1

Draft Environmental Assessment for Proposed Rule, 10 CFR Part 433, 

“Energy Conservation and Fossil Fuel-Generated Energy Consumption 

Reduction Standards for the Design and Construction of New Federal 

Commercial and Multi-Family High-Rise Residential Buildings” and 10 

CFR Part 435 “Energy Conservation and Fossil Fuel-Generated Energy 

Consumption Reduction Standards for the Design and Construction of 

New Federal Low-Rise Residential Buildings” 

(DOE/EA-1778)
2

SUMMARY

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has prepared this Environmental 

Assessment (EA) for DOE’s Proposed Rule, 10 CFR Part 433, “Energy Conservation and 

Fossil Fuel-Generated Energy Consumption Reduction Standards for the Design and 

Construction of New Federal Commercial and Multi-Family High-Rise Residential 

Buildings” and 10 CFR Part 435, “Energy Conservation and Fossil Fuel-Generated 

Energy Consumption Reduction Standards for the Design and Construction of New 

Federal Low-Rise Residential Buildings”. Section 433 of the Energy Independence and 

Security Act (EISA) of 2007 (Pub. L. 110-140) modifies section 305 of ECPA by adding 

a new section 305(a)(3)(D) which requires DOE, through regulation, to update the energy 

efficiency requirements for new Federal buildings and Federal buildings undergoing 

major renovation by requiring that two categories of Federal buildings be designed to 

reduce their fossil-fuel generated energy consumption. Section 433 of EISA also requires 

that sustainable design principles be applied in the siting, design, and construction of 

Federal buildings. In addition, DOE is directed by section 523 of EISA to establish 

regulations that require solar hot water heaters be applied to the extent they are life-cycle 

cost-effective. (42 U.S.C. 6834(a)(3)(D)(vii)). However, this Environmental Assessment 

only addresses the fossil fuel-generated reduction requirements contained in the Proposed 

Rule. The sustainable design requirements from Section 433 of EISA are being addressed 

in a parallel but separate rulemaking.
3

The EA summarizes the potential incremental environmental impacts of the 

Proposed Rule on building habitability and the outdoor environment. To identify the 

potential environmental impacts that may result from implementing the Proposed Rule 

for new Federal buildings, DOE compared the Proposed Rule with the “no-action 

alternative” of using the current Federal Standards – 10 CFR Part 433 and 10 CFR Part 

435 (referred to as the “no-action alternative”). The no-action alternative requires new 

Federal commercial and multi-family high-rise residential buildings to achieve a level of 

energy consumption 30 percent below that of the ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-

2004, or the IECC 2004 Supplemental Edition (2004 IECC) for new Federal low-rise 

residential buildings, when life-cycle cost-effective. Note that some federal buildings 

may not be required to meet the 30 percent requirement if it is not found to be life-cycle 

cost-effective. At a minimum, however, new Federal commercial or low-rise residential 

buildings are required to meet ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 or the IECC 2004 

Supplemental Edition, respectively. Though individual building efficiency levels will 

vary, DOE has determined that it would be useful to compare the Proposed Rule to both 

ASHRAE 90.1-2004 and a level 30% below ASHRAE 90.1-2004 for new Federal 

commercial and multi-family high-rise residential buildings, and to the 2004 IECC for 

new Federal low-rise residential buildings. 

Building Habitability (Indoor Air) Impacts 

The rule does not change mechanical ventilation rates from the current standard. 

For commercial and high-rise multi-family residential buildings, ASHRAE Standard 
4

90.1-2004 does not require specific mechanical ventilation rates and the rule does not 

require any changes in mechanical ventilation rates. DOE assumes that agencies will 

continue to specify the same mechanical ventilation rates they are currently using.

Current minimum ventilation requirements can be found in 10 CFR 434.403.2.4. For 

residential buildings, the 2004 IECC does not contain any ventilation requirements and 

therefore the residential portion of the rule does not affect ventilation. In addition, natural 

ventilation through leaks and cracks in the building envelope (known as infiltration) is 

not expected to increase or decrease. Indoor air pollutant levels are not expected to 

increase under the Proposed Rule. This expectation does not imply that the potential for 

health-related problems in new Federal buildings does not exist. All buildings, regardless 

of energy efficiency codes, have some potential for indoor air quality-related health 

problems, such as "sick building syndrome." Sick-building syndrome can result from 

insufficient building air exchange. For example, if the ventilation system that brings in 

fresh outside air breaks down, the air will become stale and occupants in the building 

may get sick. 

Outdoor Air Environmental Impacts 

For all Federal buildings, the rule is expected to reduce outdoor emissions 

primarily by reducing consumption of fossil fuels. The Federal Government constructs an 

estimated 30 million square feet of Federal commercial buildings annually. (See Section 

4.1.1 for derivation of this number.) In contrast, the government rarely constructs Federal 

high-rise residential buildings. Also, since the Proposed Rule only pertains to buildings 
5

that cost over $2.5 million, very few residential buildings will be affected. As such, the 

outdoor air environmental impacts of new Federal residential buildings were not included 

in this analysis. 

For the purposes of this EA, DOE considers fossil fuel-generated energy savings 

of 55 percent, 65 percent, 80 percent, 90 percent, and 100 percent below the fossil fuelgenerated energy consumption levels found in CBECS. DOE then compares the energy 

savings of these five levels to the “no-action alternative” of continued use of the existing

10 CFR Part 433 as the Federal standard, which requires a level of efficiency 30% below 

ASHRAE 90.1-2004, if cost-effective. Since buildings will have varying degrees of 

efficiency under the existing rule, DOE also compared the proposed rule to the lowest

level of efficiency under the existing rule, which requires that all federal buildings meet 

ASHRAE 90.1-2004. 

Emissions avoided are directly proportional to energy savings achieved. First-year 

carbon dioxide emissions avoided by the Federal sector (assuming that new buildings 

under the no-action alternative would have exceeded ASHRAE 90.1-2004 by 30%) 

would be 52,700 metric tons for the 55% percent fossil-fuel reduction. Savings will 

compound each year, as more the Federal building stock turns over and the percentage 

fossil-fuel reduction requirement increases. First-year methane emissions avoided would 

be 111 metric tons. Nitrogen oxide emissions avoided would be 53 metric tons in the first 

year the rule is in effect. Sulfur dioxide emissions avoided would be 151 metric tons in 

the first year.
6

Alternatively, assuming that new buildings under the no-action alternative would 

have only met the 90.1-2004 Standard, avoided carbon dioxide emissions would be 

93,600 metric tons for year one. Methane emissions avoided would be 198 metric tons. 

Nitrogen oxide emissions avoided would be 103 metric tons. If new buildings were 

assumed to meet 90.1-2004, the sulfur dioxide emissions avoided would be 269 tons.

Other Impacts

The Proposed Rule is by its fundamental intent beneficial to the environment. 

The Proposed Rule is not expected to cause any adverse health effects, and thus would 

have no environmental justice impacts affecting low-income or minority populations. 

The Proposed Rule would not have an adverse effect on historic or archaeological sites, 

and would not be affected by a terrorist act. The Proposed Rule will be beneficial and 

have no significant impact on sensitive environmental resources, including 

wetlands/floodplains, prime agricultural lands, endangered species, and sensitive 

ecosystems. 
7

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

Act or ECPA Energy Conservation and Production Act (42 U.S.C. 6831 et seq.)

ANSI American National Standards Institute

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning 

Engineers, Inc. 

BTU British thermal unit

CEQ Council on Environmental Quality

CFC chlorofluorocarbon

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CO2 carbon dioxide

CO carbon monoxide

DOE Department of Energy

EA environmental assessment

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EUI Energy Use Intensity, kBtu/ft2

-yr

FR Federal Register
8

HFC hydro fluorocarbon

HCFC hydro chlorofluorocarbon

ICC International Code Council 

IECC International Energy Conservation Code 

IESNA Illuminating Engineering Society of North America 

KWh kilowatt-hour 

LCC Life-cycle cost 

MBtu Million British Thermal Units

NAS National Academy of Sciences

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

NRC National Research Council

ODS ozone-depleting substance(s)

SO2 sulfur dioxide

U.S.C. United States Code

VOC volatile organic compounds
9

CONTENTS

SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................... 2

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS......................................................................... 7

1 PURPOSE AND NEED FOR AGENCY ACTION ............................................. 11

2 THE PROPOSED RULE AND ALTERNATIVES............................................. 13

2.1 COMMERCIAL AND HIGH-RISE MULTI-FAMILY RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS ......... 13

2.1.1 The Proposed Action – The Proposed Rule (Commercial and High-Rise 

Residential Buildings)............................................................................................... 14

2.1.2 THE “NO-ACTION” ALTERNATIVE ONE – STANDARD 90.1-2004 (COMMERCIAL 

AND HIGH-RISE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS).................................................................... 15

2.1.3 The “No-Action” Alternative Two – Exceed Standard 90.1-2004 by 30% 

(Commercial and High-Rise Residential Buildings) ................................................ 15

2.2 LOW-RISE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS.................................................................. 16

2.2.1 The Proposed Action – The Proposed Rule (Low-Rise Residential Buildings)

16

2.2.3 The “No-Action” Alternative Two – Exceed the 2004 IECC by 30% (LowRise Residential Buildings)....................................................................................... 17

2.3 DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE PROPOSED RULE AND THE NO-ACTION 

ALTERNATIVES .............................................................................................................. 18

3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS........................................................................... 20

3.1 INDOOR HABITABILITY ...................................................................................... 20

3.2 OUTDOOR AIR.................................................................................................... 25

3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE ................................................................................. 32

3.4 OTHER IMPACTS................................................................................................. 32

4 CALCULATING ENERGY SAVINGS BY BUILDING TYPE........................ 34

5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS........................................................................... 36

6 PERSONS/AGENCIES CONSULTED DURING THIS RULEMAKING....... 42

5 REFERENCES........................................................................................................ 43
10

TABLES

Table 1 Indoor Air Emissions........................................................................................... 20

Table 2 Comparison of Simulated EUIs by Fuel Type (Commercial) ............................. 33

Table 3 First-Year Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions in Metric Tons (For One Year 

of New Construction).................................................................................................... 36

Table 4 First-Year Outdoor Pollutant Emissions Reductions in Metric Tons (For One 

Year of New Construction)........................................................................................... 38
11

1 PURPOSE AND NEED FOR AGENCY ACTION

This Environmental Assessment (EA) complies with the National Environmental 

Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), the implementing regulations of the Council 

on Environmental Quality (40 CFR Parts 1500-1508), and DOE’s regulations for 

implementing the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) (10 CFR Part 

1021). Section 433 of the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007 (Pub.

L. 110-140) modifies section 305 of ECPA by adding a new section 305(a)(3)(D) which 

requires DOE, through regulation, to update the energy efficiency requirements such that:

“For new Federal buildings and Federal buildings undergoing major renovations, 

with respect to which the Administrator of General Services is required to transmit a 

prospectus to Congress under section 3307 of title 40, United States Code, in the case of 

public buildings (as defined in section 3301 of title 40, United States Code), or of at least 

$2,500,000 in costs adjusted annually for inflation for other buildings: The buildings shall 

be designed so that the fossil fuel-generated energy consumption of the buildings is 

reduced, as compared with such energy consumption by a similar building in fiscal year 

2003 (as measured by Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey or Residential 

Energy Consumption Survey data from the Energy Information Agency), by the 

percentage specified in following table:
12

Fiscal Year Percentage Reduction

2010 ............................................................................. 55

2015 ............................................................................. 65

2020 ............................................................................. 80

2025 ............................................................................. 90

2030 ............................................................................. 100.”

This EA is in support of a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking to continue DOE’s 

efforts to comply with section 305(a)(3)(D) of ECPA. The EA identifies possible 

incremental environmental effects of the Proposed Rule on Federal buildings. 
13

2 THE PROPOSED RULE AND ALTERNATIVES

In accordance with NEPA, this section discusses the elements of the Proposed 

Rule itself, as well as alternative actions that may be taken in place of the Proposed Rule. 

Section 2.1 describes the Proposed Rule, the no-action alternatives (meeting or exceeding 

ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004) for commercial and high-rise multifamily residential 

buildings. Section 2.2 describes the Proposed Rule, the no-action alternatives (meeting or 

exceeding 2004 IECC) for low-rise residential buildings. Section 2.3 provides some 

details about how the Proposed Rules and no-action alternatives differ. 

2.1 Commercial and High-Rise Multi-Family Residential Buildings

The potential environmental impacts that would result from implementing the 

Proposed Rule for new Federal commercial and high-rise multi-family residential 

buildings (over three stories in height above ground) were examined by comparing the 

Proposed Rule with the existing rule 10 CFR Part 433, which requires federal buildings 

to meet ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 at a minimum, and exceed it by up to 30% if costeffective. Though the baseline will vary based on what efficiency levels are found to be 

cost-effective, the DOE believes that using both 90.1-2004 and a level 30% better than 

90.1-2004, will be instructive for the purposes of this EA. 
14

2.1.1 The Proposed Action – The Proposed Rule (Commercial and High-Rise 

Residential Buildings)

The Proposed Rule requires that, for new Federal commercial and multi-family 

high-rise residential buildings and Federal commercial and high-rise residential buildings 

undergoing major renovations, the buildings shall be designed so that the fossil fuelgenerated energy consumption of the buildings is reduced, as compared with such energy 

consumption by a similar building in fiscal year 2003 (as measured by Commercial 

Buildings Energy Consumption Survey data from the Energy Information Agency), by 

the percentage specified in the following table: 

Fiscal Year Percentage Reduction

2010 ............................................................................. 55

2015 ............................................................................. 65

2020 ............................................................................. 80

2025 ............................................................................. 90

2030 ............................................................................. 100.
15

2.1.2 The “No-Action” Alternative One – Standard 90.1-2004 (Commercial and HighRise Residential Buildings) 

The no-action alternative is defined as the current practice for new Federal 

buildings. Current practice for Federal buildings is prescribed by the energy efficiency 

requirements found in 10 CFR Part 433. 10 CFR 433.4(a)(1) requires that at a minimum, 

new Federal buildings must meet ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004. 

2.1.3 The “No-Action” Alternative Two – Exceed Standard 90.1-2004 by 30%

(Commercial and High-Rise Residential Buildings)

The second no-action alternative is also described in 10 CFR Part 433. Under the 

Existing Rule, Federal buildings must achieve a level of efficiency 30% better than the 

90.1-2004 Standard, if cost-effective. If a 30% reduction is not cost-effective, the highest 

level of efficiency that is found to be cost-effective must be used, with 90.1-2004 as a 

minimum. However, for the purposes of this EA, the “No-action” Alternative Two will 

assume a level of efficiency 30% better than 90.1-2004. DOE expects that most new 

Federal buildings will be able to achieve a 30% energy reduction cost-effectively. 
16

2.2 Low-Rise Residential Buildings

The potential environmental impacts that would result from implementing the 

Proposed Rule for new Federal low-rise residential buildings (three stories or less in 

height above ground) were examined by comparing the Proposed Rule with the existing 

rule, 10 CFR Part 435. Under the existing rule, new buildings must be 30% more efficient 

than the 2004 IECC, if cost-effective. If a level of efficiency 30% below the 2004 IECC 

is not found to be cost-effective, the highest level of efficiency that is found to be costeffective must be used. As a minimum, the buildings must meet the 2004 IECC. As such, 

the level of efficiency for each building under the proposed rule will vary significantly. 

However, for the purposes of this EA, the Proposed Rule is compared to both the 

minimum requirement under the existing rule (to meet the 2004 IECC) and a level of 

efficiency 30% better than the 2004 IECC. 

2.2.1 The Proposed Action – The Proposed Rule (Low-Rise Residential Buildings)

The proposed action is the Proposed Rule, which requires that for new Federal 

low-rise residential buildings and major renovations of Federal low-rise residential 

buildings, the buildings shall be designed so that the fossil fuel-generated energy 

consumption of the buildings is reduced, as compared with such energy consumption by a 

similar building in fiscal year 2003 (as measured by Residential Energy Consumption 
17

Survey data from the Energy Information Agency), by the percentage specified in the 

following table: 

Fiscal Year Percentage Reduction

2010 ............................................................................. 55

2015 ............................................................................. 65

2020 ............................................................................. 80

2025 ............................................................................. 90

2030 ............................................................................. 100.

2.2.2 The “No-Action” Alternative One – The 2004 IECC Standard (Low-Rise 

Residential Buildings)

The no-action alternative is defined as the current practices for new Federal 

buildings. Current practices for Federal buildings are prescribed by the energy efficiency 

requirements found in 10 CFR Part 435. 10 CFR 435.4(a)(1) requires that at a minimum, 

new Federal low-rise residential buildings must meet the 2004 IECC. 

2.2.3 The “No-Action” Alternative Two – Exceed the 2004 IECC by 30% (Low-Rise 

Residential Buildings)
18

The second no-action alternative is also described in 10 CFR 435. Under the 

Existing Rule, new Federal low-rise residential buildings must achieve a level of 

efficiency 30% better than the 2004 IECC, if cost-effective. If a 30% reduction is not 

cost-effective, the highest level of efficiency that is found to be cost-effective must be 

used, with the 2004 IECC as a minimum. However, for the purposes of this EA, the “Noaction” Alternative Two will assume a level of efficiency 30% better than the 2004 

IECC.

2.3 Distinction between the Proposed Rule and the No-Action Alternatives

The Proposed Rule for Commercial and Residential buildings and the no-action 

alternatives differ in that they use a different, but related metric. The no-action 

alternatives require an overall reduction in building energy use, whereas the proposed 

rule requires a reduction in fossil fuel-generated energy use. However, it is reasonable to 

assume that a 30% reduction in building energy use will, under most circumstances, 

result in an approximate 30% reduction in fossil fuel-generated use. Under this 

assumption, the Proposed Rule requires an additional reduction in fossil fuel-generated 

energy as compared to the no-action alternatives. 

There are provisions in the no-action alternatives that allow a lower level of 

overall energy use reduction if a 30% reduction is cost-effective. While there is no costeffective requirement in the proposed rule, agencies may write a petition requesting a 
19

lower numeric requirement if meeting the percentage reduction requirement is technically 

impracticable. 

There is also a difference in the types of energy use that are covered by the 

Proposed Rule and the no-action alternatives. The no-action alternative requirements 

cover space heating, space cooling, ventilation, service water heating, lighting and all 

other energy consuming systems normally specified as part of the building design except 

for receptacle (plug) and process loads. In contrast, the Proposed Rule requirements cover 

all building energy use, including receptacle and process loads. Note that there is no 

specific requirement in the Proposed Rule for a reduction in receptacle or process loads. 

However, it is reasonable to assume that receptacle and process loads will be reduced in

order to meet the Proposed Rule fossil-fuel reduction requirements. 
20

3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 

The Proposed Rule contains specifications that impact building habitability 

(indoor environment), the outdoor environment, the nation's economy, and the Federal 

agencies that procure commercial and residential buildings. These impacts are described 

in more detail in this section. 

3.1 Indoor Habitability 

Energy efficiency codes can potentially affect indoor air quality, either adversely 

or beneficially. The primary indoor air emissions that can adversely affect human health 

in typical commercial and residential buildings are particulate matter, carbon monoxide 

(CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), radon, formaldehyde, volatile 

organic compounds, and biological contaminants. 

Building energy code requirements could influence the concentration levels of 

indoor air emissions in several ways. First, they could increase or decrease the ventilation 

and/or infiltration of fresh air from outdoors, which generally reduce indoor-generated 

pollutant concentration levels. The Proposed Rules will not place any additional 

restrictions or requirements on ventilation. Under 10 CFR 434.403.2.4, Federal buildings 

must be designed to meet the ventilation requirements described in ASHRAE Standard 
21

62-1989 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. That requirement is unchanged in 

the Proposed Rule. ASHRAE Ventilation Standards are accepted in the engineering 

profession as the minimum ventilation rates required to provide adequate indoor air 

quality. Even if infiltration rates are reduced by energy conservation measures, adequate 

ventilation is still required to help remove buildup of indoor contaminants. 

Second, requirements in energy efficiency codes have the potential to impact 

internally generated indoor emissions by changing the materials or equipment used 

within the buildings. Various emissions can be continuously or intermittently released 

within commercial and residential buildings. These emissions can originate from 

furnishings within a building (e.g., carpet, furniture), from building materials (e.g., 

insulation material, particle board), from the ground (e.g., radon), from the building 

occupants' indoor activities (e.g., tobacco smoking, painting), or from the mechanical 

equipment (e.g., fossil-fuel appliances). Potential combustion emissions include CO, 

CO2, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Fossil fuel-burning (including gas 

stoves/ovens) equipment and, if allowed, tobacco smoke, are the main sources of 

combustion products. In addition, sources from outside the building (particularly 

vehicle exhaust) can be drawn into the building. The Proposed Rule is not expected to 

change pollutant rates from indoor sources of air pollution compared to the no-action 

alternatives. Note that DOE is issuing an additional rulemaking that addresses the 

requirements for use of sustainable design principles in siting, design, and construction 

of new Federal buildings and that this rule may reasonably be assumed to reduce 

pollutant emission rates from indoor sources. Table 1 summarizes the principal indoor 

air emissions that can potentially be of concern within buildings.
22

Table 1 Indoor Air Emissions

Pollutant Health Impacts Sources 

Particulate Matter Lung cancer, bronchitis and respiratory 

infections. Eye, nose, and throat 

irritations. 

Fossil fuel combustion, dust, 

smoking. 

Carbon 

Monoxide 

CO is an odorless and colorless gas that is 

an asphyxiate and disrupts oxygen 

transport. At high concentration levels, 

CO causes loss of consciousness and 

death. 

Unvented kerosene and gas space 

heaters, leaking chimneys and 

furnaces, back drafting from 

furnaces, gas water heaters, wood 

stoves, and fireplaces, gas stoves,

and automobile exhaust from 

attached garages. 

Carbon Dioxide An excessive concentration of CO2 

triggers increased breathing to maintain 

the proper exchange of oxygen and CO2. 

Concentrations above 3 percent can cause 

headaches, dizziness, and nausea. 

Concentrations above 6 percent to 8 

percent can cause death (NRC 1981).

Sources include human respiration, 

tobacco smoking, gas stoves, and gas 

ovens. 

Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 acts mainly as an irritant of the eyes, 

nose, throat, respiratory tract. Extremely 

high-dose exposure to NO2 may result in 

pulmonary edema and diffuse lung injury. 

Continued high exposure can lead to acute 

bronchitis (EPA 1994).

Sources include kerosene heaters, 

gas stoves, ovens, and tobacco 

smoke.
23

Pollutant Health Impacts Sources 

Radon Radon decay products in breathed air can 

deposit and stay in the lungs, sometimes 

contributing to lung cancer. The National 

Academy of Sciences (NAS) estimates 

that 15,400 to 21,800 people in the United 

States die from lung cancer attributable to 

radon annually, although the number 

could be as low as 3,000 or as high as 

32,000 (NAS 1998). A large majority of 

the deaths happen to cigarette smokers. 

Radon is much less of a concern in 

commercial buildings than in residential 

buildings as these buildings usually have 

mechanical ventilation and occupants are 

typically not in the buildings as many 

hours a week as they are in their homes. 

Radon is a radioactive gas that

occurs in nature. The greatest single 

source of radon is from the soil. It 

can be found in soils and rocks 

containing uranium, granite, shale, 

phosphate, and pitchblende (Moffat 

1997). 
24

Pollutant Health Impacts Sources 

Formaldehyde The EPA has classified formaldehyde as a 

"probable human carcinogen" (EPA 

1989). In low concentration levels, 

formaldehyde irritates the eyes and 

mucous membranes of the nose and throat 

(NRC 1981). Formaldehyde can cause 

watery eyes, burning sensations in the 

eyes, nose, and throat, nausea, coughing,

chest tightness, wheezing, skin rashes,

and allergic reactions (CPSC 1997).

Various pressed-wood products can 

emit formaldehyde, including 

particle board, plywood, pressed 

wood, paneling, some carpeting and 

backing, some furniture and dyed 

materials, urea-formaldehyde 

insulating foam, and pressed textiles 

(CPSC 1997). Cigarette smoke also 

produces formaldehyde.

Volatile organic 

compounds 

(VOCs) 

VOCs can cause a wide variety of health 

problems. Some examples of potential 

health effects include increased cancer 

risks, depression of the central nervous 

system, irritation to the eyes and 

respiratory tract, and liver and kidney 

damage. Some evidence exists that VOCs 

can provoke some of the symptoms 

typical of sick-building syndrome and 

cause severe reactions for individuals who 

appear to demonstrate multiple chemical 

sensitivities (EPA 1991). 

VOCs contain carbon and exist as 

vapors at room temperatures. Over 

900 VOCs have been identified in 

indoor air (EPA 1991). 

Formaldehyde is one type of VOC. 

Many products give off VOCs as 

they dry, cure, set, or otherwise age 

(Moffat 1997). 
25

Pollutant Health Impacts Sources 

Biological 

Contaminants 

Biological agents in indoor air are known 

to cause three types of human disease: 

infections (pathogens invade human 

tissue); hypersensitivity diseases (specific 

activation of the immune system causes 

diseases); and toxicosis (biologically 

produced chemical toxins cause direct 

toxic effects) (EPA 1994). Evidence is 

available showing that some episodes of 

sick building syndrome may be related to 

microbial contamination of buildings 

(EPA 1994). 

Sources include outdoor air and 

human occupants who shed viruses 

and bacteria, animal occupants 

(insects and other arthropods, 

mammals) that shed allergens, and 

indoor surfaces and water reservoirs 

such as humidifiers where fungi and 

bacteria can grow (EPA 1994). 

3.2 Outdoor Air

The Proposed Rule impacts energy consumption and therefore impacts pollutant 

emissions and greenhouse gas emissions associated with energy consumption. The 

emissions addressed in this report are split into two groups, namely, greenhouse gases 

and gases other than greenhouse gases.

3.2.1 Greenhouse Gases
26

 While the scientific understanding of climate change continue to evolve, the 

International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report stated that 

warming of Earth’s climate is unequivocal, and that warming is very likely attributable to 

increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs) caused by human activities 

(anthropogenic). The Fourth Assessment Report indicates that changes in many physical 

and biological systems, such as increases in global temperatures, more frequent heat

waves, rising sea levels, coastal flooding, loss of wildlife habitat, spread of infectious 

disease, and other potential environmental impacts are linked to changes in the climate 

system, and that some changes could be irreversible. GHGs, which include carbon 

dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), are chemical compounds in the 

earth’s atmosphere that trap heat. Of these gases - CO2 is recognized by the IPCC as the 

primary GHG affecting climate change. Present atmospheric concentrations of CO2 are 

believed to be higher than at any time in at least the last 650,000 years, primarily as a 

result of combustion of fossil fuels. It is also very likely that increases in CH4 are 

partially due to fossil fuel use, according to the IPCC Report. The proposed Rule will 

help reduce GHGs by saving fossil fuel generated energy. 

The impacts presented in Section 5.0 are focused on human-made emissions and 

specifically those in the United States. Carbon dioxide emissions from coal, petroleum, 

and natural gas make up about eighty-one percent of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. 

Consequently, U.S. emissions are strongly tied to fossil energy consumption. Other 

greenhouse gas emissions include methane, nitrous oxide, and other gases. The 

information on greenhouse gases presented below is from the DOE report entitled, 

“Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States” (DOE 2009).
27

Carbon Dioxide 

CO2 is by far the most common greenhouse gas emitted. More than 98 percent of 

U.S. CO2 emissions can be traced to the combustion of fossil fuels. The commercial 

sector, (including all commercial buildings, as defined by DOE [2008], not just Federal 

buildings) accounts for 19 percent of U.S. CO2 emissions. Eighty percent of commercialsector CO2 emissions are associated with the production of electric power used in the 

sector. Sixteen percent of the commercial-sector CO2 emissions are from natural gas 

(used directly in buildings), with the remaining 4 percent mainly from petroleum 

products. The residential sector contributes a 21 percent share of U.S. CO2 emissions. 

Seventy-two percent of residential CO2 emissions are associated with the production of 

electricity. Twenty-two percent of the residential-sector CO2 emissions are from natural 

gas (used directly in buildings), with 7 percent from petroleum products. The Proposed 

Rule will help reduce CO2 emissions by saving energy. 

Methane 

Methane emissions are primarily from human-related sources, not natural sources. 

U.S. methane emissions are from three categories of sources, each accounting for about 

one-third of total emissions: (1) decomposition of solid waste in landfills, (2) energy 

sources, and (3) emissions from domestic livestock. The methane emitted from energy 

sources occurs primarily during the production and processing of natural gas, coal, and 

oil, not in the actual use (combustion) of these fuels. Methane is the primary ingredient in 
28

natural gas, and production, processing, storage, and transmission of natural gas account 

for 61 percent of the methane emissions from energy sources (or 24 percent of all 

methane emissions). The Proposed Rule is expected to reduce Methane emissions by 

saving energy. 

Nitrous Oxide 

Nitrous oxide emission rates are more uncertain than those for CO2 and methane, 

with nitrogen fertilization of agricultural soils being the primary human-related source. 

Fuel combustion is also a source of nitrous oxide; however, in the commercial and 

residential sector, total emissions are only about 0.4% of all U.S. nitrous oxide emissions. 

The Proposed Rule is expected to reduce nitrous oxide emissions by saving energy. 

Halocarbons and Other Gases 

The final group of human-made greenhouse gases consists of halocarbons and 

other engineered gases not usually found in nature. Three of these gases are discussed 

below: 

1. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC)

2. Perfluorocarbons (PFC)

3. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). 
29

HFCs are compounds containing hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon. HFCs do not reach the 

stratosphere to destroy ozone, therefore, they are considered more environmentally 

benign than ozone-depleting substances such as chlorofluoro-carbons (CFCs). HFCs are 

greenhouse gases. HFCs are used as refrigerants, and are becoming more common as 

ozone-depleting refrigerants are phased out. 

PFCs are compounds containing carbon and fluorine. PFC emissions result as a 

byproduct of aluminum smelting and semiconductor manufacturing. SF6 is used as an 

insulator for electric equipment. The Proposed Rule is not expected to change the 

emission rates of HFCs, PFCs, or SF6. 

3.2.2 Other Outdoor Air Emissions 

Several outdoor air emissions other than the greenhouse gases having 

detrimental effects on human health and/or the environment are discussed below. 

National air quality standards have been set for six principal air pollutants (also referred 

to as "criteria pollutants"): ozone, NO2, CO, particulate matter, SO2, and lead. More 

information on these emissions is presented below. All of the following information on 

air emissions is from EPA data (EPA 2009).

Ozone 

Ozone occurring high in the atmosphere is beneficial, providing a protective 

layer from ultraviolet radiation. Closer to ground level, however, ozone is the prime 

ingredient of smog. Ozone can cause respiratory problems, damage plants and trees, 
30

while fine particles in smog reduce visibility. Ozone is formed in the atmosphere by the 

reaction of VOCs and nitrogen oxides. Various consumer products, for example, fuel, 

solvents, paints and glues emit VOCs. VOCs in outdoor air come primarily from 

industrial processes and transportation. The Proposed Rule will reduce Ozone emissions 

by saving energy. 

Nitrogen Oxides 

NO2 is a precursor to acid rain as well as to ozone. The major source of humanmade NO2 emissions is high-temperature combustion of fossil fuels. About 18 percent of 

NO2 emissions come from fuel combustion to produce electricity and 4 percent of 

emissions come from fuel consumption in buildings. The remainder is mainly from the 

transportation and industrial sectors. The Proposed Rule is expected to reduce NO2 

emissions. 

Carbon Monoxide 

The main source of CO is the incomplete burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline. 

Vehicles exhaust contributes about 50 percent of all CO emissions. The CO produced 

from energy use related to buildings is about 4 percent of all CO emissions. Most of this 

is from wood burning in residential buildings, which should not be impacted by the 

Proposed Rule. 

Particulate Matter 
31

Particulate matter is a general term used for a mixture of solid particles and liquid 

droplets found in air. Particulate matter can cause or exacerbate respiratory problems and 

reduce visibility. These particles come in a wide range of sizes and originate from many 

human-made and natural sources. Particles less than 2.5 micrometers are known as "fine" 

particles. Those larger than 2.5 micrometers are known as "coarse" particles. Fuel 

combustion generates "fine" particles. Most particulate matter comes from roads 

(particularly unpaved roads), agriculture, and fires. The particulate matter emitted from 

energy use related to buildings is only about 3 percent for course particles and 6 percent 

for fine particles of all U.S. emissions. Most of this is from wood burning in residential 

buildings, which should not be impacted by the Proposed Rule.

Sulfur Dioxide 

As with most of the other emissions, SO2 can cause respiratory problems, 

including breathing problems and damage to the lungs. SO2, along with nitrogen oxides, 

causes acid rain. SO2 is formed when fuel containing sulfur is burned. Coal is the 

primary fuel that produces SO2. Sixty-six percent of all SO2 emissions come from fuel 

used in electricity production. About 5 percent of SO2 emissions come from direct use of 

coal and oil in buildings. The Proposed Rule is expected to reduce SO2 emissions by 

saving energy. 

Lead

Exposure to lead can cause a variety of health problems. Lead can adversely 

affect the brain, kidneys, liver, nervous system, and other organs. Today, metals 
32

processing is the major source of lead emissions to the atmosphere. Combustion from 

electric utilities is about 2 percent of all lead emissions, with most of the combustion 

emissions are from coal, not natural gas or oil. Lead emissions directly from buildings are 

a negligible share of national total emissions. However, the Proposed Rule is expected to 

reduce Lead emissions by saving energy.

3.3 Environmental Justice

Consideration of Environmental Justice is made pursuant to Executive Order 

12898, “Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and 

Low-Income Populations.” The Executive Order requires Federal agencies to address 

disproportionately high and adverse human health or environmental effects of its 

programs, policies, and activities on low-income or minority populations. The Proposed 

Rule does not result in any adverse health effects and therefore, does not have the 

potential for disproportionately high and adverse health effects on minorities and lowincome populations. 

3.4 Other Impacts
33

The Proposed Rule will have no significant impact on any sensitive 

environmental resources such as wetlands, endangered species, or historic or 

archaeological sites. In addition, there is no aspect of the Proposed Rule that could be 

affected by a terrorist act. 
34

4 CALCULATING ENERGY SAVINGS BY BUILDING TYPE

4.1 Commercial and High-Rise Multi-Family Residential Buildings 

In order to determine emissions reductions estimates for the Proposed Rule, it was 

necessary to compare energy use of buildings meeting the fossil fuel reduction 

requirement to buildings meeting the no action alternative. The Proposed Rule was 

compared with two baselines; buildings meeting Standard 90.1-2004 and buildings that 

exceed Standard 90.1-2004. The baseline consumption levels were determined with 

Energy Plus simulations perfumed by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. A 

weighted average of fifteen climate zones was used to compute national energy use for 

each building type. Assumptions used in this analysis are described below. 

4.2 Commercial Building Types Used to Estimate Energy Savings 

Since building energy use and savings vary by building type, a weighted average 

of the energy savings for each building type was used. The weights used for each 

building type were proportional to annual new square footage for a given building type. 

Detailed data on square footage of new Federal buildings proved difficult to obtain. 

However, GSA data was used to approximate the new construction for each building type 

(GSA 2008, GSA 2009). Building types which increased in total square footage in FY 07 

or FY 08 were assumed to be the only categories in which new construction occurred 

(note that if more buildings were disposed of than constructed, that building type was not 
35

counted). This method suggests that during FY 07 and FY 08, the Federal government 

built an estimated 30 million new square feet per year. Since it is difficult to define 

typical characteristics of certain types of building (laboratories, for example), some 

building types were not used in this analysis. New Federal construction was assumed to

have the following building type distribution:

• Office - 54%

• Education - 23%

• Dormitory/Barracks - 23%

Table 2 compares the nationally-averaged energy use intensity (EUI) for the Proposed 

Rule reduction requirements with Standard 90.1-2004 and a level of efficiency 30% 

below Standard 90.1-2004. EUI is the energy consumed by a building per square foot per 

year. Site energy includes energy used only at the building site.

Source energy includes energy used at the building site and energy lost in producing 

and delivering the energy to the site (for electricity). The total source EUIs for the 

combined average building indicates the total energy averaged across the building types 

using the percent distribution given above.

Table 2 Comparison of Simulated EUIs by Fuel Type (Commercial)

Code or Standard Site Energy Breakdown Total

Gas EUI 

(kBtu/ft2-yr)

Electric 

EUI 

(kBtu/ft2-yr)

Site EUI 

(kBtu/ft2-yr)

Source EUI 

(kBtu/ft2-yr)
36

Combined Average Building

Standard 90.1-2004 13.0 40.6 53.6 139.9

30% below 

Standard 90.1-2004

9.1 32.5 41.6 110.8

CBECS 39.3 49.1 88.4 192.6

55% below CBECS 17.7 22.1 39.8 86.7

65% below CBECS 13.8 17.2 30.9 67.4

80% below CBECS 7.9 9.8 17.7 38.5

90% below CBECS 3.9 4.9 8.8 19.3

100% below 

CBECS

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Note: Lower EUIs indicate lower energy usage.

4.3 Low-Rise Residential Buildings

Under the Proposed Rule, outdoor air emissions from new Federal residential 

low-rise buildings are expected to decrease. However, since the Proposed Rule only 

pertains to buildings that cost over $2.5 million, very few residential buildings will be 

affected. Furthermore, finding reliable data on this building type proved difficult. As 

such, the outdoor air environmental impacts of new Federal residential buildings were 

assumed to be insignificant relative to new commercial buildings and were not included 

in this analysis. 

5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
37

5.1 Commercial and High-Rise Multi-Family Residential 

This section provides the potential environmental impacts that may result from 

implementing the Proposed Rule, which is evaluated at each of the fossil fuel percentage 

reduction requirements. These values are then compared to the no-action alternatives. 

The improved energy efficiency of the Proposed Rule would reduce the use of fossil 

fuels, and therefore would reduce air emissions. 

5.1.1 Building Habitability (Indoor Air) Impacts 

The Proposed Rule is not expected to have any impact on indoor air quality 

relative to the no-action alternatives, as the changes between the codes do not alter 

ventilation rates or sources of indoor emissions. This does not imply that a potential for 

health-related problems does not or will not exist in new Federal commercial buildings. 

The Proposed Rule does not address the potential for indoor air quality-related health 

problems, such as "sick-building syndrome." Sick-building syndrome can result from 

insufficient building air exchange. For example, if the ventilation system that brings in 

fresh outside air breaks down, the air will get stale and occupants in the building may get 

sick. The Proposed Rule does not impact exactly how a building is operated (e.g., how a 

ventilation system is controlled) nor does it impact materials (e.g., type of paint used, or 

if occupants are exposed to fumes from painting) used in the buildings. The Proposed 

Rule and the no-action alternatives do not have any requirements specifically for radon 

control or control of other indoor air emissions. As noted in Table 1, “ radon is much less 
38

of a concern in commercial buildings than in residential buildings, as these buildings 

usually have mechanical ventilation and occupants are typically not in the buildings as 

many hours a week as they are in their homes.” DOE has previously consulted with the 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on the issue of radon in commercial 

buildings and determined that radon standards are not applicable to commercial and highrise multi-family residential buildings. 

5.1.2 Outdoor Air 

In general, under all the alternatives examined in this EA, greenhouse gas 

emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, and halocarbons) are reduced 

because more energy efficient buildings consume less fossil fuel. Table 3 shows the 

estimated reductions of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the Proposed Rule, as 

compared to the Standard 90.1-2004 and 30% below 90.1-2004 baselines. These are the 

estimated annual savings from one year of Federal building construction for the various 

fossil fuel reduction requirements. 

Electricity used in Federal commercial buildings is ultimately assumed to have 

the same mix of fuel/energy sources (e.g., coal, nuclear) as overall national electricity 

production. This mix was obtained from the Energy Information Administration (DOE 

2010). Reductions in CO2 emissions from electricity were calculated by scaling the 

national CO2 emissions from electric power generation by the percentage savings in 

national electricity use. CO2 emissions reductions from natural gas were calculated 

using emissions coefficients from Table B1 of DOE’s report on emissions of 
39

greenhouse gases (DOE 2001). Similarly, reductions in the release of methane were 

obtained by scaling the total national emissions by the percentage savings in total 

national energy use (by fuel type) resulting from the Proposed Rule. 

In Table 3, below, reductions in CO2 and methane are in metric tons of carbon 

and methane, respectively. Because the energy used in Federal building sector is not a 

substantial source of nitrous oxide or halocarbons, the impact of the Proposed Rule for 

these two gases is negligible. The reductions in greenhouse gas emissions will 

accumulate in the future as more and more Federal commercial buildings are built, and 

as the fossil fuel reduction requirement increases. 

Table 3 First-Year Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions in Metric Tons (For One 

Year of New Construction)

Percentage 

Reduction

Carbon 

Dioxide Methane

Nitrous 

Oxide or 

Halocarbons

Savings of 

Proposed Rule 

Reduction Targets 

vs. ASHRAE 90.1-

2004 (no-action 

one)

55% 93,600 198 Negligible

65% 118,300 250

80% 155,500 328

90% 180,200 381

100% 205,000 433

Savings of 

Proposed Rule

Reduction Targets 

vs. 30% below 

ASHRAE 90.1-

2004 (no-action 

two)

55% 52,700 111 Negligible

65% 77,500 164

80% 114,600 242

90% 139,400 294

100% 164,200 347
40

Note that these savings are for one year of new construction at the current rate and 

are not cumulative. As the Proposed Rule takes effect, the type and quantity of buildings 

that the Federal government constructs will likely change significantly. As such, it is 

difficult to predict the cumulative savings of the Proposed Rule. 

Estimated savings in criteria emissions as a result of the Proposed Rule are 

shown in Table 4. The savings represent the annual savings from one year of Federal 

commercial building construction; these savings will accumulate in the future as more 

and more Federal buildings are built. Total pollutant emissions in the United States were 

obtained from the National Emissions Inventory (EPA 2008). The improved energy 

efficiency of the Proposed Rule will reduce the use of coal and other fossil fuels to 

produce energy and therefore will reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides and sulfur 

dioxide. The Proposed Rule is assumed to have a negligible effect on emissions other 

than nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide because the energy use associated with 

buildings contributes only a small fraction of the emissions. The savings in air pollutant 

emissions will accumulate in the future as more Federal commercial buildings are built.

Table 4 First-Year Outdoor Pollutant Emissions Reductions in Metric Tons (For 

One Year of New Construction)

Percentage 

Reduction

Nitrogen 

Oxides

Sulfur 

Dioxide

Carbon 

Monoxide, 

Particulate 

Matter, or Lead

Savings of Proposed 

Rule Reduction Targets 

vs. ASHRAE 90.1-2004 

(no-action one)

55% 102.7 269 Negligible

65% 134.6 340

80% 182.3 446

90% 214.2 518

100% 246.1 589

Savings of Proposed 55% 53 151 Negligible
41

Rule Reduction Targets 

vs. 30% below 

ASHRAE 90.1-2004 

(no-action two)

65% 84 223

80% 132 329

90% 164 400

100% 196 471

Again, these savings are for one year of new construction at the current rate and 

are not cumulative. It is difficult to predict the total cumulative savings of the Proposed 

Rule. 
42

6 PERSONS/AGENCIES CONSULTED DURING THIS RULEMAKING

In accordance with the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations in 

40 CFR 1508.9(b), a list of persons and agencies consulted during the development of 

this rulemaking and environmental assessment is provided below.

DOE and Contractor Staff

• U.S. DOE Federal Energy Management Program - Cyrus Nasseri and Matt Gray

• Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (DOE contractor) - Mark Halverson, John 

Kaufman, James Hand, David Winiarski, Robert Lucas.
43

5 REFERENCES

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Fuel-Generated Energy Consumption Reduction Standards for the Design and 

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10 CFR Part 434. 2010. U.S. Department of Energy, “Energy Code for New Federal 

Commercial and Multi-Family High Rise Residential Buildings.” U.S. Code of Federal 

Regulations.

10 CFR Part 435. 2010. U.S. Department of Energy, "Energy Conservation and Fossil 

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44

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45

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46

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48

General Services Administration (GSA). FY 2008 Federal Real Property Report. 

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