SRC TR 99-002

FINAL REPORT

Aerobic Biodegradation of Organic Chemicals

in Environmental Media:

A Summary of Field and Laboratory Studies

Prepared by:

Dallas Aronson

Mario Citra

Kirsten Shuler

Heather Printup

Philip H. Howard

Environmental Science Center

Syracuse Research Corporation

6225 Running Ridge Road

North Syracuse, NY 13212-2509

Prepared for:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA

January 27, 1999
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. PURPOSE ................................................................. 1

2. TECHNICAL APPROACH .................................................... 1

2.1. Literature Search ..................................................... 1

2.2. Definition and Use of Biodegradation Rate Constants .......................... 3

2.2.1. Zero-Order Rate Constants ..................................... 3

2.2.2. First-Order Rate Constants ..................................... 5

2.2.3. Mineralization Rate Constants Versus Primary Biodegradation Rate Constants 5

2.3. Calculation of First-Order Rate Constants .................................. 6

2.3.1. Laboratory Studies ............................................ 6

2.3.2. Field and in situ Microcosm Studies ............................... 8

3. RESULTS ................................................................ 10

3.1. BTEX Compounds .................................................. 11

3.1.1. Benzene ................................................... 12

3.1.2. Toluene .................................................... 27

3.1.3. Ethylbenzene ................................................ 48

3.1.4. o-Xylene ................................................... 52

3.1.5. m-Xylene .................................................. 61

3.1.6. p-Xylene ................................................... 66

3.2. PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon) Compounds ........................ 71

3.2.1. Naphthalene ................................................ 72

3.2.2. Fluorene ................................................... 83

3.2.3. Benzo(a)anthracene ........................................... 87

3.2.4. Chrysene .................................................. 94

3.2.5. Fluoranthene ............................................... 100

3.2.6. Pyrene ................................................... 103

3.2.7. Benzo(a)pyrene ............................................. 109

3.3. Chlorinated Aliphatic Compounds ...................................... 115

3.3.1. Tetrachloroethylene .......................................... 115

3.3.2. Dichloromethane ............................................ 120

3.4. Phenol and Substituted Phenols ........................................ 122

3.4.1. Phenol ................................................... 122

3.4.2. o-Cresol .................................................. 133

3.4.3. m-Cresol ................................................. 136

3.4.4. p-Cresol .................................................. 140

3.5. Ketones .......................................................... 145

3.5.1. Acetone .................................................. 145
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3.5.2. Methyl ethyl ketone .......................................... 149

3.6. Miscellaneous ..................................................... 151

3.6.1. Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate ..................................... 151

3.5.2. Methanol ................................................. 158

4. SUMMARY .............................................................. 161

5. REFERENCES ........................................................... 164
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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Final list of compounds ................................................... 2

Table 2. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for benzene ......................... 15

Table 3. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for toluene .......................... 30

Table 4. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for ethylbenzene ...................... 49

Table 5. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for o-xylene ......................... 54

Table 6. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for m-xylene ......................... 63

Table 7. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for p-xylene ......................... 68

Table 8. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for naphthalene ....................... 74

Table 9. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for fluorene .......................... 84

Table 10. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for benzo(a)anthracene ................ 89

Table 11. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for chrysene ........................ 96

Table 12. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for fluoranthene .................... 101

Table 13. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for pyrene ........................ 105

Table 14. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for benzo(a)pyrene .................. 111

Table 15. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for tetrachloroethylene ............... 117

Table 16. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for dichloromethane ................. 121

Table 17. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for phenol ......................... 124

Table 18. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for o-cresol ....................... 134

Table 19. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for m-cresol ....................... 137

Table 20. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for p-cresol ....................... 141

Table 21. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for acetone ........................ 147

Table 22. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for methyl ethyl ketone ............... 150

Table 23. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate .......... 153

Table 24. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for methanol ....................... 159

Table 25. Summary of median and range of aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for

compounds listed in document ............................................. 163
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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1a. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values for

benzene. .............................................................. 13

Figure 1b. Frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values for benzene. . . 14

Figure 2a. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values for

toluene. ............................................................... 28

Figure 2b. Frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values for toluene. ... 29

Figure 3. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

ethylbenzene. ........................................................... 48

Figure 4. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values for oxylene. ................................................................ 53

Figure 5. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of mxylene. ................................................................ 62

Figure 6. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of pxylene. ................................................................ 67

Figure 7a. Frequency distribution histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant

values of naphthalene. ..................................................... 73

Figure 7b. Frequency distribution histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

naphthalene. ............................................................ 73

Figure 8a. Frequency distribution histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant

values of fluorene. ....................................................... 83

Figure 8b. Frequency distribution histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

fluorene ............................................................... 83

Figure 9a. Frequency distribution histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant

values of benzo(a)anthracene. ............................................... 87

Figure 9b. Frequency distribution histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

benzo(a)anthracene. ...................................................... 88

Figure 10a. Frequency distribution histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant

values of chrysene. ....................................................... 94

Figure 10b. Frequency distribution histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

chrysene. .............................................................. 95

Figure 11. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

fluoranthene. .......................................................... 100

Figure 12a. Frequency distribution histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant

values of pyrene. ....................................................... 103

Figure 12b. Frequency distribution histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

pyrene. .............................................................. 104

Figure 13a. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

benzo(a)pyrene. ........................................................ 109
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Figure 13b. Frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

benzo(a)pyrene. ........................................................ 110

Figure 14. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

dichloromethane. ....................................................... 120

Figure 15a. The frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

phenol. ............................................................... 123

Figure 15b. The frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of phenol.123

Figure 16. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of ocresol. ............................................................... 133

Figure 17. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of mcresol. ............................................................... 136

Figure 18. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of pcresol. ............................................................... 140

Figure 19. Rate constant versus initial concentration of acetone in a shallow stream. ........... 145

Figure 20a. The frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

acetone. .............................................................. 146

Figure 20b. The frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

acetone. .............................................................. 146

Figure 21a. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate. ................................................ 152

Figure 21b. Frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of bis(2-

ethylhexyl)phthalate. ..................................................... 152

Figure 22. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

methanol. ............................................................. 158
1

1. PURPOSE

In the following document, Syracuse Research Corporation (SRC) has reviewed the available aerobic

biodegradation literature for several common organic chemicals and identified biodegradation rate

constants from these studies. Unlike the anaerobic biodegradation rate constant database previously

compiled (Aronson and Howard, 1997), the aerobic biodegradation rate constant database includes

rate constant information from soil, surface water, and sediment as well as aquifer environments. This

project has been completed to demonstrate that in many cases, a large amount of data is available from

a variety of studies showing either the ability or inability of a particular compound of interest to degrade

in the environment.

2. TECHNICAL APPROACH

2.1. Literature Search

A list of 25 compounds was initially received from the U.S. EPA. A rapid search of the BIOLOG file

of the Environmental Fate Data Base (EFDB) (Howard et. al., 1986) for compounds with aerobic

studies revealed that four of the listed compounds did not have appropriate data available for input into

the database (cyanide, vinyl acetate, methyl isobutyl ketone and cyanide). These compounds were

dropped from the list. However, the compound “xylene” was separated into its three isomers and data

were collected for each isomer individually. These changes resulted in a final list of 23 compounds

(Table 1) for which biodegradation rate information was then summarized.

The literature compilation began with an electronic search of two files in SRC’s EFDB, DATALOG

and BIOLOG, as sources of extensive biodegradation information. Currently, there are over 315,000

catalogued records for 15,965 compounds in DATALOG and nearly 62,000 records for 7,820

compounds in BIOLOG. BIOLOG search terms were used to identify aerobic studies with a mixed

population of microbes from soil, sediment, or water. DATALOG was searched for useful field,

ecosystem, and biodegradation studies. Relevant papers were retrieved and summarized in the

database. In addition to the literature searches, the reference section of every retrieved paper was

scanned in order to identify additional relevant articles. To be included in this database, the study was

required: 1) to use soil, aquifer material, groundwater, aerobic sediment, or surface water and 2) to be

incubated under aerobic conditions. Studies where the environmental material was seeded with

microorganisms from other sources (e.g. sewage, anaerobic sediment, and enrichment culture

experiments) were not included.

The database was constructed in PARADOX with fields for information about the site including

location and type of site (e.g. spill site, industrial location, pristine site, landfill), the sampling protocol

and method of analysis, the type of study (e.g. field, laboratory microcosm, in situ microcosm),

whether the compound was present alone or found in the presence of others, pH, temperature,

dissolved oxygen concentrations, redox conditions, initial and final concentrations of the compound, a
2

published or calculated rate constant, length of the study, lag period, control results, identification of

reaction products, general comments (to accommodate other important information) and an

abbreviated reference from which the information was retrieved.

Table 1. Final list of compounds

Chemical Name CAS Number

Acetone 000067-64-1

Benzene 000071-43-2

Benzo(a)anthracene 000056-55-3

Benzo(a)pyrene 000050-32-8

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate 000117-81-7

Chrysene 000218-01-9

m-Cresol 000108-39-4

o-Cresol 000095-48-7

p-Cresol 000106-44-5

Dichloromethane (methylene chloride) 000075-09-2

Ethylbenzene 000100-41-4

Fluoranthene 000206-44-0

Fluorene 000086-73-7

Methanol 000067-56-1

Methyl ethyl ketone 000078-93-3

Naphthalene 000091-20-3

Phenol 000108-95-2

Pyrene 000129-00-0

Tetrachloroethylene 000127-18-4

Toluene 000108-88-3

m-Xylene 000108-38-3

o-Xylene 000095-47-6

p-Xylene 000106-42-3
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2.2. Definition and Use of Biodegradation Rate Constants

Over time, a compound will biodegrade at a particular rate and the biodegradation kinetics will be

dependent on the environmental conditions and the availability and concentration of the substrate. The

Monod equation was developed to describe the growth of a population of microbes in the presence of

a carbon source. At low concentrations of substrate, the microbial population is small. With increasing

substrate concentrations, the microbial population grows until a maximum growth rate is reached. This

is mathematically described by:

where μ=growth rate of the microbe, S=substrate concentration, μmax=maximum growth rate of the

microbe, and Ks=a constant defined as the value of S at which μ=0.5μmax. The Monod 

equation is best used when the microbial population is growing in size in relation to the substrate

concentration (Alexander, 1994). 

Both first and zero-order rate constants are calculated when little to no increase in microbial cell

numbers is seen (Schmidt et. al., 1985). This will occur where the cell density is high compared to the

substrate concentration. In this case, biodegradation kinetics are better represented by the classic

Michaelis-Menton equation for enzyme kinetics. This equation assumes that the reaction rate of the

individual cells and not the microbial population is increasing in relation to increasing substrate

concentrations:

where v=reaction rate (μ in the Monod equation), Vmax=maximum reaction rate (μmax in the Monod

equation), and Km is the Michaelis constant (Ks in the Monod equation) (Alexander, 1994).

2.2.1. Zero-Order Rate Constants

A zero-order rate constant is calculated when the substrate concentration is much greater than Km so

that as the substrate is biodegraded, the rate of biodegradation is not affected, i.e. loss is independent

of substrate concentration. The rate of a zero-order reaction is linear (a constant amount of the

substrate is lost per unit of time) and is represented by the differential:
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and the integral:

where S0=initial substrate concentration, S=substrate concentration at time=t, and k0=the zero-order

rate constant (expressed as concentration/time, e.g. μg/L/day). 

In the aerobic biodegradation database, zero-order rate constants are reported where the author has

determined this value. If the author did not specify that the zero-order rate constant was a better

measurement of the kinetics, this value was placed in the rate constant comments field and a SRC

calculated first-order rate constant was placed in the rate constant field. If it was specified that zeroorder rate kinetics were superior in describing the loss of a compound in the measured system, the

zero-order rate constant was placed in the rate constant field and a first-order rate constant calculated

by SRC was reported in the rate constant comment field. When sufficient information was not present

in the paper to convert the reported values to a first-order rate constant, then the zero-order rate

constant was placed in the rate constant field. 

If a rate constant was not reported by the study authors and a value could be determined from the

presented experimental data, SRC assumed first-order rate kinetics. A more accurate but time

consuming approach would have been to plot the substrate concentration versus time. A straight line

would signify zero-order kinetics and an exponential curve (or a straight line on a log linear paper)

would indicate first-order kinetics. Priority was given to the determination of a first-order rate constant

as many environmental models require the input of a first-order rate constant. This may not be strictly

correct in all situations, such as when the substrate is present at high concentrations (above Km), when

substrate concentrations are toxic to the microbial population, when another substrate(s) is limiting the

biodegradation rate or when the microbial population is significantly increasing or decreasing in size

(Chapelle et. al., 1996). 

Recently, the common use of first-order rate constant values to describe the kinetics of biodegradation

loss in natural systems has been criticized. Bekins et. al. (1998) suggest that the automatic use of firstorder kinetics without first determining whether the substrate concentration is less than the halfsaturation constant, Km, is incorrect and can lead to substantial miscalculations of the biodegradation

rate of a studied compound. Using first-order kinetics where the substrate concentration is higher than

Km will lead to an overprediction of the biodegradation rate, whereas in circumstances where the

substrate concentration is much lower, the biodegradation rate is expected to be underestimated. 

Buscheck et. al. (1993) state that first-order rate constants are generally appropriate for soluble plumes

where a contaminant concentration of less than 1 mg/L is present. However, a database of LUFT sites

in California (Rice et. al., 1995) reports that benzene concentrations are greater than 2 mg/L at 625 of

1092 sites (Bekins et. al., 1998). This suggests that concentrations at spill sites may often exceed the
5

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Km value and that first-order kinetics may not adequately represent the biodegradation of the studied

compound. First-order rate constants are, however, commonly used to describe kinetics in natural

systems often because of the lack of sufficient data points and the ease with which these values can be

calculated. Salanitro (1993) reports that several studies where BTEX concentrations range from <1 to

5000 ppb are adequately described by first-order kinetics.

2.2.2. First-Order Rate Constants

First-order rate constants are used as a convenient approximation of the kinetics of degradation of test

substrates where there is no growth of the microbial population and a low concentration of the test

substrate is present. Under these circumstances, the substrate concentration is lower than Km and,

over time, both the concentration of substrate and rate of degradation drop in proportion with each

other. Thus, unlike zero-order kinetics, the rate of biodegradation in a first-order reaction is dependent

on the substrate concentration and is represented by the differential: 

and the integral:

where S0=initial substrate concentration, S=substrate concentration at time=t, and k1=the first-order

rate constant. During first-order rate reactions, the loss of substrate is exponential and follows a

logarithmic curve. 

The rate constant is used to correlate the rate of the reaction with time. In a first-order reaction, a

constant percent of the substrate is lost with time and the rate is described by either percent per time or

the half-life. The half-life is easily visualized and is more commonly used. In contrast, a zero-order rate

constant by definition equals the rate and is given in units of concentration/time. This is because the rate

is linear and loss is constant with time.

2.2.3. Mineralization Rate Constants Versus Primary Biodegradation Rate Constants

Many experiments summarized in the aerobic biodegradation database measured mineralization,

defined as the complete biodegradation of a compound to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water, in contrast

to experiments which measure primary biodegradation, defined as the loss of the parent compound. 

These values are labeled as such in the rate constant comment field. Mineralization rate constants, in

general, represent a minimum estimate of the total degradation of the compound; some of the CO2
6

produced during the degradation of the original compound can be assimilated into natural, often high

molecular weight compounds and is then generally not measured. In addition, once produced, CO2 can

be bound as carbonate within the study system. Thus, it is expected that unless degradation proceeds

rapidly and completely to CO2 and water, that mineralization rate constant values will be less than those

measured for primary biodegradation.

2.3. Calculation of First-Order Rate Constants

Rate constants were collected from eight types of studies: laboratory column, field, groundwater grab

sample, groundwater inoculum, in situ microcosm, lysimeter, reactor systems, and laboratory

microcosm studies. The majority of studies summarized in the aerobic biodegradation database were

laboratory microcosm studies. Laboratory microcosm studies can be further subdivided by the type of

grab sample used: soil, sediment, surface water (including freshwater, estuarine, and seawater), and

aquifer sediment and groundwater mixtures. The information obtained from each of these studies

ranged from published first-order rate constants to simply an indication or contraindication of

biodegradation. In some cases, insufficient data were available to assess whether biodegradation had

occurred; for these studies, the rate constant field was left blank. When published first-order rate

constants were not available, but sufficient information was presented to calculate a value, the rate

constant was calculated by SRC. 

To ensure that loss of a contaminant was due to biodegradation and not just to abiotic or transport

processes, an appropriate control was necessary to correct the data set. This can be a problem in

laboratory studies that are incubated for a long period of time. Mercuric chloride is known to adsorb to

the clay component of soil or aquifer sediment reducing its efficacy whereas sodium azide only inhibits

bacteria containing cytochromes (Wiedemeier et. al., 1996). In addition, autoclaving may not be totally

suitable, probably due to incomplete sterilization (Dobbins et. al., 1992). Information on the control

used in the study, if available in the paper, is found in the database field “control results”. This field was

used mainly to state the method of sterilization, or, in the case of field studies, whether a conservative

tracer was used. If a control was used by the author(s) but the method not specified then “yes” was

placed in the “control results” field (e.g. Davis and Madsen, 1996). If the paper does not state

whether a control was used then this field was left blank. 

In some instances, a value is also included in the control field. When reported, this represents the loss

of compound in the control over the study period. Studies often did not specify the loss found in the

control, or the half-life or rate constant was directly reported by the author(s) and it was assumed,

unless stated otherwise, that these values had been corrected for abiotic loss.

2.3.1. Laboratory Studies

A control was used in laboratory studies to correct for non-biodegradation processes such as sorption

to sediment or the glass jar, headspace volatilization, etc. Data from laboratory studies (column,

groundwater grab sample, groundwater inoculum, reactor systems, and laboratory microcosm studies)

were obtained from graphs or tables giving concentrations of the compound of interest at specific
7

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timepoints. Lag periods were observed at times which is usually attributed to the need for acclimation

(Alexander, 1994). The initial microbial species present, their relative numbers, metabolic state and

ability to acclimate once exposed to a chemical are likely to vary considerably depending upon

environmental parameters such as temperature, conductivity, pH, oxygen concentration, redox

potential, concentration, the presence/absence of electron acceptors and donors, and effects, both

synergistic and antagonistic, of associated microflora (Howard and Banerjee, 1984). 

Lag periods were established either from the discussion in the paper or from looking at the data, and an

appropriate initial and final concentration was chosen. The value used for the initial concentration was

the concentration present following the lag period; therefore, all rate calculations for this project are

independent of the associated lag period. Where a value of “0 ?g/L” was reached as a final timepoint,

an earlier time was chosen for the kinetics calculation, if possible; the use of zero as a denominator in

the first-order rate equation would result in an “infinite” value. If the concentration reached a value

other than zero but leveled off at that point for the remainder of the experiment, the final concentration

and time were chosen at the point where the concentration leveled off. In column studies, the time field

in the database contains the retention time for the column, which is the value (?t) used to calculate the

rate constant; column experiments were usually run for long periods of time, which would allow for the

development of an acclimated microbial population. 

The initial and final concentrations of the control within the chosen time period were obtained and the

experimental data corrected for the loss shown by the control using the following equation:

where: Cf,corr=corrected final concentration of the contaminant (corrected for nonbiodegradation loss

Cf=final contaminant concentration, uncorrected

Zi=initial control concentration

Zf=final control concentration. 

A first-order rate constant was then calculated for laboratory data using the corrected final contaminant

concentration as follows:
8

where: Ci=initial contaminant concentration

Cf,corr=corrected final concentration of the contaminant (corrected for non-biodegradation 

loss)

?t=time interval

k1=first-order rate constant.

2.3.2. Field and in situ Microcosm Studies

In situ microcosms were designed to isolate a portion of the aquifer in order to make measurements

directly in the field. This device is essentially a pipe divided into a test chamber and an equipment

chamber, with two screens that permit water to be pumped both into and out of the interior of the pipe. 

More detailed information can be found in Gillham et. al. (1990). Groundwater is pumped to the

surface, spiked with the compounds of interest plus other nutrients and/or electron acceptors if wanted,

and then reinjected. Because the test zone is isolated from the main aquifer, advective and dispersive

processes are not important to the study results. Often, this method is used to give very specific results

for a particular redox regime within an aquifer (Nielsen et. al., 1995). The data obtained from this type

of study was similar to that for a laboratory microcosm where loss of substrate is monitored with time;

rate constants were calculated using the same method as for the laboratory studies.

In general, the field studies reported in this database are for aquifer environments. Only a limited

number of aerobic aquifer studies were located, mainly because the oxygen initially present in

groundwater will be rapidly used during oxidative degradation. This results in anaerobic conditions

close to the source and within the contaminant plume. However, biodegradation data were reported

for a few aerobic aquifer environments. Data from field studies were generally reported for 1) plume

studies where monitoring wells were placed along the centerline of a contaminant plume or for 2)

continuous injection experiments where monitoring wells were placed in fences along the flow path fairly

close to the injection point (often 2 and 5 meters away). Loss of a contaminant over distance does not

necessarily indicate that the compound has undergone biodegradation. Significant loss in concentration

along a flow path is often reported for compounds simply due to non-biological processes such as

advection, dispersion, sorption, and dilution. However, degradation is the only mechanism which leads

to an actual loss of the contaminant. 

The most convenient way to correct for non-biodegradation processes in both plume and injection

studies is to use compounds present in the contaminant plume or injection mixture that are 1)

biologically recalcitrant and 2) have similar properties, such as Henry’s Law constant and soil sorption

coefficient, as the contaminant of interest (Wiedemeier et. al., 1995). Most studies summarized in the

aerobic biodegradation database used either chloride or bromide ion as a tracer satisfying the first

condition of biological recalcitrance. The procedure for obtaining a normalized data set from an aquifer

field study was taken from Wiedemeier et. al. (1996) and is again outlined in the report accompanying

the anaerobic biodegradation database (Aronson and Howard, 1997). This method requires

measurements of tracer and contaminant concentrations from a minimum of two points along a flow
9

path in order to correct for the loss of the compound of interest due to transport processes.

A mass balance approach has also been used by some researchers (Barker et. al., 1987) to determine

the rate of biodegradation of specific contaminants in groundwater during a field study. Mass flux of the

studied contaminant through a line/cluster of wells (a transect) is recorded instead of monitoring loss of

the contaminant at specific points down the middle of a plume, as is typical for a plume centerline study. 

Wiedemeier et. al. (1996), suggests that the calculations involved are approximate and that often many

of the required parameters necessary for the modeling are not available. 
10

3. RESULTS

Biodegradation of organic compounds under aerobic conditions most often occurs when bacteria

catalyze the breakdown of these molecules and then recover some of this chemical energy as ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) which is absolutely necessary for maintenance of the bacterial cell. ATP is

generated through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions (the electron transport chain) where

electrons are sequentially transferred from one compound, the electron donor, to an electron acceptor. 

The final or terminal electron acceptor in aerobic respiration is oxygen. Dissolved oxygen

concentrations of 1 mg/L or greater are considered to define aerobic conditions. During aerobic

respiration, the oxygen present in the environment is converted to water and thus the dissolved oxygen

content can decrease. This is particularly significant in closed systems, as in a confined aquifer, where

conditions can quickly become anaerobic with the metabolism of high concentrations of organic

chemicals.

Thermodynamically, the reduction of molecular oxygen to water is very favorable for the participating

microorganisms. Because hydrocarbons are generally chemically reduced (chlorinated aliphatics are an

exception within the group of compounds in this paper) and stable, this is a preferred pathway over

other redox pathways such as anaerobic chemical reduction. Aerobic biodegradation results in the

oxidation of the original compound. Metabolism of aliphatic compounds generally proceeds initially by

production of the alcohol and then oxidation to the carboxylic acid which is susceptible to betaoxidation. In pure culture studies, aromatic hydrocarbons have been shown to biodegrade generally

with the addition of one molecule of oxygen giving the dihydrodiol intermediate, usually with a cisstereochemistry. This intermediate is then oxidized forming the catechol which then allows for orthoor meta- cleavage of the aromatic ring structure (Gibson, 1977). 

The data collected during this project were mainly from laboratory microcosm studies, a classification

including grab sample studies (except for groundwater grab samples) for the purposes of this database. 

Groundwater grab samples were considered separately as it has been shown that a large majority of

microorganisms responsible for biodegradation in the subsurface environment are associated with the

aquifer sediment surface (Thomas et. al., 1987). Therefore, rates collected during groundwater grab

studies may not be as rapid as those where aquifer sediment is included. Laboratory microcosm

studies are believed to give very good evidence of biodegradation at a specific location and can provide

an “absolute mass balance” on a particular contaminant. In addition, the formation and measurement of

metabolites can definitively show the biodegradation of the contaminant of interest. However, results

from a laboratory microcosm can be greatly influenced by many factors such as the source, collection,

and condition of the grab sample (e.g. what is a representative source of material for that site?), the

ratio of soil/sediment/aquifer sediment to water used in the microcosm, the type of sampling (repetitive

or sacrificed), incubation conditions (e.g. substrate concentration, temperature), and the length of the

study period (and its effect particularly on the initial microbial population during a long study period)

(Wiedemeier et. al., 1996). If a sufficient supply of oxygen is not available to completely biodegrade

the added organic compound/s then anaerobic conditions may prevail. The mixing of a natural sample
11

during its collection or the construction of a microcosm may also result in a “disturbance artifact” which

is seen as an increase in the microbial activity of the sample (Davis and Olsen, 1990). However, the

influence of transport processes such as volatilization and adsorption cannot be measured in a

microcosm experiment. If consideration of these processes is important, then field studies can be used

to provide environmentally relevant data for a specific site, essentially showing whether the compound

of interest can or cannot be biodegraded at that location. 

The results for each compound are presented in the following sections. Separation of the data into

mineralization and primary degradation studies was initially completed and each category was

considered separately. A range was given to represent the dispersion of the data within the group as

well as a median value, representing the central tendency of the data. In addition, frequency distribution

histograms for the two types of studies are given for each compound with sufficient data. Within the

subcategories of mineralization and primary degradation, each study was given equal weighting despite

differences in how the study was carried out. Rate constants which were given as zero-order and could

not be converted to first-order rate constants were not included in the statistical analysis. 

3.1. BTEX Compounds

The BTEX group is composed of the water-soluble and monoaromatic compounds benzene, toluene,

ethylbenzene, o-xylene, m-xylene, and p-xylene. In both laboratory and field studies, the

biodegradation of all the BTEX compounds has been shown under aerobic conditions (Tables 2 to 7). 

There is a stoichometric requirement of 3 ppm O2 to 1 ppm BTEX for the aerobic degradation of fuel

hydrocarbons with rates of biodegradation appearing to slow for dissolved oxygen concentrations

below 1 to 2 ppm in microcosm and field studies and below 1 ppm for soil column studies (Salanitro,

1993; Chiang et. al., 1989). Laboratory studies where 8 mg/L dissolved oxygen is initially present have

been shown to rapidly biodegrade 2 mg/L or less of a BTEX mixture or a particular BTEX compound

(Salanitro, 1993).

The majority of studies located for the BTEX compounds were for aquifer environments. As reported

earlier, many aquifers become anaerobic during contaminant biodegradation due to the use of oxygen in

aerobic respiration. Replacement of this oxygen from upgradient of the source, plume edges, infiltration

of precipitation, or from vadose or saturated zone recharge is slower than its use during aerobic

metabolism. Thus, the concentration of oxygen often becomes the rate-limiting factor in the

biodegradation of the BTEX compounds in aquifer environments. During laboratory studies this can be

controlled by the addition of oxygen or hydrogen peroxide. Extrapolation of laboratory rate constants

to field environments which are confined or semi-confined systems, however, should be made with

caution both because oxygen conditions cannot be controlled as readily and because laboratory rates

are often higher (up to an order of magnitude) than those reported from field experiments.
12

3.1.1. Benzene

While benzene is considered recalcitrant under anaerobic conditions, most evidence currently available

shows that this compound is moderately degradable in the presence of oxygen (Table 2). Degradation

is thought to proceed via catechol to CO2 (Ribbons and Eaton, 1992). 3.08 mg of oxygen are

necessary to biodegrade 1 mg of benzene to CO2 and water (Wiedemeier et. al., 1995). This

calculation does not include the energy requirement for cell maintenance and thus is not a conservative

value. However, the value of 3.1 mg oxygen to degrade 1 mg benzene is suggested as a conservative

estimate (Wiedemeier et. al., 1995).

Most of the located data for benzene under aerobic conditions were for aquifer environments. Field

studies at six different locations consistently reported the biodegradation of benzene, giving half-life

values ranging from 58 to 693 days. The longer half-life was associated with an uncontaminated aquifer

study (American Petroleum Institute, 1994). Initial concentrations of up to 25 mg/L were biodegraded

under field conditions (Davis et. al., 1994). Biodegradation of benzene was observed as well during in

situ microcosm studies at two locations. Half-lives ranged from 1.4 (Nielsen et. al., 1996) to 103

(Holm et. al., 1992) days with an average half-life of 4 days. The high half-life value represents

biodegradation in the groundwater only section of the in situ microcosm; half-life values obtained in the

aquifer sediment + groundwater section were significantly lower.

By far the most common type of study used to observe the biodegradation of benzene under aerobic

conditions is the laboratory microcosm. Mineralization half-lives for benzene in lab microcosm studies

ranged from 7 (Kemblowski et. al., 1987) to 1195 days (Thomas et. al., 1990) with the high value

representing a study from an uncontaminated site. Microcosms established with sediment from a

contaminated and a biostimulated region in the aquifer, measured during the same study, showed more

rapid mineralization rates. The average half-life for mineralization was 53 days. In comparison,

microcosm studies measuring primary biodegradation reported half-lives ranging from 0.2 (Kjeldsen et.

al., 1997) to 679 (Pugh et. al., 1996) days with an average value of 1.5 days. Initial concentrations of

up to 50 mg/L (Kemblowski et. al., 1987) were reported in these experiments without obvious

deleterious effect. In general, however, initial concentrations of 5 mg/L or less were utilized. 

No biodegradation was reported for four lab microcosm studies. A study by the American Petroleum

Institute, 1994A, reports that benzene was not biodegraded in the presence of 85% methanol over 278

days. This result was not unexpected as sufficient oxygen was available to degrade only 5% of the

initially added methanol. This suggests that anaerobic conditions may have occurred rapidly within this

microcosm. Hunt and Alvarez, 1997 also report that benzene in the presence of 300 mg/L ethanol was

not biodegraded over a period of 3 days. However, aquifer material collected from the same site and

incubated without ethanol and either with or without nutrients was able to rapidly degrade benzene. 

Pristine aquifer sediment was unable to biodegrade benzene over a 7-day period; however, when

creosote-contaminated aquifer sediment was used, greater than 31% of the initially added benzene was

biodegraded over 7 days (Wilson et. al., 1986). While benzene was degraded in groundwater alone

and in river water during a study by Vaishnav and Babeu (1987), it was not biodegraded in the
13

0

20

40

60

80

0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

presence of harbor water collected in Lake Superior. The addition of both nutrients and an enriched

microbial culture isolated from sewage resulted in the biodegradation of this compound indicating that

bacteria capable of biodegrading benzene were either not present or not present in sufficient numbers to

significantly remove benzene in the natural harbor water over a 20-day period. Laboratory column

experiments by Anid et. al. (1991) and Alvarez et. al. (1998) report that benzene was not biodegraded

under certain circumstances. Anid et. al. (1991) reported that columns supplemented with hydrogen

peroxide but not columns supplemented with nitrate were able to degrade benzene. The nitrateamended columns may have exhibited nitrate-reducing conditions as over 60 mg/L BTEX mixture was

initially added. However, no attempt was made by the authors to distinguish through end product

measurements whether conditions remained aerobic or became nitrate-reducing. Alvarez et. al. (1998)

showed biodegradation of benzene in laboratory columns fed with acetate and benzoate as

cosubstrates. However, preacclimated sediment exposed to acetate and sediment columns which

received no preacclimation period were unable to biodegrade benzene while a column which had been

preacclimated to benzoate readily biodegraded this column.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of benzene, considering all studies, is

0.096/day (N = 118); a range of not biodegraded to 3.3/day is reported. The median for the

mineralization rate constant of benzene is 0.0013/day (N = 30); a range of not biodegraded to

0.087/day is reported. The frequency distribution histograms for this data are shown in figures 1a and

1b. Benzene is expected to biodegrade fairly readily under most aerobic environmental conditions.

Figure 1a. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values for

benzene.
14

0

5

10

15

20

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 1

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 1b. Frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values for benzene.
15

Table 2. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for benzene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.001/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.003/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.004/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

Benzene Columbus Air Force Base,

Columbus, Miss.

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 224 0.0066/day Stauffer,TB et. al. (1994)

Benzene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 0.0088-

0.0095/day

Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 1.25 mg/L 0.012/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 2.36 mg/L 374-434 30 mg/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

Benzene Amsterdam, The

Netherlands

Dune infiltration

site

Sediment Field <0.05 ug/L 7-49 Biodegrades Bosma,TNP et. al. (1996)

Benzene Eastern seaboard Contaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 25 mg/L Biodegrades Davis,JW et. al. (1994)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

120 ug/L 90 0.0017/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Benzene Traverse City, Michigan Jet fuel

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

800 ug/L 28 0.003/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1987)

Benzene Contaminated Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

100 mg/L 24 0.0082/day 3 Chang,BV et. al. (1997)

Benzene Contaminated Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

100 mg/L 33 0.0084/day 5 Chang,BV et. al. (1997)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

17.5 mg/L 0.016/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene 12 km north of Lake

Superior, Minnesota

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

20 0.025/day Vaishnav,DD & Babeu,L

(1987)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

16

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

17.5 mg/L 0.027/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

0.478 mg/L 0.032/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

120 ug/L 90 0.033/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Benzene Traverse City, Michigan Jet fuel

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

800 ug/L 28 0.035/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1987)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

17.5 mg/L 0.037/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

17.5 mg/L 0.038/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

17.5 mg/L 0.039/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

17.5 mg/L 0.043/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

17.5 mg/L 0.045/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

17.5 mg/L 0.05/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene NW Gainesville, Florida Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1 mg/L 16 0.107/day 8 Delfino,JJ & Miles,CJ (1985)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

17

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

0.478 mg/L 0.11/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

0.478 mg/L 0.13/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 23 0.13/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

0.478 mg/L 0.16/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile quartz

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 12 0.268/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile rock wool

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 30 0.297/day 23 Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Benzene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile quartz

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 7 0.329/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Benzene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 32 0.338/day 25 Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

0.478 mg/L 0.35/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Los Angeles, California Gasoline

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

477 ug/L 2 0.38/day Karlson,U &

Frankenberger,WTJr (1989)

Benzene Industrial site Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

32 mg/L 16.25 0.467/day 10.4 Williams,RA et. al. (1997)

Benzene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile rock wool

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 23 0.70/day 19 Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

0.478 mg/L 1.1/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

18

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

0.478 mg/L 180 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

0.478 mg/L 200 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Benzene Los Angeles, California Gasoline

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

477 ug/L 1 3.3/day Karlson,U &

Frankenberger,WTJr (1989)

Benzene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 100 0.047/day 3 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

Benzene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 13 0.419/day 2 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

Benzene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 8 0.658/day 1 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

Benzene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 8 0.658/day 1 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.0067/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.0067/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.033/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Benzene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

345 ug/L 8 0.046/day Gillham,RW et. al. (1990)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.058/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 0.2/day 5 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 0.3/day 1 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Benzene Vejen City, Denmark Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 48 0.5/day 6 Bjerg,PL et. al. (1996)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

19

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 0.5/day 6 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Benzene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 20 mg/L 4.6 0.501/day Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)

Benzene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 193 ug/L >8 1-5 ug/day 3 Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Benzene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 193 ug/L 2 2-9 ug/day Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Benzene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 193 ug/L >8 3-7 ug/day 3 Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Benzene Swan Coastal Plain,

Australia

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab column 1060 ug/L 9.5/day Patterson,BM et. al. (1993)

Benzene Swan Coastal Plain,

Australia

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab column 1060 ug/L 9.5/day Patterson,BM et. al. (1993)

Benzene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 150 ug/L 2.5 Biodegrades Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Benzene Amsterdam, The

Netherlands

Dune infiltration

site

Sediment Lab column 0.5 ug/L Biodegrades Bosma,TNP et. al. (1996)

Benzene Amsterdam, The

Netherlands

Dune infiltration

site

Sediment Lab column 10-20 ug/L Biodegrades Bosma,TNP et. al. (1996)

Benzene Skaelskor, Denmark Uncontaminated Fractured clay Lab column 3.2 Biodegrades Broholm,K et. al. (1995)

Benzene Wageningen, The

Netherlands

Sediment Lab column 10-20 ug/L Biodegrades Bosma,TNP et. al. (1996)

Benzene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 150 ug/L 3 No

biodegradation

Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Benzene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 150 ug/L 3 No

biodegradation

Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Benzene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 20 mg/L 4.6 No

biodegradation

Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.00058/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.00065-

0.00087/day

Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.00072/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

20

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 0.002 ug/L 42 0.00077/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0008/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Pharmaceutical

plant

underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.00102/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Benzene Pharmaceutical

plant

underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.00102/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0012/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0012/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0012/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0013/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0013/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0016/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0017/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0019/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

21

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.002/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0021/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 0.002 ug/L 42 0.00315/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 50 mg/L 70 0.0035/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Pharmaceutical

plant

underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.0039/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 50 mg/L 70 0.0044/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 2538 ug/L 114 0.006/day 21 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 5.5 mg/L 80 0.006/day 13 Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 14 0.016/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 2491 ug/L 232 0.021/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 1903 ug/L 232 0.024/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 5 mg/L 0.025-

0.0866/day

Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene East Texas Woodcreosoting plantAquifer sediment Lab microcosm 84 0.030/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1983B)

Benzene East Texas Woodcreosoting plantAquifer sediment Lab microcosm 84 0.030/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1983B)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 50 ug/L 14 0.031/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

22

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 2.6 mg/L 80 0.032/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.033/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.033/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 5 mg/L 14 0.036-0.043/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.042/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 5 mg/L 0.043-0.139/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Traverse City, Michigan Jet fuel

contamination

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 800 ug/L 28 0.043/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1987)

Benzene Lester River, St. Louis

County, MN

River water Lab microcosm 20 0.044/day Vaishnav,DD & Babeu,L

(1987)

Benzene Conroe, Texas Creosote waste

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 0.046/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

Benzene Eastern seaboard Contaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 10 mg/L 35 0.0495/day 10 Davis,JW et. al. (1994)

Benzene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 5000 ug/L 35 0.05/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

Benzene Pharmaceutical

plant

underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 45 0.0535/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.058/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 50 ug/L 14 0.065-0.075/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 14 0.065-0.075/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.07/day Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

23

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 5 mg/L 14 0.075-0.099/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 325 ug/L 14 0.085/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

Benzene Pharmaceutical

plant

underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 24 0.096/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 140 ug/L 31.5 0.121/day 2-7 Nielsen,PH &

Christensen,TH (1994B)

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 1.7 mg/L 43 0.122/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 10 ug/L 0.154/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 50 ug/L 0.154/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Gloucester landfill, Ottawa,

Canada

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 580 ug/L 21 0.16/day Berwanger,DJ & Barker,JF

(1988)

Benzene Eastern seaboard Contaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 8 0.173/day Davis,JW et. al. (1994)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 10 ug/L 0.198/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 50 ug/L 0.198/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 0.198/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)

Benzene Skidaway River, Georgia River water Lab microcosm 6 ug/L 1 0.2 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.2/day 5 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.2/day 5 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Benzene Skidaway River, Georgia River water Lab microcosm 12 ug/L 1 0.26 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Benzene Indian River County,

Florida

Gasoline spill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 0.277/day Kemblowski,MW et. al.

(1987)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

24

Benzene Soil Lab microcosm 132 mg VOC/kg

soil

9 0.292 mg/day 5 English,CW & Loehr,RC

(1991)

Benzene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 420 ug/L 14 0.326/day Wilson,BH et. al. (1990)

Benzene Skidaway River, Georgia River water Lab microcosm 24 ug/L 1 0.33 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Benzene Sampson County, North

Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 16 0.33/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

Benzene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 450 ug/L 14 0.38/day Wilson,BH et. al. (1990)

Benzene Santa Catarina Island, Brazil Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 9 0.46/day Hunt,CS & Alvarez,PJJ

(1997)

Benzene Sampson County, North

Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 10 0.53/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

Benzene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 340 ug/L 7 0.56/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

Benzene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 5 0.576/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Benzene Santa Catarina Island, Brazil Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 11 0.65/day 4.5 Hunt,CS & Alvarez,PJJ

(1997)

Benzene Grindsted, Jutland,

Denmark

Grindsted

landfill

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 5 0.701/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

Benzene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 50 ug/L 35 0.8/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

Benzene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 3.7 mg/L 7 0.84/day Hutchins,SR (1991)

Benzene Grindsted, Jutland,

Denmark

Grindsted

landfill

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 4 0.877/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Vejen landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 4 0.877/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Vejen landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 4 0.877/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

Benzene Jurere Beach, Florianopolis,

Brazil

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 5 0.922/day Corseuil,HX et. al. (1997)

Benzene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 1000 ug/L 35 0.95/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

Benzene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 35 0.95/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

25

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 3 1.0/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Benzene Northen Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10-110 mg/L 1.09/day Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1991)

Benzene Santa Catarina Island, Brazil Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 2.6 1.5/day Hunt,CS & Alvarez,PJJ

(1997)

Benzene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Vejen landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 2 1.75/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

Benzene Holbaek,Western Sealand,

Denmark

Skellingsted

landfill

Soil Lab microcosm 800-900 ug/L 2.5 1.9/day 0.63 Kjeldsen,P et. al. (1997)

Benzene Santa Catarina Island, Brazil Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 2.25 1.9/day 1 Hunt,CS & Alvarez,PJJ

(1997)

Benzene Holbaek,Western Sealand,

Denmark

Skellingsted

landfill

Soil Lab microcosm 600 ug/L 0.83 3.3/day Kjeldsen,P et. al. (1997)

Benzene Holbaek,Western Sealand,

Denmark

Skellingsted

landfill

Soil Lab microcosm 800-900 ug/L 2.8 3.3/day 1.67 Kjeldsen,P et. al. (1997)

Benzene North Charleston, South

Carolina

JP-4 jet fuel

contamination

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 30 ng/g 105 Limited Aelion,CM & Bradley,PM

(1991)

Benzene Canada Forces Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 4528 ug/L 278 No

biodegradation

American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Benzene Conroe, Texas Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

Benzene NE of Barker's Island,

Superior Bay, WI

Lake water Lab microcosm 20 No

biodegradation

Vaishnav,DD & Babeu,L

(1987)

Benzene Santa Catarina Island, Brazil Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 3 No

biodegradation

Hunt,CS & Alvarez,PJJ

(1997)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 35 No

mineralization

Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 ug/L 35 No

mineralization

Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)
Table 2. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

26

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 35 No

mineralization

Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded

gasoline spill

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 1000 ug/L 35 No

mineralization

Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Benzene North Charleston, South

Carolina

JP-4 jet fuel

contamination

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 ng/g 120 No

mineralization

Aelion,CM & Bradley,PM

(1991)

Benzene North Charleston, South

Carolina

JP-4 jet fuel

contamination

site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 ng/g 120 No

mineralization

Aelion,CM & Bradley,PM

(1991)

Benzene Denmark Municipal

landfill

Leachate Reactor system 50 mg COD/L Biodegrades Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1992)
27

3.1.2. Toluene

Biodegradation of toluene is expected to occur readily in aerobic environments (Table 3). Degradation

is believed to proceed via 3-methylcatechol to CO2 (Ribbons and Eaton, 1992). 3.13 mg of oxygen

are necessary to biodegrade 1 mg of toluene to CO2 and water (Wiedemeier et. al., 1995). This

calculation does not include the energy requirement for cell maintenance and thus is not a conservative

value. 

Most of the located data for toluene under aerobic conditions were for aquifer or soil environments. 

Aquifer field studies at two different locations reported the biodegradation of toluene giving half-life

values ranging from 1.3 (McCarty et. al., 1998) to 77 (American Petroleum Institute, 1994) days. The

longer half-life was associated with an uncontaminated aquifer study. Rate constants measured during a

stream field study were very high giving half-lives less than 1 day in every case (Kim et. al., 1995). 

Biodegradation of toluene was observed as well during several in situ microcosm studies at Vejen City,

Denmark. Half-lives ranged from 1.7 (Nielsen et. al., 1996) to 103 (Holm et. al., 1992) days with an

average half-life of 4.5 days. The high half-life value represents biodegradation in the groundwater only

section of the in situ microcosm; half-life values reached in the aquifer sediment + groundwater section

were significantly lower.

By far the most common type of study used to observe the biodegradation of toluene under aerobic

conditions is the laboratory microcosm. Mineralization half-lives for toluene in lab microcosm studies

ranged from 5 (Fan and Scow, 1993) to 693 days (Aelion et. al., 1989). The average half-life for

mineralization was 36 days. In comparison, microcosm studies measuring primary biodegradation

reported half-lives ranging from <1 (numerous studies, see Table 3) to 495 (Wilson et. al., 1984) days

with an average value of 0.5 days. 

No biodegradation was reported for nine lab microcosm studies. A study by the American Petroleum

Institute, 1994A, reports that toluene was not biodegraded in the presence of 85% methanol over 278

days. This result was not unexpected as sufficient oxygen was available to degrade only 5% of the

initially added methanol. This suggests that anaerobic conditions may have occurred rapidly within this

microcosm. In addition, the bacteria may have preferentially degraded the structurally simpler methanol

or the concentration of methanol added may have been toxic to the indigenous bacterial population. 

Davis and Madsen, 1996, reported the biodegradation of toluene in three different soils under varying

moisture and concentration levels. No biodegradation of toluene was reported in air-dried soils over

30 days; however, toluene added to the same soil, when 100% moisture was present, was biodegraded

with a half-life of less than 1 day. Fan and Scow (1993) reported that toluene was not biodegraded in

soil which had been incubated at a moisture level of 2.5%; however, half-lives of 2 and 71 days were

measured for moisture levels of >16 and 5%, respectively. 

Initial concentrations of up to 50 mg/L (Davis and Madsen, 1996) were reported in these experiments

without obvious deleterious effect. In general, however, initial concentrations of 5 mg/L or less were

utilized. Concentrations of 500 mg/kg soil were shown to be inhibitory to the biodegradation of toluene
28

0

50

100

150

200

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

(Davis and Madsen, 1996) while at concentrations of 50 mg/kg soil or less, half-lives of less than 1 day

were again measured. Similarly, Mu and Scow, 1994 reported that this compound was not degraded

in soil samples exposed to 1000 mg/L toluene. Half-lives reported for the same soil but with toluene

concentrations at 250 and 625 mg/L were 3 and 4 days, respectively. Inhibition of toluene degradation

(present at 20 mg/L) in soil was shown when trichloroethylene was also present at concentrations of

20, 30, 50, and 60 mg/L giving half-lives of 2 days, 5 days, 60 days, and no biodegradation over the

study period (42 days), respectively (Mu and Scow, 1994). 

Degradation of toluene may also be limited by concentrations of inorganic nutrients in its immediate

environment. Allen-King et. al. (1994) reports that nitrogen limitation caused the degradation rate of

toluene to be almost immeasurably slow in uncontaminated soil grab samples without added nutrients. 

However, when nitrogen was added, a half-life of 4.5 days was obtained for this compound in the same

soil. Pristine aquifer sediment was unable to biodegrade benzene over a 7 day period; however, when

creosote-contaminated aquifer sediment was used, greater than 18-22% of the initially added toluene

was biodegraded over 7 days (Wilson et. al., 1986).

Laboratory column experiments by Alvarez et. al. (1998) report that toluene was not biodegraded

under certain circumstances. Biodegradation of toluene was observed in laboratory columns fed with

acetate and benzoate as cosubstrates. However, preacclimated sediment exposed to acetate and

columns which received no preacclimation were unable to biodegrade toluene while a column which

had been preacclimated to benzoate readily biodegraded this compound.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of toluene is 0.2/day (N = 182); a range of not

biodegraded to 42.5/day is reported. The median for the mineralization rate constant of toluene is

0.00895/day (N = 31); a range of not biodegraded to 0.149/day is reported. The frequency

distribution histograms for this data are shown in figures 2a and 2b. Toluene is expected to biodegrade

readily under most aerobic environmental conditions.

Figure 2a. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values for

toluene.
29

0

5

10

15

20

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 2b. Frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values for toluene.
30

Table 3. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for toluene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.009/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.009/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.013/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

Toluene Edwards AFB, California TCE-contaminated

GW plume

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 1.8-2.7 mg/L 10 0.52-0.56/day McCarty,PL et. al. (1998)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Field 172-381 mg/m3 13.7/day Kim,H et. al. (1995)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Field 59-214 mg/m3 19.44/day Kim,H et. al. (1995)

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 1.75 mg/L 270 37 mg/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Field 127-332 mg/m3 4.8/day Kim,H et. al. (1995)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Field 149-325 mg/m3 41.52/day Kim,H et. al. (1995)

Toluene Contaminated Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

100 mg/L 24 0.0018/day Chang,BV et. al. (1997)

Toluene Contaminated Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

100 mg/L 24 0.00214/day Chang,BV et. al. (1997)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

120 ug/L 90 0.0025/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Toluene Clarke County, Georgia University of

Georgia landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

24.4 ug/L 3 0.031/day Armstrong,AQ et. al. (1991)

Toluene Clarke County, Georgia University of

Georgia landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

26.4 ug/L 3 0.031/day Armstrong,AQ et. al. (1991)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

31

Toluene Clarke County, Georgia University of

Georgia landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

37.2 ug/L 3 0.032/day Armstrong,AQ et. al. (1991)

Toluene Clarke County, Georgia University of

Georgia landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

24.9 ug/L 3 0.037/day 0.5-1 Armstrong,AQ et. al. (1991)

Toluene Clarke County, Georgia University of

Georgia landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

31.4 ug/L 3 0.037/day Armstrong,AQ et. al. (1991)

Toluene Clarke County, Georgia University of

Georgia landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

30.6 ug/L 3 0.040/day 0.5-1 Armstrong,AQ et. al. (1991)

Toluene Clarke County, Georgia University of

Georgia landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

21.4 ug/L 3 0.043/day Armstrong,AQ et. al. (1991)

Toluene Clarke County, Georgia University of

Georgia landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

29.7 ug/L 3 0.044/day Armstrong,AQ et. al. (1991)

Toluene Clarke County, Georgia University of

Georgia landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

27.4 ug/L 3 0.046/day Armstrong,AQ et. al. (1991)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

120 ug/L 90 0.05/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Toluene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1.7 mg/L 0.087/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Toluene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1.7 mg/L 0.093/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Toluene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1.7 mg/L 0.10/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Toluene Ottawa, Canada South Gloucester

landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1000 ug/L 18 0.105/day Harrison,EM & Barker,JF (1987)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

32

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile rock wool

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 30 0.11/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Toluene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1.7 mg/L 0.12/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 23 0.126/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Toluene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1.7 mg/L 0.13/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Toluene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1.7 mg/L 0.14/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Toluene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile rock wool

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 23 0.172/day 10 Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Toluene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1.7 mg/L 0.19/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Toluene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1.7 mg/L 0.19/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Toluene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 33 0.254/day 24 Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile quartz

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 12 0.276/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Toluene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile quartz

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 9 0.303/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

33

Toluene Industrial site Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

32 mg/L 16.25 0.327/day 12.5 Williams,RA et. al. (1997)

Toluene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

110 ug/L 38 0.39/day 14 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

Toluene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

110 ug/L 78 0.42/day 56 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

Toluene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

110 ug/L 18 0.65/day 3.7 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

Toluene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

110 ug/L 18 0.65/day 3.7 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

Toluene Ottawa, Canada South Gloucester

landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1100 ug/L 6 0.898/day Harrison,EM & Barker,JF (1987)

Toluene Grindsted, Denmark Heavy oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

500-1000 ug/L 6.2 1.0-1.11/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Toluene Sandbjerg and

Gassehaven, Denmark

Fuel oil + gasoline

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

110 ug/L 10 1.0/day 0.7 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

Toluene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

110 ug/L 9 1.03/day Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

Toluene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

110 ug/L 11 1.26/day 3.6 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

Toluene Ottawa, Canada South Gloucester

landfill

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

1500 ug/L 4 1.38/day Harrison,EM & Barker,JF (1987)

Toluene Denmark Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

200-1000 ug/L 5 2.65-3.45/day 3 Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Toluene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

500-1000 ug/L 2.3 2.67-2.96/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Toluene Los Angeles, California Gasoline

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

561 ug/L 0.96 3.8/day Karlson,U &

Frankenberger,WTJr (1989)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

34

Toluene Los Angeles, California Gasoline

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

561 ug/L 0.71 5.7/day Karlson,U &

Frankenberger,WTJr (1989)

Toluene Ganlose, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

500-1000 ug/L 6 No

biodegradation

Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Toluene Horsholm, Denmark Gasoline

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

500-1000 ug/L 6 No

biodegradation

Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Toluene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 14 0.354/day 1 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

Toluene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 14 0.354/day 1 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

Toluene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 14 0.354/day 1 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.0067/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.033/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.039/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.042/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 0.1/day 7 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 0.2/day 1 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Toluene Vejen City, Denmark Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 0.4/day 5 Bjerg,PL et. al. (1996)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 0.4/day 5 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Toluene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 20 mg/L 4.6 0.651/day Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

35

Toluene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 20 mg/L 4.6 0.651/day Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)

Toluene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 183 ug/L 2 1-8 ug/day Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Toluene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 183 ug/L 9 3-6 ug/day 3 Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Toluene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 183 ug/L 8 4-6 ug/day 3 Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Toluene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 150 ug/L 2.5 Biodegrades Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Toluene Ada, Oklahoma Soil Lab column 0.20 mg/L Biodegrades Wilson,JT et. al. (1981)

Toluene Ada, Oklahoma Soil Lab column 0.90 mg/L Biodegrades Wilson,JT et. al. (1981)

Toluene Eastern Pennsylvania Gasoline

contaminated site

Soil Lab column 3 Biodegrades Venkatraman,SN et. al. (1998)

Toluene Eastern Pennsylvania Gasoline

contaminated site

Soil Lab column 3 Biodegrades Venkatraman,SN et. al. (1998)

Toluene Skaelskor, Denmark Uncontaminated Fractured clay Lab column 3.2 Biodegrades Broholm,K et. al. (1995)

Toluene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 150 ug/L 3 No

biodegradation

Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Toluene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 150 ug/L 3 No

biodegradation

Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

Toluene Traverse City, Michigan Uncontaminated

landfill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 0.1-100 ng/g 68 0.001/day 10 Aelion,CM et. al. (1989)

Toluene Pickett, Oklahoma Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 0.0014/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1984)

Toluene Fort Polk, Louisiana Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 0.0019/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1984)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0019/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Fort Polk, Louisiana Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 0.003/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1984)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0032/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

36

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 1000 ug/L 42 0.0033/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0033/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0035/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 ug/L 42 0.00362/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 267 ug/L 42 0.0037/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 28 0.0040/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 42 0.0043/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.00503/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 35 ug/L 42 0.0054/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0061/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0061/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.00786/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0083/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0096/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

37

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 35 0.0097/day 16.7 Fan,S & Scow,KM (1993)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.011-

0.017/day

Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0115/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 27.7 0.0115/day 10 Mu,DY & Scow,KM (1994)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0117/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.013/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 ug/g 30 0.013/day Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0135/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Traverse City, Michigan Contaminated with

aviation fuel

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 0.1-100 ng/g 68 0.014/day Aelion,CM et. al. (1989)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0162/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Lula, Oklahoma Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 104 ug/kg 11 0.0169/day Swindoll,CM et. al. (1988)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 250 ug/L 0.017 mg/kg

sed/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 50 ug/g 30 0.017/day Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L 0.02 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 ng/L 28 0.0218/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 ug/g 30 0.022/day 1.9 Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

38

Toluene Hanahan, South Carolina Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 umol/kg 0.022/day Bradley,PM & Chapelle,FH

(1995)

Toluene Conroe, Texas Creosote waste site Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 0.023-

0.029/day

Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 230 ug/L 0.33 0.025 mg/kg

sed/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 ug/g 30 0.025/day Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 250 ug/L 0.026 mg/kg

sed/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)

Toluene Livermore, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 7.4 0.026/day 2.5 Fuller,ME et. al. (1995)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 ug/g 30 0.027/day 5.7 Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 ug/g 30 0.027/day Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 2.5 mg/L 74 0.029/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

Toluene East Texas Wood-creosoting

plant

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 84 0.03-0.035/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1983B)

Toluene East Texas Wood-creosoting

plant

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 84 0.03-0.035/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1983B)

Toluene Livermore, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 91 0.0312/day Fuller,ME et. al. (1995)

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 3.8 mg/L 80 0.032/day 13 Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 839 ug/L 120 0.037/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 0.038 mg/kg

sed/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

39

Toluene Cooper River, South

Carolina

Oil contamination River water Lab microcosm 6 ug/L 1 0.041 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Toluene Lula, Texas Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 0.041/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 1261 ug/L 120 0.047/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Toluene Cooper River, South

Carolina

Oil contamination River water Lab microcosm 6 ug/L 1 0.048 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Toluene Georgia coast Seawater Lab microcosm 20 ug/L 1 0.05 ug/L/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1976)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.05/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.05/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 48.5 mg/L 7.5 0.052/day 2 Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Livermore, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 91 0.0576/day Fuller,ME et. al. (1995)

Toluene Cooper River, South

Carolina

Oil contamination River water Lab microcosm 6 ug/L 1 0.058 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L 0.06 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 32 mg/L 45 0.0625/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.067/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 250 ug/L 0.068 mg/kg

rock/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)

Toluene Hanahan, South Carolina Petroleum

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 umol/kg 0.071/day Bradley,PM & Chapelle,FH

(1995)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

40

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 48.5 mg/L 7.5 0.080/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 350 ug/L 21 0.083/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.083/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 1242 ug/L 50 0.088/day 7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Toluene Livermore, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 7.4 0.088/day 2.5 Fuller,ME et. al. (1995)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.09/day Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 200 ug/g 0.098/day 4.8 Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 230 ug/L 0.1 mg/kg

sed/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 21 0.107/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L 0.11 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Skidaway River, Georgia River water Lab microcosm 20 ug/L 0.5 0.12 ug/L/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1976)

Toluene Skidaway River, Georgia River water Lab microcosm 20 ug/L 0.75 0.12 ug/L/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1976)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 48.5 mg/L 12.5 0.123/day 9 Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 27.7 0.136/day 10.8 Mu,DY & Scow,KM (1994)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 10 0.137/day 3.3 Fan,S & Scow,KM (1993)

Toluene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 240 ug/L 14 0.140/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 5 mg/L 10 0.149/day 3.3 Fan,S & Scow,KM (1993)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

41

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 250 ug/L 0.15 mg/kg

rock/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)

Toluene Skidaway River, Georgia River water Lab microcosm 20 ug/L 1 0.150 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 48.5 mg/L 8 0.150/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 1.25 mg/L 32 0.156/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 25 mg/L 24 0.156/day 12.5 Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 250 ug/L 0.16 mg/kg

rock/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)

Toluene Gloucester landfill,

Ottawa, Canada

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 0.16/day Berwanger,DJ & Barker,JF

(1988)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 48.5 mg/L 12.5 0.161/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 625 mg/L 42 0.169/day 13.3 Mu,DY & Scow,KM (1994)

Toluene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 24 0.192/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.2/day 3 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.2/day 5 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L 0.22 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 36.5 0.224/day 13.3 Fan,S & Scow,KM (1993)

Toluene Livermore, California Gasoline spill site Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 9.2 0.229/day Fuller,ME et. al. (1995)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

42

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 250 ug/L 0.23 mg/kg

rock/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)

Toluene Naval Air Station, Adak,

Alaska

JP-5 Jet fuel

contamination

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 umol/kg 0.23/day Bradley,PM & Chapelle,FH

(1995)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 143 ug/L 26.6 0.233/day 2-7 Nielsen,PH & Christensen,TH

(1994B)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 250 mg/L 25 0.236/day 8.3 Mu,DY & Scow,KM (1994)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.38 ug/L 0.24 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Naval Air Station, Adak,

Alaska

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 umol/kg 0.24/day Bradley,PM & Chapelle,FH

(1995)

Toluene Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 ug/g 0.26/day Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 310 ug/L 14 0.28/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

Toluene Santa Catarina Island,

Brazil

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 13 0.31/day 5 Hunt,CS & Alvarez,PJJ (1997)

Toluene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 7 0.322/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Toluene Livermore, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 7.4 0.325/day Fuller,ME et. al. (1995)

Toluene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 380 ug/L 14 0.327/day Wilson,BH et. al. (1990)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.2-0.4 mg/L 7 0.329/day McNabb,JF et. al. (1981)

Toluene Sampson County, North

Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 16 0.33/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

Toluene Lula, Texas Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 0.344/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 25.6 0.354/day 9.4 Mu,DY & Scow,KM (1994)

Toluene Lula, Texas Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 0.36/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

Toluene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 420 ug/L 14 0.363/day Wilson,BH et. al. (1990)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

43

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 25 mg/L 5 0.380/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 5 0.383/day Fan,S & Scow,KM (1993)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 5 0.383/day Fan,S & Scow,KM (1993)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 5 0.436/day Fan,S & Scow,KM (1993)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 ug/g 0.46/day 5.7 Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L 0.48 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 200 ug/g 0.49/day 7.8 Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 ug/g 0.53/day Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 ug/g 0.53/day 0.71 Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Sampson County, North

Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 10 0.53/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 50 ug/g 0.57/day 2.8 Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 325 ug/L 7 0.60/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 16.7 0.60/day 12.5 Fan,S & Scow,KM (1993)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L 0.62 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Grindsted, Jutland,

Denmark

Grindsted landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 4 0.63/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Vejen landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 4 0.63/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Vejen landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 4 0.63/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L 0.65 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L 0.65 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

44

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Contaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 2.5 mg/L 1.4 0.654/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Grindsted, Jutland,

Denmark

Grindsted landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 7 0.701/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 ug/g 0.72/day 5.9 Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 7.5 0.737/day Mu,DY & Scow,KM (1994)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 100 mg/L 8.75 0.746/day Mu,DY & Scow,KM (1994)

Toluene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2.8 mg/L 7 0.80/day Hutchins,SR (1991)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 48.5 mg/L 12 0.853/day 8.3 Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Northen Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10-100 mg/L 0.91/day Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1991)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 ug/g 1.04/day 2.5 Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Holbaek,Western

Sealand, Denmark

Skellingsted

landfill

Soil Lab microcosm 450-600 ug/L 2.5 1.15/day Kjeldsen,P et. al. (1997)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 3.9 ug/L 1.2 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Contaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 2.5 mg/L 32 hours 1.29/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Contaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 2.5 mg/L 1.4 1.29/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 250 ug/L 1.5 mg/kg

sed/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 ug/g 1.5/day 1.9 Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene East Drainage Ditch,

Massachusetts

Tanning and

chemical

manufacture

Stream water Lab microcosm 250 ug/L 1.6 mg/kg

sed/hr

Cohen,BA et. al. (1995)

Toluene Livermore, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 2.5 1.66/day Fuller,ME et. al. (1995)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

45

Toluene Sandbjerg and

Gassehaven, Denmark

Fuel oil + gasoline

contamination

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 110 ug/L 6 1.76/day 0.7 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

Toluene Jurere Beach,

Florianopolis, Brazil

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 2 1.90/day Corseuil,HX et. al. (1997)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 3 1.96/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Contaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 25 mg/L 7.5 hours 11.4/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L 14.4 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Holbaek,Western

Sealand, Denmark

Skellingsted

landfill

Soil Lab microcosm 450-600 ug/L 3.5 2.0/day 2.5 Kjeldsen,P et. al. (1997)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 6.25 2.07/day 3.75 Mu,DY & Scow,KM (1994)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Contaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 25 mg/L 8 hours 2.08/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 45.8 mg/L 21.7 mg/kg/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1996)

Toluene Riverside, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 140 mg/L 34.2/day Jin,Y et. al. (1994)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 18.2 mg/L 35.3 mg/kg/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1996)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 8.32 mg/L 35.6 mg/kg/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1996)

Toluene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Vejen landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 2. 4.61/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

Toluene Holbaek,Western

Sealand, Denmark

Skellingsted

landfill

Soil Lab microcosm 400-500 ug/L 0.83 4.7/day Kjeldsen,P et. al. (1997)

Toluene Livermore, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 1 4.71/day Fuller,ME et. al. (1995)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Contaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 2.5 mg/L 10 hours 4.73/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

46

Toluene Riverside, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 140 mg/L 42.5/day Jin,Y et. al. (1994)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L 58 ng/L/day Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Contaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 2.5 mg/L 5 hours 7.22/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 10.57 mg/L 8.67 mg/kg/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1996)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 24 mg/L 9.07 mg/kg/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1996)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Contaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 2.5 mg/L 10 hours 9.39/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 23.7 mg/L 9.61 mg/kg/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1996)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 4.24 mg/L 9.85 mg/kg/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1996)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 9 mg/L 9.86 mg/kg/day Allen-King,RM et. al. (1996)

Toluene Port Valdez, Alaska Oil contamination Seawater Lab microcosm 0.33-0.42 ug/L >170-210

ng/L/day

Button,DK et. al. (1981A)

Toluene Riverside, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 11.1 mg/L 6 Biodegrades Jin,Y et. al. (1994)

Toluene Riverside, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 25.1 mg/L 12 Biodegrades Jin,Y et. al. (1994)

Toluene Riverside, California Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 27.6 mg/L 2.5 Biodegrades Jin,Y et. al. (1994)

Toluene North Charleston, South

Carolina

JP-4 jet fuel

contamination site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 43 ng/g 105 Limited Aelion,CM & Bradley,PM (1991)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 ug/g No

biodegradation

Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)

Toluene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 500 ug/g No

biodegradation

Davis,JW & Madsen,S (1996)
Table 3. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time

Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

47

Toluene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 2846 ug/L 278 No

biodegradation

American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Toluene Canadian Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 25 mg/L 33 No

biodegradation

Allen-King,RM et. al. (1994)

Toluene Conroe, Texas Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

Toluene Pickett, Oklahoma Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1984)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 32 No

biodegradation

Fan,S & Scow,KM (1993)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 1000 mg/L 42 No

biodegradation

Mu,DY & Scow,KM (1994)

Toluene Yolo County, California Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 27.7 No

biodegradation

Mu,DY & Scow,KM (1994)

Toluene North Charleston, South

Carolina

JP-4 jet fuel

contamination site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 17 ng/g 120 No

mineralization

Aelion,CM & Bradley,PM (1991)

Toluene Denmark Municipal landfill Leachate Reactor system 50 mg COD/L Biodegrades Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1992)
48

0

10

20

0 1 2 3 4 5

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

3.1.3. Ethylbenzene

Ethylbenzene is moderately degradable in the presence of oxygen (Table 4). Degradation is thought to

proceed via 3-ethylcatechol to CO2 (Ribbons and Eaton, 1992). 3.17 mg of oxygen are necessary to

biodegrade 1 mg of ethylbenzene to CO2 and water (Wiedemeier et. al., 1995).

As for the other BTEX compounds, most of the located data for ethylbenzene under aerobic conditions

were from aquifer environments. Field studies at two different locations reported the biodegradation of

ethylbenzene. Half-life values ranged from 87 to 231 days for an uncontaminated aquifer study

(American Petroleum Institute, 1994). No in situ microcosm studies were found for this compound. 

Only one study was found which measured the rate of mineralization for ethylbenzene. A mineralization

half-life of 19 days was calculated in river water (Ludzack and Ettinger, 1963).

By far the most common type of study used to observe the biodegradation of ethylbenzene under

aerobic conditions is the laboratory microcosm. Half-lives ranging from 1 (Hutchins, 1991) to 231

(American Petroleum Institute, 1994A) days with an average value of 4.4 days were measured. The

high half-life reported by the American Petroleum Institute represents a microcosm study where 85%

methanol was present. When methanol was not present, a half-life of 22 days was obtained. Initial

concentrations of up to 20.6 mg/L (Ludzack and Ettinger, 1963) were reported in these experiments

without obvious deleterious effect. In general, however, initial concentrations of less than 2 mg/L were

utilized. No biodegradation was reported for one lab column study. Anid et. al. (1991) reports that

columns supplemented with nitrate were unable to degrade ethylbenzene as well as meta- and paraxylenes and benzene. The nitrate-amended columns may have exhibited nitrate-reducing conditions as

over 60 mg/L total BTEX mixture was added. However, no attempt was made by the authors to

distinguish through end product measurements whether conditions remained aerobic or became nitratereducing. 

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of ethylbenzene, considering all studies, is

0.113/day (N = 21). A range of 0.003 to 4.8/day is reported. The frequency distribution histogram

for this data is shown in figure 3. Ethylbenzene is expected to biodegrade fairly readily under most

aerobic environmental conditions.

Figure 3. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

ethylbenzene.
49

Table 4. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for ethylbenzene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Ethylbenzene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.003/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

Ethylbenzene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.007/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

Ethylbenzene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.008/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

Ethylbenzene Amsterdam, The

Netherlands

Dune infiltration

site

Sediment Field <0.05 ug/L 7-49 Biodegrades Bosma,TNP et. al. (1996)

Ethylbenzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

169 ug/L 0.14/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Ethylbenzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

169 ug/L 0.17/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Ethylbenzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

169 ug/L 25 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Ethylbenzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

169 ug/L 32 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Ethylbenzene Industrial facility,

New Jersey

Vinyl wall covering

facility

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

50 mg/L 1.67 4.8/day Graves,DA et. al. (1994)

Ethylbenzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

169 ug/L 40 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Ethylbenzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

169 ug/L 41 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)
Table 4. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

50

Ethylbenzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

169 ug/L 46 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Ethylbenzene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

169 ug/L 59 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

Ethylbenzene Amsterdam, The

Netherlands

Dune infiltration

site

Sediment Lab column 0.5 ug/L Biodegrades Bosma,TNP et. al. (1996)

Ethylbenzene Amsterdam, The

Netherlands

Dune infiltration

site

Sediment Lab column 10-20 ug/L Biodegrades Bosma,TNP et. al. (1996)

Ethylbenzene Wageningen, The

Netherlands

Sediment Lab column 10-20 ug/L Biodegrades Bosma,TNP et. al. (1996)

Ethylbenzene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 3 mg/L 4.6 No

biodegradation

Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)

Ethylbenzene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 359 ug/L 278 0.003/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Ethylbenzene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.018/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Ethylbenzene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.022/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Ethylbenzene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.025/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Ethylbenzene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 92 ug/L 120 0.031/day 7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Ethylbenzene Ohio River River water Lab microcosm 20.6 mg/L 15 0.036/day Ludzack,FJ & Ettinger,MB

(1963)
Table 4. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

51

Ethylbenzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 225 ug/L 21 0.074/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Ethylbenzene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 134 ug/L 25 0.077/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Ethylbenzene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 139 ug/L 50 0.088/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Ethylbenzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 205 ug/L 21 0.0915/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Ethylbenzene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 24 0.111/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Ethylbenzene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 16 0.115/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Ethylbenzene Gloucester landfill,

Ottawa, Canada

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 0.16/day Berwanger,DJ & Barker,JF

(1988)

Ethylbenzene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 240 ug/L 7 0.202/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Ethylbenzene Sampson County,

North Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 16 0.33/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

Ethylbenzene Sampson County,

North Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 10 0.53/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

Ethylbenzene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 1.85 mg/L 7 0.75/day Hutchins,SR (1991)
52

3.1.4. o-Xylene

o-Xylene is moderately degradable in the presence of oxygen (Table 5). Degradation is thought to

proceed via 3,4-dimethylcatechol to CO2 (Gibson and Subramanian, 1984). 3.17 mg of oxygen are

necessary to biodegrade 1 mg of o-xylene to CO2 and water (Wiedemeier et. al., 1995).

As for the other BTEX compounds, most of the located data for o-xylene under aerobic conditions

were for aquifer environments. Two different field studies from the same location reported the

biodegradation of o-xylene giving half-life values ranging from 116 to 173 days (American Petroleum

Institute, 1994). Biodegradation of o-xylene was observed as well during in situ microcosm studies at

Vejen City, Denmark. Half-lives ranged from 7 (Nielsen et. al., 1996) to 408 days (Holm et. al.,

1992) days with an average half-life of 18 days. The high half-life value represents biodegradation in

the groundwater only section of the in situ microcosm; half-life values obtained in the aquifer sediment

+ groundwater section were significantly lower.

By far the most common type of study used to observe the biodegradation of o-xylene under aerobic

conditions is the laboratory microcosm. Half-lives ranging from 1 (Hutchins, 1991) to 41 (Holm et. al.,

1992) days with an average value of 4.3 days (rate constant of 2.42/day reported by Aamand et. al.,

1989 was not used in this calculation) were measured. Initial concentrations of up to 20 mg/L were

reported in these experiments without obvious deleterious effect. In general, however, initial

concentrations of less than 2 mg/L were utilized. 

No biodegradation was reported for several microcosm studies. A study by the American Petroleum

Institute (1994A) reports that o-xylene, as well as benzene, toluene and both meta- and para-xylene,

were not biodegraded in the presence of 85% methanol over 278 days. This result was not unexpected

as sufficient oxygen was available to degrade only 5% of the initially added methanol (over 7 grams

were initially added). This suggests that anaerobic conditions may have occurred rapidly within this

microcosm. In addition, the bacteria may have preferentially degraded the structurally simpler methanol

or the concentration of methanol added may have been toxic to the indigenous bacterial population. 

Pristine aquifer sediment was unable to biodegrade o-xylene over a 7 day period; however, when

creosote-contaminated aquifer sediment was used, greater than 19-21% of the initially added o-xylene

was biodegraded over 7 days. Thomas et. al. (1990) reported that o-xylene was readily biodegraded

in uncontaminated aquifer material with a half-life of 7 days but when either contaminated or

biostimulated aquifer material was used instead, no biodegradation was reported over 21 days. 

Laboratory microcosms which contained double concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients

were able to significantly biodegrade a xylene mixture; however, unamended and single nutrient

amendments to the microcosm were insufficient to encourage biodegradation of this mixture (Pugh et.

al., 1996). 

Laboratory column experiments by Broholm et. al. (1995) and Alvarez et. al. (1998) report that oxylene was not biodegraded under certain circumstances. Alvarez et. al. (1998) showed

biodegradation of o-xylene in laboratory columns fed with acetate and benzoate as cosubstrates. 

However, preacclimated sediment exposed to acetate and columns which received no preacclimation

period were unable to biodegrade o-xylene while a column which had been preacclimated to benzoate
53

0

20

40

60

80

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

readily biodegraded o-xylene. Broholm et. al. (1995) were not able to explain their results showing no

to slight biodegradation of o-xylene over an experimental period of 3.5 days. It may be that this time

period was not sufficient for acclimation of the bacterial population within the clay column.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of o-xylene, considering all studies, is

0.054/day (N = 92); a range of not biodegraded to 7.625 is reported. The frequency distribution

histogram for this data is shown in figure 4. o-Xylene is expected to biodegrade readily under most

aerobic environmental conditions.

Figure 4. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values for oxylene.
54

Table 5. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for o-xylene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.004/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.005/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.006/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 1.29 mg/L 270 47 mg/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

120 ug/L 90 0.0017/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

o-Xylene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile rock wool

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 48 0.0067/day 8 Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

295 ug/L 0.0073/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

120 ug/L 90 0.0083/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

o-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

295 ug/L 0.014/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

o-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

295 ug/L 0.020/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

o-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

295 ug/L 0.021/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

o-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

295 ug/L 0.023/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)
Table 5. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

55

o-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

295 ug/L 0.031/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

o-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

295 ug/L 0.038/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 48 0.040/day 8 Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 48 0.0444/day 23 Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile quartz

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 28 0.125/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile quartz

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 23 0.132/day 5 Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

160 ug/L 65 0.16-0.54/day 14 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Groundwater +

sterile rock wool

Groundwater

grab sample

100 ug/L 12 0.201/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

160 ug/L 18 0.62/day 2.4 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

o-Xylene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

160 ug/L 38 0.69/day 24 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

o-Xylene Industrial facility, New

Jersey

Vinyl wall covering

facility

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

50 mg/L 7.5 0.70/day Graves,DA et. al. (1994)

o-Xylene Grindsted, Denmark Heavy oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

500-1000 ug/L 5.2 1.2-1.33/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

o-Xylene Sandbjerg and

Gassehaven, Denmark

Fuel oil + gasoline

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

160 ug/L 10 1.21/day 2 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

o-Xylene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

160 ug/L 10 1.27/day 2.4 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)
Table 5. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

56

o-Xylene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

160 ug/L 11 1.42/day 4.2 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

o-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

295 ug/L 180 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

o-Xylene Horsholm, Denmark Gasoline

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

500-1000 ug/L 2.4 2.6-2.88/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

o-Xylene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

160 ug/L 6 2.69/day 2.4 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

o-Xylene Ganlose, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

500-1000 ug/L 2.1 2.96-3.29/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

o-Xylene Gassehaven, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

500-1000 ug/L 2.1 2.96-3.29/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

o-Xylene Denmark Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

200-1000 ug/L 4.3 6.62-8.63/day 3.5 Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

o-Xylene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 60 0.0808/day 3 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

o-Xylene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 60 0.089/day 8 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

o-Xylene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 75 0.0903/day 24 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

o-Xylene Forlev landfill, Korsoer,

Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 50 0.154/day 20 Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.0017/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Groundwater In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.0033/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.0083/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 0.011/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)
Table 5. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

57

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 0.04/day Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 0.04/day 3 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Denmark Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 100 0.1/day 7 Bjerg,PL et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 0.1/day 7 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 4 mg/L 4.6 0.0625/day 30 Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)

o-Xylene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 4 mg/L 4.6 0.262/day Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)

o-Xylene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 192 ug/L 9 1-3 ug/day 3 Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

o-Xylene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 192 ug/L 2 1-8 ug/day Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

o-Xylene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 192 ug/L 9 2-4 ug/day 3 Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

o-Xylene Aquifer sediment Lab column 0.5 uM 17 Biodegrades Kuhn,EP et. al. (1985)

o-Xylene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 150 ug/L 3 Biodegrades Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

o-Xylene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 150 ug/L 3 No

biodegradation

Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

o-Xylene Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab column 150 ug/L 3 No

biodegradation

Alvarez,PJJ et. al. (1998)

o-Xylene Skaelskor, Denmark Uncontaminated Fractured clay Lab column 3.2 No

biodegradation

Broholm,K et. al. (1995)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.00136/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 24 0.00677/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.017/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.017/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)
Table 5. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

58

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.017/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.02/day Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 141 ug/L 82 0.0248/day 2-7 Nielsen,PH & Christensen,TH

(1994B)

o-Xylene Conroe, Texas Creosote waste site Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 0.025-

0.028/day

Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.025/day Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.03/day Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.03/day Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 168 ug/L 120 0.030/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

o-Xylene East Texas Wood-creosoting

plant

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 84 0.030/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1983B)

o-Xylene East Texas Wood-creosoting

plant

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 84 0.030/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1983B)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.033/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Xylene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 285 ug/L 14 0.035/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 248 ug/L 50 0.047/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 228 ug/L 25 0.048/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 58 0.054/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 54 0.056/day 13 Barker,JF et. al. (1987)
Table 5. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

59

o-Xylene Gloucester landfill,

Ottawa, Canada

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 0.057/day Berwanger,DJ & Barker,JF

(1988)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 16 0.077/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 250 ug/L 14 0.099/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

o-Xylene Grindsted, Jutland,

Denmark

Grindsted landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 23 0.10/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 900 ug/L 25 0.14/day 10 Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Vejen landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 19 0.158/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Vejen landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 19 0.158/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

o-Xylene Grindsted, Denmark Uncontaminated

landfill site

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 23 0.163/day 5 Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Soil Lab microcosm 123 mg VOC/kg

soil

0.227 mg/day 10 English,CW & Loehr,RC (1991)

Xylene Santa Catarina Island,

Brazil

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 0.25/day 5 Hunt,CS & Alvarez,PJJ (1997)

o-Xylene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 370 ug/L 14 0.296/day Wilson,BH et. al. (1990)

o-Xylene Sampson County, North

Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 16 0.33/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

o-Xylene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 390 ug/L 14 0.33/day Wilson,BH et. al. (1990)

o-Xylene Grindsted, Jutland,

Denmark

Grindsted landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 13 0.333/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

o-Xylene Sampson County, North

Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 10 0.53/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

Xylene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 300 ug/L 7 0.56/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 5 0.60/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)
Table 5. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

60

o-Xylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Vejen landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 4 0.75/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1997)

o-Xylene Jurere Beach,

Florianopolis, Brazil

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 8 0.750/day 3 Corseuil,HX et. al. (1997)

o-Xylene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2.3 mg/L 15 0.78/day Hutchins,SR (1991)

o-Xylene Sandbjerg and

Gassehaven, Denmark

Fuel oil + gasoline

contamination

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 160 ug/L 6 2.42/day 2 Aamand,J et. al. (1989)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 No

biodegradation

Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

o-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 544 ug/L 278 No

biodegradation

American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

o-Xylene Conroe, Texas Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

o-Xylene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 260 ug/L 21 No

biodegradation

Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

o-Xylene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 270 ug/L 21 No

biodegradation

Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

o-Xylene Denmark Municipal landfill Leachate Reactor system 50 mg COD/L Biodegrades Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1992)
61

3.1.5. m-Xylene

m-Xylene is moderately degradable in the presence of oxygen (Table 6). Degradation is thought to

proceed via 2,4-dimethylcatechol to CO2 (Gibson and Subramanian, 1984). 3.13 mg of oxygen are

necessary to biodegrade 1 mg of m-xylene to CO2 and water (Wiedemeier et. al., 1995).

As for the other BTEX compounds, most of the located data for m-xylene under aerobic conditions

were for aquifer environments. Two different field studies from the same location reported the

biodegradation of m-xylene giving half-life values ranging from 50 to 77 days (American Petroleum

Institute, 1994). No in situ microcosm studies were found for this compound.

By far the most common type of study used to observe the biodegradation of m-xylene under aerobic

conditions is the laboratory microcosm. Half-lives ranging from 1 (Hutchins, 1991) to 27 (Wilson et.

al., 1986) days with an average value of 4.3 days were measured. Initial concentrations of up to 20

mg/L (Hunt and Alvarez, 1997) were reported in these experiments without obvious deleterious effect. 

In general, however, initial concentrations of less than 2 mg/L were utilized. 

No biodegradation was reported for several microcosm studies. A study by the American Petroleum

Institute, 1994A, reports that m-xylene was not biodegraded in the presence of 85% methanol over

278 days. This result was not unexpected as sufficient oxygen was available to degrade only 5% of the

initially added methanol. In addition, the bacteria may have preferentially degraded the structurally

simpler methanol or the concentration of methanol added may have been toxic to the indigenous

bacterial population. Laboratory microcosms which contained double concentrations of nitrogen and

phosphorus nutrients were able to significantly biodegrade a xylene mixture; however, unamended and

single nutrient amendments to the microcosm were insufficient to encourage biodegradation of this

mixture (Pugh et. al., 1996). Pristine aquifer sediment was unable to biodegrade m-xylene over a 7-

day period; however, when creosote-contaminated aquifer sediment was used, greater than 19-22% of

the initially added m-xylene was biodegraded over 7 days. Anid et. al. (1991) report that columns

supplemented with hydrogen peroxide but not columns supplemented with nitrate were able to degrade

m-xylene. The nitrate-amended columns may have exhibited nitrate-reducing conditions as over 60

mg/L BTEX mixture was added. However, no attempt was made by the authors to distinguish through

end product measurements whether conditions remained aerobic or became nitrate-reducing. 

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of m-xylene is 0.057/day (N = 32); a range

from not biodegraded to 0.76/day is reported. The frequency distribution histogram for this data is

shown in figure 5. m-Xylene is expected to biodegrade fairly readily under most aerobic environmental

conditions.
62

0

5

10

15

20

25

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 5. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of mxylene.
63

Table 6. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for m-xylene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

m-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.009/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

m-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.010/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

m-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.014/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

m-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 1.09 mg/L 270 33 mg/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

m-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 0.056/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

m-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 0.06/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

m-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 0.065/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

m-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 0.088/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

m-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 0.1/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

m-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 37 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

m-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 79 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)
Table 6. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

64

m-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 91 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

m-Xylene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 13 mg/L 4.6 0.350/day Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)

m-Xylene Aquifer sediment Lab column 0.5 uM 17 Biodegrades Kuhn,EP et. al. (1985)

m-Xylene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 13 mg/L 4.6 No

biodegradation

Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.00136/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 24 0.00677/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

m-Xylene Conroe, Texas Creosote waste site Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 0.025-

0.029/day

Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

m-Xylene East Texas Wood-creosoting

plant

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 84 0.030/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1983B)

m-Xylene East Texas Wood-creosoting

plant

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 84 0.030/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1983B)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.033/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Xylene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 285 ug/L 14 0.035/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

m-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 216 ug/L 120 0.038/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

m-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 1.1 mg/L 63 0.048/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

m-Xylene Gloucester landfill,

Ottawa, Canada

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 0.057/day Berwanger,DJ & Barker,JF

(1988)
Table 6. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

65

m-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 361 ug/L 50 0.058/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

m-Xylene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 21 0.061/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

m-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 290 ug/L 25 0.076/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 16 0.077/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

m-Xylene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 210 ug/L 7 0.213/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

Xylene Santa Catarina Island,

Brazil

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 0.25/day 5 Hunt,CS & Alvarez,PJJ (1997)

m-Xylene Sampson County, North

Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 16 0.33/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

m-Xylene Sampson County, North

Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 10 0.53/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

Xylene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 300 ug/L 7 0.56/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

m-Xylene Granger, Indiana Unleaded gasoline

spill site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 250 ug/L 7 0.687/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1990)

m-Xylene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 7 0.76/day Hutchins,SR (1991)

m-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 872 ug/L 278 No

biodegradation

American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

m-Xylene Conroe, Texas Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 7 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1986)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 No

biodegradation

Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)
66

3.1.6. p-Xylene

p-Xylene is moderately degradable in the presence of oxygen (Table 7). Degradation is thought to

proceed via 3,6-dimethylcatechol to CO2 (Gibson and Subramanian, 1984). 3.13 mg of oxygen are

necessary to biodegrade 1 mg of p-xylene to CO2 and water (Wiedemeier et. al., 1995).

As for the other BTEX compounds, most of the located data for p-xylene under aerobic conditions

were for aquifer environments. Three field studies from two different locations reported the

biodegradation of p-xylene giving half-life values ranging from 49 (Staffer et. al., 1994) to 231 days

(American Petroleum Institute, 1994). No in situ microcosm studies were found for this compound.

By far the most common type of study used to observe the biodegradation of p-xylene under aerobic

conditions is the laboratory microcosm. Half-lives ranging from 1 (Chiang et. al., 1986) to 28

(American Petroleum Institute, 1994A) days with an average value of 4.4 days were reported. Initial

concentrations of up to 20 mg/L were reported in these experiments without obvious deleterious effect. 

In general, however, initial concentrations of less than 2 mg/L were utilized. 

No biodegradation was reported for two microcosm studies. A study by the American Petroleum

Institute, 1994A, reports that p-xylene was not biodegraded in the presence of 85% methanol over 278

days. This result was not unexpected as sufficient oxygen was available to degrade only 5% of the

initially added methanol. In addition, the bacteria may have preferentially degraded the structurally

simpler methanol or the concentration of methanol added may have been toxic to the indigenous

bacterial population. Laboratory microcosms which contained double concentrations of nitrogen and

phosphorus nutrients were able to significantly biodegrade a xylene mixture; however, unamended and

single nutrient amendments to the microcosm were insufficient to encourage biodegradation of this

mixture (Pugh et. al., 1996). Anid et. al. (1991) reports that columns supplemented with hydrogen

peroxide but not columns supplemented with nitrate were able to degrade p-xylene. The nitrateamended columns may have exhibited nitrate-reducing conditions as over 60 mg/L BTEX mixture was

added. However, no attempt was made by the authors to distinguish through end product

measurements whether conditions remained aerobic or became nitrate-reducing. 

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of p-xylene, considering all studies, is

0.052/day (N = 27); a range of not biodegraded to 0.56/day is reported. The frequency distribution

histogram for this data is shown in figure 6. p-Xylene is expected to biodegrade fairly readily under

most aerobic environmental conditions.
67

0

5

10

15

20

25

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 6. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of pxylene.
68

Table 7. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for p-xylene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

p-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.003/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

p-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.006/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

p-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 476 0.007/day American Petroleum Institute

(1994)

p-Xylene Columbus Air Force

Base, Columbus, Miss.

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 224 0.0141/day Stauffer,TB et. al. (1994)

p-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 1.08 mg/L 270 55 mg/day Barker,JF et. al. (1987)

p-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 0.056/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

p-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 0.060/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

p-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 0.065/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

p-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 0.088/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

p-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 0.10/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)
Table 7. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

69

p-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 37 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

p-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 79 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

p-Xylene Uiterburen, The

Netherlands

Natural gas

production siteBTEX

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

310 ug/L 91 ug/L/day Morgan,P et. al. (1993)

p-Xylene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 13 mg/L 4.6 0.350/day Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)

p-Xylene Aquifer sediment Lab column 0.5 uM 17 Biodegrades Kuhn,EP et. al. (1985)

p-Xylene Northern Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab column 13 mg/L 4.6 No

biodegradation

Anid,PJ et. al. (1993)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.00136/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 24 0.00677/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

p-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 85 ug/L 120 0.025/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.033/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Xylene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 285 ug/L 14 0.035/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

p-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 133 ug/L 50 0.044/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)
Table 7. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

70

p-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 143 ug/L 25 0.048/day <7 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

p-Xylene Gloucester landfill,

Ottawa, Canada

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 300 ug/L 21 0.057/day 5 Berwanger,DJ & Barker,JF

(1988)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 16 0.077/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Xylene Santa Catarina Island,

Brazil

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 0.25/day 5 Hunt,CS & Alvarez,PJJ (1997)

p-Xylene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 370 ug/L 14 0.30/day Wilson,BH et. al. (1990)

p-Xylene Sampson County, North

Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 16 0.33/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

p-Xylene Traverse City, MI JP-4 jet fuel spill Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 390 ug/L 14 0.382/day Wilson,BH et. al. (1990)

p-Xylene Sampson County, North

Carolina

Gasoline

contaminated site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 2 mg/L 10 0.53/day Borden,RC et. al. (1997)

Xylene Michigan Gas plant facility Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 300 ug/L 7 0.56/day Chiang,CY et. al. (1986)

p-Xylene Canada Forces Base,

Borden, Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 319 ug/L 278 No

biodegradation

American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Xylene Pharmaceutical

plant underground

tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 No

biodegradation

Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)
71

3.2. PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon) Compounds

PAH compounds are ubiquitous compounds in the environment due to their production during

incomplete combustion and pyrolytic processes. In addition, effluents from wood-preserving

(creosoting sites), refinery and oil waste, waste incineration, coal gasification and liquification, and coal

tar distillation sites often provide high concentrations of PAH compounds (Cerniglia, 1992). 

Structurally, PAHs are considered to have two or more fused benzene ring structures in various

arrangements. This database includes several PAHs including naphthalene (2 rings), fluorene (3 rings),

benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, fluoranthene, and pyrene (4 rings), and benzo(a)pyrene (5 rings). Based

on pure culture studies, bacterial biodegradation of PAHs is believed to proceed via oxidation of the

ring structure using dioxygenase enzymes in the presence of molecular oxygen. The cis-dihydrodiol is

then dehydrogenated forming the catechol which leaves the aromatic ring open to enzymatic cleavage

by another dioxygenase activity (Cerniglia, 1992). The two hydroxyl groups must be located either

ortho or para to each other for ring cleavage to occur. 

The lower molecular weight PAH compounds are generally more rapidly degraded than the higher

molecular weight PAH compounds. This was shown by Park et. al. (1990), in a study investigating the

biodegradation of 14 PAH compounds in two different soils. Compounds with two or three rings were

extensively degraded while, in general, compounds with four or five rings were resistant to

biodegradation. Sorption of the PAH compound to the soil or sediment appears to strongly affect its

ability to be biodegraded. Maliszewska-Kordybach (1998) examined the physical properties and their

correlation to the biodegradation rate reported for four PAH compounds in ten different soils varying in

pH and organic matter content. The length of time the PAH was in contact with the soil had a strong

effect on the importance of the physical property/properties relationship to persistence. Initially,

volatilization, reflected by Henry’s Law constant was correlated to loss of the PAH in soil. However,

over time, other properties such as water solubility and sorption became more important in determining

the resistance of a particular PAH to degradation. Lower water solubilities were correlated to lower

biodegradation rates. Sorption properties, however, showed the strongest influence in determining

PAH persistence in soil. 

Loehr and Webster (1996) reviewed the current literature examining the effect exposure time had on

the biodegradation in soil of compounds ranging from chlorinated aliphatics to PAHs. They proposed

that studies using soil freshly amended with a compound cannot fairly reflect the biodegradative ability

of a compound which has been in contact with soil for a long period of time and has thus undergone

weathering processes. Sorption of compounds mainly by soil organic matter has been indicated, with

increasing organic matter generally resulting in increasing sorption (Manilal and Alexander, 1991;

Maliszewska-Kordybach, 1998). It is believed that a compound in contact with soil for a long time will

be more strongly sorbed, have a lesser ability to desorb and will be generally less bioavailable that a

compound that was recently spiked into the same soil environment. This is reflected experimentally by

an initial period of relatively rapid biodegradation followed by a phase of little to no further loss.
72

Keck et. al. (1989) looked at PAH disappearance as the single compound, in a defined mixture of

PAH compounds, in oil refinery waste, and in a creosote wood-preserving waste. The degradation of

3-ring PAH compounds was similar in all four systems; however, PAH compounds with 4 or more

rings were more rapidly degraded in the oil-refinery and the wood-preserving waste. This suggested to

the authors that co-oxidation of these larger PAH compounds was occurring. Rates of biodegradation

also appear to be higher in environments where the medium is contaminated when compared to sites

which are initially pristine (Herbes and Schwall, 1978; Cerniglia, 1992). 

3.2.1. Naphthalene

Naphthalene is a PAH with a 2-ring structure. In general, PAHs that contain three or fewer rings tend

to be biodegraded more rapidly than compounds containing four or five benzene rings. First-order rate

constants for naphthalene ranged from 0.0064/day to 5.0/day, with the majority of the values occurring

between 0.1 to 1.0/day. These values correspond to half-lives of <1 to 108 days. The highest rate

constant (5.0/day) resulted from polluted groundwater obtained downgradient from a landfill

(Albrechtsen et. al., 1996) while the lowest rate constant was calculated from a field experiment in

which naphthalene was injected into a series of wells and its concentration was measured over time

(MacIntyre et. al., 1993). The primary biodegradation of naphthalene resulted in the following 

products: cis-1,2-dihydroxy-1,2-dihydronaphthalene, 1-naphthol, salicylic acid and catechol (Heitkamp 

& Cerniglia, 1987). 

Naphthalene will be degraded rapidly by indigenous microorganisms in soils and groundwater that have

previously been exposed to PAHs. The rate constant determined from sediment in an oil polluted

stream was 3.36/day while the rate constant determined from sediment in a non-polluted stream was

less than 0.0096/day (Herbes and Schwall, 1978) .

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of naphthalene is 0.308/day (N = 49); a range

of 0 to 5.0/day is reported. The median for the mineralization rate constant of naphthalene is

0.023/day (N = 47); a range of 0 to 3.34/day is reported. The frequency distribution histograms for

this data are shown in figures 7a and 7b.
73

0

5

10

15

20

0 0.7 1.5 2.2 3 3.7 4.5 5.2

Half-Life (days-1)

Frequency

0

10

20

30

40

0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2

Half-Life (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 7a. Frequency distribution histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant

values of naphthalene.

Figure 7b. Frequency distribution histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

naphthalene.
74

Table 8. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for naphthalene

Compound Site Name Site 

Type

Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

Naphthalene Columbus AFB,

Mississippi

Aquifer Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 7.23 mg/L 440 0.0064/day MacIntyre,WG et. al. (1993)

Naphthalene Grindsted,

Denmark

Landfill Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

100 ug/L 50 0.028/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

100 ug/L 10 0.56/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Gainesville,

Florida

Groundwater Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

1.5 mg/L 8 0.77/day 5 Delfino,JJ & Miles,CJ (1985)

Naphthalene Denmark Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

200-1000 ug/L 4.1 1.29-1.68/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Naphthalene Grindsted,

Denmark

Heavy oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

500-1000 ug/L 4.4 1.44-1.57/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Groundwater + 

sterile quartz

Groundwater grab

sample

100 ug/L 10 2.5/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Horsholm,

Denmark

Gasoline

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

500-1000 ug/L 2.1 2.96-3.29/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Naphthalene Ganlose, Denmark Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

500-1000 ug/L 1.5 4.14-4.61/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Naphthalene Grindsted,

Denmark

Heavy oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

4/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Groundwater + 

sterile rock wool

Groundwater grab

sample

100 ug/L 10 5.0/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Gassehaven,

Denmark

Fuel oil

contamination

Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

500-1000 ug/L 1.2 5.18-5.76/day Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

160 ug/L 90 7-13 ug/L/day 15 Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

In situ microcosm 150 ug/L 15 0.069/day Nielsen,PH &

Christensen,TH (1994)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

In situ microcosm 150 ug/L 150 0.2/day and

0.9/day

6-12 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Groundwater In situ microcosm 120 ug/L 90 0.5-0.8

ug/L/day

Holm,PE et. al. (1992)
Table 8. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site 

Type

Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

75

Naphthalene Vejen City,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

In situ microcosm 150 ug/L 0.8/day 6 Bjerg,PL et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

In situ microcosm 150 ug/L 150 0.8/day 6 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Aquifer sediment

+

 groundwater

In situ microcosm 120 ug/L 90 1.5-2.0

ug/L/day

Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.00048-

0.0022/day

Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.00073-

0.010/day

Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.001/day Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.0015/day 6 Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.002-

0.0068/day

Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.0022/day 12 Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Narragansett Bay,

Rhode Island

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm 50 ug/L 0.0022/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Naphthalene Narragansett Bay,

Rhode Island

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm 25 ug/L 0.0023/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.0032/day 6 Durant,ND et. al. (1995)
Table 8. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site 

Type

Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

76

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.0039-

0.0085/day

Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Savannah, Georgia

OilcontaminationRiver water Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/L 0.0039/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Naphthalene Manufactured

gas plant

Soil Lab microcosm 0.36 ug/g 3 0.00432

ug/g/day

Fleming,JT et. al. (1993)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.0051/day 6 Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Narragansett Bay,

Rhode Island

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm 10 ug/L 0.0055/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.0065/day Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.0065/day Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene American

Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Soil Lab microcosm 1 mg/kg 77 0.007/day 7 Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Naphthalene Conroe, Texas Landfill Aquifer sediment

+

 groundwater

Lab microcosm 56 0.0073/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1985)

Naphthalene American

Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Soil Lab microcosm 1 mg/kg 84 0.011/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.011/day Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.011/day Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 12 mg/kg soil 130 0.016/day 75 Pott,BM & Henrysson,T

(1995)
Table 8. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site 

Type

Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

77

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.021/day Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene American

Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 3924.5 mg/kg 84 0.022/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Naphthalene Blekholmstorget,

Stockholm,

Sweden

Creosote

production

facility

Soil Lab microcosm 300 mg/kg 28 0.022/day Ellis,B et. al. (1991)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.023/day Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Degray Resevoir,

Arkansas

Unpolluted

freshwater

reservoir

Lake water + 

sediment

Lab microcosm 500 ng/g 56 0.023/day Heitkamp,MA &

Cerniglia,CE (1987)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.026/day 6 Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 0.030/day Durant,ND et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Lake Chicot,

Arkansas

Freshwater lake Lake water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 500 ng/g 56 0.030/day Heitkamp,MA &

Cerniglia,CE (1987)

Naphthalene Plasticizer

manufacturing

site

Soil Lab microcosm 340 mg/kg 42 0.035/day Fogel,S et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Marquette,

Michigan

Aquifer near a

charcoal

manufacturing

plant

Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 24 0.038/day Klecka,GM et. al. (1990)

Naphthalene Georgia coast Seawater Seawater Lab microcosm 130 ppb 1 0.04 ug/L/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1979)

Naphthalene Redfish Bay,

Texas

Estuary Estuarine water +

 sediment

Lab microcosm 500 ng/g 56 0.040/day Heitkamp,MA &

Cerniglia,CE (1987)
Table 8. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site 

Type

Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

78

Naphthalene American

Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 0.041/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Naphthalene Tamar Estuary,

England

Estuary Estuarine water +

 sediment

Lab microcosm 3 ug/L 1 0.041/day Readman,JW et. al. (1982)

Naphthalene Tamar Estuary,

England

Estuary Estuarine water + 

sediment

Lab microcosm 3 ug/L 1 0.041/day Readman,JW et. al. (1982)

Naphthalene Blekholmstorget,

Stockholm,

Sweden

Creosote

production

facility

Soil Lab microcosm 300 mg/kg 63 0.043/day Ellis,B et. al. (1991)

Naphthalene Marquette,

Michigan

Aquifer near a

charcoal

manufacturing

plant

Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 24 0.043/day Klecka,GM et. al. (1990)

Naphthalene Lula, Oklahoma Aquifer Soil Lab microcosm 0.01-622 ug/g 0.044/day Swindoll,CM et. al. (1988)

Naphthalene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 12 mg/kg soil 80 0.046/day Pott,BM & Henrysson,T

(1995)

Naphthalene Plasticizer

manufacturing

site

Soil Lab microcosm 3800 mg/kg 98 0.049/day Fogel,S et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Georgia

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 40 ppb 2 0.05 ug/L/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1979)

Naphthalene Cooper River,

Charleston, South

Carolina

OilcontaminationRiver water Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/L 0.05/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Naphthalene Tamar Estuary,

England

Estuary Estuarine water + 

sediment

Lab microcosm 3 ug/L 1 0.055/day Readman,JW et. al. (1982)

Naphthalene Marquette,

Michigan

Aquifer near a

charcoal

manufacturing

plant

Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 24 0.063/day Klecka,GM et. al. (1990)

Naphthalene Saucon Creek,

Bethlehem,

Pennsylvania

Polluted stream Stream water Lab microcosm 4 0.077/day Herbes,SE (1981)
Table 8. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site 

Type

Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

79

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Georgia

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 30 ug/L 1 0.07ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Naphthalene Grindsted,

Denmark

Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 20 0.089/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Narragansett Bay,

Rhode Island

OilcontaminationSeawater Lab microcosm 50 ug/L 0.099/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Savannah, Georgia

OilcontaminationRiver water Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/L 0.099/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Naphthalene Coal-tar

contaminated

Soil Lab microcosm 186 mg/kg soil 105 0.10/day Wischmann,H & Steinhart,H

(1997)

Naphthalene Plasticizer

manufacturing

site

Soil Lab microcosm 1018 mg/kg 49 0.12/day Fogel,S et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Narragansett Bay,

Rhode Island

OilcontaminationSeawater Lab microcosm 25 ug/L 0.14/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Naphthalene Narragansett Bay,

Rhode Island

OilcontaminationSeawater Lab microcosm 10 ug/L 0.17/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Naphthalene Lincolnshire, UK Unpolluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 mg/g 0.20/day Smith,MJ et. al. (1997)

Naphthalene Sufflok, UK Unpolluted sand Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 mg/g 0.20/day Smith,MJ et. al. (1997)

Naphthalene Uttar Pradesh,

India

Soil receiving

effluent from an

oil refinery

Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/kg 60 0.23/day Ashok,BT et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Hudson River

Estuary, New

York

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2 0.26/day Hudak,JP et. al. (1988)

Naphthalene Mississippi Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 101 mg/kg 105 0.308/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Naphthalene Paleudult,

Mississippi

Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 101 mg/kg 105 0.308/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Naphthalene Calciaquoll, Utah Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 101 mg/kg 196 0.337/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Naphthalene Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 101 mg/kg 196 0.3370/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)
Table 8. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site 

Type

Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

80

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Savannah, Georgia

OilcontaminationRiver water Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/L 0.35/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Naphthalene Cass County,

North Dakota

Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 7 mg/L 10 0.39/day Mihelcic,JR & Luthy,RG

(1988)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 150 0.4/day 10 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Georgia

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 15 ug/L 1 0.42 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Georgia

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 40 ppb 0.33 0.56 ug/L/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1975)

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Georgia

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 30 ug/L 1 0.68 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Naphthalene Tamar Estuary,

England

Estuary Estuarine water +

 sediment

Lab microcosm 3 ug/L 1 0.693/day Readman,JW et. al. (1982)

Naphthalene Unspecified site Polluted pond Pond water + 

sediment

Lab microcosm 10 mg/L 2 0.77/day Meyer,JS et. al. (1984)

Naphthalene Unspecified site Polluted pond Pond water +

 sediment

Lab microcosm 10 mg/L 10 0.77/day 8 Meyer,JS et. al. (1984)

Naphthalene Tamar Estuary,

England

Estuary Estuarine water +

 sediment

Lab microcosm 3 ug/L 1 0.80/day Readman,JW et. al. (1982)

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Georgia

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 30 ug/L 1 0.82 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Aquifer sediment

+

 groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/l 150 0.9/day 8-9 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Georgia

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 40 ppb 1 0.90 ug/L/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1975)

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Georgia

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 60 ug/L 1 1.2 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Naphthalene Manufactured

gas plant

Soil Lab microcosm 0.36 ug/g 3 1.22 ug/g/day Fleming,JT et. al. (1993)
Table 8. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site 

Type

Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

81

Naphthalene Long Island

Sound, New York

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2 1.63/day Hudak,JP et. al. (1988)

Naphthalene American

Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Aquifer sediment

+ soil

Lab microcosm 28.7 ug/L 14 1.85/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991)

Naphthalene Saucon Creek,

Bethlehem,

Pennsylvania

Polluted stream Sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/g 24 1.87/day Herbes,SE (1981)

Naphthalene Tamar Estuary,

England

Estuary Estuarine water +

 sediment

Lab microcosm 3 ug/L 1 1/day Readman,JW et. al. (1982)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Aquifer sediment

+

 groundwater

Lab microcosm 160 ug/L 90 12-13 ug/L/day 15 Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Naphthalene Creosote

contaminated

soil

Soil Lab microcosm 0.36 ug/g 3 18.7 ug/g/day Fleming,JT et. al. (1993)

Naphthalene Hudson River

Estuary, New

York

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2 2.4/day Hudak,JP et. al. (1988)

Naphthalene Cooper River,

South Carolina

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 30 ug/L 1 2.8 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Naphthalene Fort Point

Channel, Boston

Harbor

Estuary Sediment Lab microcosm 20 ng/g 2.5 2277.6

ng/g/day

Shiaris,MP (1989)

Naphthalene Weymouth Back

River, Boston

Harbor

Estuary Sediment Lab microcosm 20 ng/g 2.5 27.84 ng/g/day Shiaris,MP (1989)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 10 3.3/day Albrechtsen,HJ et. al. (1996)

Naphthalene Knoxville,

Tennessee

Oilcontaminated

stream

Sediment Lab microcosm 2 3.36/day Herbes,SE & Schwall,LR

(1978)

Naphthalene Skidaway River,

Georgia

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 130 ppb 1 4.4 ug/L/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1975)
Table 8. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site 

Type

Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

82

Naphthalene Cooper River,

South Carolina

Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 60 ug/L 1 4.7 ug/L/day Lee,RF (1977)

Naphthalene Lower Neck

Quincy Bay,

Boston Harbor

Estuary Sediment Lab microcosm 20 ng/g 2.5 41.28 ng/g/day Shiaris,MP (1989)

Naphthalene Conroe, Texas Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 8 67.2 ug/L/day Thomas,JM et. al. (1986)

Naphthalene Manufactured

gas plant

Soil Lab microcosm 0.36 ug/g 3 7.7X10-4

ug/g/day

Fleming,JT et. al. (1993)

Naphthalene Vejen, Denmark Landfill Aquifer sediment

+

 groundwater

Lab microcosm 160 ug/L 90 9-10 ug/L/day 15 Holm,PE et. al. (1992)

Naphthalene Walker Branch,

Oakridge,

Tennessee

Non-polluted

stream

Sediment Lab microcosm 5 < 0.0096/day Herbes,SE & Schwall,LR

(1978)

Naphthalene Conroe, Texas Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

Lab microcosm 56 > 0.32/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1985)

Naphthalene Conroe, Texas Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ 

groundwater

Lab microcosm 56 > 0.51/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1985)

Naphthalene Plasticizer

manufacturing

site

Soil Lab microcosm 34-35 mg/kg 63 No

biodegradation

Fogel,S et. al. (1995)

Naphthalene Baltimore Gas &

Electric Spring

Gardens

Former

manufactured gas

plant facility

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 4 mg/L 42 No

mineralization

Durant,ND et. al. (1995)
83

0

10

20

30

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

0

1

2

3

4

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

3.2.2. Fluorene

Fluorene is a PAH with a 3-ring structure, that is virtually insoluble in water. In general, PAHs that

contain three or fewer rings tend to be biodegraded more rapidly than compounds containing four or

five benzene rings. First-order rate constants were in the range of 0.0018/day to 0.33/day,

corresponding to half-lives of about 2 to 385 days. The smallest rate constant was observed in a

pristine soil with no history of pollution (Park et. al., 1990), while the largest rate constant was

observed in creosote-contaminated aquifer material obtained from a wood preserving site (Mueller et.

al., 1991). One study reported 9-fluorenone as a primary biodegradation product of fluorene

(Wischmann and Steinhart, 1997). 

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of fluorene is 0.015/day (N = 28); a range of

0.0018 to 0.33/day is reported. The median for the mineralization rate constant of fluorene is

0.019/day (N = 7); a range of 0.00385 to 0.05/day is reported. The frequency distribution histograms

for this data are shown in figures 8a and 8b. For the most part, fluorene is expected to biodegrade

slowly under aerobic conditions in the environment. 

Figure 8a. Frequency distribution histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant

values of fluorene.

Figure 8b. Frequency distribution histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

fluorene
84

Table 9. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for fluorene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Fluorene Brookhaven, Mississippi Wood-preserving site Soil Field 225 ug/g 56 0.025/day Lamar,RT & Glaser,JA

(1994)

Fluorene Calciaquoll, Utah Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 883 mg/kg 196 0.0018/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Fluorene Paleudult, Mississippi Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 913 mg/kg 105 0.0026/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Fluorene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Sediment Lab microcosm 1792.1 mg/kg 84 0.003/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Fluorene Skidaway River,

Savannah, Georgia

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.00385/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Fluorene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Sediment Lab microcosm 1792.1 mg/kg 84 0.004/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Fluorene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Soil Lab microcosm 3.1 mg/kg 84 0.004/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Fluorene Musi River, India Hazardous waste site Soil Lab microcosm 1000 ppm 450 0.0041/day Mahmood,SK & Rao,PR

(1993)

Fluorene Skidaway Institute of

Oceanography, GA

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

3 0.006/day Lee,RF & Silva,M (1994)

Fluorene Montreal, Quebec Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 100 mg/L 120 0.0069/day Leduc,R et. al. (1992)

Fluorene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 29 ug/g 0.007/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Fluorene Blekholmstorget,

Stockholm, Sweden

Creosote production

facility

Soil Lab microcosm 124 mg/kg 28 0.0071/day Ellis,B et. al. (1991)

Fluorene Blekholmstorget,

Stockholm, Sweden

Creosote production

facility

Soil Lab microcosm 124 mg/kg 63 0.0073/day Ellis,B et. al. (1991)

Fluorene Skidaway River,

Savannah, Georgia

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.00845/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Fluorene Coal-tar contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 198 mg/kg soil 175 0.0085/day Wischmann,H &

Steinhart,H (1997)

Fluorene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0099/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)
Table 9. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

85

Fluorene Conroe, Texas Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 56 0.012/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1985)

Fluorene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 100 ug/g 240 0.012/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Fluorene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 100 ug/g 240 0.015/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Fluorene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 100 ug/g 0.015/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Fluorene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Soil Lab microcosm 3.1 mg/kg 84 0.019/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Fluorene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/g sediment 0.019/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Fluorene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.022/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Fluorene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 100 ug/g 240 0.022/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Fluorene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.025/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Fluorene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 5 ug/g sediment 0.025/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Fluorene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 180 ug/g 0.027/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Fluorene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0277/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Fluorene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.029/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Fluorene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0335/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Fluorene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.035/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)
Table 9. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

86

Fluorene Skidaway Institute of

Oceanography, GA

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

3 0.05/day Lee,RF & Silva,M (1994)

Fluorene Delson, Quebec, Canada Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 181 mg/kg soil 77 0.061/day Deschenes,L et. al.

(1996)

Fluorene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/g sediment 0.063/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Fluorene Delson, Quebec, Canada Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 240 mg/kg soil 14 0.11/day Deschenes,L et. al.

(1995)

Fluorene Conroe, Texas Landfill Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 56 0.18/day Wilson,JT et. al. (1985)

Fluorene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Aquifer sediment

+ soil

Lab microcosm 11.6 ug/mL 14 0.33/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991)
87

0

10

20

30

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

3.2.3. Benzo(a)anthracene

Benzo(a)anthracene is a PAH with a 4-ring structure, that is virtually insoluble in water. In general,

PAHs that contain more than 3 rings tend to be biodegraded rather slowly in the environment. Firstorder rate constants were in the range of 0.000033/day to 0.116/day, corresponding to half-lives of

about 6 to 21,000 days. The majority of the rate constants were less than 0.01/day. There were also

several studies for which no rate constant was reported or could be calculated since the compound was

not observed to biodegrade during the course of the study. This included an experiment where no

measurable biodegradation was observed in a coal-tar polluted soil over a 80 day incubation period

(Grosser et. al., 1995). Similar results were obtained from other studies with shorter incubation

periods (Carmichael and Pfaender, 1997; Lee et. al., 1978; Herbes, 1981). Biodegradation reaction

products were reported as benzo(a)anthracene-7,12-dione (Wischmann and Steinhart, 1997) and

unspecified phenol and quinone metabolites (Hinga et. al., 1980). 

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of benzo(a)anthracene, considering all studies,

is 0.0035/day (N = 27); a range of 0.000096 to 0.072/day is reported. The median for the

mineralization rate constant of benzo(a)anthracene is 0.0029/day (N = 32); a range of not biodegraded

to 0.116/day is reported. The frequency distribution histograms for the data are shown in figures 9a

and 9b. For the most part, benzo(a)anthracene is expected to biodegrade slowly under aerobic

conditions or be recalcitrant in the environment. 

Figure 9a. Frequency distribution histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant

values of benzo(a)anthracene.
88

0

5

10

15

20

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 9b. Frequency distribution histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

benzo(a)anthracene.
89

Table 10. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for benzo(a)anthracene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Benzo(a)anthracene Brookhaven, Mississippi Wood-preserving

site

Soil Field 74 ug/g 56 0.0021/day Lamar,RT & Glaser,JA

(1994)

Benzo(a)anthracene Wiroa Island, Auckland,

New Zealand

Uncontaminated Sediment Field 256 <0.00693/day Wilcock,RJ et. al. (1996)

Benzo(a)anthracene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.000033/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Benzo(a)anthracene Walker Branch, Oak

Ridge, Tennessee

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 26 0.000096/day Herbes,SE & Schwall,LR

(1978)

Benzo(a)anthracene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.00029/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Benzo(a)anthracene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 480 0.0005/day 120 Bossert,ID & Bartha,R

(1986)

Benzo(a)anthracene Dover, Ohio Coal tar refining

plant

Soil Lab microcosm 1.2 ng/g 80 0.0006/day Grosser,RJ et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)anthracene Dover, Ohio Coal tar refining

plant

Soil Lab microcosm 1.2 ng/g 80 0.0006/day Grosser,RJ et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)anthracene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.00063/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Benzo(a)anthracene American Creosote

Works, Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Soil Lab microcosm 11.9 mg/kg 84 0.001/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Benzo(a)anthracene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 30.1 ug/g 240 0.001/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Benzo(a)anthracene Dover, Ohio Coal tar refining

plant

Soil Lab microcosm 1.2 ng/g 80 0.0015-

0.0058/day

Grosser,RJ et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)anthracene Skidaway River,

Savannah, Georgia

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.0015/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Benzo(a)anthracene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 30.1 ug/g 240 0.0016/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)
Table 10. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

90

Benzo(a)anthracene Reilly Tar & Chemical,St.

Louis Park, MN

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 214 ng/g 56 0.0019/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Benzo(a)anthracene Skidaway River,

Savannah, Georgia

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.002/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Benzo(a)anthracene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated

soil

Soil Lab microcosm 30.1 ug/g 0.002/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Benzo(a)anthracene Calciaquoll, Utah Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 33 mg/kg 196 0.0022/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Benzo(a)anthracene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 21.5 mg/kg soil 175 0.0023/day 80 Pott,BM & Henrysson,T

(1995)

Benzo(a)anthracene Knoxville, Tennessee Oil contaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 26 0.0024/day Herbes,SE & Schwall,LR

(1978)

Benzo(a)anthracene Calciaquoll, Utah Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 107 mg/kg 196 0.0026/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Benzo(a)anthracene Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 107 mg/kg 196 0.0026/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Benzo(a)anthracene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 30.1 ug/g 240 0.0029/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Benzo(a)anthracene Skidaway Institute of

Oceanography, GA

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

3 0.0029/day Lee,RF & Silva,M (1994)

Benzo(a)anthracene American Creosote

Works, Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 22.6 mg/kg 84 0.003/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Benzo(a)anthracene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated

soil

Soil Lab microcosm 107 ug/g 0.003/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Benzo(a)anthracene Paleudult, Mississippi Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 33 mg/kg 105 0.0030/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Benzo(a)anthracene Central Narragansett Bay Uncontaminated Seawater +

sediment

Lab microcosm 230 0.0035/day Hinga,KR et. al. (1980)

Benzo(a)anthracene American Creosote

Works, Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 22.6 mg/kg 84 0.004/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)
Table 10. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

91

Benzo(a)anthracene American Creosote

Works, Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Soil Lab microcosm 11.9 mg/kg 84 0.004/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Benzo(a)anthracene Mississippi Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 99 mg/kg 105 0.0043/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Benzo(a)anthracene Paleudult, Mississippi Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 99 mg/kg 105 0.0043/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Benzo(a)anthracene Dover, Ohio Coal tar refining

plant

Soil Lab microcosm 1.2 ng/g 80 0.0045-

0.012/day

Grosser,RJ et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)anthracene Skidaway River,

Savannah, Georgia

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.0058/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Benzo(a)anthracene Delson, Quebec, Canada Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 128 mg/kg soil 315 0.0073/day Deschenes,L et. al. (1996)

Benzo(a)anthracene Delson, Quebec, Canada Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 180 mg/kg soil 315 0.0076/day Deschenes,L et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)anthracene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated

soil

Soil Lab microcosm 53 ug/g 0.008/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Benzo(a)anthracene Dubose Oil Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 214 ng/g 56 0.009/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Benzo(a)anthracene Reilly Tar & Chemical,St.

Louis Park, MN

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 214 ng/g 56 0.009/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Benzo(a)anthracene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated

soil

Soil Lab microcosm 130.1 ug/g 0.009/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Benzo(a)anthracene Reilly Tar & Chemical,St.

Louis Park, MN

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 214 ng/g 56 0.0091/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Benzo(a)anthracene Dubose Oil Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 214 ng/g 56 0.012/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Benzo(a)anthracene Dubose Oil Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 214 ng/g 56 0.014/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Benzo(a)anthracene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 24 mg/kg soil 130 0.016/day Pott,BM & Henrysson,T

(1995)
Table 10. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

92

Benzo(a)anthracene Skidaway Institute of

Oceanography, GA

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

3 0.019/day Lee,RF & Silva,M (1994)

Benzo(a)anthracene Reilly Tar & Chemical,St.

Louis Park, MN

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 214 ng/g 56 0.022/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Benzo(a)anthracene Central Narragansett Bay Uncontaminated Seawater +

sediment

Lab microcosm 270 ng/L 202 0.024/day Hinga,KR & Pilson,MEQ

(1987)

Benzo(a)anthracene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 23 mg/kg soil 130 0.027/day 20 Pott,BM & Henrysson,T

(1995)

Benzo(a)anthracene Cooper River, Charleston,

South Carolina

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.043/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Benzo(a)anthracene Dubose Oil Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 214 ng/g 56 0.05/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Benzo(a)anthracene American Creosote

Works, Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Aquifer

sediment +

soil

Lab microcosm 2.9 ug/mL 14 0.052/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991)

Benzo(a)anthracene Saucon Creek, Bethlehem,

PA

Contaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/g sediment 4 0.072/day Herbes,SE (1981)

Benzo(a)anthracene Saucon Creek, Bethlehem,

PA

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/g sediment 4 0.072/day Herbes,SE (1981)

Benzo(a)anthracene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 5 ug/g sediment 0.087/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Benzo(a)anthracene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/g sediment 0.116/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Benzo(a)anthracene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.116/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1983)

Benzo(a)anthracene Coal-tar

contaminated

Soil Lab microcosm <0.2 mg/kg soil 175 Biodegrades Wischmann,H &

Steinhart,H (1997)
Table 10. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

93

Benzo(a)anthracene Alaskan continental shelf Uncontaminated Seawater +

sediment

Lab microcosm 42 No

mineralizatio

n

Roubal,G & Atlas,RM

(1978)

Benzo(a)anthracene Bozeman, MT Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 214 ng/g 56 No

mineralizatio

n

Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Benzo(a)anthracene Bozeman, Montana Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 214 ng/g 56 No

mineralizatio

n

Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Benzo(a)anthracene Dover, Ohio Coal tar refining

plant

Soil Lab microcosm 1.2 ng/g 80 No

mineralizatio

n

Grosser,RJ et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)anthracene Saanich Inlet, western

Canada

Uncontaminated Seawater +

sediment

Lab microcosm 3 No

mineralizatio

n

Lee,RF et. al. (1978)

Benzo(a)anthracene Saanich Inlet, western

Canada

Uncontaminated Seawater +

sediment

Lab microcosm 3 No

mineralizatio

n

Lee,RF et. al. (1978)

Benzo(a)anthracene Saucon Creek, Bethlehem,

PA

Contaminated Creek water Lab microcosm 4 No

mineralizatio

n

Herbes,SE (1981)
94

0

10

20

30

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

3.2.4. Chrysene

Chrysene is a PAH with a 4-ring structure, that is virtually insoluble in water. In general, PAHs that

contain more than 3 rings tend to be biodegraded rather slowly in the environment. First-order rate

constants were in the range of 0.0005/day to 0.037/day, corresponding to half-lives of about 19 to

1,400 days. The majority of the rate constants were smaller than 0.01/day. There were also several

studies for which no rate constant was reported or could be calculated since the compound was not

observed to biodegrade during the course of the study. This included an experiment where no

measurable biodegradation was observed in an uncontaminated soil over a 56-day incubation period

(Carmichael and Pfaender, 1997). Similar results were obtained from other studies with shorter

incubation periods (Ellis et. al., 1991; Hungspreugs et. al., 1984). No reaction products were reported

for the degradation of chrysene.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of chrysene is 0.003/day (N = 31); a range of

not biodegraded to 0.037/day is reported. The median for the mineralization rate constant of chrysene

is 0.0037/day (N = 20); a range from not biodegraded to 0.035/day is reported. The frequency

distribution histograms for this data are shown in figures 10a and 10b. Chrysene is expected to

biodegrade slowly under aerobic conditions or to be recalcitrant in the environment. 

Figure 10a. Frequency distribution histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant

values of chrysene.
95

0

5

10

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 10b. Frequency distribution histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

chrysene.
96

Table 11. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for chrysene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Chrysene Brookhaven, Mississippi Wood-preserving site Soil Field 90 ug/g 56 0.0011/day Lamar,RT & Glaser,JA

(1994)

Chrysene Wiroa Island, Auckland,

New Zealand

Uncontaminated Sediment Field 256 <0.00693/day Wilcock,RJ et. al.

(1996)

Chrysene Skidaway River, Savannah,

Georgia

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.0005/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C

(1983)

Chrysene Uttar Pradesh, India Soil receiving

effluent from an oil

refinery

Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/kg 90 0.00068/day Ashok,BT et. al. (1995)

Chrysene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 200 ug/g 0.000693/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Chrysene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 480 0.0007/day 120 Bossert,ID & Bartha,R

(1986)

Chrysene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 200 ug/g 240 0.0007/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Chrysene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 200 ug/g 240 0.00071/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Chrysene Musi River, India Hazardous waste site Soil Lab microcosm 1000 ppm 459 0.00072/day Mahmood,SK &

Rao,PR (1993)

Chrysene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 200 ug/g 240 0.00095/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Chrysene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.0014/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C

(1983)

Chrysene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0017/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Chrysene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0017/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Chrysene Mississippi Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 105 mg/kg 105 0.0018/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Chrysene Paleudult, Mississippi Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 105 mg/kg 105 0.0018/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)
Table 11. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

97

Chrysene Calciaquoll, Utah Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 100 mg/kg 196 0.0019/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Chrysene Reilly Tar & Chemical,St.

Louis Park, MN

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 237 ng/g 56 0.0019/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Chrysene Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 100 mg/kg 196 0.0019/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Chrysene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 100 ug/g 0.0019/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Chrysene Reilly Tar & Chemical Co.,

St. Louis, MN

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 1.6-2.8 ug/L 0.002 ug/L/hr Carmichael,LM et. al.

(1997)

Chrysene Skidaway River, Savannah,

Georgia

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.0028/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C

(1983)

Chrysene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Sediment Lab microcosm 481.2 mg/kg 84 0.003/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Chrysene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0030/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Chrysene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0035/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Chrysene Narragansett Bay, Rhode

Island

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.0036/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C

(1983)

Chrysene Upper Gulf of Thailand Seawater +

sediment

Lab microcosm 3 0.0037/day Hungspreugs,M et. al.

(1984)

Chrysene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Sediment Lab microcosm 481.2 mg/kg 84 0.004/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Chrysene Dubose Oil Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 237 ng/g 56 0.004/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Chrysene Reilly Tar & Chemical,St.

Louis Park, MN

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 237 ng/g 56 0.0044/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Chrysene Chao Phraya River Seawater +

sediment

Lab microcosm 3 0.0045/day Hungspreugs,M et. al.

(1984)
Table 11. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

98

Chrysene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 51 ug/g 0.0047/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Chrysene Blekholmstorget,

Stockholm, Sweden

Creosote production

facility

Soil Lab microcosm 81 mg/kg 63 0.0048/day Ellis,B et. al. (1991)

Chrysene Delson, Quebec, Canada Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 165 mg/kg soil 315 0.0052/day Deschenes,L et. al.

(1995)

Chrysene Delson, Quebec, Canada Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 127 mg/kg soil 315 0.0053/day 14 Deschenes,L et. al.

(1996)

Chrysene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0054/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Chrysene Reilly Tar & Chemical,St.

Louis Park, MN

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 237 ng/g 56 0.006/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Chrysene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0062/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Chrysene Cooper River, Charleston,

South Carolina

Oil-contamination Sediment Lab microcosm 2.5 ug/g

sediment

0.0088/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C

(1983)

Chrysene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Soil Lab microcosm 38 mg/kg 84 0.009/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Chrysene Dubose Oil Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 237 ng/g 56 0.009/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Chrysene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 140 ug/g 0.009/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Chrysene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Soil Lab microcosm 38 mg/kg 84 0.011/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Chrysene Reilly Tar & Chemical,St.

Louis Park, MN

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 237 ng/g 56 0.016/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Chrysene Dubose Oil Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 237 ng/g 56 0.019/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)
Table 11. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

99

Chrysene Dubose Oil Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 237 ng/g 56 0.035/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Chrysene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Aquifer sediment

+ soil

Lab microcosm 2.7 ug/mL 14 0.037/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991)

Chrysene Dubose Oil Recycling site,

Cantonment,FL

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 1.6-2.8 ug/L 0.04 ug/L/hr Carmichael,LM et. al.

(1997)

Chrysene Blekholmstorget,

Stockholm, Sweden

Creosote production

facility

Soil Lab microcosm 81 mg/kg 28 No

biodegradation

Ellis,B et. al. (1991)

Chrysene Bozeman, MT Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 237 ng/g 56 No

mineralization

Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Chrysene Bozeman, Montana Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 237 ng/g 56 No

mineralization

Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Chrysene Chao Phraya River River water Lab microcosm 3 No

mineralization

Hungspreugs,M et. al.

(1984)

Chrysene Upper Gulf of Thailand Seawater Lab microcosm 3 No

mineralization

Hungspreugs,M et. al.

(1984)
100

0

5

10

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

3.2.5. Fluoranthene

Fluoranthene is a PAH with a 4-ring structure. In general, PAHs that contain more than 3 rings tend to

be biodegraded rather slowly in the environment. The primary biodegradation rate constant for

fluoranthene ranges from 0.0015/day to 0.045/day, corresponding to half-lives of about 15 to 462

days. The lowest rate constant is derived from an unpolluted pristine soil (Keck et. al., 1989), while

the largest rate constant was observed in aquifer material from a heavily-polluted wood-preserving

facility (Mueller et. al., 1991). The half-life of fluoranthene in pristine sediment obtained from New

Zealand was reported as greater than 100 days (Wilcock et. al., 1996), further illustrating that

biodegradation will be extremely slow in non-acclimated environments. No reaction products have

been reported from the primary biodegradation of fluoranthene.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of fluoranthene is 0.0048/day (N = 20); a

range of not biodegraded to 0.045/day is reported. No mineralization data are available. The

frequency distribution histogram for this data is shown in figure 11. Fluoranthene is expected to

biodegrade slowly or be recalcitrant under most environmental conditions.

Figure 11. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

fluoranthene.
101

Table 12. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for fluoranthene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Fluoranthene Brookhaven, Mississippi Wood-preserving site Soil Field 972 ug/g 56 0.0047/day Lamar,RT & Glaser,JA

(1994)

Fluoranthene Wiroa Island, Auckland,

New Zealand

Uncontaminated Sediment Field 256 <0.00693/day Wilcock,RJ et. al. (1996)

Fluoranthene Southern Uintah County,

Utah

Uncontaminated Soil Lab column 1.61 ug/g soil 90 0.004/day Grenney,WJ et. al.

(1987)

Fluoranthene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 400 ug/g 0.0015/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Fluoranthene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 400 ug/g 240 0.0016/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Fluoranthene Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 883 mg/kg 196 0.0018/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Fluoranthene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 883 ug/g 0.0018/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Fluoranthene Mississippi Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 913 mg/kg 105 0.0026/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Fluoranthene Coal-tar contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 53 mg/kg soil 175 0.0029/day Wischmann,H &

Steinhart,H (1997)

Fluoranthene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Sediment Lab microcosm 1628.7 mg/kg 84 0.003/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Fluoranthene Blekholmstorget,

Stockholm, Sweden

Creosote production

facility

Soil Lab microcosm 286 mg/kg 28 0.004/day Ellis,B et. al. (1991)

Fluoranthene Blekholmstorget,

Stockholm, Sweden

Creosote production

facility

Soil Lab microcosm 286 mg/kg 63 0.0048/day Ellis,B et. al. (1991)

Fluoranthene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Sediment Lab microcosm 1628.7 mg/kg 84 0.005/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Fluoranthene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 400 ug/g 240 0.005/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Fluoranthene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Soil Lab microcosm 34.7 mg/kg 84 0.006/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)
Table 12. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

102

Fluoranthene Delson, Quebec, Canada Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 705 mg/kg soil 315 0.0095/day Deschenes,L et. al.

(1996)

Fluoranthene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Soil Lab microcosm 34.7 mg/kg 84 0.010/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Fluoranthene Delson, Quebec, Canada Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 810 mg/kg soil 315 0.010/day Deschenes,L et. al.

(1995)

Fluoranthene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 570 ug/g 0.012/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Fluoranthene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 787 ug/g 0.027/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Fluoranthene Lancaster, UK Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 205 0.043/day Wild,SR & Jones,KC

(1993)

Fluoranthene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Aquifer

sediment + soil

Lab microcosm 16.2 ug/mL 14 0.045/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991)

Fluoranthene Hamburg, Germany Tar oil contaminated

site

Soil Lab microcosm 1480 mg/kg soil 70 No

biodegradation

Mahro,B et. al. (1994)

Fluoranthene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 400 ug/g 240 No

biodegradation

Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)
103

0

10

20

30

40

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

3.2.6. Pyrene

Pyrene is a PAH with a 4-ring structure. In general, PAHs that contain more than 3 rings tend to be

biodegraded rather slowly in the environment. First-order rate constants were in the range of

0.00036/day to 0.143/day, with the majority of the rate constant values less than 0.01/day. These

values correspond to half-lives of 5 to 1,925 days. The smallest rate constant was observed in an

unpolluted sandy loam that had a mixture of 16 other PAHs. This rate constant was derived from the

reported half-life of 1,900 days (Coover and Sims, 1987). The largest rate constants (0.136/day and

0.143/day) were observed in unpolluted soil with roughly 80% moisture content (Schwab et. al., 1995). 

These two rate constants are much larger than those of any other study including those obtained from

material at industrial locations with acclimated microbes. There were also several studies for which no

rate constant was reported or could be calculated since the compound was not observed to biodegrade

over the course of the study. This included one experiment where no measurable biodegradation was

observed in an unpolluted sandy loam during a 240-day incubation period (Coover and Sims, 1987). 

Similar results were obtained from other studies with shorter incubation periods (Carmichael and

Pfander, 1997; Mahro et. al., 1994; Heitkamp and Cerniglia, 1987; Heitkamp and Cerniglia, 1989). 

No reaction products were reported for the biodegradation of pyrene.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of pyrene, considering all studies, is

0.00345/day (N = 40); a range of not biodegraded to 0.052day is reported. The median for the

mineralization rate constant of pyrene is 0.006/day (N = 18); a range of not biodegraded to 0.143/day

is reported. The frequency distribution histograms for this data are shown in figures 12a and 12b. 

Pyrene is expected to biodegrade slowly under aerobic conditions or to be recalcitrant in the

environment.

Figure 12a. Frequency distribution histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant

values of pyrene.
104

0

2

4

6

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 12b. Frequency distribution histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

pyrene.
105

Table 13. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for pyrene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Pyrene Brookhaven, Mississippi Wood-preserving site Soil Field 572 ug/g 56 0.0019/day Lamar,RT & Glaser,JA

(1994)

Pyrene Champion Intnt'l site,

Libby, Montana

Contaminated

industrial site

Soil Field 84.9-90.5 mg/kg 54-60 0.0125-

0.0155/day

Huling,SG et. al.

(1995)

Pyrene Wiroa Island, Auckland,

New Zealand

Uncontaminated Sediment Field 256 <0.00693/day Wilcock,RJ et. al.

(1996)

Pyrene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 400 ug/g 240 0.00036/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Pyrene Blekholmstorget,

Stockholm, Sweden

Creosote production

facility

Soil Lab microcosm 323 mg/kg 63 0.0004/day Ellis,B et. al. (1991)

Pyrene Lake Chicot, Arkansas Freshwater lake Lake water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 500 ng/g 56 0.001/day Heitkamp,MA &

Cerniglia,CE (1987)

Pyrene Southern Illinois Unpolluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 65 0.002/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1991)

Pyrene Southern Illinois Unpolluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 ng/g 65 0.002/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1991)

Pyrene Coal-tar contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 17 mg/kg soil 175 0.0025/day Wischmann,H &

Steinhart,H (1997)

Pyrene Calciaquoll, Utah Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 686 mg/kg 196 0.0027/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Pyrene Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 686 mg/kg 196 0.0027/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Pyrene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Sediment Lab microcosm 1015.9 mg/kg 84 0.003/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Pyrene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Sediment Lab microcosm 1015.9 mg/kg 84 0.003/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Pyrene Dover, Ohio Polluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 ng/g 85 0.003/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1995)

Pyrene Dover, Ohio Unpolluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 ng/g 85 0.003/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1995)

Pyrene Redfish Bay, Texas Estuary Estuarine water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 500 ng/g 56 0.003/day Heitkamp,MA &

Cerniglia,CE (1987)
Table 13. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

106

Pyrene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 686 ug/g 0.003/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Pyrene Uttar Pradesh, India Soil receiving

effluent from an oil

refinery

Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/kg 90 0.0031/day Ashok,BT et. al. (1995)

Pyrene Lincolnshire, UK Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 mg/g 0.0032/day Smith,MJ et. al. (1997)

Pyrene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 400 ug/g 240 0.0033/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Pyrene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0034/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Pyrene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 480 0.0034/day Bossert,ID & Bartha,R

(1986)

Pyrene Mississippi Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 697 mg/kg 105 0.0035/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Pyrene Paleudult, Mississippi Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 697 mg/kg 105 0.0035/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Pyrene Reilly Tar & Chemical,St.

Louis Park, MN

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 100 ng/g 56 0.004/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Pyrene Southern Illinois Polluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 ng/g 65 0.004/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1991)

Pyrene Suffolk, UK Uncontaminated sand Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 mg/g 0.0045/day Smith,MJ et. al. (1997)

Pyrene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 95-100 mg/kg

soil

97 0.0047/day Mahro,B et. al. (1994)

Pyrene Dover, Ohio Polluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 ng/g 85 0.005/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1995)

Pyrene Dubose Oil Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 100 ng/g 56 0.005/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Pyrene Dubose Oil Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 100 ng/g 56 0.006/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Pyrene Southern Illinois Unpolluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 ng/g 65 0.006/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1991)
Table 13. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

107

Pyrene Musi River, India Hazardous waste site Soil Lab microcosm 1000 ppm 450 0.0062/day Mahmood,SK &

Rao,PR (1993)

Pyrene Southern Illinois Polluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 ng/g 65 0.008/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1991)

Pyrene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Soil Lab microcosm 49.4 mg/kg 84 0.009/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Pyrene Dover, Ohio Polluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 ng/g 85 0.009/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1995)

Pyrene Delson, Quebec, Canada Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 550 mg/kg sol 315 0.0092/day Deschenes,L et. al.

(1995)

Pyrene Delson, Quebec, Canada Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 485 mg/kg soil 315 0.0095/day Deschenes,L et. al.

(1996)

Pyrene Southern Illinois Polluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 ng/g 65 0.011/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1991)

Pyrene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0114/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Pyrene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Soil Lab microcosm 49.4 mg/kg 84 0.012/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991A)

Pyrene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 570 ug/g 0.013/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Pyrene DeGray Reservoir,

Arkadelphia, Arkansas

Uncontaminated Sediment + water Lab microcosm 28 0.014/day Heitkamp,MA &

Cerniglia,CE (1989)

Pyrene Lancaster, UK Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 205 0.014/day Wild,SR & Jones,KC

(1993)

Pyrene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0143/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Pyrene Dover, Ohio Polluted soil Soil Lab microcosm 8.5 ng/g 85 0.015/day Grosser,RJ et. al.

(1995)

Pyrene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0152/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)
Table 13. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

108

Pyrene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 640 ug/g 0.016/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Pyrene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0198/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Pyrene Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 20 ug/g 180 0.0202/day MaliszewskaKordybach,B (1993)

Pyrene Reilly Tar & Chemical,St.

Louis Park, MN

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 100 ng/g 56 0.049/day Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Pyrene American Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving site Aquifer sediment

+ soil

Lab microcosm 10.4 ug/mL 14 0.052/day Mueller,JG et. al.

(1991)

Pyrene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 10 mg/kg 100 0.136/day Schwab,AP et. al.

(1995)

Pyrene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 10 mg/kg 100 0.143/day Schwab,AP et. al.

(1995)

Pyrene Utah State University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated soil Soil Lab microcosm 400 ug/g 3.6X10-4/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Pyrene Blekholmstorget,

Stockholm, Sweden

Creosote production

facility

Soil Lab microcosm 323 mg//kg 28 No

biodegradation

Ellis,B et. al. (1991)

Pyrene Bozeman, MT Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 100 ng/g 56 No

mineralization

Carmichael,LM &

Pfaender,FK (1997)

Pyrene Degray Resevoir,

Arkansas

Unpolluted

freshwater reservoir

Lake water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 500 ng/g 56 No

biodegradation

Heitkamp,MA &

Cerniglia,CE (1987)

Pyrene Hamburg, Germany Tar oil contaminated

site

Soil Lab microcosm 1250 mg/kg soil 70 No

biodegradation

Mahro,B et. al. (1994)

Pyrene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 400 ug/g 240 No

biodegradation

Coover,MP & Sims,RC

(1987)

Pyrene DeGray Reservoir,

Arkadelphia, Arkansas

Uncontaminated Sediment + water Lab microcosm 28 No

mineralization

Heitkamp,MA &

Cerniglia,CE (1989)
109

0

5

10

15

20

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

3.2.7. Benzo(a)pyrene

Benzo(a)pyrene is a PAH with a 5-ring structure that is virtually insoluble in water. In general, PAHs

that contain more than 3 rings tend to be biodegraded rather slowly in the environment. 

Biodegradation of benzo(a)pyrene appears to occur at an extremely slow rate when compared to other

PAHs. First-order rate constants ranged from 0.00006/day to 0.057/day. These values correspond to

half-lives of 12 to 11,552 days. The smallest rate constant was observed in soil that contained 8 other

PAHs (Grosser et. al., 1995). The biodegradation rate of benzo(a)pyrene was slower than the other

compounds, indicating microbes may selectively degrade PAH compounds. The largest rate constant

was observed in creosote-contaminated groundwater obtained from a wood-preserving facility

(Mueller et. al., 1991). There were also several studies for which no rate constant was reported or

could be calculated since the compound was not observed to biodegrade over the course of the study. 

This included an experiment where no measurable biodegradation was observed in a polluted sandy

loam over a 315-day incubation period (Deschenes et. al., 1996). Similar results were obtained from

other studies with shorter incubation periods (Carmichael and Pfaender, 1997; Lee et. al., 1978;

Heitkamp and Cerniglia, 1987A; Grosser et. al., 1995). No reaction products were reported for the

degradation of benzo(a)pyrene.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of benzo(a)pyrene is 0.0027/day (N = 23); a

range of not biodegraded to 0.057/day is reported. The median for the mineralization rate constant of

benzo(a)pyrene is 0.00015/day (N = 25); a range of not biodegraded to 0.0037/day is reported. The

frequency distribution histograms for this data are shown in figures 13a and 13b. For the most part,

benzo(a)pyrene is expected to be recalcitrant under most environmental conditions.

Figure 13a. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

benzo(a)pyrene.
110

0

5

10

15

20

25

0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 13b. Frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of

benzo(a)pyrene.
111

Table 14. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for benzo(a)pyrene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Benzo(a)pyrene Wiroa Island,

Auckland, New

Zealand

Uncontaminated Sediment Field 256 <0.00693/day Wilcock,RJ et. al. (1996)

Benzo(a)pyrene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 10 ug/g soil 28 Lu,PY et. al. (1977)

Benzo(a)pyrene Dover, Ohio Coal tar refining

plant

Soil Lab microcosm 105 ng/g 80 0.00006/day Grosser,RJ et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)pyrene Southern Illinois Uncontaminated

coal gasification

plant site

Soil Lab microcosm 84.4 ng/g 225 0.00024/day Grosser,RJ et. al. (1991)

Benzo(a)pyrene Dover, Ohio Coal tar refining

plant

Soil Lab microcosm 105 ng/g 80 0.0003/day Grosser,RJ et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)pyrene Southern Illinois Contaminated coal

gasification plant

site

Soil Lab microcosm 84.4 ng/g 225 0.00032/day Grosser,RJ et. al. (1991)

Benzo(a)pyrene Southern Illinois Contaminated coal

gasification plant

site

Soil Lab microcosm 84.4 ng/g 225 0.00032/day Grosser,RJ et. al. (1991)

Benzo(a)pyrene Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 480 0.0005/day 120 Bossert,ID & Bartha,R (1986)

Benzo(a)pyrene Dover, Ohio Coal tar refining

plant

Soil Lab microcosm 105 ng/g 160 0.0006/day Grosser,RJ et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)pyrene Southern Illinois Uncontaminated

coal gasification

plant site

Soil Lab microcosm 84.4 ng/g 225 0.00065/day Grosser,RJ et. al. (1991)

Benzo(a)pyrene Southern Illinois Uncontaminated

coal gasification

plant site

Soil Lab microcosm 84.4 ng/g 225 0.0009/day Grosser,RJ et. al. (1991)

Benzo(a)pyrene Reilly Tar &

Chemical,St. Louis

Park, MN

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 136 ng/g 56 0.0011/day Carmichael,LM & Pfaender,FK

(1997)

Benzo(a)pyrene Reilly Tar &

Chemical,St. Louis

Park, MN

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 136 ng/g 56 0.0012/day Carmichael,LM & Pfaender,FK

(1997)

Benzo(a)pyrene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 10.76 ug/g 240 0.0013/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC (1987)
Table 14. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

112

Benzo(a)pyrene Southern Illinois Contaminated coal

gasification plant

site

Soil Lab microcosm 84.4 ng/g 225 0.0013/day 25 Grosser,RJ et. al. (1991)

Benzo(a)pyrene DeGray Reservoir,

Arkadelphia,

Arkansas

Uncontaminated Sediment + water Lab microcosm 28 0.0015/day Heitkamp,MA & Cerniglia,CE

(1989)

Benzo(a)pyrene Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 33 mg/kg 196 0.0022/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Benzo(a)pyrene Utah State

University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated

soil

Soil Lab microcosm 33 ug/g 0.0022/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Benzo(a)pyrene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 10.76 ug/g 240 0.0024/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC (1987)

Benzo(a)pyrene Utah State

University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated

soil

Soil Lab microcosm 10.8 ug/g 0.0024/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)

Benzo(a)pyrene Mississippi Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 33 mg/kg 105 0.0030/day Park,KS et. al. (1990)

Benzo(a)pyrene Kaysville, Utah Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 10.76 ug/g 240 0.0032/day Coover,MP & Sims,RC (1987)

Benzo(a)pyrene American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Soil Lab microcosm 28.1 mg/kg 84 0.0034/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Benzo(a)pyrene Dubose Oil

Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 136 ng/g 56 0.0034/day Carmichael,LM & Pfaender,FK

(1997)

Benzo(a)pyrene American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 82.2 mg/kg 84 0.0035/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Benzo(a)pyrene Dubose Oil

Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Contaminated Soil Lab microcosm 136 ng/g 56 0.0037/day 28 Carmichael,LM & Pfaender,FK

(1997)

Benzo(a)pyrene American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 82.2 mg/kg 84 0.0038/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Benzo(a)pyrene Utah State

University,

Kaysville, Utah

Uncontaminated

soil

Soil Lab microcosm 13 ug/g 0.0046/day Keck,J et. al. (1989)
Table 14. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

113

Benzo(a)pyrene Lancaster, UK Agricultural soil Soil Lab microcosm 205 0.0062/day Wild,SR & Jones,KC (1993)

Benzo(a)pyrene American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Soil Lab microcosm 28.1 mg/kg 84 0.0068/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

Benzo(a)pyrene Uttar Pradesh,

India

Soil receiving

effluent from an oil

refinery

Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/kg 90 0.0068/day Ashok,BT et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)pyrene Saucon Creek,

Bethlehem, PA

Contaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/g sediment 4 0.00816/day Herbes,SE (1981)

Benzo(a)pyrene Saucon Creek,

Bethlehem, PA

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/g sediment 4 0.00816/day Herbes,SE (1981)

Benzo(a)pyrene American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Aquifer sediment

+ soil

Lab microcosm 2.1 ug/mL 14 0.057/day. Mueller,JG et. al. (1991)

Benzo(a)pyrene Fort Point

Channel, Boston

Harbor

Estuary Sediment Lab microcosm 20 ng/g 5 1188 ng/g/day Shiaris,MP (1989)

Benzo(a)pyrene Weymouth Back

River, Boston

Harbor

Estuary Sediment Lab microcosm 20 ng/g 5 3.6 ng/g/day Shiaris,MP (1989)

Benzo(a)pyrene Lower Neck

Quincy Bay,

Boston Harbor

Estuary Sediment Lab microcosm 20 ng/g 5 41.28 ng/g/day Shiaris,MP (1989)

Benzo(a)pyrene Lake Chicot,

Arkansas

Sediment + water Lab microcosm 500 ng/g 56 <0.00033/day Heitkamp,MA & Cerniglia,CE

(1987A)

Benzo(a)pyrene Redfish Bay,

Texas

Sediment + water Lab microcosm 500 ng/g 56 <0.0005/day Heitkamp,MA & Cerniglia,CE

(1987A)

Benzo(a)pyrene Knoxville,

Tennessee

Oil contaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 26 <0.00072/day Herbes,SE & Schwall,LR (1978)

Benzo(a)pyrene Walker Branch,

Oak Ridge,

Tennessee

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 26 <0.00072/day Herbes,SE & Schwall,LR (1978)

Benzo(a)pyrene Delson, Quebec,

Canada

Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 46 mg/kg soil 315 No

biodegradation

Deschenes,L et. al. (1996)
Table 14. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

114

Benzo(a)pyrene Delson, Quebec,

Canada

Wood-preserving

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 90 mg/kg soil 315 No

biodegradation

Deschenes,L et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)pyrene Bozeman, MT Pristine soil Soil Lab microcosm 136 ng/g 56 No

mineralization

Carmichael,LM & Pfaender,FK

(1997)

Benzo(a)pyrene Bozeman, Montana Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 136 ng/g 56 No

mineralization

Carmichael,LM & Pfaender,FK

(1997)

Benzo(a)pyrene DeGray Reservoir,

Arkadelphia,

Arkansas

Uncontaminated Sediment + water Lab microcosm 500 ng/g 56 No

mineralization

Heitkamp,MA & Cerniglia,CE

(1987A)

Benzo(a)pyrene Dover, Ohio Coal tar refining

plant

Soil Lab microcosm 105 ng/g 80 No

mineralization

Grosser,RJ et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)pyrene Dover, Ohio Coal tar refining

plant

Soil Lab microcosm 105 ng/g 80 No

mineralization

Grosser,RJ et. al. (1995)

Benzo(a)pyrene Dubose Oil

Recycling,

Cantonment, FL

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 136 ng/g 56 No

mineralization

Carmichael,LM & Pfaender,FK

(1997)

Benzo(a)pyrene Reilly Tar &

Chemical,St. Louis

Park, MN

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 136 ng/g 56 No

mineralization

Carmichael,LM & Pfaender,FK

(1997)

Benzo(a)pyrene Reilly Tar &

Chemical,St. Louis

Park, MN

Industrial location Soil Lab microcosm 136 ng/g 56 No

mineralization

Carmichael,LM & Pfaender,FK

(1997)

Benzo(a)pyrene Saanich Inlet,

western Canada

Uncontaminated Seawater +

sediment

Lab microcosm 3 No

mineralization

Lee,RF et. al. (1978)

Benzo(a)pyrene Saanich Inlet,

western Canada

Uncontaminated Seawater +

sediment

Lab microcosm 3 No

mineralization

Lee,RF et. al. (1978)

Benzo(a)pyrene Saucon Creek,

Bethlehem, PA

Contaminated Creek water Lab microcosm 4 No

mineralization

Herbes,SE (1981)
115

3.3. Chlorinated Aliphatic Compounds

While anaerobic biodegradation of highly chlorinated aliphatic compounds generally proceeds readily in

strong reducing, anaerobic environments, aerobic degradation of these compounds is less likely. The

degree of chlorination of the aliphatic compound will determine its ability to be aerobically biodegraded. 

Compounds such as tetrachloroethylene and carbon tetrachloride, which are highly oxidized and highly

chlorinated, will not be readily biodegraded under aerobic conditions while less oxidized and less highly

chlorinated compounds such as dichloromethane and vinyl chloride will. The major route of degradation

for these less chlorinated compounds is via a cometabolic pathway using broad specificity bacterial

oxygenases. In this case, the chlorinated aliphatic is not used as a growth substrate but is fortuitously

degraded during the biodegradation of other non-chlorinated compounds (or methane) present in the

bacterial environment. Methanotrophs (methane-oxidizing bacteria) are able to metabolize some

chlorinated aliphatics during a cometabolic process due to the methane monooxygenase enzyme

complex. However, the rate of aerobic degradation by methanotrophs also appears to lessen with an

increasing number of chlorine atoms on the molecule (Broholm et. al., 1991; Henson et. al., 1988). 

Tetrachloroethylene is apparently not susceptible to degradation by methanotrophs (Broholm et. al.,

1991; Henson et. al., 1988; Lige et. al., 1995). In aerobic environments, as found in unsaturated soil or

surface water, processes such as leaching or volatilization may be more important in the loss of highlychlorinated aliphatic compounds than biodegradation.

3.3.1. Tetrachloroethylene

This compound, while readily biodegraded under anaerobic conditions through reductive dechlorination

processes, is resistant to biodegradation under aerobic conditions (Table 15). Reductive dechlorination

does not occur at oxygen concentrations greater than 0.5 mg/L (Wiedemeier et. al., 1996).

Enzien et. al. (1994) studied the degradation of tetrachloroethylene in laboratory columns where the

measured dissolved oxygen concentration did not drop below 1.6 mg/L. Significant degradation of this

compound occurred and the authors postulated that anaerobic microsites were responsible although the

column was kept under bulk aerobic conditions. MPN counts of both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria

showed that abundant populations of each existed in the aquifer sediment. Methane was measured in

the column indicating that methanogens were present and providing more evidence that anaerobic

conditions, as microsites, may have been present. Finally, cis-dichloroethylene was reported as the

major metabolite of tetrachloroethylene degradation, again suggesting that anaerobic biodegradation

was responsible for the breakdown of this compound during the experiment. A groundwater recharge

field study by Roberts et. al. (1982) reporting the biodegradation of tetrachloroethylene, injected water

with dissolved oxygen concentrations of 1.86 mg/L which may not have been sufficient to prevent

anaerobic conditions from developing in the aquifer. 

In both oxygen-saturated and methanotrophic lab microcosm conditions, tetrachloroethylene was

minimally degraded from 0 to 6% over a 56-day period (Lige et. al., 1995). No measurable oxygen

consumption or carbon dioxide production was seen in these microcosms relative to the control

microcosms; however, some loss of methane in the methanotrophic microcosms, in excess of that found
116

in the controls, was reported suggesting possible unmeasurable transformation by a methanotrophic

population.

The remainder of the studies summarized in the database show that aerobic biodegradation of

tetrachloroethylene does not occur even given time frames of over 700 days (Roberts et. al., 1986). 

Studies incorporating methane and oxygen in the microcosm atmosphere also reported that

tetrachloroethylene was not biodegraded, again showing that this compound is not susceptible to

methanotrophic cometabolism. 
117

Table 15. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for tetrachloroethylene

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Tetrachloroethylene Palo Alto Baylands,

California

Injection site of

municipal wastewater

Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Field 2.5 ug/L 350 0.0021/day Roberts,PV et. al. (1982)

Tetrachloroethylene Canadian Forces

Base, Borden,

Ontario

Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Field 30.2 ug/L 709 No

biodegradation

Roberts,PV et. al. (1986)

Tetrachloroethylene Lower Glatt River

Valley, Switzerland

River infiltration site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Field 0.60 ug/L No

biodegradation

Schwarzenbach,RP et. al.

(1983)

Tetrachloroethylene Victoria, Texas DuPont Plant West

Landfill

Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Field 10 uM 203 No

biodegradation

Beeman,RE et. al. (1994)

Tetrachloroethylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Contaminated landfill

site

Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 90 No

biodegradation

Nielsen,PH et. al. (1992)

Tetrachloroethylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Contaminated landfill

site

Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 90 No

biodegradation

Nielsen,PH et. al. (1992)

Tetrachloroethylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 70 No

biodegradation

Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Tetrachloroethylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 70 No

biodegradation

Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Tetrachloroethylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

In situ

microcosm

150 ug/L 70 No

biodegradation

Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Tetrachloroethylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Uncontaminated

landfill site

Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

In situ

microcosm

120 ug/L 90 No

biodegradation

Nielsen,PH et. al. (1992)

Tetrachloroethylene Savannah River Site,

South Carolina

Soil + groundwater Lab column 500 ug/L 1.25 0.139/day Enzien,MV et. al. (1994)

Tetrachloroethylene Ada, Oklahoma Soil Lab column 0.15 mg/L No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1981)

Tetrachloroethylene Ada, Oklahoma Rapid infiltration site Soil Lab column 2.6 umol/L 196 No

biodegradation

Piwoni,MD et. al. (1986)

Tetrachloroethylene Glatt River,

Switzerland

River/Groundwater

infiltration zone

Aquifer sediment Lab column 30 mg/L 270 No

biodegradation

Kuhn,EP et. al. (1985)
Table 15. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

118

Tetrachloroethylene Rhine River

sediment

River infiltration site Sediment Lab column 0.5-60 ug/L No

biodegradation

Bosma,TNP et. al. (1990)

Tetrachloroethylene Skrydstrup,

Denmark

Uncontaminated Soil Lab column 1.1 mg/kg wet

soil

289 No

biodegradation

Broholm,K et. al. (1991)

Tetrachloroethylene Swan Coastal Plain,

Australia

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab column 490 ug/L No

biodegradation

Patterson,BM et. al.

(1993)

Tetrachloroethylene Swan Coastal Plain,

Australia

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab column 490 ug/L No

biodegradation

Patterson,BM et. al.

(1993)

Tetrachloroethylene Swan Coastal Plain,

Australia

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab column 540 ug/L No

biodegradation

Patterson,BM et. al.

(1993)

Tetrachloroethylene Swan Coastal Plain,

Australia

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab column 580 ug/L No

biodegradation

Patterson,BM et. al.

(1993)

Tetrachloroethylene The Netherlands Infiltration area Sediment Lab column 40-60 ug/L No

biodegradation

van der Meer,JR et. al.

(1992)

Tetrachloroethylene Dover AFB, Dover,

Delaware

Contaminated Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab

microcosm

1 mg/L 56 0.000361/day Lige,JE et. al. (1995)

Tetrachloroethylene Dover AFB, Dover,

Delaware

Contaminated Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab

microcosm

1 mg/L 56 0.000916/day Lige,JE et. al. (1995)

Tetrachloroethylene Dover AFB, Dover,

Delaware

Contaminated Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab

microcosm

1 mg/L 56 0.0011/day Lige,JE et. al. (1995)

Tetrachloroethylene Dover AFB, Dover,

Delaware

Contaminated Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab

microcosm

1 mg/L 56 No

biodegradation

Lige,JE et. al. (1995)

Tetrachloroethylene Fort Polk, Louisiana Aquifer sediment Lab

microcosm

600-800 ug/L 63 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1983)

Tetrachloroethylene Fort Polk, Louisiana Aquifer sediment Lab

microcosm

600-800 ug/L 63 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1983)

Tetrachloroethylene Iowa River, Iowa Freshwater River water Lab

microcosm

20.1 mg/L 4.5 No

biodegradation

Mudder,TI (1981)
Table 15. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

119

Tetrachloroethylene Lula, Oklahoma Aquifer sediment Lab

microcosm

600-800 ug/L 63 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1984)

Tetrachloroethylene Lula, Oklahoma Aquifer sediment Lab

microcosm

600-800 ug/L 63 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1984)

Tetrachloroethylene Pickett, Oklahoma Aquifer sediment Lab

microcosm

600-800 ug/L 189 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1983)

Tetrachloroethylene Pickett, Oklahoma Aquifer sediment Lab

microcosm

600-800 ug/L 189 No

biodegradation

Wilson,JT et. al. (1983)

Tetrachloroethylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab

microcosm

150 ug/L 150 No

biodegradation

Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Tetrachloroethylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab

microcosm

150 ug/L 150 No

biodegradation

Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Tetrachloroethylene Vejen City, Jutland,

Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab

microcosm

150 ug/L 150 No

biodegradation

Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

Tetrachloroethylene Denmark Municipal landfill Leachate Reactor

system

50 mg COD/L No

biodegradation

Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1992)
120

0

1

2

3

4

5

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

3.3.2. Dichloromethane

Several studies using pure cultures or mixed defined bacterial cultures show that dichloromethane,

unlike the more highly chlorinated aliphatic compounds can be utilized by bacteria as a carbon and

energy source for growth (Davis and Madsen, 1991). Biodegradation of this compound is believed to

be catalyzed initially by a dehalogenase resulting in the formation of formaldehyde and hydrochloric acid

(Davis and Madsen, 1991). Only three papers were located reporting the biodegradation of

dichloromethane in environmental media (Table 16). Based on this data, dichloromethane is expected

to be moderately degradable under aerobic conditions.

Davis and Madsen (1991) investigated the aerobic degradation of dichloromethane in several soils

without the addition of methane. The rate of degradation was dependent on the soil type, substrate

concentration, organic carbon availability and redox condition of the particular soil studied. Rates

were significantly higher for concentrations between 0.5 mg/L (T1/2 of 1.3 days) and 5 mg/L (T1/2 of

191 days) for the same soil although degradation was shown at concentrations up to 50 mg/L. Henson

et. al. (1988) reported the biodegradation of dichloromethane following the addition of methane to

stimulate the naturally occurring population of methanotrophs. Without the prior addition of methane

only 43% of the initially added dichloromethane was degraded in 6 days whereas the enrichment

procedure, with methane added over the 6 weeks before the addition of dichloromethane, showed

98% loss over 6 days.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of dichloromethane, considering all studies, is

0.0546/day (N = 8); a range of 0.00362 to 0.533/day is reported. The frequency distribution

histogram for this data is shown in figure 14. Dichloromethane is expected to be fairly readily

biodegraded under most aerobic environmental conditions.

Figure 14. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

dichloromethane.
121

Table 16. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for dichloromethane

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Dichloromethane Rhine River, The

Netherlands

Uncontaminated River water Field 5 ug/L 80 0.0182/day Zoeteman,BCJ et. al. (1980)

Dichloromethane Rhine River, The

Netherlands

Uncontaminated River water Field 5 ug/L 132 0.021/day Zoeteman,BCJ et. al. (1980)

Dichloromethane Midland County,

Michigan

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 mg/L 220 0.00362/day Davis,JW & Madsen,SS (1991)

Dichloromethane Midland County,

Michigan

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 mg/L 196 0.00645/day Davis,JW & Madsen,SS (1991)

Dichloromethane Bay County,

Michigan

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 mg/L 140 0.0126/day Davis,JW & Madsen,SS (1991)

Dichloromethane Midland County,

Michigan

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 mg/L 31 0.043/day Davis,JW & Madsen,SS (1991)

Dichloromethane Midland County,

Michigan

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 mg/L 36 0.0546/day Davis,JW & Madsen,SS (1991)

Dichloromethane Bay County,

Michigan

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 mg/L 21 0.0737/day Davis,JW & Madsen,SS (1991)

Dichloromethane Midland County,

Michigan

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5 mg/L 68 0.096/day 50 Davis,JW & Madsen,SS (1991)

Dichloromethane Ada, Oklahoma Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 275 ug/L 6 0.101/day Henson,JM et. al. (1988)

Dichloromethane Midland County,

Michigan

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.16 mg/L 5.25 0.533/day Davis,JW & Madsen,SS (1991)
122

3.4. Phenol and Substituted Phenols

Both phenol and the cresol isomers are readily degraded under aerobic conditions in environmental

media (see Tables 17, 18, 19, and 20). The cresols are monosubstituted phenols commonly used in

disinfectants and fumigants, in photographic developers, as a manufacturing intermediate in the

production of synthetic resins and in explosives. Because of their common usage, these compounds are

often found in the environment and are listed as priority pollutants by the U.S. EPA. Phenol is expected

to biodegrade more rapidly than the cresol isomers. Phenols with ortho- or para- substituents were

shown to be preferentially degraded over those with meta- substitution (Medvedev and Davidov,

1981). m-Cresol is thought to exhibit a greater stability of the benzene ring making it more difficult to

biodegrade than the other two isomers.

3.4.1. Phenol

Phenol is rapidly biodegraded in the environment under aerobic conditions, usually without any

apparent lag time. First-order biodegradation rate constants were in the range of 0.006/day T1/2=116

days) to 11/day (T1/2<1 day), with the majority of the values greater than 1/day. The lowest rate

constant was derived from unpolluted aquifer material 12-12.6 m below the soil surface and had a lag

period of 16 days. Substantially larger rate constants were calculated for aquifer material collected at

different depths in this study (Konopka and Turco, 1991). 

A field study in Terrebonne Bay and Barataria Bay, LA was conducted in which the half-lives of phenol

in sediment cores were reported as 1.9 and 4.1 days. These half-lives were in good agreement with

half-lives determined in laboratory experiments using continuous flow reactor systems (Portier, 1985).

Biodegradation of phenol in soils under aerobic conditions was also rapid. First-order rate constants of

4.5/day to 7.3/day were determined in unpolluted Captina and Palouse soils at initial concentrations of

1X10-6 M to 1X10-9 M (Scott et. al., 1983).

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of phenol, considering all studies, is 0.21/day

(N = 38). The median for the mineralization rate constant of phenol, considering all studies, is 1.56/day

(N = 26). The frequency histograms for this data are shown in figures 15a and 15b.
123

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 2 4 6 8 10

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0 2 3.5 5 6.5 8 9.5 11

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 15a. The frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

phenol.

Figure 15b. The frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of phenol.
124

Table 17. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for phenol

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

Phenol Terrebonne Bay and

Barataria Bay, LA

Estuary Bay water + sediment Field 5 mg/L 0.17/day Portier,RJ (1985)

Phenol Terrebonne Bay and

Barataria Bay, LA

Estuary Bay water + sediment Field 5 mg/L 0.36/day Portier,RJ (1985)

Phenol Lake Superior, WI Groundwater Groundwater Groundwater

grab sample

0-3.2 mg/L 20 0.035/day Vaishnav,DD & Babeu,L

(1987)

Phenol Purdue University, W.

Lafayette, Indiana

Aquifer Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 uM 32 0.006/day 16 Konopka,A & Turco,R (1991)

Phenol Memorial Park pond,

Athens, Georgia

Pristine pond Pond water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.024-0.14/day Paris,DF & Rogers,JE (1986)

Phenol Wiggins, Mississippi Acidic soil Soil Lab microcosm 350 mg/kg 30 0.030/day Loehr,RC & Matthews,JE

(1992)

Phenol Lula, Oklahoma Aquifer Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 9 ng/g 250 0.035/day Aelion,CM et. al. (1987)

Phenol Lula, Oklahoma Aquifer Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 461 ng/g 250 0.036/day Aelion,CM et. al. (1987)

Phenol Purdue University, W.

Lafayette, Indiana

Aquifer Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 uM 32 0.047/day 2 Konopka,A & Turco,R (1991)

Phenol Hickory Hills pond,

Athens, Georgia

Pristine pond Pond water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.048-0.072/day Paris,DF & Rogers,JE (1986)

Phenol Water Works pond,

Athens, Georgia

Pristine pond Pond water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.048-0.096/day Paris,DF & Rogers,JE (1986)

Phenol Hickory Hills pond,

Athens, Georgia

Pristine pond Pond water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.048-4.8/day Paris,DF et. al. (1983)

Phenol Park pond, Athens,

Georgia

Pristine pond Pond water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.058-5.8/day Paris,DF et. al. (1983)

Phenol Chernozen, Ukraine Industrial

location

Soil Lab microcosm 1000 mg/kg 16 0.058/day Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981A)

Phenol Lester River, MN River water River water Lab microcosm 0-3.2 mg/L 20 0.065/day Vaishnav,DD & Babeu,L

(1987)
Table 17. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

125

Phenol Williams pond, Athens,

Georgia

Pristine pond Pond water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.072-7.2/day Paris,DF et. al. (1983)

Phenol Skidaway River, Georgia Estuary Estuarine water Lab microcosm 25 ug/L 2 0.079/day Lee,RF & Ryan,C (1979)

Phenol Oconee River, Athens,

Georgia

Pristine river River water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.10-10/day Paris,DF et. al. (1983)

Phenol Overlook pond, Athens,

Georgia

Pristine pond Pond water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.11-11/day Paris,DF et. al. (1983)

Phenol Oconee River, Athens,

Georgia

Pristine river River water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.14-0.21/day Paris,DF & Rogers,JE (1986)

Phenol Purdue University, W.

Lafayette, Indiana

Aquifer Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 uM 32 0.15/day Konopka,A & Turco,R (1991)

Phenol Austin, Texas Basic soil Soil Lab microcosm 700 mg/kg 12 0.17/day Loehr,RC & Matthews,JE

(1992)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 20 ppm 7 0.17/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)

Phenol Purdue University, W.

Lafayette, Indiana

Aquifer Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 uM 32 0.2/day Konopka,A & Turco,R (1991)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 20 ppm 6.7 0.21/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 20 ppm 5 0.22/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)

Phenol Lake Superior Harbor,

WI

Lake water Lake water Lab microcosm 0-3.2 mg/L 12 0.247/day Vaishnav,DD & Babeu,L

(1986)

Phenol Purdue University, W.

Lafayette, Indiana

Aquifer Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 uM 32 0.25/day 1 Konopka,A & Turco,R (1991)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 10 ppm 4 0.32/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)
Table 17. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

126

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 10 ppm 4 0.34/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 10 ppm 4 0.42/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 5 ppm 2.9 0.59/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)

Phenol Purdue University, W.

Lafayette, Indiana

Aquifer Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 10 uM 32 0.72/day Konopka,A & Turco,R (1991)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 5 ppm 2.6 0.76/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 5 ppm 2 0.92/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)

Phenol Lake Superior Harbor,

WI

Lake water Lake water Lab microcosm 0-3.2 mg/L 12 1.03/day Vaishnav,DD & Babeu,L

(1986)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.0X10-5

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.0X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.1X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.1X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.2X10-5

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.2X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.2X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)
Table 17. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

127

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.3X10-5

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.5X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.5X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.5X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.6X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.6X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.9X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.9X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 1.9X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.0X10-5

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.0X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.0X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.0X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.1X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)
Table 17. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

128

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.1X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.2X10-5

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.2X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 0.5 ppm 0.5 2.4/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)

Phenol Unspecified site Soil Soil Lab microcosm 1X10-7

mols/g

1 2.4/day Dao,TH & Lavy,TL (1987)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)
Table 17. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

129

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.5X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.6X10-5

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.6X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.9X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.9X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 3.0X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Brians Pond, Summit,

New Jersey

Pond water Pond water Lab microcosm 1000 ng/mL 1 3.2/day Chesney,RH et. al. (1985)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 0.5 ppm 0.5 3.3/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)
Table 17. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

130

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 3.3X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Samber River, Belgium Polluted river River water Lab microcosm 0.5 ppm 0.5 3.4/day Borighem,G & Vereecken,J

(1978)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 3.6X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 4.3X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 4.3X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Brians Pond, Summit,

New Jersey

Pond water Pond water Lab microcosm 10 ng/mL 1 4.4/day Chesney,RH et. al. (1985)

Phenol Whitman County,

Washington

Unpolluted

Palouse soil

Soil Lab microcosm 1X10-9 M 4.5/day Scott,HD et. al. (1983)

Phenol Whitman County,

Washington

Unpolluted

Palouse soil

Soil Lab microcosm 1X10-6 M 4.6/day Scott,HD et. al. (1983)

Phenol Whitman County,

Washington

Unpolluted

Palouse soil

Soil Lab microcosm 1X10-7 M 4.8/day Scott,HD et. al. (1983)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 4.8X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 4.8X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 4.8X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 4.8X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol White Rocks Branch,

Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 4.8X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)
Table 17. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

131

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 4.9X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 4.9X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Whitman County,

Washington

Unpolluted

Palouse soil

Soil Lab microcosm 1X10-8 M 5.0/day Scott,HD et. al. (1983)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 5.0X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Jefferson National

Forest, Virginia

Pristine stream Stream water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 5.0X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Brians Pond, Summit,

New Jersey

Pond water Pond water Lab microcosm 100 ng/mL 1 5.4/day Chesney,RH et. al. (1985)

Phenol Washington County,

Arkansas

Unpolluted

Captina soil

Soil Lab microcosm 1X10-9 M 5.4/day Scott,HD et. al. (1983)

Phenol Brians Pond, Summit,

New Jersey

Pond water Pond water Lab microcosm 1 ng/mL 1 5.5/day Chesney,RH et. al. (1985)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 6.0X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Washington County,

Arkansas

Unpolluted

Captina soil

Soil Lab microcosm 1X10-8 M 6.1/day Scott,HD et. al. (1983)

Phenol Washington County,

Arkansas

Unpolluted

Captina soil

Soil Lab microcosm 1X10-7 M 6.2/day Scott,HD et. al. (1983)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 7.2X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Washington County,

Arkansas

Unpolluted

Captina soil

Soil Lab microcosm 1X10-6 M 7.3/day Scott,HD et. al. (1983)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + sediment Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 7.5X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)
Table 17. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time 

Period (days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

 (days)

Reference

132

Phenol St. Lawrence River,

Canada

River water River water Lab microcosm 125 ppb 0.2 7.99/day Visser,SA et. al. (1977)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 8.0X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Stoney Creek, Virginia Pristine stream Stream water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 9.0X10-7

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol New River, Virginia Pristine river River water + seston Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 9.6X10-6

mg/mg/day

Peters,GT & Colwell,FS (1989)

Phenol Chernozen, Ukraine Industrial

location

Soil Lab microcosm 100 mg/kg 5 Biodegrades Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981A)

Phenol Chernozen, Ukraine Industrial

location

Soil Lab microcosm 100 mg/kg 3 Biodegrades Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981A)

Phenol Chernozen, Ukraine Industrial

location

Soil Lab microcosm 500 mg/kg 6 Biodegrades Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981B)

Phenol Chernozen, Ukraine Industrial

location

Soil Lab microcosm 500 mg/kg 16 Biodegrades Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981B)

Phenol Waterloo, Ontario Uncultivated

soil

Soil Lab microcosm 100 ug/g 5 Biodegrades Baker,MD & Mayfield,CI

(1980)

Phenol Chernozen, Ukraine Industrial

location

Soil Lab microcosm 1000 mg/kg 44 No biodegradation Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981A)

Phenol Terrebonne Bay and

Barataria Bay, LA

Estuary Sediment Reactor system 5 mg/L 0.18/day Portier,RJ (1985)

Phenol Terrebonne Bay and

Barataria Bay, LA

Estuary Sediment Reactor system 5 mg/L 0.31/day Portier,RJ (1985)
133

0

5

10

15

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

3.4.2. o-Cresol

o-Cresol is readily degraded under aerobic conditions (Table 18). Biodegradation of this compound is

believed to proceed via hydroxylation to 2-methylcatechol followed by ring cleavage (Paris et. al.,

1983). 

While no field studies were located for this compound, in situ microcosm studies conducted at Vejen

City, Denmark showed that o-cresol was readily degraded in an aquifer environment with an average

half-life of 2.6 days (Nielsen et. al., 1996). Rate constants were mainly collected for laboratory

microcosm studies with calculated half-lives ranging from less than 1 day (several studies, see Table 18)

to 10 days (Mueller et. al., 1991A). The average half-life for these data was less than 1 day. Rate

constants reported for a study using groundwater as an inoculum for the degradation of o-cresol were

considerably higher than those reported in other study types.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of o-cresol, considering all studies, is 0.4/day

(N = 22); a range of 0.069 to 4.61/day is reported. The frequency distribution histogram for the data is

shown in figure 16. The mean for the lab microcosm studies alone is 0.49/day. o-Cresol is expected to

be readily biodegraded

under most aerobic

environmental

conditions.

Figure 16. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of ocresol.
134

Table 18. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for o-cresol

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

o-Cresol Denmark Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

200-1000

ug/L

20 0.33-0.43/day 4 Arvin,E et. al. (1988)

o-Cresol Forlev landfill,

Korsoer, Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 1 4.61/day Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

o-Cresol Forlev landfill,

Korsoer, Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 1 4.61/day Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

o-Cresol Forlev landfill,

Korsoer, Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 1 4.61/day Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

o-Cresol Forlev landfill,

Korsoer, Zealand

Sanitary landfill Leachate Groundwater

inoculum

100 ug/L 1 4.61/day Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1988)

o-Cresol Vejen City,

Jutland, Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

In situ microcosm 150 ug/L 0.2/day Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Cresol Vejen City,

Jutland, Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

In situ microcosm 150 ug/L 0.2/day Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Cresol Vejen City,

Jutland, Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

In situ microcosm 150 ug/L 0.4/day Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Cresol Skaelskor,

Denmark

Uncontaminated Fractured clay Lab column 3.2 Biodegrades 0.5 Broholm,K et. al. (1995)

o-Cresol American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 9.7 mg/kg 56 0.069/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

o-Cresol American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 9.7 mg/kg 56 0.087/day 7 Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

o-Cresol Wiggins,

Mississippi

Soil Lab microcosm 250 mg/kg

soil

0.136/day Loehr,RC & Matthews,JE

(1992)

o-Cresol River water Lab microcosm 0.160/day 2 Kaplin,VT et. al. (1968)

o-Cresol Cliffs-Dow

Chemical Co.,

Marquette, MI

Charcoal

manufacturing

plant

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 21 0.19/day Klecka,GM et. al. (1990)
Table 18. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

135

o-Cresol Cliffs-Dow

Chemical Co.,

Marquette, MI

Charcoal

manufacturing

plant

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 21 0.33/day Klecka,GM et. al. (1990)

o-Cresol Vejen City,

Jutland, Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.4/day Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Cresol Vejen City,

Jutland, Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.4/day 1 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Cresol Vejen City,

Jutland, Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 0.4/day 2 Nielsen,PH et. al. (1996)

o-Cresol Austin, Texas Soil Lab microcosm 500 mg/kg

soil

0.433/day Loehr,RC & Matthews,JE

(1992)

o-Cresol Soil Lab microcosm 1000 mg/kg

soil

16 0.72-0.82/day Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981)

o-Cresol Cliffs-Dow

Chemical Co.,

Marquette, MI

Charcoal

manufacturing

plant

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 0.77/day Klecka,GM et. al. (1990)

o-Cresol Vejen City,

Jutland, Denmark

Landfill site Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 150 ug/L 10 0.877/day Nielsen,PH & Christensen,TH

(1994A)

o-Cresol American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 4.2 mg/L 3 0.88/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991)

o-Cresol Soil Lab microcosm 500 mg/kg

soil

8 1.35-1.55/day Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981B)

o-Cresol Denmark Municipal

landfill

Leachate Reactor system 50 mg COD/L Biodegrades Lyngkilde,J et. al. (1992)
136

0

5

10

15

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Rate constant (days -1)

Frequency

3.4.3. m-Cresol

m-Cresol is rapidly degraded under aerobic conditions (Table 19). Biodegradation is believed to

proceed via hydroxylation to 3-methylcatechol followed by ring cleavage (Paris et. al., 1983). 

No field or in situ microcosm studies were located for this compound. Rate constants were exclusively

collected for laboratory microcosm studies with calculated half-lives ranging from less than 1 day

(several studies, see Table 19) to 198 days (Dobbins and Pfaender, 1988). The average half-life for

this data was approximately 1.5 days. The high half-life was taken from a study measuring the

biodegradation of m-cresol at different horizons in a sediment core from a pristine aquifer site. The

half-lives measured for this core varied from 28 to 198 days depending on the location of the sediment

used in the laboratory microcosm. A single mineralization study was reported giving a half-life of 714

days for m-cresol in uncontaminated aquifer sediment (Aelion et. al., 1987).

Loehr and Matthews (1992) reported that biodegradation of m-cresol was considerably slower in an

acid soil (pH 4.8) when compared to degradation in a basic soil (pH 7.8) giving half-lives of 0.6 and

11.3 days, respectively. This difference was not seen in the same magnitude for the other cresol

isomers although degradation of the cresols in the acidic soil was slower in all cases. Work by

Palumbo et. al. (1988) showed that maximum uptake rates of m-cresol in environmental water samples

were seasonal, with rates significantly slower in the winter months and then increasing through the

summer months as water temperatures and microbial activity increased before declining again during the

fall. 

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of m-cresol, considering all studies, is

0.133/day (N = 19); a range of 0.0035 to 1.16/day is reported. The frequency distribution histogram

for this data is shown in figure 17. m-Cresol is expected to be readily biodegraded under most aerobic

environmental conditions.

Figure 17. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of mcresol.
137

Table 19. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for m-cresol

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

m-Cresol Lula, Oklahoma Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 0.00024-

0.0024/day

Dobbins,DC & Pfaender,FK

(1987)

m-Cresol Lula, Oklahoma Uncontaminated

aquifer site

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 39 ng/g 150 0.00097/day Aelion,CM et. al. (1987)

m-Cresol Lula, Oklahoma Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 0.0035/day Dobbins,DC & Pfaender,FK

(1988)

m-Cresol Lula, Oklahoma Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 0.0073/day Dobbins,DC & Pfaender,FK

(1988)

m-Cresol Lula, Oklahoma Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 0.012/day Dobbins,DC & Pfaender,FK

(1988)

m-Cresol Lula, Oklahoma Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 0.012/day Dobbins,DC & Pfaender,FK

(1988)

m-Cresol Lula, Oklahoma Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 0.025/day Dobbins,DC & Pfaender,FK

(1988)

m-Cresol Coastal water

adjacent to the

Newport R.

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm 1-35 ug/L 0.21-0.5 0.032/day Palumbo,AV et. al. (1988)

m-Cresol American

Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 21.1 mg/kg 84 0.057/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

m-Cresol Wiggins,

Mississippi

Soil Lab microcosm 130 mg/kg

soil

0.061/day Loehr,RC & Matthews,JE

(1992)

m-Cresol American

Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 21.1 mg/kg 56 0.078/day 7 Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

m-Cresol River water Lab microcosm 0.188/day 2 Kaplin,VT et. al. (1968)

m-Cresol Soil Lab microcosm 1000 mg/kg

soil

27 0.43-0.49/day Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981)
Table 19. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

138

m-Cresol Lake Michie,

Durham, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 0-500 ug/L 0.576/day Shimp,RJ & Pfaender,FK

(1985)

m-Cresol Lake Michie,

Durham, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 0-500 ug/L 0.624/day Shimp,RJ & Pfaender,FK

(1985)

m-Cresol Newport River

estuary, NC

Uncontaminated Estuarine water Lab microcosm 1-35 ug/L 0.21-0.5 0.70/day Palumbo,AV et. al. (1988)

m-Cresol Lake Michie,

Durham, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 0-500 ug/L 0.792/day Shimp,RJ & Pfaender,FK

(1985)

m-Cresol Newport River,

NC

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 1-35 ug/L 0.21-0.5 0.82/day Palumbo,AV et. al. (1988)

m-Cresol Soil Lab microcosm 500 mg/kg

soil

11 0.98-1.13/day Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981B)

m-Cresol Lake Michie,

Durham, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 0-500 ug/L 1.01/day Shimp,RJ & Pfaender,FK

(1985)

m-Cresol American

Creosote Works,

Pensacola, FL

Wood preserving

site

Aquifer sediment +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 2.5 mg/L 3 1.07/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991)

m-Cresol Austin, Texas Soil Lab microcosm 120 mg/kg

soil

1.16/day Loehr,RC & Matthews,JE

(1992)

m-Cresol Newport River

estuary, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Estuarine water Lab microcosm Biodegrades Pfaender,FK &

Bartholomew,GW (1982)

m-Cresol Newport River

estuary, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Estuarine water Lab microcosm Biodegrades Pfaender,FK &

Bartholomew,GW (1982)
Table 19. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

139

m-Cresol Newport River

estuary, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Estuarine water Lab microcosm Biodegrades Pfaender,FK &

Bartholomew,GW (1982)

m-Cresol Newport River

estuary, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Estuarine water Lab microcosm Biodegrades Pfaender,FK &

Bartholomew,GW (1982)

m-Cresol Newport River

estuary, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Estuarine water Lab microcosm Biodegrades Pfaender,FK &

Bartholomew,GW (1982)

m-Cresol Newport River

estuary, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Estuarine water Lab microcosm Biodegrades Pfaender,FK &

Bartholomew,GW (1982)

m-Cresol Newport River,

North Carolina

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm Biodegrades Pfaender,FK &

Bartholomew,GW (1982)

m-Cresol Offshore, North

Carolina

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm Biodegrades

slightly

Pfaender,FK &

Bartholomew,GW (1982)
140

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Rate constants (days-1)

Frequency

3.4.4. p-Cresol

p-Cresol is readily degraded under aerobic conditions (Table 20). Biodegradation is believed to

proceed via hydroxylation to 4-methylcatechol followed by ring cleavage (Paris et. al., 1983). 

No field or in situ microcosm studies were located for this compound. Rate constants were exclusively

collected for laboratory microcosm studies aside from one groundwater grab study (Delfino and Miles,

1985) with calculated half-lives ranging from less than 1 day (several studies, see Table 20) to 27 days

(Paris et. al., 1983). The average half-life for this data was less than 1 day. A single mineralization

study was reported giving an approximate half-life of 10 days for p-cresol in aquifer sediment (Millette

et. al., 1995). In a factorial experiment, it was found that the mineralization of p-cresol was unaffected

by the presence of other compounds commonly found in creosote (Millette et. al., 1995). 

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of p-cresol is 1.75/day (N = 28); a range of

0.079 to 13.15/day is reported. The frequency distribution histogram for this data is shown in figure

18. p-Cresol is expected to be readily biodegraded under most aerobic environmental conditions.

Figure 18. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of pcresol.
141

Table 20. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for p-cresol

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

p-Cresol NW Gainesville,

Florida

Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

2.2 mg/L 8 1.26/day 2 Delfino,JJ & Miles,CJ (1985)

p-Cresol Lago Lake,

Georgia

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 0.003 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

p-Cresol Okefenokee

Swamp, Mizell

Prairie

Uncontaminated Freshwater Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 0.01 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

p-Cresol Williams pond,

Georgia

Pond water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.026-2.6/day Paris,DF et. al. (1983)

p-Cresol Mamma Rhoda

Channel, Bahamas

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 0.027 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

p-Cresol Park pond,

Georgia

Pond water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.058-5.8/day Paris,DF et. al. (1983)

p-Cresol Hickory Hills,

Georgia

Freshwater Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.062-6.3/day Paris,DF et. al. (1983)

p-Cresol Oconee River,

Georgia

River water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.072-7.2/day Paris,DF et. al. (1983)

p-Cresol Canadian Forces

Base, Borden,

Canada

Aquifer sediment Lab microcosm 101.4 mg/L 15 0.0723/day 3 Millette,D et. al. (1995)

p-Cresol American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 21.7 mg/kg 56 0.079/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

p-Cresol American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Sediment Lab microcosm 21.7 mg/kg 56 0.084/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991A)

p-Cresol Overlook pond,

Georgia

Pond water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 0.11-11/day Paris,DF et. al. (1983)

p-Cresol River water Lab microcosm 0.188/day 2 Kaplin,VT et. al. (1968)
Table 20. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

142

p-Cresol Mamma Rhoda

Channel, Bahamas

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 0.22 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

p-Cresol Lago Lake,

Georgia

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 0.24 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

p-Cresol Bay Bridge,

Pensacola, Florida

Estuarine water Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 4.1 0.384/day 2.5 Vanveld,PA & Spain,JC (1983)

p-Cresol Lago Lake,

Georgia

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 0.5 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

p-Cresol James River,

Virginia

River water Lab microcosm 4.2 0.842/day Bourquin,AW (1984)

p-Cresol Yakima River,

Washington

River water Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 0.75 0.98-1.22/day Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol Sabine Island,

Florida

Estuarine water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 2.5 1.06/day 0.42 Vanveld,PA & Spain,JC (1983)

p-Cresol Sabine Island,

Florida

Estuarine water Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 1.5 1.08/day 1 Vanveld,PA & Spain,JC (1983)

p-Cresol Soil Lab microcosm 1000 mg/kg

soil

9 1.28-1.46/day Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981)

p-Cresol Wiggins,

Mississippi

Soil Lab microcosm 45 mg/kg soil 1.39/day Loehr,RC & Matthews,JE

(1992)

p-Cresol Bay Bridge,

Pensacola, Florida

Estuarine

sediment

Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 1.25 1.46/day 0.42 Vanveld,PA & Spain,JC (1983)

p-Cresol Soil Lab microcosm 500 mg/kg

soil

7 1.55-1.78/day Medvedev,VA & Davidov,VD

(1981B)

p-Cresol Yakima River,

Washington

River water Lab microcosm 1000 ug/L 2.25 1.7-2.64/day 1.6 Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol Bayou Chico,

Florida

Estuarine water Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 1.25 1.75/day Vanveld,PA & Spain,JC (1983)
Table 20. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

143

p-Cresol 331 Bldg Fish

Pond, Richmond,

WA

Pond water Lab microcosm 1000 ug/L 3.5 1.94-1.99/day 2.75 Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol Walla Walla River,

Washington

River water Lab microcosm 1000 ug/L 2.5 1.97-2.57/day Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol Yakima River,

Washington

River water Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 1.97-2.57/day Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol Lago Lake,

Georgia

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 10000 ug/L 10.95 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

p-Cresol Lago Lake,

Georgia

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 10000 ug/L 14.67 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

p-Cresol Bayou Chico,

Florida

Estuarine

sediment

Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 1 2.02/day Vanveld,PA & Spain,JC (1983)

p-Cresol Bay Bridge,

Pensacola, Florida

Estuarine water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 1.25 2.28/day Vanveld,PA & Spain,JC (1983)

p-Cresol 331 Bldg Fish

Pond, Richmond,

WA

Pond water Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 2.5 2.45-3.7/day 1.25-1.9 Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol Sabine Island,

Florida

Estuarine

sediment

Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 1 2.88/day Vanveld,PA & Spain,JC (1983)

p-Cresol 331 Bldg Fish

Pond, Richmond,

WA

Pond water Lab microcosm 1000 ug/L 2.9 2.98-10.4/day 2.3 Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol American Creosote

Works, Pensacola,

FL

Wood preserving

site

Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 2.0 mg/L 1 3.0/day Mueller,JG et. al. (1991)

p-Cresol Lago Lake,

Georgia

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 100000 ug/L 32.1 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)
Table 20. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

144

p-Cresol Okefenokee

Swamp, Mizell

Prairie

Uncontaminated Freshwater Lab microcosm 100000 ug/L 38 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

p-Cresol Bayou Chico,

Florida

Estuarine water +

sediment

Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 0.79 5.52/day Vanveld,PA & Spain,JC (1983)

p-Cresol Columbia River,

Washington

River water Lab microcosm 1000 ug/L 2.67 7.3-19.0/day 0-2.4 Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol 331 Bldg Fish

Pond, Richmond,

WA

Pond water Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 1.8 7.7-8.2/day 1.5 Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol Austin, Texas Soil Lab microcosm 100 mg/kg

soil

>100 mg/kg/day Loehr,RC & Matthews,JE

(1992)

p-Cresol 331 Bldg Fish

Pond, Richmond,

WA

Pond water Lab microcosm 100 ug/L Biodegrades Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol Athens, Georgia Freshwater Lab microcosm 130 ug/L 0.38 Biodegrades Hwang,HM & Maloney,SW

(1996)

p-Cresol Athens, Georgia Freshwater Lab microcosm 300 ug/L 0.38 Biodegrades Hwang,HM & Maloney,SW

(1996)

p-Cresol Athens, Georgia Freshwater Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 0.38 Biodegrades Hwang,HM & Maloney,SW

(1996)

p-Cresol Athens, Georgia Freshwater Lab microcosm 60 ug/L 0.38 Biodegrades Hwang,HM & Maloney,SW

(1996)

p-Cresol Columbia River,

Washington

River water Lab microcosm 1000 ug/L Biodegrades Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)

p-Cresol Yakima River,

Washington

River water Lab microcosm 1000 ug/L Biodegrades Rogers,JE et. al. (1984)
145

Rate Constant vs. Concentration

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

0.25 0.27 0.32 0.78 0.33 0.6 2.4 7.3

Rate constant (days-1)

Concentration 

(ug/L)

3.5. Ketones

Data were located for two of the three original members of this group, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone and

methyl isobutyl ketone. No data were found for methyl isobutyl ketone and this compound was not

included in this discussion. The ketones, in general, are readily biodegraded in soil and water and thus

are expected to naturally attenuate in the environment.

3.5.1. Acetone

Acetone is expected to biodegrade rapidly under aerobic conditions (Table 21). Only three papers

were located, however, reporting the degradation of this compound in environmental media. 

Hwang et. al. (1989) reported that mineralization of acetone in freshwater samples, varying time of

collection and concentration, followed multiphasic kinetics which was best described by the MichaelisMenton model. First-order biodegradation rate constants of 0.025/day to 7.3/day were calculated

from these data. The largest values were observed for low initial concentrations of acetone (0.5 μg/L),

while the smallest values were observed for high initial concentrations (500 μg/L). The plot of the

calculated first-order rate constant versus the initial concentration of acetone used in this study is shown

in figure 19.

Figure 19. Rate constant versus initial concentration of acetone in a shallow stream.

A field study that measured the fate of acetone in a shallow stream reported a biodegradation rate

constant of 1.2/day (Rathbun et. al., 1993). This rate constant was determined by subtracting the

volatilization rate constant from the overall loss rate constant. A study by Pugh et. al. (1996) reports

that acetone was not biodegraded over 30 days in a non-amended microcosm using soil and

groundwater from an contaminated solvent storage site. When nitrogen and phosphorus were added,

however, half-lives from 20 to 49.5 days were reported. A second study by the same authors using

pre-acclimated soil (over 30 days), reported a half-life of 3.6 days for acetone.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of acetone is 0.035/day (N = 5); a range of

not biodegraded to 1.2/day is reported. The median for the mineralization rate constant of acetone is
146

0

1

2

3

4

5

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

0.078/day (N = 13); a range of 0.025 to 7.3/day is reported.. The mineralization rate constants were

all measured in the same paper for lake water grab samples (Hwang et. al., 1989). The frequency

histograms for this data are shown in figure 20a and 20b.

Figure 20a. The frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

acetone.

Figure 20b. The frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of acetone.
147

Table 21. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for acetone

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Acetone Stennis Space

Center, Mississippi

Surface water Stream water Field 30 1.2/day Rathbun,RE et. al. (1993)

Acetone Pharmaceutical plant

underground tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.014/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 0.025/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 100 ug/L 0.028/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 101 ug/L 0.028/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 105 ug/L 0.028/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 50 ug/L 0.032/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 51 ug/L 0.032/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Pharmaceutical plant

underground tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.035/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 10 ug/L 0.078/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 9 ug/L 0.086/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 8 ug/L 0.097/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Pharmaceutical plant

underground tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 24 0.19/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 3 ug/L 0.33/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)
Table 21. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

148

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 2 ug/L 0.6/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 2.4/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Lake Lago, Athens,

Georgia

Surface water Lake water Lab microcosm 0.5 ug/L 7.3/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Acetone Pharmaceutical plant

underground tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 No

biodegradation

Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)
149

3.5.2. Methyl ethyl ketone

Methyl ethyl ketone is expected to biodegrade rapidly under aerobic conditions (Table 22). Only two

papers were located, however, reporting the degradation of this compound in environmental media. In

pure culture experiments, methyl ethyl ketone was initially hydroxylated to acetoin, and then degraded

to diacetyl and acetic acid (Lijmbach and Brinkhuis, 1973). 

Dojlido (1979) reports that concentrations up to 800 mg/L were not toxic to microbial activity during

typical screening tests using municipal wastewater. In river die-away studies, methyl ethyl ketone

initially present at 20 mg/L was degraded within one to two days. A second addition of 20 mg/L

methyl ethyl ketone to the same river water, once degradation from the first addition was complete,

resulted in 100% degradation in less than one day. Delfino and Miles (1985) reported that methyl ethyl

ketone, at 1 mg/L, was completely biodegraded in an aerated, previously anaerobic groundwater within

12 days including a 4 to 5 day lag phase.

A spill of methyl ethyl ketone, resulting in groundwater contamination, was remediated by air stripping

and then by biological degradation. While there was insufficient information in the paper to report a

rate constant, the authors stated that laboratory tests showed that the indigenous bacteria were capable

of degrading this compound (Halvorsen and Ohneck, 1985).

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of methyl ethyl ketone, based on limited data,

is 0.69/day (N = 3); a range of 0.4 to 1.4/day is reported. 
150

Table 22. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for methyl ethyl ketone

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial Concn. Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Methyl ethyl

ketone

Gainesville, Florida Groundwater Groundwate

r

Groundwater grab

sample

1 mg/L 12 0.40/day 4 days Delfino,JJ & Miles,CJ

(1985)

Methyl ethyl

ketone

Vistula River, Warsaw,

Poland

River water River water Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 2 19.2mg/L/day 0.8 Dojlido,JR (1979)

Methyl ethyl

ketone

Vistula River, Warsaw,

Poland

River water River water Lab microcosm 20 mg/L 1 28.8 mg/L/day Dojlido,JR (1979)
151

3.6. Miscellaneous

This section contains the data for two compounds, bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate and methanol. 

3.6.1. Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, a plasticizer widely used in PVC, is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant. 

The current literature shows that this compound is considered to be “moderately” degradable

(Scheunert et. al., 1987) under aerobic condtions. Half-life values from 3 to 630 days were reported

for bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (Table 23).

High CO2 production measured during mineralization experiments as well as the inability to measure

intermediates such as monoethylhexyl phthalate and phthalate indicate that this compound can be

readily mineralized (Maag and Loekke, 1990; Ruedel et. al., 1993; Saeger and Tucker, 1973). Studies

generally used a 14C-radiolabeled carbonyl group; cleavage of the carbonyl group and release as CO2

thus by itself does not indicate complete mineralization of the compound. Labeling of the ring, however,

and subsequent CO2 production does indicate that mineralization is occurring. Only 3 studies looked at

the biodegradation of bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in the presence of other organic compounds (Hattori

et. al., 1975; Graves et. al., 1994; Schouten et. al., 1979). The rate constants obtained from these

studies were, in general, greater that values reported for other studies using bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate

as a single compound. 

No biodegradation of bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate was reported in two studies. Ritsema et. al. (1989)

reported no biodegradation of this compound at 4 °C over 10 days; however, at 20 °C, a half-life of

19 days was calculated. A second laboratory microcosm study by Rubin et. al. (1982) reported that

water obtained from an oligotrophic lake was unable to mineralize bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate over 60

days. In the same study, water collected from a eutrophic lake readily biodegraded this compound at

concentrations ranging from 40 ng/L to 200 μg/L without a lag phase. 

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, considering all

studies, is 0.0205/day (N = 36); a range of not biodegraded to 0.23/day is reported. The median for

the mineralization rate constant of bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, considering all studies, is 0.014/day (N =

28); a range of 0.0022 to 0.045/day is reported. The frequency distribution histograms for this data are

shown in figures 21a and 21b.
152

0

5

10

15

20

0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

0

5

10

15

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

Figure 21a. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate.

Figure 21b. Frequency histogram for the published mineralization rate constant values of bis(2-

ethylhexyl)phthalate.
153

Table 23. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Industrial

facility, New

Jersey

Contaminated Groundwater Groundwater grab

sample

17 mg/L 21 0.00903/hr Graves,DA et. al. (1994)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate White Lake, Old

Forge, New York

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 60 Subba-Rao,RV et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Little Dixie

Lake, Columbia,

Missouri

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 28 0.0011/day Johnson,BT et. al. (1984)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Little Dixie

Lake, Columbia,

Missouri

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 28 0.0014/day 21 Johnson,BT et. al. (1984)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Contaminated

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 21940

mg/kg

70 0.002/day Maag,J & Loekke,H (1990)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 15 ug 56 0.0022/day Scheunert,I et. al. (1987)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Little Dixie

Lake, Columbia,

Missouri

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 28 0.0022/day Johnson,BT et. al. (1984)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Little Dixie

Lake, Columbia,

Missouri

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 1.82

mg/L

28 0.0032/day Johnson,BT et. al. (1984)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Little Dixie

Lake, Columbia,

Missouri

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 0.182

mg/L

28 0.0035/day Johnson,BT et. al. (1984)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Little Dixie

Lake, Columbia,

Missouri

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 0.0182

mg/L

28 0.0037/day Johnson,BT et. al. (1984)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Little Dixie

Lake, Columbia,

Missouri

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 28 0.004/day Johnson,BT et. al. (1984)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Lower Saxonia,

Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 100 0.004/day Ruedel,H et. al. (1993)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Missouri River,

Easley, Missouri

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 0.10

mg/L

32 0.004/day 12 Wylie,GD et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Missouri River,

Easley, Missouri

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 0.10

mg/L

32 0.004/day 7 Wylie,GD et. al. (1982)
Table 23. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

154

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Little Dixie

Lake, Columbia,

Missouri

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 14.3

mg/L

28 0.005/day Johnson,BT et. al. (1984)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Contaminated

industrial site

Soil Lab microcosm 21940

mg/kg

70 0.006/day Maag,J & Loekke,H (1990)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Missouri River,

Easley, Missouri

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 0.10

mg/L

32 0.006/day 3 Wylie,GD et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Missouri River,

Easley, Missouri

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 0.10

mg/L

32 0.006/day 7 Wylie,GD et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 33 0.0073/day Schmitzer,JL et. al. (1988)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Little Dixie

Lake, Columbia,

Missouri

Uncontaminated Sediment Lab microcosm 10.0

mg/L

28 0.0079/day Johnson,BT et. al. (1984)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Germany Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5

mg/kg

63 0.009-

0.0134/day

Dorfler,U et. al. (1996)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate New Mexico Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/kg 146 0.0096/day Fairbanks, BC et. al. (1985)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate New Mexico Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/kg 146 0.0097/day Fairbanks, BC et. al. (1985)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Lower Saxonia,

Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 100 0.01/day Ruedel,H et. al. (1993)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Missouri River,

Easley, Missouri

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 0.10

mg/L

32 0.012/day 7 Wylie,GD et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate New Mexico Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 2 mg/kg 146 0.012/day Fairbanks, BC et. al. (1985)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Beebe Lake,

Ithaca, New York

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 2 ng/mL 33 0.013/day Subba-Rao,RV et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Missouri River,

Easley, Missouri

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 0.10

mg/L

32 0.013/day 4 Wylie,GD et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Beebe Lake,

Ithaca, New York

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 200

pg/mL

40 0.0137/day Subba-Rao,RV et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate New Mexico Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 2 mg/kg 146 0.014/day Fairbanks, BC et. al. (1985)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate New Mexico Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/kg 146 0.0148/day Fairbanks, BC et. al. (1985)
Table 23. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

155

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Baierbrunn,

Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5

mg/kg

28-63 0.015-

0.019/day

Dorfler,U et. al. (1996)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate New Mexico Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 2 mg/kg 146 0.015/day Fairbanks, BC et. al. (1985)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate New Mexico Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/kg 146 0.015/day Fairbanks, BC et. al. (1985)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate New Mexico Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 2 mg/kg 146 0.0156/day Fairbanks, BC et. al. (1985)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate New Mexico Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 20 mg/kg 146 0.0158/day Fairbanks, BC et. al. (1985)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Germany Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 10 mg/kg 63 0.017-

0.024/day

Dorfler,U et. al. (1996)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Missouri River,

Easley, Missouri

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 0.10

mg/L

32 0.017/day 3 Wylie,GD et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate New Mexico Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 2 mg/kg 146 0.017/day Fairbanks, BC et. al. (1985)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Ebersberger

Forst, Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5

mg/kg

28-63 0.018-

0.028/day

Dorfler,U et. al. (1996)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate NorthrhineWestfalia,

Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 100 0.02/day Ruedel,H et. al. (1993)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Plasticizer

manufacturing

site

Soil Lab microcosm 5200

mg/kg

98 0.024/day Fogel,S et. al. (1995)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Mississippi

River

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 35 0.029/day Saeger,VW & Tucker,ES (1976)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate NorthrhineWestfalia,

Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 1 mg/L 100 0.03/day Ruedel,H et. al. (1993)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Plasticizer

manufacturing

site

Soil Lab microcosm 310

mg/kg

42 0.033/day Fogel,S et. al. (1995)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Beebe Lake,

Ithaca, New York

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 200

ng/mL

28 0.035/day Subba-Rao,RV et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Neuherberg,

Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 0.5

mg/kg

28-63 0.036-

0.057/day

Dorfler,U et. al. (1996)
Table 23. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

156

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Mississippi

River, Missouri

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 1 ppm 19 0.036/day Saeger,VW & Gledhill,WE

(1978)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Mt. Pleasant,

New York

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 1 ug/g

dry soil

20 0.036/day Efroymson,RA & Alexander,M

(1994)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Rhine River, the

Netherlands

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 3.3 ppb 10 0.036/day Ritsema,R et. al. (1989)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Missouri River,

Easley, Missouri

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 0.10

mg/L

32 0.037/day 4 Wylie,GD et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Mississippi

River

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 1.0 mg/L 0.040/day Saeger,VW and Tucker,ES

(1973a)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Mississippi

River

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 42 0.041/day Saeger,VW & Tucker,ES (1973b)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Beebe Lake,

Ithaca, New York

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 21

pg/mL

28 0.045/day Subba-Rao,RV et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Fish-Pesticide

Research

Laboratory, MO

Uncontaminated Freshwater

hydrosoil

Lab microcosm 1 m/L 30 0.045/day Johnson,BT & Lulves,W (1975)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Plasticizer

manufacturing

site

Soil Lab microcosm 1120

mg/kg

49 0.051/day Fogel,S et. al. (1995)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Ogawa River,

Japan

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 17 0.064/day 3 Hattori,Y et. al. (1975)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Osaka Bay, off

Tomokeshima,

Japan

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm 19 0.065/day 3 Hattori,Y et. al. (1975)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Soil Lab microcosm 480 ug/g 30 0.082/day Shanker,R et. al. (1985)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Ogawa River,

Japan

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 17 0.085/day 3 Hattori,Y et. al. (1975)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate the Netherlands Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 50 ug/L 14 0.13/day Schouten,MJ et. al. (1979)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Osaka Bay, near

costal factory,

Japan

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm 19 0.23/day 2 Hattori,Y et. al. (1975)
Table 23. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

157

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Beebe Lake,

Ithaca, New York

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 450 ng/L 100 pg/L/hr Rubin,HE et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Beebe Lake,

Ithaca, New York

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 5 ug/L 2 ng/L/hr Rubin,HE et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Beebe Lake,

Ithaca, New York

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 200 ug/L 450 ng/L/hr Rubin,HE et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Beebe Lake,

Ithaca, New York

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 40 ng/L 50 pg/L/hr Rubin,HE et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Rhine River, the

Netherlands

Uncontaminated River water Lab microcosm 3.3 ppb 10 No

biodegradation

Ritsema,R et. al. (1989)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate White Lake, Old

Forge, New York

Uncontaminated Lake water Lab microcosm 60 No

biodegradation

Rubin,HE et. al. (1982)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Lower Saxonia,

Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lysimeter 100 0.003/day Ruedel,H et. al. (1993)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Lower Saxonia,

Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lysimeter 100 0.013/day Ruedel,H et. al. (1993)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate NorthrhineWestfalia,

Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lysimeter 100 0.033/day Ruedel,H et. al. (1993)

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate NorthrhineWestfalia,

Germany

Uncontaminated Soil Lysimeter 100 0.05/day Ruedel,H et. al. (1993)
158

0

2

4

6

8

10

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Rate constant (days-1)

Frequency

3.5.2. Methanol

Methanol is readily biodegraded under aerobic conditions in most cases (Table 24). First-order rate

constants for biodegradation were less than or equal to 0.693/day in laboratory studies. The sole field

study reported a rate constant of 0.019/day (T1/2=36 days) (American Petroleum Institute, 1994).

Several experiments in two studies reported no biodegradation of methanol over the time period

measured. Work by Pugh et. al. (1996) at a former pharmaceutical tank farm, showed that methanol

concentrations did not uniformly decrease in laboratory microcosms. However, the presence of other

compounds including acetone and isopropanol, suggest that methanol is being produced by the

degradation of these compounds. Thus, the degradation of methanol may be masked by its concurrent

production. The American Petroleum Institute (1994) reported that methanol was readily degraded in

a field experiment following a lag phase of 100 days; however, in laboratory microcosm studies where

methanol concentrations ranged from 1000 to over 7000 mg/L, no biodegradation of methanol was

seen over time periods of up to 200 days (American Petroleum Institute, 1994A). These

concentrations may be too high to allow microbial populations to exist readily. In addition, incomplete

oxidation of methanol leading to the production of formaldehyde could act to inhibit microbial

populations. In a field environment where physical processes such as dilution and dispersion initially act

to lower concentrations, biodegradation appears to be facilitated.

The median for the primary biodegradation rate constant of methanol is 0.118/day (N = 20); a range of

not biodegraded to 0.693/day is reported. The frequency distribution histogram for this data is shown

in figure 22.

Figure 22. Frequency histogram for the published primary biodegradation rate constant values of

methanol.
159

Table 24. Aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for methanol

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

Methanol Canada Forces

Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Field 7034 mg/L 476 0.019/day 100 American Petroleum Institute (1994)

Methanol Pharmaceutical plant

underground tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 127 Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Methanol Canada Forces

Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 7318 mg/L 278 >103 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Methanol Mamma Rhoda

Channel, Bahamas

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm 1 ug/L 0.00002

ug/L/day

Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Methanol Pharmaceutical plant

underground tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 0.007/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 750 mg/L 185 0.0134/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 750 mg/L 185 0.0134/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 820 mg/L 185 0.0159/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 700 mg/L 185 0.0179/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Pharmaceutical plant

underground tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 24 0.027/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 93 mg/L 26 0.125/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 100 mg/L 23 0.130/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 106 mg/L 26 0.131/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 107 mg/L 26 0.131/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)
Table 24. (Continued)

Compound Site Name Site Type Inoculum Study Type Initial

Concn.

Time Period

(days)

Rate Constant Lag Time

(days)

Reference

160

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 106 mg/L 26 0.131/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 102 mg/L 23 0.131/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 mg/L 23 0.138/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Pennsylvania Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 120 mg/L 23 0.138/day Novak,JT et. al. (1985)

Methanol Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 5 0.153/day Scheunert,I et. al. (1987)

Methanol Wiggins,

Mississippi

Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 740 mg/kg

soil

65 0.216/day Loehr,RC & Matthews, JE (1992)

Methanol Mamma Rhoda

Channel, Bahamas

Uncontaminated Seawater Lab microcosm 500 ug/L 0.63 ug/L/day Hwang,HM et. al. (1989)

Methanol Austin Texas Uncontaminated Soil Lab microcosm 740 mg/kg

soil

65 0.693/day Loehr,RC & Matthews, JE (1992)

Methanol Pharmaceutical plant

underground tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 No

biodegradation

Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Methanol Pharmaceutical plant

underground tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Lab microcosm 30 No

biodegradation

Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)

Methanol Canada Forces

Base, Borden,

Ontario

Uncontaminated Aquifer sediment

+ groundwater

Lab microcosm 1039 mg/L 232 No degradation >114 American Petroleum Institute

(1994A)

Methanol Pharmaceutical plant

underground tank farm

Soil +

groundwater

Reactor system 23 mg/L 32 0.118/day Pugh,LB et. al. (1996)
161

4. SUMMARY

Syracuse Research Corporation has compiled aerobic biodegradation rate constant information for 23

compounds in a single database. This database currently holds 1450 records from 194 different

references. A summary of the aerobic biodegradation rate constant statistics for these compounds is

presented in Table 25. If the compound had sufficient data, results were divided into primary

biodegradation and mineralization studies, and values for median and range determined for each. No

further division of the results was attempted although studies were completed under different conditions

of temperature, substrate concentration, nutrients, environmental media, in the presence of other

compounds, etc. Each of these conditions is expected to affect the outcome of the results, and in some

cases will do so considerably. However, the results given in Table 25 are present to provide a data

summary for this report as well as a comparison of rate constant values among compounds grouped

together as shown. Mean values are not reported in this table as a number of very high rate constant

values for some of the reported compounds had a strong weighting effect on the data. 

A comparison of median rate constant values between groups is not advised as: 1. some groups of

compounds appear to be studied almost exclusively in one particular environment (e.g. BTEX

compounds in groundwater environments, PAHs in soil environments), and 2. limited data were

located for some compounds. Studies completed in the same environment but by different authors may

produce very different degradation rates, depending on the location, study conditions, whether other

compounds were present, etc. Thus, the statistical data reported here may be skewed based on the

studies available for a compound (e.g. more studies with large rate constants were summarized than

those with smaller rate constants), particularly if only a few studies were found. The same papers

tended to be reviewed within a group of compounds and thus differences within a group of similar

compounds (such as within the BTEX compounds or within the PAH compounds) may be minimized. 

Barker et. al. (1987) commented that the biodegradation rates of the BTEX compounds in a series of

microcosm experiments were very similar to each other. The BTEX compounds, when arranged by

median rate constant, show the order: toluene > ethylbenzene > benzene > m-xylene, o-xylene, pxylene. In general, however, the differences in rate constant values between the BTEX compounds are

not very great.

The PAH group, including compounds with two to five aromatic rings, had median values for primary

degradation which were surprisingly similar once four rings were present in the structure. When

arranged by median rate constant, the order: naphthalene > fluorene > fluoranthene >

benzo(a)anthracene, pyrene, chrysene > benzo(a)pyrene is shown. This is predicted by the simple rule

that compounds with fewer aromatic rings (lower molecular weight) have a more rapid biodegradation

rate than those with more aromatic rings (higher molecular weight). Mineralization rate constants, when

arranged by median values, followed the order: naphthalene > fluorene > pyrene > chrysene >

benzo(a)anthracene >> benzo(a)pyrene. Insufficient mineralization data for fluoranthene were located to

include this compound in this analysis. Individual compounds within this group had median values from
162

primary biodegradation and mineralization studies which were surprisingly similar; benzo(a)pyrene was

the only compound in this group to report at least an order of magnitude difference between study

types. This result may be due to the tendency to run mineralization studies in the presence of the

studied PAH only, while primary biodegradation studies tended to use a mixture of PAH compounds.

The phenol group had some of the highest median rate constant values within this report. These

compounds are expected to biodegrade rapidly in the environment. The order of median primary

biodegradation rate constant values follows: p-cresol > o-cresol > phenol > m-cresol. The median

mineralization rate constant for phenol however, is much greater than that for primary degradation. If

this value is used then the order is: p-cresol > phenol > o-cresol > m-cresol. The results from the

cresol isomers follows the order predicted by Medvedev and Davidov (1981). Mean values for

aerobic biodegradation rate constants for the cresol isomers were 2.49 day-1 (std. deviation=2.74 day1

), 1.17 day-1 (std. deviation=1.64 day-1), and 0.42 day-1 (std. deviation=0.44 day-1) for p-cresol, ocresol, and m-cresol, respectively. The extent of the difference in mean and median rate constant

values seems high but may only be an artifact of the studies summarized in this database.

The determination of median values as a method of comparison between compounds in a group mainly

has context within this compiled data set. As new data from other types of environmental media and

other locations are added, these results may change, especially if relatively little information is currently

available for a particular compound. In general, however, it is evident from these data that most of the

studied compounds are susceptible to aerobic biodegradation in most environments. Within this set of

compounds, only the highly chlorinated aliphatic compounds and the high molecular weight PAHs

currently appear to be resistant to degradation in an oxygenated environment.
163

Table 25. Summary of median and range of aerobic biodegradation rate constant values for

compounds listed in document

 Group Compound Median(day-1) Range (day-1) N=

BTEX

Compounds

Benzene (Mineralization) 0.0013 0-0.087 30

Benzene (Primary degradation) 0.096 0-3.3 118

Toluene (Mineralization) 0.00895 0-0.149 31

Toluene (Primary degradation) 0.20 0-42.5 182

Ethylbenzene (Primary degradation) 0.113 0.003-4.8 21

o-Xylene (Primary degradation) 0.054 0-7.625 92

m-Xylene (Primary degradation) 0.057 0-0.76 32

p-Xylene (Primary degradation) 0.052 0-0.56 27

PAH

Compounds

Naphthalene (Mineralization) 0.023 0-3.34 44

Naphthalene (Primary degradation) 0.308 0-5.0 46

Fluorene (Mineralization) 0.019 0.00385-0.05 7

Fluorene (Primary degradation) 0.015 0.0018-0.33 28

Benzo(a)anthracene (Mineralization) 0.0029 0-0.116 32

Benzo(a)anthracene (Primary degradation) 0.0035 0.000096-0.072 27

Chrysene (Mineralization) 0.0037 0-0.035 20

Chrysene (Primary degradation) 0.003 0-0.037 31

Fluoranthene (Primary degradation) 0.0048 0-0.045 20

Pyrene (Mineralization) 0.006 0-0.143 18

Pyrene (Primary degradation) 0.00345 0-0.052 40

Benzo(a)pyrene (Mineralization) 0.00015 0-0.0037 25

Benzo(a)pyrene (Primary degradation) 0.0027 0-0.057 23

Chlorinated

Aliphatics

Tetrachloroethylene (Primary degradation) 0 0-0.139 36

Dichloromethane (Primary degradation) 0.0546 0.00362-0.533 8

Phenol and

Substituted

Phenols

Phenol (Mineralization) 1.56 0.006-7.3 26

Phenol (Primary degradation) 0.21 0.024-11.0 38

o-Cresol (Primary degradation) 0.40 0.069-4.61 22

m-Cresol (Primary degradation) 0.133 0.0035-1.16 19

p-Cresol (Primary degradation) 1.75 0.079-13.15 28

Ketones

Acetone (Primary degradation) 0.035 0-1.2 5

Acetone (Mineralization)* 0.078 0.025-7.3 13

Methyl ethyl ketone (Primary degradation) 0.69 0.4-1.4 3

Miscellaneous

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (Mineralization) 0.014 0.0022-0.045 28

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (Primary degradation) 0.0205 0-0.23 36

Methanol (Primary degradation) 0.118 0-0.693 20

*Results taken from one mineralization study only.
164

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