Appalachian Migration Patterns, 1975-1980 and 1985-1990 

Phillip J. Obermiller, Ph.D. 

Appalachian Center, University of Kentucky 

Steven R. Howe, Ph.D. 

University of Cincinnati 

Copyright 2000 by Phillip J. Obermiller and Steven R. Howe. All rights reserved.

Summary of Findings 

Recent Appalachian migration patterns, particularly in the 1985 - 1990 period, have the 

following characteristics: 

! Appalachia experienced remarkable demographic change; in- and outmigration 

accounted for a turnover of over a quarter of the region’s population. 

! Appalachia has become an amenity region for students seeking higher education; over 

 100,000 more college-enrolled students came into the region than departed it. 

! Older Appalachians have been aging in place; relatively few persons 65 or older were 

newcomers to the region. 

! Appalachia has become more diverse; African-American and Hispanic populations 

increased through migration, especially in the Southern sub-region. 

! Appalachia has become poorer; migrants entering the region had lower-status jobs, 

lower incomes, less education, and were more likely to be living in poverty than those 

leaving the region. 

! Conditions vary widely among Appalachian sub-regions. Northern and Central 

Appalachia have been losing population while simultaneously becoming a destination for 

low-income, blue-collar migrants with little formal education. Southern Appalachia has 

been gaining population, and its inmigrants were more ethnically and racially diverse, 

better paid, more educated, and worked at higher status jobs than did migrants entering 

the other two sub-regions. 

! Appalachian migration patterns have changed from long-range flows into distant 

metropolitan areas to short-range exchanges principally centered around cities in and 

immediately adjacent to the region. 
Data Sources 

The 1980 data come from the Bureau of the Census (U. S. Department of Commerce, 

1986). The data set provides gross in- and outmigration statistics between 1975 and 1980 for 

each county (or county equivalent) in the United States. The migration data are stratified by age, 

race, and sex; included for each of these categories are statistics on college attendance, military 

status, group quarters status, and residence abroad in 1975. Data on country of birth are also 

provided by race and sexi. 

The 1990 data also come from the Bureau of the Census (U.S. Department of Commerce, 

1995). The data set provides statistics on non-movers, movers within counties, and all county-tocounty migration streams between 1985 and 1990. In New England, flows between minor civil 

divisions are also given. The migrant data include the following characteristics: age, college 

enrollment, educational attainment, Hispanic origin, household type, income in 1989, industry, 

occupation, place of birth and citizenship, poverty status in 1989, race, sex, and tenure. 

Migration Streams

Although the Appalachian region gained about a quarter of a million new residents from 

net migration between 1975 and 1980 and a slightly larger number between 1985 and 1990, the 

internal dynamics of the migration streams tell another story. Much of Appalachia’s 1980 growth 

due to migration occurred in the central and southern portions of the region, while northern 

Appalachia lost 1.1 percent of its population in net outmigration (Table 1a). In 1990 northern 

Appalachia’s migration losses remained steady at 1.0 percent, but central Appalachia’s earlier 

migration gains turned to a loss of 2.4 percent (Table 1b). It was only southern Appalachia’s 

substantial growth in inmigration that gave the region a net gain from migration in 1990. 

Table 1a.

Total Migration Flows for U.S., Non-Appalachian U.S., 

Appalachia, and Appalachian Sub-regions, 1980. 

Region Subregion Total 

Inmigration 

Total 

Outmigration 

Net 

Migration 

Net Migration as a 

Percent of 1980 

Population 

Appalachia 3,178,937 2,952,143 226,794 1.1% 

Northern 1,393,428 1,506,881 (113,453)* (1.1%)* 

Central 323,394 273,701 49,693 2.3% 

Southern 1,462,115 1,171,561 290,554 3.5% 

Non-Appalachian U.S. 44,203,783 40,259,135 3,944,648 1.9% 

Total U.S. 47,382,720 43,211,278 4,171,442 1.8% 

* Negative numbers and percentages, are shown in parentheses on this and all subsequent tables. 
Table 1b.

Total Migration Flows for U.S., Non-Appalachian U.S., 

Appalachia, and Appalachian Sub-regions, 1990. 

Region Subregion Total 

Inmigration 

Total 

Outmigration 

Net 

Migration 

Net Migration as a 

Percent of 1990 

Population 

Appalachia 3,193,745 2,949,483 244,262 1.2% 

Northern 1,307,272 1,403,102 (95,830) (1.0%) 

Central 251,220 298,540 (47,320) (2.5%) 

Southern 1,635,253 1,247,841 387,412 4.6% 

Non-Appalachian U.S. 45,779,427 40,914,979 4,864,448 2.2% 

Total U.S. 48,973,172 43,864,462 5,108,710 2.1% 

Overall, the figures indicate that migration continues to be an important part of the 

Appalachian experience; between 1985 and 1990 the region became home to 3.1 million new 

residents while 2.9 million people moved away. This represents a turnover of over a quarter of 

the region’s population. Although Appalachia had net gains in population in both census periods, 

these gains did not compare with those in the rest of the nation. Moreover, the overall figures for 

the region masked the fact that Northern and Central Appalachia were shrinking. 

None of Appalachia’s counties ranked in the top forty in the nation for attracting migrants 

in either census period, but in 1980 Pennsylvania’s Allegheny County ranked twentysixth in the country for total outmigration, and thirty-third ten years later. The top thirty 

Appalachian counties with the largest numbers of migrants in 1980 are shown in Table 2a. 

Table 2a.

Appalachia’s “Revolving Door” Counties: 

Counties with the largest numbers of both in- and outmigrants between 1975 and 1980. 

Appalachian 

County 

Principal City State Total 

Inmigrants 

Total 

Outmigrants 

Net Migration 

Gwinnett Atlanta Metro GA 69,690 25,948 43,742 

Clermont Cincinnati Metro OH 34,840 20,433 14,407 

Knox Knoxville TN 63,158 51,488 11,670 

Greenville Greenville SC 54,648 43,025 11,623 

Centre State College PA 40,109 29,054 11,055 
Table 2a. (Continued)

Calhoun Anniston AL 27,290 18,123 9,167 

Tuscaloosa Tuscaloosa AL 30,856 22,443 8,413 

Montgomery Blacksburg VA 26,297 17,965 8,332 

Monongalia Morgantown WV 22,735 18,034 4,701 

Buncombe Ashville NC 26,318 22,035 4,283 

Spartanburg Spartanburg SC 27,921 23,702 4,219 

Madison Huntsville Al 41,070 37,067 4,003 

Butler Pittsburgh Metro PA 24,826 21,382 3,444 

Tompkins Ithica NY 32,982 30,073 2,909 

Hamilton Chatanooga TN 48,738 46,269 2,469 

Westmoreland Pittsburgh Metro PA 48,684 46,779 1,905 

Sullivan Kingsport TN 22,149 21,367 782 

Forsyth Winston-Salem NC 43,760 43,777 (17) 

Cabell Huntington WV 18,969 20,509 (1,540) 

Lackawanna Scranton PA 19,611 22,133 (2,522) 

Mercer Youngstown, OH Metro PA 15,258 18,860 (3,602) 

Luzerne Wilkes-Barre PA 27,254 31,208 (3,954) 

Chautauqua Jamestown NY 17,423 22,586 (5,163) 

Beaver Pittsburgh Metro PA 18,584 25,366 (6,782) 

Washington Pittsburgh Metro PA 20,386 27,495 (7,109) 

Kanawaha Charleston WV 30,265 38,293 (8,028) 

Broome Binghamton NY 31,000 40,282 (9,282) 

Jefferson Birmingham AL 82,271 91,600 (9,329) 

Erie Erie PA 27,634 38,805 (11,171) 

Allegheny Pittsburgh PA 133,166 204,633 (71,467) 
Table 2b.

Appalachia’s “Revolving Door” Counties: 

Counties with highest rates of both in- and outmigration between 1985 and 1990. 

Appalachian 

County 

Principal City State Total Inmigrants Total Outmigrants Net Migration 

Gwinett Atlanta Metro GA 136,393 62,386 74,007 

Madison Huntsville AL 54,969 35,989 18,980 

Jefferson Birmingham AL 72,089 90,458 18,369 

Centre State College PA 43,839 26,773 17,066 

Greenville Greenville SC 60,668 45,456 15,212 

Tuscaloosa Tuscaloosa AL 32,599 20,161 12,438 

Montgomery Blacksburg VA 30,836 19,714 11,149 

Tompkins Ithaca NY 35,716 26,032 9,684 

Buncome Ashville NC 32,090 22,894 9,196 

Knox Knoxville TN 62,841 54,089 8,752 

Forsyth Winston/Salem NC 51,505 43,387 8,118 

Spartanburg Spartanburg SC 30,192 22,688 7,504 

Clermont Cincinnati Metro OH 31,690 24,457 7,233 

Monongalia Morgantown WV 21,174 15,646 5,528 

Douglas Atlanta Metro GA 19,781 14,356 5,425 

Washington Johnson City TN 18,721 14,360 4,361 

Anderson Anderson SC 19,922 16,074 3,848 

Luzerne Wilkes/Barre PA 30,726 26,953 3,773 

Calhoun Anniston AL 22,851 19,825 3,026 

Hamilton Chatanooga TN 43,895 42,185 1,710 

Butler Pittsburgh Metro PA 23,244 21,860 1,384 

Chautauqua Jamestown NY 17,368 18,048 (680) 

Lackawana Scranton PA 19,400 21,019 (1,619) 

Sullivan Kingsport TN 20,142 21,779 (1,637) 

Cabell Huntington WV 16,617 19,673 (3,056) 
Table 2b. (Continued)

Erie Erie PA 29,069 32,462 (3,343) 

Broome Binghamton NY 30,734 34,636 (3,902) 

Washington Pittsburgh Metro PA 22,858 28,315 (5,457) 

Beaver Pittsburgh Metro PA 17,595, 25,566 (7,971) 

Westmorland Pittsburgh Metro PA 37,905 48,947 (11,042) 

Kanawah Charleston WV 22,729 36,010 (13,281) 

Alleghenny Pittsburgh PA 125,889 174,381 (48,492) 

These were the region’s revolving door counties, which typically included larger cities 

and college towns. This population churning occured in urban areas located in the northern (17 

counties) and southern (13 counties) sub-regions. There are no large population centers in central 

Appalachia, consequently none of its counties experienced this phenomenon. Very little had 

changed by 1990 (Table 2b). Thirty-two counties had high numbers of both in-and out migration, 

and with only three exceptions (Douglas Co., GA, Washington Co., TN, and Anderson Co., SC) 

they were identical to the counties in the 1980 ranking. 

County-to-county data are unavailable from the 1980 census. In 1990 the chief nonAppalachian sources of migrants to the region were in every case metropolitan areas located just 

outside the perimeter of the region (Table 3). Montgomery, Atlanta, Marietta, and Greensboro all 

lie in close proximity to the southern and eastern borders of the region; similarly, Cincinnati and 

Buffalo lie along its western and northern borders. The main sources of new residents in 

Appalachia were short-distance movers coming primarily from southern metropolitan areas that 

abut the region. 

Table 3.

Chief Migration Streams into Appalachia from Outside the Region, 1990. 

Donor County State Principal City Appalachian Recipient County Total Migrants 

DeKalb GA Atlanta Gwinnett 30,123 

Hamilton OH Cincinnati Clermont 13,744 

Cobb GA Marietta Cherokee 8,155 

Fulton GA Atlanta Gwinnette 7,006 

Cobb GA Marietta Paulding 5,822 

Cobb GA Marietta Douglas 4,135 

Montgomery AL Montgomery Elmore 3,516 

Guilford NC Greensboro Forsyth 3,516 
Table 3. (Continued) 

Cobb GA Marietta Gwinnett 3,473 

Fulton GA Atlanta Cherokee 3,364 

Erie NY Buffalo Cattaragus 3,086 

Cobb GA Marietta Bartow 3,070 

A similar phenomenon occurs among those leaving the region. In 1990 the chief 

Appalachian donor counties were located on the peripheries of major cities situated just outside 

of Appalachia (Table 4). These counties abut Greensboro and Thomasville in North Carolina, 

Marietta and Atlanta in Georgia, and Cincinnati and Youngstown in Ohio. The only exception, 

Nashville, is located one county away from the region. 

Table 4.

Chief Migration Streams from Appalachia to Destinations Outside of the Region, 1990. 

Appalachian Donor County Recipient County Principal City State Total Migrants 

Clermont Hamilton Cincinnati OH 7,799 

Gwinnett DeKalb Atlanta GA 6,993 

Gwinnett Fulton Atlanta GA 5,318 

Forsyth Davidson Thomasville NC 4,615 

Forsyth Guilford Greensboro NC 3,476 

Cherokee Cobb Marietta GA 3,145 

Knox Davidson Nashville TN 2,522 

Columbiana Mahoning Youngstown OH 2,490 

Douglas Cobb Marietta GA 2,459 

Most of the migration within the region took place between a metropolitan core and its 

suburban ring communities. For instance, over a quarter of the forty largest county-to-county 

migration streams in Appalachia were simply exchanges among Pittsburgh’s core and periphery 

counties. Tables 5a and 5b use Allegheny County, PA as an example illustrating this “revolving 

door” phenomenon. 

Similar exchanges occurred in Alabama on the Birmingham-Tuscaloosa axis as well as in 

the Huntsville area, and in South Carolina along the Greenville-Spartansburg-Anderson corridor. 

Knoxville, Chattanooga, and Johnson City were the focal points for core-perimeter exchanges in 

Tennessee; the same dynamic occurred around Cincinnati, Ohio; Charleston, West Virginia; 

Winston-Salem, North Carolina; and Birmingham, New York. 
Table 5a.

Migration Flows Among Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, 

 and its Suburban Ring Counties, 1990. 

Donor County Recipient County Total Migrants 

Allegheny Beaver 4,747 

 “ Butler 8,054 

 “ Indiana 2,295 

 “ Washington 7,734 

 “ Westmoreland 13,525 

Beaver Allegheny 4,379 

Butler “ 4,027 

Washington “ 5,789 

Westmoreland “ 9,874 

 “ Armstrong 2,535 

 “ Fayette 2,252 

Long-distance migrants from Appalachia have a much more diverse set of destinations 

than the short-range movers. Again using Pittsburgh’s Allegheny County as an example (Table 

5b), the migration flows were principally south to Florida and Georgia, west to Arizona and 

California, and southeast to Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. 

Table 5b.

Net Long-Distance Migration Flows 

From Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, 1985-1990. 

Donor 

County 

Recipient 

County 

State Principal City Net Migrants to Recipient County 

Allegheny Fairfax VA Reston 1,564 

 Palm Beach FL West Palm Beach 1,471 

 Pinellas FL St. Petersburg 1,171 

 Maricopa AZ Phoenix 1,109 

 Montgomery MD Bethesda 959 

Franklin OH Columbus 944 

Los Angeles CA Los Angeles 871 
Table 5b. (Continued) 

Prince George’s MD Baltimore Metro 863 

Broward FL Ft. Lauderdale 839 

Cumberland PA Harrisburg Metro 781 

 Hillsborough FL Tampa 755 

Lee FL Ft. Myers 674 

Wake NC Raleigh 632 

San Diego CA San Diego 623 

DeKalb GA Atlanta Metro 555 

Volusia FL Daytona Beach 533 

Migration Demographics

Appalachians appeared to be aging in place because older migrants were not contributing 

significantly to the overall population or to the older cohort within it (Table 6). Between 1985 

and 1990 the region gained only 12,036 residents over the age of 65 through migration. By 

comparison, the region had a net gain of 115,887 school-aged migrants (5-19) and 116,339 

migrants in their prime working years (20-64). The largest net flows of older migrants were into 

suburban Appalachian counties abutting Cincinnati, Atlanta, and Pittsburgh. Although western 

North Carolina is widely perceived as a retirement destination of choice, only Henderson County, 

NC appears among the top forty Appalachian destinations for older migrants. Between 1985 and 

1990 Henderson County received 134 older migrants, all from Chicago’s Cook County. 

The important story lies in the sub-regional data. Northern and central Appalachia had 

small net losses of residents 65 and older through migration, and these areas experienced 

substantially larger net migration losses of people typically in the labor market. Moreover, central 

Appalachia lost nearly 10,000 school-aged children. Losing more residents in their prime earning 

years relative to those not in the labor market may have increased the dependency ratios 

(earners:non-earners) in Northern and Central Appalachia. Appalachia’s success story as a 

migration magnet was in the southern portion of the region which netted well over a third of a 

million new residents, most of whom were of an age to be productively employed. 
Table 6.

Total Migration Flows by Age, 

Appalachia and its Sub-regions, 1990. 

Region by Type of Migration Sub-region Ages 5-19 Ages 20-64 Ages 65 and older 

 Into Appalachia 795,425 2,195,777 202,543 

Northern 329,892 889,258 88,122 

Central 68,521 164,577 18,122 

Southern 397,012 1,141,942 96,299 

Out of Appalachia 679,538 2,079,438 190,507 

Northern 311,567 992,660 98,875 

Central 78,380 201,201 18,959 

Southern 289,591 885,577 72,673 

 Net Appalachian Migration 115,887 116,339 12,036 

Northern 18,325 (103,402) (10,753) 

Central (9,859) (36,624) (837) 

Southern 107,421 256,365 23,626 

From 1975 to 1980 the sex ratios among both inmigrants and outmigrants were 

reasonably equal (Table 7a). Between 1985 and 1990 the migration streams brought slightly 

more men on net into the region than women (Table 7b), but the only population growth from 

migration was in the south where the sex ratios were fairly balanced. Central Appalachia gained 

slightly more men than women; in northern Appalachia the exodus of women from the area was 

about equal to that of men. In 1990 women left Northern and Central Appalachia at higher rates 

than did menii. 

 Appalachia as a whole had a net loss of 6,444 African-American residents in the 1975-80 

period, and about two-thirds of this loss occurred in southern Appalachia (Table 7a). 

Outmigration from central Appalachia composed the other third. 
Table 7a.

Total Migration Flows by Race and Sex for 

Appalachia and its Sub-regions, 1980.1

Region by Type of Migration Subregion Black 

Migrants 

White 

Migrants 

Male 

Migrants 

Female 

Migrants 

 Into Appalachia 151,870 2,984,592 1,592,032 1,586,905 

Northern 42,079 1,328,661 697,166 696,262 

Central 6,141 314,559 161,184 162,210 

Southern 103,650 1,341,372 733,682 728,433 

Out of Appalachia 158,314 2,768,533 1,477,148 1,474,995 

Northern 41,491 1,451,523 753,619 753,262 

Central 8,876 263,150 134,902 138,799 

Southern 107,974 1,053,851 588,627 582,934 

 Net Appalachian Migration (6,444) 216,059 114,884 111,910 

Northern 588 (122,862) (56,453) (57,000) 

Central (2,735) 51,409 26,282 23,411 

Southern (4,297) 287,521 145,055 145,499 

Table 7b.

Total Migration Flows by Race and Sex for 

Appalachia and its Sub-regions, 1990.1

Region by Type of Migration Subregion Black 

Migrants 

White 

Migrants 

Male 

Migrants 

Female 

Migrants 

 Into Appalachia 200,121 2,906,053 1,600,408 1,593,337 

Northern 54,237 1,214,681 657,001 650,271 

Central 6,849 240,756 123,955 127,265 

Southern 139,035 1,450,616 819,452 815,801 

Out of Appalachia 179,816 2,723,853 1,463,254 1,486,229 

Northern 48,929 1,330,761 695,036 708,066 

Central 9,234 286,005 146,024 152,516 

Southern 121,653 1,107,087 622,194 625,647 
Table 7b. (Continued) 

 Net Appalachian Migration 20,305 182,200 137,154 107,108 

Northern 5,308 (116,080) (38,035) (57,795) 

Central (2,385) (45,249) (22,069) (25,251) 

Southern 17,382 343,529 197,258 190,154 

Note: In Tables 7a and 7b, discrepancies between the race total and the sex total are due to other 

racial categories such as Asian, Pacific Islander, etc. which are not included in these 

tables. 

In 1990 some 200,000 black migrants took up residence in the region, and another 

180,000 moved away from the region (Table 7b). The net gain of about 20,000 African-American 

migrants occurred predominantly in the south, reversing by a wide margin the losses seen in the 

1980 census. Northern Appalachia again had a net gain in black residents from migration, while 

the central portion of the region had a small net loss of about the same size as it had in 1980. 

Table 8.

Total Migration Flows by Hispanic Designation, 

Appalachia and its Sub-regions, 1990. 

Region by 

Type of Migration 

Sub-region Hispanic Non-Hispanic 

 Into Appalachia 54,614 3,139,131 

Northern 22,844 1,284,428 

Central 2,360 248,860 

Southern 29,410 1,605,843 

Out of Appalachia 27,625 2,921,858 

Northern 13,512 1,389,590 

Central 1,616 296,924 

Southern 12,497 1,235,344 

 Net Appalachian Migration 26,989 217,273 

Northern 9,332 (105,162) 

Central 744 (48,064) 

Southern 16,913 370,499 

The small Hispanic population in Appalachia grew between 1985 and 1990 with a net 

gain of 26,989 migrants, the majority of whom settled in the Southern sub-region (Table 8). 
While this number, on its face, appears small, it is proportionally large: the net gain from 

migrantion represents 34.3% of Appalachia’s1990 Hispanic population. Fully half of the top 

forty Hispanic migration streams into the Appalachian region had their sources outside of the 

United States; the destinations for these migrants were primarily urban and suburban counties in 

the Atlanta and Pittsburgh metropolitan areasiii. 

Table 9a.

Total Migration Flows by College Enrollment and Sex for 

Appalachia and its Sub-regions, 1990. 

Region by Type of Migration Subregion Males 

Enrolled 

Percent of all 

male migrants 

Females 

Enrolled 

Percent of all 

female migrants 

Into Appalachia 253,060 14.7 260,347 16.6 

Northern 127,808 19.5 130,331 20.0 

Central 13,548 10.9 15,685 12.3 

Southern 111,704 13.6 114,331 14.0 

Out of Appalachia 197,275 13.5 215,880 14.5 

Northern 106,493 15.3 114,090 16.1 

Central 14,836 10.2 18,835 12.3 

Southern 75,946 12.2 83,405 13.3 

 Net Appalachian Migration 55,785 ---- 44,467 ---- 

Northern 21,315 ---- 16,241 ---- 

Central (1,288) ---- (2,700) ---- 

Southern 35,758 ---- 30,926 ---- 

The issue of an Appalachian “brain drain” has been raised by many people concerned 

about the region’s future. The migration data address at least a portion of this concern. In 1990 

Appalachia gained approximately 100,000 more college students than it lost through migration, 

but there was extreme variation by sub-region (Table 9a). Northern Appalachia gained a net of 

37,566 college enrollees, southern Appalachia gained 66,684, while the central part of the region 

had a net loss of 3,988 college students. Overall, about one in every ten Appalachian college 

seats is occupied by migrants from outside the regioniv. Appalachia appears to have become an 

amenity region for students seeking a college education. 
Table 9b.

Total Migration Flows of Persons over age 25 

by Educational Attainment for Appalachia and its Sub-regions, 1990. 

Region by 

Type of Migration 

A 

S

* 

< 9 

years 

of 

school 

9-12 

years of 

school 

without 

diploma 

High 

school 

diploma 

or 

equivalent 

Some 

college 

without a 

degree 

Associate’s 

degree 

Bachelor’s 

degree 

Graduate 

or professional 

degree 

 Into Appalachia 158,792 258,093 537,293 352,537 128,271 313,284 169,383 

N 51,610 95,867 240,104 124,885 52,771 118,896 75,772 

C 28,389 26,790 42,285 23,164 6,668 13,202 8,329 

S 78,793 135,436 254,904 204,488 68,832 181,186 85,282 

Out of Appalachia 137,153 215,728 471,522 309,238 123,211 337,652 165,776 

N 48,002 87,125 240,724 134,803 62,589 168,004 87,713 

C 26,172 27,587 47,709 27,217 8,881 19,448 9,697 

S 62,979 101,016 183,089 147,218 51,741 150,200 68,366 

 Net Migration 21,239 42,365 65,711 43,299 5,060 (24,368) 3,607 

N 3,608 8,742 (620) (9,918) (9,818) (49,108) (11,941) 

C 2,217 (797) (5,424) (4,053) (2,213) (6,246) (1,368) 

S 15,814 34,420 71,815 57,270 17,091 30,986 16,916 

* Appalachian Sub-regions: N = Northern, C = Central, S = Southern. 

While many students came into the region to obtain an education, the question remains 

whether they stayed in the region after graduation. Between 1985 and 1990 Appalachia netted 

nearly as many migrants over age 25 without high school diplomas (63,604) as it did high school 

graduates (65,711) through migration (Table 9b). A net gain of migrants with associate’s degrees 

(5,060) and graduate degrees (3,607) was more than offset by a net loss of 24,368 migrants 

holding bachelor’s degrees. At the sub-regional level, the educational differences in net migration 

were quite distinct. Northern Appalachia gained over ten thousand migrants without a high 

school education, accompanied by net losses of migrants with higher educational attainment. 

Central Appalachia gained over 2,000 migrants with less than a ninth grade education while 

experiencing net losses in all higher educational categories. On a proportional basis, net 

migration cost Central Appalachia nine percent of its Bachelor degree holding population. 

Southern Appalachia had net gains in all educational categories including migrants without a 

high school diploma (50,234), high school graduates (71,815), migrants with some college or an 

associate’s degree (74,361), and migrants with a bachelor’s or graduate degree (47,902). 
Table 10. 

Total Migration Flows by Occupational Category, 

Appalachia and its Sub-regions, 1990. 

Region by 

Type of Migration 

Subregion Executive 

Administrative 

Managerial & 

Professional 

Technical 

Sales & 

Administrative 

Support 

Service Farming 

Forestry 

 & 

Fishing 

Skilled & 

Unskilled 

Labor 

 Into Appalachia 456,812 469,396 189,171 26,941 415,557 

Northern 182,516 176,794 83,732 10,542 141,884 

Central 23,336 26,286 13,385 2,517 33,224 

Southern 250,960 266,316 92,054 13,882 240,449 

Out of Appalachia 486,178 487,333 180,702 24,505 377,308 

Northern 248,452 234,403 93,347 10,825 157,411 

Central 32,087 40,431 18,091 2,951 48,088 

Southern 205,639 212,499 69,264 10,729 171,809 

 Net Migration (29,366) (17,937) 8,469 2,436 38,249 

Northern (65,936) (57,609) (9,615) (283) (15,527) 

Central (8,751) (14,145) (4,706) (434) (14,864) 

Southern 45,321 53,817 22,790 3,153 68,640 

Regarding the occupational status of Appalachian migrants, the region as a whole had a 

net loss of 47,303 higher status workers while experiencing net gains of 8,469 service workers 

and 40,685 lower status workers (Table 10). Northern and Central Appalachia lost workers in all 

employment categories with the heaviest net losses in the professional/managerial and 

technical/sales categories. Southern Appalachia had net gains across all categories, a slight 

majority being in the professional/managerial and technical/sales categories. 

The Appalachian region lost a net 34,342 migrants with 1989 incomes of more than 

$20,000 while netting 209,407 migrants with incomes of less than $20,000 during that year 

(Table 11). Northern Appalachia netted 69,562 new residents with incomes of less than $10,000 

while losing migrants in each of the three higher income brackets. Central Appalachia had net 

losses in all income categories with the heaviest being in the two highest income brackets. The 

southern sub-region had gains through migration in all income categories with the majority by far 

being in the lowest twov

. 
Table 11. 

Total Migration Flows by Incomes of Persons 15 and older, 

Appalachia and its Sub-regions, 1989. 

Region by 

Type of Migration 

Sub-region Less than 

$10,000 

$10,000-

$19,999 

$20,000-

$34,999 

$35000 or 

more 

 Into Appalachia 1,040,453 719,294 447,157 508,577 

Northern 467,057 292,030 166,271 193,401 

Central 97,861 57,884 27,537 24,954 

Southern 475,535 369,380 253,349 290,222 

Out of Appalachia 842,645 707,695 470,824 519,252 

Northern 397,495 335,690 225,830 261,569 

Central 98,539 77,079 41,401 33,559 

Southern 346,611 294,926 203,593 224,124 

 Net Appalachian Migration 197,808 11,599 (23,667) (10,675) 

Northern 69,562 (43,660) (59,559) (68,168) 

Central (678) (19,195) (13,864) (8,605) 

Southern 128,924 74,454 49,756 66,098 

Table 12.

Total Migration Flows by Housing Tenure, 

Appalachia and its Sub-regions, 1990. 

Region by 

Type of Migration 

Sub-region Home Owners Renters 

 Into Appalachia 1,546,843 1,298,895 

Northern 594,320 526,558 

Central 123,161 103,742 

Southern 829,362 668,595 

Out of Appalachia 1,313,421 1,338,427 

Northern 602,944 646,538 

Central 122,859 149,483 

Southern 587,618 542,406 
Table 12. (Continued) 

 Net Appalachian Migration 233,422 (39,532) 

Northern (8,624) (119,980) 

Central 302 (45,741) 

Southern 241,744 126,189 

Appalachia had a net gain of well over a quarter of a million homeowners between 1985 

and 1990, with the vast majority of that gain realized in the southern sub-region (Table 12). 

Northern Appalachia lost both renters (-119,980) and homeowners (-8,624), Central Appalachia 

saw a slight net gain in homeowners (302) and a substantial loss of renters (-45,741), while 

homeowners entering the southern sub-region (241,744) outnumbered renters ( 126,189) almost 

two to one. 

Table 13. 

Total Migration Flows by Poverty Status, 

Appalachia and its Sub-regions, 1989. 

Region by Type of Migration Sub-region Un-determined Above Poverty Line In Poverty 

 Into Appalachia 11,294 2,313,121 521,323 

Northern 5,558 879,154 236,166 

Central 1,270 160,979 64,654 

Southern 4,466 1,272,988 220,503 

Out of Appalachia 10,738 2,231,474 409,636 

Northern 5,275 1,056,352 187,855 

Central 1,455 210,391 60,496 

Southern 4,008 964,731 161,285 

 Net Appalachian Migration 556 81,647 111,687 

Northern 283 (177,198) 48,311 

Central (185) (49,412) 4,158 

Southern 458 308,257 59,218 

Table 13 shows the poverty status of Appalachian migrants in 1989. Eighteen percent of 

those entering Appalachia were in poverty while 15% of those departing had the same economic 

status, giving the region a net gain of 111,687 persons in poverty. Both Northern and Central 

Appalachia showed net losses due to migration of persons not in poverty, while also showing net 

gains in persons below the poverty line. The southern sub-region experienced an opposite 

phenomenon with impoverished migrants being outnumbered five to one by those above the 
poverty line. Large metropolitan donor areas like New York City, Los Angeles, Atlanta, 

Cleveland, and Cincinnati were net contributors to the top forty inflows of poor migrants into the 

Appalachian regionvi. 

State Migration Flows and Demographics 

Appendix A, which includes Tables 14-26, presents net Appalachian migration flows for 

selected demographic categories by state. The Appalachian areas of twelve states and all of West 

Virginia vary greatly in population size; to adjust for this discrepancy the net proportionate gain 

or loss of population due to migration is also given for each categoryii

. 

The following summary statistics are based on those net proportionate gains and losses. In 

terms of total migration flows, Georgia grew by 12.3% while at the other end of the spectrum 

West Virginia lost 4.1%. Maryland had the most uneven sex ratio among its migrants, gaining 

over two and a half times more men than women. Georgia gained population in all age categories 

while West Virginia had the largest loss of migrants in the under-55 age cohorts and New York 

lost the most residents over 55 to migration. The African American migration flows were stable 

in most states, but Maryland’s black population grew by 25.6%, New York’s grew by 12.5% and 

West Virginia’s dropped by 5.4%. The Hispanic populations in each of the Appalachian states 

grew substantially, led by Georgia at 53.8%iii. 

 Migration contributed substantial numbers of people with incomes less than $10,000 to 

New York (11.3%), Virginia (8.8%), and Maryland (6.8%). Proportionately, Georgia gained the 

most migrants with incomes of $35,000 or more (17.1%) while Virginia, New York, and West 

Virginia had net losses in this income category of 9.3%, 7.7%, and 7.4% respectively. West 

Virginia lost 1.4% of its homeowners to migration, while in Georgia migration added 10.7% to 

the number of homeowners. In New York the number of people living in poverty grew by 12.3% 

due to migration, the largest gain of this kind among all the states. 

Georgia posted the largest gain in migrants in the top occupational category (18.8%) 

while Kentucky, Ohio, Mississippi, Pennsylvania, New York, Virginia, and West Virginia lost 

migrants in this category in numbers ranging between five and ten percent. Migrants in service 

work grew by 13.4% in Georgia and 6.2% in South Carolina, while posting losses in West 

Virginia (5.6%), Ohio (4.3%), and Kentucky (4.2%). Migrant laborers contributed 13.4% to 

Georgia’s workforce, and 5.1% to South Carolina’s, while out-migration diminished this 

occupational category in West Virginia by 7.4% and in Kentucky by 4.5%. 

West Virginia was the only state to have a net loss of population in all seven educational 

categories, followed by Kentucky with losses in the six highest categories. Alabama, Georgia, 

North Carolina, and South Carolina each had net educational gains across the board. Georgia also 

had the highest proportional net gains from migration, and this growth came predominantly from 

migrants with higher educational attainment. 

In sum, the state-level data support the general conclusions reached for the sub-regions. 

Southern Appalachia has been growing and prospering. The states in Northern and Central 
Appalachia have been losing migrants with skills, education and higher incomes while gaining 

migrants in poverty. 

Conclusion

Migration is a key element in any complete understanding of the Appalachian region. 

Between 1975 and 1980 and again between 1985 and 1990 there was a large turnover of the 

region’s population. This demographic trend reinforces the understanding that contemporary 

Appalachia is a socially and culturally heterogeneous region. 

Appalachian migration patterns have changed from long-range flows into Northern, 

Southern, and Western states outside the region, to short-range urban-suburban exchanges 

principally centered around cities in and immediately adjacent to the region. With migration 

flows concentrated between urban and suburban counties, and 48% of the region’s population 

living in urban counties, it is becoming increasingly difficult to characterize Appalachia as a 

demographically rural region. 

The migrants entering Appalachia had lower-status jobs, lower incomes, less education, 

and were more likely to be in poverty than the people migrating away from the region. The 

impact of these migration patterns, however, was not even across the region. Northern and 

Central Appalachia were losing population while at the same time becoming a refuge for low 

income, blue-collar workers with little formal education. Southern Appalachia, on the other hand, 

was gaining population. Overall, these migrants were more ethnically and racially diverse, better 

paid, educated, and housed, and worked at higher status jobs than did migrants to the other two 

sub-regions. 
Appendix A

Table 14.

Alabama Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total 58,762 2.5% 

Sex Male 31,617 2.8% 

Female 27,145 2.2% 

Age 05-24 18,375 2.5% 

25-54 32,923 3.1% 

55 and older 7,464 1.3% 

Race/Ethnicity White 50,673 2.7% 

Black 4,090 0.8% 

Hispanic 1,583 13.8% 

Income <$10,000 23,016 3.2% 

$10,000 - $19,999 9,244 1.6% 

$20,000 - $34,999 5,528 1.6% 

> = $35,000 8,817 2.2% 

Housing Tenure Own 42,535 2.4% 

Rent 15,486 2.7% 

Poverty Status Not Determined (61) (1.9%) 

Above 46,897 2.4% 

Below 11,185 3.3% 

Occupation Executive, administrative 8,283 3.2% 

Technical, sales 4,984 1.5% 

Service 2,193 1.7% 

Farming 467 2.0% 

Laborer 8,422 2.2% 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 15.

 Georgia Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total 176,006 12.3% 

Sex Male 87,673 12.5% 

Female 88,333 12.1% 

Age 05-24 50,442 11.1% 

25-54 108,474 15.5% 

55 and older 17,090 6.3% 

Race/Ethnicity White 152,785 11.7% 

Black 9,967 10.7% 

Hispanic 10,161 53.8% 

Income <$10,000 29,123 8.4% 

$10,000 - $19,999 30,778 9.5% 

$20,000 - $34,999 37,680 15.1% 

> = $35,000 48,333 17.1% 

Housing Tenure Own 116,005 10.7% 

Rent 62,711 19.3% 

Poverty Status Not Determined 412 14.5% 

Above 170,448 13.5% 

Below 7,856 5.7% 

Occupation Executive, administrative 32,003 18.8% 

Technical, sales 39,250 16.2% 

Service 10,297 13.4% 

Farming 1,435 8.9% 

Laborer 34,226 12.3% 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 16.

 Kentucky Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total (18,834) (1.9%) 

Sex Male (8,912) (1.9%) 

Female (9,922) (2.0%) 

Age 05-24 (10,628) (3.2%) 

25-54 (9,265) (2.2%) 

55 and older 1,059 0.5% 

Race/Ethnicity White (18,906) (2.0%) 

Black (8) (0.1%) 

Hispanic 411 14.8% 

Income <$10,000 1,906 0.5% 

$10,000 - $19,999 (9,128) (3.9%) 

$20,000 - $34,999 (5,965) (5.7%) 

> = $35,000 (3,332) (3.4%) 

Housing Tenure Own 1,627 0.2% 

Rent (21,874) (9.7%) 

Poverty Status Not Determined 4 0.2% 

Above (21,861) (3.2%) 

Below 1,610 0.6% 

Occupation Executive, administrative (3,501) (5.3%) 

Technical, sales (5,428) (6.0%) 

Service (1,953) (4.2%) 

Farming (245) (1.5%) 

Laborer (6,498) (4.5%) 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 17.

 Maryland Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total 6,054 2.9% 

Sex Male 4,335 4.2% 

Female 1,719 1.6% 

Age 05-24 2,534 4.1% 

25-54 3,164 3.4% 

55 and older 356 0.6% 

Race/Ethnicity White 3,866 1.9% 

Black 2,160 25.6% 

Hispanic 104 10.9% 

Income <$10,000 3,906 6.8% 

$10,000 - $19,999 702 1.3% 

$20,000 - $34,999 (42) (0.1%) 

> = $35,000 94 0.3% 

Housing Tenure Own 791 0.6% 

Rent 1,546 2.7% 

Poverty Status Not Determined 8 1.8% 

Above 1,124 0.6% 

Below 1,205 5.3% 

Occupation Executive, administrative (410) (2.0%) 

Technical, sales (595) (2.2%) 

Service (90) (0.6%) 

Farming 87 3.8% 

Laborer 680 2.1% 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 18.

 Mississippi Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total 2,824 0.6% 

Sex Male 1,734 0.8% 

Female 1,090 0.4% 

Age 05-24 3,501 2.1% 

25-54 (1,473) (0.7%) 

55 and older 796 0.7% 

Race/Ethnicity White 2,871 0.8% 

Black (910) (0.7%) 

Hispanic 268 11.9% 

Income <$10,000 5,021 3.2% 

$10,000 - $19,999 495 0.4% 

$20,000 - $34,999 (1,818) (2.7%) 

> = $35,000 (1,886) (3.8%) 

Housing Tenure Own 5,184 1.4% 

Rent (2,706) (2.6%) 

Poverty Status Not Determined (74) (10.8%) 

Above (1,787) (0.5%) 

Below 4,339 4.2% 

Occupation Executive, administrative (2,251) (5.7%) 

Technical, sales (1,708) (3.1%) 

Service (211) (0.9%) 

Farming 114 1.9% 

Laborer 1,996 2.0% 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 19.

 New York Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total 13,021 1.3% 

Sex Male 7,812 1.6% 

Female 5,209 1.0% 

Age 05-24 24,321 7.3% 

25-54 (7,766) (1.8%) 

55 and older (3,534) (1.4%) 

Race/Ethnicity White 5,632 0.6% 

Black 2,228 12.5% 

Hispanic 3,211 25.3% 

Income <$10,000 30,186 11.3% 

$10,000 - $19,999 (937) (0.4%) 

$20,000 - $34,999 (7,197) (4.5%) 

> = $35,000 (13,098) (7.7%) 

Housing Tenure Own (1,206) (0.2%) 

Rent (3,650) (1.5%) 

Poverty Status Not Determined 153 4.8% 

Above (20,979) (2.5%) 

Below 15,970 13.8% 

Occupation Executive, administrative (9,293) (7.3%) 

Technical, sales (5,232) (3.8%) 

Service 2,553 3.4% 

Farming 321 2.0% 

Laborer 179 0.1% 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 20.

 North Carolina Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total 47,741 3.9% 

Sex Male 22,914 3.9% 

Female 24,827 3.9% 

Age 05-24 15,799 4.5% 

25-54 17,765 3.2% 

55 and older 14,177 4.4% 

Race/Ethnicity White 43,799 4.0% 

Black 1,772 1.6% 

Hispanic 1,645 23.4% 

Income <$10,000 17,547 5.6% 

$10,000 - $19,999 10,510 3.1% 

$20,000 - $34,999 5,741 2.6% 

> = $35,000 5,871 3.1% 

Housing Tenure Own 29,776 3.2% 

Rent 14,460 5.4% 

Poverty Status Not Determined 186 8.8% 

Above 35,683 3.4% 

Below 8,547 6.0% 

Occupation Executive, administrative 4,321 3.3% 

Technical, sales 3.063 1.8% 

Service 2,825 3.9% 

Farming 520 3.1% 

Laborer 7,703 3.1% 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 21.

 Ohio Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total (11,570) (0.9%) 

Sex Male (4,694) (0.8%) 

Female (6,876) (1.0%) 

Age 05-24 (11,636) (2.9%) 

25-54 (902) (0.2%) 

55 and older 968 0.3% 

Race/Ethnicity White (12,784) (1.0%) 

Black 288 1.1% 

Hispanic 393 9.4% 

Income <$10,000 6,988 1.8% 

$10,000 - $19,999 (9,718) (3.2%) 

$20,000 - $34,999 (6,963) (4.0%) 

> = $35,000 (4,249) (2.3%) 

Housing Tenure Own 8,669 0.9% 

Rent (20,578) (7.2%) 

Poverty Status Not Determined 171 6.2% 

Above (20,720) (2.0%) 

Below 8,640 4.2% 

Occupation Executive, administrative (5,780) (5.4%) 

Technical, sales (9,812) (6.8%) 

Service (3,369) (4.3%) 

Farming (338) (2.0%) 

Laborer (2,307) (1.1%) 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 22.

 Pennsylvania Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total (62,949) (1.2%) 

Sex Male (25,615) (1.0%) 

Female (37,334) (1.3%) 

Age 05-24 (25,898) (1.7%) 

25-54 (28,171) (1.2%) 

55 and older (8,880) (0.6%) 

Race/Ethnicity White (72,812) (1.4%) 

Black 1,734 0.8% 

Hispanic 5,467 19.0% 

Income <$10,000 26,027 1.7% 

$10,000 - $19,999 (22,377) (1.6%) 

$20,000 - $34,999 (32,428) (3.9%) 

> = $35,000 (37,816) (4.2%) 

Housing Tenure Own (8,102) (0.2%) 

Rent (64,784) (5.4%) 

Poverty Status Not Determined 19 0.2% 

Above (90,126) (2.0%) 

Below 17,221 2.8% 

Occupation Executive, administrative (38,532) (6.7%) 

Technical, sales (29,974) (4.0%) 

Service (5,206) (1.5%) 

Farming (282) (0.6%) 

Laborer (5,297) (0.7%) 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 23.

 South Carolina Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total 42,055 5.1% 

Sex Male 22,787 5.7% 

Female 19,268 4.5% 

Age 05-24 18,241 7.0% 

25-54 18,483 4.9% 

55 and older 5,331 2.8% 

Race/Ethnicity White 38,631 5.6% 

Black 1,772 1.3% 

Hispanic 1,531 28.0% 

Income <$10,000 14,066 6.7% 

$10,000 - $19,999 7,820 3.7% 

$20,000 - $34,999 5,130 3.6% 

> = $35,000 7,800 5.5% 

Housing Tenure Own 21,929 3.7% 

Rent 16,240 7.9% 

Poverty Status Not Determined 41 3.2% 

Above 33,920 4.8% 

Below 4,208 4.7% 

Occupation Executive, administrative 4,907 5.1% 

Technical, sales 6,432 5.2% 

Service 2,992 6.2% 

Farming 173 3.4% 

Laborer 8,479 5.1% 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 24.

 Tennessee Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total 52,938 2.6% 

Sex Male 26,963 2.8% 

Female 25,975 2.5% 

Age 05-24 19,093 3.2% 

25-54 20,903 2.3% 

55 and older 12,942 2.6% 

Race/Ethnicity White 49,501 2.6% 

Black 332 0.3% 

Hispanic 1,651 17.1% 

Income <$10,000 26,124 4.4% 

$10,000 - $19,999 12,289 2.3% 

$20,000 - $34,999 657 0.2% 

> = $35,000 2,760 0.9% 

Housing Tenure Own 36,210 2.4% 

Rent 14,147 3.0% 

Poverty Status Not Determined (70) (2.3) 

Above 34,368 2.3% 

Below 16,059 5.3% 

Occupation Executive, administrative 550 0.3% 

Technical, sales 2,386 0.9% 

Service 3,544 3.0% 

Farming 591 2.6% 

Laborer 9,094 2.6% 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 25.

Virginia Appalachian Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total 6,930 1.1% 

Sex Male 4,878 1.7% 

Female 2,052 0.7% 

Age 05-24 13,399 6.9% 

25-54 (7,814) (3.0%) 

55 and older 1,345 (0.9%) 

Race/Ethnicity White 5,303 0.9% 

Black (352) (2.0%) 

Hispanic 452 18.6% 

Income <$10,000 17,665 8.8% 

$10,000 - $19,999 1,555 1.0% 

$20,000 - $34,999 (5,521) (6.4%) 

> = $35,000 (7,005) (9.3%) 

Housing Tenure Own (2,353) (0.5%) 

Rent (533) (0.4%) 

Poverty Status Not Determined 16 1.6% 

Above (14,451) (3.0%) 

Below 11,549 11.2% 

Occupation Executive, administrative (4,827) (9.2%) 

Technical, sales (4,032) (6.1%) 

Service 190 0.6% 

Farming 32 0.4% 

Laborer (2,037) (1.9%) 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
Table 26. 

 West Virginia Migration Flows by Selected Demographic Categories, 1985-1990. 

Demographic Category Demographic Subcategory Net Gain or 

(Loss) 

Proportionate Gain or 

(Loss) * 

State Total (68,716) (4.1%) 

Sex Male (34,338) (4.3%) 

Female (34,378) (3.9%) 

Age 05-24 (30,654) (6.0%) 

25-54 (37,858) (5.2%) 

55 and older (204) 0.0% 

Race/Ethnicity White (66,359) (4.1%) 

Black (2,768) (5.4%) 

Hispanic 112 1.6% 

Income <$10,000 (3,767) (0.7%) 

$10,000 - $19,999 (19,634) (4.7%) 

$20,000 - $34,999 (18,469) (8.3%) 

> = $35,000 (16,964) (7.4%) 

Housing Tenure Own (17,643) (1.4%) 

Rent (50,177) (13.8%) 

Poverty Status Not Determined (249) (7.9%) 

Above (70,869) (5.3%) 

Below 3,298 1.1% 

Occupation Executive, administrative (14,908) (10.1%) 

Technical, sales (17,271) (8.9%) 

Service (5,296) (5.6%) 

Farming (439) (3.2%) 

Laborer (16,391) (7.4%) 

* Net proportions are calculated as a percentage of the total 1990 state population over age five 

in the demographic category or subcategory. 
REFERENCES

National Center for Educational Statistics. 2000. “Integrated Postsecondary Education Data 

System (IPEDS).” from http://caspar.nsf.gov accessed 8/6/2000. 

U.S. Department of Commerce. 1986. Census of Population and Housing, 1980 (United States): 

County Migration by Selected Characteristics, 1975 - 1980. Washington, DC: Bureau of 

the Census.

U.S. Department of Commerce. 1995. Census of Population, 1990: County to County Migration 

Flow File on CD-ROM, Special Project (SP) 312. Washington, DC: Bureau of the 

Census.
 

NOTES 

i

The 1980 data were made available by the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social 

Research. The authors would like to thank Mark Carrozza at the University of Cincinnati’s 

Institute for Policy Research for his assistance in identifying and acquiring this data set. None of 

these institutions or individuals bear any responsibility for the analyses or interpretations 

presented here. 

ii The net proportions used here and elsewhere in this study were calculated for migrants over age 

five in relation to the 1990 census population of the area in question. 

iii Caution should be used in interpreting the data on Hispanics. Because of the relatively small 

base populations of Hispanics in Appalachia, small numbers of migrants can result in large 

percentages. 

iv Although no exact figure exists, an estimate based on the compilation of available data 

indicates there are about a million students enrolled in the community colleges, colleges, and 

universities located in the Appalachian region (c.f. National Center for Educational Statistics, 

2000). 

v Caution should be used in interpreting the data on income. Because they represent persons 15 

and older they may be skewed, for instance, by large numbers of students, retirees, people in the 

early stages of their working careers, or those receiving public assistance. 

vi Poverty thresholds are determined by a federal formula that included 1989 income, size of 

family, and the number of related children under 18 years of age in the family. The average 

poverty threshold for a family of four persons was $12,674 in 1989.