IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FIFTH CIRCUIT

No. 13-20569

c/w No. 13-20751

AMANDA CULBERTSON; JORGE WONG,

Plaintiffs - Appellants

v.

PAT LYKOS; RACHEL PALMER; HARRIS COUNTY,

Defendants - Appellees

Appeals from the United States District Court

for the Southern District of Texas

Before REAVLEY, ELROD, and SOUTHWICK, Circuit Judges.

LESLIE H. SOUTHWICK, Circuit Judge:

Former employees of the college that had contracted to oversee breath 

alcohol testing for the Harris County Sheriff’s Office brought suit against the 

County, the District Attorney, and one of her assistants, for causing their 

termination by the college. The suit was brought under Section 1983 for 

violations of the plaintiffs’ First Amendment rights. State law claims were also 

brought. The district court dismissed all claims and awarded attorneys’ fees 

to the defendants. We conclude that some of the claims should not have been 

dismissed. We REVERSE in part, REVERSE the award of attorneys’ fees, and 

REMAND for further proceedings. 

United States Court of Appeals

Fifth Circuit

FILED

June 22, 2015

Lyle W. Cayce

Clerk

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 1 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

2

FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND

This appeal is from a dismissal based on the pleadings. Our factual 

discussion thus draws from the complaint. Plaintiffs Amanda Culbertson and 

Jorge Wong are former employees of the Houston Police Department (“HPD”) 

in Harris County, Texas. Culbertson began working for HPD in 2006 as a 

criminal specialist in HPD’s crime lab. She received her certification as a 

technical supervisor from the Texas Department of Public Safety. She 

eventually served as a technical supervisor of HPD’s breath alcohol testing 

program. Wong began working as a criminalist in HPD’s crime lab in 2009. 

He also received certification as a technical supervisor. The plaintiffs’ duties 

included breath alcohol testing and maintaining the instruments used in 

HPD’s Breath Alcohol Testing (“BAT”) vans. Both Culbertson and Wong 

believed that excessive temperatures and electrical problems with the 

instruments in the BAT vans could affect the integrity of the test results. They 

informed HPD officials of these concerns, but the problems were not resolved. 

In March 2011, due in part to dissatisfaction with the BAT vans, Wong 

resigned from HPD and began working for Lone Star College. Culbertson 

resigned effective May 13, 2011, primarily due to her concerns about the BAT 

vans. She started working for Lone Star the same month. Lone Star was under 

contract to Harris County to provide technical supervisors to oversee the 

Harris County Sheriff’s Office breath alcohol testing program. The yearly 

services contract (the “Contract”) was to end in the fall but was renewable. 

Harris County had contracted with Lone Star for nearly thirty years. 

The Harris County District Attorney’s office subpoenaed Culbertson to 

testify about a breath alcohol test at a trial set for the week of May 23, 2011. 

When Culbertson arrived to testify on May 25, she told the assistant district 

attorney she could testify to the monthly inspection records of the BAT vans 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 2 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

3

and to the fact that the instrument in question worked properly during the 

inspection she conducted. In Culbertson’s actual testimony, however, she 

would not state that the instrument was working properly the day the 

defendant took the test. The jury acquitted the defendant.

On June 3, then-Assistant District Attorney Rachel Palmer emailed one 

of the technical supervisors at Lone Star. She wrote that the DA’s Office would 

not use Culbertson in future Harris County Sheriff’s Office breath alcohol 

testing cases. Palmer drafted a memorandum to the DA Office Bureau Chief

on July 11 discussing Culbertson’s testimony on May 25. The memorandum 

stated that “[a]fter this debacle, we realized that she could not be trusted to 

testify in any breath test.” Palmer also stated she was “gravely concerned 

about [Culbertson’s] ability to testify fairly in cases going forward.” 

On July 26, a meeting was held with representatives from Lone Star, the 

Harris County Sheriff’s Office, and the Harris County Commissioners Court to 

discuss the renewal of the Contract. The plaintiffs allege that an unwritten 

agreement was reached to renew the previous year’s Contract. The 

Commissioners Court was to vote to approve the agreement in mid-September.

On July 27, Culbertson was subpoenaed by a defense attorney to testify 

in a suppression hearing. During the hearing, the defense attorney asked 

Culbertson about problems with the BAT vans. Culbertson testified that a “big 

reason” why she and Wong left HPD was because they were not being 

permitted to maintain the reliability of the equipment in the vans. Palmer, 

the assistant district attorney on the case, cross-examined Culbertson. During 

the cross-examination, the plaintiffs allege that Palmer acknowledged 

Culbertson was a “whistleblower.”

Shortly after Culbertson’s testimony, Palmer and the DA’s Office began 

investigating Culbertson for perjury. Culbertson hired an attorney. 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 3 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

4

Culbertson claims that at this time she was told by someone that her technical 

supervisor certification was in jeopardy. She also contends that Palmer was 

telling prosecutors in the DA’s Office that Culbertson was not credible. 

In August, Culbertson met twice with individuals from the DA’s Office 

to discuss concerns raised by her testimony and to explain what she had 

discussed with the manufacturer of the instruments used in the BAT vans. 

Palmer was at the second of these meetings. After the meetings, the DA’s 

Office notified attorneys for two criminal defendants of potentially exculpatory 

or mitigating evidence based on Culbertson’s concerns.

Around September 1, 2011, the plaintiffs allege that Palmer met with 

representatives from both the Harris County Sheriff’s Office and the Harris 

County Commissioners Court. At this meeting, Palmer and the DA’s Office

recommended that Harris County contract with the Texas Department of

Public Safety (“DPS”) for breath alcohol testing rather than with Lone Star. 

Culbertson asserts that then-District Attorney Pat Lykos,1 Assistant District 

Attorney Palmer, and the DA’s Office sought to discredit Culbertson and Wong 

so that the Contract would be awarded to DPS instead of Lone Star. These

efforts included other private conversations with representatives of the 

Commissioners Court.

At a September 13 meeting of the Commissioners Court, several defense 

attorneys expressed their opinion that the Contract between Lone Star and 

Harris County was ending due to Culbertson and Wong’s actions as 

whistleblowers. During this meeting, one County Commissioner stated 

publicly that he supported terminating the Contract with Lone Star because 

 

1 The plaintiffs settled with Lykos in her individual capacity, and thus the only 

individual-capacity allegations that are relevant to this appeal are those that relate to 

Palmer. We discuss Lykos solely in order to give context for some of the allegations.

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 4 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

5

the County should not work with someone who takes an adversarial position 

to the DA’s Office. Palmer was present at the meeting.

On September 17, the Houston Chronicle newspaper published an article 

regarding HPD’s knowledge of problems with the BAT van program. The 

article quoted Culbertson and Wong regarding their concerns about the vans. 

At the end of September, DPS employees removed breath alcohol testing 

instruments from Lone Star’s facilities. At about the same time, DPS sent out 

proficiency samples to technical supervisors. The samples are used to test a 

technical supervisor’s ability to prepare a prescribed solution. The proficiency 

samples had to be completed annually to maintain technical supervisor 

certification. DPS did not send samples to Culbertson or Wong. 

On October 1, the Houston Chronicle published statements by

Culbertson regarding her belief that the DA’s Office had retaliated against her, 

including: “I think they had to make a choice between fixing the problem and 

silencing me, and it was easier to silence me or anyone else who spoke out.”

On October 4, the Harris County Commissioners Court formally 

approved the budget for Harris County. The budget included a contract with 

DPS for breath alcohol testing, thus ending the Contract with Lone Star. A 

spokesman for the Harris County Sheriff’s Office stated publicly that his office 

understood that the DA’s Office objected to the procedures or testimony 

provided by the Lone Star experts. As a result of the loss of the Contract, Lone 

Star terminated Culbertson and Wong on October 31, 2011.

The plaintiffs filed this lawsuit in December 2012. They claimed a 

violation of their free speech rights under the First Amendment and sought 

relief under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. They also brought state law claims. The 

defendants filed motions to dismiss under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 

12(b)(6). Palmer also filed to dismiss pursuant to the Texas Citizens 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 5 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

6

Participation Act (“TCPA”). In August 2013, the district court entered a final 

order granting those motions. Palmer then filed for attorneys’ fees and 

sanctions, which were awarded in November 2013. The plaintiffs separately 

appealed from both rulings. We have consolidated the appeals. The plaintiffs

settled with Lykos in her individual capacity, and she has been dismissed.

DISCUSSION

We review a district court’s grant of a motion to dismiss under Rule 

12(b)(6) de novo. Reece v. U.S. Bank Nat’l Ass’n, 762 F.3d 422, 424 (5th Cir. 

2014) (citation omitted). A complaint must contain “sufficient factual matter, 

accepted as true, to ‘state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.’” 

Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678 (2009) (quoting Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 

550 U.S. 544, 570 (2007)). “A claim has facial plausibility when the plaintiff 

pleads factual content that allows the court to draw the reasonable inference 

that the defendant is liable for the misconduct alleged.” Id. (citing Twombly, 

550 U.S. at 556). “The plausibility standard is not akin to a ‘probability 

requirement,’ but it asks for more than a sheer possibility that a defendant has 

acted unlawfully.” Id. (quoting Twombly, 550 U.S. at 556). 

The plaintiffs arrange their brief in the principal appeal around three 

large issues with multiple subparts. They also raise separate issues regarding 

the award of attorneys’ fees, which is the subject of the later, now consolidated, 

appeal. We have largely placed our analysis within the plaintiffs’ structure, 

with some reorganization and rephrasing as follows:

I. The First Amendment retaliation claims

A. Public employee and ordinary citizen First Amendment rights

B. Applying First Amendment law to the allegations in the complaint 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 6 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

7

C. Palmer’s prosecutorial or qualified immunity

D. Pleading of municipal liability 

II. Tortious interference claims

III. The Texas Citizen Participation Act (“TCPA”)

IV. Procedural issues

A. Motion for leave to amend

B. Consideration of matters outside the pleadings

I. First Amendment Retaliation

Most, but not all, of the statements that are alleged to have caused the

retaliation were made by the plaintiffs after they were no longer employed by 

HPD. Liability under Section 1983 for retaliation by the government against 

private citizens for their statements, and liability for retaliation by 

governmental employers against public employees for their statements, are 

subject to different analyses. Thus, we must identify the category into which 

these claims should be placed.

A. Public employee and ordinary citizen First Amendment rights

The general framework for a First Amendment retaliation claim 

involving a public employee was articulated by our en banc court this way: 

(1) the plaintiff suffered an adverse employment decision, (2) the 

plaintiff's speech involved a matter of public concern, (3) the 

plaintiff's interest in speaking outweighed the governmental 

defendant's interest in promoting efficiency, and (4) the protected 

speech motivated the defendant's conduct.

Kinney v. Weaver, 367 F.3d 337, 356 (5th Cir. 2004) (en banc) (citation omitted). 

Our Kinney en banc opinion has central importance in our review of the district 

court’s decision here. We were split 9-6 on issues similar to those raised here, 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 7 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

8

suggesting the legal questions were not easily answered. Close questions they 

may be, but the answers given to them by the Kinney majority bind us now. 

Dean Kinney and David Hall were instructors at a police academy 

operated by Kilgore College in Texas. Id. at 340-41. Basic and advanced 

training for police was offered. Id. at 341. The lawsuit had its genesis when 

Kinney and Hall testified as experts on behalf of the victim’s family that police 

had acted improperly in the fatal shooting of a teenager. Id. at 340-41. Several 

police chiefs notified Kilgore that they objected to instructors testifying against 

police; some police chiefs indicated they would boycott any Kilgore program in 

which one of the instructors was either Kinney or Hall, while others refused to 

attend classes either of them taught. Id. at 342-43. At a quarterly meeting of 

the police association to which these police chiefs belonged, it was agreed those 

police departments would not send any officers to classes taught by the 

plaintiffs. Id. at 344. Hall resigned to take another job; Kinney stayed for one 

more contract year, but then his contract was not renewed. Id. at 345. Kinney 

and Hall sued the police chiefs and others, claiming their First Amendment 

rights were violated. Id. at 345-46. As we will discuss in more detail later, we 

applied the analysis for retaliation against public employees and held the 

police chief’s motion for summary judgment was properly denied. Id. at 374. 

Similar to an argument made in this case, a dissent found it “absurd to 

hold that the police chiefs and sheriffs are not vested with discretion in 

choosing which teachers to use (and pay) for [their] training . . . .” Id. at 375

(Barksdale, J., dissenting) (emphasis in original). The defendants here argue 

that the present case is about their discretion to decide whom should be 

selected (and paid) as witnesses for prosecutions. There is plausibility to such 

concerns, but the Kinney majority rejected them.

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 8 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

9

An important caveat to the framework applied in Kinney is that there is 

no First Amendment protection for the speech at all when public employees

make statements as part of their official duties. Garcetti v. Ceballos, 547 U.S. 

410, 421 (2006). The First Amendment, though, may still apply when the 

employees make statements relating to their public employment; the question 

“is whether the speech at issue is itself ordinarily within the scope of an 

employee’s duties, not whether it merely concerns those duties.” Lane v. 

Franks, 134 S. Ct. 2369, 2379 (2014).

We must also discuss governmental contractors. The complaint alleges 

the plaintiffs made most of their statements while they worked for a college 

with a contract with the Harris County Sheriff’s Office. Claims by 

governmental contractors that their speech caused retaliation against them by 

the government are analyzed using the same framework as that for claims by 

public employees. Bd. of Cnty. Comm’rs v. Umbehr, 518 U.S. 668, 684-85 

(1996). We applied the public-employee framework in Kinney, holding that 

instructors employed by a college that provided training to police were subject

to “the requisite governmental power” for that framework to apply. 367 F.3d 

at 357-58.

If the plaintiffs made statements relevant to their retaliation claims that 

are not subject to the analysis for public employees, we evaluate those under 

these requirements applicable to private citizens:

(1) they were engaged in constitutionally protected activity, (2) the 

defendants' actions caused them to suffer an injury that would 

chill a person of ordinary firmness from continuing to engage in 

that activity, and (3) the defendants' adverse actions were 

substantially motivated against the plaintiffs' exercise of 

constitutionally protected conduct.

Keenan v. Tejeda, 290 F.3d 252, 258 (5th Cir. 2002) (citations omitted).

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 9 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

10

B. Applying the law to the allegations in the complaint

We now turn to assessing the complaint. Culbertson resigned from HPD

on May 2, 2011; her final day of work was May 13. Her claims are based on 

alleged retaliation for testimony she gave in court the week of May 23, other 

testimony she gave in July, comments she made in a meeting with the DA’s 

Office in August, and comments she made that were published in newspaper 

articles in September and October. Wong resigned on an unstated day in 

March 2011. He alleged retaliation due to comments he made to Houston’s 

Chief of Police just before his last day with HPD, and comments he made to his 

supervisor at the crime lab around the time of his departure and again not long 

thereafter. Wong was also quoted in the September newspaper article. The 

complaint refers to Wong when describing Culbertson’s July testimony. 

Culbertson testified that Wong, who was also scheduled to testify at the trial,

agreed with her doubts about the accuracy of the BAT equipment. Wong did 

not actually testify.

In dating the incidents, we interpret the allegations to be that Wong 

made unfavorable comments about the BAT–van reliability to the Chief of 

Police just before his HPD employment ended, that Wong’s criticism of the BAT 

vans to a supervisor may have occurred while he was still employed by HPD, 

that Culbertson made unfavorable comments in testimony after she left HPD 

but due to work on cases she performed while still employed there, and that 

she testified Wong felt the same. Finally, a newspaper published statements 

by them months after their resignations, but the complaint does not state 

whether they talked to a reporter or comments to others were simply quoted.

The complaint also alleged that both Wong and Culbertson went to work 

for Lone Star College as technical supervisors on a contract between the college 

and the Harris County Sheriff’s Office. The Contract, which had been in place 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 10 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

11

for decades, was to provide technical supervisors to oversee Harris County 

Sheriff’s Office’s breath alcohol testing program. Wong began work at Lone 

Star in March 2011, while Culbertson began there in May 2011. 

1. Pre-termination statements

There is only one clear allegation that opinions expressed while still 

working for HPD led to retaliation. The claim is based on Wong’s conversation 

with the Chief of Police. Another alleged conversation with a supervisor may 

also have been pre-departure. We consider these claims first.

We know from Ceballos, as refined by Lane, that if those conversations 

were part of Wong’s official duties, there is no First Amendment protection. 

Ceballos, a supervisor in a district attorney’s office, doubted the veracity of an 

affidavit that was used by someone else to gain a search warrant; Ceballos 

reported his findings to his superiors. Ceballos, 547 U.S. at 413-14. Ceballos 

was called to testify at a hearing. Id. at 414-15. He later suffered what he 

perceived to be retaliation from his superiors. Id. The Supreme Court held 

that there may be First Amendment protection for comments made privately 

within the employment setting. Id. at 420. Ceballos’s comments, though, were 

part of his official duties and were not protected. Id. at 421. 

Wong does not assert that the statements he made to the Police Chief 

and the supervisor before leaving HPD was a job duty. The complaint has no 

direct allegations about job duties, and there was no argument in the district 

court that such allegations were required. The issue of job duties came up in 

the motion to dismiss and in the response, as the briefing cited the caselaw 

whose applicability turns on whether speech was a job duty. The district 

court’s opinion did not rely in its analysis on whether any of the speech was a 

job duty. Relying thus only on the complaint, we cannot conclude that the pre-

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 11 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

12

termination statements are unprotected speech performed as part of the 

plaintiffs’ job duties under Ceballos or Lane. 

In assessing the sufficiency of the complaint as to Wong’s pretermination statements, we apply the four factors applicable to analyzing the 

First Amendment rights of public employees: (1) an adverse employment 

decision, (2) the speech involved a matter of public concern, (3) the relative 

balance of the plaintiff's and the governmental defendant's interests, and (4)

causation. Kinney, 367 F.3d at 356. There is an extra analytical step here, 

though, because by the time the adverse employment decision was made, Wong 

was working for Lone Star College. The public employee analysis still applies 

as Wong worked for a governmental contractor and was sufficiently subject to 

the indirect effects of the exercise of governmental power. Id. at 357-58. 

The first factor, the suffering of an adverse employment action, is met by 

the complaint’s allegations that Wong lost his position at Lone Star. The 

second factor is also satisfied, that Wong’s speech about the unreliability of the 

breath alcohol testing can be considered a matter of public concern. We 

analogize that speech to the statements in Kinney in which it was not even 

disputed that the testimony about possible improper police conduct was a 

matter of public concern. Id. at 361. We do not at this point apply the third 

factor of comparing the plaintiffs’ interest in speaking to the governmental 

defendant's interest in promoting efficiency, as the district court should 

conduct the initial balancing inquiry. It is the final factor, whether protected 

speech motivated the defendant's conduct, which controls the outcome now. 

We will address that factor later, after considering some of the other claims.

2. Post-termination statements

We now turn to claims based on comments the plaintiffs made after they 

were no longer employed by HPD. Culbertson claims there was retaliation for

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 12 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

13

testimony in court in late May and in July. That testimony reasonably appears

from the allegations of the complaint to have resulted from work she did while 

still at HPD, i.e., she was testifying as to BAT results that were determined 

before she left HPD. The testimony was relevant to whether a criminal 

defendant should be found guilty. The testimony was not given to someone

independently investigating problems with the testing, such as a legislative 

committee or a grand jury. Testifying as a witness in the prosecution of those 

who her lab results showed had violated the law had been part of her official 

HPD duties. There would be no First Amendment protection for the testimony 

had Culbertson still been employed by HPD because testifying about lab 

results was one of her job duties. See Ceballos, 547 U.S. at 421. Our different 

question is the applicability of the First Amendment to testimony by former 

employees about matters lingering from their work.

The pleadings in this case contain no allegation of whether HPD imposed

on Culbertson or Wong a continuing duty to testify in cases on which they had 

worked while still employed. It may be of some importance that plaintiffs were 

allegedly subpoenaed as witnesses. In considering the range of job duties, we 

also note the admonition in Ceballos, that “excessively broad job descriptions” 

created by employers could unduly limit First Amendment rights. Id. at 424. 

Determining job duties is meant to be a practical inquiry. Id.2 We conclude 

that at this stage in the case, that inquiry is premature. We leave the issue 

open for consideration on remand. Did Culbertson or Wong have a duty, either 

 

2 Harris County argues that because those who have prepared lab reports are 

necessary witnesses for the introduction of those reports at trial, such testimony is part of 

the lab employees’ duties even after they leave their lab positions. See Bullcoming v. New 

Mexico, 131 S. Ct. 2705, 2716 (2011) (plurality opinion). Confrontation Clause analysis about 

what witnesses the prosecution must offer at trial is not controlling in First Amendment 

analysis about the job duties of former public employees who would be those witnesses. 

Bullcoming shows why prosecutors might want such testimony to be a duty, but it does not 

prove that the post-employment testimony is one.

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 13 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

14

explicit or in some manner implied, arising from their employment to testify 

about results from their lab work even after they were no longer employed 

there? Even if such a duty is found to have existed, does it implicate the need 

identified in Ceballos for “managerial discipline based on an employee's 

expressions made pursuant to official responsibilities[?]” Id. at 424. Whether 

the First Amendment protects the testimony is an issue for remand.

Besides the testimony in court, there is a second group of postemployment statements. Culbertson claimed she suffered retaliation for

comments she made in a meeting with the DA’s Office in August, months after 

her resignation, and comments published in a newspaper in September and 

October. Wong also made post-employment comments to a supervisor fairly 

soon after his departure from HPD, and was quoted in a September newspaper

article. We cannot tell from the complaint if either plaintiff spoke to a reporter 

directly or whether comments made to others, including court testimony, were

quoted. From the complaint, it appears at least one of Culbertson’s quoted 

comments was not taken from testimony. The complaint does not indicate 

whether any of these statements were made as part of official job duties under 

the kind of continuing obligation we just applied to post-employment testimony 

in court. Thus, the First Amendment potentially will apply.

As private citizens working for a governmental contractor, Culbertson 

and Wong’s claim must be analyzed using public-employee standards. See

Kinney, 367 F.3d at 360. We have already held that losing their positions at 

Lone Star was an adverse employment action, and the speech about the BAT 

vans’ reliability was a matter of public concern. Whether the plaintiffs’ interest 

outweighed the governmental ones is a matter initially for the district court. 

The difficult question is again whether one or more defendants caused injury 

to the plaintiffs due to the exercise of First Amendment rights. We earlier 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 14 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

15

deferred consideration of whether comments Wong made before he left his 

employment at HPD motivated the cancelling of the Lone Star Contract. To 

answer these questions about causation, we need to determine who among the 

defendants, if any, caused relevant injury, and whether those defendants were 

motivated by the plaintiffs’ exercise of First Amendment rights.

The remaining defendants, after the dismissal of former District 

Attorney Lykos in her individual capacity, are former Assistant District 

Attorney Palmer and Harris County. There are allegations that Palmer was

involved in a campaign with Lykos to cause Harris County to drop its contract 

with Lone Star because of the plaintiffs’ criticism of the integrity of BAT 

results. The Contract was not renewed, and Lone Star fairly soon terminated 

the plaintiffs who had been hired to perform work under the Contract. The 

question for us is whether causation has been plausibly alleged, i.e., was Harris 

County’s non-renewal of the Contract motivated by the plaintiffs’ speech, and 

if so, did the non-renewal cause the plaintiffs to lose their jobs? 

The Harris County Commissioners Court made the decision that led to 

the loss of the plaintiffs’ employment. We examine that decision.

3. Harris County Commissioners Court

The decision-maker on non-renewal of the Contract was the Harris 

County Commissioners Court. That “court” is actually the principal governing 

body for a Texas county. TEX. CONST. ART. V, § 18(b). It is comprised of four 

commissioners elected from districts and a county judge elected countywide. 

Id. § 15, 18(b). The Commissioners Court may contract for law enforcement 

services. TEX. LOC. GOV’T. CODE § 351.061. It also approves the budget for the 

county and may make changes in a proposed budget as it finds warranted by 

the facts and law. Id. § 111.068. Neither party disputes that the 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 15 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

16

Commissioners Court is a final policymaker for Harris County in the area of 

contracting and budgeting.

If a final policymaker approves a subordinate’s recommendation and also 

the subordinate’s reasoning, that approval is considered a ratification 

chargeable to the municipality. World Wide St. Preachers Fellowship v. Town 

of Columbia, 591 F.3d 747, 755 (5th Cir. 2009) (citing City of St. Louis v. 

Praprotnik, 485 U.S. 112, 127 (1988)). This theory of ratification has been 

limited to “extreme factual situations.” Id. (citation and quotation marks 

omitted). 

On appeal, plaintiffs argue that their complaint supports that the 

Commissioners Court was responsible for retaliation based on its ratification

of Lykos’s and Palmer’s recommendations or because it “rubber-stamped” the 

recommendations knowing of the motives behind them. Lykos and Palmer 

allegedly met privately with representatives from the Commissioners Court to 

discredit the plaintiffs, and recommended to the Commissioners Court that the 

Contract be awarded to DPS. In a public meeting of the Commissioners Court, 

one of the Commissioners stated he did not believe Harris County should work 

with someone who is adversarial to the DA’s Office. Three weeks after this 

meeting, the Commissioners Court approved a budget which provided for the 

Contract to be awarded to DPS. 

Under the theory of ratification, it is not enough that the Commissioners 

Court approved Palmer’s and Lykos’s recommendation. A plaintiff “must 

impute [the defendant’s] allegedly improper motives to the board by 

demonstrating that the board approved both [the defendant’s] decision and the 

basis for it.” Beattie v. Madison Cnty. Sch. Dist., 254 F.3d 595, 603 (5th Cir. 

2001) (citing Praprotnik, 485 U.S. at 127). Beattie was a secretary whose 

annual contract was not renewed by the school board. Id. at 599. She alleged 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 16 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

17

that the superintendent wanted her fired because Beattie had supported the 

superintendent’s opponent in the most recent election. Id. On summary 

judgment, the board members provided affidavits stating they were unaware 

of Beattie’s political activities and had made their decision based on complaints 

she was rude to teachers, parents, and students. Id. at 600. We held that 

Beattie had not shown causation. Id. at 605. There was no evidence the board 

was even aware of the superintendent’s retaliatory purposes. Id. 

We are at an earlier stage of the proceedings than were the parties in 

Beattie. This case was dismissed on the pleadings. The complaint alleges that 

there were meetings between Lykos, Palmer, and “representatives” of the 

Commissioners Court. The complaint refers to newspaper articles setting out 

the controversies about the BAT vans. The Commissioners, at a public meeting 

a few weeks before approving the new budget, heard from criminal defense 

counsel about the controversies, including that the proposal to drop the Lone 

Star Contract was in retaliation for Culbertson’s and Wong’s criticisms of 

HPD’s failure to address problems with the BAT vans. There is also an 

allegation that one Commissioner, at the meeting where defense counsel spoke,

stated that he did not think the County should contract with those who took 

an adversarial position with the DA’s Office.

A plausible claim has been stated that the Commissioners knew about 

the reasons for Lykos’s and Palmer’s recommendations, and it then ratified 

them, i.e., it approved the recommendation and the reasoning. Whether 

evidence developed through discovery or otherwise would support the 

allegations against the County is unknown. Unlike in Beattie, there are no 

affidavits from the decision-makers. 

Even if the Commissioners Court approved the individual defendants’ 

reasoning when it failed to renew the Lone Star Contract, which would support 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 17 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

18

a finding of ratification, the injury to the plaintiffs was only an indirect result 

of that decision. Harris County argues that because it was Lone Star that

terminated the plaintiffs’ employment, the necessary element of causation is 

not satisfied. The plaintiffs allege causation by claiming they had been hired 

by Lone Star to work on the Contract with the County, with the transfer of the 

Contract to DPS “resulting in the end of the[ir] employment” In Kinney, we 

rejected an argument that a boycott conducted by police officials of a college’s 

police-training program did not cause the termination of the plaintiffs because 

their employment was controlled by the college. 367 F.3d at 357-58. It was 

enough, we held, that “governmental power [was used] to exert economic 

pressure on the instructors' employer in order to achieve” the termination of 

the disfavored instructors; that pressure produced the favored result through 

indirect means. Id. at 358. We did state that relative attenuation between the 

governmental action and the adverse consequences suffered by plaintiffs bears 

on causation, in that it “may be easier for a government official to fire his own 

employee than to persuade a contractor to fire one of its employees[.]” Id. We 

conclude here that the separation between cause and effect is sufficiently 

narrow to satisfy the pleading standard for this suit.

The plaintiffs have alleged enough to survive the motion to dismiss their 

claims against the County based on the termination of the Lone Star Contract.

4. Claims against Palmer and Lykos, official and individual capacities

The plaintiffs have pending claims against former District Attorney 

Lykos in her official capacity and against former Assistant DA Palmer in her 

official and individual capacities. 

We start with the claim against former District Attorney Lykos in her 

official capacity. The plaintiffs argue that Harris County is liable under Section 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 18 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

19

1983 due to the alleged retaliatory campaign Lykos waged against them. The 

district court in its opinion dismissing the case remarked that the district 

attorney was a state official. If the court meant she was not an official for 

which the County could be held responsible, it never explicitly so held. The 

County does explicitly argue that Lykos acted on behalf of the state, not the 

County, but cites no authority other than the district court. It matters whether 

the DA is an official of the County or the state. A lawsuit “against a state 

official in his or her official capacity is not a suit against the official but rather 

is a suit against the official's office.” Will v. Mich. Dep’t. of State Police, 491 

U.S. 58, 71 (1989) (citation omitted). An official-capacity lawsuit is “only 

another way of pleading an action against an entity of which an officer is an 

agent.” Kentucky v. Graham, 473 U.S. 159, 165-66 (1985) (citation and 

quotation marks omitted). When sued in their official capacities, officials “are 

therefore representing their respective state agencies . . . .” McCarthy ex rel. 

Travis v. Hawkins, 381 F.3d 407, 414 (5th Cir. 2004). The division of 

government in which the official works is responsible for a judgment in an 

official-capacity lawsuit. The Supreme Court observed that in three of its prior 

Section 1983 opinions, “we have plainly implied that a judgment against a 

public servant ‘in his official capacity’ imposes liability on the entity that he 

represents provided, of course, the public entity received notice and an 

opportunity to respond. We now make that point explicit.” Brandon v. Holt, 

469 U.S. 464, 471-72 (1985) (footnote omitted). 

As noted, we are directed to no authority to support that the DA should 

be considered a state official and not one for the County. The plaintiffs have 

cited an opinion of this court that held a county potentially responsible for the 

conduct of the district attorney for the county. See Turner v. Upton Cnty., 915 

F.2d 133, 138 (5th Cir. 1990). The district covered by that prosecutor included

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 19 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

20

more than one county, but we still held the defendant county potentially liable. 

Id. at 137-38. The issue of whether the district attorney was a county or state 

official was not discussed and may not have been raised. Still, Turner is 

authority for the proposition that a county can be responsible under Section 

1983 for the actions of its district attorney. We will follow Turner.

The County can be responsible for actions of a final policymaker who has 

“the responsibility for making law or setting policy in any given area of a local 

government’s business.” Praprotnik, 485 U.S. at 125. Exercising discretion in 

an area of governmental action is not enough. The official must be the one 

responsible for setting controlling policy:

The fact that a particular official – even a policymaking official –

has discretion in the exercise of particular functions does not, 

without more, give rise to municipal liability based on an exercise 

of that discretion. The official must also be responsible for 

establishing final government policy respecting such activity 

before the municipality can be held liable.

 

Pembaur v. City of Cincinnati, 475 U.S. 469, 481-83 (1986) (citation and footnote 

omitted). The Court went on to say that “municipal liability under § 1983 

attaches where – and only where – a deliberate choice to follow a course of action 

is made from among various alternatives by the official or officials responsible 

for establishing final policy with respect to the subject matter in question.” Id. 

at 483-84 (citation omitted). Thus, a single decision by a policymaker to follow 

a course of action can be considered municipal policy.

The question of “‘[w]hether a particular official has final policymaking 

authority is a question of state law.’” Rivera v. Houston Indep. Sch. Dist., 349 

F.3d 244, 247 (5th Cir. 2003) (emphasis in original) (quoting Jett v. Dallas 

Indep. Sch. Dist., 491 U.S. 701, 737 (1989)). The plaintiffs argue that Lykos’s 

retaliatory actions “relate to her administrative and managerial duties” and 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 20 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

21

thus “implicate her role as a final policymaker.” In the complaint, the policy is 

described as one “of retaliation for the exercise of lawful rights.” 

It should go without saying that no state statute or County directive in 

any form has given district attorneys authority to retaliate against individuals 

for exercising their First Amendment rights. Still, we have held that improper 

conduct by a policymaker can be a policy. In a Section 1983 action, the plaintiff 

sued a county for the alleged conspiracy of the sheriff and district attorney to 

subject her to a “sham” trial. Turner, 915 F.2d at 134. We held that the “[t]he 

sheriff’s and the district attorney’s alleged participation in the conspiracy, if 

proven, will suffice to impose liability on the county.” Id. at 137. In doing so, 

we held that the sheriff was a final policymaker for the county in the area of 

“preserving the peace in his jurisdiction and arresting all offenders.” Id. at 

136. We did not hold that the district attorney was a final policymaker for any 

relevant function but held he was a possible co-conspirator for which the 

county might be liable. Id. 

In this case, a possible area of policy-making responsibility for a district 

attorney is to determine what witnesses to use in prosecutions. Arguably, 

then, Lykos was a final policymaker for purposes of a retaliation campaign to 

keep public employee or contractor witnesses who testified in an unsatisfactory 

way from being used in the future. The complaint alleges that the DA’s Office

decided no longer to use either plaintiff as witnesses. That possible injury –

no longer being able to testify – is not the injury we have held is relevant here. 

Instead, it was the County’s failure to renew the Lone Star Contract and the 

plaintiffs’ consequent loss of their employment. Lykos quite clearly was not 

the final policymaker on that decision. If she were, no campaign would have 

been necessary to convince the Commissioners Court of anything.

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 21 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

22

The plaintiffs have not stated a claim against Harris County based on 

Lykos’s actions in her official capacity, as they have not alleged sufficient facts 

to show Lykos is a final policymaker as to the policy at issue. 

The other individual defendant, Palmer, is subject to claims in her 

official and individual capacities. The plaintiffs allege Harris County is liable 

for Palmer’s actions because Lykos “delegated her policymaking authority to 

Palmer . . . .” Because we have held that Lykos was not a final policymaker, 

there was no final authority to delegate to Palmer. To the extent the plaintiffs 

allege that Palmer herself had undelegated final policymaking authority, we 

find no legal support for that contention. 

The plaintiffs also allege that Harris County is liable pursuant to the 

“DA’s failure to adequately train and supervise assistant district attorneys so 

as to prevent . . . unlawful retaliatory conduct . . . .” In order to succeed on a 

failure to train and supervise claim, the plaintiff must plead facts sufficient to 

show the municipality was “deliberately indifferent” to the obvious need for 

training and supervision. Peterson v. City of Fort Worth, 588 F.3d 838, 849-50

(5th Cir. 2009). It must be “obvious” to the municipality that the alleged 

unconstitutional conduct was the “highly predictable consequence” of not 

training or supervising its municipal actors. Id. 

The plaintiffs have alleged no facts as to the lack of a training program, 

nor are there sufficient allegations to support a contention that it was obvious 

to Harris County that the lack of training or supervision would result in the 

retaliation by prosecutors or others against other public employees or 

governmental contractors. There would also need to be allegations that the 

alleged retaliatory conduct occurred with such frequency that Harris County 

was put on notice that training or supervision was needed. See id. at 849-50. 

No such allegations have been made.

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 22 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

23

Finally, we address the claims against Palmer in her individual capacity. 

In Beattie, a similar issue was discussed. After this court held that the school 

board was not liable, we then considered as a separate issue the individual 

liability of principal Acton and school superintendent Jones who allegedly 

retaliated against Beattie by recommending her termination. 254 F.3d at 604-

05. We noted that the principal and superintendent could not directly cause 

the adverse decision but only recommend it to the school board. Id. at 605. We 

then stated: “If Acton and Jones did not cause the adverse employment action, 

they cannot be liable under § 1983, no matter how unconstitutional their 

motives.” Id. In context, the court might have been stating that Acton and 

Jones could be liable if their retaliation for Beattie’s exercising her First 

Amendment rights led to her termination. That is not what happened. The 

individual defendants’ potentially retaliatory motives had been displaced by 

other motives: “Because the board fired Beattie for permissible, constitutional 

motives independently of Acton's and Jones's recommendation, that 

superseding cause shields them from liability.” Id. We then continued our 

analysis after finding Acton and Jones had not “caused” the adverse action. Id. 

Beattie argued the connection between the recommendation and the board’s 

action was proven by temporal proximity, but we held that was not enough. 

Id. Our conclusion as to the individual liability of the two officials was that 

because the ultimate decision was made by the board “independently of these 

unproven unconstitutional aims, summary judgment was proper.” Id. We did 

not necessarily hold that there was no individual liability simply because the 

board made the decision. 

A decision that predates Beattie required only that a plaintiff show “an 

affirmative causal link” between a school principal’s recommendation to 

reassign an athletic director and the school district’s decision to do so. Jett v. 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 23 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

24

Dallas Indep. Sch. Dist., 798 F.2d 748, 758 (5th Cir. 1986), aff’d in part, 

remanded in part on other grounds, 491 U.S. 701 (1989). In Jett, it did not 

matter that the individual defendant had no authority to make the actual 

transfer decision. Some later decisions, though, have interpreted Beattie to

hold that “only final decision-makers may be held liable for First Amendment 

retaliation under § 1983.” Johnson v. Louisiana, 369 F.3d 826, 831 (5th Cir. 

2004) (citation omitted); see also Whiting v. Univ. of S. Miss., 451 F.3d 339, 

350-51 (5th Cir. 2006) (analyzing Beattie and holding defendant not liable for 

First Amendment violation where he was not the final decision-maker).

There is some tension in these precedents. It can at least be said that 

before Palmer could be individually liable despite not being the final decisionmaker, it must be shown that her recommendation was made in retaliation for 

constitutionally protected speech and was the reason the adverse employment 

decision was made by the final decision-maker. A “superseding cause” would 

shield Palmer from liability. Beattie, 254 F.3d at 605. Discovery may provide

evidence of the Commissioner’s motivations. If so, then how, if at all, Palmer’s 

actions impacted the decision might be better understood.

The plaintiffs also rely on Palmer’s other retaliatory actions, such as 

discrediting them as technical supervisors, harming their reputations, 

threatening their licensing as technical supervisors and investigating 

Culbertson for perjury. Harm to reputations sounds in defamation. The 

plaintiffs have presented little in their briefing to assist us in understanding 

these claims as brought under the First Amendment. The claims here are 

similar to those in one of our precedents where we held that false accusations 

and investigations that do not lead to arrest or indictment are not actionable 

under the First Amendment. Colson v. Grohman, 174 F.3d 498, 511-12 (5th 

Cir. 1999). Statements by a public official that place a stigma on an 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 24 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

25

individual’s reputation are not actionable without more. Paul v. Davis, 424 

U.S. 693, 710-11 (1976). This court has interpreted Paul to require a showing 

– an allegation at this stage – of the stigmatizing public statements and “an 

infringement of some other interest.” Breaux v. City of Garland, 205 F.3d 150, 

158 n.14 (5th Cir. 2000) (citations and quotation marks omitted). The 

plaintiffs’ briefs on appeal do not explore the constitutional dimensions of this 

claim with any degree of clarity, and do not cite Paul, Breaux, or related 

caselaw. Instead, their arguments on these other events are primarily 

discussed as state-law tortious interference claims. That is where we will place 

our analysis of them later in the opinion. The First Amendment claims based 

on asserted injuries other than the decision by the Commissioners Court not 

to renew the Contract with Lone Star were properly dismissed.

As of this point in our analysis, then, the plaintiffs’ claims against 

Palmer based on some of the statements they made after they had left 

employment at HPD and Wong’s statement just before leaving, have satisfied 

the test for retaliation by the government based on public-employee speech. 

An open question on remand is whether Culbertson’s testimony made as a 

former employee is relevant in the analysis. We next turn to immunity.

C. Palmer’s prosecutorial or qualified immunity

In the district court, Palmer raised the defenses of absolute prosecutorial 

immunity and qualified immunity. Though these arguments were briefed in 

the district court, the court did not rule on them in light of the dismissal of the 

claims on other grounds. On appeal, the arguments have again been briefed. 

We may consider arguments not ruled upon by the district court so long as they 

were raised below. See Gilbert v. Donahoe, 751 F.3d 303, 311 (5th Cir. 2014).

Prosecutors enjoy absolute immunity from suit for performing actions 

associated with the judicial process. Imbler v. Pachtman, 424 U.S. 409, 427, 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 25 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

26

430 (1976). This immunity arises from the public interest in shielding 

prosecutors from liability so they may exercise independent judgment when 

deciding which suits to bring and how to present them in court. See Kalina v. 

Fletcher, 522 U.S. 118, 125 (1997). Actions that are performed by the 

prosecutor merely in an investigatory capacity, however, similar to the actions 

of other law enforcement officers, are only entitled to qualified immunity. Id. 

Palmer’s actions here are not the most obvious fit for absolute prosecutorial 

immunity. We see no reason to resolve the issue, though, because we agree 

with Palmer’s alternative arguments about qualified immunity. 

Qualified-immunity analysis requires that we “determine whether the 

plaintiff has suffered a violation of his constitutional rights and, if so, whether 

a reasonable official should have known that he was violating the plaintiff's 

constitutional rights.” Murray v. Earle, 405 F.3d 278, 285 (5th Cir. 2005)

(citation omitted). We have held there is enough in the complaint to support

the claim that Palmer’s actions violated the plaintiffs’ constitutional rights to 

survive a motion to dismiss. Even if that is so, Palmer argues she is entitled 

to qualified immunity because, in light of Beattie, the law was not clearly 

established that a mere recommendation of termination to a higher authority 

who makes the final decision causes an adverse employment action. 

We have already noted ambiguity as to the liability of a person for 

recommending an adverse employment decision. “The doctrine of qualified 

immunity protects government officials from liability for civil damages insofar 

as their conduct does not violate clearly established statutory or constitutional 

rights of which a reasonable person would have known.” Stanton v. Sims, 134 

S. Ct. 3, 4-5 (2013) (citation and quotation marks omitted). It was unsettled at 

the time of Palmer’s actions, and remains so now, whether someone who is not 

a final decision-maker and makes a recommendation that leads to the plaintiff

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 26 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

27

being harmed can be liable for retaliation under Section 1983. Cf. Beattie, 254 

F.3d at 595, 604-05; Jett, 798 F.2d at 758; Johnson, 369 F.3d at 831. In fact, 

some clear statements in the caselaw have held there can be no liability. E.g., 

Whiting, 451 F.3d at 351.

We conclude the claims against Palmer should be dismissed based on 

qualified immunity.

D. Pleading of municipal liability

In addition to the claim against Harris County based on the decision by 

the Commissioners Court to cancel the Lone Star Contract, Culbertson and 

Wong also argue that the County is liable for retaliation because of a de facto 

policy or custom of retaliation for the exercise of First Amendment rights. 

For municipal liability to arise under Section 1983 from actions by 

officials that caused a deprivation of the constitutional rights of others, there 

must be shown “a policymaker; an official policy; and a violation of 

constitutional rights whose ‘moving force’ is the policy or custom.” Piotrowski 

v. City of Houston, 237 F.3d 567, 578 (5th Cir. 2001) (quoting Monell v. Dep’t 

of Soc. Servs., 436 U.S. 658, 694 (1978)). A municipality’s liability is “based on 

causation rather than respondeat superior.” Bolton v. City of Dallas, Tex., 541 

F.3d 545, 548 (5th Cir. 2008) (citing Monell, 436 U.S. at 692). “Consequently, 

the unconstitutional conduct must be directly attributable to the municipality 

through some sort of official action or imprimatur; isolated unconstitutional 

actions by municipal employees will almost never trigger liability.” Piotrowski,

237 F.3d at 578 (citations and footnotes omitted). 

We have already held that the district attorney was not a final policymaker for the claimed policy here. A policy, though, may be officially 

promulgated by the governing body, by an official to which policy-making 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 27 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

28

authority has been properly delegated, or by officials or employees of the 

municipality through a “persistent, widespread practice” that is “so common 

and well settled as to constitute a custom that fairly represents municipal 

policy.” Webster v. City of Houston, 735 F.2d 838, 841 (5th Cir. 1984). 

The claimed de facto policy of retaliation, plaintiffs allege, can be inferred 

from the number of individuals in the DA’s Office who participated in the 

campaign against them and the “very public nature” of the campaign. The 

plaintiffs also alleged in the complaint that during the grand jury investigation 

into the BAT vans, Lykos investigated members of the grand jury and of the 

prosecutors who conducted the grand jury investigation. Such an act is said 

also to reflect a policy of retribution.

The plaintiffs’ complaint falls short of alleging that Harris County had a 

“persistent, widespread practice” of retaliation for the exercise of First 

Amendment rights. In one of our precedents, the plaintiff brought a Section 

1983 action against a city alleging officers used excessive force when arresting 

him. Peterson, 588 F.3d at 842. Because there was no written policy in place, 

the plaintiff argued there was a widespread practice of excessive force that 

established a de facto policy of the city. Id. at 850. The plaintiff claimed there 

were 27 prior incidents of excessive force over the course of three years. Id. 

We noted that the legal question presented was “whether the 27 complaints on 

which Peterson relies are sufficient to establish a pattern of excessive force 

that can be said to represent official policy.” Id. We held the prior incidents 

insufficient. Id. at 851. In doing so, we noted that a pattern requires 

“sufficiently numerous prior incidents as opposed to isolated instances.” Id. 

(citation and quotation marks omitted). 

Here, the plaintiffs allege there was a retaliatory campaign against them 

and a retaliatory investigation against the grand jury and its prosecutors, all 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 28 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

29

arising from the same predicate events. The retaliatory campaign against 

them was publicly known, but they offered no evidence that similar retaliation 

had victimized others. There was, in other words, no allegation of a 

“widespread practice” of retaliation that is “so common and well settled” as to 

constitute the policy of Harris County. See Webster, 735 F.2d at 853. 

The allegations in this case are limited to the events surrounding the 

plaintiffs. That is not an allegation of a de facto policy of retaliation by the 

County. Harris County’s potential liability rests solely on the actions of the 

Commissioners Court in cancelling the Lone Star Contract.

II. Tortious interference claims

The district court dismissed the plaintiffs’ claims against the individual 

defendants for tortious interference with a contract and tortious interference 

with prospective contractual relations under the TCPA. 

The district court then held that, regardless of the TCPA, Culbertson and 

Wong failed to state a claim against Palmer under Rule 12(b)(6) as to either 

tortious interference claim. The court in effect held the complaint alleged 

nothing to support interference. “To survive a motion to dismiss, a complaint

must contain sufficient factual matter, accepted as true, to state a claim to 

relief that is plausible on its face.” Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 678 (citation and 

quotation marks omitted). Neither in the district court nor here has Palmer 

presented an argument with supporting authority regarding immunity as to 

these state-law claims, so we do not consider that question.

Culbertson and Wong claim that Palmer was a leader in the effort to 

award the Contract to DPS rather than Lone Star and that her actions 

constitute tortious interference. The plaintiffs do not claim that Palmer 

tortiously interfered with the Contract between Lone Star and Harris County. 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 29 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

30

Instead, they claim Palmer interfered with their employment contract with 

Lone Star and that her interference caused their termination.

The Texas Supreme Court has identified the elements of a tortious 

interference with an existing contract as: “(1) an existing contract subject to 

interference, (2) a willful and intentional act of interference with the contract, 

(3) that proximately caused the plaintiff’s injury, and (4) caused actual 

damages or loss.” Prudential Ins. Co. of Am. v. Fin. Review Servs., Inc., 29 

S.W.3d 74, 77 (Tex. 2000) (citation omitted). There was an existing contract

here. The second through fourth elements are at issue.

On the second factor, the Texas Supreme Court has held that 

“[i]nterference with contract is tortious only if it is intentional.” Sw. Bell Tel. 

Co. v. John Carlo Tex., Inc., 843 S.W.2d 470, 472 (Tex. 1992) (citations 

omitted). Intent requires that “the actor desires to cause the consequences of 

his act, or that he believes that the consequences are substantially certain to 

result from it.” Id. (citation and quotation marks omitted). The defendants 

argue that Lone Star’s termination of the plaintiffs’ employment may have 

been inevitable once the Contract with the County was lost, but the intent of 

the defendants’ campaign was limited to cancelling Lone Star’s Contract. 

Palmer cites a state intermediate appeals court decision to support the

argument. See Mabry v. Sam’s E., Inc., No. 05-05-00170-CV, 2006 WL 2348953

(Tex. App.–Dallas Aug. 15, 2006, no pet.) Plaintiff Mabry, a customer service 

technician for Southwestern Bell Telephone, took an item from Sam’s Club, 

without paying, while on a lunch break from work. Id. at *1. He was 

confronted by a Sam’s Club employee. Id. Upset with the way he was treated, 

Mabry returned to Sam’s Club several days later to complain. Id. One of Sam’s 

Club’s employees called Southwestern Bell to report Mabry’s conduct; Mabry 

was fired. Id. at *2. Mabry sued Sam’s Club for tortious interference with his 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 30 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

31

employment contract. Id. The appellate court affirmed the summary 

judgment because “Mabry had to show that Sam’s [Club and its employee] 

intended to cause the ultimate outcome – Mabry’s termination of employment 

. . . .” Id. at *5. (citing John Carlo, 843 S.W.2d at 472). The court was “unable 

to find any evidence that [the defendants] had an intent to cause Mabry to lose 

his job,” and held that the grant of summary judgment was proper. Id.

Mabry is a poor fit. The allegations in the complaint in this case make a 

plausible case that Palmer intended to have the Contract with Lone Star 

canceled, and as alleged, that the interference “was the proximate cause” of the 

plaintiffs’ loss of their jobs. As we quoted above, the Texas standard for the 

intent needed for tortious interference is that a defendant “desires to cause the 

consequences of his act, or that he believes that the consequences are 

substantially certain to result from it.” John Carlo, 843 S.W.2d at 472 (citation 

and quotation marks omitted). The plaintiffs allege that the defendants’

“purpose” was “to harm, discredit, and end the employment of Culbertson and 

Wong, in part by transferring the Contract from Lone Star to DPS . . . .” We 

discover more than mere conclusory allegations in the complaint that Palmer

had the necessary intent because she would have known that the consequence 

of cancellation of a contract that the plaintiffs had been hired to work on would 

quite likely be that those new hires would lose their jobs. These claims were 

not “‘naked assertion[s]’ devoid of ‘further factual enhancement.’” Iqbal, 556 

U.S. at 678 (quoting Twombly, 550 U.S. at 557).

As to the third prong of a tortious interference with contract claim, 

Culbertson and Wong must establish Palmer proximately caused their 

termination. “The test for cause in fact is whether the defendant’s conduct was 

a substantial factor in bringing about the injury without which the harm would 

not have occurred.” Fin. Review Servs., Inc. v. Prudential Ins. Co. of Am., 50 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 31 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

32

S.W.3d 495, 509 (Tex. App.—Houston [14th Dist.]1998), aff’d, 29 S.W.3d 74 

(Tex. 2000). The district court held that the plaintiffs “have no plausible causal 

chain.” The court considered that “[b]oth the Commissioners Court and [Lone 

Star] College were independent actors who could have decided differently.” 

That is true, but the complaint alleges that Palmer pursued a goal of having 

the Commissioners Court cancel the Contract, which it did, and the complaint 

also supports that Lone Star’s losing the Contract would lead to the plaintiffs 

losing their jobs. We have already held this to be sufficient causation for the 

Section 1983 claim. We find the same to be true here. The plaintiffs have 

sufficiently alleged that Palmer’s conduct was a “substantial factor in bringing 

about” their termination from Lone Star “without which the harm would not 

have occurred.” See id.

Because the plaintiffs’ complaint contains “sufficient factual matter, 

accepted as true, to state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face,” we find 

there is a sufficient claim against Palmer for tortious interference with the

plaintiffs’ employment contract with Lone Star. Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 678 (citation 

and quotation marks omitted). 

The plaintiffs next argue that Palmer tortiously interfered with their 

prospective contractual relations. In order to prevail on such a claim, a 

plaintiff must show:

(1) there was a reasonable probability that the parties would have 

entered into a contractual relationship; (2) the defendant 

committed an independently tortious or unlawful act that 

prevented the relationship from occurring; (3) the defendant did 

such act with a conscious desire to prevent the relationship from 

occurring or knew that the interference was certain or 

substantially certain to occur as a result of his conduct; and (4) the 

plaintiff suffered actual harm or damage as a result of the 

defendant’s interference.

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 32 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

33

Brown v. Swett Crawford of Tex., Inc., 178 S.W.3d 373, 381-82 (Tex. App.—

Houston [1st. Dist.] 2005, no pet.) (citation omitted). 

The central problem with this claim is that the plaintiffs do not allege 

facts to support the contention that Palmer’s conduct proximately caused the 

plaintiffs’ inability to find employment.3 The plaintiffs do not allege that 

Palmer contacted any prospective employers regarding employing either of 

them. In fact, there are no facts in the complaint as to Palmer interfering with 

any specific prospective business relationship that, but for the alleged 

interference, would have been reasonably probable. 

Accordingly, the plaintiffs have failed to state a claim for tortious 

interference with prospective contractual relations.

III. Texas Citizen’s Participation Act

The TCPA provides an expedited means for dismissing lawsuits that 

involve the exercise of certain constitutional rights, including free speech. 

Pickens v. Cordia ̧433 S.W.3d 179, 181 (Tex. App.—Dallas 2014, no pet.) (citing 

TEX. CIV. PRAC. & REM. CODE ANN. § 27.001-011). In determining whether a 

legal action should be dismissed, “the court shall consider the pleadings and 

supporting and opposing affidavits stating the facts on which the liability or 

defense is based.” TEX. CIV. PRAC. & REM. CODE ANN. § 27.006(a). To prevail 

on a motion to dismiss under the TCPA, the movant must show by a 

preponderance of the evidence that the action is “based on, relates to, or is in 

response to, the party's exercise of the right of free speech; the right to petition;

or the right of association.” Id. § 27.005(b)(1)-(3). Other procedures then apply 

 

3 The plaintiffs do allege that DPS failed to send them proficiency samples (in order 

to maintain their technical supervisor certification), but they do not allege that this was at 

the direction of Palmer. 

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 33 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

34

if the movant shows that the action is based on, as is relevant here, the exercise 

of free speech rights.

We have not specifically held that the TCPA applies in federal court; at 

most we have assumed without deciding its applicability. See, e.g., NCDR, 

L.L.C. v. Mauze & Bagby, P.L.L.C., 745 F.3d 742, 753 (5th Cir. 2014).4 Because 

we determine that the TCPA by its own terms has not been shown to apply, we 

again pretermit the fundamental issue of its applicability in federal court.

Palmer, as the party moving to dismiss, bears the initial burden. The 

plaintiffs argue that Palmer did not meet that burden as her motion “did not 

offer any evidence showing that she engaged in activity protected by the 

TCPA.” Instead, “her motion relied exclusively on the allegations in Plaintiffs’ 

complaint.” The allegations are that Palmer recommended to the 

Commissioners Court that it award the Contract to DPS rather than Lone 

Star, she stated at a meeting with representatives of the Commissioners Court 

that the plaintiffs could not be trusted, and she had private conversations with 

representatives of the Commissioners Court regarding the plaintiffs. Palmer 

does not admit to any of this speech, though she also does not deny it.

Several recent Texas appellate court cases, none from the state’s highest 

court, conclude the TCPA does not apply if the defendant denies making the 

communication at issue. For example, “a defendant who denies making any 

communication may not obtain dismissal by also simultaneously claiming that 

he was exercising his right of free speech by making a communication.” 

Rauhauser v. McGibney, No. 02-14-00215-CV, 2014 WL 6996819 at *5 (Tex. 

 

4 After oral argument in this matter, the D.C. Circuit declined to apply an Anti-SLAPP 

statute’s motion-to-dismiss provision on the ground that it conflicts with Federal Rules of 

Civil Procedure 12 and 56. See Abbas v. Foreign Policy Grp., LLC, 783 F.3d 1328, 1337 (D.C. 

Cir. 2015). Other circuits have applied state Anti-SLAPP statutes’ pretrial dismissal 

provisions. See, e.g., Godin v. Schencks, 629 F.3d 79, 81, 92 (1st Cir. 2010); United States ex 

rel. Newsham v. Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., 190 F.3d 963, 973 (9th Cir. 1999).

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 34 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

35

App.—Fort Worth Dec. 11, 2014, no pet.) (citation omitted). In another 

opinion, a different state appellate court held that because the defendant “has 

denied sending the email, we conclude [the TCPA] does not apply to this cause 

of action.” Pickens, 433 S.W.3d at 188. The TCPA was similarly held to be 

inapplicable in another case when the defendant “claim[ed] that she did not 

publish any of the defamatory posts[.]” Am. Heritage Capital, LP v. Gonzalez, 

436 S.W.3d 865, 882 n.5 (Tex. App.—Dallas July 1, 2014, no pet.) 

Though these decisions are not from the state’s highest court, we 

conclude they are persuasive. The Pickens opinion explains that the motion to 

dismiss process under the TCPA “is premised on the notion that one purpose 

of [the TCPA] is to ‘encourage and safeguard the constitutional rights of 

persons to speak freely.’” Pickens, 433 S.W.3d at 188 (quoting TEX. CIV. PRAC.

& REM. CODE ANN. § 27.002). Accordingly, “[g]iven that [the defendant] has 

denied sending the email, we conclude [the TCPA] does not apply to this cause 

of action.” Id. 

The only evidence Palmer offers to show the plaintiffs’ lawsuit is based 

on TCPA-protected activity is allegations from the plaintiffs’ own complaint 

that Palmer engaged in speech. Palmer does not admit making the relevant 

statements. Palmer has not cited any Texas case that specifically holds that a 

plaintiff’s own allegations will by themselves satisfy a defendant’s burden 

under the TCPA. We will not create such law.5 

Accordingly, the district court erred in dismissing the plaintiffs’ suit 

pursuant to the TCPA. The district court later awarded attorneys’ fees, as the 

TCPA says it must do: “If the court orders dismissal . . . the court shall award 

 5 Palmer cites two Texas cases, but in neither did the court hold that allegations in a 

complaint are sufficient to satisfy a TCPA movant’s burden to show that the plaintiff’s suit 

is based on free speech. See James v. Calkins, 446 S.W.3d 135, 147-48 (Tex. App.—Houston 

[1st Dist.] Aug. 21, 2014, pet. filed); Schimmel v. McGregor, 438 S.W.3d 847, 859 (Tex. App.—

Houston [1st Dist.] 2014, pet. denied).

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 35 Date Filed: 06/22/2015
No. 13-20569 c/w 13-20751

36

to the moving party . . . court costs, reasonable attorney’s fees, and other 

expenses incurred in defending against the legal action as justice and equity 

may require.” TEX. CIV. PRAC. & REM. ANN. CODE § 27.009(a)(1). Because the 

district court erred in granting Palmer’s motion to dismiss under the TCPA, 

attorneys’ fees under that act were not available to Palmer. The district 

court’s order granting attorneys’ fees must be reversed.

IV. Procedural Issues

The plaintiffs argue that the district court’s dismissal under Rule 

12(b)(6) without granting their request to amend their complaint warrants 

reversing the order of dismissal. Because we are reversing the district court’s 

ruling in part, we consider this procedural issue to be moot. The plaintiffs also 

argue that the district court may have relied on matters outside the pleadings 

in granting the defendants’ Rule 12(b)(6) motions. We do not rely on anything 

outside the pleadings as to the dismissals we have affirmed. Our reversal of 

the dismissal of the other claims moots the remainder of the issue. 

CONCLUSION

The dismissal of Culbertson and Wong’s claims against Harris County 

that it ratified Palmer’s and Lykos’s alleged retaliatory campaign is 

REVERSED. The dismissal of the tortious interference with a contract claim 

is REVERSED. The dismissal of claims due to the TCPA is REVERSED, and 

the award of attorneys’ fees is REVERSED. In all other respects, including the 

dismissal of retaliation claims against Palmer in her individual capacity, the 

judgment of the district court is AFFIRMED. The case is REMANDED for 

further proceedings.

 Case: 13-20569 Document: 00513087139 Page: 36 Date Filed: 06/22/2015