FINAL REPORT

Appalachian Diseases of Despair

OCTOBER 2020 PREPARED FOR: 

Appalachian Regional Commission 

PRESENTED BY:

Michael Meit, MA, MPH

Megan Heffernan, MPH

Erin Tanenbaum, MA

Maggie Cherney

Victoria Hallman 
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair 

The Walsh Center’s mission is to conduct timely policy analyses and research that address the 

needs of government policymakers, clinicians, and the public on issues that affect health care and 

public health in rural America. The Walsh Center is part of the Public Health Research Department 

at NORC at the University of Chicago, and its offices are in Bethesda, Maryland. The Center is 

named in honor of William B. Walsh, MD, whose lifelong mission was to bring health care to 

underserved and hard-to-reach populations. 

The Walsh Center for Rural Health Analysis

NORC at the University of Chicago

4350 East West Highway, Suite 800

Bethesda, Maryland 20814

http://walshcenter.norc.org

Housed in the East Tennessee State University College of Public Health, the Center for Rural 

Health Research works to improve health and well-being at the community, state, regional, and 

national levels. Located in the heart of Appalachia, the Center fulfills its mission by engaging 

rural communities to advance health and improve quality of life through innovative solutions that 

contribute to the expanding evidence base of what works in rural America. The Center works to 

honor and preserve its rich Appalachian heritage and Tennessee ties through distinctive research, 

community engagement, training, and policy.

ETSU Center for Rural Health Research

PO Box 70623

Johnson City, Tennessee 37614
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Acknowledgements 

This report was funded by and prepared for the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC). It 

was commissioned by ARC to study disparities related to diseases of despair in the Appalachian 

Region. The Walsh Center for Rural Health Analysis at NORC at the University of Chicago and 

the Center for Rural Health Research at East Tennessee State University (ETSU) conducted this 

study. Michael Meit, MA, MPH, is the lead author and principal investigator, and Megan 

Heffernan, MPH, is the project manager. Contributing authors to this report were Erin 

Tanenbaum, MA; Maggie Cherney; and Victoria Hallman. Logan Thomas, an economist with 

ARC, guided the research, analysis, and report development. 

NORC’s Institutional Review Board approved all data analysis, reporting, and subsequent 

publications. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ARC or 

NORC.
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Table of Contents

List of Exhibits ..........................................................................................................................ii

Introduction...............................................................................................................................1

Methods... .................................................................................................................................2

Findings 4

Overall Mortality ....................................................................................................................4

Diseases of Despair: Comparisons between Appalachia and the non-Appalachian United 

States. .......................................................................................................................6

Diseases of Despair: State Comparisons (Appalachia versus non-Appalachia)...................16

Diseases of Despair: Disparities within Appalachia .............................................................18

A Closer Look at Overdose Deaths .....................................................................................23

Discussion...............................................................................................................................28

Appendix A: ICD-10 Codes.....................................................................................................30

List of Exhibits 

Exhibit 1. Appalachian subregions .............................................................................................3

Exhibit 2. All-cause annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by region (1999–2018)‡

*.....................4

Exhibit 3. Diseases of despair annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by region (1999–2018)‡

*.....6

Exhibit 4. Diseases of despair annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by Appalachian subregion 

(1999–2018)‡ .............................................................................................................7

Exhibit 5. Overdose annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by region (1999–2018)‡

* ....................8

Exhibit 6. Suicide annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by region (1999–2018)‡

*........................9

Exhibit 7. Liver disease annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by region (1999–2018)‡

*.............10

Exhibit 8. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by disease and region (2018)‡

*....11

Exhibit 9. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by age and region (2018)‡

* ..........12

Exhibit 10. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by gender and region (2018)‡

* ...13
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Exhibit 11. Diseases of despair mortality rates for males, ages 15–64, by age and region 

(2018)‡

* ...................................................................................................................14

Exhibit 12. Diseases of despair mortality rates for females, ages 15–64, by age and region 

(2018)‡

* ...................................................................................................................15

Exhibit 13. Diseases of despair mortality rates, comparing Appalachian and non-Appalachian 

portions of states, ages 15–64, by disease and state (2018)‡ ..................................16

Exhibit 14. Individual diseases of despair mortality rates, comparing Appalachian and nonAppalachian portions of states, ages 15–64, by disease and state (2018)‡..............17

Exhibit 15. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by state^ and disease (2018)‡ ....19

Exhibit 16. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by subregion (2018)‡..................20

Exhibit 17. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by disease and county economic 

status (2018)‡ ..........................................................................................................21

Exhibit 18. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by disease and rurality (2018)‡

* .22

Exhibit 19. Overdose mortality rates, ages 15–64, by gender and region (2018)‡

*...................23

Exhibit 20. Overdose mortality rates for males, ages 15–64, by age group and region (2018)‡ 24

Exhibit 21. Overdose mortality rates for females, ages 15–64, by age group and region (2018)‡

*

................................................................................................................................25

Exhibit 22. Overdose mortality rates, ages 15–64, by state^ and type of overdose (2018)‡......26

Exhibit 23. Overdose and opioid-related overdose mortality rates, ages 15–64, by state^ 

(2018)‡.....................................................................................................................27

Exhibit 24. Underlying cause of death—ICD-10 codes for diseases of despair ........................30

Exhibit 25. Multiple causes of death—ICD-10 codes for opioid-related overdose.....................30
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Introduction 

The Appalachian Region, as defined in the Appalachian Regional Commission’s (ARC)

authorizing legislation, is a 205,000-square-mile region that spans the Appalachian Mountains 

from southern New York to northern Mississippi. It includes all of West Virginia and parts of 12 

other states: Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, 

Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. The Region includes 420 counties 

and eight independent cities in 13 states and has a population of 25 million people.1

Compared to the rest of the nation, the Appalachian Region faces disparities related to 

educational attainment, employment, income, and certain health outcomes. Prior work conducted 

by NORC has demonstrated disparities in mortality within Appalachia, particularly by levels of 

rurality.2,3 Appalachia’s household income is 82.5 percent of the U.S. average, and 16 percent of 

Appalachians live below the poverty level.4 Certain Appalachian subregions experience greater 

disparities than others; for example, household income and bachelor’s degree attainment are 

lowest in Central Appalachia.4,5

In 2008, NORC and ETSU conducted a study on behalf of ARC titled, “An Analysis of Mental 

Health Services and Substance Abuse Disparities and Access to Treatment Services in the 

Appalachian Region,” which found that treatment admission rates for primary abuse of opiates 

and synthetics were higher in Appalachia than the rest of the nation and were growing at a faster 

pace.6 In 2017, ARC commissioned NORC to investigate “diseases of despair” in Appalachia. At 

the time, research conducted by health economists Anne Case and Angus Deaton had begun to

focus on increasing morbidity and mortality from three main causes: alcohol, prescription drug,

and illegal drug overdose; suicide; and alcoholic liver disease/cirrhosis of the liver. These have 

been referred to as “deaths of despair” or diseases of despair.7

 

The 2017 Appalachian Diseases of Despair study was based on 2015 mortality data. At that time, 

the United States was seeing a dramatic rise in overdose deaths from synthetic opioids, 

particularly those involving illicitly manufactured fentanyl.8 ARC commissioned NORC and 

ETSU to update the prior diseases of despair study using 2018 data, to determine changes

between 2015 and 2018. 
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Methods

This report presents 2018 mortality data from the Multiple Cause of Death database, which is 

publicly available through CDC Wide-ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research (CDC 

WONDER), an online data system that provides access to data from the CDC National Center 

for Health Statistics (NCHS) National Vital Statistics System (NVSS).9 NVSS collects and 

presents U.S. resident data for the aggregate of 50 states, New York City, and the District of 

Columbia, as well as for each individual state. The Multiple Cause of Death database provides 

the underlying cause of death, as well as up to 20 additional multiple causes, as reported on an 

individual’s death certificate by a physician, coroner, and/or medical examiner.10 Deaths are 

coded to the International Classification of Disease Tenth Revision (ICD-10) codes. For this 

report, we included the ICD-10 codes referenced by Case and Deaton, reflecting underlying 

cause of death from each of the three diseases of despair: alcohol, prescription drug, and illegal 

drug overdose; suicide; and alcoholic liver disease/cirrhosis of the liver.

7 To determine the 

percentage of alcohol, prescription drug, and illegal drug overdose deaths attributed to opioids, 

we used the multiple cause-of-death ICD-10 codes that specify the type of drug causing the 

overdose.11 Appendix A provides the underlying cause-of-death ICD-10 codes used to identify 

the disease of despair, and the multiple cause-of-death ICD-10 codes that identify overdoses 

caused by opioids. 

Analyses use age-adjusted mortality rates and focus on the population ages 15–64; however, 

select analyses report mortality rates by age group (10-year increments between ages 15–64). If 

the Appalachian counties in a specific state had fewer than 20 deaths, the state-specific mortality 

rate for that disease of despair is considered unreliable. The few instances of unreliable data are 

noted in the findings. This study aimed to detect differences in the mortality rates from diseases 

of despair between Appalachia and the non-Appalachian United States (the rest of the country, 

excluding Appalachia), in addition to differences by age groups and gender. Statistical 

significance was assessed at the 0.05 level using two-sided significance tests (z-tests). 

Appalachian rates were further analyzed by subregion, county economic status, and levels of 

rurality. Appalachian subregions represent contiguous geographies of relatively homogeneous 

characteristics (topography, demographics, economics, and transportation) and include Northern, 

North Central, Central, South Central, and Southern Appalachia (see Exhibit 1). ARC’s 

economic classifications rely on an index of three economic indicators (three-year 

unemployment rate, per capita market income, and poverty rate). Counties are then designated 

based on the index as distressed, at-risk, transitional, competitive, or attainment.12 For these 

analyses, counties were classified as distressed or non-distressed. Lastly, for rurality, we used

ARC designations of “metropolitan counties” (counties that include large metropolitan centers of 

one million population or greater and those with metropolitan centers of less than one million 
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population), and “nonmetropolitan counties” (nonmetro counties adjacent to large metros, those

adjacent to small metros, and rural counties). These designations are based on a simplification of 

the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Economic Research Services (ERS) 2013 Urban 

Influence Codes (UIC).13

Exhibit 1. Appalachian subregions

 Data source: Appalachian Regional Commission, created November 2009.

GEORGIA

ALABAMA

MISSISSIPPI

SOUTH

CAROLINA

NORTH CAROLINA

VIRGINIA

WEST

VIRGINIA

KENTUCKY

OHIO ILLINOIS INDIANA

WISCONSIN

MICHIGAN

DE

NJ

PENNSYLVANIA

MARYLAND

NEW YORK

TENNESSEE

0 50 100

Miles

 

Northern

North Central

Central

South Central

Southern

Subregions
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Findings

Overall Mortality 

The all-cause mortality rate (overall mortality) among individuals ages 15–64 in the nonAppalachian U.S. steadily declined between 1999 and 2012, before increasing between 2012 and 

2017 (see Exhibit 2). Between 1999 and 2012, the overall mortality rate in the non-Appalachian 

U.S. decreased by 11.5 percent, while the overall mortality rate in the Appalachian Region 

increased by 2.6 percent—resulting in an increasing disparity between the Region and the rest of 

the nation. Between 2012 and 2017, the all-cause mortality rate in the non-Appalachian U.S. 

increased by 5.8 percent. During this same period, the overall mortality rate in the Appalachian 

Region increased by 9.5 percent. This rise in all-cause mortality rate between 2012 and 2017 

coincides with the surge in opioid overdose deaths in the United States. 

Exhibit 2. All-cause annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by region (1999–2018)‡* 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* For all years, the Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 
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Between 2017 and 2018, both the non-Appalachian U.S. and the Appalachian Region saw the 

first decline in all-cause mortality rate since 2011 to 2012. In the non-Appalachian U.S., the allcause mortality rate declined from 283.0 deaths per 100,000 in 2017 to 280.5 deaths per 100,000 

in 2018 (a 0.9 percent decrease). By comparison, the all-cause mortality rate in the Appalachian 

Region declined from 378.6 deaths per 100,000 in 2017 to 372.3 deaths per 100,000 in 2018 (a 

1.7 percent decrease). The decline in all-cause mortality rate is likely driven by declines in drug 

overdose mortality during this period. 
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Diseases of Despair: Comparisons between Appalachia and the non-Appalachian 

United States

Exhibit 3 compares the burden from diseases of despair between the Appalachian Region and the 

non-Appalachian U.S. from 1999 to 2018. The disparity between the Appalachian Region and 

the rest of the nation continued to grow between 1999 and 2017. In 1999, the diseases of despair 

mortality rate was not statistically different between the non-Appalachian U.S. and the 

Appalachian Region. By 2007, the mortality rate in the Appalachian Region was 25 percent 

higher than the non-Appalachian U.S. In 2015, the difference had grown to 37 percent. The 

disparity between the Appalachian Region and the non-Appalachian U.S. reached its widest gap

in 2017, when the diseases of despair mortality rate was 45 percent higher in Appalachia than the 

non-Appalachian U.S. The gap began to narrow in 2018, as the diseases of despair mortality rate 

was 36 percent higher in the Appalachian Region. The mortality rate among individuals ages 15–

64 was 76.3 per 100,000 in Appalachia, compared to 56.3 deaths per 100,000 in the nonAppalachian U.S. The diseases of despair mortality rate declined by 7.5 percent in the 

Appalachian Region between 2017 and 2018. 

Exhibit 3. Diseases of despair annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by region (1999–

2018)‡* 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* In all years except 1999, the Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 
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Exhibit 4 compares the diseases of despair mortality rate trends for the five subregions of 

Appalachia and shows how the rate has increased across the Region over the past two decades. 

Between 2011 and 2018, the diseases of despair mortality rate in North Central Appalachia 

increased from 72.6 deaths per 100,000 to 109.8 deaths per 100,000, a 51 percent increase. 

Northern Appalachia saw a similar increase between 2011 and 2017, before declining to 81.3 

deaths per 100,000 in 2018. Between 1999 and 2015, Central Appalachia had the highest 

diseases of despair mortality in the Region. Central Appalachia experienced a decline in 

mortality between 2011 and 2012, and in 2016 was surpassed by North Central Appalachia for 

having the highest mortality rate. The diseases of despair mortality rate has increased steadily in 

South Central Appalachia since 1999, with a steeper increase beginning in 2015. South 

Appalachia has had the slowest rate of increase for diseases of despair mortality. In 2018, the 

diseases of despair mortality rate in South Appalachia was approximately half the mortality rate 

in North Central Appalachia. 

Exhibit 4. Diseases of despair annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by Appalachian 

subregion (1999–2018)

‡

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 
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Exhibit 5 shows the trend in overdose mortality rates between 1999 and 2018. In 1999, the 

overdose mortality rate was low for both the non-Appalachian U.S. and the Appalachian Region, 

with the rate slightly higher in the non-Appalachian U.S. By 2011, the Appalachian Region 

overdose mortality rate was five times as high as the rate in 1999, increasing to 27.8 deaths per 

100,000 population. In the non-Appalachian U.S., the overdose mortality rate was more than 

twice as high in 2011 than 1999, rising to 17.0 deaths per 100,000 population. In 2011, the 

overdose mortality rate in the Appalachian Region was 64 percent higher than the nonAppalachian U.S. By 2017, the overdose mortality rate had grown in both the Appalachian 

Region and the non-Appalachian U.S., with both reaching their peak overdose mortality rates. 

The overdose mortality rate in the Appalachian Region was 48.3 deaths per 100,000 population, 

65 percent higher than the rate of 29.2 deaths per 100,000 population in the non-Appalachian 

U.S. In 2018, both the Appalachian Region and the non-Appalachian U.S. experienced a decline 

in the overdose mortality rate. The overdose mortality rate declined by 14 percent in the 

Appalachian Region between 2017 and 2018, and 3.8 percent in the non-Appalachian U.S. 

Exhibit 5. Overdose annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by region (1999–2018)‡* 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* In all years except 2000, the Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 

Exhibit 6 shows the trends in suicide mortality rates between 1999 and 2018 for the Appalachian 

Region and the non-Appalachian U.S. between 1999 and 2018. In all years between 1999 and 
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2018, the suicide mortality rate in the Appalachian Region was statistically higher than the rate 

in the non-Appalachian U.S. The suicide mortality rate in the Appalachian Region increased by 

53 percent over the period, while the suicide mortality rate in the non-Appalachian U.S. 

increased by 40 percent. 

Exhibit 6. Suicide annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by region (1999–2018)

‡* 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* In all years, the Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 
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As shown in Exhibit 7, the liver disease mortality rate has remained relatively stable, with 

minimal difference between the Appalachian Region and the non-Appalachian U.S. between 

1999 and 2018. In 1999, the liver disease mortality rate among the population ages 15–64 was 

8.8 deaths per 100,000 in the non-Appalachian U.S. and 8.3 deaths per 100,000 population in the 

Appalachian Region. By 2018, these rates had increased to 10.6 deaths per 100,000 population in 

the non-Appalachian U.S. and 12.0 deaths per 100,000 population in the Appalachian Region. 

Exhibit 7. Liver disease annual mortality rates, ages 15–64, by region (1999–2018)‡* 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* In 1999, 2002, 2005, 2011, and 2013–2018, the Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 

0.05. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 
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Exhibit 8 compares the burden from each disease of despair between the Appalachian Region 

and the non-Appalachian U.S. in 2018. Among the population ages 15–64 in Appalachia, there 

were 6,483 overdose deaths, 3,746 suicide deaths, and 2,395 alcoholic liver disease/cirrhosis 

deaths. Of the three diseases of despair, the overall burden in Appalachia and the disparity 

between Appalachia and the non-Appalachian U.S. was most notable for overdose mortality. The 

overdose mortality rate among individuals ages 15–64 was 48 percent higher in the Appalachian 

Region compared to the rest of the nation: There were 41.6 deaths per 100,000 population in the 

Region, compared to 28.1 deaths per 100,000 population in the non-Appalachian U.S. The 

suicide rate was 30 percent higher and the liver disease mortality rate was 13 percent higher in 

Appalachia than the non-Appalachian U.S. All differences between the Appalachian Region and 

the non-Appalachian U.S. were statistically significant. 

Exhibit 8. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by disease and region 

(2018)‡* 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* For all diseases, the Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 
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There are differences in mortality from the diseases of despair by age group, as shown in 

Exhibit 9. The Appalachian Region experienced higher rates of mortality than the nonAppalachian U.S. for all 10-year age ranges between 15 and 64. The mortality rate for the 25–34 

age group in Appalachia was 49 percent higher than the rate in the non-Appalachian U.S. and 55 

percent higher for Appalachians in the 35–44 age group. The burden was greatest among 

individuals ages 35–44, where the mortality rate was 94.4 deaths per 100,000 population. Among 

individuals ages 25–54, traditionally considered the “working-age population,” the diseases of 

despair mortality rate was 43 percent higher in the Appalachian Region (88.4 deaths per 100,000 

population, compared to 61.9 deaths per 100,000 in the non-Appalachian U.S.) For all age 

groups, the difference between the mortality rate in the Appalachian Region and the nonAppalachian U.S. was statistically significant. 

Exhibit 9. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by age and region (2018)‡* 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are crude mortality rates for each age group. 

* For all age groups, Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 
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In 2018, the burden of mortality attributed to diseases of despair was higher for males than 

females, as shown in Exhibit 10. In Appalachia, among males ages 15–64, the diseases of despair 

mortality rate was 105.5 deaths per 100,000, compared to 47.1 deaths per 100,000 population 

among females ages 15–64. However, the disparity between the Appalachian Region and nonAppalachian U.S. was greater for females. Specifically, the diseases of despair mortality rate was 

46 percent higher for females in the Appalachian Region than females in the non-Appalachian 

U.S., compared to 31 percent higher for males. 

Exhibit 10. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by gender and region 

(2018)‡* 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* For both genders, Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 
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Exhibit 11 shows diseases of despair mortality for males, by 10-year age groups. Among males 

ages 35–44, the diseases of despair mortality rate was 130.0 deaths per 100,000 in the 

Appalachian Region, which was 50 percent higher than the rate in the non-Appalachian U.S. For 

males in each age group, the difference between the mortality rate in the Appalachian Region 

and the non-Appalachian U.S. was statistically significant. 

Exhibit 11. Diseases of despair mortality rates for males, ages 15–64, by age and 

region (2018)‡* 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are crude mortality rates for each age group. 

* For all age groups, Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 
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While the overall burden was lower among females than males for the combined diseases of 

despair mortality, the disparity between Appalachia and the non-Appalachian U.S. was larger 

than the disparity for males, as shown in Exhibit 12. Specifically, the mortality rate was 69 

percent higher for women ages 35–44 and 64 percent higher for women ages 25–34 in 

Appalachia compared to the non-Appalachian U.S. For females of all ages, the difference 

between the mortality rate in the Appalachian Region and the non-Appalachian U.S. was 

statistically significant. 

Exhibit 12. Diseases of despair mortality rates for females, ages 15–64, by age and 

region (2018)‡* 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are crude mortality rates for each age group. 

* For all age groups, Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html. 
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Diseases of Despair: State Comparisons (Appalachia versus non-Appalachia) 

States in the Appalachian Region experienced differences in diseases of despair mortality rates 

between the Appalachian and non-Appalachian portions of the state. Exhibit 13 shows the 

percentage difference between the mortality rates from diseases of despair in the Appalachian 

portion of each state, compared to the non-Appalachian portion. West Virginia is omitted 

because the entire state is included in the Appalachian Region. Appalachian Maryland has the 

greatest disparity, as the diseases of despair mortality rate was 53 percent higher than the nonAppalachian portion of the state. In Virginia, Alabama, North Carolina, New York, and 

Tennessee, the diseases of despair mortality rate in the Appalachian portion of the state was at 

least 33 percent higher than the non-Appalachian portion. Mississippi was the only state where 

the non-Appalachian counties had a higher mortality rate from diseases of despair than the 

Appalachian counties. In all states where the diseases of despair mortality rate was higher in the 

Appalachian portion of the state, this difference was statistically significant. 

Exhibit 13. Diseases of despair mortality rates, comparing Appalachian and nonAppalachian portions of states, ages 15–64, by disease and state (2018)‡

Diseases of Despair—Total

App Non-App % Difference

Maryland 108.1 * 70.8 53%

Tennessee 87.0 * 63.9 36%

New York 57.2 * 42.2 36%

North Carolina 75.3 * 55.7 35%

Alabama 62.1 * 46.3 34%

Virginia 64.2 * 48.4 33%

Kentucky 92.2 * 76.3 21%

Ohio 95.4 * 79.1 21%

South Carolina 71.7 * 61.2 17%

Georgia 48.3 * 42.7 13%

Pennsylvania 82.4 * 74.3 11%

Mississippi 39.7 44.1 -10%

West Virginia 116.5 N/A N/A

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* Appalachian rate is significantly different than the non-Appalachian rate for the same disease, p ≤ 0.05.

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 17

Exhibit 14 shows the mortality rates for the individual diseases of despair comparing 

Appalachian and non-Appalachian counties.

Exhibit 14. Individual diseases of despair mortality rates, comparing Appalachian and 

non-Appalachian portions of states, ages 15–64, by disease and state (2018)‡

Overdose Suicide Alcoholic Liver 

Disease/Cirrhosis

App Non-App App Non-App App Non-App

Alabama 27.1 * 16.6 22.8 * 18.6 12.3 11.0

Georgia 18.9 17.1 20.8 * 16.8 8.6 8.8

Kentucky 51.4 * 43.8 22.7 21.7 18.1 * 10.7

Maryland 74.9 * 52.8 20.7 * 12.2 12.4 * 5.8

Mississippi 10.1 * 16.9 18.0 16.4 11.7 10.7

New York 29.2 26.0 17.6 * 10.2 10.3 * 6.1

North Carolina 39.2 * 30.1 22.1 * 16.3 14.0 * 9.3

Ohio 59.7 * 50.5 23.9 * 18.7 11.8 * 10.0

Pennsylvania 51.2 52.0 22.5 * 16.2 8.6 * 6.2

South Carolina 37.2 * 30.1 22.3 19.0 12.3 12.2

Tennessee 46.4 * 33.9 23.7 * 19.1 16.9 * 10.9

Virginia 24.0 23.4 25.2 * 17.0 15.0 * 8.1

West Virginia 74.4 N/A 27.9 N/A 14.2 N/A

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* Appalachian rate is significantly different than the non-Appalachian rate for the same disease, p ≤ 0.05.

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 18

Diseases of Despair: Disparities within Appalachia 

While the Appalachian Region as a whole experiences disparities attributable to diseases of 

despair compared to the rest of the United States, there are subregions within Appalachia where 

the burden is most concentrated. The following findings describe the disparities within the 

Appalachian Region by subregion, county economic status, and rurality. 

Exhibit 15 shows the mortality rate for each individual disease of despair by state. For each state, 

only the mortality rate for the Appalachian portion is shown. For all diseases of despair, West 

Virginia and Appalachian Maryland had the highest mortality rate of all Appalachian states at 

116.5 deaths per 100,000 population and 108.1 deaths per 100,000 population, respectively. The 

Appalachian portions of Mississippi, Georgia, and New York had the lowest combined mortality 

rates from diseases of despair, and Appalachian Mississippi and Georgia were the only states 

with a diseases of despair mortality rate lower than the overall non-Appalachian U.S. rate. In 

Appalachian Maryland, West Virginia, Appalachian Ohio, and Appalachian Pennsylvania, at 

least 60 percent of diseases of despair deaths were due to overdose. 
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 19

Exhibit 15. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by state^ and disease 

(2018)

‡

^ For states within Appalachia, only the mortality rate for the Appalachian counties is shown. 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 20

In 2018, the highest burden of diseases of despair within Appalachia was concentrated in North 

Central Appalachia and Central Appalachia. Exhibit 16 shows the mortality rates for 

Appalachian subregions. North Central and Central Appalachia had a mortality rate from 

diseases of despair of 109.8 deaths per 100,000 population and 94.2 deaths per 100,000 

population, respectively. Southern Appalachia had the lowest mortality rate from diseases of 

despair at 56.3 deaths per 100,000 population, which was equal to the non-Appalachian U.S. 

diseases of despair mortality rate in 2018. 

Exhibit 16. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by subregion (2018)‡

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 21

Exhibit 17 shows the mortality rate for each individual disease of despair, comparing distressed 

and non-distressed counties. While overdose deaths were the most common among the three 

diseases of despair, the disparity between distressed and non-distressed counties was greatest for 

alcoholic liver disease/cirrhosis (57 percent higher in distressed counties). The mortality rate for 

overdose and suicide was 18 percent and 12 percent higher in distressed counties than nondistressed counties, respectively. The difference between distressed and non-distressed counties 

was statistically significant for overdose and liver disease. 

Exhibit 17. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by disease and county 

economic status (2018)‡

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* Rate for distressed counties is significantly different from rate for non-distressed counties, p ≤ 0.05.

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 22

Findings varied based on rurality, as shown in Exhibit 18. In nonmetro counties, the suicide rate 

was 17 percent higher than in metro counties, and the alcoholic liver disease/cirrhosis mortality 

rate was 23 percent higher. The overdose rate in nonmetro counties was 13 percent lower than in 

metro counties. The differences between metro and nonmetro counties were statistically 

significant for overdose, suicide, and liver disease. 

Exhibit 18. Diseases of despair mortality rates, ages 15–64, by disease and rurality 

(2018)

‡*

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* For all diseases, rate for nonmetro counties is significantly different from the rate for metro counties, p ≤ 0.05.

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 23

A Closer Look at Overdose Deaths

The remaining findings focus solely on deaths due to alcohol, prescription drug, and illegal drug 

overdose (overdose deaths). Among individuals ages 25–54, traditionally considered the 

working-age population, the overdose mortality rate was 55 percent higher in the Appalachian 

Region (53.2 deaths per 100,000 population), compared to 34.3 deaths per 100,000 in the nonAppalachian U.S. Exhibit 19 shows the differences in overdose mortality between the 

Appalachian Region and non-Appalachian U.S. for males and females. While the burden 

associated with overdose mortality is higher among males (53.6 deaths per 100,000 in 

Appalachia compared to 39.3 deaths per 100,000 in the non-Appalachian U.S.), the disparity is 

greater for females in the Appalachian Region. Specifically, the overdose mortality rate in the 

Appalachian Region among females is 74 percent higher than the overdose mortality rate in the 

non-Appalachian U.S. 

Exhibit 19. Overdose mortality rates, ages 15–64, by gender and region (2018)

‡*

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* For both genders, Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05.

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 24

Males in Appalachia ages 25–44 experienced notable disparities compared to non-Appalachian 

males, as shown in Exhibit 20. In Appalachia, the overdose mortality rate was 61 percent higher 

among men ages 35–44 and 49 percent higher among men ages 25–34 compared to nonAppalachian males. The burden in the region was also highest for these two age groups, at 81.2

deaths per 100,000 population and 70.9 deaths per 100,000, respectively. For working-age males

25–54, the overdose mortality rate in the Appalachian Region (69.1 deaths per 100,000 

population) was 44 percent higher than the overdose mortality rate for males in the nonAppalachian U.S. (48.0 deaths per 100,000 population). For all male age groups except 55–64, 

the overdose mortality rate in the Appalachian Region was higher than the non-Appalachian U.S. 

rate, and the difference was statistically significant. 

Exhibit 20. Overdose mortality rates for males, ages 15–64, by age group and region 

(2018)

‡

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are crude mortality rates for each age group. 

* Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05.

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 25

While the overall overdose mortality burden was lower among females than males, the disparity 

between Appalachia and the non-Appalachian U.S. was even larger than the disparity among 

males, as shown in Exhibit 21. Females ages 35–44 were most impacted: The overdose mortality 

rate for Appalachian females in that age group was double that of females in the nonAppalachian U.S., and among 25- to 34-year-olds, the Appalachian rate was 89 percent higher. 

Among females, the highest overdose mortality rate was among 35- to 44-year-olds, at 42.2

deaths per 100,000 population. The overdose mortality rate for working-age females, ages 25–

54, was 82 percent higher in the Appalachian Region (37.3 deaths per 100,000 population) than 

in the non-Appalachian U.S. (20.5 deaths per 100,000 population). For all female age groups, the 

overdose mortality rate in the Appalachian Region was higher than the non-Appalachian U.S. 

rate, and the difference was statistically significant.

Exhibit 21. Overdose mortality rates for females, ages 15–64, by age group and region 

(2018)

‡*

‡

Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are crude mortality rates for each age group. 

* For all age groups, Appalachian rate is significantly different from the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05.

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 26

Exhibit 22 shows the total overdose mortality rates in addition to the opioid-related overdose 

rates in the Appalachian portions of each state. In the Appalachian Region in 2018, 4,548 of the 

6,483 overdose deaths (70 percent) were caused by opioids. The states with the highest opioidrelated overdose mortality rates within their Appalachian counties were Maryland (69.1 deaths 

per 100,000 population); West Virginia (62.1 deaths per 100,000 population); and Ohio (46.7

deaths per 100,000 population). The states with the highest percentages of overdose deaths 

attributed to opioids within their Appalachian portions were Maryland (92 percent); West 

Virginia (83 percent); North Carolina (81 percent); Ohio (78 percent); and Virginia (76 percent). 

The opioid-related overdose mortality rate was lowest in Appalachian Mississippi (4.5 deaths per 

100,000 population); Appalachian Georgia (13.0 deaths per 100,000 population); and 

Appalachian Alabama (14.6 deaths per 100,000 population). 

Exhibit 22. Overdose mortality rates, ages 15–64, by state^ and type of overdose 

(2018)‡

^ For states within Appalachia, only the mortality rates for the Appalachian counties are shown. 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

† Due to small number of deaths, opioid mortality rate is unreliable and not age adjusted. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 27

Exhibit 23 shows the percentages of overdose deaths attributed to opioids in each state, in 

addition to the opioid-related overdose mortality rate. The opioid-related mortality rate was 29.4 

deaths per 100,000 in the Appalachian Region, which was 46 percent higher than the nonAppalachian U.S. rate of 20.1 deaths per 100,000. 

Exhibit 23. Overdose and opioid-related overdose mortality rates, ages 15–64, by 

state^ (2018)‡

Overdose Opioid-related 

Overdose Opioid-related (%)

Alabama 27.1 14.6 * 54%

Georgia 18.9 * 13.0 * 69%

Kentucky 51.4 * 35.8 * 70%

Maryland 74.9 * 69.1 * 92%

Mississippi† 10.1 * 4.5 * 45%

New York 29.2 21.3 73%

North Carolina 39.2 * 31.9 * 81%

Ohio 59.7 * 46.7 * 78%

Pennsylvania 51.2 * 32.6 * 64%

South Carolina 37.2 * 27.6 * 74%

Tennessee 46.4 * 32.1 * 69%

Virginia 24.0 18.2 76%

West Virginia 74.4 * 62.1 * 83%

Appalachia 41.6 * 29.4 * 71%

Non-Appalachian U.S. 28.1 20.1 72%

^ For states within Appalachia, only the mortality rate for the Appalachian counties is shown. 

‡ Rates are presented as deaths per 100,000 population. Rates are age adjusted. 

* Rate is significantly different than the non-Appalachian U.S. rate, p ≤ 0.05. † Due to small number of deaths, opioid mortality rate is unreliable and not age adjusted. 

Source: Mortality Rates and Standard Errors provided by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics. 

Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd-icd10.html.
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 28

Discussion 

This report provides an update to the 2015 Appalachian diseases of despair study. For both the 

Appalachian Region and the non-Appalachian United States, diseases of despair mortality rates 

continued to increase between 2015 and 2017, before declining in 2018. Between 2015 and 

2018, the overall disparity between Appalachia and the rest of the nation for diseases of despair 

remained stable; however, the disparities shifted for the individual diseases of despair. 

Specifically, while a significant disparity between Appalachia and the non-Appalachian U.S. for 

overdose mortality continued through 2018, the gap narrowed. In 2015, the overdose mortality

rate was 65 percent higher in Appalachia than the non-Appalachian U.S., and in 2018, the 

Appalachian overdose mortality rate was 48 percent higher than the non-Appalachian U.S. While 

the disparity was declining for overdose mortality, the gap widened for both suicide and liver 

disease/cirrhosis mortality.

In 2018, the Appalachian Region saw its first decline in diseases of despair mortality and overall 

mortality rate since 2011–2012, which was likely influenced by declines in drug overdose 

mortality within the Region in 2018. While the overdose mortality rate declined between 2017 

and 2018, the suicide and liver disease/cirrhosis mortality rates continued to increase. 

Compared to the rest of the nation, the Appalachian Region experienced higher rates of mortality 

from diseases of despair for all 10-year age ranges between 15 and 64. The most notable 

disparities existed for the 35–44 group. More specifically, that group experienced mortality rates 

60 percent higher than the non-Appalachian U.S. These findings have significant implications, 

particularly in terms of economic development, as individuals in their prime working years are 

most impacted. 

Within Appalachia, the burden of diseases of despair mortality shifted for different subregions 

between 2015 and 2018. In 2015, Central Appalachia had the highest diseases of despair 

mortality rate, followed by North Central Appalachia. The North Central Appalachia diseases of 

despair mortality rate increased significantly between 2015 and 2018, from 88.6 deaths per 

100,000 to 109.8 deaths per 100,000 population. In contrast, the Central Appalachian diseases of 

despair mortality rate remained fairly constant between 2015 and 2018, from 94.4 deaths per 

100,000 in 2015 to 94.2 deaths per 100,000 in 2018. Additionally, economically distressed 

counties had higher mortality rates for overdose, suicide, and liver disease/cirrhosis. While the 

overdose mortality rates increased for both distressed and non-distressed counties between 2015 

and 2018, the disparity between distressed and non-distressed counties declined, from 34 percent 

to 18 percent higher in the distressed counties. In 2018, the overdose mortality rate in distressed 

counties was 48.5 deaths per 100,000 compared to 41.2 deaths per 100,000 in non-distressed 

counties. For liver disease/cirrhosis, the mortality rate for distressed counties was 57 percent 
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 29

higher (18.2 deaths per 100,000) than non-distressed counties (11.6 deaths per 100,000). In

comparison, in 2015 the liver disease mortality rate was 38 percent higher in distressed counties 

(15.4 deaths per 100,000) than non-distressed counties (11.2 deaths per 100,000).

Findings varied by rurality based on the specific disease of despair. While the rate of overdose 

deaths was greater in metro counties in Appalachia, the rates of suicide and alcoholic liver 

disease/cirrhosis were higher in nonmetro counties. More detailed analyses of opioid-related 

overdose deaths showed that in 2018, opioids caused 70 percent, or 4,548 deaths, in Appalachia. 

The Appalachian counties of states within the Region varied dramatically in terms of their 

overall overdose mortality, and the percentage attributable to opioids. 

Diseases of despair mortality rates—and particularly overdose mortality rates—increased 

dramatically between 2015 and 2017. While overdose rates began to decline in 2018, provisional 

data from CDC has shown rising numbers of drug overdose deaths in 2019.14 Additionally, 

anecdotal evidence has suggested dramatic increases in overdose deaths in many regions during 

the COVID-19 pandemic. The impact of COVID-19 will likely lead to an increase in mortality 

from diseases of despair, particularly as the Appalachian Region and the rest of the United States 

experience economic challenges as a result of the pandemic, isolation, and limitations on access 

to in-person treatment and recovery support. It will be important to continue to monitor these 

trends in diseases of despair mortality in the Appalachian Region. 
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

FINAL REPORT | 30

Appendix A: ICD-10 Codes 

Exhibit 24. Underlying cause of death—ICD-10 codes for diseases of despair

Diseases of Despair ICD-10 Code Underlying Cause of Death

Alcoholic poisoning and 

overdoses of 

prescription and illegal 

drugs (Overdose) 

X40-45

Accidental poisoning by and exposure to: nonopioid 

analgesics, antipyretics, and antirheumatics; antiepileptic, 

sedative-hypnotic, antiparkinsonism, and psychotropic 

drugs; narcotics and psychodysleptics [hallucinogens]; other 

drugs acting on the autonomic nervous system; other and 

unspecified drugs, medicaments, and biological substances; 

and alcohol

Y10-15

Poisoning by and exposure to the following (undetermined 

intent): nonopioid analgesics, antipyretics and 

antirheumatics, undetermined intent; antiepileptic, sedativehypnotic, antiparkinsonism and psychotropic drugs; 

narcotics and psychodysleptics [hallucinogens]; other drugs 

acting on the autonomic nervous system; other and 

unspecified drugs, medicaments and biological substances, 

alcohol)

Y45 Analgesics, antipyretics and anti-inflammatory drugs

Y47 Sedatives, hypnotics and antianxiety drugs

Y49 Psychotropic drugs, not elsewhere classified

Suicide 

X60-84 Intentional self-harm

Y87.0 Sequelae of intentional self-harm

Alcoholic liver 

disease/cirrhosis 

K70 Alcoholic liver disease

K73 Chronic hepatitis, not elsewhere classified

K74 Fibrosis and cirrhosis of liver

Exhibit 25. Multiple causes of death—ICD-10 codes for opioid-related overdose 

Disease of Despair ICD-10 Code Multiple Causes of Death

Alcoholic poisoning 

and overdoses of 

prescription and 

illegal drugs 

(Overdose) 

T40.0 Opium

T40.1 Heroin

T40.2 Other opioids

T40.3 Methadone

T40.4 Other synthetic narcotics

T40.6 Other and unspecified narcotics
NORC | Appalachian Diseases of Despair

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References

1 Appalachian Regional Commission. (n.d.) The Appalachian Region. Retrieved from 

https://www.arc.gov/appalachian_region/TheAppalachianRegion.asp.

2 Beatty, K., & Meit, M. (2015). Reducing Childhood Obesity and Chronic Disease in Central Appalachia. Retrieved

from http://www.appalachiafunders.org/data.

3 Knudson, A., Meit, M., Tanenbaum, E., Brady, J., Gilbert, T., Klug, M., Arsen, E., Popat, S., & Schroeder, S. 

(2015). Exploring Rural and Urban Mortality Differences. NORC Walsh Center for Rural Health Analysis, 

Bethesda, MD. Retrieved from http://www.norc.org/Research/Projects/Pages/exploring-rural-and-urban-mortalitydifferences.aspx.

4 Appalachian Regional Commission. Data Snapshot: Income and Poverty in Appalachia. (2020). Retrieved from 

https://www.arc.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/DataSnapshot-IncomeAndPovertyInAppalachia.png.

5 Ibid.

6 Zhang, Z., Meit, M., Infante, A., English, N., Dunn, M., & Bowers, K. H. (2008). An Analysis of Mental Health 

and Substance Abuse Disparities & Access to Treatment Services in the Appalachian Region. Retrieved from 

https://www.norc.org/PDFs/Walsh%20Center/AnalysisofMentalHealthandSubstanceAbuseDisparitiesFinalReport.p

df.

7 Case, A., & Deaton, A. (2015). Rising Morbidity and Mortality in Midlife among White Non-Hispanic Americans 

in the 21st Century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(49), 15078-15083.

8 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Opioid Overdose. Retrieved from 

https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/epidemic/index.html.

9 CDC WONDER. (2020). Retrieved from https://wonder.cdc.gov/.

10 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Multiple Cause of Death 1999–2015. (2020). Retrieved from 

https://wonder.cdc.gov/wonder/help/mcd.html.

11 Rudd, R. A., Seth, P., David, F., & Scholl, L. (2016). Increases in Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths —

United States, 2010–2015. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65, 1445–1452. Retrieved from 

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm655051e1.htm.

12 Appalachian Regional Commission. County Economic Status in Appalachia, FY 2017. (n.d.). Retrieved from 

https://www.arc.gov/research/MapsofAppalachia.asp?MAP_ID=116.

13 United States Department of Agriculture. (2019). Urban Influence Codes. Retrieved from 

https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/urban-influence-codes.aspx.

14 Ahmad, F. B., Rossen, L. M., & Sutton, P. (2020). Provisional Drug Overdose Death Counts. National Center for 

Health Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/vsrr/drug-overdose-data.htm.