Technologies for Control and 

Measurement of Mercury Emissions 

from Coal-Fired Power Plants in the 

United States: A 2010 Status Report 

Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management

(NESCAUM) 

July 2010 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report ii

Members of Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management 

Anne Gobin, Bureau Chief 

Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Air Management 

James P. Brooks, Bureau Director 

Maine Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Air Quality 

Barbara Kwetz, Director 

Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Waste Prevention 

Robert Scott, Director 

New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, Air Resources Division 

William O’Sullivan, Director 

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Office of Air Quality Management 

David Shaw, Director 

New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Air Resources 

Douglas L. McVay, Chief 

Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management, Office of Air Resources 

Richard A. Valentinetti, Director 

Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, Air Pollution Control Division 

Arthur Marin, Executive Director 

Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report iii

Technologies for Control and 

Measurement of Mercury Emissions 

from Coal-Fired Power Plants in the 

United States: A 2010 Status Report 

Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management

(NESCAUM)

July 2010 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report iv

TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONTROL AND 

MEASUREMENT OF MERCURY EMISSIONS 

FROM COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS IN THE 

UNITED STATES: A 2010 STATUS REPORT 

Project Director 

Praveen Amar, Ph.D., P.E., Director, Science and Policy, NESCAUM 

Principal Contributors

Constance L. Senior, Ph.D., Manager, Engineering Research and Development, 

Reaction Engineering International 

Rui Afonso, President, Energy and Environmental Strategies 

James Staudt, Ph.D., President, Andover Technologies Partners 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

NESCAUM gratefully acknowledges the joint funding support provided by the United 

States Environmental Protection Agency (Office of Air and Radiation (OAR), Clean Air Markets 

Division (CAMD), and Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS)). We are greatly 

indebted to Ms. Ellen Kurlansky of OAR for her dedicated interest in this project and for her 

extraordinary ability and good will. We thank Mr. Scott Hedges of CAMD for his helpful 

guidance as the Project Manager and for coordinating an extensive review of the draft version of 

this report. 

This project and report were managed and directed by NESCAUM (Dr. Praveen Amar). 

NESCAUM was very ably supported by its contractors, Reaction Engineering International (Dr. 

Constance L. Senior, Ms. Brydger Van Otten), Energy and Environmental Strategies (Mr. Rui 

Afonso) and Andover Technology Partners (Dr. James Staudt). Mr. Jesse Colman of 

NESCAUM and Ms. Mary Sullivan Douglas of National Association of Clean Air Agencies 

(NACAA) made substantial contributions in designing the state survey of installed mercury 

monitoring systems as of fall 2009. Dr. Paul Miller, Deputy Director, NESCAUM, provided 

excellent editing support. Ms. Wendy Roy, Administrative Assistant, NESCAUM, was 

extremely helpful in the final formatting of the report. 

NESCAUM thanks the members of the NESCAUM Stationary Sources and Permitting 

Committee, who guided the design of this report in early stages and provided technical data on 

mercury controls and measurement. The following individuals provided strong technical support 

and comments on the final draft version of the report: 

Sunila Agrawal, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection 

Andrew Bodnarik, New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services 

Patricio Silva, Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection 

NESCAUM is an association of the eight northeast state air pollution control programs 

that provides technical guidance and policy advice to its member states. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................v 

List of Acronyms ........................................................................................................................... xi 

ES-1. Objectives .......................................................................................................................... xiii 

ES-1.1. Mercury Control Technologies....................................................................................... xiii 

ES-1.1.1. Continuous Mercury Monitoring Technologies........................................................... xvi 

1. Mercury Control Technologies: Strategies and Costs .......................................................... 1-1 

1.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1-1 

1.1.1. Objectives ............................................................................................................ 1-1 

1.1.2. Current and Emerging Regulatory Conditions .................................................... 1-1 

1.1.3. Boiler and Air Pollution Control Device (APCD) Populations........................... 1-1 

1.2. Mercury Control Technologies.................................................................................... 1-6 

1.2.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................... 1-6 

1.2.2. Impacts of Fuel on Mercury Speciation............................................................... 1-7 

1.2.3. Impact of Air Pollution Control Devices........................................................... 1-10 

1.3. Oxidation Enhancement in Flue Gas ......................................................................... 1-14 

1.3.1. Chemical Additives............................................................................................ 1-14 

1.3.2. Fixed-bed Oxidation Catalysts........................................................................... 1-19 

1.4. Sorbent Injection........................................................................................................ 1-26 

1.4.1. Sorbents for Mercury Control............................................................................ 1-26 

1.4.2. Sorbents Injection and Cold-Side ESPs............................................................. 1-28 

1.4.3. Sorbent Injection and Hot-Side ESPs ................................................................ 1-33 

1.4.4. Sorbent Injection and Fabric Filters................................................................... 1-34 

1.4.5. Sorbent Injection and Spray Dryers................................................................... 1-36 

1.5. Other Hg Control Technologies................................................................................. 1-37 

1.5.1. Pre-Combustion Removal.................................................................................. 1-37 

1.5.2. Fixed Adsorption ............................................................................................... 1-38 

1.5.3. Multi-Pollutant Processes .................................................................................. 1-38 

1.6. Coal Combustion Residues (CCRs)........................................................................... 1-39 

1.6.1. Impact of Hg Control Technologies on CCRs................................................... 1-39 

1.6.2. Environmental Stability of Hg in CCRs ............................................................ 1-41 

1.7. Costs of Mercury Reduction ...................................................................................... 1-42 

1.7.1. Basis for Cost Calculations................................................................................ 1-42 

1.7.2. National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) Costs Summary for ACI .... 1-44 

1.7.3. National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) Cost Summary 

for Oxidation Technologies ............................................................................... 1-47 

1.7.4. U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) Mercury Control Study......... 1-48 

1.8. Commercial Experience with Sorbent Injection Technologies ................................. 1-49 

2. Continuous Mercury Monitoring Technologies..................................................................... 2-1 

2.1. Hg CEMS Technology Overview................................................................................ 2-1 

2.2. Hg CEMS Suppliers..................................................................................................... 2-2 

2.2.1. ThermoFisher Scientific Hg CEMS..................................................................... 2-2 

2.2.2. Tekran Instruments Hg CEMS............................................................................. 2-4 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report vii

2.2.3. Other suppliers of Hg CEMS............................................................................... 2-7 

2.3. Approximate Costs of Hg CEMS ................................................................................ 2-7 

2.4. Operating Issues of Hg CEMS..................................................................................... 2-8 

2.5. Sorbent Trap Method ................................................................................................. 2-17 

2.5.1. Sorbent Trap Method Description ..................................................................... 2-17 

2.5.2. Sorbent Trap Accuracy/Precision ...................................................................... 2-18 

2.6. Approximate Costs of Sorbent Trap Systems............................................................ 2-21 

2.7. Advantages/Disadvantages of Sorbent Traps When Compared 

to Hg CEMS............................................................................................................... 2-21 

2.8. Availability of Sorbent Traps used as CMMS........................................................... 2-24 

2.9. Approximate Number of Units Installed/In Operation .............................................. 2-25 

2.10. Summary.................................................................................................................... 2-26 

3. Conclusions............................................................................................................................ 3-1 

3.1. Outlook for Control Technologies............................................................................... 3-1 

3.2. Outlook for Measurement Systems.............................................................................. 3-3 

4. References.............................................................................................................................. 4-1 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report viii

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1-1. Number of coal-fired boilers > 25 MW per state................................................... 1-2 

Figure 1-2. Map of coal fields in the U.S. (www.nationalatlas.gov)........................................ 1-3 

Figure 1-3. Percent of coal-fired boilers in each state burning predominantly 

bituminous coal...................................................................................................... 1-4 

Figure 1-4. Percent of coal-fired boilers in each state burning predominantly 

subbituminous coal ................................................................................................ 1-5 

Figure 1-5. Percent of coal-fired boilers in each state burning predominantly lignite coal ..... 1-5 

Figure 1-6. Distribution of mercury in coal burned at U.S. power plants 

from 1999 ICR Part 2............................................................................................ .1-9 

Figure 1-7. Distribution of sulfur in coal burned at U.S. power plants 

from 1999 ICR Part 2............................................................................................. 1-9 

Figure 1-8. Distribution of chlorine in coal burned at U.S. power plants 

from 1999 ICR Part 2........................................................................................... 1-10 

Figure 1-9. Hg removal across particulate control devices (PCDs) vs. chlorine 

in coal based on 1999 ICR Part 3 data................................................................. 1-12 

Figure 1-10. Hg removal across wet FGD and particulate control devices (PCDs) 

vs. chlorine in coal based on 1999 ICR Part 3 data ............................................. 1-12 

Figure 1-11. Hg removal across spray dryer (SD) and particulate control devices (PCDs) vs. 

chlorine in coal based on 1999 ICR Part 3 data................................................... 1-13 

Figure 1-12. Hg removal and oxidation results with various additives 

at Milton R Young (top) and Monticello (bottom) power plants......................... 1-16 

Figure 1-13. Hg oxidation at air preheater outlet (Holcomb) and removal across APCDs 

at two PRB-fired plants with SD-FF (Holcomb) and ESP (Meramec)................ 1-17 

Figure 1-14. Mercury removal at Pleasant Prairie with KNXTM injection ............................... 1-17 

Figure 1-15. Test results for wet FGD Hg0 re-emission additive at Mill Creek Unit 4............ 1-19 

Figure 1-16. Hg removal across the FGD and mitigation of Hg0

 re-emission 

with Absorption Plus(Hg)TM at Elmer Smith station ........................................... 1-19 

Figure 1-17. Relationship between SO2 conversion and Hg0 oxidation across SCR catalyst .. 1-20 

Figure 1-18. Typical Hg0

 oxidation catalyst application in ESP-wet FGD plant ..................... 1-21 

Figure 1-19. Summary of NETL Hg0 oxidation catalyst test results from slipstream testing 

at Monticello and Yates power plants.................................................................. 1-22 

Figure 1-20. Impact of Hg0 oxidation catalysts on total mercury removal by wet FGD, 

pilot-scale testing at Monticello........................................................................... 1-23 

Figure 1-21. Slipstream TRACTM catalyst performance Hg oxidation vs. time....................... 1-25 

Figure 1-22. Hg oxidation and removal with full sale TRACTM catalyst 640 MW, 

wall-fired boiler, firing PRB coal at an undisclosed location.............................. 1-25 

Figure 1-23. Application of activated carbon injection ............................................................ 1-26 

Figure 1-24. Mercury removal across ESP at Merrimack Unit 2, combinations 

of Darco Hg-LH and trona sorbents..................................................................... 1-30 

Figure 1-25. Removal across ESP at Labadie with injection of activated carbon 

as function of SO3 injection and injection location ............................................. 1-31 

Figure 1-26. Hg removal at MRC as a function of concentration of SO3 injected 

into flue gas.......................................................................................................... 1-32 

Figure 1-27. Removal of Hg across Presque Isle TOXECONTM baghouse via injection of 

Darco® Hg sorbent ............................................................................................... 1-35 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report ix

Figure 1-28. Cost of 90% mercury control with and without impact of lost sale 

of fly ash as a by-product..................................................................................... 1-45 

Figure 1-29. Incremental cost of electricity (COE) for 90% mercury control with and 

without impact of lost sales of fly ash as a by-product........................................ 1-46 

Figure 1-30. Cost of 90% mercury reduction vs. a) capital cost b) plant size; and c) sorbent 

consumption......................................................................................................... 1-46 

Figure 1-31. Cost of mercury reduction using oxidation technologies combined with FGD... 1-47 

Figure 1-32. Cost of mercury reduction for oxidation technologies vs. catalyst 

and chemical costs ............................................................................................... 1-48 

Figure 1-33. Mercury control systems orders booked by state................................................. 1-49 

Figure 1-34. Mercury control systems orders booked by coal rank burned at plant ................ 1-50 

Figure 1-35. Summary of Hg emissions from coal-fired power plants 

in Massachusetts, 2008-2009............................................................................... 1-52 

Figure 2-1. ThermoFisher Scientific Mercury Freedom System.............................................. 2-3 

Figure 2-2. Schematic of Tekran Hg CEMS ............................................................................ 2-5 

Figure 2-3. Simplified diagram of the Tekran Model 3315 Ionic Mercury Calibrator ............ 2-6 

Figure 2-4. General approach for elemental mercury calibration gas 

generator certification .......................................................................................... 2-11 

Figure 2-5. RATA results at low mercury concentrations...................................................... 2-14 

Figure 2-6. Low level Hg CEMS accuracy check against sorbent traps on a stack 

that follows a wet scrubber or wet stack.............................................................. 2-14 

Figure 2-7. Nebraska Public Power Sheldon 2 RATA results................................................ 2-15 

Figure 2-8. Method 30B sorbent trap equipment.................................................................... 2-18 

Figure 2-9. RATA results reported by Wright and Schmid with (a) concentrations under 

1 μg/m3

; (b) concentrations near 1 μg/m3; and (c) concentrations over 1 μg/m32-19 

Figure 2-10. RATA results reported by Wright with (a) concentrations under 1 μg/m3; 

(b) concentrations near 1 μg/m3

; and (c) concentrations over 1 μg/m3............... 2-20 

Figure 2-11. Hg CEMS performance compared with Sorbent Traps ....................................... 2-23 

Figure 2-12. Sorbent Trap availability reported by Wright and Schmid .................................. 2-24 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report x

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1-1. Coal-fired units greater than 25 MW in the U.S. by coal rank ................................ 1-3 

Table 1-2. Air pollution control devices on U.S. coal-fired boilers in 2010, 

number of boilers > 25 MW..................................................................................... 1-6 

Table 1-3. Summary of APCD and coal type information for 1999 ICR Part 3 data sets ...... 1-11 

Table 1-4. Recently published testing with boiler additives to enhance Hg0 oxidation.......... 1-15 

Table 1-5. Recent published testing with Hg0oxidation catalysts.......................................... 1-21 

Table 1-6. Hg oxidation and removal - summary of results at Fayette Unit 3........................ 1-24

Table 1-7. Description of mercury sorbents............................................................................ 1-27 

Table 1-8. List of sorbent injection demonstration sites with cold-side ESPs........................ 1-29 

Table 1-9. List of sorbent injection demonstration sites with hot-side ESPs.......................... 1-33 

Table 1-10. List of sorbent injection demonstration sites with fabric filters ............................ 1-34 

Table 1-11. List of sorbent injection demonstration sites with spray dryers ............................ 1-36 

Table 1-12. Configurations of units in NETL cost study and capital cost of ACI 

for 90% Hg removal............................................................................................... 1-44 

Table 1-13. List of key parameters in NETL cost study of oxidation technologies 

combined with FGD............................................................................................... 1-47 

Table 1-14 Summary of results from U.S. GAO Hg control survey........................................ 1-49 

Table 1-15. Summary of New Jersey stack test mercury emissions for 2008 and 2009........... 1-51 

Table 1-16. Dominion Energy Salem Harbor Station 2009 reported Hg emissions ................. 1-53 

Table 1-17. Dominion Energy Brayton Point Station 2009 reported Hg emissions ................. 1-54 

Table 2-1. Availability of Hg CEMS at Dominion Brayton Point power plant in 2008......... 2-16 

Table 2-2. Availability information for Dominion Salem Harbor Units 1, 2, 3 CMMS......... 2-24 

Table 2-3. NESCAUM 2009 survey of Hg CMMS in nine states and one city...................... 2-26 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report xi

List of Acronyms 

AAS Atomic absorption spectroscopy 

ACI Activated carbon injection 

AEA Air-entraining agent 

AEP American Electric Power 

APCD Air pollution control device 

APH Air preheater 

CAAA Clean Air Act Amendments 

CAMR Clean Air Mercury Rule 

CCR Coal combustion residue 

CEA Cold-end temperature 

CEMS Continuous emission monitoring system 

CMMS Continuous mercury monitoring system 

COE Cost of electricity 

CVAF Cold-vapor atomic fluorescence 

DEP Department of Environmental Protection 

DOE Department of Energy 

EDX Energy-dispersive X-ray 

EIA Energy Information Administration 

EERC Energy & Environmental Research Center 

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute 

ESP Electrostatic precipitator 

FBC Fluidized bed combustor 

FF Fabric filter 

FGC Flue gas conditioning 

FGD Flue gas desulfurization 

GAO Government Accountability Office 

HAP Hazardous air pollutant 

ICP-MS Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

ICR Information Collection Request 

ICSET Institute for Combustion Science and Environmental Technology 

MRC Mercury Research Center 

MW Megawatt 

ND North Dakota 

NETL National Energy Technology Laboratory 

NOx Oxides of Nitrogen 

NIST National Institute of Standards & Technology 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report xii

List of Acronyms [Cont’d] 

OA Oxidation additive 

PAC Powdered activated carbon 

PCD Particulate control device 

PM Particulate matter 

PRB Powder River Basin 

PSNH Public Service of New Hampshire 

QA Quality assurance 

QC Quality control 

RATA Relative accuracy test audit 

RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 

RM Reference method 

SCA Specific collection area 

SCR Selective catalytic reduction 

SD Spray dryer 

SEA Sorbent enhancement additive 

SEM Scanning electron microscope 

SNCR Selective non-catalytic reduction 

SO2 Sulfur dioxide 

ST Sorbent trap 

TX Texas 

WRI Western Research Institute 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report xiii

Executive Summary 

ES-1. Objectives 

The current status of mercury control technologies and mercury measurement systems for 

coal-fired power plants is reviewed in this report, including recent information on performance 

and costs (capital costs, fixed and variable costs, and operating and maintenance costs). The 

objective is to summarize the outlook for the next two to three years of various mercury control 

and measurement options so as to present a realistic picture of mercury emissions reductions that 

may be achievable in the United States. 

Recent experience (2006-2009) with mercury control technologies, including activated 

carbon injection (ACI) technology, is evaluated, based on projects funded by the U.S. 

Department of Energy’s National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), Electric Power 

Research Institute (EPRI), and others. Key sub-populations of coal-fired boilers (for example, 

boilers burning different coal types or using different types of control equipment for nitrogen 

oxides (NOx), sulfur oxide (SO2), and particulate matter (PM) emissions) have been identified as 

needing additional technology development to meet stringent mercury emission requirements. 

The status of continuous mercury monitoring systems (CMMS), which include mercury 

continuous emission monitoring systems (CEMS) and sorbent trap (ST) systems, is assessed. 

Data have been collected and evaluated on measurement technologies including recent 

experience in the field. For both mercury CEMS and STs, the report provides: 

• a brief overview of the technology; 

• approximate costs; 

• approximate number of units installed and in operation, and where possible, data 

sorted by state and by CEMS vendor; and 

• a brief description of operating issues as well as data on reliability and sensitivity. 

The advantages and disadvantages of sorbent trap technology compared to mercury 

CEMS are also discussed. 

ES-1.1. Mercury Control Technologies 

Mercury chemistry in flue gas is complex, because mercury interacts with acid gases 

(e.g., HCl, SOx) and unburned carbon in ash. The compositions of coals that are burned in 

power plant boilers vary, which results in a range of compositions of flue gas. Thus, there is not 

a “one size fits all” technology for control of mercury emissions. Instead, solutions must be 

tailored to a given boiler. 

Two general approaches for mercury control have, to date, proven capable of effectively 

reducing mercury emissions at levels of control of 90% or greater on combinations of coal type 

and air pollution control devices (APCDs) that represent the majority of coal-fired boilers. 

These approaches involve use of either existing APCDs or dedicated mercury control 

technology, primarily powdered activated carbon injection. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report xiv

There are cases where the existing APCDs alone may be capable of greater than 90% 

reduction in mercury, but this is not always possible even for similar plant/fuel configurations. 

In recognition of these considerations, the development of dedicated mercury control 

technologies over the last 15 years has concentrated on two major areas: 

• Development of techniques and technologies to promote oxidation of elemental 

mercury (Hg0) to oxidized mercury (Hg2+) in the flue gas for subsequent removal 

in a wet or dry scrubber; and 

• Development of sorbents and associated systems to promote the adsorption of 

mercury on sorbents. 

Increased oxidation of mercury in flue gas can be promoted by two different methods: 

• Chemical additives designed to maximize the oxidation of Hg0 in the flue gas; and 

• Fixed bed oxidation catalysts. 

The majority of work involving enhanced oxidation techniques has been focused on plant 

configurations with wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems, in which the oxidized mercury 

is captured. The “re-emission” of Hg0 after Hg2+ has been captured and chemically reduced in 

the scrubber has been observed and can be addressed by the use of additives to the scrubber. 

Powdered activated carbon (PAC) is the most widely used mercury sorbent, and in many 

of these coal-fired power plants, injection of PAC can achieve mercury removal of 90% or 

greater. Activated carbons are made from coal or biomass and have been chemically treated to 

enhance mercury removal, using halogens (chlorine, bromine, iodine) or sulfur. While injection 

of untreated carbon-based sorbents works well for plants burning bituminous coal, this control 

strategy is not as effective for plants burning subbituminous or lignite coals. Chemically treated 

sorbents are able to achieve high mercury reductions across all coal types. Other non-carbon 

based sorbents are also being developed. 

Most coal-fired boilers will have options for high levels of mercury control to meet 

existing state or anticipated federal regulations on mercury emissions. The combination of a wet 

scrubber and an SCR has demonstrated mercury removal in the range of 70% to 90% on plants 

burning high-sulfur bituminous coal. Activated carbon has been shown to be cost-effective for 

high levels of mercury removal (80% to 90%) at boilers with a cold-side ESP or baghouse that 

burn low-sulfur bituminous coal, subbituminous, or lignite coal, as long as the plant does not use 

flue gas conditioning with the ESP. 

A report by the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) in 2009 identified several 

power plant configurations for which mercury control by sorbent injection might not achieve 

90% removal, including units with high SO3 concentrations in the flue gas, units equipped with 

hot-side electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), and those burning lignite coal. These units might 

require alternate technologies for mercury control or improvements in existing technologies. 

• Lignite is burned at 3% of coal-fired boilers in the U.S. While the overall amount 

of lignite burned is small, regionally the fuel is important. Lignite from the 

northern Great Plains is burned in North Dakota and lignite from the Gulf Coast is 

burned in Texas and Louisiana. Great Plains (GP) lignite is relatively low in 

sulfur, similar to subbituminous coal, and reasonably good success has been 

demonstrated in controlling mercury using a combination of boiler additives and 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report xv

activated carbon. Gulf Coast (GC) lignite can be significantly higher in sulfur, 

relative to Great Plains lignite. When compared with Powder River Basin 

subbituminous coals, lower levels of mercury reduction have been observed when 

firing Gulf Coast lignite. 

• Hot-side ESPs are the only particulate control device on about 9% of boilers; 

these boilers burn both bituminous and subbituminous coals. Activated carbons, 

even those designed specifically for the high temperatures of a hot-side ESP, have 

not been able to show 90% removal in hot-side ESPs. Unless sorbents can be 

found that are effective at temperatures greater than about 700oF, the best control 

option for hot-side ESPs would be to install a fabric filter (FF) downstream of the 

ESP for use with sorbent injection. 

• High levels of SO3 are produced in boilers that burn high-sulfur bituminous coal 

(defined as greater than 1.7 wt% sulfur) or that have a selective catalytic reduction 

(SCR) unit and burn bituminous coal. The higher the sulfur content in the coal, 

the higher the resulting concentration of SO2 in flue gas; SCRs produce additional 

SO3 in the flue gas by catalytic oxidation of SO2. In both these situations, SO3

concentrations in the flue gas are high enough to reduce the effectiveness of 

activated carbon for Hg removal. The combination of an SCR and a wet FGD 

might achieve 90% Hg removal on these plants. The high-sulfur bituminous 

plants that have a cold-side ESP without both SCR and FGD make up only 11% 

of the U.S. boiler population. This percentage is expected to shrink in the next 

several years as more bituminous-fired plants install advanced NOx and SO2

controls (e.g., SCRs and FGDs). Injection of alkaline sorbents, like trona, can be 

used to reduce SO3 in the flue gas and improve the performance of activated 

carbon. Furthermore, new carbon-based mercury sorbents are being developed 

that are tolerant of higher levels of SO3. The other category of plants that have 

relatively high levels of SO3 are plants burning low-sulfur bituminous, 

subbituminous or lignite coal with cold-side ESPs that require flue gas 

conditioning to meet limits on stack opacity. Approximately 15% of boilers with 

cold-side ESPs use flue gas conditioning. SO3-tolerant sorbents are being 

developed to address the difficulty in achieving 90% mercury removal in these 

systems. Trona injection has been proposed as an alternative to SO3 as a flue gas 

conditioning agent and there are other alternative flue gas conditioning agents 

under development. Another, but more expensive alternative, is to install a 

TOXECONTM fabric filter (an EPRI-patented technology) after the ESP and to 

inject the sorbent into the fabric filter. 

The report contains a summary of the most recently published data available with respect 

to costs of dedicated or mercury-specific control technologies. Specifically, this includes 

algorithm-based cost information as well as actual costs on installed systems for mercury control. 

These recent studies, conducted in 2007-2009, represent a reasonable basis for the current status 

of estimates of mercury control costs. 

The installed capital costs of ACI technology are low (from about $3.5/kW to about 

$9.2/kW). Levelized operating costs of ACI technology are primarily driven by the cost of the 

sorbent. Hence, quantity and quality of the sorbent are the key factors in the total sorbent cost. 

In some situations, if ACI would result in a loss of sales of fly ash as a by-product, the operating 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report xvi

costs are higher. Costs for ACI range from about $6,000/lb Hg removed to $30,000/lb Hg 

removed when by-product contamination/sales are not a factor, and between about $18,000/lb 

Hg removed and $50,000/lb Hg removed if revenue from fly ash sales is lost. These estimates 

correspond to 20-year levelized costs of electricity ranging from about 0.35 mills/kWh to 

2 mills/kWh (0.035 to 0.2 cents/kWh) without by-product penalty and about 1 mill/kWh to 

3.5 mills/kWh (0.1 to 0.35 cents/kWh) if by-product impacts are present. 

If ACI technology is combined with a new fabric filter (TOXECONTM), then capital and 

operating costs will be substantially higher. For example, the TOXECONTM system installed at 

the Presque Isle power plant reported a capital cost of $128/kW and an overall mercury removal 

cost of $67,000/lbHg. 

The two types of Hg oxidation technologies (catalysts and additives) have different cost 

components: catalysts are primarily driven by the initial capital and re-generation costs, while 

additive technology is not capital-intensive, but as with the ACI technologies, is driven by costs 

of chemicals. Unlike the estimates above for ACI technologies, the oxidation technology costs 

were estimated based on pilot-scale results and applied to a nominal 500 MW plant. The capital 

and operating costs are comparable to those for sorbent injection technologies. Specifically, the 

incremental cost of electricity was in the range of 1.0 to 1.8 mills/kWh, which is about the same 

as that for the ACI technologies when by-product impacts are not included. 

Cost-effective use of ACI is not necessarily possible on all plants, particularly on plants 

that sell their fly ash for concrete manufacture. Plants that fire low-rank coal and sell their fly 

ash represent about 23% of boilers in the U.S., while 21% of plants that fire bituminous coal sell 

their fly ash. According to the 2008 Production and Use Survey by the American Coal Ash 

Association (www.acaa-usa.org), of the 30 million tons of fly ash sold for commercial 

applications, 42% was used to make concrete. Adding enough activated carbon to achieve 90% 

removal can reduce the economic value of the fly ash, if the fly ash is intended for concrete 

manufacture. Process variations have been identified that require low activated carbon injection 

rates to achieve high levels of removal, which might allow for the sale of fly ash. Several 

sorbent vendors offer activated carbon that is specially treated to allow the fly ash-sorbent 

mixtures to be made into acceptable concrete. An alternative is to segregate the fly ash 

collection from the sorbent collection by using add-on technology. 

ES-1.1.1. Continuous Mercury Monitoring Technologies 

This report examines the technologies for continuous monitoring of mercury emissions 

from power plant stacks, including continuous analyzers, or mercury CEMS and sorbent trap 

(ST) methods. Hg CEMS and STs are currently applied on more than 700 coal-fired power plant 

stacks, with over 600 Hg CEMS and about 100 STs. 

The findings of this report for Hg CEMS are summarized below: 

• Hg CEMS, at roughly $500,000 of capital cost per site (with some variation due 

to site-specific variables), are the more costly of the two approaches to install, but 

they offer advantages that are discussed below. Although there has been a 

significant learning curve with Hg CEMS, the technology has advanced rapidly 

and many of the technical challenges that existed with the technology only a few 

years ago have been addressed. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report xvii

• Many issues affecting reliability of Hg CEMS have been addressed, and it is 

expected that design changes implemented over the past few years as Hg CEMS 

have been installed will improve future reliability. Although only a small 

percentage of Hg CEMS have reported annual emissions data to state agencies, 

they have reported availability of 90% or greater. In other states power plant 

owners are operating Hg CEMS in anticipation of future state and federal 

regulatory requirements to report such data; however, official performance 

statistics are not publicly available from these states. As more state mercury 

emission rules take effect, more mercury data should become available. 

• Measurement accuracy at low mercury levels has improved. Data indicate that 

Hg CEMS may offer reliable measurements to well below 1.0 μg/m3, which is 

important for situations where Hg emission controls are in place. 

• Mercury calibration gas standards (generators) that are traceable to National 

Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) measurements are available. 

Interim calibration protocols have been established. 

The findings of this report for sorbent trap methods are summarized below: 

• Sorbent traps, at about $150,000 of capital cost per site (with some variation on 

this cost due to site specifics), are a lower capital cost alternative to Hg CEMS. 

However, STs require regular replacement and testing (roughly, every four to 

seven days) of the sorbent traps, which entails additional labor and cost relative to 

CEMS. 

• Although only three of the more than 100 installed STs have reported annual 

emissions data to state agencies (Massachusetts), they have a reported availability 

of about 90% or greater. As more state mercury emission rules take effect, more 

availability data should become public. 

• STs appear to offer reliable measurements to well below 1.0 μg/m3

, which is 

important for situations where Hg controls are in place. 

• In addition to lower capital cost, STs offer the advantage of requiring less 

sophisticated technical support compared to that needed for Hg CEMS. 

Hg CEMS have some advantages relative to STs. They are: 

• Hg CEMS offer results in minutes, while it can take days for ST results to become 

available. 

• Sorbent traps are inherently more labor-intensive than Hg CEMS, and this implies 

that long-term operating costs for STs may not have as much room for 

improvement as operating costs for Hg CEMS. 

• Hg CEMS offer mercury speciation data, which may be useful for Hg control or 

for understanding the environmental impact of Hg emissions. STs offering 

mercury speciation data are available but have not been extensively tested. 

Sorbent traps have some advantages relative to CEMs. They are: 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report xviii

• CEMS require significantly higher capital cost: about $500,000 for CEMS versus 

about $150,000 for STs. 

• Hg CEMS are more complex than sorbent traps systems and will require more 

sophisticated technical staff to support. 

• Hg CEMS are not able to measure low concentration levels as well as STs. 

However, Hg CEMS are improving their ability to measure to low levels such that 

any advantage STs have in this respect may be small. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-1

1. Mercury Control Technologies: Strategies and Costs

1.1. Introduction 

1.1.1. Objectives 

The objective of this Chapter is to provide a detailed review of the current status (2006-

2009 timeframe) of mercury control technologies for coal-fired power plants in the U.S. The 

review covers results from actual field applications of control technologies as well as 

technologies that are under development and getting ready for commercial deployment. The 

Chapter also provides data on cost performance of the reviewed technologies with focus on the 

application of most common technology, activated carbon injection (ACI). The report focuses 

on the near-term outlook for the next two to three years of various mercury control options so as 

to present a realistic picture of mercury emission reductions that should be achievable in the U.S. 

1.1.2. Current and Emerging Regulatory Conditions 

With the U.S. Court of Appeals D.C. Circuit vacatur of the federal Clean Air Mercury 

Rule (CAMR) in early 2008, about 20 states across the country have moved forward 

implementing their state-specific approaches and methods to control mercury emissions in the 

range of 85 to 95%. Some states have percentage reduction requirements (from mercury in 

coal), others have emission limits (input or output-based standards), and some states have a 

combination standard, providing the flexibility of meeting the less stringent of the two. A 

common theme of these state rules is that, unlike CAMR, none of the state rules allow trading of 

mercury emissions to meet the regulatory requirements. The time frame for compliance with 

various state requirements is typically from 2007 to 2014, with a few states allowing until 2018. 

The real-world experience drawn from these ongoing individual state efforts, along with 

continued industry applications and data collection under real-world conditions, is expected to 

help steer the design of future federal mercury regulations. Under the current timetable, the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is expected to propose utility MACT regulations no 

later than March 16, 2011, with finalization of these rules eight months later, by November 16, 

2011. The federal utility MACT rules will cover not only mercury, but also other trace metals, 

acid gases, and other compounds listed under section 112 of the 1990 Clean Air Act 

Amendments (CAAA). 

1.1.3. Boiler and Air Pollution Control Device (APCD) Populations 

Mercury emission rates and capture of mercury from coal-fired power plants depend on 

the chemical composition of the coal burned and on the design and operation of APCDs on the 

plant. These relationships will be discussed in detail in Section 1.2. This section introduces the 

range of coal types and APCDs on coal-fired boilers in the U.S. 

A survey of the types of APCDs on coal-fired power plant boilers in the U.S. was carried 

out using the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) 2007 Coal Power Plant 

Database,1 which includes data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) 767 

database, and a U.S. EPA New Source Review database, which was updated in August 2009.2

 

The information on APCDs was updated by using other public information on devices installed 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-2

since 2005. There are approximately 1,130 coal-fired boilers greater than 25 MW at more than 

500 facilities in the U.S. The locations of these boilers are shown in Figure 1-1. Coal-fired 

power plants are concentrated in the eastern half of the U.S., with the highest concentrations 

generally found along the Ohio River (Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois). 

0

1-20

21-40

41-60

61-80

>80

Figure 1-1. Number of coal-fired boilers > 25 MW per state 

Coal burned in the U.S. may be categorized by rank as either bituminous, subbituminous, 

or lignite. Often subbituminous and lignite coals are lumped together and called low-rank coals. 

A small number of plants burn waste coal refuse, which typically consists of high-ash rejects that 

come from historic mining or coal washing operations. Some plants in the U.S. co-fire 

petroleum coke (also called petcoke) with coal. The properties of different coal ranks relative to 

mercury emissions control are discussed in more detail in Section 1.2. 

A map of the coal fields in the U.S. is shown in Figure 1-2. Eastern bituminous coals are 

mined primarily in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia, and 

Alabama. Western bituminous coals are mined in Utah and Colorado. Subbituminous coals are 

mined primarily in Wyoming and Montana, although there are locally used subbituminous 

sources in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. Gulf Coast (GC) lignite is mined primarily in 

Texas, while Great Plains (GP) lignite is mined primarily in North Dakota. 

A breakdown of coal-fired units by coal rank is shown in Table 1-1 for plants greater than 

25 MW, based on data collated from References 1 and 2. Plants that burn blends have been 

grouped with the rank of the largest share of coal. The majority of the coal-fired units burn 

bituminous (54% on a MW basis) or subbituminous (42% on a MW basis) coal. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-3

Table 1-1. Coal-fired units greater than 25 MW in the U.S. by coal rank 

Coal rank No. units % of total units MW % of total MW

Bituminous 668 58.8% 181,438 53.6% 

Subbituminous 406 35.7% 141,566 41.8% 

Lignite 30 2.6% 13,564 4.0% 

Other fuels 32 2.8% 2,201 0.6% 

Total 1,136 338,769 

Figure 1-2. Map of coal fields in the U.S. (www.nationalatlas.gov)

The geographical locations of boilers burning the major coal ranks are illustrated in 

Figure 1-3 through Figure 1-5. Eastern bituminous coal is burned in the eastern half of the U.S. 

It should be noted that boilers that import bituminous coal from South America have been 

included in Figure 1-3. In the Rockies and Intermountain West, western bituminous coal is 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-4

burned. Bituminous coal is more likely to be burned in the regions where it is mined, while 

subbituminous coal (primarily from Wyoming and Montana) is used in almost all regions of the 

U.S. except New England and the Atlantic States, as shown in Figure 1-4. Lignite is an 

important fuel in the regions where it is mined (Figure 1-5), but not elsewhere. 

0%

1-20%

21-40%

41-60%

61-80%

81-99%

100%

Figure 1-3. Percent of coal-fired boilers in each state burning predominantly bituminous coal 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-5

0%

1-20%

21-40%

41-60%

61-80%

81-99%

100%

0%

1-20%

21-40%

41-60%

61-80%

81-99%

100%

Figure 1-4. Percent of coal-fired boilers in each state burning predominantly subbituminous coal 

Figure 1-5. Percent of coal-fired boilers in each state burning predominantly lignite coal 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-6

The input mercury from these coals can vary widely; however, mercury content is not 

always an indication of mercury emissions. Native mercury removal (i.e., removal with existing 

APCDs without any mercury-specific technology) is influenced by coal composition and various 

APCDs installed for the reduction of NOx, SO2, or PM as discussed in Section 1.2. The coalfired units in the U.S. were categorized based on type of PM control, SO2 control, and type of 

post-combustion NOx control. An overall breakdown of the APCDs used in U.S. coal-fired 

boilers greater than 25 MW is shown in Table 1-2. Cold-side ESPs for particulate control are the 

most widely installed APCDs, followed by wet FGD units, SCR units, and FFs. While all units 

are equipped with particulate control, about a third of units have SO2 control and about 25 

percent have SCR post-combustion NOx control. In the next five years, this distribution is 

expected to shift, as more power plants install SCR units and wet or dry scrubbers to meet future 

federal regulations to lower SO2 and NOx emissions. 

Table 1-2. Air pollution control devices on U.S. coal-fired boilers in 2010, number of 

boilers > 25 MW

 Bituminous Subbitum. Lignite Other# Total 

Particulate Control 

Cold-side ESP* 454 257 17 1 729 

Fabric Filter** 120 112 12 31 275 

Hot-side ESP 78 23 0 0 101 

Other 16 14 1 0 31 

Post-Combustion NOx 

SNCR 146 22 2 15 185 

SCR 208 84 2 1 295 

SO2 Control 

Fluidized Bed*** 20 4 7 29 60 

Dry Sorbent Inject. 29 7 1 0 37 

Spray Dryer 54 31 3 0 88 

Wet FGD 255 89 16 1 361 

#

Includes waste coal and petcoke 

*Includes combinations of cold-side and hot-side 

**Includes combinations of ESP and FF 

***Includes in-bed capture in fluidized bed 

1.2. Mercury Control Technologies 

1.2.1. Introduction 

Technologies to measure and control mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants are 

relatively new when compared to technologies to measure and control SO2 and NOx emissions 

that have been commercially available for at least two decades. Section 112 of the 1990 CAAA 

triggered the requirement for the U.S. EPA to address hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) from 

coal-fired power plants including mercury. Much has been accomplished in the intervening 

years, certainly in terms of the technical learning curve. In this section, the impacts and 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-7

contributions of fuel and control equipment on mercury emissions and controls are briefly 

reviewed. It is relevant to this discussion to note that initially, the control of mercury emissions 

in the flue gas from coal-fired boilers presented some technical challenges due to the following 

considerations. 

• Very small quantities of Hg present - Typical concentrations of mercury in the flue gas of 

a coal-fired power plant boiler are about 4 to 5 orders of magnitude (0.01 ppmv vs. more 

than 100 ppmv) lower than those of NOx or SO2. 

• Chemical speciation and physical forms of Hg present - Unlike NOx or SO2 (which are 

mostly present as gaseous NO or SO2 in flue gases), mercury is present in both vapor 

form (as insoluble elemental mercury and as soluble ionic mercury (mercury chloride, 

mercuric sulfate, and mercuric oxide)) and in particulate form adsorbed on fly ash. 

• Measurement - The very small quantities of various chemical forms of mercury present in 

the flue gas make it difficult to develop sufficiently accurate measurement devices.

These characteristics of mercury emissions and concentrations are well understood today, 

as reflected by the types and number of technology options available for controlling mercury 

emissions. 

1.2.2. Impacts of Fuel on Mercury Speciation 

Mercury transformations in a coal-fired plant are complex and site-specific. As mercury 

leaves the boiler, it is present mostly in an elemental form (Hg0). As it proceeds through various 

components and APCDs of the plant, some of it is oxidized (Hg2+) and the rest remains in an 

elemental form. Both Hg0

 and Hg2+ may be adsorbed on particulate matter (HgP), although Hg2+

is generally easier to adsorb. The amount of Hg0 converted to HgP and Hg2+ depends on plant 

configuration and operating conditions as well as on flue gas composition. Hg2+ is highly water 

soluble and is easily captured in scrubbers, whereas Hg0 is not water soluble and is emitted from 

the stack. HgP is frequently captured in an ESP or FF. This is important not only to the 

understanding and development of control technologies, but also to the broader environmental 

impact of the emissions. In this regard, it is noted that elemental mercury has a relatively long 

residence time in the atmosphere (1-2 years), while oxidized forms of mercury have lifetimes of 

only a few days as a result of the higher solubility of Hg+2 in atmospheric moisture. Elemental 

mercury can thus be transported globally over long distances, whereas oxidized and particulate 

forms of mercury deposit locally or regionally within tens to a few hundreds of miles of the point 

of emission.3

Much has been learned since the late 1990s and early 2000s regarding the major 

contributors to mercury speciation in the flue gas. Chlorine in the coal which causes HgCl2

formation in the flue gas, is the dominant contributor along with resultant oxidized species in the 

gas.

4

 The key kinetic pathway to formation of HgCl2 in flue gas is through the reaction of 

atomic chlorine (Cl) with elemental mercury.4,5 Although the oxidation of elemental mercury in 

the convective section of a boiler is assumed to proceed primarily via gas-phase reaction, some 

fly ash can also catalyze oxidation of elemental mercury. Iron oxide and other constituents in the 

fly ash (carbon, calcium compounds) may also contribute to mercury oxidation. The presence of 

acid gases (HCl, SO2, NO, NO2) in the flue gas can also promote oxidation in the presence of fly 

ash.6,7 Additionally, SCR technology for NOx control on bituminous coal-fired units has been 

observed to oxidize elemental mercury.8

 These reactions are further influenced by operating 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-8

conditions in the plant, specifically, gas temperatures (absolute and gradients), unburned carbon 

levels in the fly ash, and residence times. 

In Section 1.1.3, the population distribution of coal-fired boilers in the U.S. was 

summarized. It is broadly distinguished by coal rank. Figure 1-6, Figure 1-7, and Figure 1-8 

provide an overview of some of the key coal quality parameters and their distribution in U.S. 

coals, based on the data collected in Part 2 of the U.S. EPA’s 1999 Information Collection 

Request (ICR). As stated above, chlorine plays a key role in the oxidation of Hg0 in the flue gas. 

Mercury in coal translates directly to mercury in the flue gas, and therefore coal choice 

affects mercury emission levels, but the impact goes beyond the coal mercury content. Figure 

1-8 shows the distribution of Cl in U.S. coals. It is relevant to note the range of Cl present 

primarily in bituminous coals, indicating that a significant portion of U.S. coals (on the order of 

50%) have Cl concentrations between about 200 μg/g (or ppmw) and 2000 μg/g. This 

significant range of Cl content in coal results in varying Hg speciation in the flue gas. This, in 

turn, influences the choice of strategies and/or technologies for effective Hg emissions control. 

The distribution of sulfur in U.S. coals (Figure 1-7) varies even more than Cl. The sulfur content 

of the coal affects the choice of SO2 control technology, which in turn affects the potential for 

removal of mercury in the scrubber system. Furthermore, the amount of sulfur in the flue gas (as 

SO2 and SO3) can interfere with adsorption of mercury on carbon, as discussed below. 

In summary, coal composition (primarily in terms of chlorine content and ash 

composition), the operation of the combustion system (primarily in terms of carbon left unburned 

in the ash), and the temperature and residence time of the exhaust gas in the particulate control 

device affect mercury speciation in the flue gas. These parameters and conditions affect the 

ultimate speciation of mercury in the flue gas, thereby influencing the choice of the most 

effective technology for removing mercury from the flue gas. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-9

 

Figure 1-6. Distribution of mercury in coal burned at U.S. power plants from 1999 ICR Part 2 

Figure 1-7. Distribution of sulfur in coal burned at U.S. power plants from 1999 ICR Part 2 

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

0 10 20 30 40 50

Cumulative Percent Less Than

Hg, lb/TBtu

E.Bitum.

W.Bitum.

Subbituminous

GC Lignite

GP Lignite

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

0 2 4 6 8 10

Cumulative Percent Less Than

Sulfur, lb SO2/MMBtu

E.Bitum.

W.Bitum.

Subbituminous

GC Lignite

GP Lignite
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-10

Figure 1-8. Distribution of chlorine in coal burned at U.S. power plants from 1999 ICR Part 2 

1.2.3. Impact of Air Pollution Control Devices 

The various types of APCDs installed on coal-fired power plants include FFs and ESPs 

for particulate control, scrubbers for SO2 control, and low-NOx burners, SCR or selective noncatalytic reduction (SNCR) for NOx control. Most of these APCDs have an unintended impact 

(positive or negative) on the behavior of mercury (speciation, capture). 

The U.S. EPA’s Mercury ICR in 1999 was designed to provide useful information for 

making a regulatory determination about mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants. Table 

1-3 shows the distribution of the various types of APCDs in the coal-fired power plants tested in 

Part 3 of the 1999 ICR. Part 3 included data from over 80 boilers, which were selected for 

mercury emission testing based on a representative sample of plant configurations, air pollution 

control equipment configurations, and coal types. In this table, low-rank coal denotes 

subbituminous and lignite coals. 

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cumulative Percent Less Than

Chlorine, ug/g dry

E.Bitum.

W.Bitum.

Subbituminous

GC Lignite

GP Lignite
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-11

Table 1-3. Summary of APCD and coal type information for 1999 ICR Part 3 data sets9

APCD Equipment Coal Type %Units Tested 

in ICR Part 3 

%Units in 

Population 

Cold-side ESP Bituminous 7.2 48.3 

Cold-side ESP Low-Rank 7.1 11.7 

Hot-side ESP Bituminous 7.2 6.6 

Hot-side ESP Low-Rank 3.6 2.4 

Cold-side ESP+FGD Bituminous 6.0 8.8 

Cold-side ESP+FGD Low-Rank 9.2 2.5 

Hot-side ESP+FGD Bituminous 4.8 0.7 

Hot-side ESP+FGD Low-Rank 3.6 1.0 

FF Bituminous 3.6 2.9 

FF Low-Rank 7.2 2.7 

FF+FGD Bituminous 7.2 1.6 

FF+FGD Low-Rank 3.6 1.6 

SD-FF Bituminous 3.6 2.9 

SD-FF Low-Rank 7.2 1.3 

SD+ESP Bituminous 2.4 0.2 

SD+ESP Low-Rank 3.6 0.3 

FF+FBC Bituminous 3.6 2.9 

Other Other 9.3 1.6 

 FBC=Fluidized bed combustor 

 SD=Spray dryer 

At each site, measurements were made to characterize the mercury reduction due to the 

particular site configuration and conditions. Analyses were conducted and the data obtained 

were reported.9 These results, combined with more recent testing done at additional plants, have 

formed a basis for estimating the typical or average expected mercury capture associated with 

existing equipment (i.e., “co-benefit” control). Figure 1-9, Figure 1-10, and Figure 1-11 

summarize the mercury removal observed by type of APCD and fuel rank. (In Figure 1-10, WS

stands for wet particulate scrubber.) Mercury removal varied significantly among plants with 

similar equipment and chlorine content of the fuel. While Cl can be seen to have a positive 

effect in mercury removal in all three graphs, the otherwise significant scatter in the results 

amongst the various APCD types did not allow for strong, universal correlations to be drawn at 

that time. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-12

-40%

-20%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Hg Removal Across PCD

10 100 1,000 10,000 

Coal Chlorine, ppm dry

ESP

FF

HESP

Figure 1-9. Hg removal across particulate control devices (PCDs) vs. chlorine in coal based 

on 1999 ICR Part 3 data9 

-20%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Hg Removal across FGD/PCD

10 100 1,000 10,000 

Coal Chlorine, ppm dry

ESP

FF

HESP

WS

Figure 1-10. Hg removal across wet FGD and particulate control devices (PCDs) vs. 

chlorine in coal based on 1999 ICR Part 3 data9
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-13

-20%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

H g R e m o v a l a c r o s s S D A / P C D

10 100 1,000 10,000 

Coal Chlorine Content, ppm dry

ESP

FF

Coal Chlorine, ppm dry 

Figure 1-11. Hg removal across spray dryer (SD) and particulate control devices (PCDs) 

vs. chlorine in coal based on 1999 ICR Part 3 data9

As the data show, although there are cases where the co-benefit control alone may be 

capable of greater than 90% reduction in mercury, this is not always true even for similar plant 

(boiler/APCD) and fuel configurations. Mercury reduction co-benefits can be exploited on a

site-specific basis, but may not completely satisfy regulatory requirements, particularly stringent 

mercury emission limits. Therefore, this report focuses on dedicated or mercury-specific 

technologies, while co-benefits are discussed as appropriate. 

Mercury transformations during the combustion process and subsequent flue gas path are 

driven by many complex factors, which ultimately yield mercury in elemental, oxidized and 

particulate forms. Particulate-bound mercury (HgP

) may be collected in particulate control 

devices such as ESPs and FFs. As has been stated previously, Hg2+ is the “easier” form (as 

opposed to Hg0) to remove from the flue gas, both through adsorption on particulate matter and 

through absorption in the wet FGD due to its water solubility. 

In recognition of these considerations, technology developments over the last 15 plus 

years have concentrated on two major areas: 1) development of sorbents and associated systems 

(e.g., promoting the transformation of Hg0 and Hg2+ to HgP); and 2) development of techniques 

and technologies to promote oxidation of Hg0 to Hg2+ in the flue gas. 

The following sections present several technical approaches to enhanced and dedicated 

mercury controls. These include technologies that improve the mercury capture capabilities of 

existing equipment, primarily through methods that help oxidize increasingly larger fractions of 

the mercury in the flue gas (Section 1.3), as well as the use of dedicated sorbents in various 

system configurations (Section 1.4). 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-14

1.3. Oxidation Enhancement in Flue Gas 

Oxidation of Hg0 in the flue is affected by many factors as described previously. These 

include plant-specific equipment and operating conditions, as well as fuel quality characteristics. 

Increased oxidation can be promoted by several different methods. Most of the development has 

concentrated in two general areas: 1) chemical additives designed to maximize the oxidation of 

Hg0

 in the flue gas; and 2) fixed bed oxidation catalysts. 

The majority of the work involving enhanced oxidation techniques has been focused on 

plants with wet FGD systems, where the oxidized mercury is subsequently captured. The “reemission” of Hg0

 after Hg2+ has been captured and chemically reduced in the scrubber has been 

observed and can be addressed by the use of additives to the scrubber.

1.3.1. Chemical Additives 

Boiler Additives

One approach for enhancing mercury oxidation in the flue gas is the use of boiler 

additives that may be applied to the coal and the flue gas to promote Hg0

 oxidation. Much 

laboratory, pilot-scale and full-scale work has been done and reported on boiler additives.10-15

NETL sponsored projects were awarded in three Phases, with the Phase I starting in 2000, Phase 

II in 2003 and Phase III in 2006.10 Table 1-4 summarizes some of the more recent work in 

Phases II and III, as well as other relevant work. 

Boiler additives for Hg0 oxidation are often referred to as sorbent enhancement additives 

(SEAs) or oxidation additives (OAs). Most of the testing of these additives undertaken under 

NETL sponsorship was conducted by the Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC) and 

URS Corporation. These additives are typically sprayed onto the coal in an aqueous salt 

solution. Spraying the chemical on the coal prior to combustion maximizes the residence time 

for the reactions with Hg0 in the flue gas. When the boiler additives containing halogens (like 

chlorine or bromine) are applied to the coal, the results are often reported in terms of the weight 

of halogen per unit weight of coal, i.e., equivalent concentration in coal. 

The tests at Milton R Young Unit 2 and Monticello Unit 3 were conducted at full scale 

and included several additives. Milton R Young Unit 2 used lignite coal in a cyclone boiler and 

was equipped with a cold-side ESP and wet FGD. Initially three boiler additives were tested: 

SEA1 (calcium chloride - CaCl2); 2) SEA2 (proprietary chemical); and 3) magnesium chloride 

(MgCl2). Total Hg capture in the ESP/wet FGD was 44% with the additive SEA2 at an injection 

level of 75 ppmw (equivalent concentration in coal). Injecting SEA2 at 50 ppmw and adding 

PAC at a rate of 1 pound per million actual cubic feet (lb/MMacf) resulted in total Hg removal of 

60%. The SEA1 and MgCl2 additives at 500 ppmw (equivalent Cl in coal) only produced 20% 

mercury removal. In long-term tests (30 days), Hg capture across the ESP/wet FGD 

configuration ranged from 50 to 65% with SEA2 injection at 60-100 ppmw and activated carbon 

at 0.15 lb/MMacf. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-15

Table 1-4. Recently published testing with boiler additives to enhance Hg0 oxidation10-15

Project Company Unit (MW) (Date) Coal APCD 

Configuration 

Milton R Young 

Unit 2 (475MW) 

(2005-07) 

ND Lignite Cold-side ESP - wet 

FGD 

Mercury Oxidation 

Upstream of ESP and wet 

FGD

EERC 

Monticello Unit 3 

(593MW) 

(2005-07) 

TX Lignite/PRB Blends Cold-side ESP - wet 

FGD 

Monticello Unit 3 

(590MW) 

(2005-07) 

TX Lignite/PRB Blends Cold-side ESP - wet 

FGD 

Plant Yates Unit 1 

(120MW) 

Low-sulfur Bituminous Cold-side ESP - wet 

FGD 

Field testing of FGD 

additives 

URS 

Petersburg Unit 2 

(470MW) 

(2005-07) 

High-sulfur Bituminous Cold-side ESP - wet 

FGD 

Hawthorne Unit 5 

(565MW) 

Long-term demonstration PRB SCR-SD-FF 

of SEA technology for 

mercury control

EERC 

Mill Creek Unit 4 

(545MW) 

(2006-07) 

High-sulfur Bituminous SCR-Cold-side 

ESP-wet FGD 

Full scale results from 

Alstom’s KNXTM

technology 

Alstom 

Pleasant Prairie 

(600MW) 

(2007-08) 

PRB SCR-Cold-side 

ESP-wet FGD 

Mercury control using 

B&W Absorption 

Plus(Hg)TM

B&W 

Elmer Smith Station 

(440MW) 

(2008) 

Bituminous 

SCR-Cold-side 

ESP-wet FGD 

Impact of HBr injection 

on Hg speciation and 

capture 

ICSET 

ICSET (slip stream) 

(2008) 

 SCR/ESP 

Mercury oxidation 

upstream of ESP and wet 

FGD

EERC Milton R Young 

Unit 2 (475MW) 

(2005-07) 

ND Lignite Cold-side ESP - wet 

FGD 

EERC = Energy & Environmental Research Center 

SEA = Sorbent enhancement additive 

ICSET = Institute for Combustion Science and Environmental Technology at Western Kentucky University 

Monticello Unit 3 burned blends of lignite and Powder River Basin (PRB) subbituminous 

coals and employed a similar ESP/wet FGD configuration to Milton R Young. Two additives 

were evaluated: OA1 (CaCl2); and OA2 (CaBr2). CaBr2 proved very effective in parametric 

testing, yielding 72% Hg2+ at the ESP outlet at an injection level of 100 ppmw (equivalent Br 

concentration in coal). Follow-up longer-term (two weeks) testing confirmed the expected 

performance of CaBr2. At a relative concentration of 55 ppmw coal equivalent Br, CaBr2

resulted in 67% oxidation of Hg0 upstream of the wet FGD and 65% total capture in the 

scrubber. Injection rates of 113 ppmw and 330 ppmw increased total capture in the scrubber to 

86% and 92%, respectively. Figure 1-12 summarizes the key results from these programs. 

(Note: no data were reported for Monticello for Hg0 oxidation at the 330 ppm CaBr2 additive 

rate.) 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-16

Figure 1-12. Hg removal and oxidation results with various additives at Milton R Young 

(left) and Monticello (right) power plants10

EERC conducted a test program at San Miguel station to evaluate several Hg sorbents 

and oxidation additives.11 San Miguel station had a 450 MW boiler with an ESP-wet FGD 

configuration and fired Texas lignite coal. The full-scale portion of the test program followed a 

pilot-scale program where several chemicals (sorbents and boiler additives) were evaluated. For 

the full-scale tests, the focus was on additive SEA2 and PAC. The results showed Hg removal of 

up to 78% with SEA2 at 50 ppmw and PAC at 4 lb/MMacf injection rates. 

At this plant, as at others, there was a significant increase in the concentration of Hg0 at 

the wet FGD outlet as compared to the inlet with 3 μg/Nm3

 measured at the inlet and 7 μg/Nm3

at the outlet. Wet FGDs are effective at absorbing oxidized Hg species from the flue gas. Some 

of the absorbed Hg2+ can be reduced in the scrubbing solution to elemental Hg. Because Hg0 is 

not very soluble in aqueous solutions, this Hg0 goes into the gas phase in the outlet gas. This 

phenomenon has been called “Hg re-emission,” and it is evident in the San Miguel data. 

Alstom’s KNXTM technology12,13 is bromine-based (CaBr2) which has been shown to be 

quite effective. The additive was added to the coal prior to combustion in the boiler, typically 

sprayed on the coal either on the conveyor or at the coal feeders (upstream of the mills). As with 

any application of this type, it is important to ensure that the method of application yields a 

uniform distribution of the chemical on the coal. 

Tests at two PRB-fired boilers, Holcomb and Meramec, indicated KNXTM performance 

consistent with the results shown in Figure 1-13.14 In these two cases, however the plant APCD 

configurations did not include a wet FGD. Holcomb employed a spray dryer-fabric filter (SDFF) combination and had very low unburned carbon and low native Hg oxidation (about 20% at 

the APH outlet) and overall collection. PAC injection at the rate of about 1 lb/MMacf yielded 

Hg capture across the SD-FF of about 50%. KNXTM was successful in increasing Hg oxidation 

at the air preheater outlet to 80% and total Hg collection to 86%. 

Meramec, on the other hand, had about 2% to 4% unburned carbon, which is high relative 

to typical PRB firing, and the boiler employed only an ESP for particulate control. The native 

Hg capture was about 40%. With KNXTM injection, the overall capture increased to over 80%. 

Figure 1-13 shows these results. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-17

Figure 1-13. Hg oxidation at air preheater outlet (Holcomb) and removal across APCDs at 

two PRB-fired plants with SD-FF (Holcomb) and ESP (Meramec)12

More detailed tests were conducted by Alstom at Pleasant Prairie in Wisconsin, a plant 

with two 600 MW PRB coal-fired boilers equipped with SCR-ESP-wet FGD.13 In these tests, 

varying concentrations of KNXTM were tested with the results shown in Figure 1-14. Mercury 

reductions of more than 90% were achieved with additive concentrations of less than 20 ppmw 

(coal equivalent Br). 

Figure 1-14. Mercury removal at Pleasant Prairie with KNXTM injection12,13

CaBr2 is an attractive boiler additive for oxidizing Hg in low-rank (subbituminous and 

lignite) coal applications. However, secondary effects of adding bromine to the coal need to be 

considered. For example, high-temperature corrosion of convective pass equipment (e.g., 

superheaters) due to high halogen-content fuels is well known. At coal chlorine levels below 

2000 ppmw, this potential problem seems to be negligible. Most U.S. coals have Cl contents 

below 2000 ppmw (see Figure 1-8). Therefore, at these low levels of Br addition, it is expected 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-18

that no increased corrosion potential would result. However, long-term data on corrosion 

behavior when bromine compounds are injected to the boiler has not yet been collected. 

Hydrogen bromide (HBr) has been investigated as a suitable boiler additive to affect the 

speciation of mercury in power plant flue gas.15 Slip stream tests were conducted at the Institute

for Combustion Science and Environmental Technology (ICSET) at the University of Western 

Kentucky to evaluate the potential of HBr to oxidize Hg0 in the flue gas and increase its capture 

in fly ash. Fly ash was injected into the slipstream reactor. The tests were conducted at two 

temperature regimes (350°C and 150°C) and used low-Cl coals (average concentrations between 

about 120 ppmw and 165 ppmw) as well as several fly ashes, to determine the effect on the 

capture of Hg. Hg measurements were conducted using the Ontario Hydro method as well as 

using a CEMS. Both Hg0 oxidation and in-flight Hg capture in fly ash were observed. The HBr 

rate of injection was up to 6 ppmw for the high temperature test (350°C) and up to 4 ppmw at the 

lower temperatures (150°C). HBr was injected in gaseous and solution forms. Lastly, corrosion 

test coupons (metal strips placed in the process stream to measure the state of corrosion) were 

used to address potential Br induced corrosion issues. 

The results indicate that HBr was effective in oxidizing Hg0 and enhancing Hg capture in 

fly ash. Specifically, Hg0 oxidation rates of up to 60% and 90% were achieved at low and high 

temperature, respectively, with HBr injection rate of 4 ppmw. Further, Hg capture in fly ash 

yielded varying results for different fly ash types and fly ash concentrations ranging from about 

40% to about 80%. Corrosion test coupons were analyzed by scanning electron microscopyenergy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) analysis and preliminary results suggested no negative 

impacts at the tested HBr concentration levels. 

Wet FGD Additives 

Several additives have been tested to demonstrate their effectiveness in mitigating the reemission of Hg0

 in wet scrubbers. The additives help precipitate the absorbed Hg as a stable salt, 

minimizing the re-emission of Hg0 and lowering the concentration of Hg in the FGD liquor. As 

shown in Table 1-4, tests have been conducted at Monticello Unit 3 (pilot-scale), Plant Yates 

Unit 1 (pilot- and full-scale), Petersburg Unit 2 (full-scale), and Mill Creek Unit 4 (full-scale). 

Of the various additives tested, Babcock and Wilcox’s (B&W’s) Absorption Plus(Hg)TM yielded 

the most successful results during long-term testing, with Hg capture in the scrubber increasing 

from about 80% (without the additive) to 92%. Note that Mill Creek fired a bituminous coal 

with moderate chlorine, which resulted in a higher fraction of Hg2+ in the flue gas which explains 

the high baseline Hg removal (80%) in the scrubber. Figure 1-15 shows the results of the B&W 

Absorption Plus(Hg)TM technology at Mill Creek Unit 4 from the NETL test program. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-19

Figure 1-15. Test results for wet FGD Hg0 re-emission addtive at Mill Creek Unit 416 

Another recent application of an Hg0 re-emission additive was undertaken at Elmer Smith

station.16 The Elmer Smith station is a 445 MW station comprised of two boilers (one cyclone 

and one tangential-fired) firing eastern bituminous coal. The shared APCD configuration 

consists of SCR/SNCR, cold-side ESP, and wet FGD. The Absorption Plus(Hg)TM additive 

demonstrated its effectiveness in minimizing Hg0

 re-emissions from the wet FGD. The total Hg 

(HgT) capture in the scrubber increased from a baseline value of 31% to 83% with the additive, 

because there was less re-emission of Hg0

 when the additive was used. The capture of the Hg2+

in the flue gas by the FGD was similar with and without the Hg0

 re-emission additive (91% 

baseline and 99% with the additive). The major change with the re-emission additive was that 

Hg0 did not increase across the FGD. Operationally, the Hg0 re-emission additive did not affect 

SO2 removal or gypsum quality. Figure 1-16 summarizes these results. 

Figure 1-16. Hg removal across the FGD and mitigation of Hg0

 re-emission with 

Absorption Plus(Hg)TM at Elmer Smith station16 

1.3.2. Fixed-bed Oxidation Catalysts 

Fixed-bed Hg oxidation catalysts employ different catalyst materials including vanadium 

(V)/titanium (Ti), gold (Au), and palladium (Pd). Conventional SCR NOx catalysts have been 

shown to promote some oxidation of Hg0. However, typical formulations for SCR catalysts are 

developed to balance, among other things, NOx reduction while keeping the undesirable 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-20

oxidation of SO2 to SO3 to minimum levels. Unfortunately, Hg0 oxidation and SO2 conversion 

across the SCR catalyst are strongly correlated, as shown in Figure 1-17.17 This has led to the 

development of dedicated of Hg0

 oxidation catalysts. 

Figure 1-17. Relationship between SO2 conversion and Hg0 oxidation across SCR catalyst17 

The application of Hg oxidation catalysts is similar to that of commonly used SCR 

catalysts. Depending on catalyst formulation and other plant considerations, applications of 

dedicated Hg oxidation catalysts upstream (similar to SCR temperatures of 600°F to 700°F) and 

downstream of the air preheater (APH) at temperatures on the order of 300°F are possible. 

Figure 1-18 shows a sketch of a typical configuration downstream of the air preheater.19 In 

general, other design and operating concerns associated with SCR are common to Hg0 oxidation 

catalysts. These include gas flow conditions, such as uniformity and velocity, and control of ash 

deposition (i.e., sootblowers). Plant operators have significant experience with these concerns 

based on over 140 GW of operating SCR installations. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-21

Air 

Preheater

Figure 1-18. Typical Hg0 oxidation catalyst application in ESP-wet FGD plant

19

The current level of Hg0 oxidation catalyst technology demonstrations is still relatively 

small compared to the more wide spread deployment of sorbent injection technologies (discussed 

in Section 1.4). However, much laboratory and pilot-scale work has been done and limited fullscale testing has been reported.10,17,18,19 Table 1-5 summarizes the more recent work on Hg0

oxidation catalysts. 

Table 1-5. Recent published testing with Hg0

 oxidation catalysts10,17,18,19

Project Company Unit (MW) (Date) Coal APCD 

Configuration 

Monticello Unit 3 

(590MW) 

(2004-07) 

Lignite/PRB Cold-side ESP - 

wet FGD 

Plant Yates Unit 1 

(120MW) 

(2004-07) 

Low-sulfur 

Bituminous 

Cold-side ESP - 

wet FGD 

Pilot/Full-scale 

testing of Hg 

Oxidation Catalyst

URS Group 

Fayette Unit 3 

(460MW) 

(2008) 

PRB Blends Cold-side ESP - 

wet FGD 

Pilot/Full-scale 

testing of Hg 

Oxidation Catalyst

Hitachi Power 

Systems 

America 

Northern U.S. Power 

Plant (640MW) 

(2006-08) 

PRB Cold-side ESP - 

wet FGD 

Pilot-scale testing 

of Hg removal in 

CT-121 FGD 

(w/SCR)

Chiyoda 

Corporation/SCS 

Plant Crist/MRC 

(~2MW) 

(2007-08) 

(simulated 

flue gas) 

SCR - Cold-side 

ESP - wet FGD 

PRB = Powder River Basin 

The results of the earlier pilot tests at both Monticello and Plant Yates, as well as the 

initial pilot tests at Fayette have been well documented and recently summarized.10 These test 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-22

programs were sponsored by NETL under Phases II/III Field Testing and Mercury Control 

Technology projects. Highlights from these tests are summarized below. 

Several Hg0

 oxidation catalysts were tested at Luminant’s Monticello Station Unit 3, 

which fires a blend of Texas (TX) lignite and PRB coals. In 2005, Hg0 oxidation catalysts were 

installed downstream of the cold-side ESP and included the following catalysts: (1) Au; (2) V-Ti 

SCR; (3) regenerated Pd; and (4) fresh Pd. 

Results were encouraging with the Pd catalyst yielding about 72% Hg0

 oxidation, while 

the Au catalyst achieved 66% oxidation after about 17 months of operation. With respect to Hg 

capture in the wet FGD, the pilot-scale results ranged from 76% to 87%, a significant 

improvement compared to the baseline performance (e.g., no catalysts) of only about 36%. 

At Plant Yates, firing low-sulfur bituminous coal, the menu of catalysts tested included 

Pd, fresh and regenerated Au, as well as SCR catalysts, located downstream of a cold-side ESP 

pilot unit. The results after about 11 months of operation showed Hg0

 oxidation ranging from 

26% for the regenerated Au catalyst to58% for fresh Au catalyst. The SCR and Pd catalysts 

yielded oxidation values of 32% and 38%, respectively. 

Figure 1-19 and Figure 1-20 show these results graphically for Hg0

 oxidation across the 

catalysts and the resulting improvement in total Hg removal in the wet FGD. 

Figure 1-19. Summary of NETL Hg0 oxidation catalyst test results from slipstream testing 

at Monticello and Yates power plants10
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-23

Figure 1-20. Impact of Hg0 oxidation catalysts on total mercury removal by wet FGD, 

pilot-scale testing at Monticello10 

These results clearly indicate the importance of maximizing the Hg2+ at the wet FGD 

inlet to enhance the overall Hg removal effectiveness of wet FGD. However, these are pilotscale test results, intended to provide a basis for full-scale designs and applications. At present 

there is not a significant database of full-scale experience with Hg0 catalysts. Two full-scale test 

programs have been reported recently that include some field test data. One is NETL’s project at 

Fayette Unit 3. The other describes work performed by Hitachi Power Systems America at an 

undisclosed U.S. power plant. Brief summaries of the available results follow. 

In May 2008, URS Corporation carried out a program at the Lower Colorado River 

Authority’s (LCRA’s) Fayette station Unit 3,19 which was designed to evaluate catalyst 

performance in PRB coal flue gas, as well as to better understand full scale operation and 

maintenance (O&M) issues such as catalyst de-activation and ash deposition mitigation. The 

project involved the deployment and testing of an Hg

0

 oxidation catalyst installed downstream of 

a cold-side ESP and upstream of one of three wet FGD modules at the station. This was 

nominally a 200 MW equivalent demonstration. The catalyst was a gold-plated, solid 

honeycomb type and was installed at the inlet to one of the scrubber modules (the diagram in 

Figure 1-18 depicts the overall configuration). The test plan required monitoring of the pressure 

drop across the catalyst over time and mercury measurements to determine Hg0 oxidation, as 

well as total Hg removal in the wet FGD. The configuration permitted a direct comparison 

between the mercury removal across the two modules without the Hg0

 oxidation catalyst (A/B) 

and the test module (C). Tests were conducted using Ontario Hydro Method measurements. The 

key results between May 2008 and June 2009 are summarized in Table 1-6.
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-24

Table 1-6. Hg oxidation and removal - summary of results at Fayette Unit 3 

PARAMETER May 2008 Nov 2008 June 2009 

Catalyst Inlet Oxidation (%) 35 ± 9 52 ± 7 44 ± 7 

Predicted Hg oxidation (%) 81 81 81 

Measured Hg oxidation (%) 80 ± 9 77 ± 4 52 ± 5 

Hg oxidized at catalyst outlet (%) 86 ± 6 90 ± 1 74 ± 1 

Hg removal - module C (w/ catalyst) (%) 80 ± 5 49 ± 4 71 ± 5 

Hg0 re-emission - module C – (% of Hg2+) 5 ± 11 41 ± 3 3 ± 9 

Hg removal - modules A/B (w/o catalyst) (%) 34 ± 18 37 ± 9 44 ± 8 

Hg0 re-emission - modules A/B – (% of Hg2+) 23 ± 45 28 ± 9 2 ± 7 

Hg removal – module C vs. A/B (% increase) 60 ± 13 18 ± 6 48 ± 11 

While these results are not fully understood, some general comments can be made. 

• Catalyst activity (i.e., measured Hg oxidation) dropped from about 80% to 52% 

over time. This was thought to be possibly driven by catalyst blockage due to fly 

ash deposition on the catalyst. 

• Mercury removal across module C showed a significant increase from November 

2008 to June 2009 (49% to 71%) which is consistent with the decrease Hg0

 reemissions during the same period (41% to 3%). Hg0

 re-emissions result from 

reactions between the Hg2+ absorbed in the liquor and sulfite/bisulfate in the 

liquor. It has been suggested that the higher levels of Hg2+ in the FGD liquor in 

November 2008 as compared to May 2008 and June 2009 may explain the reemission levels and associated overall mercury removal. Other variables can also 

account for re-emissions from wet FGD, including pH, chloride concentration, 

and the amount of slurry solids. 

• Despite these uncertainties, the increased effectiveness in mercury removal from 

module C (w/catalyst) over modules A/B (w/o catalyst) was significant and 

supported the importance of minimizing the presence of Hg0 for best mercury 

removal in wet FGD systems. 

Operationally, it was reported that increased pressure loss across the catalyst due to fly 

ash build up required better sootblowing schemes and was likely to account for the loss in 

catalyst activity over the test period. 

Hitachi also has developed a new SCR catalyst to enhance Hg0 oxidation, while keeping 

SO2/SO3conversion low.17 Its technology, TRACTM (TRiple Action Catalyst) was tested at a 

power plant in the U.S., first in a slip-stream reactor and subsequently at full scale. The unit was 

a 640 MW, wall-fired boiler, firing PRB coal at an undisclosed location. The APCD equipment 

was configured in a conventional SCR-ESP-wet FGD arrangement. 

The slip stream reactor included a four layer catalyst configuration and ran for about 

8,000 hours. The results were very encouraging with Hg0 oxidation rates ranging from about 

95% initially to about 80% after 8,000 hours (see Figure 1-21). 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-25

Figure 1-21. Slipstream TRACTM catalyst performance Hg oxidation vs. time17 

The full-scale application of TRACTM involved replacing one of the three original 

catalyst layers with one layer of TRACTM catalyst. The test program included measurements of 

Hg speciation at the inlet (through the plant’s Hg CEMS) and at the outlet of the wet FGD, and 

comparing results with similar testing prior to the TRACTM installation. The results confirmed 

the slip stream tests and suggested the suitability of this approach to enhancing Hg0 oxidation 

(and subsequent removal with wet FGD). Figure 1-22 summarizes the results. Hg0 oxidation 

increased significantly. The percentage of oxidized mercury (Hg2+/Hg total) went from 40% 

before TRACTM to about 70% with the TRACTM catalyst, while overall mercury capture in the 

wet FGD increased from 30% to about 70%. It should be noted that the reported results 

represent short-term testing and do not address any potential long-term issues. 

Figure 1-22. Hg oxidation and removal with full sale TRACTM catalyst 640 MW, wall-fired 

boiler, firing PRB coal at an undisclosed location17 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-26

1.4. Sorbent Injection 

1.4.1. Sorbents for Mercury Control 

Injection of powdered sorbents upstream of particulate matter control devices is the most 

promising mercury capture technology for plants without FGD scrubbers. Powdered activated 

carbon (PAC) is the most widely studied sorbent, but other non-carbon based sorbents are also 

being developed. Activated carbon injection is relatively simple to install. The equipment 

consists of a silo, a feeder, a blower (for carrier air), hoses and injection lances. Activated 

carbon is typically injected either upstream or downstream of the air preheater, as shown in 

Figure 1-23, so that the sorbent can be collected in the particulate collector. 

Boiler

Burners

Air

Heater

Particulate Collector SO 2

Scrubber

Stack

Boiler SCR

Burners

Air

Heater

Fuel

Particulate Collector SO 2

Scrubber

Stack

SCR

Activated Carbon

Injection

Figure 1-23. Application of activated carbon injection 

Various mercury sorbents are described in Table 1-7. Mercury is readily adsorbed on 

carbon surfaces. PAC is a good adsorbent for mercury due to its large surface area (due to open 

pore structure and fine particle size). Activated carbons are made from coal or biomass and may 

be chemically treated to enhance mercury removal. Halogens (chlorine, bromine, iodine) and 

sulfur have been used as additives in activated carbons. Studies have shown that several factors 

influence the mercury adsorption capacity of PAC. These factors include temperature, mercury 

concentration and oxidation state, sorbent particle size, and flue gas composition (moisture, 

NOx, and most notably SO3). 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-27

Table 1-7. Description of mercury sorbents 

Sorbent Vendor Description 

Power Pac Premium ADA-ES Brominated activated carbon 

Mer-CleanTM Alstom Power Proprietary carbon-based, chemically treated 

sorbent 

Amended SilicatesTM Amended Silicates Mineral-based sorbent 

BS IAC (CB 200xFTM) Barnebey Sutcliffe Iodated activated carbon manufactured from 

coconut shells 

BS SAC (208CPTM) Barnebey Sutcliffe Iodated super activated carbon manufactured from 

coconut shells 

BASF (MS-200) BASF Mineral-based sorbent 

Calgon HGR-LHTM Calgon Carbon Iodated carbon 

FLUEPAC® MC Calgon Carbon Activated carbon made from bituminous coal 

FLUEPAC®-MC PLUS Calgon Carbon Brominated activated carbon 

FLUEPAC ® CF Calgon Carbon “Ash-Friendly” activated carbon 

FLUEPAC®-CF PLUS Calgon Carbon “Ash-Friendly” activated carbon made with a 

proprietary ingredient 

FLUEPAC® ST Calgon Carbon Activated carbon specially formulated for use in 

flue gas with elevated SO3

DARCO® Hg Norit Americas Activated carbon made from Texas lignite 

Insul Norit Americas Fine particle size, chemically washed activated 

carbon 

HydroDARCO-C Norit Americas Coarser version of DARCO Hg 

DARCO® Hg XTR Norit Americas Low-activity lignite-based activated carbon 

DARCO® Hg-LH Norit Americas Brominated activated carbon made from Texas 

lignite 

DARCO® Hg E-XX Norit Americas Experimental sorbent 

PAC2B Norit Americas Subbituminous/bituminous blend activated carbon 

NH Carbon Ningxia Huahui Activated 

Carbon Co., Ltd 

Iodated activated carbon from China 

Super HOK RWE Rhinebraun Activated carbon made from German lignite 

B-PACTM Albemarle Brominated activated carbon 

C-PACTM Albemarle Brominated activated carbon designed to have low 

impact on ash 

H-PACTM Albemarle Brominated activated carbon optimized for hotside ESP temperature regime 

Q-PACTM Albemarle High performance brominated activated carbon 

FF-PACTM Albemarle Brominated activated carbon designed for systems 

with FF 

The U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) report in 2009 identified 14 coalfired power plants that operate sorbent injection systems on 25 boilers.20 Although injection of 

untreated carbon-based sorbents works well for plants burning bituminous coal, this control 

strategy is not as effective for plants burning subbituminous or lignite coals. Chemically treated 

sorbents are able to achieve high mercury reductions across all coal types (ranks). The U.S. 

GAO report also identified several power plant configurations for which mercury control by 

sorbent injection might be difficult, including units with high SO3 concentrations in the flue gas

(which prevents mercury from binding to carbon sorbents), hot-side ESPs (high temperatures 

reduce the ability of mercury to bind to sorbents), and those burning lignite coal (which releases 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-28

high levels of elemental mercury). These units might require alternate technologies for mercury 

control or improvements in existing technologies to achieve higher levels of mercury control. 

A variety of companies design and install PAC injection systems for mercury control. 

Companies that produce PAC also design PAC injections systems, both permanent and 

temporary. ADA-ES claims to have sold over 140 PAC injection systems for mercury control in 

power plant boilers.21 Albemarle Sorbent Technologies, another supplier of PAC, has started up 

over 50 PAC injection systems.22 A number of equipment vendors that do not sell PAC do 

design and install injection systems. For example, Sargent & Lundy claims to have installed 57 

PAC injection systems.23

1.4.2. Sorbents Injection and Cold-Side ESPs 

The majority of boilers in the U.S. are equipped with cold-side ESPs. This configuration 

can offer several challenges for mercury control by sorbent injection. Demonstrations have been 

performed at several power plants with cold-side ESPs burning a variety of coals, as shown in 

Table 1-8. The biggest challenge arises with high levels of SO3 in the flue gas, due either to 

burning high-sulfur eastern bituminous coal, oxidation of SO2 in an SCR, or direct injection of 

SO3 for improved ESP performance. Temperature and flue gas SO3 concentrations directly 

influence the mercury removal efficiency of sorbent injection. The majority of full-scale tests 

have been done at plants where SO3 concentrations limit sorbent injection mercury removal 

efficiencies. Based on the survey of the U.S. boiler population (Section 1.1.3), 15% of boilers in 

the U.S. use flue gas conditioning (FGC) on cold-side ESPs. 

Several tests have been performed at various power plants to investigate alternatives to 

enhance mercury removal from flue gas with high SO3 concentrations.24 ADA-ES worked with 

DOE/NETL, EPRI, and several electric generating plant partners at the American Electric 

Power’s (AEP) Conesville Unit 6 (high-sulfur coal), Public Service of New Hampshire (PSNH) 

Merrimack Unit 2 (medium-sulfur coal and SCR), and Ameren Labadie Unit 2 (SO3 injection for 

flue gas conditioning). These three plants exemplify the possible causes of elevated SO3 in the 

flue gas. 

Conesville Unit 6 fired a high-sulfur coal (3-4%) and native mercury capture across the 

ESP was low (1% to 20%). There was typically 60% to 70% oxidized mercury at the ESP outlet, 

most of which was captured in the wet FGD. Native SO3 concentration was typically above 20 

ppmv. More than 20 sorbents or combination of sorbents were tested at injection rates of 9-18 

lb/MMacf. Injection of 9.5 lb/MMacf DARCO® Hg resulted in 8% removal. The highest 

removal was 31% using DARCO® E12 (experimental lignite-based activated carbon chemically 

treated with basic materials to provide buffering against SO3 condensation) at 12 lb/MMacf. No 

sorbent was able to achieve the goal of 50% removal at injection rates <10 lb/MMacf. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-29

Table 1-8. List of sorbent injection demonstration sites with cold-side ESPs 

Plant name Blr 

ID 

State Unit 

MW

Primary boiler 

fuel 

Particle Ctrl ESP 

SCA, 

ft2/kacfm 

FGC SO2

Ctrl 

NOx 

Ctrl: 

PostCombu

stion 

Baldwin 3 IL 635 PRB FF/CSE 247 Yes 

Brayton Point 1 MA 241 MSEB FF/CSE 559 Yes SDA SCR 

Coal Creek 1 ND 605 ND Lignite CSE 599 No wFGD 

Conesville 6 OH 444 HSEB CSE 301 No wFGD SCR 

Crawford 7 IL 239 PRB CSE 112 No 

Victor J Daniel Jr 1 MS 500 PRB/LSEB CSE -- No SNCR 

Dave Johnston 3 WY 230 PRB FF/CSE 629 No wFGD 

Hoot Lake 3 MN 75 PRB CSE -- No 

Independence 2 AR 850 PRB CSE 540 No 

Labadie 2 MO 574 PRB CSE 279 Yes 

Lee 1 NC 75 MSEB CSE 300 Yes 

Lee 3 NC 253 LSEB CSE 300 Yes 

Leland Olds 1 ND 570 ND Lignite CSE 320 No 

Limestone 1 TX 813 TX Lignite/PRB CSE -- No wFGD 

Meramec 2 MO 138 PRB CSE 376 No 

Merrimack 2 NH 346 MSEB CSE 350 No SCR 

Miami Fort 6 OH 163 HSEB CSE 353 No SNCR 

Milton R Young 2 ND 477 ND Lignite CSE 375 No wFGD 

Monroe 4 MI 817 PRB/MSEB CSE 285 Yes SCR 

Pleasant Prairie 2 WI 617 PRB CSE 468 Yes wFGD SCR 

Portland 1 PA 172 HSEB CSE 284 No 

Salem Harbor 1 MA 82 LSB (S.American) CSE 474 No SNCR 

Shawville 3 PA 188 HSEB CSE -- No SNCR 

St Clair 1 MI 169 PRB/HSEB CSE 467 No 

Stanton 1 ND 172 PRB CSE 470 No 

Stanton 1 ND 172 ND Lignite, PRB CSE 470 No 

Yates 2 GA 123 MSEB CSE 149 Yes 

Yates 1 GA 123 MSEB CSE 173 Yes wFGD 

 

HSEB = High-sulfur eastern bituminous 

MSEB = Medium-sulfur eastern bituminous 

LSEB = Low-sulfur eastern bituminous 

PRB = Powder River Basin subbituminous 

The SCR-generated SO3 level at Merrimack Unit 2 was typically between 20 and 25 

ppmv, which resulted in low native mercury removal usually less than 10%. The mercury 

capture was affected by the SO3 concentration and the APH cold-end average (CEA) 

temperature. When the APH outlet temperature was lowered from approximately 330oF to 

315o

F, mercury removal increased, but reduction of SO3 concentrations in the flue gas had a 

larger effect on Hg removal. Mercury removal by PAC was significantly increased with coinjection of SO3 sorbent as shown in Figure 1-24. Trona injection reduced SO3 concentration to 

7-8 ppmv. Mercury capture can be improved with optimization of the trona injection system, but 

long-term balance of plant impacts must be considered. Balance of plant impacts seen at 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-30

Merrimack when injecting PAC and/or SO3 sorbent included deterioration of ESP performance,

increased pressure drop across the APH, increased sodium content in the fly ash when injecting 

trona (more limitation on fly ash utilization), and smoldering fly ash/PAC in the ESP hoppers.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 5 10 15 20

% Vapor-phase Removal

Sorbent (lb/MMacf)

Merrimack 2, Darco Hg-LH

Merrimack 2, Darco Hg-LH, Trona, normal CEA

Merrimack 2, Darco Hg-LH, Trona, low CEA

Merrimack 2, Darco Hg-LH, Mill Trona, low CEA

Merrimack 2, Darco Hg-LH, APH In, normal CEA

Effect of SO3

Effect of temperature

Effect of milling 

Figure 1-24. Mercury removal across ESP at Merrimack Unit 2, combinations of Darco 

Hg-LH and trona sorbents 

Recent data on carbon injection presented by Sjostrom et al.25 showed that injection of 

activated carbon upstream of the air preheater does not always improve mercury removal in 

boilers using SO3 injection for flue gas conditioning. Testing was carried out at a 200 MW PRBfired boiler with a cold-side ESP. Parametric testing of brominated PAC injections showed 

mercury removals from 21% at 0.85 lb/MMacf to 58% at 8.2 lb/MMacf when injected at the 

APH inlet, with the FGC system in service. Mercury removals were similar when PAC was 

injected at the APH outlet. The air preheater outlet temperature was 350°F to 375° at full load at 

this plant. This high outlet temperature could have contributed to the lack of improvement of 

mercury removal when PAC was injected upstream of the air preheater: the temperature in the 

air preheater might have been too high for significant mercury removal. When the FGC system 

was not in service (i.e., no SO3 injection), mercury removals from PAC injection increased. For 

example, at PAC injection rates of 3.3 and 4.1 lb/MMacf, mercury removals were 40% and 44%, 

respectively, with the FGC system in service; with the FGC system out of service, the mercury 

removals were 66% and 77%, respectively. 

Sorbent injection testing at Labadie Power Plant illustrates the effect of injecting 

activated carbon in plants that use SO3 injection for flue gas conditioning.25 Native mercury 

removal across the ESP at Labadie was low and most of the mercury was in the elemental form. 

Figure 1-25 illustrates the results of SO3 injected downstream of the air preheater and Norit HgLH sorbent injection upstream or downstream of the air preheater. Concentrations of SO3 are 

given as percent of full scale on the sorbent injection system. Injection of activated carbon 

upstream of the air preheater has demonstrated higher Hg removal than injection downstream of 

the air preheater at plants that inject SO3 downstream of the air preheater for flue gas 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-31

conditioning. This method of injection has not always worked at bituminous plants with high 

levels of SO3 at the air preheater inlet. At Merrimack, for example, there was no improvement in 

Hg removal with DARCO Hg-LH injected upstream of the air preheater as compared to injection 

downstream. 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 5 10 15 20

% Vapor-phase Hg Removal

Sorbent (lb/MMacf)

Labadie 2, Hg-LH, 0 SO3: APH Outlet

Labadie 2, Hg-LH, 30% SO3: APH Outlet

Labadie 2, Hg-LH, 60% SO3: APH Outlet

Labadie 2, Hg-LH, 0 SO3: APH Inlet

Labadie 2, Hg-LH, 30% SO3: APH Inlet

Labadie 2, Hg-LH, 45% SO3: APH Inlet

Labadie 2, Hg-LH, 60% SO3: APH Inlet

Effects of SO3

Injection 

upstream 

of APH

Injection 

downstream 

of APH

Figure 1-25. Removal across ESP at Labadie with injection of activated carbon as function 

of SO3 injection and injection location25

Figure 1-24 illustrates the improvement in ACI performance at Merrimack when the 

carbon was milled on-line. Further tests were performed at Independence Unit 2 and Labadie 

Unit 2 to investigate on-site milling of activated carbon.26 At Independence, on-site milling also 

increased mercury removal from 40% to 75% with 0.5 lb/MMacf of DARCO® Hg-LH injected 

upstream of the APH and from 60% to 90% with 1 lb/MMacf DARCO®

 Hg-LH injected 

upstream of the APH. 

Alstom’s Mer-CureTM process was developed to improve mercury capture when activated 

carbon is injected upstream of the air preheater.27,28 Mer-CureTM uses a processor to mill the 

sorbent just before the point of injection, which leads to increase the mass transfer to the sorbent 

by reducing the size and by de-agglomerating sorbent at the injection point. Alstom reports that 

it is has carried out more than 12 field test demonstrations of the Mer-CureTM process. Some of 

these were carried out at plants burning low- to medium-sulfur bituminous coals. In recent 

results on bituminous-fired plants in Pennsylvania, Alstom reported approximately 90% 

removals of mercury at several plants with sorbent injection rates in the range of 4 to 6 

lb/MMacf. 

The effect of SO3 sorbents on mercury removal by activated carbon was also studied at 

the Mercury Research Center (MRC) located at Gulf Power Company’s Plant Crist in Pensacola, 

Florida. This is a test facility that takes a slipstream of flue gas, equivalent to about 5 MWe, 

through a series of modules, including SCR, air preheater, ESP, FF, and wet scrubber. The 

facility can be configured to bypass some of the modules, in order to generate different APCD 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-32

configurations. The plant typically burns a low-sulfur bituminous coal (less than 1 wt% sulfur). 

The flue gas composition in the slipstream reactor can be changed to some extent by adding SO3

or HCl. 

Recent work at the MRC29 tested several Calgon sorbents using PAC injection upstream 

of the ESP with SO3 injection. Calgon FLUEPAC® ST, a new sulfur-tolerant sorbent, was tested 

against a standard brominated activated carbon (Norit DARCO® Hg-LH). The baseline SO3

concentration in the flue gas was not given, but up to 34 ppmv of additional SO3 was injected 

during the testing. The FLUEPAC® ST sorbent performed better than the standard brominated 

sorbents, although both sorbents were affected by SO3 concentrations (as shown in Figure 1-26). 

The FLUEPAC® ST sorbent had an overall higher level of mercury removal and, therefore, 

maintained a higher level of Hg removal as SO3 increased. 

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

0 10 20 30 40

Hg Removal across ESP

ppm SO3 added

FLUEPAC ST 10 lb/MMacf

Hg-LH 10 lb/MMacf

Figure 1-26. Hg removal at MRC as a function of concentration of SO3 injected into flue gas29

Several potential solutions to the problem of SO3 interference with ACI on cold-side 

ESPs have been proposed. SO3-friendly sorbents are being developed, such as Calgon’s 

FLUEPAC® ST.29 New SCR systems often have improved catalytic control or novel catalysts30

that can minimize the oxidation of SO2 to SO3. In the case of SO3 for FGC, other options for 

enhancing ESP performance are being explored, such as ammonia conditioning, water 

humidification, or rapid onset pulse energization, but these options also have disadvantages. As 

discussed above, sorbent injection upstream of FGC is a viable option if there is sufficient 

residence time for in-flight capture and mercury adsorbed onto the sorbent surface is not 

displaced by SO3. For cases where coal sulfur is the cause of SO3 rather than FGC, co-injection 

of alkali minerals (trona, lime, magnesium oxide) to adsorb SO3 may improve mercury capture 

on carbon as at Merrimack.24 Bituminous plants that burn coal greater than 1.7 wt% S have 

scrubbers for SO2 control and are more likely to use these scrubbers rather than sorbent injection 

to control mercury. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-33

1.4.3. Sorbent Injection and Hot-Side ESPs 

Other configurations that might have problems controlling mercury emissions by sorbent 

injection include units with hot-side ESPs. Hot-side ESPs operate at high flue gas temperatures 

(600-750°F), which limit mercury capture on sorbent surfaces. High-temperature sorbents are 

being developed, such as Albemarle Sorbent Technologies’ H-PAC. Sorbent injection may be 

effective downstream of the hot-side ESP, although a dedicated particulate control device must 

also be installed. The TOXECONTM system (an EPRI-patented technology) involves injection of 

sorbent upstream of a dedicated FF. 

A limited number of demonstrations have been conducted at units with hot-side ESPs 

(Table 1-9). All of these tests were conducted by Albemarle Sorbent Technologies. B-PACTM

was tested at Cliffside Unit 231 and H-PACTM was tested at Buck Unit 6.32 H-PACTM, an 

experimental low-cost version of H-PACTM, and DARCO® Hg-LH were tested at Progress 

Energy H.F. Lee Unit 2.33 C-PACTM was tested at Midwest Generation’s Will County Unit 3.33 

Table 1-9. List of sorbent injection demonstration sites with hot-side ESPs 

Plant name Blr 

ID 

State Unit 

MW

Primary 

boiler 

fuel 

Particle 

Ctrl 

ESP 

SCA, 

ft2/kacfm 

SO2

Ctrl 

NOx Ctrl: 

PostCombustion 

Buck 6 NC 125 LSEB HSE 240 -- SNCR 

Cliffside 2 NC 40 MSEB HSE -- -- SNCR 

Lee 2 NC 75 LSEB HSE -- -- -- 

Will County 3 IL 299 PRB HSE 200 -- -- 

MSEB = Medium-sulfur eastern bituminous 

LSEB = Low-sulfur eastern bituminous 

PRB = Powder River Basin subbituminous 

At Cliffside Unit 2, B-PACTM was injected at various loads ranging from 12-40 MW.31 

Lower load corresponded to lower hot-side ESP inlet temperatures and lower flue gas flow rate. 

At high load (40 MW, 686°F injection temperature), mercury removal ranged from 16-39% with 

B-PACTM injection rates of 1.8-5.7 lb/MMacf. At low load (12 MW, 530°F injection 

temperature), mercury removal was 78% with 6.2 lb/MMacf B-PACTM. 

Mercury removal at Buck Unit 6 during parametric testing with 7 lb/MMacf H-PACTM

was 54-64% for loads between 60 MW (540°F injection temperature) and 140 MW (640°F 

injection temperature).32 Removal at 140 MW using 7 lb/MMacf DARCO®

 Hg was only 3%. 

During longer testing, 50% removal was seen with 5 lb/MMacf H-PACTM at 60 MW (540°F) and 

140 MW (640°F). Mercury removal increased to 71% when the H-PACTM injection rate was 

increased to 10 lb/MMacf (60 MW, 540°F). Mercury removal with fluctuating injection 

temperature seemed to be more stable using H-PACTM instead of B-PACTM. 

Further testing was conducted at Lee Unit 2 and Will County Unit 3.33 The hot-side ESP 

inlet temperature at Lee averaged 798°F at full load (83 MW) and 564°F at reduced load (44 

MW). At full load, injection of H-PACTM at rates of 5 and 10 lb/MMacf resulted in mercury 

removals of 41% and 60% respectively. At reduced load, injection of 5-15 lb/MMacf H-PACTM

resulted in removals of 56-84%. The experimental low-cost version of H-PACTM performed 

similarly at reduced load but showed significantly decreased mercury removal at full load (25% 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-34

at 5 lb/MMacf and 34% at 10 lb/MMacf), although it should be noted that the injection 

temperature was slightly higher during these tests (809-827°F). DARCO® Hg-LH did not 

perform as well as H-PACTM. Injection of 10 lb/MMacf DARCO®

 Hg-LH at full load gave 

removals in the range of 38-42%. Will County Unit 3 has two boilers: a “reheat” boiler and a 

“superheat” boiler. Testing was performed on the “superheat” boiler which has a hot-side ESP 

inlet temperature between 500°F and 700°F depending on load. Injection of C-PACTM at rates of 

3 and 5 lb/MMacf resulted in mercury reductions of 38% and 55%, respectively. 

The dramatic effect of load illustrates the importance of temperature and residence time 

on mercury removal with sorbents. These data suggest that under normal operating conditions of 

a hot-side ESP, mercury removal by the current generation of activated carbon sorbents is 

limited and cannot achieve 90% removal without improvement in existing technology or 

development of new technologies. 

1.4.4. Sorbent Injection and Fabric Filters 

Sorbent injection upstream of a fabric filter generally shows high mercury removal 

efficiency. The sorbent generally has a long contact time with the flue gas as sorbent builds up 

in the filter cake on the bags. Several demonstrations have been performed at units with FFs 

(Table 1-10), either as a primary particulate control device or in a COHPACTM configuration (an 

EPRI-patented technology) in which the FF is installed downstream of another particulate 

control device. A COHPACTM baghouse becomes a TOXECONTM configuration when sorbent 

is injected upstream of the baghouse. 

Table 1-10. List of sorbent injection demonstration sites with fabric filters 

Plant name Blr 

ID 

State Unit 

MW

Primary boiler fuel Particle 

Ctrl 

SO2 Ctrl NOx Ctrl: 

PostCombustion 

E C Gaston 3 AL 272 MSEB FF/HSE -- SNCR 

Presque Isle 7,6,9 MI 270 PRB FF/HSE -- -- 

Big Brown 2 TX 593 TX Lignite/PRB FF/CSE -- SNCR 

Harrington 3 TX 360 PRB, TX Lignite/PRB FF -- -- 

Tolk 1 TX 568 PRB FF -- SCR 

MSEB = Medium-sulfur eastern bituminous 

PRB = Powder River Basin subbituminous 

Harrington Unit 3 and Tolk Unit 1 both fired PRB coal and had FFs for particulate 

control. Seven sorbents were tested at Harrington and four were tested at Tolk.34 At Harrington 

and Tolk, all brominated carbons tested (B-PACTM, DARCO® Hg-LH, FLUEPAC®-MC PLUS, 

and C-PACTM) performed well and were able to achieve greater than 80% removal at injection 

rates of less than 1 lb/MMacf. The non-carbon based sorbents (Amended Silicates and BASF 

MS200) did not perform as well at Harrington as the carbon based sorbents. 

Alabama Power E.C. Gaston Unit 3 burned bituminous coal and controlled particulate 

matter with a hot-side ESP followed by a COHPACTM baghouse. Three non-brominated carbons 

from Norit Americas were injected between the hot-side ESP and the baghouse: DARCO®

 Hg, 

PAC2B (subbituminous/bituminous blend activated carbon), and DARCO® Insul.35 There was 

no discernable difference between the various carbons. Mercury removal increased linearly with 

activated carbon injection rate up to 2 lb/MMacf and then leveled off at about 90% removal. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-35

Long-term injection of DARCO® Hg at 1.5 lb/MMacf resulted in an average removal of 78% 

(mercury removal over the 5-day tests ranged from 36% to 90%). The large range in removal 

was probably due to varying coal and operating conditions. 

The TOXECONTM configuration was further tested at Luminant’s Big Brown Unit 2.36 

Big Brown burns a blend of PRB and Texas lignite coals. Activated carbon (DARCO® Hg or a 

proprietary EERC enhanced activated carbon) was injected at rates of 0.5-6.5 lb/MMacf. While 

injecting DARCO® Hg, mercury removal increased rapidly with activated carbon injection rates 

of up to 3 lb/MMacf (70% removal) and tapered to a maximum removal of 90% with 6.5 

lb/MMacf. The enhanced activated carbon performed better and reached 90% removal with 2 

lb/MMacf. Month-long injection of 1.5 lb/MMacf enhanced activated carbon resulted in an 

average removal of 75%. 

WE Energies’ Presque Isle Power Plant burns PRB coal and has a TOXECONTM

baghouse installed after the hot-side ESPs on units 7-9. DARCO®

 Hg and DARCO® Hg-LH 

were injected upstream of the baghouse.37 DARCO® Hg-LH (60-95% removal with 0.5-3 

lb/MMacf) slightly outperformed DARCO® Hg (45-90% removal with 0.5-3 lb/MMacf). 

DARCO® Hg was also more affected by elevated temperatures. DARCO® Hg showed a linear 

relationship between increasing temperature and decreasing Hg removal (at a given ACI rate, see 

Figure 1-27). Removal also decreased with an increase in time between bag cleaning (at a given 

ACI rate and temperature). 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370

%Vapor Phase Hg Removal

Temperature, oF

Presque Isle 7-9 6.5 Pressure Drop Set Point

Presque Isle 7-9 6.0 Pressure Drop Set Point

Presque Isle 7-9 5.5 Pressure Drop Set Point

Figure 1-27. Removal of Hg across Presque Isle TOXECONTM baghouse via injection of 

Darco® Hg sorbent37 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-36

This technology has been set-up to operate on a long-term basis. The average mercury 

removal for 2007 was 90%, achieved using DARCO® Hg or DARCO® Hg-LH. Balance of plant 

impacts include smoldering fly ash/PAC in hoppers and fugitive dust emissions during transfer 

of fly ash/PAC to the ash silo. 

Activated carbon injected upstream of a FF can achieve on the order of 90% mercury 

removal at plants burning bituminous and subbituminous coals, with less than 2 lb/MMacf of 

activated carbon. Removal across FFs can be sensitive to temperature. This level of 

performance has not been demonstrated to date on lignite plants. In general, less sorbent is 

required for the same level of mercury removal on a FF as compared to a cold-side ESP, all other 

things being equal. 

1.4.5. Sorbent Injection and Spray Dryers 

Spray dryers (SDs) are installed in combination with either a FF or ESP. Full-scale 

demonstrations have shown that plants with spray dryers and firing bituminous coal have high 

native mercury capture while units burning subbituminous or lignite coals do not. Thus several 

sorbent injection demonstrations have been performed at plants burning PRB or lignite coals 

with spray dryers in an effort to improve mercury capture (Table 1-11). 

Table 1-11. List of sorbent injection demonstration sites with spray dryers 

Plant name Blr 

ID 

State Unit 

MW

Primary boiler fuel Particle 

Ctrl 

SO2

Ctrl 

NOx Ctrl: 

PostCombustion 

Laramie River 3 WY 570 PRB CSE SD -- 

Stanton 10 ND 60 ND Lignite FF SD -- 

Antelope Valley 1 ND 435 ND Lignite FF SD -- 

Stanton 10 ND 60 ND Lignite, PRB FF SD -- 

Holcomb 1 KS 349 PRB FF SD -- 

Hardin 1 MT 116 PRB FF SD SCR 

Hawthorn 5A MO 550 PRB FF SD SCR 

CSE = Cold-side ESP 

PRB = Powder River Basin subbituminous 

Stanton Unit 10 burned North Dakota lignite and was equipped with a spray dryer-fabric 

filter (SD-FF). Four carbon-based sorbents were tested at Stanton Unit 10: DARCO®

 Hg, 

Desorex HOK300S (German lignite-based carbon), Barnebey & Sutcliffe IAC (iodated carbon 

made from coconut shells), and LAC0101 (low-cost experimental carbon made from North 

Dakota lignite).38 No native mercury removal was measured across the SD-FF. The three 

untreated carbons (DARCO®

 Hg, HOK, LAC) performed similarly but removal across the SDFF was limited to 70% with 6.1 lb/MMacf. During long-term testing, the average removal with 

6.1 lb/MMacf DARCO® Hg was 81%. The treated carbon (IAC) performed much better with 

removal greater than 90% at 0.7 lb/MMacf. 

Sunflower Electric’s Holcomb Unit 1 and Missouri Basin Power Project’s Laramie River 

Unit 3 both fired PRB coal and had spray dryers for SO2 control. Laramie River had an ESP for 

particulate control while Holcomb had a fabric filter. DARCO® Hg and DARCO® Hg-LH were 

injected at Laramie River while DARCO® Hg, Calgon’s 208CP, and DARCO® Hg-LH were 

tested at Holcomb.39 Mercury removal was limited to 55% with 6 lb/MMacf DARCO Hg at 

Laramie River. The brominated DARCO®

 Hg-LH performed much better and reached greater 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-37

than 90% removal with 5 lb/MMacf. At Holcomb, the two non-treated activated carbons 

performed similarly. At injection rates of 1.0 lb/MMacf upstream of the SD, mercury removal 

was 50% to 54%. Mercury removal reached 90% with 5.7 lb/MMacf DARCO®

 Hg. Once again, 

DARCO® Hg-LH performed better and reached greater than 90% removal with 1 lb/MMacf. 

Brominated carbon injection was tested at Rocky Mountain Power’s Hardin Unit 1, 

which fired PRB coal and was equipped with an SCR for NOx control, an SD for SO2 control, 

and a FF for particulate control.40 At full load during baseline operation, little native mercury 

removal was seen across the SD-FF and there was no oxidized mercury at the SD inlet or the 

stack. With reduced load, as much as 50% removal was seen across the SD-FF corresponding to 

50% SD inlet oxidized mercury. Significantly more mercury was oxidized across the SCR at 

reduced load caused by higher oxygen levels, lower temperatures, and longer residence time 

within the SCR. Two brominated carbons (DARCO® Hg-LH and FLUEPAC®-MC PLUS) were 

tested at Hardin. For both carbons, 90% mercury capture was obtained with injection of 1 

lb/MMacf. During long-term testing, between 1.5 lb/MMacf and 2 lb/MMacf (up to 4 lb/MMacf 

at times) brominated carbon was required to maintain 90% removal. 

Activated carbon in conjunction with a spray dryer-fabric filter is a promising technology 

for application on plants that combust subbituminous coal. This combination can achieve more 

than 90% mercury removal at injection rates that are comparable to those rates used with 

brominated carbons and FFs alone, that is, 1-2 lb/MMacf. 

1.5. Other Hg Control Technologies 

As noted before, activated carbon injection is the most commercially mature control 

technology of those designed specifically to control mercury emissions from coal-fired boilers. 

Alternate sorbents and technologies are currently under development. Most of these are not 

ready for commercial deployment, but could become so by the time power plant owners are 

ready to deploy mercury control technologies. Therefore, alternate technologies are discussed 

briefly. 

1.5.1. Pre-Combustion Removal 

Western Research Institute (WRI) patented a pre-combustion mercury removal 

technology (Patent No. 5,403,365) in which mercury is removed from coal in a two-stage 

thermal pre-treatment process.58 The process also removes some of the coal moisture, which 

increases the heating value of the coal product, relative to the feed coal. This increase in heating 

value can be significant if the feedstock is a high-moisture subbituminous or lignite coal. This 

removal technology is best suited for plants that combust low-rank coals, because mercury in 

these coals is more likely to be found associated with the organic matrix and thus easily 

volatilized. By contract, the mercury in bituminous coals is associated with minerals like pyrite. 

In WRI’s process, the coal is first heated to remove moisture and then, in a second stage, heated 

to a temperature of approximately 550°F. At this temperature, 60% to 80% of the mercury in 

subbituminous and lignite coals is volatilized and removed by an inert sweep gas. The sweep 

gas stream containing the evolved mercury is cooled, passed to mercury capture equipment and 

the cleaned sweep gas is returned to the process. Bench-scale testing of seven low-rank coals 

demonstrated mercury removals in the range of 35% to 89%. A pilot-scale unit, which can 

handle up to 100 lb/hr of raw fuel, has been run using the same coals. It was reported that 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-38

similar levels of mercury removal were achieved in this pilot-scale unit. Costs have not yet been 

published for this process.

1.5.2. Fixed Adsorption 

Injecting activated carbon (or other sorbents) creates a waste stream, a mixture of sorbent 

and fly ash, that is enriched in mercury. As discussed below, the presence of activated carbon in 

fly ash can reduce the economic value of fly ash as a by-product. For these reasons, fixed 

substrates have been developed and tested for the removal of mercury from flue gas. Fixed 

substrates are located downstream of the particulate control device and thus preserve the 

economic value of the fly ash. Furthermore, fixed substrates could be regenerated and the 

mercury could be captured and segregated from the larger fly ash stream. 

Considerable development effort was made in the MerCapTM process in which goldcoated structures were used to adsorb mercury. Slipstream evaluation of the MerCapTM process 

was carried out at Great River Energy’s Stanton Station and Southern Company’s Georgia Power 

Plant Yates.42 The demonstrations used an electroplated layer of gold on a stainless steel screen 

(substrate). High levels of mercury removals were demonstrated in some cases. Mercury 

adsorption was affected by temperature and by the presence of acid gases. The captured mercury 

could be removed by a thermal treatment and collected using a carbon canister or cryogenic trap. 

Chemical desorption of the mercury from the gold-coated substrates could also be used as a 

regeneration technology. 

Honeycomb substrates containing carbon-based sorbents were tested in laboratory and 

power plant slipstream reactors.43 Two power plant slipstream tests demonstrated the ability to 

consistently remove 90% of the mercury from bituminous and subbituminous flue gas. 

Laboratory-scale experiments with simulated flue gas showed that mercury adsorption was not 

affected by up to 40 ppm SO3 in the gas. 

More recently, slipstream testing has been carried out on the MercScreenTM process, in 

which a thin bed of granular sorbent is located in the flue gas downstream of the ESP. Testing 

was carried out at Southern Company’s Plant Yates and Plant Miller.44 High levels of mercury 

removal were demonstrated. Estimates of the costs of the MercScreenTM process were 

competitive with the use of activated carbon and the TOXECONTM baghouse. Future testing is 

underway. 

1.5.3. Multi-Pollutant Processes 

Powerspan developed the Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO®) technology, which 

removes NOx, SO2, mercury and fine particulate matter, as well as heavy metals and other 

hazardous air pollutants.45 The process is installed downstream of a coal-fired power plant’s 

existing particulate control device. The three-step process includes 1) the ECO® Reactor, which 

oxidizes pollutants; 2) the absorber vessel, which cools the flue gas, removes SO2, NO2, and 

oxidized mercury and concentrates the fertilizer co-product; and 3) the wet electrostatic 

precipitator, which removes acid aerosols, air toxics, and fine particulate matter. The ECO® 

process produces a marketable fertilizer by-product. Powerspan has been operating a 50 MW 

commercial unit of the ECO® technology at FirstEnergy’s R.E. Burger Plant in southeastern 

Ohio since February 2004. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-39

J-Power EnTech developed the Regenerative Activated Coke Technology (ReACT).46 

This is a multi-pollutant control technology for control of SOx, NOx, mercury and particulate 

matter. There have been a number of industrial and power plant installations in Japan, including 

J-Power’s (Electric Power Development Co.) Isogo and Takehara Power Stations. The process 

involves three steps: 1) adsorption, 2) regeneration, and 3) by-product recovery. The flue gas 

contacts a bed of activated coke pellets in an adsorption vessel where the pollutants are removed. 

The pellets are regenerated in a separate vessel. Removal efficiencies have been reported as up 

to 99.9% SO2, 20% to 80% NOx, and greater than 90% mercury. Although there are no 

installations of ReACT in the U.S., Hamon Research-Cottrell has recently entered into a license 

agreement with J-Power EnTech to market the ReACT technology in North America. 

1.6. Coal Combustion Residues (CCRs) 

1.6.1. Impact of Hg Control Technologies on CCRs 

A possible problem with sorbent injection is its effect on fly ash. According to the 

American Coal Ash Association,41 approximately 42% of fly ash produced by coal-fired power 

plants in 2008 (30 million out of 72 million tons) was used in commercial or engineering 

applications to avoid land disposal and to generate additional revenue for the power plant. Based 

on the power plant data in Section 1.1.3, plants that fire low-rank coal and sell their fly ash 

represent about 23% of boilers in the U.S., while 21% of plants that fire bituminous coal sell 

their fly ash. 

The single most important usage category for fly ash is as a replacement for Portland 

cement in concrete manufacturing (42% of fly ash or 12.6 million out of 30 million tons per 

year). Other commercial applications include structural fill and other construction applications, 

raw material for cement (clinker) production, and mining applications. Many power plants sell 

their fly ash for use in concrete or cement manufacturing and construction (road fill, soil 

stabilization, etc.). 

The U.S. EPA recently proposed regulating CCRs under the Resource Conservation and 

Recovery Act (RCRA) to address the risks from the disposal of CCRs.48 The U.S. EPA 

proposed two a two-pronged approach on June 21, 2010. First, the U.S. EPA would list CCRs as 

special wastes subject to regulation under subtitle C of RCRA, when they are destined for 

disposal in landfills or surface impoundments. Second, the U.S. EPA would not change the May 

2000 Regulatory Determination for beneficially used CCRs, which are currently exempt from the 

hazardous waste regulations under sec. 3001(b)(3)(A) of RCRA. 

Sorbent injection can often make fly ash unsuitable for use in beneficial applications, 

specifically if the carbon content is too high from injection of carbon-based sorbents. The Foam 

Index test is often used to quantify the effect of activated carbon on fly ash destined for concrete 

production. In this test, a fly ash sample is mixed with water and a measured amount of a 

surfactant, or air-entraining agent (AEA). The solution is shaken to see if bubbles form as a 

result of the surfactant. More AEA is added and the solution is shaken again. This is repeated 

until bubbles are observed to form. The test mimics the use of AEAs in concrete production to 

create small air bubbles in the concrete. The high surface area of activated carbon, if present in 

the fly ash, requires the use of more AEA, and this can make mixtures of fly ash and PAC 

unsuitable for concrete production. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-40

Segregation of fly ash and carbon is one method to preserve the value of fly ash. Other 

possible solutions to mitigate the effect of sorbent injection of fly ash include reducing the 

amount of sorbent needed or using “ash-friendly” sorbents such as C-PACTM or FLUEPAC®

-CF 

PLUS. 

The use of a TOXECONTM baghouse downstream of a particulate collection device 

allows segregation of fly ash and activated carbon, as discussed previously. However, the capital 

cost of a baghouse is high. A less expensive solution for units with cold-side ESPs is injection of 

sorbent mid-field in the ESP, a technology called TOXECON IITM (an EPRI patented 

technology). The first few fields in the ESP remove most of the fly ash. There is no sorbent 

present in this fly ash, making it suitable to sell. The last fields collect remaining fly ash and the 

sorbent. This technique is only suitable for boilers that have ESPs with a relatively large specific 

collection area (SCA), larger than 400 ft2

 per 1000 acfm. 

TOXECON IITM was demonstrated at Entergy’s Independence Steam Electric Station 

Unit 2, which fired PRB coal and had a cold-side ESP for particulate control.29 Several lance 

designs were used at Independence in an effort to maximize sorbent distribution. The coverage 

area inside an ESP is at least 10 times larger than the cross-sectional area of the inlet ductwork, 

and this creates difficulties in the injection and distribution of the carbon in the flue gas. 

Mercury removal of 78% was achieved using 5 lb/MMacf DARCO®

 Hg-LH. 

Reducing the amount of sorbent needed to achieve a given level of mercury emissions is 

another method of preserving the economic value of fly ash. NRG’s Limestone Station burned a 

mixture of Texas lignite and PRB subbituminous coals. The fly ash at this plant was sold for 

concrete manufacture. Testing carried out in 2009 at Limestone31 showed that ash generated 

during injection of 2 lb/MMacf DARCO® Hg-LH carbon was not suitable for sale to the concrete 

industry, but ash generated during injection of 0.5 lb/MMacf of the same sorbent was acceptable 

for sale. 

Injecting a finer grind of sorbent has been tested as a means to increase mass transfer and 

reduce the amount of sorbent required.31 On-site milling of the activated carbon injected in the 

TOXECON IITM configuration at Independence achieved 78% removal with only 2 lb/MMacf. 

Tests were performed at Independence Unit 2 and Labadie Unit 2 to investigate the effect of onsite milling of activated carbon.26 At Independence, on-site milling also increased mercury 

removal from 40% to 75% with 0.5 lb/MMacf of DARCO® Hg-LH injected upstream of the 

APH and from 60% to 90% with 1 lb/MMacf DARCO®

 Hg-LH injected upstream of the APH. 

At Labadie, more than 10 lb/MMacf FLUEPAC®

-MC PLUS was required to achieve 85% 

mercury removal. When the carbon was milled, only 4.1 lb/MMacf was required to achieve 

similar mercury removal, which was a 60% reduction in carbon usage. 

Injection of PAC upstream of the air preheater is another method to reduce the amount of 

sorbent required (see Figure 1-25). Alstom has demonstrated 90% removal with the Mer-CureTM

process on PRB-fired units (without FGC) using injection rates of less than 1 lb/MMacf.28

 

Another possible solution to mitigate the effect of sorbent injection of fly ash is to use 

“ash-friendly” sorbents such as C-PACTM or FLUEPAC®-CF PLUS. 

Recent testing at the Boardman Plant51 focused on DARCO® Hg-LH sorbent as compared 

to several experimental sorbents designed to be more compatible with concrete applications. The 

plant burned PRB coal and had a cold-side ESP. Powdered activated carbon was injected 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-41

upstream of the ESP. Foam Index Tests of sorbent-fly ash mixtures showed that the 

experimental sorbents required about one-quarter of the amount as compared to DARCO® HgLH. A “pass” on the Foam Index Test means that the amount of AEA required is below a certain 

level, generally set by the buyer of the fly ash for concrete applications. At moderate levels of 

ACI, approximately 2 lb/MMacf, some of the experimental sorbents mixed with fly ash showed a 

Foam Index test result that was similar to the fly ash alone or to Portland cement. However, 

concrete air stability testing, in which the PAC-fly ash mixtures were substituted for 20% of the 

cement in concrete mixtures, showed that the air content of the concrete decreased with time. 

This could cause difficulties for providers of concrete because the time from initial mixing of 

concrete to use is variable. If properties of concrete change with time because of the presence of 

PAC, then this will make it less likely that PAC-containing fly ash will be used for concrete 

manufacture. 

Injection of FLUEPAC®-CF PLUS upstream of the APH at Labadie Unit 226 produced 

removals similar to injection of DARCO® Hg-LH at the same location indicating no decrease in 

performance due to the ash-compatible carbon. Ash samples, collected while injecting 

FLUEPAC®

-CF PLUS at rates from 1.5 to 2.0 lb/MMacf, were analyzed using the Foam Index 

Test. The samples passed the test and were deemed suitable for concrete, although it was noted 

that the ash had a dark color that would probably not be acceptable for some concrete 

applications. 

C-PACTM, a product of Albemarle Sorbent Technologies, has been tested at a number of 

plants. A recent review of C-PACTM testing49 highlighted results from Crawford Station Unit 7, 

a PRB-fired boiler with a cold-side ESP. At an average injection rate of 4.6 lb/MMacf, over 

80% mercury removal was achieved for a month-long period. The resulting fly ash, containing 

C-PACTM, was extensively tested for use in concrete. Based on the Foam Index Test, the fly ash 

was shown to be usable for concrete production. Testing at another PRB-fired unit, Corrette 

Station, showed that a C-PACTM injection rate of 3 lb/MMacf resulted in 85% mercury removal 

and that the resulting fly ash could be used in concrete manufacture, again based on the Foam 

Index Test. 

There are several strategies that are currently being tested to allow sorbent injection for 

mercury removal while preserving the economic value of the fly ash. Several companies are 

developing non-carbon, mineral-based sorbents.52,53 These can remove mercury while not 

increasing the carbon content of the fly ash collected in the particulate control device. Other 

strategies involve using activated carbon for mercury removal while making changes to the 

sorbent or the process. Segregation of the fly ash from the activated carbon using separate 

collection devices or different fields in the ESP has been demonstrated. In configurations in 

which fly ash is commingled with activated carbon, specialized sorbents have been developed to 

minimize the impact of activated carbon on concrete properties. Another approach is to reduce 

the amount of carbon required, either by on-line milling or by injection upstream of the air 

preheater. 

1.6.2. Environmental Stability of Hg in CCRs 

A wide range of mercury concentrations have been found in fly ash. One reference53

summarized several studies, which reported an average Hg concentration of 527 ng/g, and a 

range of 16 to 1530 ng/g. Some uses of fly ash may involve high-temperature processing that 

may increase the potential for release of mercury and other metals. In cement manufacturing, for 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-42

example, fly ash can be raw feed for producing clinker in cement kilns. Virtually all mercury 

will be volatilized when fly ash is used as feedstock to cement kilns as a result of high operating 

temperatures (1450°C).56 Curing of concrete can also involve temperatures on the order of 80°C. 

In a laboratory simulation experiment, mercury emissions during steam-curing of concrete were 

measured at 0.4 to 5.8 ng of mercury/kg of concrete. The study reported that the Hg flux from 

exposed concrete surfaces did not exceed mercury fluxes from soils (4.2 ng m-2h

-1). The study 

concluded that less than 0.022% of the total quantity of Hg present in concrete was released 

during the curing process. Therefore greater than 99% of the Hg was retained in the concrete 

under the conditions tested.57

 

There has also been concern raised for other processes, such as the production of asphalt. 

Using 13 different CCRs, including fly ash containing activated carbon, a laboratory simulation 

was conducted on asphalt production at 170°C.56 The results suggest that volatilization of 

mercury is less than 10% except for one CCR where results suggested volatilization of 92% to 

100%. 

When there is no beneficial use for fly ash, it is placed in landfills or ponds, where 

mercury (and other trace metals) might be leached out. Laboratory studies and field 

measurements of solid-gas exchange between fly ash and fly ash mixed with FGD solid mixtures 

have been conducted.58 These studies have shown that fly ashes from bituminous and 

subbituminous coals act as a sink for atmospheric mercury, while lignitic fly ash may emit 

mercury to the atmosphere. In the field, mercury fluxes (solid to gas) from both uncovered 

landfills and vegetated, topsoil-covered landfills containing bituminous or mixed subbituminousbituminous fly ash were determined to be lower than the mercury fluxes from the surrounding 

soils. Mercury fluxes from a landfill containing FGD solids mixed with lignitic fly ash were 

estimated to be about four times higher than the surrounding soil.58

1.7. Costs of Mercury Reduction 

1.7.1. Basis for Cost Calculations 

Assessing costs of new emission control technologies has traditionally been a challenging 

task. Many factors contribute to this, including business confidentiality concerns, early stage 

technology questions (e.g., short vs. long-term performance, expected market penetration, 

regulatory uncertainty), vendor vs. user perspectives, etc. Confidence in cost estimates typically 

grows with statistically significant, actual cost data. Also, developing “universal” cost estimates 

for broad technical and policy decisions represents a different effort and approach than, for 

example, developing a site-specific cost estimate for a given technology. 

Universal technology cost estimates are typically accomplished through algorithm-based 

analyses, using a combination of assumptions and empirical data and using procedures and tools 

such as NETL’s cost analyses framework59,60 and the U.S. EPA’s CUECost.61 On the other hand, 

site-specific costs can be estimated with more or less precision ranging from full-fledged 

engineering designs to more general “order-of-magnitude” estimates depending on the particular 

objectives. 

In this section of the report no attempt is made to conduct either of the above types of 

analyses. The objective is to provide a summary of the most recent data available with respect to 

costs of mercury control technologies. To that extent, the information in this section is very 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-43

consistent with the earlier technical sections in this report, in that it is based on researching and 

summarizing recently published data. Specifically, this includes algorithm-based cost 

information developed by NETL,59,60 as well as plant survey-based actual costs gathered by the 

GAO.20 These recent studies, conducted in 2007-2009, represent a reasonable basis for the 

current status of estimates of mercury control costs, specifically because they included several 

key components necessary for such analyses: actual cost and performance data from well 

monitored and documented test programs, generally accepted cost factors for power plant 

economics (e.g., taxes, interest rates, contingencies, retrofit assumptions, labor and material 

costs, etc.), a consistent “study-level” methodology throughout (all these common to the NETL 

cost analyses), as well as actual reported costs from commercially operating plants under the 

U.S.GAO study/survey. In addition, other specific costs available in the literature are included 

as well. 

As stated previously, this report addresses dedicated mercury control technologies, even 

though mercury capture can and does occur in other plant APCDs (co-benefits). Hence, in this 

section, the focus remains on dedicated mercury control costs and not those associated with cobenefits. For example, the costs of an SCR or WFGD, both of which can affect the overall 

mercury capture in a plant, are not part of this report. The costs reported in the NETL and the 

U.S. GAO studies focus on the mercury control technologies described in this report (sorbents, 

oxidation catalysts and additives). It is important to recognize that the effect of mercury 

reduction co-benefits can have a major impact of the actual cost of mercury reductions ($/lb Hg 

removed). This is similar to the impact of varying mercury levels in the coal, in that the actual 

reductions in pounds, for a given level of control (i.e., percent reduction) are proportionally 

higher or lower with the respective higher or lower initial mercury level concentrations. This 

real, but potentially misleading, reporting of control costs is avoided when costs are presented in 

terms of their impact on the plants’ resulting cost of electricity (COE). As such, the NETL 

analyses presents costs in both formats – cost of mercury removed ($/lb) and 20-year levelized 

COE (mills/kWh). 

A potentially very large factor affecting mercury control costs is the impact of sorbents 

(activated carbon) on the resulting fly ash from the plant. This comes from the fact that many 

plants sell their fly ash for beneficial reuse (e.g., concrete industry) and the addition of the 

sorbent may render the fly ash undesirable for that market. In such cases, the revenue 

represented by the sale of fly ash is replaced by the cost of its disposal. Given the potentially 

large cost of these scenarios, the NETL studies include analyses with and without fly ash (or 

“by-product”) impacts. 

It should be noted that although both NETL cost studies59,60 were based on results from 

its Phase II field test programs, representing mostly short-term results, subsequent longer-term 

testing (as described in the technical sections above) have for the most part corroborated the 

earlier tests, providing additional confidence that these costs remain relevant. Comparisons with 

the U.S. GAO commercial plant surveys lend further credibility to the cost analyses. In addition, 

it should be noted that the NETL studies present several cost scenarios for various coals, 

configurations and levels of mercury control. For the sorbent technology (ACI), the analyses 

include 50%, 70% and 90% control scenarios for bituminous, subbituminous and lignite coals; 

for the oxidation technologies (catalysts and additives), the analyses include subbituminous and 

lignite coals and mercury reduction levels of 73% (for the catalysts and additive - CaBr2) and 

85% for CaBr2. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-44

The U.S. GAO survey provides a much different level of cost detail. Only average cost 

and ranges are provided. Further they are not directly linked to the plants identified in the 

survey; hence there is no direct opportunity to analyze those results in a more detailed manner. 

However, using the U.S. power plant information described in Section 1.1.3, it was possible to 

develop nominal costs for comparison with the NETL estimates. 

1.7.2. National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) Costs Summary for ACI 

ACI technology costs are primarily driven by the cost of the sorbent. Hence, quantity 

(injection rate, plant size) and quality (type of sorbent –treated or untreated) of the sorbent are 

the key factors in the total sorbent cost. Sorbent costs varied between about $0.40/lb and 

$1.35/lb. 

Total installed capital costs ranged from about $3.6/kW to about $9.2/kW reflecting 

primarily the wide range of unit sizes in the study (from 140 MW to 360 MW). Table 1-12 

summarizes the configurations of APCDs and coal rank for the units in the cost study at the 90% 

Hg control level. 

Table 1-12. Configurations of units in NETL cost study and capital cost of ACI for 90% 

Hg removal59

Coal Type Bit Bit/PRB PRB PRB PRB PRB LIG 

Size (MW) 172 145 360 240 140 150 220 

APCD ESP ESP SD-FF ESP ESP ESP ESP 

Hg in coal, (lb/TBtu) 8.23 5.66 10.36 7.17 7.83 5.5 8.66 

ACI, (lb/MMacf) 5.34 2.31 1.03 0.55 2.4 3.65 1.64 

Capital ($/kW) 8 8.79 3.63 8 9.16 8.5 8 

Figure 1-28 and Figure 1-29 summarize mercury control costs ($/lb Hg) and 20-year 

levelized COE (mills/kWh), with and without an impact on ash (i.e., lost sales of fly ash as a byproduct), for the various units and coal types. As can be seen in the figures, when the combined 

cost of not selling the fly ash and paying for its disposal is factored in to the cost of mercury 

control, the cost of control (in $/lb Hg) and cost of electricity (mills/kWh) are higher. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-45

Figure 1-28. Cost of 90% mercury control with and without impact of lost sales of fly ash 

as a by-product59 

These results indicate costs ranging from about $6000/lb to $30,000/lb when by-product 

contamination/sales are not a factor and between about $18,000/lb and $50,000/lb if ash revenue 

is lost. These numbers correspond to 20-yr levelized COE ranging from about 0.35 mills/kWh to 

2 mills/kWh (0.035 to 0.2 cents/kWh) without by-product penalty and about 1 mill/kWh to 3.5 

mills/kWh (0.1 to 0.35 cents/kWh) if by-product impacts are present. 

As already discussed, the cost of sorbent injection technology is largely driven by the 

cost of sorbent, and the costs are thereby influenced by the price of the sorbent and especially its 

consumption requirements. Figure 1-30 shows the relative impact of capital cost (a), plant size 

(b) and sorbent consumption on COE. There is a direct relationship between sorbent 

consumption and control cost, while plant size and capital cost have minor impact on the 

ultimate COE. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-46

Figure 1-29. Incremental cost of electricity (COE) for 90% mercury control with and 

without impact of lost sales of fly ash as a by-product59 

 a) b) 

 c) 

Figure 1-30. Cost of 90% mercury reduction vs. a) capital cost b) plant size; and c) sorbent 

consumption59
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-47

1.7.3. National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) Cost Summary for 

Oxidation Technologies 

The two types of Hg oxidation technologies (catalysts and additives) have different cost 

components: catalysts are primarily driven by the initial capital and re-generation costs, while 

additive technology is not capital-intensive, but as with the ACI technologies, is driven by 

chemical costs. Unlike the analyses above for ACI technologies, the oxidation technology costs 

were estimated based on pilot-scale results and applied to a nominal 500 MW plant. Table 1-13 

summarizes the major parameters for the units in the cost study. Figure 1-31 summarizes the 

costs of mercury reduction for Hg oxidation technologies in $/lb of mercury removed and 20-

year COE. 

Table 1-13. List of key parameters in NETL cost study of oxidation technologies combined 

with FGD60

Technology Pd 

Catalyst 

Au 

Catalyst 

Au 

Catalyst 

CaBr2 CaBr2 CaBr2 CaBr2

Coal type ND Lig TX 

Lig/PRB 

PRB TX 

Lig/PRB 

PRB PRB PRB 

Hg control (%) 73 73 73 73 73 73 85 

APCD ESP, 

wFGD 

ESP, 

wFGD 

ESP, 

wFGD 

ESP, 

wFGD 

ESP, 

wFGD 

SCR, 

wFGD 

SCR, 

wFGD 

Hg in coal (lb/TBtu) 10.5 16.98 6 16.98 6 6 6 

CaBr2 rate (lb/hr) NA NA NA 294 322 5.9 25 

Catalyst volume (ft3) 4,640 5,890 6,060 NA NA NA NA 

Capital ($/kW) 2.69 3.42 3.53 1.56 1.56 1.56 1.56 

Figure 1-31. Cost of mercury reduction using oxidation technologies combined with FGD60

It can be seen from the graph in Figure 1-31 that the costs are comparable to those for 

sorbent injection technologies. Specifically, the incremental COE in the range of 1.0 to 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-48

1.8 mills/kWh is about the same as that for the ACI technologies shown in Figure 1-29 when byproduct impacts are not included. It should be pointed out that Hg oxidation technologies do not 

impact fly ash (or scrubber waste) and are not therefore subject to by-product impact costs as 

with ACI technologies. It is also important to note that the costs for oxidation technologies were 

based on lower level of Hg reductions (73% and 85%) than for ACI (90%). Another important 

observation is the impact of SCR on the overall COE with CaBr2. The last two bars in Figure 

1-31 show the low COE (~1 mill/kWh) due to the lower injection rate required for CaBr2

because of the Hg oxidation impact of the SCR co-benefit. As shown in Table 1-13, capital costs 

are low for these technologies. Figure 1-32 below shows the key cost components affecting both 

catalyst and additive oxidation technologies. For the ranges of oxidation catalyst volume and 

CaBr2 injection rates cited in the NETL study, COE is considerably higher when an oxidation 

catalyst is used to oxidize mercury upstream of a wet FGD. From a cost perspective, bromine 

injection appears to be advantageous relative to oxidation catalysts, assuming that the desired 

level of Hg oxidation can be obtained. 

Figure 1-32. Cost of mercury reduction for oxidation technologies vs. catalyst and 

chemical costs60

1.7.4. U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) Mercury Control Study 

The U.S. GAO study focused on a plant survey/interview process designed to obtain 

current performance and cost data from plants operating mercury control technologies. The 

plants/units included in the survey employed sorbent injection technologies (ACI), but exhibited 

different APCD configurations. The majority of the applications were on units equipped with 

ESPs, although several had FFs. Further, there were several units with SD-FF configurations, 

presumably for compliance with other regulatory requirements (e.g., SO2). As already stated, the 

data presented in the U.S. GAO report were used here in conjunction with the databases 

described in Section 1.1.3. Table 1-14 summarizes the information obtained from this analysis. 

It should be noted that these estimates represent nominal values, because no direct comparison 

between the U.S. GAO data and individual units can be made. However, the results are very 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-49

consistent with the overall cost estimates in the NETL cost studies (capital and COE) and are 

further corroborated in that the capital cost for both ACI and FF technologies agree well with the 

NETL estimates for ACI, as well as with other available cost data for FFs.61

 

Table 1-14. Summary of results from U.S. GAO Hg control survey20

Technology MW range MW avg. ACI Capital

($/kW) 

FF Capital

($/kW) 

COE 

(mills/kWh)

ACI/ESP 80-375 240 11-15 NA 1.2 

ACI/FF 75-350 260 10-14 140-200 NA 

ACI/SD-FF 250-790 430 NA 190-210 NA 

Additionally, the reported O&M costs (sorbent costs) range from about $1/kW-yr to 

$5/kW-yr. This also compares well with the NETL costs for ACI, which ranged from about 

$1.2/kW-yr to $9/kW-yr. These results represent real, commercial operating data and appear to 

corroborate with the NETL costs quite well. 

One last commercial data point, included in the U.S. GAO survey, but not identified 

individually, is the operation of ACI with FF (TOXECONTM) at Presque Isle power plant. The 

270 MW project reported a capital cost of $128/kW and an overall mercury removal cost of 

$67,000/lb Hg.63 These correlate well with the NETL and the U.S. GAO estimates. 

1.8. Commercial Experience with Sorbent Injection Technologies 

The penetration of mercury control technologies into the U.S. electric power marketplace 

has grown rapidly in the recent past, mostly as a result of various state regulations and initiatives. 

The Institute of Clean Air Companies (ICAC) has collected information relative to the current 

and projected deployment of mercury controls.64 At present about 25 units representing about 

7,500 MW are using commercial ACI technologies for mercury control. In addition, about 

55,000 MW of new bookings are reported by ICAC. Figure 1-33 and Figure 1-34 summarize 

these data by state and by coal type, respectively.

Figure 1-33. Mercury control systems orders booked by state64
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-50

Figure 1-34. Mercury control systems orders booked by coal rank burned at plant64

NESCAUM has received, courtesy of the New Jersey Department of Environmental 

Protection,65 Hg emission data from several sites, based on stack testing data. Selected data from 

this information are summarized in Table 1-15. Data were selected for sites reporting percent 

mercury reduction for the years 2008 to 2009. The sites in the table include dedicated mercury 

control technologies (ACI) as well as those whose mercury reductions are solely attributable to 

co-benefits through other installed APCD equipment. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-51

Table 1-15. Summary of New Jersey stack test mercury emissions for 2008 and 200965

Unit/APCD Test Date Load ACI Hg Reduction 

 (MW) (lb/hr) (%) 

Mercer 1/SCR-FF-ACI Jun-08 325 603 92 

Sep-08 325 607 56 

Dec-08 215 98 99 

Mercer 2/ FF-ACI Jun-08 260 478 95 

Sep-08 324 643 59 

Dec-08 317 643 98 

Carney’s Point 1/SCR-SD-FF Feb-08 139 NA 98.4 

Jun-08 139 NA 96.9 

Sep-08 139 NA 97.2 

Carney’s Point 2/SCR-SD-FF Feb-08 138 NA 98.5 

Jun-08 138 NA 97.1 

Sep-08 138 NA 97.4 

Logan 1/SCR-SD-FF Mar-08 224 NA 99.9 

Jun-08 223 NA 96.2 

Sep-08 222 NA 96.5 

Nov-08 219 NA 97.8 

B L England 2/SNCR-SD-ESP-ACI Mar-08 160 414 96.7 

Jun-08 163 337 97.8 

Sep-08 167 373 91.2 

Nov-08 167 365 99.1 

Mar-09 165 209 83.8 

Jul-09 169 362 99.5 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-52

Information from the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection was also 

obtained, including a summary of the 2008-2009 Hg emissions data from the coal-fired plants in 

Massachusetts (Figure 1-35), as well as the formal compliance reports submitted by two of the 

plants in the state: Salem Harbor66 and Brayton Point.67 

Figure 1-35. Summary of Hg emissions from coal-fired power plants in Massachusetts, 

2008-200966,67

The required Hg reductions in Massachusetts are based on baseline Hg emissions from a 

historical 12-month period; hence it is not possible to infer the performance of the Hg controls 

from the available data. It is, however, important to note that Salem Harbor does not have 

dedicated Hg controls (e.g., reductions are through co-benefits only), while Brayton Point 

employs SD-FF with ACI for multi-pollutant control in Units 1 and 2, and has an SCR and ESP 

in Unit 3. Table 1-16 and Table 1-17 present the data provided for Salem Harbor and Brayton 

Point, respectively.
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-53

Table 1-16. Dominion Energy Salem Harbor Station 2009 reported Hg emissions66

1/09 2/09 3/09 4/09 5/09 6/09 7/09 8/09 9/09 10/09 1

Net Generation MWh 51,845 37,354 42,001 34,430 27,839 22,265 16,298 30,035 351 27,258 30

Emissions pounds 0.172 0.108 0.095 0.064 0.138 0.084 0.112 0.074 0.011 0.179 0

Unit 1 Monthly Rate lb/GWh 0.0033 0.0029 0.0023 0.0019 0.0049 0.0038 0.0068 0.0025 0.0321 0.0066 0

Net Generation MWh 43,732 41,515 42,820 34,381 20,096 11,887 5,817 16,299 0 12,166 1

Emissions pounds 0.250 0.254 0.240 0.200 0.157 0.138 0.081 0.163 0.000 0.132 0

Unit 2 Monthly Rate lb/GWh 0.0057 0.0061 0.0056 0.0058 0.0078 0.0116 0.0140 0.0100 0.0000 0.0109 0

Net Generation MWh 101,316 81,851 22,717 54,591 59,828 55,467 58,199 62,525 11,816 36,876 3

Emissions pounds 1.109 0.559 0.035 0.388 0.456 0.427 0.549 0.656 0.169 0.308 0

Unit 3 Monthly Rate lb/GWh 0.0109 0.0068 0.0015 0.0071 0.0076 0.0077 0.0094 0.0105 0.0143 0.0084 0

Net Generation MWh 196,893 160,720 107,538 123,402 107,763 89,619 80,314 108,859 12,167 76,300 6

Emissions pounds 1.532 0.921 0.369 0.652 0.751 0.650 0.742 0.893 0.180 0.619 0

Monthly Rate lb/GWh 0.0078 0.0057 0.0034 0.0053 0.0070 0.0072 0.0092 0.0082 0.0148 0.0081 0

7.29 Allowable lb/GWh 0.0075 0.0075 0.0075 0.0075 0.0075 0.0075 0.0075 0.0075 0.0075 0.0075 0

12-month Rolling Rate lb/GWh 0.0073 0.0071 0.0068 0.0068 0.0069 0.0070 0.0071 0.0067 0.0066 0.0067 0

7.29Allowable Removal Rate 

% 85% 85% 85% 85% 85% 85% 85% 85% 85% 85% 8

Total - Units 1,2,3 

12-month removal 

from baseline 

% 92% 92% 91% 91% 91% 91% 91% 92% 92% 93% 9
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 1-54

Table 1-17. Dominion Energy Brayton Point Station 2009 reported Hg emissions67

1/09 2/09 3/09 4/09 5/09 6/09 7/09 8/09 9/09 10/09 11/09 

Net Generation MWh 143,058 152,989 39,412 168,096 147,966 164,825 155,255 141,769 136,307 156,235 170,732 

Emissions pounds 0.6 0.9 0.2 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.5 

Unit 1 Monthly Rate lb/GWh 0.0042 0.0060 0.0043 0.0048 0.0055 0.0037 0.0018 0.0061 0.0040 0.0031 0.0029 

Net Generation MWh 176,803 157,947 173,406 169,232 177,239 137,536 171,803 129,959 107,122 152,936 172,305 

Emissions pounds 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.2 0.8 1.7 2.3 0.9 1.4 1.2 

Unit 2 Monthly Rate lb/GWh 0.0042 0.0036 0.0041 0.0048 0.0066 0.0055 0.0102 0.0173 0.0082 0.0090 0.0070 

Net Generation MWh 435,058 398,332 421,296 349,860 113,339 322,896 339,495 296,013 401,206 424,009 442,176 

Emissions pounds 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.1 1.5 2.9 2.7 2.5 3.1 3.7 4.5 

Unit 3 Monthly Rate lb/GWh 0.0076 0.0089 0.0081 0.0090 0.0132 0.0089 0.0081 0.0084 0.0076 0.0087 0.0102 

Net Generation MWh 762,654 718,106 634,114 687,188 438,544 635,689 666,553 567,741 644,635 733,180 785,262 

Emissions pounds 4.7 5.0 4.3 4.8 3.5 4.2 4.8 5.6 4.5 5.5 6.2 

Monthly Rate lb/GWh 0.0061 0.0070 0.0068 0.0069 0.0080 0.0066 0.0072 0.0099 0.0070 0.0076 0.0079 

7.29 Allowable lb/GWh 

12-month Rolling 

Rate 

lb/GWh 

7.29Allowable Removal Rate 

% 

Total - Units 1,2,3 

12-month removal 

from baseline 

% 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-1

2. Continuous Mercury Monitoring Technologies 

There are two forms of continuous mercury monitoring systems (CMMS), devices that 

continuously sample mercury emissions and provide a measurement of mercury emissions over 

time. They are 

• Analyzer-based CEMS; and 

• Sorbent traps (STs). 

Hg CEMS are analyzers that continuously sample the stack gases and provide an 

indication of mercury concentration in the stack flu gas within minutes of the gas being sampled. 

In this respect, the Hg CEMS provide information to the operator about mercury emissions on a 

near real-time basis, or at least in a timely fashion that provides emissions data for a particular 

hour or day. The total mass emissions rate of mercury is determined by multiplying the 

measured concentration of mercury in the flue gas times the measured flue gas flow rate. 

Sorbent traps provide an indication of cumulative mercury mass emissions over a period 

of time that could be hours, days, or even weeks. Gas is pulled through a set of traps filled with 

sorbent that captures mercury. The gas flow rate drawn through the sorbent is varied at a rate 

that is in proportion to the flue gas flow rate, and must be isokinetic if there is significant amount

of particulates in the flue gas. After a period of time, the sorbent traps are removed and replaced. 

The used sorbent traps are analyzed for total mercury. The mass of mercury trapped can be used 

to determine the average mercury emission rate over that period of time. 

This Chapter focuses on methods that are intended for permanent installation and 

continuous monitoring of mercury emissions. For continuous monitoring and reporting for the 

purpose of regulatory compliance there are requirements imposed that assure the reliability and 

accuracy of the measurement. The same technologies as discussed in this Chapter have been 

used for short term test programs spanning hours, days, or even weeks. Many of the method 

requirements that are discussed in this Chapter that are necessary for a method designed for 

regulatory compliance purposes would not be necessary if the same methods were used for a 

short-term test. 

2.1. Hg CEMS Technology Overview 

Currently in the U.S, the two principal suppliers of Hg CEMS technology are 

ThermoFisher Scientific and Tekran Instruments. These two suppliers have supplied nearly 

every Hg CEMS ordered for power plants. This Chapter, therefore, focuses on the technologies 

offered by these two companies. 

Each company has been working to address the specific challenges associated with 

measuring mercury in flue gas. Some of these challenges include: 

• Mercury is present in much smaller concentrations than typical criteria pollutants, 

(i.e., concentration measured in parts per trillion versus parts per million). 

Although ambient monitors are capable of measuring mercury concentrations to 

much lower levels than what is experienced in power plant flue gases, some of the 

particular characteristics of mercury and power plant flue gas – such as 

interferences and reactivity – make the concentration of mercury in power plant 

flue gas especially difficult to measure at such low levels. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-2

• Ionic mercury is a reactive material that tends to react with or adhere to other 

materials, and thereby may be lost in sample handling unless special precautions

are taken. 

• Elemental mercury tends to form an amalgam with metals. So, to avoid loss of 

sample, metal surfaces in the sampling system must be coated and temperature 

maintained at180°C. 

The challenge faced by the Hg CEMS suppliers has been to design a monitoring system 

that is reliable while also addressing the above difficulties unique to mercury measurement in 

flue gas. 

2.2. Hg CEMS Suppliers 

2.2.1. ThermoFisher Scientific Hg CEMS 

ThermoFisher Scientific has shipped more than 450 Hg CEMS.68 Figure 2-1 shows how 

the ThermoFisher Hg CEMS is configured. The key components are the Sample Extraction & 

Conversion System, the Probe Controller, the Cold-Vapor Atomic Fluorescence (CVAF) 

Analyzer, and the Calibration System. 

Sample Extraction and Converter 

Flue gas is sampled from the stack by the probe and is typically diluted at a 40:1 ratio 

with air (or in some cases with nitrogen). Within the probe is a converter that converts oxidized 

mercury, which is mostly in the form of HgCl2, to elemental mercury. Therefore, all of the 

mercury sent into the lines to the analyzer is in the form of elemental mercury. This makes the 

sample somewhat easier to transport and also puts the mercury in a form that the analyzer is 

capable of measuring. The sample line from the probe to the analyzer must be heated to 120°C 

(248°F) in order to ensure that sample integrity is preserved. The probe also provides the means 

to convert elemental Hg gas from the calibrator to oxidized mercury for the purpose of system 

integrity checks. 

Probe Controller 

The Probe Controller sends signals to the probe that control the oxidized Hg to elemental 

Hg converter and the elemental Hg to oxidized Hg converter, nitrogen supply and other functions 

performed within the probe. It also controls probe and sample line temperature. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-3

Figure 2-1. ThermoFisher Scientific Mercury Freedom System68 

CVAF Analyzer 

Within the analyzer the sample is continuously measured using CVAF. In the CVAF 

method, free mercury atoms (elemental mercury) in a carrier gas are excited by an ultraviolet 

light source. The excited mercury atoms re-radiate their absorbed energy (fluoresce). The 

fluorescence intensity is related to the amount of mercury present. The technique is sensitive, 

selective, and linear over a wide range of concentrations; however, molecular gases (such as 

oxygen and nitrogen) present in the carrier gas quench the fluorescence signal, which reduces 

instrument sensitivity. 

The analyzer provides a measure of total mercury and cannot speciate mercury on its 

own. In order to measure mercury speciation, it is necessary to take two measurements – one 

with the converter in the probe operating (for total mercury) and another with the converter 

bypassed and with HgCl2 removed from the gas (to arrive at elemental Hg). The difference 

between the amount of total mercury and the amount of elemental mercury equals the amount of 

oxidized mercury. When used for regulatory purposes, CEMS are not typically operated in 

speciating mode, but rather used to measure total mercury only. 

The gas in the analyzer is maintained at a vacuum to suppress quenching and improve 

sensitivity. Sensitivity of the analyzer’s CVAF measurement can be improved roughly five-fold 

by using nitrogen as the dilution gas in the probe rather than air because oxygen has a greater 

tendency to quench the atomic fluorescence than nitrogen.

68 Therefore, for low concentration 

measurements (less than 2 μg/m3), nitrogen dilution gas is recommended by the manufacturer. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-4

The analyzer has digital outputs for various data protocols. The advantage of digital 

output is that, with the high degree of linearity expected from the CVAF analysis method 

combined with digital output, good linearity over a broad dynamic range is expected. 

Calibration Gases and Standards 

It is periodically necessary to verify the accuracy of the Hg CEMS using calibration gases 

that have known concentrations of both elemental and oxidized mercury. As an alternative to 

commercial, bottled calibration gases, the Hg CEMS manufacturers have been working with the 

U.S. EPA and NIST on traceable methods for the instruments to produce elemental mercury 

calibration gases utilizing known relationships for mercury vapor pressure.69 The elemental 

mercury calibration gas generators for both suppliers operate by carefully controlling a sample of 

Hg and dilution gas to a specific temperature and pressure that is determined by the desired 

vapor pressure. In this manner, the mercury concentration of the gas exiting the calibration gas 

generator is determined by the mercury vapor pressure relationship. The calibrator output is 

NIST-traceable. 

It is important that the Hg CEMS measure all forms of mercury accurately. A system 

integrity check is performed to verify the accurate measurement of oxidized mercury. For 

system integrity checks it is necessary to have oxidized mercury calibration gas provided to the 

probe tip where it is drawn through the probe and through the converter and to the analyzer. To 

do this, the ThermoFisher Hg CEMS adds chlorine to the elemental Hg calibration gas at the 

probe in order to convert the elemental mercury from the elemental mercury gas generator to 

oxidized mercury. It is necessary to have a bottle of chlorine gas at the probe for this system 

integrity check. The probe has a converter that converts the oxidized mercury back to elemental 

mercury, which is then transported to the analyzer for measurement. So, for system integrity 

checks on ThermoFisher’s Hg CEMS, elemental mercury calibration gas is oxidized with 

chlorine, sent through the probe tip, and then the oxidized mercury is converted back to 

elemental mercury before leaving the probe. 

2.2.2. Tekran Instruments Hg CEMS 

Tekran Instruments has sold roughly 175 Hg CEMS to power plants plus additional 

systems sold for the purpose of mercury monitoring for control technology test programs, for 

research or for other purposes. The Tekran Instruments Hg CEMS, shown schematically in 

Figure 2-2 has some similarities and some significant differences with the ThermoFisher Hg 

CEMS; these will be discussed below. 

Sample Extraction 

The Tekran probe extracts sample from the stack and dilutes it with air at roughly a 30:1 ratio. 

The probe is heated. The portion of the probe that is in the gas stream is made of Hasteloy (a 

corrosion-resistant metal) coated with a thin quartz layer. The probe body is made of coated 

stainless steel. The filter is titanium. Unlike the Thermo Fisher analyzer, which conditions the 

sample at the probe, the Tekran sample is sent in its sampled form to the sample conditioner, 

which is near the analyzer. The sample line from the probe to the sample conditioner is 

maintained at about 180°C (356°F) to avoid loss of ionic or elemental mercury or plating out of 

selenium. If selenium were allowed to build up in the sample line, the elemental mercury would 

be lost in the line because elemental mercury reacts with condensed selenium. If this takes place 

after the converter, it will result in a low bias for the total Hg measurement. An unheated line is 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-5

also used in some cases to carry air for the probe. The unheated line does not carry sample or 

calibration gas. 

Figure 2-2. Schematic of Tekran Hg CEMS70

Sample Conditioner 

The sample conditioner converts the oxidized mercury to elemental mercury using a 

pyritic converter. Also, acid gases (and selenium), which could induce mercury recombination 

reactions and could adversely affect analyzer reliability, are scrubbed out using deionized (DI) 

water. The conditioner therefore provides an acid gas-free stream with elemental mercury and 

other gases to the analyzer. The sample conditioner facilitates speciation by providing one of 

two gas streams to the analyzer: 1) 100% of the flue gas mercury after having converted any 

ionic mercury to elemental mercury; and 2) a sample with the ionic mercury removed so that 

only the elemental mercury from the flue gas remains. Similar to the ThermoFisher analyzer, 

ionic mercury is determined in the Tekran analyzer by subtracting the elemental mercury 

concentration from the total mercury concentration.
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-6

CVAF Analyzer 

Both the ThermoFisher instrument and the Tekran instrument use CVAF for analysis. 

However, Tekran’s analyzer uses a gold amalgam to collect and concentrate the mercury prior to 

analysis. This also permits the mercury to be re-released into an inert gas (argon) atmosphere. 

The argon gas ensures that fluorescence is not quenched by molecular gases that are present in 

the boiler flue gas. The gold amalgam concentration method and the use of inert gas help the 

analyzer to provide high sensitivity. The analyzer consumes argon gas; one tank of argon is 

expected to last roughly six weeks. Like the ThermoFisher analyzer, the Tekran analyzer 

produces an output concentration of total mercury. Speciation is performed in concert with the 

sample conditioner. 

Calibrators 

The Tekran Hg CEMS has two calibrators – one for elemental mercury and another for 

ionic mercury. The elementary mercury calibrator produces a gas stream with a known 

concentration of elemental mercury in a similar manner as the ThermoFisher analyzer – by 

carefully controlling the temperature and pressure of a sample of mercury and dilution gases to 

provide a gas with a well-controlled elemental mercury vapor pressure. 

Tekran also has an oxidized mercury calibrator, which generates a defined mixture of air 

and water vapor and mercuric chloride by evaporating a controlled amount of aqueous mercury 

chloride solution of known concentration into a carefully controlled gas volume, as shown in 

Figure 2-3. Because this approach starts with oxidized mercury in a NIST-traceable aqueous 

solution, there is assurance that only oxidized mercury is produced. Also, because the solution 

and the hardware are NIST-traceable, the amount of oxidized mercury is NIST-traceable. This 

method of generating oxidized mercury does require transporting the oxidized Hg from the 

generator, up a heated umbilical to the probe tip, through the probe, and back through a heated 

umbilical to the sample conditioner for the system integrity check. 

Mixing Chamber

DI Water 1.0 μg/ml HgCl2

Dry Air

Misting Device

Precision

MicroPumps

Mass Flow

Meter

Hg2+

Calibration Gas

Figure 2-3. Simplified diagram of the Tekran Model 3315 Ionic Mercury Calibrator 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-7

2.2.3. Other suppliers of Hg CEMS 

Three other suppliers of Hg CEMS have been identified: PS Analytical, Cemtrex and 

Ohio Lumex. PS Analytical’s Sir Galahad mercury CEMS uses an amalgamation method 

combined with CVAF, the same general method as the Tekran CEMS. The Cemtrex and Ohio 

Lumex CEMS analyze the gas using the method of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). In 

AAS, a light source is scanned at a wavelength where elemental mercury vapor absorbs light. 

The amount of light that is absorbed is related to the amount of mercury in the light path. This 

Chapter focuses on the results achieved so far with the more widely used ThermoFisher and 

Tekran analyzers. 

2.3. Approximate Costs of Hg CEMS 

ThermoFisher and Tekran confirmed that the initial cost of an Hg CEMS is typically on 

the order of $500,000.68,71 These costs include: 

• Approximately $200,000 for system including startup and training; 

• Another $200,000-$300,000 for site preparation. 

Costs will vary somewhat from this $500,000 figure. The heated umbilical alone is a 

significant cost item that might cost anywhere from about $10,000 for a short stack to over 

$100,000 for a very tall stack. Other factors that affect cost include the number of Hg CEMS 

located at the site, site conditions, and local climate. 

Typical annual operating costs are more difficult to estimate, because there has been 

limited experience with the learning curve associated with the use of Hg CEMS and the actual 

quality assurance (QA) and reporting requirements are not certain. Midwest Generation 

estimates that it takes three times as many labor hours to support the Hg CEMS as traditional 

NOx and SO2 CEMS.72 Using the U.S. EPA’s CEMS cost estimating tool, there is roughly 

$20,000 in annual plant labor charges for a typical power plant CEMS with NOx, SO2, opacity, 

and flow, and total annual costs including Relative Accuracy Test Audits (RATAs), reporting, 

parts and consumables, and other costs of about $65,000. The U.S. EPA CEMS cost model73

would suggest that Midwest Generation’s annual labor charges have been in the range of about 

$60,000 for the Hg CEMS. Due to the learning curve with these instruments, experience to date 

should not represent long-term estimates. 

According to ThermoFisher, the long-term operating requirements are expected to 

approach those of the dilution CEMS that most power plants currently have installed for NOx 

and SO2.

74 This is consistent with information from Tekran that labor costs should ultimately 

approach those of the existing NOx and SO2 CEMS; but that total annual costs will be somewhat

higher when including RATAs, reporting, parts and consumables, NIST traceability and other 

costs for a total of about $100,000 or more.75 These estimates are based upon the Part 75 

mercury monitoring requirements of the vacated Clean Air Mercury Rule (CAMR).∗ The actual 

costs of monitoring will depend upon the requirements of any future monitoring rule. 

 

∗

On March 15, 2005, EPA issued CAMR to permanently cap and reduce mercury emissions from coal-fired 

power plants for the first time ever. Included in the rule were mercury monitoring and reporting requirements 

under Part 75. Appendix K of Part 75 set forth the mercury monitoring and reporting requirements for Sorbent 

Trap Monitoring Systems. On February 8, 2008, the D.C. Circuit vacated EPA’s rule removing power plants 

from the Clean Air Act list of sources of hazardous air pollutants. At the same time, the Court vacated CAMR. 

Because the mercury monitoring and reporting requirements were part of CAMR, they too were vacated. EPA is 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-8

2.4. Operating Issues of Hg CEMS 

Although ambient mercury analyzers have been available and operating well for many 

years, Hg CEMS for power plant or other combustion exhaust gases are new. There are 

numerous challenges in accurately and reliably measuring mercury emissions from power plants 

that do not exist for ambient analyzers. These include: 

• Transporting the sample from the stack to the analyzer while preserving sample 

integrity; 

• Measuring small amounts of mercury in the presence of large amounts of 

combustion gases that may interfere with the measurement; 

• Measuring mercury that may exist in multiple chemical forms; 

• Having the means to verify the accuracy of the measurement for the purpose of 

assuring that the instrument is providing reliable measure of emissions 

compliance; and 

• Doing all of this while having a system that is not unduly expensive or difficult to 

use under the harsh industrial conditions at a power plant. 

The suppliers of mercury analyzers have made great progress in addressing these issues. 

The following sections examine the key issues relating to operation of Hg CEMS, including: 

• Reliability; 

• Calibration and NIST traceability; 

• Measurement bias and bias adjustment factor; 

• Accuracy and precision at low concentrations; and 

• Availability and data substitution. 

Reliability 

Because Hg CEMS are fairly new devices, there is reasonable concern regarding the 

reliability of the devices for power plant applications. In some cases product development has 

been occurring concurrently with implementation of Hg CEMS at power plants. As challenges 

associated with these applications have been encountered, design changes have been 

implemented to address them. Recognizing that these systems have been under development and 

that some of the problems encountered a few years ago have been addressed, the focus here is on 

issues that may continue to have an impact on reliability. 

Umbilical Failure 

The umbilical is the heated sample line(s) from the probe to the analyzer or sample 

conditioner. It is often several hundred feet long. Failure of the umbilicals has been a problem. 

Dominion Generation stated that 5 of 13 umbilicals on its Tekran systems installed in Illinois and 

 

now developing air toxics emissions standards for power plants under the Clean Air Act (section 112), consistent 

with the D.C. Circuit’s opinion regarding CAMR. EPA intends to propose air toxics standards for coal- and oilfired electric generating units by March 10, 2011 and finalize a rule by November 16, 2011.
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-9

Massachusetts had failed.76 These failures are mostly due to overheating. Midwest Generation 

noted similar experiences with the umbilicals of its ThermoFisher analyzers installed on boilers 

in Illinois and Pennsylvania, with 6 of 13 umbilicals failing. Midwest Generation also noted that 

there were approximately 50 umbilical failures industry-wide.72 This is roughly consistent with 

information on umbilical reliability from other sources. Tekran stated that about 10% of 

umbilicals have failed, which has led to new designs for umbilicals with better temperature 

control.71 This is consistent with information from Dekoron/Unitherm, the primary manufacturer 

of these umbilicals for both Hg CEMS suppliers, who reported a failure rate of 8.4%.77

The causes of umbilical failures have varied. According to Dekoron/Unitherm, about 

half of the failures were field repaired; the balance required replacement. In some cases there 

was an installation error, as installers were not accustomed to installations of several hundred to 

a thousand feet of this type of heated and insulated sample line. Failure modes varied from leads 

being pulled apart during installation, to short circuits of heaters, and in a small number of cases, 

fires. (Again, according to Dekoron/Unitherm, every one of the cases in which there were fires 

was the result of faulty installation, i.e., no ground fault protection despite recommendation by 

the manufacturer and requirements of the National Electric Code.) The other causes of the 

failures included improper installation, incomplete information at the time of design, defective 

heater elements (that were ultimately replaced by the manufacturer), and lack of individual and 

high limit temperature control (a heater controller design issue). To address these causes, there 

have been design changes to eliminate the failure modes, education of installers to reduce risk of 

damage during installation or failure upon start up, and education of all parties involved to 

improve specification, design and installation to reduce risk of failure.77 In addition, many 

facilities have installed redundant umbilicals to provide a backup in the event of an umbilical 

failure. 

As a result of the improvements made by the various companies involved in the 

manufacture, supply and installation of the umbilicals, it is anticipated that umbilical failures 

should be less troublesome in the future. 

System Integrity Tests 

System integrity tests exercise the entire sampling, conditioning, analysis, and calibration 

gas generating system. A shortcoming in any one of the associated components will result in a 

failed system integrity test. According to Dominion,76 this was the most frequently failed quality 

assurance (QA) test. Also, unlike the calibration tests, the system integrity test requires use of 

oxidized mercury calibration gases, which are more difficult to assure because oxidized mercury 

is so reactive that it can be lost easily in sample streams after leaving the calibration gas 

generator (such as in the Tekran instrument), or the conversion rate of elemental to oxidized Hg 

in the probe (in the case of ThermoFisher) may be difficult to verify. Dominion recorded 80-150 

hours of down time per Hg CEMS in 2008 as a result of failed system integrity tests.76

 

Dominion has found that it is beneficial to perform the system integrity test manually to ensure 

that a technician can observe the physical process and identify problems during the test, which 

has proven to be helpful in avoiding false failures of the test.78 This is consistent with the 

experience of Midwest Generating, who reported that its Hg CEMS do not have a good record at 

passing system integrity tests.72 At this point, it appears that the equipment associated with the 

system integrity tests may not yet be at the point where the test can be performed in an 

automated fashion with high reliability. This affects how the tests can be scheduled because a 

technician needs to be available to monitor them.78 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-10

The difficulty of system integrity tests is closely related to the development of NIST 

traceable oxidized Hg standards, which are explored more fully in the following section. 

Calibration and NIST Traceability 

For regulatory compliance purposes, it is important that emissions monitors provide 

measurements with accuracy that can be traced back to verifiable NIST standards. This is done 

through regular calibration checks of the Hg CEMS against gases of a known mercury 

concentration. 

Elemental Mercury Calibration Standards 

Traceability of the elemental mercury measurement of each Hg CEMS is to be performed 

using a calibration gas generator that is certified by NIST. The U.S. EPA has established interim 

traceability protocols for elemental gas generators, which provide procedures to: “(1) establish 

the quantitative output of elemental Hg generators; and (2) determine the expanded, combined 

uncertainty values of the gas standards produced by the elemental Hg generators.”80 The 

protocol also specifies the maximum allowable uncertainty for the elemental Hg gas standards. 

Elemental mercury is also available as a bottled gas, but the U.S. EPA has not yet established 

traceability protocols for gas cylinders. 

The NIST certification is achieved through an unbroken chain of comparison of one 

elemental mercury calibration gas generator to another and eventually to a NIST-verified 

standard. An interim traceability protocol has been developed to provide for this and was 

promulgated by the U.S. EPA on July 1, 2009.79 In this protocol, NIST uses isotope dilution 

inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) as the fundamental measurement to 

certify the NIST Prime elemental mercury calibration gas generator. This NIST Prime 

calibration gas generator is used to certify Vendor Prime calibration gas generators. The Vendor 

Prime calibration gas generators are used to certify user calibration gas generators that are sent to 

the vendors for certification. In cases where a user cannot send in their calibration gas generator 

to the vendor for certification, a Field Reference calibration gas generator, which is certified 

against the Vendor Prime calibration gas generator, can be used at the user’s site to certify the 

user calibration gas generator. Figure 2-4 shows how this approach produces an unbroken chain 

of measurement comparisons for certification back to a NIST-verified standard. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-11

NIST ID -ICP Mass Spec

NIST Prime gas 

generator

Vendor 1 

Prime gas 

generator

Vendor 2 Prime 

gas generator

User F gas 

generator

User C gas 

generator

User A gas 

generator User D gas 

generator

Vendor 1 

Field 

Reference gas 

generator

Vendor 2 

Field 

Reference gas 

generator

NIST

User B gas 

generator

User E gas 

generator

Figure 2-4. General approach for elemental mercury calibration gas generator 

certification 

Certification of gas generators is valid for a period of time, and each calibration gas 

generator needs to be periodically recertified. The NIST Prime gas generator needs to be 

periodically recertified against ICP-MS (or another method determined by NIST). Vendor Prime 

gas generators are periodically sent to NIST for recertification against the NIST Prime gas 

generator, and User and Field Reference gas generators need to be periodically recertified against 

the Vendor Prime gas generators. As a result, this will become a regular requirement for all 

companies involved in mercury monitoring. 

Oxidized Hg Calibration Gas Standards 

The interim oxidized Hg NIST traceability protocol was promulgated on July 1, 2009.80 

The interim oxidized Hg gas traceability protocol provides procedures for: “(1) establishing the 

NIST traceability and quantitative performance of key components of HgCl2 generators; (2) 

determining the uncertainty contributed by each of these components; and (3) calculating 

certified output concentrations and expanded, combined uncertainty values for the gas standards 

produced by the generators.”69 Oxidized mercury must be used for system integrity checks. 

There are no gas cylinders for oxidized mercury, so the two CEMS manufacturers have 

developed different generators for oxidized Hg calibration gas. 

The ThermoFisher Hg CEMS starts with elemental mercury, transports it to the probe, 

oxidizes it to HgCl2 in the probe using chlorine that is added at that location, and sends the 

oxidized Hg sample to the probe tip. Certification of the ThermoFisher oxidized mercury 

generator is related to the elemental gas generator.

81 The combined uncertainty of the HgCl2

calibration standards is calculated based on the uncertainty of the elemental Hg generator, the 

water vapor dilution (if applicable), and the chlorine dilution. In the interim oxidized Hg 

protocol, the oxidation efficiency of ThermoFisher systems is not included in the overall 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-12

combined uncertainty calculation. However, the apparent percent conversion of elemental Hg to 

HgCl2 is calculated as part of the periodic QA (data quality) assessments.82

For the Tekran’s oxidized mercury calibrator that uses an evaporative gas generator, 

NIST traceability may be achieved in a different manner because NIST-traceable solutions are 

available and it is possible to verify the precision of the metering pumps, etc., used in the device. 

For a reason that is not clear, comparisons of this type of oxidized Hg gas generator (Tekran 

3315 or any other evaporative type) against elemental gas generators have shown a fairly 

consistent difference of about 8% to 9%, with the ionic calibrator always producing a lower 

level. Because of the consistency of this difference, this type of oxidized Hg calibration gas 

generator can be certified by NIST.83 This approach does not involve an actual measurement to 

verify the output concentration, but relies on the calibrated, theoretical value. 

Measurement Bias and Bias Adjustment Factor 

When a measurement device indicates a different value than a reference method (RM) 

and that difference is consistent, the difference is regarded as bias. To correct for this difference

and make the reported values consistent with the RM, bias adjustments (up or down) may be 

made. Part 75 requires bias adjustments for SO2, NOx, and volumetric flow rate monitoring 

systems, based on data collected during relative accuracy test audits (RATAs), but Part 60 does 

not require such adjustments. 

When compliance is achieved under a trading mechanism, the measurements provide the 

“currency” used in the allowance market and an excess in emissions can be made up through 

purchase of allowances in the market. Bias adjustments may, at the discretion of the regulatory 

agency, be required if the RM shows a consistently higher value than the monitor during the 

RATA (i.e., the CEMS is biased low) and the difference is statistically significant. The 

regulatory agency may require the subsequent data from the CEMS to be adjusted upward to 

agree with the RM; consequently, the reported emissions will be higher than would otherwise be 

indicated by the monitor. Similarly, downward bias adjustment may be required if the CEMS 

consistently reads higher than the RM. Under the Acid Rain Program, the U.S. EPA has, since 

1993, required bias adjustment of SO2, NOx, and volumetric flow rate data only in one direction 

(i.e., upward), to correct for low bias. However, under a compliance mechanism where trading is 

not an option, there may be an argument to require bias adjustments in both directions, rather 

than adjusting only for low bias. This is because there is no ability to sell excess allowances or 

to purchase allowances that are needed. The potential problem if there is no requirement to 

adjust for low bias is that it could open an opportunity for sources to deliberately adjust their Hg 

CEMS to read below the reference method, while staying marginally within the percent relative 

accuracy requirements when performing a RATA. This could result in under-reporting of 

emissions.77 

The issue of bias adjustment was raised in testimony before the Illinois Pollution Control 

Board by representatives of electric generators.76 The Illinois EPA subsequently agreed to 

remove bias adjustments from its rule.85 However, for the most part the Illinois power plants are 

complying with a percent reduction requirement or alternatively with a technology-based 

standard and therefore have been given the option of quarterly stack tests rather than Hg CEMS. 

This is a different situation than would exist with an annual mass emission limit where the 

argument in favor of bias adjustments is stronger. As a result, the argument in favor of bias 

adjustments is not as great under Illinois’ rule. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-13

Accuracy/Precision at Low Concentrations 

Accurate and precise mercury measurements are becoming increasingly important at low 

mercury concentrations because some APCDs (or combinations of APCDs) are capable of 

producing removal efficiencies of mercury that can result in emissions concentrations well below 

1.0 μg/m3

. Furthermore, some states have required 90% and greater removal of mercury from 

flue gases. Accuracy relates to how close the measurement is to the actual number. Precision 

relates to how repeatable a measurement is at a given level. Both qualities are desirable. 

The CVAF method is capable of measuring mercury concentrations at levels far lower 

than what is seen in flue gas, as demonstrated in its use in ambient monitoring. However, there 

is some concern regarding its accuracy and precision at low concentrations when it is used to 

analyze flue gas samples that are transported through a probe, sample line, sample conditioning, 

etc. Also, there is concern about the ability to verify low Hg concentrations against a RM, such 

as Ontario Hydro or Method 30B (STs), which may have poorer accuracy and precision at lower 

concentrations. 

As shown in Figure 2-5, Hg CEMS have demonstrated the ability to measure mercury 

concentrations well below 1.0 μg/m3

 and to agree with the Ontario Hydro Method (the RM) 

measurements within about 0.09 μg/m3. The trend shown indicates good precision when 

compared against the RM, and an accuracy that has a relatively steady offset that is generally 

under 0.10 μg/m3. Figure 2-6, which shows data taken from a stack with a wet scrubber, shows 

that good agreement between Hg CEMS and Method 30B has also been achieved at levels well 

under 1.0 μg/m3. 

Because the absolute difference between the RM and the Hg CEMS at low concentrations 

may be a significant percentage of the average RM value, this can be an issue of concern when 

calculating the percent relative accuracy of the CEMS and when making bias adjustments (if 

such adjustments are required). If, during a RATA, the measurements are expected to be well 

under 1.0 μg/m3, as shown in Figure 2-5 and Figure 2-6, it may be difficult to achieve a 

particular relative accuracy (RA) percentage (e.g., 20% RA). Therefore, an alternative RA 

standard, in terms of the absolute difference between the RM and CEMs mean values is 

sometimes needed. At these low concentration levels, the error band allowed by the alternative 

RA specification should be sufficiently large to ensure that well-running instruments will pass 

the RATAs, yet not so great as to make it impossible to fail the test. In the original requirements 

under CAMR, the alternative RA specification was 1 μg/m3 absolute difference. That 

specification was based on an initial assumption that a low emitting source would have Hg 

concentrations of about 5 μg/m3

. At the time CAMR was published, the U.S. EPA could not 

have anticipated the extremely low Hg concentration levels that have since been observed at 

many units equipped with wet scrubbers. For concentrations of 1 μg/m3 or less, the alternative 

RA specification in the vacated CAMR is obviously too wide; a specification on the order of 0.3 

to 0.5 μg/m3

 would appear to be more appropriate. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-14

Figure 2-5. RATA results at low mercury concentrations71 

Figure 2-6. Low level Hg CEMS accuracy check against sorbent traps on a stack that 

follows a wet scrubber or wet stack71

Availability and Data Substitution 

Availability is a measure of the number of hours in an operating period that the 

monitoring system is providing reliable data, and is generally expressed as a percentage of the 

operating hours. Data substitution is sometimes required for periods in which a monitored 

facility is operating, but the emissions monitoring system is not providing reliable data (not 

available). For example, the Acid Rain Program requires substitute data to be reported in the 

periods of time when the monitoring system is not available. The monitoring requirements under 

the vacated CAMR required the use of missing data substitution for Hg concentration. The 

substitute data values became increasingly more conservative (i.e., conservatively high) as the 

percent monitor data availability (PMA) dropped and the length of the missing data period 

increased. If the PMA ever dropped below 70%, the maximum potential Hg concentration 

would have been reported. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-15

Even absent trading, due to the variability in mercury emissions, there is an argument for 

maintaining high data availability. Mercury emissions are sensitive to many factors that can vary 

routinely for a power plant, such as furnace oxygen (through its impact on fly ash carbon), soot 

blowing, coal mercury levels and other factors. 

Figure 2-7 shows results of a RATA at Nebraska Public Power’s Sheldon Unit 2. 

Measured mercury concentrations varied by more than a factor of two over the period of the 

RATA, comparing an Hg CEMS (shown in figure as HgT) versus sorbent traps as the reference 

method (shown as 30B). As a result, data substitution can be inaccurate and periods of lost data 

should be minimized. 

Figure 2-7. Nebraska Public Power Sheldon 2 RATA results86

There are several factors that affect Hg CEMS availability, including the following: 

• Stringency of Regulation – If QA testing requirements are stringent, then there is 

likely to be more down time because failure of a QA test will require 

troubleshooting. 

• Technician Skill Level – This will vary from plant to plant. The higher the skill 

level of the technicians, the faster they will be able to restore an instrument to 

service in the event of a failure. 

• Priority of Preventive Maintenance (PM) Program – Is the PM program at the 

plant a management priority that has adequate resources? If not, then 

maintenance in general for all equipment will be poor and uptime will suffer. 

HgT = Total Mercury from Hg CEMS CEM Ave = average Hg CEMS reading during sorbent trap sample period 

30B = Sorbent Trap measurement run diff = the difference between CEM Ave and Sorbent Trap 

allowed = allowed difference for RATA 9 run mean difference = average difference for nine RATA runs 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-16

• Spare Parts Stocking – If spares are on hand, the instrument can be restored to 

service faster than if parts must be ordered. 

According to ThermoFisher, customers that are conscientiously operating and 

maintaining the equipment, even with no current reporting requirements, have been able to keep 

the instruments operational about 90-98% of the time.33

Availability is a concern for new technology. Although few states require reporting of 

availability, Massachusetts did request that the coal plants in Massachusetts report availability of 

their Hg CEMS. As shown in Table 2-1, the Hg CEMS at the Brayton Point station reported 

availability ranging from 88% to 94%.87 The Mount Tom generating station reported 98% 

availability.88

 

Strictly speaking, the reported availability statistics in Table 2-1 for Hg CEMS in 

Massachusetts are not subject to the Part 75 requirements of CAMR because those requirements 

were vacated when the CAMR was vacated. Also, there are some aspects of the original Part 75 

CAMR that have since evolved out of technical necessity, particularly with regard to the move to 

on-site calibration gas generators that will be NIST-traceable rather than use of NIST-traceable 

compressed gas cylinders. The reported data are not QA-tested by the Massachusetts 

Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) in exactly the same manner as the U.S. EPA 

would have done under a Part 75 requirement because the U.S. EPA – who has the capability to 

perform Part 75 data QA - lost the authority to perform data QA when CAMR was vacated. 

According to the Massachusetts DEP,89 the Massachusetts requirements under 310 CMR 7.00 et 

al. are otherwise identical to those of the now-vacated Part 75 CAMR requirements. The units in 

Massachusetts must undergo the same daily calibration checks, weekly system integrity checks, 

quarterly linearity checks, RATAs, and other requirements of the now vacated Part 75, and these 

availability statistics and the good quality emissions data being generated are a strong indication 

of the industry’s efforts and ability to operate Hg CEMS. 

Table 2-1. Availability of Hg CEMS at Dominion Brayton Point power plant in 200886

 Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4 Overall 

 Operating Hours 1,536 2,076 2,102 2,159 7,873 

 Out of Service Hours 96 223 87 52 458 

Unit 1 Availability, % 93.7 89.3 95.9 97.6 94.2 

 Year-to-date Availability, % 93.7 91.17 92.89 94.2 

 Operating Hours 2,184 2,116 1,994 2,208 8,501 

 Out of Service Hours 140 123 415 346 1,024 

Unit 2 Availability, % 93.6 94.2 79.2 84.3 88.0 

 Year-to-date Availability, % 93.6 93.88 89.23 88.0 

 Operating Hours 2,170 1,422 1,929 2,072 7,593 

 Out of Service Hours 359 253 55 104 771 

Unit 3 Availability, % 83.5 82.2 97.1 95.0 89.8 

 Year-to-date Availability, % 83.5 82.96 87.92 89.8 

Missing data are normally substituted under a Part 75 system because trading programs 

rely on knowing the total mass emissions. Under a rule where a percent reduction or 

implementation of a specific control technology is required, it could be argued that data 

substitution may not be necessary. On the other hand, in the case where there is a mass 

emissions limit, it could be argued that data substitution should be performed to ensure that mass 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-17

emissions are not under-reported. Also, data substitution for missing data provides motivation 

for maintaining a high availability of the instrument. 

2.5. Sorbent Trap Method 

2.5.1. Sorbent Trap Method Description 

The ST method is an approach to measuring total mercury emissions over a period of 

time. The continuous measurement method was addressed by Appendix K of the Part 75 

requirements of the now vacated CAMR. The U.S. EPA Method 30B has replaced Appendix K 

and is a reference method that can be used for RATAs as well as for monitoring. The ST method 

is pictured in Figure 2-8. Gas is drawn through two separate traps concurrently. Two traps are 

necessary for the purpose of quality assurance, and agreement must be within prescribed levels 

or the sample fails QA. The two traps can be installed within the same probe or in separate 

probes. The mercury traps must also be installed in the probe such that gas is pulled directly into 

the traps. The method assumes that there is not a significant concentration of particulate matter 

in the flue gas. A common trap sorbent material is activated carbon impregnated with iodine or 

another halogen, such as bromine. For continuous monitoring each trap must have the sorbent 

configured into three sections that can be tested independently. The first section is for primary 

mercury collection. The second section is to provide an indication of mercury breakthrough. If 

there is too much breakthrough, the sample fails QA. The third section is for spike recovery 

testing using a spiked mercury sample gas. Analysis of the third section must show good 

recovery of the spiked sample for acceptable results. After a period of sampling, the traps are 

removed and analyzed to measure the total amount of mercury in the traps. The mercury found 

in the traps divided by the total gas flow over the period of the sampling indicates mercury 

concentration in the gas. 

The balance of the sampling system includes a moisture removal system, dry gas flow 

pump, and dry gas flow meter (or other equivalent mass flow equipment), and related 

instrumentation. The flow meter and associated instrumentation (barometer and temperature 

indication) must be regularly calibrated to ensure that they are reporting the correct volume of 

gas. The flow meter must also have a variable flow control to maintain sample flow rate in 

proportion with load. 

Because of the QA requirements that could cause a sample to be rejected, most users 

replace traps every four to seven days. This assures that if a sample is rejected for QA reasons, 

only four to seven days of data are lost.90
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-18

Figure 2-8. Method 30B sorbent trap equipment91 

The two most widely used approaches to analyzing the traps for mercury are: 1) a wet 

digestion method using atomic absorption or fluorescence analysis; and 2) thermal release with 

atomic absorption analysis. The latter approach can be done on site with the proper equipment. 

However, it has the disadvantage that the sample is destroyed, so that if there is a problem with 

the analysis it cannot be checked again. 

Sorbent traps can be used as a reference method against a CMMS or as a CMMS. 

Sorbent trap requirements as CMMS were defined under CAMR as Appendix K. As a reference 

method, STs are the U.S. EPA Method 30B. Because it is used as a reference method, Method 

30B has different QA requirements than Appendix K in terms of spike recovery, etc., and is 

somewhat different in procedure. 

2.5.2. Sorbent Trap Accuracy/Precision 

The ST method for measuring mercury generally has good measurement accuracy down 

to relatively low mercury concentrations well under 1 μg/m3

. This can be influenced by sample 

time, trap size and other parameters that the user can control depending upon their needs. Figure 

2-992 and Figure 2-1093 show results from six different RATA’s from six different power plants, 

in each case (a), (b) and (c) showing results for low concentrations (under 1 μg/m3), moderate 

concentrations (about 1 μg/m3), and higher concentrations (over 1 μg/m3), respectively. Relative 

accuracy can be more difficult at the lower concentrations because there appears to be more 

variation in concentration on a percent of value basis at these low levels of mercury. The sorbent 

trap CMMS in the figure being compared to a sorbent trap reference method (Method 30B) 

follow the Appendix K protocol. In these cases both sorbent trap methods (either Appendix K or 

Method 30B) were being drawn at the same time. Therefore, in each case there was a 

comparison of total mercury collected in the traps over the same period. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-19

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2-9. RATA results reported by Wright and Schmid92 with (a) concentrations under 

1 μg/m3; (b) concentrations near 1 μg/m3; and (c) concentrations over 1 μg/m3
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-20

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2-10. RATA results reported by Wright93 with (a) concentrations under 1 μg/m3

; 

(b) concentrations near 1 μg/m3; and (c) concentrations over 1 μg/m3
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-21

2.6. Approximate Costs of Sorbent Trap Systems 

The initial installed cost of a sorbent trap system is on the order of $150,000. Operating 

costs entail roughly $500 to $700 per week for traps and analysis ($26,000 to $36,000 per 

year).66,75 The cost of labor for operating the traps corresponds to about two people for half a 

day per stack every four to seven days.93 At $50/hr for labor, that is roughly another $21,000 to 

$36,000 per year. 

2.7. Advantages/Disadvantages of Sorbent Traps When Compared to Hg 

CEMS 

The advantages of STs versus Hg CEMS are: 

• Significantly lower capital cost - The principal advantage of STs over Hg CEMS 

is much lower capital cost – about $150,000 versus about $500,000. 

• Simpler system to operate and maintain – Sorbent trap systems are less complex 

than Hg CEMS and do not require as sophisticated a technical staff to support. 

However, the personnel involved in STs do need training on how to properly 

handle the traps to avoid contamination and other problems that could introduce 

errors. 

• Lower concentrations - In principal, STs may be able to measure to lower 

concentrations than Hg CEMS, but this is very methodology dependent. 

Furthermore, Hg CEMS are improving their ability to measure to low levels such 

that any advantage in this respect may be small. 

Disadvantages of STs versus Hg CEMS are: 

• No real-time, or near real-time data – This is the principal technical advantage of 

Hg CEMS over STs. The information is available in minutes, which enables the 

performance of Hg emission control processes to be monitored in near real time 

and can thereby offer advantages in Hg control. Figure 2-11 shows how Hg 

CEMS data and ST data compare at one facility equipped with a wet scrubber 

over a period of 5 days and 30 days, respectively. As shown, there was a wide 

variation in Hg emissions that was not evident in the ST results, since the latter 

were inherently averaged over the trap sample time. 

• Higher Labor Costs - This may not have been realized yet since Hg CEMS have 

been coming down a fairly steep learning curve, which means that owners have 

had to dedicate more hours to service and support than they ultimately will in the 

future. Sorbent traps, on the other hand, will always require regular trap 

replacement and testing (typically every four to seven days) and the labor 

associated with replacing and testing the traps is not likely to drop very much. 

• Loss of Data – If there is a problem with a ST sample, it may not be discovered 

until after the sample is completed, and when ST samples fail the quality control 

tests, the data are lost for the full sampling period. For this reason, ST systems 

have quality control procedures in place to minimize this risk, and in practice 

samples are limited to about four to seven days. For Hg CEMS the existence of a 

problem that would cause lost data is generally apparent right away, so that 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-22

corrective action can be immediately taken to restore the instrument to a fully 

functioning state. 

• Personnel Safety – STs require that personnel regularly go up to the sampling 

point to remove and replace sorbent traps. This creates an added concern for 

personnel safety. 

• Speciation – Although only total Hg emissions would have been reported under 

the vacated Part 75 CAMR requirements, oxidized Hg and elemental Hg do 

behave differently in terms of capture and in terms of how they behave once 

released to the environment. Therefore, there is a benefit with respect to 

emissions control and with respect to understanding environmental impact in 

having speciated Hg emissions information. Although speciated Hg measurement 

approaches are available using STs, they are difficult to conduct due to the 

reactivity of oxidized mercury. Additionally, there is limited experience with 

taking speciated ST measurements. 

• Process Steps - There can be many people and steps necessary to assure a good 

measurement; a mistake at any point in the process could introduce error. 

• Hazardous Wastes - Hazardous wastes can be generated from the analysis 

methods that need to be disposed of in accordance with procedures for handling 

and disposing of hazardous materials. 

• Trap Analysis - The analysis of the trap (thermal desorption or wet chemical 

analysis) destroys the sample, so that it can not be checked in the event of an 

analysis error. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-23

(a)

(b)

Figure 2-11. Hg CEMS performance compared with Sorbent Traps94
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-24

2.8. Availability of Sorbent Traps used as CMMS 

Because reporting of Hg monitoring data has not been required in many states, there are 

limited data on reported availability of the method. However, information on short-term 

experience (under six months) using Part 75 availability requirements has shown 

availability generally over 90%. Figure 2-12 shows availability data over several months 

for eight different STs. Also, as shown in 

Table 2-2, year-long data from Dominion reported to Massachusetts on its Salem Harbor 

Units 1 through 3 CMMS show availability of 89% to 96%.94

Figure 2-12. Sorbent Trap availability reported by Wright and Schmid96

Table 2-2. Availability information for Dominion Salem Harbor Units 1, 2, 3 CMMS94

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 

Online operating hours 5,922 6,209 3,620 

Monitored hours 5,263 5,587 3,480 

Total operating hours of downtime 659 622 140 

Availability 89% 90% 96% 

Missing data caused by: 

 Monitor not operated* 269 82 0 

 Monitor malfunction/maintenance 12 74 129** 

 Trap QA/QC*** 360 429 0 

 Trap change out 5 17 3 

 Monitor calibration 13 12 8 

* Early in the monitoring program the monitor operating parameters (e.g., vacuum, trap flow) were not well 

enough understood to use as predictive information to change out traps in a timely manner to avoid the

monitor shutting down on its own. Automated alerts were not sufficient. The issue has since been resolved. 

** One recurring maintenance issue caused the bulk of this downtime. The issue has since been resolved. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-25

*** Initially the sorbent traps were not able to sample for longer than three days due to a loss of spike recover. In 

June 2008, the design of the traps was improved, which allowed the duration of the run to increase. 

Subsequently, data loss due to trap quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) has been greatly reduced. 

Strictly speaking, the reported availability statistics in 

Table 2-2 for the STs in Massachusetts are not subject to the Part 75 requirements of the 

CAMR because those requirements were vacated when the CAMR was vacated. And as 

discussed previously, some changes from the original Part 75 CAMR protocol have been made 

out of technical necessity. In other words, these changes would have occurred even if CAMR 

were still in place. According to the Massachusetts DEP,89 the Massachusetts requirements 

under 310 CMR 7.00 et al. are otherwise identical to those of the now vacated Part 75 CAMR 

requirements, and these availability statistics and the good quality emissions data being 

generated are a strong indication of the industry’s efforts and ability to use STs for the 

continuous monitoring of mercury emissions. 

2.9. Approximate Number of Units Installed/In Operation 

According to ThermoFisher, over 450 of its Hg CEMS systems have been shipped to 

date. Of the 450, more than 160 systems were installed directly by ThermoFisher, and the 

balance of the Hg CEMS were installed by CEMS system integration companies – other 

companies that purchase the analyzer from ThermoFisher and install it at the customer’s site. 

Because the manufacturers, ThermoFisher and Tekran, sell spare parts, provide service, and in 

many cases monitor instruments remotely, they can estimate the number of Hg CEMS in 

operation. Of the total 450 Hg CEMS, ThermoFisher estimates that about 375 are actively in 

operation in the U.S.33 About 75 of the ThermoFisher systems are not active at least in part 

because some owners do not currently have a need to monitor mercury emissions and are 

choosing to avoid the cost of operating the systems. According to Tekran, of the 175 systems 

sold, approximately 140 are in operation and 100 have completed RATA testing. The balance of 

the systems represents later orders that are still in the process of installation and startup.75

In 2009, NESCAUM surveyed nine states and one city as to the purchase and usage of 

Hg CMMS. These data are summarized in Table 2-3. In these states, 116 CEMS and 44 ST 

systems had been purchased. Most of the CEMS (73%) were installed and operating, but only a 

third of the ST systems were installed and operating. Half of the states required the collection of 

Hg emissions data and information on the availability of the CMMS. 

A CMMS being active does not mean that the company is reporting data. The reason 

many companies operate Hg CMMS (even without a current requirement to operate them or to 

report data) is because of the anticipated need to do so in the future and the benefit gained from 

the experience of operating them prior to facing a regulatory requirement. 

With few exceptions, RATA tests and other tests such as system integrity tests have been 

performed for the purpose of verifying that the systems met their contractual performance 

requirement rather than an emissions reporting requirement imposed by a regulation. Therefore, 

the results of these tests are not publicly available unless they were published in a paper or other 

forum. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-26

Table 2-3. NESCAUM 2009 survey of Hg CMMS in nine states and one city 

Data Summary 

Number of states surveyed 9

Number of cities surveyed 1

States/city collecting Hg data 5

States collecting monitoring 

reliability/availability data 

4

Hg CEM Prevalence 

CEMS purchased 116 

CEMS installed 99 

CEMS operating 85 

ST Prevalence 

STs purchased 44 

STs installed 20 

STs operating 14 

Number of Units Sold per Vendor: 

Thermo Fisher Hg CEMS 34+ 

Tekran Hg CEMS 9+

Apex STs 5

Frontier Geosciences STs 1

Monitors’ First Year of Use 

2006 3

2007 1

2008 41+ 

2009 28+ 

2.10. Summary 

This Chapter examined the technologies for continuous monitoring of mercury emissions 

from power plant stacks, including continuous analyzers, or mercury CEMS and sorbent trap 

methods. Both Hg CEMS and STs are currently being applied to over 700 coal-fired power plant 

stacks, with over 600 Hg CEMS and about 100 STs. 

The findings of this Chapter with regard to Hg CEMS are summarized below: 

• Hg CEMS, at roughly $500,000 of capital cost per site (with some variation due 

to site specifics), are the more costly of the two approaches to install, but offer 

advantages that are listed below. There has been a significant learning curve with 

Hg CEMS, with the technology advancing rapidly and many of the technical 

challenges that existed with the technology only a few years ago having been 

addressed. 

• Many issues affecting reliability of Hg CEMS have been addressed, and it is 

expected that design changes implemented over the past few years as Hg CEMS 

have been installed will improve reliability going forward. Although only a small 

percentage of Hg CEMS have reported annual emissions data to state agencies, 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 2-27

the reported availability is 90% or greater. In other states, power plant owners 

may be operating Hg CEMS in anticipation of requirements to report such data; 

however, official availability statistics have not been made available from these 

states. As more state mercury emission rules take effect, more data should 

become available. 

• Accuracy at low mercury levels has improved. Data indicate that Hg CEMS may 

offer reliable measurements to well below 1.0 μg/m3, which is important for 

situations where Hg emission controls are in place.

• Mercury calibration gas standards (generators) that are traceable to NIST 

measurements have been developed. Interim calibration protocols have been 

established. 

The findings of this Chapter with regard to ST methods are summarized below: 

• Sorbent traps, at about $150,000 of capital cost per site (with some variation on 

this cost due to site specifics), are a lower capital cost alternative to Hg CEMS. 

However, STs require regular replacement and testing (roughly every four to 

seven days) of the sorbent traps, which entails additional labor and cost that will 

continue at that level. 

• Although only 3 of the more than 100 installed STs have reported annual 

emissions data to state agencies (Massachusetts), the reported availability has 

been 90% or greater. As more state mercury emission rules take effect, more 

availability data should become available. 

• STs appear to offer reliable measurements to well below 1.0 μg/m3, which is 

important for situations where Hg controls are in place. 

• In addition to lower capital cost, STs offer the advantage of requiring less 

sophisticated technical support than that needed for Hg CEMS. 

• Hg CEMS offer results in minutes, while STs offer information in days.
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 3-1

3. Conclusions 

3.1. Outlook for Control Technologies 

Two general approaches for mercury control have, to date, proven capable of effectively 

reducing mercury emissions at levels of control of 90% or greater on combinations of coal type 

and APCDs that represent the majority of coal-fired boilers. These approaches involve use of 

either existing APCDs or dedicated mercury control technology, primarily powdered activated 

carbon injection. 

There are cases where the co-benefit of existing APCDs alone may be capable of greater 

than 90% reduction in mercury, but this is not universally true even for similar plant/fuel 

configurations. The use of oxidation additives or dedicated mercury catalysts has been 

demonstrated to increase the removal of mercury by wet FGD systems, which is the leading 

method of obtaining removal of high levels of mercury with existing APCDs. 

Powdered activated carbon (PAC) is the most widely used mercury sorbent, and in the 

majority of coal-fired power plants, injection of PAC can achieve mercury removal of 90% or 

greater. In order for activated carbon to achieve such high levels of removal, special sorbents 

have been developed for low-halogen environments, for environments with high concentrations 

of SO3, for plants in which fly ash is sold for concrete manufacture, etc. Different methods of 

introducing activated carbon into flue gas have also been developed, including the Mer-CureTM

process and the TOXECONTM and TOXECON IITM

 processes. 

The combination of a wet scrubber and an FGD has demonstrated mercury removal in the 

range of 70% to 90% on plants burning high-sulfur bituminous coal. Activated carbon has been 

shown to be cost-effective for high levels of mercury removal at boilers with a cold-side ESP or 

baghouse that burn low-sulfur bituminous coal, subbituminous, or lignite coal, as long as the 

plant does not use flue gas conditioning with the ESP. The U.S. GAO, in its report to 

Congress,20 concluded: 

While sorbent injection technology has been shown to be effective with all coal types and 

on boiler configurations that currently exist at more than three-fourths of U.S. coal-fired 

power plants, DOE tests show that some plants may not be able to achieve mercury 

reductions of 90% or more with sorbent injection systems alone. 

The situations that the U.S. GAO identified as falling short of 90% mercury reduction 

with sorbent injection alone were: plants burning lignite, plants with hot-side ESPs, and plants 

with high levels of SO3 in the flue gas. 

Lignite burning coal plants are not a very large category, comprising approximately 3% 

of the boilers greater than 25 MW in size in the U.S. Sorbents are currently under development 

specifically for lignite-fired boilers. 

Hot-side ESPs are the only particulate control device on about 9% of boilers; these 

boilers burn both bituminous and subbituminous coals. There have been a limited number of 

full-scale demonstrations of activated carbon specifically designed for hot-side ESPs. Unless 

sorbents can be found that are effective at temperatures greater than about 700°F, the best current 

control option for hot-side ESPs would be to install a fabric filter for use with sorbent injection. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 3-2

High levels of SO3 are produced at plants that burn high-sulfur bituminous coal (defined 

as greater than 1.7 wt% sulfur) or that have an SCR and burn bituminous coal. At present, only 

17% of boilers burn high-sulfur bituminous coals. Some of the plants that burn high-sulfur 

bituminous coal have both an SCR and an FGD, and this combination of APCDs might achieve 

90% Hg removal. The high-sulfur bituminous plants that have a cold-side ESP or FF without 

both SCR and FGD make up only 11% of the US boiler population. This percentage is expected 

to shrink in the next several years as more bituminous-fired plants install advanced NOx and SO2

controls. Injection of alkaline sorbents, like trona, can be used to reduce SO3 in the flue gas and 

improve the performance of activated carbon. Furthermore, new carbon-based mercury sorbents 

are being developed that are tolerant of higher levels of SO3. 

The other category of plants that have relatively high levels of SO3 are plants burning 

low-sulfur bituminous, subbituminous or lignite coal with cold-side ESPs that require flue gas 

conditioning to meet limits on stack opacity. Approximately 24% of boilers with cold-side ESPs 

use flue gas conditioning, which represents 15% of the overall boiler population. As noted 

above, SO3-tolerant sorbents are being developed to address the difficulty in achieving 90% 

mercury removal in these systems. Trona injection has been proposed as an alternative to SO3 as 

a flue gas conditioning agent and there are other alternative flue gas conditioning agents under 

development. Another, but more expensive alternative, is to install a fabric filter after the ESP 

and to inject the sorbent into the fabric filter. 

Another consideration in the implementation of activated carbon injection for mercury 

control is the potential loss of revenue for plants that sell their fly ash for concrete manufacture. 

Plants that fire low-rank coal and sell their fly ash represent about 23% of boilers in the U.S., 

while 21% of plants that fire bituminous coal sell their fly ash. Forty-two percent of the fly ash 

sold in the U.S. goes toward the production of concrete. Adding enough activated carbon to 

achieve 90% removal can ruin the economic value of the fly ash, if the fly ash is sold for 

concrete manufacture. The Mer-CureTM process, which requires low activated carbon injection 

rates to achieve high levels of removal, might allow for the sale of fly ash. Several sorbent 

vendors offer activated carbon that is specially treated to allow the fly ash-sorbent mixtures to be 

made into acceptable concrete. An alternative is to segregate the fly ash collection from the 

sorbent collection by using the TOXECONTM or TOXECON IITM configurations. 

Regarding the cost of mercury controls, the detailed, test data-based NETL cost analyses 

compared well with the recent U.S. GAO survey-based costs for sorbent technologies (ACI). 

Sorbent-based Hg reduction costs should range between about $6000/lb to $30,000/lb when byproduct contamination/sales are not a factor and between about $18,000/lb and $50,000/lb if ash 

revenue is lost (note that ash revenues/losses can vary greatly across geographical areas and its 

impact can deviate from these values depending on site-specific market conditions). These 

estimates correspond to 20-year levelized COE of 0.35 to 2 mills/kWh and 1 to 3.5 mills/kWh 

respectively. Capital costs for sorbent injection technologies were found to be in the $5/kW to 

$15/kW range, while special applications, such as fabric filter-based TOXECONTM, are likely to 

cost $120/kW to $150/kW. 

Mercury oxidation technologies, catalysts and additives primarily used in wet FGD plants 

have lower capital costs, about $1-$2/kW for additives and $2-$4/kW for catalysts. Twenty-year 

levelized COE is under 1 mill/kWh for additives and between 1 and 2 mills/kW-hr for catalyst 

technologies. 
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 3-3

3.2. Outlook for Measurement Systems 

CMMS are currently deployed on a subset of coal-fired power plants in the U.S. There 

are two types of CMMS: 1) CEMS, which measure mercury in the gas phase using CVAF or 

AAS, and 2) STs, which collect mercury on substrate and then analyze the mercury in the 

substrate after collection. 

Hg CEMS, at roughly $500,000 of capital cost per site, are the more costly of the two 

approaches to install. Many issues affecting reliability of Hg CEMS have been addressed, and it 

is expected that design changes implemented over the past few years as Hg CEMS have been 

installed will improve reliability going forward. 

Although only 5 of the more than 600 Hg CEMS have reported annual emissions data to 

state agencies, they have reported availability of about 90% or greater. In other states power 

plant owners may be operating Hg CEMS in anticipation of requirements to report such data; 

however, official availability statistics have not been made available from these states. As more 

state mercury emission rules take effect, more data should become available. 

There has been a significant learning curve with Hg CEMS with the technology 

advancing rapidly. Many of the technical challenges that existed with the technology only a few 

years ago have now been addressed. Accuracy at low mercury levels has improved. Data 

indicate that Hg CEMS may offer reliable measurements to well below 1.0 μg/m3

, which is 

important for situations where Hg emission controls are in place. Calibration gas standards and 

calibration gas generators that are traceable to NIST measurements have been developed. 

Interim calibration protocols have been established. 

Sorbent traps, at about $150,000 of capital cost per site, are a lower capital cost 

alternative to Hg CEMS. However, STs require regular replacement and testing (roughly, every 

four to seven days) of the sorbent traps, which entails additional labor and cost that will continue 

at that level. Thus, the operating costs of STs might be higher than those of Hg CEMS. 

Although only 3 of the more than 100 installed STs have reported annual emissions data 

to state agencies (Massachusetts), the reported availability is 90% or greater. As more state 

mercury emission rules take effect, more availability data should be reported. STs appear to 

offer reliable measurements to well below 1.0 μg/m3

, which is important for situations where Hg 

controls are in place. In addition to lower capital cost, STs offer the advantage of requiring less 

sophisticated technical support than that needed for Hg CEMS. 

The choice between Hg CEMS or STs for continuous mercury monitoring will be 

influenced by a number of factors that are specific to a particulate plant. Hg CEMS offer results 

in minutes, while STs offer information in days. If information on Hg emissions is desired on a 

daily basis in real-time, then a CEMS are a better choice. At present, Hg CEMS require more 

technical training and sophistication for the operator than STs, although this distinction might 

fade as manufacturers of CEMS improve the product offerings. The level of technical training of 

plant personnel is therefore an issue in selecting a CMMS. Sorbent traps are able to measure 

mercury with good accuracy to well below 1.0 μg/m3

. If the mercury concentration in the stack 

is well below 1.0 μg/m3, then an ST system is at present a better choice. As Hg CEMS vendors 

continue to improve the detection limits of the instruments, this distinction might disappear in 

the future. Finally, the capital and operating costs of the two approaches might also influence the 

decision for a power plant.
Technologies for Control & Measurement of Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants 

in the United States: A 2010 Status Report 4-1

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