per household WTP value by each county’s 

number of households. This reveals that while the value per household is higher in rural areas, the number of 

households has a significant influence on the final surface water value. Panel B in Figure 31 maps the value of 

surface water quality for each county across the Appalachian region. Allegheny County, Pennsylvania—one of 

the most populous counties in the region—had the highest surface water value (4,069,539 dollars). The 

Pittsburgh metropolitan region topped the surface water values and, along with southern populated areas of 

Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina, dominated the top ten counties within Appalachia. Counties with 

smaller populations, located in West Virginia, Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee, were the most prevalent at 

the bottom of the ranking. Highland County, Virginia had the lowest surface water value: 6,483 dollars.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Figure 31: (A) Willingness-to-pay per household and (B) surface water quality value

A

B

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

4.4 Discussion

As would be expected, most of the counties in the highest 10 percent for water use valuation were 

concentrated along major rivers: the Ohio River in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia; the Kanawha River 

in West Virginia; the Tennessee River in Alabama and Tennessee; and the Alabama River in Alabama. Looking 

at the per capita valuation, West Virginia had the largest number of counties (13) in the highest 10 percent. 

Tennessee was second at seven counties. Kentucky had the largest concentration of counties in the lowest 10

percent, with 13 counties; and Pennsylvania was second with 11 counties. 

These high values in many counties in West Virginia and Tennessee mainly stem from large water 

withdrawals by power plants and other industrial facilities. Both states have historically been attractive to 

industries that require large amounts of water, such as electrical power generation.

For non-market surface water quality values, average annual mean WTP values were ranked and divided into 

six categories (Table 19). Other than Maryland, which has only a few counties, the states of Pennsylvania, 

North Carolina, and Mississippi had the highest percentages of counties in the top category of WTP scores. 

Pennsylvania was the only state with 50 percent of its counties in the top two categories. In contrast, the 

states of Mississippi, Kentucky, and South Carolina had 50 percent or more counties falling into the bottom 

two categories. One-third of South Carolina counties were in the bottom category. 

Table 19: Percentages of counties in sextile categories based on mean county-level WTP rankings for surface water quality

State (# counties) Highest Lowest

Alabama (37) 21.6% 16.2% 18.9% 24.3% 8.1% 10.8%

Georgia (37) 18.9% 18.9% 18.9% 13.5% 13.5% 16.2%

Kentucky (54) 5.6% 20.4% 3.7% 18.5% 31.5% 20.4%

Maryland (3) 66.7% 33.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Mississippi (24) 25.0% 4.2% 8.3% 8.3% 29.2% 25.0%

New York (14) 21.4% 21.4% 35.7% 7.1% 0.0% 14.3%

North Carolina (29) 27.6% 17.2% 6.9% 34.5% 13.8% 0.0%

Ohio (32) 3.1% 6.3% 25.0% 25.0% 34.4% 6.3%

Pennsylvania (52) 28.8% 21.2% 15.4% 13.5% 9.6% 11.5%

South Carolina (6) 0.0% 16.7% 33.3% 0.0% 16.7% 33.3%

Tennessee (52) 15.4% 9.6% 23.1% 11.5% 17.3% 23.1%

Virginia (25) 12.0% 4.0% 32.0% 20.0% 8.0% 24.0%

West Virginia (55) 10.9% 29.1% 12.7% 12.7% 10.9% 23.6%

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Project Example

An economic benefit analysis for abandoned mine drainage 

remediation in the West Branch Susquehanna River watershed, 

Pennsylvania

Streams across the West Branch Susquehanna River watershed, which encompasses about 7,000 square 

miles in central Pennsylvania, are still polluted from AMD from old coal mines. Cleaning up these impaired 

waters will cost millions of dollars, but these expenditures will provide a tremendous boost to the largely 

rural local economy. A 2008 study describes and quantifies the local and statewide economic benefits 

stemming from remediation of the watershed (Hansen et al., 2008).

Clearly, outdoor recreation is a popular and growing pastime, is diversifying, and is an important source of 

revenue for Pennsylvania. AMD can have a large, detrimental impact on outdoor recreation experiences, 

specifically angling opportunities. 

The study estimated the WTP for a clean-up of AMD in streams within the watershed. Based on a mail survey 

of people living both within and outside of the watershed, the best estimate of total WTP for AMD clean-up 

in the watershed was calculated to be 73.6 million dollars. This was the value to both users and non-users. 

The study determined that sport fishing alone could be expected to generate 22.3 million dollars in revenues

per year with AMD remediation (Figure 32). To participate in outdoor activities, people spend money on 

food, lodging, transportation, and equipment. In Pennsylvania, almost 4 billion dollars was spent on fishing, 

hunting, and wildlife viewing in 2006. Even more money was spent by people engaging in other outdoor 

activities. (Hansen et al., 2008)

Figure 32: Estimated revenue losses due to acid mine drainage

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

5. CONCLUSION

Countless challenges exist in assessing the economic value of water resources: “Placing an economic value on 

this precious resource is an art and science,” said one ARC water assets stakeholder respondent. Quantifying 

water quality and quantity present other significant challenges. Yet multiple and growing human needs for 

water necessitate our valuing it as a foundation of Appalachia’s economy. This report documents the region’s 

water quantity and quality and endeavors to value the region’s water resources, while providing a foundation 

for future policy- and decision-making. 

The dynamics of water resources are very complex, considering temporal variations, flow patterns, and 

competing uses. Examining a water resource and understanding its quality at a set point in time at a certain 

location is attainable; however, understanding a water resource’s true condition and value over time is more 

complicated. 

Due to this complexity, this research project utilized existing measures and attempted to broadly assess 

water resources across the region. The project team proposes several recommendations to further study the 

region’s water assets.

Data development and consistency

Regional data consistency and sharing of data among local, state, and federal agencies is the key to truly 

understanding the water assets of the region. For example, USEPA provides states with great flexibility in 

developing their impaired streams datasets. Many studies now devote large amounts of time and resources 

to develop methodologies to predict a stream’s quality, rather than using in-stream measurements or 

impaired stream lists. Standardization of the impaired streams dataset—as well as other datasets that apply 

across states—would enable more efficient and accurate regional comparisons of natural assets.

Valuation methodology

Water is a very complex resource to value. It is often easiest to value items based on their transactional 

value. But water has both consumptive and non-consumptive value. More resources should be applied to 

develop consensus among stakeholders as to the most appropriate method for valuing resources. These 

types of valuations are far beyond any commodity value that is assigned, either in this study or on the open 

market. This report ventures to understand that value by looking at both market and non-market values. Our 

non-market valuation approach took into consideration people’s perceived value of water based on what 

they would be willing to pay for clean, bountiful, accessible water. More time and resources should be spent 

developing an approach to understand the true value of natural resources, not only as an exportable 

commodity, but also as an integral part of life.

Greater support and continuity

Natural resources, such as water, are temporal in that their condition, status, and location change often and 

sometimes sporadically. This report studies a snapshot in time. It would be beneficial to create a body of 

resources that would continue to build upon the foundation of this regional assessment and that would build

consensus to develop new methods for appraising water resources.

Overall, this report tackles a very difficult subject with many viewpoints, datasets, and competing goals. It 

would be false to assume that it offers the only answers to the questions surrounding Appalachia’s water 

assets. However, it contributes to this important conversation, particularly with respect to Appalachia’s water 

quality, quantity, and value.

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

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APPENDIX A: DECISION SUPPORT TOOL

Integrated GIS tool

One of the important aspects of any 

applied research project is the method 

of communicating results to decisionmakers. The output of our study 

includes an interactive GIS-based DST

(Figure 33) that allows resource 

managers to evaluate inputs and 

results of this study, thereby 

understanding the true spatial nature 

and relationships of these natural 

assets. This system integrates spatial 

data, user input, and a ranking 

algorithm within a multiple criteria 

analysis (MCA) framework. The goal of 

this framework is to provide a tool to 

integrate spatial data with a MCAsolving algorithm called compromise 

programming (CP), which allows users 

to quickly and interactively explore and analyze county-level 

data.

MCA is an alternative approach to traditional economic evaluation techniques. The basic idea behind MCA is 

to provide a framework for analyzing choices with multiple criteria and conflicting objectives (Malczewski, 

1999). A spatial MCA approach aids in the identification of the most suitable management solution for a 

given purpose. The approach also allows users to examine the effects of alternative options and presents 

options in a variety of forms such as monetary units, physical units, and qualitative judgments. This makes it 

possible to analyze tradeoffs between different objectives and address potential conflicts at an early stage, 

thereby providing the ability to analyze the 

sensitivity and robustness of different choices.

The CP ranking algorithm was chosen because

it allows a more theoretically significant 

ranking of alternatives as compared to a linear 

weighted model. It also allows the user to 

integrate sensitivity analysis by altering 

weights and parameter values to highlight the 

concern of the decision-maker over the degree 

of separation or difference from the ideal 

criteria score. The highest-ranked results are 

those that are closest to the ideal or furthest 

from the least preferred alternatives. CP

algorithms have been used in many different 

MCA applications including ranking of irrigation 

technologies (Tecle and Yitayew, 1990), 

planning water resource systems (Duckstein 

and Opricovic, 1980; Gershon and Duckstein, 1983), developing forest watershed management schemes 

Figure 33: Decision support tool

Figure 34: Screenshot of tool interface

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

(Tecle et al., 1988a), selecting wastewater management alternatives (Tecle et al., 1988b), defining 

hydropower operations (Duckstein et al., 1989), and performing river basin planning (Hobbs, 1983).

The tool allows decision-makers to assign a weight (or importance value) to each individual criterion and then 

combine all criteria together for a comprehensive overall result. End users can combine and map the various 

factors for ranking economic development and water resources in the ARC region. The final spatial model 

uses an extension to ESRI’s ArcGIS software. The extension consists of a graphical interface designed to guide 

the user through the process of interactively specifying weights and viewing results Figure 34. This model also 

provides the ability to display the top- and bottom-ranked counties and to map spatial clusters.

The CP ranking model requires that the user first highlight or make active a shapefile in the table of contents 

that contains attributes the user wishes to use for the ranking (Figure 35). It is assumed that the user already 

calculated or added the needed fields to the table in order to use the ranking model. All of the criteria are 

normalized by the program, so the user does not have to worry about non-commensurate data. All that is 

required is the direction of value influence. For example, if a higher value for an attribute is desired, then 

nothing has to be 

altered in the CP 

interface; this is 

the default.

However, if the 

user feels that a 

lower value is 

preferred, the 

inverse button 

should be 

selected. 

The parameter 

values of P

indicate the 

concern of the 

decision-maker 

over the 

deviation from 

the ideal values.

These values 

represent the 

concern of the decision-maker over the maximum deviation (Tecle and Yitayew, 1990; Duckstein and 

Opricovic, 1980). The larger the value of P, the greater the concern. For P = 1, all weighted deviations are 

assumed to compensate each other perfectly. For P = 2, each weighted deviation is accounted for in direct 

proportion to its size. As P approaches infinity, the alternative with the largest deviation receives more 

weight and importance (the largest of the deviations completely dominates) (Zeleny, 1982). To solve the 

multi-criteria problem using the CP algorithm, the vectors of ideal point values and worst values are 

determined and then used to compute the calculated values’ distances from the ideal points. The preferred 

alternative has the minimum Lp distance value for each P and weight set that may be used. Thus, the 

alternative (county, in our example) with the lowest value for the calculated metric will be the best 

compromise solution because it is the nearest solution with respect to the ideal point. The parameter P acts 

as a weight attached to the deviations according to their magnitudes. Similar weights for various deviations 

signify the relative importance of each criterion (Romero and Rehman, 1989).

Figure 35: Selecting a shapefile to be used in the ranking

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

The result of the model run is the addition of a new field to the shapefile—the calculated CP metric. Lower 

values are preferred and a legend is produced automatically for the user. This legend can always be altered to 

show a different display of the ranked counties. The true utility of the tool is in the ability to quickly run 

different scenarios and test the spatial sensitivity of results.

Finding the top or bottom percentages

Some of the other tools available for the user include the ability to find the top or bottom percentage of 

ranked features. This was designed to highlight the counties that meet certain threshold requirements in 

regard to the rankings (Figure 36).

Spatial clusters

The Spatial Clusters Tool is based on a hot-spot analysis. This is a spatial statistical calculation that takes into 

account the spatial position of features and their attributes. The purpose of using the tool is to find areas 

with high values surrounded by other high values (hot-spot) or low values surrounded by other areas with 

low values (cold-spot) that are statistically significant. Figure 37 shows spatial clusters for a sample indicator, 

which include both hot- and cold-spots.

Figure 36: Percentage queries for the highest and lowest percentages

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

It is important to carefully select the analysis field. The Z-scores and P-values are measures of statistical 

significance, which tell users whether or not to reject the null hypothesis, feature by feature. In effect, they 

indicate whether the observed spatial clustering of high or low values is more pronounced than one would 

expect in a random distribution of those same values. 

Figure 37: Hot and cold spots

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APPENDIX B: WATER QUALITY MODELING DATA DICTIONARY

Field Description Source

COMID catchment comid (unique identifier) NHDPlus

AREASQKM area of catchment, sq km NHDPlus

AREASQKMC cumulative area of catchment, sq km NHDPlus

MINELEVRAW Minimum elevation in meters catchmentattributesflow.dbf

SLOPE Slope of flowline (cm/cm) catchmentattributesflow.dbf

PRECIP Mean annual precipitation in mm catchmentattributestempprecip.dbf

TEMP Mean annual temperature in degrees centigrade * 10 catchmentattributestempprecip.dbf

BFI_MEAN baseflow index (%) (LOCAL) USGS

BFI_MEANC baseflow index (%) (CUMULATIVE) USGS

RECH_MEAN recharge, total mean (mm/year) (LOCAL) USGS

RECH_MEANC recharge, total mean (mm/year) (CUMULATIVE) USGS

WATER_GW LOCAL: USGS National Atlas of the US: Ground Water Use by COUNTY 2000: Millions gallons per 

day/km2

NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

WATER_SW LOCAL: USGS National Atlas of the US: Surface Water Use by COUNTY 2000: Millions gallons per 

day/km2

NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

CATTLE LOCAL: Agricultural Census 2002, 1:2M scale, INTEGER: average number of cattle/acre farmland NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

POPDENS LOCAL: US Population Density 2000, NOAA, scale 1km, #/km2 NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

ROADCR LOCAL: Census 2000 TIGER Roads, 1:100K scale, road crossings identified by INTERSECT, with points 

generated, #/km2

NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

ROADLEN LOCAL: Census 2000 TIGER Roads, 1:100K scale, units not given - m/km2 NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

DAMS LOCAL: National Inventory of Dams, 2002-2004, #/km2 NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

MINES LOCAL: USGS Active Mines and Mineral Processing Plants, 2003, #/km2 NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

TRI LOCAL: USEPA, 2007: #/km2 Toxics Release Inventory Program sites NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

NPDES LOCAL: USEPA, 2007: #/km2 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System sites NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

CERC LOCAL: USEPA, 2007: #/km2 Compensation and Liability Information System sites NFHP local_disturbance_variables.dbf

WATER_GWC NETWORK: USGS National Atlas of the US: Ground Water Use by COUNTY 2000: Millions gallons per 

day/km2

NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

WATER_SWC NETWORK: USGS National Atlas of the US: Surface Water Use by COUNTY 2000: Millions gallons per 

day/km2

NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

CATTLEC NETWORK: Agricultural Census 2002, 1:2M scale, INTEGER: average number of cattle/acre farmland NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

POPDENSC NETWORK: US Population Density 2000, NOAA, scale 1km, #/km2 NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

ROADCRC NETWORK: Census 2000 TIGER Roads, 1:100K scale, road crossings identified by INTERSECT, with points 

generated, #/km2

NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

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Field Description Source

ROADLENC NETWORK: Census 2000 TIGER Roads, 1:100K scale, units not given - m/km2 NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

DAMSC NETWORK: National Inventory of Dams, 2002-2004, #/km2 NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

MINESC NETWORK: USGS Active Mines and Mineral Processing Plants, 2003, #/km2 NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

TRIC NETWORK: USEPA, 2007: #/km2 Toxics Release Inventory Program sites NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

NPDESC NETWORK: USEPA, 2007: #/km2 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System sites NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

CERCC NETWORK: USEPA, 2007: #/km2 Compensation and Liability Information System sites NFHP network_disturbance_variables.dbf

AG_P NLCD 2006, agricultural classes, NLCD 81, 82 NLCD 2006

FOR_P NLCD 2006, forest classes, NLCD 41, 42, 43 NLCD 2006

WET_P NLCD 2006, wetland classes, NLCD 90, 95 NLCD 2006

DEV_P NLCD 2006, developed classes, NLCD 21, 22, 23, 24 NLCD 2006

BAR_P NLCD 2006, barren land, NLCD 31 NLCD 2006

SHR_P NLCD 2006, Shrub/scrub, NCLD 52 NLCD 2006

GRS_P NLCD 2006, Grassland, NLCD 71 NLCD 2006

Reference:

NLCD 11 NLCD 2006 open water, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 21 NLCD 2006 developed, open space, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 22 NLCD 2006 developed, low intensity, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 23 NLCD 2006 developed, medium intensity, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 24 NLCD 2006 developed, high intensity, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 31 NLCD 2006 barren land (rock/sand/clay), area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 41 NLCD 2006 deciduous forest, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 42 NLCD 2006 evergreen forest, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 43 NLCD 2006 mixed forest, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 52 NLCD 2006 shrub/scrub, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 71 NLCD 2006 grassland/herbaceous, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 81 NLCD 2006 pasture/hay, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 82 NLCD 2006 cultivated crops, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 90 NLCD 2006 woody wetlands, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

NLCD 95 NLCD 2006 emergent herbaceous wetlands, area (%), catchment NLCD 2006

AG_P NLCD 2006, agricultural classes, NLCD 81, 82 (cumulative) NLCD 2006

FOR_P NLCD 2006, forest classes, NLCD 41, 42, 43 (cumulative) NLCD 2006

WET_P NLCD 2006, wetland classes, NLCD 90, 95 (cumulative) NLCD 2006

DEV_P NLCD 2006, developed classes, NLCD 21, 22, 23, 24 (cumulative) NLCD 2006

BAR_P NLCD 2006, barren land, NLCD 31 (cumulative) NLCD 2006

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Field Description Source

SHR_P NLCD 2006, Shrub/scrub, NCLD 52 (cumulative) NLCD 2006

GRS_P NLCD 2006, Grassland, NLCD 71 (cumulative) NLCD 2006

Reference:

NLCD 11 NLCD 2006 open water, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 21 NLCD 2006 developed, open space, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 22 NLCD 2006 developed, low intensity, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 23 NLCD 2006 developed, medium intensity, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 24 NLCD 2006 developed, high intensity, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 31 NLCD 2006 barren land (rock/sand/clay), area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 41 NLCD 2006 deciduous forest, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 42 NLCD 2006 evergreen forest, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 43 NLCD 2006 mixed forest, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 52 NLCD 2006 shrub/scrub, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 71 NLCD 2006 grassland/herbaceous, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 81 NLCD 2006 pasture/hay, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 82 NLCD 2006 cultivated crops, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 90 NLCD 2006 woody wetlands, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

NLCD 95 NLCD 2006 emergent herbaceous wetlands, area (%), upstream cumulative NLCD 2006

IMPSURF_M NLCD 2006, mean percent impervious, catchment NLCD 2006

IMPSURF_MC NLCD 2006, mean percent impervious, cumulative NLCD 2006

BR1P Carbonate (LOCAL) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR2P Felsic (igneous) (LOCAL) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR3P Mafic (igneous) (LOCAL) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR4P Metamorphic (LOCAL) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR5P Sand and gravel (LOCAL) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR6P Sandstone (LOCAL) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR7P Shale (LOCAL) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR8P Unconsolidated (LOCAL) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR999P No data (LOCAL) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR9P Water (LOCAL) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR1PC Carbonate (CUMULATIVE) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR2PC Felsic (igneous) (CUMULATIVE) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR3PC Mafic (igneous) (CUMULATIVE) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR4PC Metamorphic (CUMULATIVE) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

Field Description Source

BR5PC Sand and gravel (CUMULATIVE) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR6PC Sandstone (CUMULATIVE) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR7PC Shale (CUMULATIVE) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR8PC Unconsolidated (CUMULATIVE) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR999PC No data (CUMULATIVE) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

BR9PC Water (CUMULATIVE) USGS (Reclassified by Letsinger)

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Assessing Appalachian Natural Assets: Water

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