I 

115TH CONGRESS 

1ST SESSION H. R. 4576 

To expand school choice in the District of Columbia. 

IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 

DECEMBER 6, 2017 

Mr. MEADOWS introduced the following bill; which was referred to the 

Committee on Oversight and Government Reform 

A BILL 

To expand school choice in the District of Columbia. 

1 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa2 tives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, 

3 SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. 

4 This Act may be cited as the ‘‘Educational Freedom 

5 Accounts Act’’. 

6 SEC. 2. DEFINITIONS. 

7 In this Act: 

8 (1) ADMINISTERING ENTITY.—The term ‘‘ad9 ministering entity’’ means the entity that receives 

10 the contract under section 3(a) for a fiscal year. 


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1 (2) CHIEF FINANCIAL OFFICER.—The term 

2 ‘‘chief financial officer’’ means the Chief Financial 

3 Officer of the District of Columbia. 

4 (3) ELIGIBLE CHILD.—The term ‘‘eligible 

5 child’’ means a child— 

6 (A) who is a resident of the District of Co7 lumbia; 

8 (B) who is eligible to receive a free public 

9 education in the District of Columbia; 

10 (C) who— 

11 (i) was enrolled in a public school or 

12 preschool program of the District of Co13 lumbia, including a charter school, during 

14 the previous school year; 

15 (ii) received an education savings ac16 count under this Act for the preceding 

17 school year; 

18 (iii) received an opportunity scholar19 ship under section 3007(a) of the Scholar20 ships for Opportunity and Results Act for 

21 the preceding school year; or 

22 (iv) is entering prekindergarten or 

23 kindergarten; 

24 (D) whose parent chooses to not enroll the 

25 child in a public elementary school, secondary 


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1 school, or prekindergarten program for the 

2 school year for which the child will receive a 

3 scholarship under section 4; and 

4 (E) whose parent does not submit a notifi5 cation of home schooling described in section 

6 5202 of title 5, Code of the District of Colum7 bia Regulations (or any successor notification) 

8 to the Office of the State Superintendent of 

9 Education of the District of Columbia for any 

10 year for which the parent enters into an agree11 ment under section 4(a)(2)(B). 

12 (4) INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION.—The 

13 term ‘‘institution of higher education’’ has the 

14 meaning given the term in section 102 of the Higher 

15 Education Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. 1002). 

16 (5) PARENT.—The term ‘‘parent’’ means the 

17 guardian, custodian, or other person with the au18 thority to act on behalf of a child. 

19 (6) PARTICIPATING PROVIDER.—The term 

20 ‘‘participating provider’’ means an entity that— 

21 (A) is— 

22 (i) a nonpublic school located in the 

23 District of Columbia that provides edu24 cation to prekindergarten, elementary 

25 school, or secondary school students; 


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1 (ii) a public school, including a char2 ter school, located in the District of Co3 lumbia, except only with respect to pro4 viding individual courses or extracurricular 

5 activities described in section 4(c)(1)(E) or 

6 transportation described in section 

7 4(c)(1)(I) to such services; 

8 (iii) a tutor or tutoring facility; 

9 (iv) a nonpublic provider of distance 

10 or online learning; 

11 (v) a therapy center or other provider 

12 of special education or disability services; 

13 (vi) an institution of higher education 

14 located in the District of Columbia; or 

15 (vii) an entity that provides edu16 cational services or products; 

17 (B) notifies the administering entity of the 

18 entity’s intent to become a participating pro19 vider; and 

20 (C) agrees, as a condition of receiving 

21 funds from an education savings account estab22 lished under section 4, to comply with the re23 quirements of this Act. 


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1 SEC. 3. CONTRACT AUTHORIZED. 

2 (a) IN GENERAL.—Beginning with the 2018–2019 

3 school year, the Chief Financial Officer shall carry out this 

4 Act for each school year by awarding a contract to 1 entity 

5 described in subsection (b) to enable the administering en6 tity to carry out the program under section 4 for all eligi7 ble children in the District of Columbia. 

8 (b) ELIGIBILITY.—In order to be eligible for a con9 tract under this section, an entity shall be— 

10 (1) exempt from Federal income tax pursuant 

11 to 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986; 

12 (2) based within the District of Columbia; and 

13 (3) able to demonstrate an ability to meet all 

14 requirements of this Act. 

15 (c) APPLICATION.—An eligible entity desiring a con16 tract under this section shall submit an application to the 

17 Chief Financial Officer at such time, in such manner, and 

18 containing such information as the Chief Financial Officer 

19 may require. 

20 (d) ADMINISTRATIVE EXPENSES.—From the 

21 amounts made available under the contract described in 

22 subsection (a), the administering entity may reserve an 

23 amount that is not greater than the sum of 5 percent of 

24 the funds allocated under section 4(a)(4) for each eligible 

25 child with an education savings account, to be used by the 


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1 administering entity for the administrative expenses asso2 ciated with the program under this Act. 

3 SEC. 4. UNIVERSAL EDUCATIONAL CHOICE FOR DISTRICT 

4 OF COLUMBIA STUDENTS. 

5 (a) BASIC ELEMENTS OF PARENTAL CHOICE IN

6 EDUCATION.— 

7 (1) EDUCATIONAL CHOICE.—Except as pro8 vided in paragraph (6), the parent of any eligible 

9 child may enter into an agreement under paragraph 

10 (2)(B) with the administering entity for any year 

11 during which the eligible child will be in a grade for 

12 which the District of Columbia provides free public 

13 education. 

14 (2) PROVISION OF EDUCATION SAVINGS AC15 COUNTS.— 

16 (A) IN GENERAL.—Beginning with the 

17 2018–2019 school year, the administering enti18 ty shall provide, to each eligible child whose 

19 parent enters into or renews an agreement de20 scribed in subparagraph (B) with the admin21 istering entity for the school year, an education 

22 savings account described in paragraph (3), 

23 into which scholarship amounts for the year 

24 shall be deposited in accordance with paragraph 

25 (4). 


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1 (B) AGREEMENT.—The agreement re2 quired under this subparagraph shall be in a 

3 manner and on a form determined by the ad4 ministering entity and shall provide that— 

5 (i) the eligible child will receive an 

6 education savings account described in 

7 paragraph (3) and the administering entity 

8 will deposit a scholarship into the account 

9 for each year that the agreement is in ef10 fect, in accordance with paragraph (4); 

11 (ii) the eligible child may be educated 

12 pursuant to any of the methods described 

13 in subparagraphs (A) through (G) of sub14 section (c)(1); 

15 (iii) the parent shall direct the use of 

16 the funds provided in the education savings 

17 account for educational expenses described 

18 in subsection (c), and the administering 

19 entity shall distribute such funds in ac20 cordance with paragraph (3)(B); 

21 (iv) the parent agrees to the terms 

22 and conditions of the education savings ac23 count, including any participation nec24 essary for the accountability activities re25 quired under subsection (d)(3); and 


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1 (v) with respect to an eligible child 

2 who is a child with a disability (as defined 

3 in section 602 of the Individuals with Dis4 abilities Education Act (20 U.S.C. 1401)), 

5 the parent agrees that participation in the 

6 program under this section shall have the 

7 same effect as parental placement of child 

8 under section 612(a)(10)(A) of such Act 

9 (20 U.S.C. 1412(a)(10)(A)). 

10 (3) EDUCATION SAVINGS ACCOUNT.—An edu11 cation savings account described in this paragraph 

12 means a parent-controlled account, established exclu13 sively for the purpose of paying for the educational 

14 expenses described in subsection (c) for an eligible 

15 child who is the designated beneficiary of the ac16 count, that meets the following requirements: 

17 (A) No funds shall be deposited into the 

18 account unless the funds are— 

19 (i) a disbursement of an annual schol20 arship from the administering entity as 

21 provided under paragraph (2)(A); or 

22 (ii) a deposit of opportunity scholar23 ship funds, in accordance with section 

24 3007(a)(2) of the Scholarships for OpporVerDate Sep 11 2014 02:49 Dec 12, 2017 Jkt 079200 PO 00000 Frm 00008 Fmt 6652 Sfmt 6201 E:\BILLS\H4576.IH H4576

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1 tunity and Results Act (D.C. Code, sec. 

2 38–1853.07(a)(2)). 

3 (B) The funds in the account shall be dis4 tributed by the administering entity on behalf 

5 of the eligible child to 1 or more participating 

6 providers, upon direction by the parent, at the 

7 appropriate time. 

8 (C) Except as provided in subparagraph 

9 (D), any amount in the account that is attrib10 utable to a deposit provided under paragraph 

11 (2)(A) or a deposit of any opportunity scholar12 ship funds awarded under section 3007 of the 

13 Scholarships for Opportunity and Results Act 

14 (D.C. Code, sec. 38–1853.07) may be paid or 

15 distributed out of the account only for the pur16 pose of paying education expenses described in 

17 subsection (c) for the eligible child. 

18 (D) Any balance remaining in the account 

19 shall be returned to the Chief Financial Officer 

20 on the last day of the period covered by an 

21 agreement described in paragraph (2)(B) if— 

22 (i) such agreement is broken or ended 

23 by the parent during the agreement period; 

24 (ii) the parent of the eligible child 

25 does not renew the agreement for the eligiVerDate Sep 11 2014 02:49 Dec 12, 2017 Jkt 079200 PO 00000 Frm 00009 Fmt 6652 Sfmt 6201 E:\BILLS\H4576.IH H4576

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1 ble child for the immediately succeeding 

2 academic year; 

3 (iii) during the most recent year of 

4 the agreement, the parents do not use any 

5 funds in the account for eligible expenses 

6 described in subsection (c); or 

7 (iv) the child no longer qualifies as an 

8 eligible child. 

9 (4) AMOUNT OF SCHOLARSHIP AND TRANSFER

10 OF FUNDS.— 

11 (A) TRANSFER OF FUNDS.—By not later 

12 than August 1 of each school year— 

13 (i) the administering entity shall no14 tify the Chief Financial Officer of the total 

15 amount calculated under subparagraph (B) 

16 to be provided under this Act for scholar17 ships to eligible children for such school 

18 year; and 

19 (ii) the Chief Financial Officer shall 

20 transfer such amount, from any funds or 

21 revenues available to the District of Co22 lumbia, to the administering entity to en23 able the administering entity to pay for the 

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1 ance with subparagraphs (B) and (D) and 

2 section 3(d). 

3 (B) AMOUNT.—The total amount provided 

4 under this section for a full-year scholarship on 

5 behalf of an eligible child shall equal— 

6 (i) in the case of an eligible child from 

7 a family with an income of not more than 

8 185 percent of the poverty level described 

9 in subparagraph (C) or an eligible child 

10 who is a child with a disability, as defined 

11 in section 602 of the Individuals with Dis12 abilities Education Act (20 U.S.C. 1401), 

13 90 percent of the funds that would other14 wise be allocated by the District of Colum15 bia Public Schools for such child, as deter16 mined by the uniform per student funding 

17 formula defined in the District of Colum18 bia School Reform Act of 1995 (D.C. 

19 Code, sec. 38–804.01); 

20 (ii) in the case of an eligible child 

21 from a family with an income of more than 

22 185 percent, and not more than 300 per23 cent, of such poverty level, 85 percent of 

24 the funds that would otherwise be allocated 

25 by the District of Columbia Public Schools 


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1 for such child as determined by such uni2 form per student funding formula; and 

3 (iii) in the case of an eligible child 

4 from a family with an income that equals 

5 or exceeds 300 percent of such poverty 

6 level, 80 percent of the funds that would 

7 otherwise be allocated by the District of 

8 Columbia Public Schools for such child as 

9 determined by such uniform per student 

10 funding formula. 

11 (C) CALCULATION OF POVERTY LEVEL.— 

12 In determining the poverty level for purposes of 

13 this paragraph, the administering entity shall 

14 use the criteria of poverty used by the Bureau 

15 of the Census in compiling the most recent de16 cennial census, as the criteria have been up17 dated by increases in the Consumer Price Index 

18 for All Urban Consumers, published by the Bu19 reau of Labor Statistics. 

20 (D) QUARTERLY DISBURSEMENT.—The 

21 administering entity shall distribute the amount 

22 of a scholarship provided under this section to 

23 an eligible child whose parent has entered into 

24 an agreement under paragraph (2)(B) into the 

25 eligible child’s education savings account, which 


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1 may be through 4 equal quarterly deposits or 

2 any other distribution schedule determined ap3 propriate by the administering entity. 

4 (5) OWNERSHIP OF THE EDUCATION SAVINGS

5 ACCOUNT.—An education savings account estab6 lished for an eligible child under this Act, and any 

7 funds deposited within the education savings ac8 count, shall belong to the eligible child. Funds avail9 able in the education savings account shall be used 

10 as directed by a parent of the eligible child, on be11 half of the child, for education expenses described in 

12 subsection (c). 

13 (6) INTERACTION WITH OPPORTUNITY SCHOL14 ARSHIPS.—Notwithstanding paragraph (2)(A) or 

15 any other provision of this Act, a child who receives 

16 an opportunity scholarship under section 3007 of the 

17 Scholarships for Opportunity and Results Act (D.C. 

18 Code, sec. 38–1853.07) for a school year shall not 

19 be eligible for a scholarship under this Act for the 

20 same school year. Upon the request of any parent of 

21 an eligible child who receives an opportunity scholar22 ship and the completion of an agreement described 

23 in paragraph (2)(B), the Secretary shall establish an 

24 education savings account described in paragraph 

25 (3) for the child, in order for the parent to deposit 


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1 any amount of an opportunity scholarship under sec2 tion 3007 of the Scholarships for Opportunity and 

3 Results Act (D.C. Code, sec. 38–1853.07) into the 

4 education savings account. 

5 (b) CONTINUED AVAILABILITY OF FUNDS.—Any bal6 ance in an educational savings account established for an 

7 eligible child under this section that is not used during 

8 an academic year shall remain available in the education 

9 savings account of the eligible child for future education 

10 expenses described in subsection (c), as long as an agree11 ment described in subsection (a)(2)(B) remains in effect 

12 for the eligible child. 

13 (c) ELIGIBLE EDUCATION EXPENSES.— 

14 (1) IN GENERAL.—Funds available in an edu15 cation savings account established under this section 

16 for an eligible child shall only be used on behalf of 

17 such child for 1 or more of the following educational 

18 purposes: 

19 (A) The costs of tuition and fees at a non20 public school, or distance education, provided 

21 through a participating provider. 

22 (B) Tutoring services offered by a partici23 pating provider. 

24 (C) The costs of curricula or online 

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1 cluding any supplemental materials, textbooks, 

2 or supplies necessary to administer the cur3 riculum or to complete the course, offered by a 

4 participating provider or purchased for self5 study. 

6 (D) Fees for any special education or re7 lated services provided through a participating 

8 provider. 

9 (E) The costs of tuition and fees required 

10 to complete individual courses or extra11 curricular activities at a public school, including 

12 a charter school, within the District of Colum13 bia. 

14 (F) The costs of tuition and fees required 

15 to complete any dual credit courses, which are 

16 courses that qualify for both secondary and 

17 postsecondary education credit, from a partici18 pating provider in the District of Columbia. 

19 (G) The costs of a career and technical 

20 education course offered by a participating pro21 vider. 

22 (H) Fees for any— 

23 (i) national norm-referenced achieve24 ment examination; 


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1 (ii) advanced placement or similar ex2 amination; or 

3 (iii) standardized examination re4 quired for admission to an institution of 

5 higher education. 

6 (I) Transportation required for the eligible 

7 child to travel to and from a participating pro8 vider, except that not more than $2,000 per 

9 year from the education savings account may be 

10 used for this purpose. 

11 (J) A contribution to a qualified tuition 

12 program (as defined in section 529(b) of the In13 ternal Revenue Code of 1986) with respect to 

14 which the eligible child is a designated bene15 ficiary or a contribution to a Coverdell edu16 cation savings account (as defined in section 

17 530(b) of such Code) with respect to which the 

18 eligible child is a designated beneficiary, except 

19 that not more than a total of $2,000 per year 

20 may be used for contributions under this sub21 paragraph. 

22 (K) Any other education expenses ap23 proved and determined by the administering en24 tity to be similar to the expenses described in 

25 subparagraphs (A) through (J). 


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1 (2) RULE OF CONSTRUCTION.—Nothing in this 

2 subsection shall be construed to require an eligible 

3 child to attend a nonpublic school or a program of 

4 distance education described in paragraph (1)(A) in 

5 order to receive an academic scholarship under this 

6 section to be used for other eligible education ex7 penses described in paragraph (1). 

8 (d) GOVERNMENTAL AND ADMINISTERING ENTITY

9 RESPONSIBILITIES.— 

10 (1) NO EXTENSION OF REGULATORY AUTHOR11 ITY.—The creation of the program under this Act 

12 does not expand the regulatory authority of the 

13 Mayor of the District of Columbia, the officers of 

14 the District of Columbia, the District of Columbia 

15 Public Schools, or the Federal Government to im16 pose any additional regulations on nonpublic schools 

17 beyond the regulations necessary to enforce the re18 quirements of this Act. 

19 (2) ANNUAL LIST OF PARTICIPATING PRO20 VIDERS.— 

21 (A) CREATION OF LIST.—Beginning in 

22 academic year 2017–2018, and each year there23 after, the administering entity shall ensure that 

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1 gram under this Act for the next academic year 

2 by providing to the Chief Financial Officer, and 

3 making publicly available, a list of participating 

4 providers each school year. 

5 (B) INCLUSION ON CFO’S WEBSITE.—The 

6 Chief Financial Officer shall ensure that the 

7 annual list of participating providers prepared 

8 by the administering entity under subparagraph 

9 (A) is made publicly available on the website of 

10 the Chief Financial Officer. 

11 (3) UPDATED INFORMATION REGARDING EDU12 CATIONAL EXPENSES.—The administering entity 

13 shall timely notify parents of eligible children of any 

14 categories that the entity has determined are edu15 cational expenses under subsection (c)(1)(K) by pro16 viding notification through the parent handbook, 

17 program website, or other primary method used by 

18 the administering entity to educate parents about 

19 the program. 

20 (4) ACCOUNTABILITY.—The administering enti21 ty and the Chief Financial Officer shall take such 

22 steps as are necessary to ensure the proper imple23 mentation of this Act, including— 

24 (A) conducting periodic audits of education 

25 savings accounts established under this section; 


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1 (B) ensuring that the funds disbursed 

2 from education savings accounts are used ap3 propriately and in accordance with this Act; 

4 (C) freezing or revoking the education sav5 ings account of an eligible child if fraud is de6 tected; 

7 (D) providing a process through which— 

8 (i) parents whose expenses have been 

9 denied may ask the administering entity 

10 review and reverse the denial; and 

11 (ii) the administering entity shall con12 duct a review and respond to the parental 

13 request to reverse the denial within 30 

14 days; and 

15 (E) if appropriate, referring parents or 

16 participating providers found to be using edu17 cation savings account funds for unlawful pur18 poses for criminal prosecution. 

19 (5) EXCHANGE OF RECORDS.—Upon request by 

20 the administering entity, the District of Columbia 

21 Public Schools shall provide, to any participating 

22 provider that is a school and that has admitted an 

23 eligible child who previously attended a public 

24 school, a complete copy of the child’s school records, 

25 following the standard procedures established by the 


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1 administering entity for purposes of the program 

2 under this Act. 

3 (e) PARTICIPATING PROVIDER REQUIREMENTS AND

4 RIGHTS.— 

5 (1) REFUND AND REBATE LIMITATIONS.— 

6 (A) GENERAL PROHIBITION.—A partici7 pating provider that receives scholarship funds 

8 provided under this Act for an eligible child 

9 shall not— 

10 (i) refund or provide a rebate, of all 

11 or any portion of such funds, to the eligible 

12 child or a parent of the eligible child; and 

13 (ii) share such funds with such eligi14 ble child or parent in any manner. 

15 (B) REFUND PROCEDURES.—Any refund 

16 that is needed for an item that is being re17 turned or an item or service that has not been 

18 provided shall be provided to the administering 

19 entity and deposited into the education savings 

20 account from which the money refunded was 

21 originally paid. 

22 (2) ADMISSIONS.—A participating provider may 

23 enforce the admission requirements of the school or 

24 program offered by the provider and may accept the 

25 students best qualified to attend the school, except 


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1 that a participating school may not discriminate on 

2 the basis of race, color, national origin, or sex, in ac3 cordance with subsection (f). 

4 (3) TRANSFER OF DOCUMENTS.—Each partici5 pating provider that is a school shall agree, as a con6 dition of participation in the program under this 

7 Act, to provide the complete academic records of an 

8 eligible child attending the school who receives an 

9 education savings account under this Act to any 

10 other nonpublic school or public school to which the 

11 child transfers. 

12 (f) NONDISCRIMINATION AND OTHER PROVISIONS.— 

13 (1) IN GENERAL.—A participating provider 

14 shall not discriminate against program participants 

15 or applicants on the basis of race, color, national ori16 gin, or sex. 

17 (2) APPLICABILITY AND SINGLE SEX SCHOOLS, 

18 CLASSES, OR ACTIVITIES.— 

19 (A) IN GENERAL.—Notwithstanding any 

20 other provision of law, the prohibition of sex 

21 discrimination in paragraph (1) shall not apply 

22 to a participating provider that is operated by, 

23 supervised by, controlled by, or connected to a 

24 religious organization to the extent that the ap25 plication of such paragraph is inconsistent with 


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1 the religious tenets or beliefs of the partici2 pating provider. 

3 (B) SINGLE SEX SCHOOLS, CLASSES, OR

4 ACTIVITIES.—Notwithstanding paragraph (1) or 

5 any other provision of law, a parent may choose 

6 and a participating provider may offer a single 

7 sex school, class, or activity. 

8 (3) RELIGIOUSLY AFFILIATED PARTICIPATING

9 PROVIDERS.— 

10 (A) IN GENERAL.—Notwithstanding any 

11 other provision of law, a participating provider 

12 that is operated by, supervised by, controlled 

13 by, or connected to a religious organization may 

14 exercise its right in matters of employment con15 sistent with title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 

16 1964 (42 U.S.C. 2000e et seq.), including the 

17 exemptions in such title. 

18 (B) MAINTENANCE OF PURPOSE.—Not19 withstanding any other provision of law, funds 

20 made available through education savings ac21 counts established under this section to eligible 

22 children, which are used for a participating pro23 vider as a result of the choice of the parents of 

24 such children, shall not, consistent with the 


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1 first amendment of the Constitution of the 

2 United States— 

3 (i) necessitate any change in the par4 ticipating provider’s teaching mission; 

5 (ii) require any participating provider 

6 to remove religious art, icons, scriptures, 

7 or other symbols; or 

8 (iii) preclude any participating pro9 vider from retaining religious terms in its 

10 name, selecting its board members on a re11 ligious basis, or including religious ref12 erences in its mission statements and other 

13 chartering or governing documents. 

14 (4) RULES OF CONSTRUCTION.— 

15 (A) TREATMENT OF ASSISTANCE.—For 

16 purposes of any Federal law, assistance pro17 vided under this section shall be considered as18 sistance to the child and shall not be considered 

19 assistance to the participating provider that en20 rolls the child in a school or program. The 

21 amount of any scholarship under this section 

22 shall not be treated as income of the child or 

23 the parents of the child for purposes of Federal 

24 tax laws or for determining eligibility for any 

25 other Federal program. 


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1 (B) NO ABILITY TO CONTROL THE CUR2 RICULUM.—Nothing in this section shall be con3 strued to authorize any officer or employee of 

4 the Federal Government, through grants, con5 tracts, or other cooperative agreements, to man6 date, direct, or control the curriculum, program 

7 of instruction, instructional content, specific 

8 academic standards, assessments, or allocation 

9 of resources, of the District of Columbia or of 

10 any school in the District of Columbia. 

11 (g) TRANSITION.—The Chief Financial Officer and 

12 the administering entity shall take steps to ensure a 

13 smooth transition to the program under this Act, in order 

14 to ensure that academic scholarships and education sav15 ings accounts under this section are available to eligible 

16 children attending nonpublic schools through participating 

17 providers beginning for the 2018–2019 school year. The 

18 Chief Financial Officer shall allow nonpublic schools to be19 come participating providers beginning on September 1, 

20 2018. 

21 (h) CONFORMING AMENDMENT.—Section 3007(a)(2) 

22 of the Scholarships for Opportunity and Results Act (D.C. 

23 Code, sec. 38–1853.07(a)(2)) is amended by adding before 

24 the period at the end the following: ‘‘, or deposited in an 

25 education savings account established under section 4 of 


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1 the Educational Freedom Accounts Act to be used for edu2 cation expenses described in subsection (c) of such sec3 tion’’. 

Æ 


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