NAHEMS GUIDELINES:

DISPOSAL

National Animal Health 

Emergency Management System 

Foreign Animal Disease 

Preparedness & Response Plan

FAD PReP

NAHEMS

United States Department of Agriculture • Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service • Veterinary Services

DECEMBER 2012
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The Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan (FAD PReP)/National Animal Health

Emergency Management System (NAHEMS) Guidelines provide a framework for use in dealing with an

animal health emergency in the United States.

This FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines was produced by the Center for Food Security and Public Health, 

Iowa State University of Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, in collaboration 

with the U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service through a 

cooperative agreement.

This FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines was last updated December 2012. Please send questions or 

comments to:

Center for Food Security and Public Health National Center for Animal Health 

2160 Veterinary Medicine Emergency Management

Iowa State University of Science and Technology USDA APHIS Veterinary Services

Ames, IA 50011 4700 River Road, Unit 41

Phone: 515-294-1492 Riverdale, Maryland 20737-1231

Fax: 515-294-8259 Phone: (301) 734-8073/(301) 851-3595

Email: cfsph@iastate.edu, Fax: (301) 734-7817

Subject line: FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines E-mail: FAD.PReP.Comments@aphis.usda.gov

While best efforts have been used in developing and preparing the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines, the 

U.S. Government, U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, and 

Iowa State University of Science and Technology (ISU) and other parties, such as employees and contractors 

contributing to this document, neither warrant nor assume any legal liability or responsibility for the 

accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information or procedure disclosed. The primary purpose of the 

FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines is to provide guidance to those government officials responding to a 

foreign animal disease outbreak. It is only posted for public access as a reference. 

The FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines may refer to links to various other Federal and State agencies and 

private organizations. These links are maintained solely for the user's information and convenience. If you 

link to such site, please be aware that you are then subject to the policies of that site. In addition, please note 

that USDA does not control and cannot guarantee the relevance, timeliness, or accuracy of these outside 

materials. Further, the inclusion of links or pointers to particular items in hypertext is not intended to reflect 

their importance, nor is it intended to constitute approval or endorsement of any views expressed, or products 

or services offered, on these outside web sites, or the organizations sponsoring the web sites. Trade names 

are used solely for the purpose of providing specific information. Mention of a trade name does not 

constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by USDA or an endorsement over other products 

not mentioned.

USDA prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, 

sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all 

prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for

communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s 

TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and telecommunications device for the deaf [TDD]).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten 

Building, 1400 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice and 

TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Iowa State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, age, religion, national origin, sexual 

orientation, sex, marital status, gender identity, disability or status as a U.S. Veteran. Any persons having 

inquiries concerning this may contact the Director of Equal Opportunity and Diversity, 3280 Beardshear 

Hall, ISU, Ames, IA 50011 (515) 294-7612.
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THE IMPERATIVE FOR FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE 

PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE

Why Foreign Animal Diseases Matter

Preparing for and responding to foreign animal diseases (FADs), like highly pathogenic avian influenza 

(HPAI) and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), are critical measures to safeguard our nation’s animal health, 

public health, and food supply.

There are significant potential consequences of an FAD outbreak in the United States. In addition to the 

economic impact, the social and psychological impact on both producers and consumers could be severe. 

The FMD outbreak in the United Kingdom had an estimated impact of between $12–18 billion. Studies 

have estimated a likely national welfare loss between $2.3–69 billion1for an FMD outbreak in California, 

depending on delay in diagnosing the disease.2

Challenges of Responding to an FAD Event

An FAD outbreak will be challenging for all stakeholders. For example, there will be disruptions to 

interstate commerce and international trade. Response activities are complex, and significant planning and 

preparation must be conducted before an outbreak. Outbreaks can become large and widespread. Large, 

geographically dispersed and diverse teams will need to be assembled rapidly and must react quickly. The 

response effort must have the capability to be rapidly scaled up, involving many times more resources, 

personnel, and countermeasures. As such, responding to an FAD—large or small—may be a very 

complex and difficult effort. 

Lessons Learned from Past FAD Outbreaks

Past outbreaks both in the United States and in other countries offer important lessons that can be applied 

to preparedness and response efforts. To achieve successful outcomes in future FAD response, it is vital 

to identify, understand, and apply these lessons learned:

 Provide a unified State-Federal-Tribal-industry planning process that respects local knowledge.

 Ensure the unified command sets clearly defined and obtainable goals.

 Have a unified command that acts with speed and certainty to achieve united goals.

 Employ science-based and risk-management approaches that protect public health and animal 

health, stabilize animal agriculture, the food supply, and the economy.

 Ensure guidelines, strategies, and procedures are communicated and understood by responders 

and stakeholders.

 

1

Carpenter TE, O’Brien JM, Hagerman AD, & McCarl BA. 2011. “Epidemic and economic impacts of delayed detection of footand-mouth disease: a case study of a simulated outbreak in California.” J Vet Diagn Invest. 23:26-33.

2

Estimates based on models may vary: Ekboir (1999) estimated a loss of between $8.5 and $13.5 billion for an FMD outbreak 

in California. Ekboir JM. 1999. “Potential Impact of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in California: the Role and Contribution of Animal 

Health Surveillance and Monitoring Services.” Agricultural Issues Center. University of California, Davis.
iii

 Acknowledge that high expectations for timely and successful outcomes require the:

 Rapid scale-up of resources and trained personnel for veterinary activities and 

countermeasures, and

 Capability to quickly address competing interests before or during an outbreak.

 Rapid detection and FAD tracing is essential for the efficient and timely control of 

FAD outbreaks.

FAD PReP Mission and Goals

The significant threat and potential consequences of FADs, and the challenges of and lessons learned of 

effective and rapid FAD response have led to the development of the Foreign Animal Disease 

Preparedness and Response Plan, also known as “FAD PReP.” The mission of FAD PReP is to raise 

awareness, expectations, and develop capabilities surrounding FAD preparedness and response. The goal 

of FAD PReP is to integrate, synchronize, and de-conflict preparedness and response capabilities as much 

as possible before an outbreak, by providing goals, guidelines, strategies, and procedures that are clear, 

comprehensive, easily readable, easily updated, and that comply with the National Incident 

Management System.

In the event of an FAD outbreak, the three key response goals are to: (1) detect, control, and contain the 

FAD in animals as quickly as possible; (2) eradicate the FAD using strategies that seek to stabilize 

animal agriculture, the food supply, the economy, and protect public health; and (3) provide science- and 

risk-based approaches and systems to facilitate continuity of business for non-infected animals and noncontaminated animal products. Achieving these three goals will allow individual livestock facilities, 

States, Tribes, regions, and industries to resume normal production as quickly as possible. They will also 

allow the United States to regain FAD-free status without the response effort causing more disruption and 

damage than the disease outbreak itself.

FAD PReP Documents and Materials

FAD PReP is not just one, standalone FAD plan. Instead, it is a comprehensive US preparedness and 

response strategy for FAD threats. This strategy is provided and explained in a series of different types of 

integrated documents, as illustrated and described below. 

FAD PReP Suite of Documents and Materials

Note: APHIS = Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, NAHEMS = National Animal 

Health Emergency Management System, SOP = standard operating procedures.
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 Strategic Plans—Concept of Operations 

 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework: Roles and Coordination: This document provides 

an overall concept of operations for FAD preparedness and response for APHIS, explaining the 

framework of existing approaches, systems, and relationships.

 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework: Response Strategies and Activities: This 

document provides significant detail on response strategies and activities that will be conducted 

in an FAD outbreak.

 National Center for Animal Health Emergency Management (NCAHEM) Stakeholder 

Coordination and Collaboration Resource Guide: This guide describes key stakeholders with 

whom NCAHEM collaborates.

 NCAHEM Incident Coordination Group Plan: This document explains how APHIS 

headquarters will organize in the event of an animal health emergency. 

 NAHEMS Guidelines

 These documents describe many of the critical preparedness and response activities, and can be 

considered as a competent veterinary authority for responders, planners, and policy-makers.

 Industry Manuals

 These manuals describe the complexity of industry to emergency planners and responders and 

provide industry a window into emergency response.

 Disease Response Plans

 Response plans are intended to provide disease-specific information about response strategies. 

These documents offer guidance to all stakeholders on capabilities and critical activities that 

would be required to respond to an FAD outbreak.

 Critical Activity Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) 

 For planners and responders, these SOPs provide details for conducting 23 critical activities 

such as disposal, depopulation, cleaning and disinfection, and biosecurity that are essential to 

effective preparedness and response to an FAD outbreak. These SOPs provide operational 

details that are not discussed in depth in strategy documents or disease-specific response plans.

 Continuity of Business (commodity specific plans developed by public-privateacademic partnerships)

 Secure Egg Supply (SES) Plan: The SES Plan uses proactive risk assessments, surveillance, 

biosecurity, and other requirements to facilitate the market continuity and movement of eggs 

and egg products during an HPAI outbreak.

 Secure Milk Supply (SMS) Plan: Currently under development, the SMS Plan will help

facilitate market continuity for milk and milk products during an FMD outbreak. This Plan also 

will employ proactive risk assessments.

 Secure Pork Supply (SPS) Plan: Currently under development, the SPS Plan will help facilitate 

market continuity for pork and pork products during an FMD, classical swine fever, swine 

vesicular disease, or African swine fever outbreak.

 Secure Turkey Supply (STS) Plan: Currently under development, the STS Plan will help 

facilitate market continuity for the turkey sector during an HPAI outbreak.

 Outbreak Response Tools

 Case definitions, appraisal and compensation guidelines and formulas, and specific surveillance 

guidance are examples of important outbreak response tools.

 State/Tribal Planning

 State and Tribal planning is essential for an effective FAD response. These plans are tailored to 

the particular requirements and environments of the State or Tribal area, taking into account 

animal populations, industry, and population needs.
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 Industry, Academic, and Extension Planning

 Industry, academia, and extension stakeholder planning is critical and essential: emergency 

management is not just a Federal or State activity.

 APHIS Emergency Management

 APHIS directives and Veterinary Services Memorandums provide critical emergency 

management policy. APHIS Emergency Management documents provide guidance on topics 

ranging from emergency mobilization, to the steps in investigating a potential FAD, to 

protecting personnel from HPAI. 

These documents are available on the FAD PReP collaboration website: https://fadprep.lmi.org. For those 

with access to the APHIS intranet, they are available on the internal APHIS FAD PReP website: 

http://inside.aphis.usda.gov/vs/em/fadprep.shtml. 
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PREFACE

The Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan (FAD PReP)/National Animal Health 

Emergency Response System (NAHEMS) Guidelines provide the foundation for a coordinated national, 

regional, state and local response in an emergency. As such, they are meant to complement non-federal 

preparedness activities. These guidelines may be integrated into the preparedness plans of other federal 

agencies, state and local agencies, tribal nations, and additional groups involved in animal health 

emergency management activities.

The Disposal Guidelines are a component of APHIS’ FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guideline Series, and are 

designed for use by APHIS Veterinary Services (VS), and other official response personnel in the event 

of an animal health emergency, such as the natural occurrence or intentional introduction of a highly 

contagious foreign animal disease in the United States. 

The Disposal Guidelines provide guidance for USDA employees, including National Animal Health 

Emergency Response Corps (NAHERC) members, on disposal principles for animal health emergency 

deployments. This Guideline provides information for Disposal Group Supervisors and other personnel 

associated with disposal activities involving animal carcasses and related materials. The general

principles discussed in this document are intended to serve as a basis for making sound decisions 

regarding disposal. As always, it is important to evaluate each situation and adjust procedures to the risks 

present in the situation. 

The FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines are designed for use as a preparedness resource rather than as a 

comprehensive response document. For more detailed response information, consult the FAD PReP 

Standard Operating Procedures (SOP): 14. Disposal and plans developed specifically for the incident. 

Additional disposal resources are included in the references at the end of this document.
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APHIS DOCUMENTS

This “FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal” has corresponding disease-specific FAD PReP 

Standard Operating Procedures (SOP): 14. Disposal.

Several key APHIS documents complement this “FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal” and 

provide further details when necessary. This document references the following APHIS documents:

 FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: 

o Health and Safety (2011)

o Biosecurity (2011)

o Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia (2011)

o Cleaning and Disinfection (2011)

o Personal Protective Equipment (2011)

 FAD PReP Standard Operating Procedures (SOP):

o 8. Health and Safety/PPE

o 9. Biosecurity

o 13. Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia

o 15. Cleaning and Disinfection

 Safety and Health Manual

Many of these documents are available on the FAD PReP collaboration website at: https://fadprep.lmi.org

Username and password can be requested.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) viii

Table of Contents

1. Introduction.................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Emergency Response Training and Exercise .............................................................. 2

1.1.1 Development of Incident Specific Disposal Plans ................................................... 2

1.1.2 Evaluation.......................................................................................................... 3

1.2 Interagency Outreach.............................................................................................. 3

1.3 Consideration of Other Disposal Plans Already Developed........................................... 3

1.4 Incident Command System ...................................................................................... 4

1.5 Examining State Regulations Regarding Disposal ....................................................... 5

1.6 Partnerships with Industry Stakeholders for Disposal Activities.................................... 5

1.7 Collaboration with Federal Authorities ....................................................................... 5

1.8 Use of National Veterinary Stockpile Services............................................................. 5

2. Disposal Group Preparation, Responsibilities, and Activities ...................... 6

2.1 Disposal Group Preparation for Response to an Animal Health Incident........................ 6

2.2 Roles and Responsibilities of Disposal Group Personnel .............................................. 7

2.2.1 Disposal Group Supervisor................................................................................... 7

2.2.2 Disposal Team Leader......................................................................................... 8

2.2.3 Disposal Team Members ..................................................................................... 9

2.3 Assessing Needs ..................................................................................................... 9

2.4 Recordkeeping and Reporting .................................................................................10

2.5 Hazard Communication...........................................................................................10

2.6 Media and Public Relations Considerations ...............................................................10

2.7 Biosecurity/Containment Measures ..........................................................................11

3. Disposal Methods........................................................................................ 12

3.1 Overview...............................................................................................................12

3.2 Composting ...........................................................................................................13

3.2.1 Overview of Composting Disposal Method............................................................13

3.2.2 Composting Process...........................................................................................13

3.2.3 Indoor Composting ............................................................................................14

3.2.4 Outdoor Composting..........................................................................................15

3.3 Rendering .............................................................................................................15

3.3.1 Overview of Rendering Disposal Method..............................................................15

3.3.2 Overview of Dry Rendering Process.....................................................................16

3.3.3 Dry Rendering Using Batch Configuration ............................................................17

3.3.4 Dry Rendering Using Continuous Rendering Configuration.....................................17

3.4 Permitted Landfill/Burial..........................................................................................18

3.4.1 Overview of Permitted Landfill Methods ...............................................................18

3.4.2 Overview of Unlined Burial Techniques ................................................................20

3.5 Thermal Disposal Methods ......................................................................................22

3.5.1 Overview of Thermal Methods ............................................................................22

3.5.2 Fixed-Facility Incineration...................................................................................22

3.5.3 Open-air/Uncontrolled Burning............................................................................23

3.5.4 Air-Curtain Incineration ......................................................................................24

3.6 Other Disposal Procedures ......................................................................................24

3.6.1 Alkaline Hydrolysis.............................................................................................25

3.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion ...........................................................................................25
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) ix

3.6.3 Gasification .......................................................................................................25

3.6.4 Plasma Vitrification ............................................................................................26

3.7 Environmental and Biosecurity Considerations of Disposal Options .............................26

3.7.1 Overview of Environmental and Biosecurity Considerations....................................26

3.7.2 Composting.......................................................................................................27

3.7.3 Rendering.........................................................................................................28

3.7.4 Permitted Landfill/Burial .....................................................................................28

3.7.5 Thermal Methods...............................................................................................30

3.8 Transportation of Waste Materials ...........................................................................32

4. Site-Specific Disposal Method Selection Criteria ....................................... 33

4.1 Overview...............................................................................................................33

4.2 Regional Limitations ...............................................................................................33

4.3 Safety Considerations .............................................................................................34

4.4 Number, Species, Types of Animals to be Disposed...................................................34

4.5 Considerations for Temporary Disposal Storage ........................................................34

5. Classification of Waste Materials ............................................................... 35

5.1 Solid Waste ...........................................................................................................36

5.2 Hazardous (Solid) Waste.........................................................................................36

5.3 Medical and Infectious (Solid) Waste .......................................................................36

6. Considerations for Selection of Potential Disposal Methods for Selected 

 Waste Materials .......................................................................................... 38

6.1 Overview of Considerations.....................................................................................38

6.2 Type and Strain of Pathogen...................................................................................38

6.3 APHIS Emergency Management Tools Decision Tree and Checklist.............................39

7. References .................................................................................................. 40

8. For More Information ................................................................................. 44

9. Acknowledgements .................................................................................... 46

10. Photo and Illustration Credits .................................................................. 45

Glossary .......................................................................................................... 47

Acronyms ........................................................................................................ 48
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 1 

1. INTRODUCTION

Preparing for and responding to foreign animal diseases (FADs), such as highly pathogenic avian 

influenza (HPAI) and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), are critical measures to safeguard our nation’s 

animal health, public health, and food supply. Effective disposal of animal carcasses and associated 

materials is a critical component of a successful response during an animal health emergency, such as a 

major disease outbreak or a foreign animal disease (FAD). During an FAD outbreak, disposal measures

are implemented to prevent the introduction of or mitigate the spread of the pathogen through the 

elimination of infected, or potentially infected, animal carcasses and associated materials. Disposal also 

serves to remove potentially contaminated feed or food products from the animal feed and human food 

supply, protect the nation’s agricultural and national economy, and also - if the disease is zoonotic, 

safeguard public health. In the event of an FAD outbreak, waste material such as animal carcasses will be 

produced if mass euthanasia and depopulation are chosen to mitigate disease. It is also likely that some 

animals would perish due to infection with the FAD and these would also require proper disposal. In 

addition to animal carcasses, related waste materials such as milk, feed materials or wool and hair will

also need to be securely disposed of. This FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal provides guidance 

on choosing and using optimal disposal methods for a range of situations.

The overall goal of disposal operations during an animal health incident is to eliminate all animal 

carcasses and related material in a timely, safe, biosecure, aesthetically acceptable, and environmentally

responsible manner.

Disposal has the following preparedness goals:

• Establish disposal protocols or procedures before an outbreak, for consistency and safeguarding, 

and to meet regulatory requirements.

• Identify suitable locations where disposal activities may be conducted.

• Identify suitable disposal personnel, supplies, materials, and equipment prior to the incident or 

FAD outbreak.

• Prevent the further spread of the disease agent, with little or no effect on the environment, 

considering community preferences, and conserving meat or animal protein if logistically 

supportable from a biosecurity viewpoint.

Disposal has the following response goal:

• Properly dispose of contaminated and potentially contaminated materials, including animal 

carcasses, as quickly as possible while maximizing pathogen containment, environmental 

sustainability, stakeholder acceptance, and cost effectiveness. 

In discussing disposal activities during animal health emergencies, this Guidelines document focuses on

evaluation of disposal options, selection of optimal disposal procedures, and disposal of associated 

miscellaneous materials. Additionally, this document focuses on essential areas such as the 

responsibilities of disposal personnel, disposal considerations, and disposal methods.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 2 

Qualified personnel must be proficient and knowledgeable in all aspects of potential disposal options. 

Decision makers must be comfortable choosing the quickest, safest, and most environmentally 

responsible disposal methods practicable given the circumstances. It is crucial that appropriate disposal 

decisions are made by these qualified personnel and that potential negative environmental and biosecurity 

risks associated with various disposal options are accounted for in the decision making and subsequent 

planning. Failure to properly account for important factors related to a disposal option can result in 

devastating environmental and biosecurity consequences. This document is designed for use not only 

during emergency situations but also in animal health emergency preparedness and response training 

programs. A brief overview of key elements of such programs is provided below.

In a large-scale FAD outbreak, an integrated response may include disposal, depopulation, vaccination, 

and decontamination and should be considered together. Cooperation and effective communication are 

essential in development and implementation of a cohesive response to an animal health event. 

In addition to this Guideline, an associated document titled FAD PReP Standard Operating Procedures: 

Disposal has been prepared. The Standard Operating Procedures, or SOP, is written to accompany the 

Guidelines and provide critical tactical and operational information related to what is described in the 

Guidelines. This SOP provides specific direction for conducting disposal activities so that a consistent 

conformance to recommendations and expectations can be facilitated. It is expected that personnel 

participating in disposal-related activities in the context of an animal health emergency will have read and 

understood all sections in the SOP document that apply to them.

1.1 Emergency Response Training and Exercise

Well before an animal health emergency strikes, disposal 

personnel should use these Guidelines in emergency response 

exercises designed to help them expand their knowledge of animal 

health emergency management. Such sessions will help personnel 

test detailed response plans that have been developed for response

to realistic emergency scenarios.

1.1.1 Development of Incident Specific Disposal Plans

A useful assignment challenges participants to use the Guidelines 

to create a detailed plan for the first 24 hours of an animal health 

emergency. Participants can use information in the Guidelines to 

answer questions such as:

• What actions will need to be taken immediately? If these actions are not taken, what consequences 

are likely?

• What relationships with other key personnel, including individuals in the emergency management 

community, should be in place prior to the emergency?

• To what degree will disposal of animal carcasses and associated materials disrupt the agricultural 

community? How can the effects of such disruptions be minimized?

• To what degree will disposal of animal carcasses and associated materials disrupt the community 

at large? How can the effects of such disruptions be minimized?

• What key information and resources (e.g., equipment and supplies) need to be readily available, 

and where and how will they be obtained, stored, and accessed?

• What obstacles may appear, and how will they be overcome?

• What conflicting pressures are likely, and how will they be balanced?
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 3 

• If an initial plan fails, what are the elements of an effective alternative plan?

• How will psychological stressors associated with disposal activities be mitigated?

1.1.2 Evaluation

The evaluation phase of test exercises will provide participants with the opportunity to use these 

guidelines to (a) evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of their responses in the simulation exercises and 

(b) focus on ways to further enhance their strengths and improve their response capabilities in the event of 

an actual animal health emergency. The exercises also will underscore the need for participants to develop 

and maintain strong collaborative relationships with their counterparts in the emergency management.

1.2 Interagency Outreach

If the presence of an FAD or any other type of animal health emergency is detected in the United States, 

the appropriate local, State, Tribal, and Federal agencies and their partners in the private sector (e.g., 

industry and academia) must respond in a coordinated, mutually supportive manner to (a) determine the 

nature of the outbreak, (b) initiate an appropriate response, (c) eliminate or control the disease, and (d) 

facilitate recovery efforts (such as resumption of trade) while balancing environmental concerns 

surrounding various disposal options. When an outbreak involves an FAD, the State and the United States 

Department of Agriculture (USDA) are involved at the onset. 

The FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines are designed for use at any of three levels of response 

commensurate with the severity of the outbreak. In general, response levels include: 

• A local/limited response. This level of response is managed locally, with response coordination 

provided primarily at the local levels and with State, regional, and/or Federal consultation and 

consequence management (e.g., trade issues).

• A State/regional response. A State/regional response is managed by the State/region, and industry 

officials—in some cases, with the involvement of the appropriate State emergency management 

agency as specified in State animal health emergency response plans. National-level crisis 

management, response coordination, consultation, and consequence management are required and 

will be provided by the Federal government.

• A national response. Although Federal agencies act as the lead, this level of response requires 

the combined efforts of local, State, industry, and Federal agricultural officials as well as 

nonagricultural personnel from Government (e.g., the Federal Emergency Management Agency

(FEMA)) and the private sector in national-level crisis management, response coordination, 

consultation, and consequence management. 

1.3 Consideration of Other Disposal Plans Already Developed

Response and recovery efforts are encouraged at the local level. In some cases, disposal plans may have 

been developed at a local, State, or regional level. In addition, some segments of the livestock industry 

have developed comprehensive disposal plans for a particular species or production type. It is also 

possible that memorandums of understanding (MOU) may already exist between potential disposal sites 

(such as fixed-facility incinerators or landfills) and industry (such as a cattle feedlot). Experts and 

planning officials in the community where disposal activities are planned should be consulted and, if a 

disposal plan exists, the plan should be thoroughly and thoughtfully considered. Every effort should be 

made to respectfully evaluate existing disposal plans in areas scheduled for disposal activities. If, due to 

costs, safety, environmental concerns, or other important considerations, the existing disposal plan is not 

feasible, then an alternative should be developed.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 4 

1.4 Incident Command System

Regardless of the size and scope of the incident, the agricultural community must be prepared to work 

closely with the emergency management community to deal with an animal health emergency. The 

Incident Command System (ICS) is used to efficiently manage people and resources during an incident 

such as an animal health emergency. The use of ICS as an emergency response approach has been 

adopted widely within the emergency management community. This publication refers to the titles of 

officials and groups in terms of the ICS model. The use of ICS terminology will promote the broadest 

possible application and implementation of this Guideline’s content among the agricultural and 

emergency management communities. It is hoped that this approach will help the reader understand the

essential aspects of animal emergency response activities within the context of this model. In the 

following example of an Incident Command System organizational structure the Disposal Group is a part 

of the Operations Section under the Disease Management Branch (Figure 1). 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 5 

1.5 Examining State Regulations Regarding Disposal

Regulations often vary by State and region and significant regulatory differences may exist between 

locales. It is imperative that proper permitting and approval is obtained before disposal efforts commence. 

Communication and coordination with appropriate State and other officials occurs so that disposal 

activities are in compliance with applicable regulations. Planning and communication regarding 

appropriate permitting and approvals should begin prior to the detection of an outbreak .Contractors who 

participate in disposal activities are required to maintain compliance with all applicable permitting and 

approval processes before initiating disposal activities.

Permits for disposal related activities may be issued through various agencies for a multitude of purposes. 

Typically, permit requiring activities related to disposal include:

• Storage and transport of infectious material

• Operating a disposal facility

• Discharge permits required for releasing disinfectant solution and emitting air pollutants to 

the environment

• Approval to exercise the chosen disposal method such as mass-mortality burial

• Land use permits for burial

• Digging in an area where utilities may be present

1.6 Partnerships with Industry Stakeholders for Disposal Activities

Expertise in disposal may also be available within particular industries. For example, large poultry 

operations may have personnel trained in depopulation as well as disposal and may also possess 

associated specialized equipment. In some situations, industry stakeholders may be included in speciesspecific planning and assist in associated disposal activities. It is critical that participating personnel be 

trained in ICS to be successfully integrated into a response. In addition, involved industry stakeholders 

must embrace the importance of cooperation with other groups and units within and outside the ICS.

1.7 Collaboration with Federal Authorities

In addition to USDA, other Federal authorities may also provide input and expertise during an FAD 

response including:

• Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

• Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)

• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Depending on the size and complexity of animal health incident, any or all of these agencies may 

collaborate and contribute to response efforts. Further information regarding specific responsibilities of 

agencies during a response is detailed in the FAD PReP SOP: Disposal.

1.8 Use of National Veterinary Stockpile Services

The National Veterinary Stockpile (NVS) program within the USDA APHIS VS National Center for 

Animal Health Emergency Management provides the veterinary countermeasures, such as animal 

vaccines, antivirals, or therapeutic products, supplies, equipment, and response support services that 

States, Tribes, and Territories need to respond to damaging animal disease outbreaks. The two goals of 

the program are to (1) deploy within 24 hours of approval countermeasures against the most damaging 

animal diseases, including highly pathogenic avian influenza, foot-and-mouth disease, exotic Newcastle 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 6 

disease, and classical swine fever, and to (2) assist States, Tribes, and Territories plan, train, and exercise 

for the rapid request, receipt, processing, and distribution of NVS countermeasures during an event.

Countermeasures deployed by the NVS program include personal protective equipment, decontamination 

supplies, vaccines and vaccination ancillary equipment, animal handling and depopulation equipment. In 

addition to physical countermeasures, the NVS maintains contracts to support 3D response support 

services. 3D is the acronym for “depopulation, disposal, and decontamination” and represents activities 

commonly demanding rapid deployment of large numbers of response personnel and equipment. The 3D 

contractors are highly trained in emergency response, and are self-sufficient with their own equipment 

and supplies. Contractors can deploy within 24 hours and supply 500-600 people within 3 days and 1,000 

people within a week. The NVS program serves as the single point of contact for 3D response support 

services. NVS staff will select the best qualified contractor(s) to support the depopulation, disposal, 

decontamination efforts of incident command.

Time is of the essence when responding to a damaging animal disease outbreak, and States, Tribes, and 

Territories need a plan to receive NVS countermeasures within 24 hours of APHIS’ approval to deploy.

When developing a plan or evaluating a response strategy, NVS planners can access guidance on the 

process to request NVS countermeasures, including 3D response support services, from the NVS website:

http://nvs.aphis.usda.gov. Both the NVS Countermeasures Request Form and instructions on how to 

complete the statement of work for 3D contractors are included.

2. DISPOSAL GROUP PREPARATION, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND ACTIVITIES

Response preparedness for an animal health incident is essential to effectively manage an emergency. 

Disposal personnel, especially those who will make management decisions, must possess extensive

disposal subject matter expertise and thoroughly understand their roles and responsibilities within the 

context of the Incident Command System (ICS). Cooperation and communication among and within 

various groups involved in responding to an animal health incident is critical to a successful response. 

Input from qualified experts regarding disposal activities should be factored into response efforts and 

decision making by command staff. In addition, appropriate biosecurity measures must be implemented 

and personnel safety and hazard communication must remain at the forefront of group preparation. All 

Disposal personnel should learn as much as possible about the procedures discussed in these Guidelines 

and in other information sources such as those mentioned in Section 7 (References) and Section 8 (For 

More Information) and Disposal personnel also should participate in educational sessions and emergency 

response exercises designed to expand their knowledge and expertise in the area of animal health 

emergency management.

2.1 Disposal Group Preparation for Response to an Animal Health Incident

Cooperation and communication are critical in successfully responding to an animal health incident. As 

part of preparing to plan, implement, and coordinate disposal activities, the Disposal Group should work 

closely with associated personnel including the:

• State Veterinarian 

• State Agency for Environmental Protection

• Appraisal Group and Compensation Unit

• Euthanasia Group

• Biosecurity Group

• Cleaning and Disinfection Group
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 7 

In addition, cooperation and communication with Federal inspectors and regulators as well as 

environmental personnel that are involved in disposal response efforts should occur. State personnel such 

as the State Veterinarian and the State Agency for Environmental Protection should be consulted 

regarding State and local regulations and procedures for carcass disposal to ensure that proposed plans do 

not conflict with existing rules. In addition, the Appraisal Group should have completed their on-site 

activities prior to initiation of depopulation and disposal activities.

The Disposal Group must work closely with the Euthanasia Group to coordinate activities so that the rate 

of euthanasia activities does not greatly exceed that of the Disposal Group. Preparation should include a 

comparison of the estimated depopulation rate compared to the disposal rate so that advance planning and 

arrangements for temporary storage can occur. Depopulation should be paced so that subsequent disposal 

activities are not overwhelmed. When an extended delay between animal mortality and subsequent 

disposal of carcasses and related materials is unavoidable, then coordination between the two Groups 

should occur in order to ensure only a minimum time between confirmation of death and subsequent 

disposal occurs and to establish an approved temporary refrigeration or storage location for carcasses 

and materials.

The Biosecurity Group will provide guidance to the Disposal Group in ensuring that activities are 

conducted in a manner that maximizes biosecurity. In particular, transport of any potentially infectious 

material must be performed in accordance with all applicable laws, regulations, and guidance. The

Cleaning and Disinfection Group should also be consulted as disposal plans are developed so C&D can 

be scheduled accordingly. The Incident Commander must approve the Disposal plan before 

implementation based on recommendations from environmental agencies and other stakeholders. For 

more information concerning other associated activities see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Mass 

Depopulation and Euthanasia (2011) and Cleaning and Disinfection (2011) as well as each related SOP.

2.2 Roles and Responsibilities of Disposal Group Personnel

Within the Incident Command System (ICS), the Disposal Group 

structure is diagramed in Figure 2.

The total number of personnel for the Disposal Group will vary 

depending on the size and scope of the incident. Three ICS levels 

are described for the Disposal Group and include the Disposal 

Group Supervisor, Disposal Group Team Leaders, and Team 

Members. This is consistent with the principles of Chain of 

Command (orderly line of authority), and Unity of Command 

(accountability). Briefly, the Incident Commander is charged with 

overseeing all activities related to the event, including Logistics, 

Planning, Operations, and Finance/Administration. The Disposal 

Group Supervisor is in charge of all Disposal personnel and 

directly supervises Disposal Team Leaders. The Disposal Team 

Leaders supervise the members of the Disposal Teams.

2.2.1 Disposal Group Supervisor

The Disposal Group Supervisor should be identified well before an animal health emergency occurs. This 

individual is assigned to the Incident Command Post (ICP) and reports to the Disease Management 

Branch Director. This individual is in charge of all Disposal Teams and has the primary responsibility for 

ensuring that disposal measures are implemented effectively during an animal disease emergency, and 

that all disposal personnel are familiar with the proper disposal techniques for the specific incident being 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 8 

managed. The Disposal Group Supervisor has extensive training and/or experience in disposal methods, is 

able to make informed recommendations for optimal disposal options, and possesses the management 

skills needed to organize and direct all disposal activities for the incident.

Additional duties of the Disposal Group Supervisor include:

• Appoints Team Leaders

• Consults with Team Leaders

• Serves as an expert resource for disposal issues and maintains a working knowledge of State and 

Federal regulations pertaining to disposal of carcasses and related materials

• Prepares a site-specific plan to determine the number and types of personnel, vehicles, and other 

resources and equipment needed to conduct disposal operations. This includes defining needs and 

requirements for contracts to be issued and communicating with the Operations Section Chief to 

ensure that the required resources are available.

• Identifies personnel training requirements and orienting new personnel to the specifics of their 

duties within the Disposal Group.

• Assigns Disposal personnel as necessary to achieve the goals outlined by the 

Incident Commander.

• Coordinates Disposal Group activities with other response Groups.

• Prepares regular briefings and reports for the Operations Section Chief and notifies him or her 

immediately of any problems.

• Maintains working relationships with appropriate animal health emergency groups, environmental 

regulatory agencies, and other industry stakeholders.

• Ensures that disposal is implemented in compliance with relevant policies and in accordance with 

the approved plans and environmental regulations.

2.2.2 Disposal Team Leader

The Disposal Team Leader focuses primarily on ensuring that safe, effective, and environmentally 

sensitive disposal procedures are carried out in an animal health emergency. Each Team Leader should be 

identified well before a disease outbreak or other animal health emergency occurs. Typically, the Disposal 

Team Leader is given responsibility for the implementation of disposal activities in a clearly delineated 

area or on a specific number of premises.

A Disposal Team Leader supervises a single Disposal Team and reports to the Disposal Group 

Supervisor. Multiple teams of responders, each under the direction of a Team Leader, may be assembled 

depending on the scope of the incident. In addition, the Team Leaders assist the Disposal Group 

Supervisor with duties including:

• Determining the number and types of resources needed to conduct disposal operations.

• Instructing and training Disposal Team Members in disposal protocols, policies and procedures, 

and general safety precautions and biosafety.

• Assigning tasks to Disposal Team Members and ensuring accomplishment of mission objectives.

• Ensuring compliance of Disposal Team Members with relevant policies, plans and 

environmental regulations.

• Establishing communication and coordination with other units and groups involved in response.

• Serving as a technical resource for information on current disposal methods and procedures.

• Preparing briefings and reports for the Disposal Group Supervisor.

• Notifying Disposal Group Supervisor of relevant issues or problems.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 9 

2.2.3 Disposal Team Members 

In the event of an animal disease emergency, the work of the Disposal Group on infected or exposed 

premises is essential to the containment and control of a disease outbreak. The Disposal Group is 

composed of credentialed Team Members who are experienced or trained in Disposal SOP and can carry 

out disposal activities under supervision. The Disposal Group Supervisor will assign Disposal Team 

Members to premises or specific mission assignments as soon as possible after an Infected or Contact 

Premises is declared and disposal activities are imminent. Team Members may be assigned to a Task 

Force or a Strike Team. 

A Task Force is composed of a collection of mixed resources managed under one Leader. It is a versatile 

combination of resources which allows efficient management of several elements. An example of a 

Disposal Task Force might include one with mixed personnel (veterinarians, police officers, technicians),

and mixed equipment (excavation/earth moving equipment for disposal). A Task Force is used when the 

mission focus is varied and a variety of activities must take place to accomplish the mission’s objective.

In contrast, a Strike Team is a collection of similar resources managed under one Leader. All Members in 

a Strike Team have similar capacity and knowledge. For example, a Disposal Strike Team may be 

composed of heavy equipment operators who must excavate land to prepare for burial of materials. The 

planning, ordering, utilization, and management of Strike Teams are more streamlined when compared to 

Task Forces. Thus, a Strike Team is utilized when the mission focus requires similar resources.

2.3 Assessing Needs

Needs for qualified credentialed disposal personnel, vehicles, equipment, and supplies will be determined 

at the time of the animal health emergency by the Disposal Group Supervisor in consultation with 

Disposal Team Leaders. An assessment of needs will also be based on information obtained from other 

groups that have visited the premises such as personnel from the Disease Surveillance Branch and 

Disease Management Branch as well as the Appraisal and Euthanasia Groups. At a minimum, collected 

information should include: global positioning system coordinates (GPS) for premises and any on-site

disposal areas, owners name and address (include mailing if different than physical), and available on-site

supplies associated with disposal. 

The Disposal Group Supervisor, in consultation with Team Leaders will determine needed material, 

supplies, and equipment including vehicles. Logistics is tasked with securing required supplies including 

coordination of delivery location, date, and time. The Disposal Group Supervisor will work with State 

emergency management agencies to identify disposal personnel with the required expertise from multiple 

governmental and private sources including industry stakeholders who may possess specialized 

equipment and/or training. The Disposal Group Supervisor should advise the Operations Section Chief of 

any personnel requirements that cannot be satisfied locally so that arrangements for additional personnel 

can be made. 

Depending on the level of the response, the Disposal Group Supervisor will work with the appropriate

local, State, and Federal emergency management and response agencies to meet the needs identified. In 

addition, the Disposal Group Supervisor will work with those in the Finance/Administration Section to 

issue contracts and leases regarding personnel or equipment for the disposal operation. Emergency 

response exercises held prior to an animal health emergency will provide disposal personnel with the 

opportunity to become familiar with standard contracts and leases and to consider the feasibility of 

putting contracts and other arrangements in place prior to an animal health emergency.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 10 

2.4 Recordkeeping and Reporting

The Disposal Team Leader should obtain basic information about each premises visited by the Disposal 

Team and should provide this information to the Disposal Group Supervisor. Essential information 

includes the owner’s name, the mailing address of the premises, the GPS coordinates for the premises and 

any disposal sites it may contain (if available), and the number, species, and type of the animals disposed 

of on the visit. Reports should be submitted promptly to the Emergency Management Response System 

(EMRS) or a similar acceptable reporting system.

The APHIS EMRS is used by VS personnel and other animal health emergency response officials to 

manage and investigate animal health emergencies in the United States. Information about EMRS is 

available at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/emrs/.

2.5 Hazard Communication

Before any disposal activities are initiated, Disposal Team Members should be briefed fully by the 

Orientation and Training Cell as to the nature of the disease with which they are dealing and any 

associated hazards. Specific safety precautions and/or hygiene requirements should be explained before 

the team enters the premises. This is particularly important if a zoonotic disease is involved. In addition, 

the team should be supplied with appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) and other necessary 

safety equipment. Respiratory protection, gloves, and eye protection, for example, must be supplied if the 

personnel are at risk from a disease organism or chemical hazard, if significant amounts of dust are 

generated, or upon individual request. For further information, see the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: 

Health and Safety (2011) and the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Personal Protective Equipment 

(2011). Other applicable information can be located in the APHIS Health and Safety Plan (HASP) at: 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/hasp/health_safety_procedures.shtml. Disposal Team

Members should wear appropriate PPE to ensure personal safety and compliance with Occupational

Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards. All PPE must be used according to an established 

biosecurity protocol and guidelines established by the Safety Officer. Appropriate public health agencies 

and medical assistance teams should work with responders to monitor them for signs of disease and to 

develop protocols for self-assessment.

Additional biosecurity and cleaning and disinfection procedures may be required to address the risks

posed by serious zoonotic diseases. Cleaning and disinfection procedures are outlined in FAD 

PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Cleaning and Disinfection (2011). Biosecurity measures are also described 

in the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Biosecurity (2011). The associated SOP documents also provide 

important information.

2.6 Media and Public Relations Considerations

A major disease outbreak and response in this country can be expected to attract considerable media 

attention and interest, especially in the early stages of the incident. It is important that animal emergency 

response personnel make an effort to gain the support of the public. The media may be helpful in raising 

public awareness of the necessity of the disposal activities associated with depopulation or euthanasia 

activities in response to an animal health emergency. Appropriately crafted media messages will help the 

public to understand the need for the depopulation and disposal of some number of animals and 

associated materials as well as why this is being done to protect the food supply and public health. 

The Public Information Officer(s) in the Joint Information Center will be primarily responsible for 

coordinating communications with stakeholders. The Public Information Officer will regularly update 

representatives of the media, including updates on euthanasia and disposal activities included in approved 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 11 

press releases. If possible, information will be provided to the general public on a proactive basis to 

educate them on the issues pertaining to disease eradication—including disposal issues—and to assure 

them of the appropriateness of disposal procedures and activities. The Joint Information Center is also 

tasked with monitoring and responding to the press, public, industry, and affected parties for specific 

concerns and problems during an FAD.

Disposal sites should be protected from media personnel and the public as much as possible. Care should 

be taken during disposal activities to prevent or lessen the likelihood of inappropriate aerial photography 

and videos. There will be no other personnel permitted on-site other than official or credentialed

personnel as visitors’ safety cannot be guaranteed and may interrupt the efficiency of activities as well as 

the safety of credentialed personnel.

2.7 Biosecurity/Containment Measures

Observance of strict biosecurity and cleaning and disinfection measures by Disposal Team Members is 

essential to prevent the possible spread of disease between premises. Personal biosecurity measures as 

well as vehicular and equipment biosecurity is critical to help contain disease and prevent further spread.

For a more in-depth discussion of these topics, it is strongly recommended that readers access 

https://fadprep.lmi.org. For more information regarding specific procedures for biosecurity, and for 

cleaning and disinfection, refer to:

• FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Biosecurity (2011) and SOP

• FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Cleaning and Disinfection (2011) and SOP

• FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Health and Safety (2011) and SOP

• FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Personal Protective Equipment (2011)

A comprehensive understanding of the type and strain of pathogen associated with the decision to 

depopulate and dispose of animals is essential to prevent further spread of infection and to safeguard 

human, animal, and environmental safety and security. In addition, it also weighs heavily in transportation 

planning as well as human safety—both during disposal activities and following them. Biosecurity and 

cleaning and disinfection protocols will be largely based on the type and strain of pathogen, and its 

possible modes of transmission.

In the event of a highly contagious FAD, a Control Area will be established around premises identified as 

Infected Premises or Contact Premises. Effective biosecurity and surveillance play key roles in the 

detection and prevention of further disease spread. Biosecurity measures and movement restrictions for 

personnel, animals, and resources will vary between zones. A brief description of zones and areas is 

shown in Table 1.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 12 

Personnel must be aware of what zone they are in and what protocols and restrictions are in place. For 

example, upon arrival at the entrance to a premises, Disposal Team Members may need to change to 

protective clothing (e.g., coveralls, rubber boots, and hat) and follow other procedures. Upon departure 

from the premises, strict adherence to biosecurity protocols should be maintained. Disposal Team 

Members will likely need to clean and disinfect their clothing, including boots and hats according to an 

established protocol. Procedures should be in place for the removal and disposal of protective clothing. 

3. DISPOSAL METHODS

3.1 Overview

During a large scale animal health emergency, it is likely that more 

than one disposal method will be utilized and competent 

professionals registered in the affected State(s) should be included 

among decision makers. The leadership should be skilled and 

experienced in integrating several disposal technologies into an 

overall disposal strategy. In addition to the likelihood of utilizing 

multiple disposal methods, the strategy should remain flexible so 

that necessary improvements and changes can be implemented as 

seamlessly as possible. Professionals likely to have such expertise 

include licensed professional environmental, civil, or agricultural 

engineers and scientists with demonstrated experience in waste 

disposal/remediation. To work effectively with waste management 

specialists, it is useful for ICS team members to understand carcass 

disposal options and the various advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as described in this section of 

the Guidelines.

During an animal disease outbreak, there is a very high likelihood of generating massive amounts of 

contaminated biomass which can have a severe impact on public health. During the 2001 FMD outbreak, 

the United Kingdom (UK) found unlined burial to have unacceptable public health risks. Therefore, due 

to potential negative risks to public health associated with improper burial, it is imperative that carcass 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 13 

disposal decisions be made by qualified waste disposal experts who are familiar with livestock industry 

concerns as well as State/local environmental concerns. State-level environmental and animal health 

agencies will need to be consulted and must approve large-scale animal disposal plans. 

This Guidelines document will discuss major disposal methods most likely to be considered during an 

animal health emergency. They include:

• Composting

• Rendering

• Permitted Landfill/Burial

• Fixed-Facility Incineration

• Air-Curtain Incineration

• Open-air/Uncontrolled Burning

In addition to these disposal methods, several emerging technologies will also be discussed. This section

will also discuss environmental and biosecurity considerations for disposal options and transportation of 

waste material.

3.2 Composting

3.2.1 Overview of Composting Disposal Method

Composting is a carcass disposal method that promotes decomposition through placement of carcasses 

between layers (approximately two feet thick) of carbon rich organic materials. During the composting 

process decomposition requires nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, and moisture for optimal tissue breakdown.

Although technically an aerobic process, a totally aerobic composting process is typically only reached 

under intensively managed (i.e. industrial) conditions that are unlikely to occur in emergency composting. 

In carcass composting, carcasses serve as the source of nitrogen and the addition of high carbon plant

material (variously referred to as co-compost or cover material) serves to meet the carbon requirement, 

absorb excess moisture, and retain heat/sustain high internal temperatures necessary for rapid 

decomposition and pathogen suppression. Composting may take place indoors or outside. The 

decomposition process and underlying scientific principles are similar for indoor and outdoor composting. 

3.2.2 Composting Process

The use of composting as a disposal method can provide a nutrient 

rich product that can be applied to land to increase productivity if 

materials such as solid semi-dry manure are used. If nutrient poor 

co-compost materials (cornstalks, straw, sawdust, wood shavings) 

are used, then the final nutrient content will be lower. However, it 

is unlikely that mortality compost would be used as a soil 

amendment if compost is derived from infected animals. Carcasses 

can be composted whole or, to speed the process, can be ground 

and mixed with co-compost (sawdust, wood chips, ground 

cornstalks, and ground straw) prior to pile formation to improve 

microbial activity and speed of soft-tissue decomposition. Care 

must be taken to prevent dispersion of pathogen-laden aerosols 

during grinding and mixing if the carcasses are infected. To 

increase decomposition speed, carcasses that are composted in their entirety may need to be mechanically 

turned at least three times during composting to promote aeration and further decomposition. Infected 

carcasses should be turned only minimally, if at all, to avoid dispersing pathogens. While turning 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 14 

can speed decomposition if done correctly, pile turning is not necessary and is not recommended for 

infected carcasses.

A thick envelope of co-compost over the carcasses retains heat, absorbs odorous decomposition gases, 

and provides a favorable environment for microbes which degrade decomposition gases into less odorous 

compounds. The addition of sufficient plant material also reduces the likelihood of pathogen release due 

to wind, insect activity, or scavenging animals. An adequate source of carbon (plant material) must be 

available to maintain the compost pile. A carbon to nitrogen ratio ranging from 25:1 to 40:1 is optimal to 

provide energy for decomposition and to minimize the production of odors during the initial phase.

In the first phase of carcass composting, the desired core temperature of the composting pile is between

135-140 degrees F within 15 days of compost initiation. Many compost piles do reach these temperatures 

quickly, particularly during warm weather. However, if composting is initiated during cold seasons, 

optimal temperatures may not be reached until much later than 15 days post compost initiation. 

Depending upon the size of the carcass biomass, this temperature should optimally be maintained for a 

length of time—between 3 and 12 weeks. Heat is a significant driver in pathogen destruction but other 

factors such as microbial competition, drying, and toxic decomposition gases will often aid in reduction 

of pathogen populations. During emergency composting, optimal temperatures may be difficult or 

impossible to reach. This is due to large carcass and pile size and high organic loading (causing oxygen 

depletion) in the core of the compost pile. Subsequently, the interior zones of mortality composting piles 

are likely to be anaerobic or have very low oxygen levels, while zones closer to the surface are aerobic.

Aeration is optimal during the first phase. It is during the first 

phase that some pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella spp. and 

Shigella spp. may be destroyed; particularly if core temperature 

can meet or exceed 149 °F for 1 to 2 days. To speed the 

composting process, the compost pile can be passively aerated by 

constructing a porous compost pile that allows air to enter the pile 

naturally via diffusion or aided by wind. Although grinding 

carcasses and turning the piles may be useful for non-infected 

mortality composting, it is not recommended during an animal 

disease outbreak emergency response due to biosecurity concerns.

During the second phase, aeration is not as critical. The time to 

complete phase 2 is also dependent upon the carcass size and can 

vary from an estimated 10 days (chickens and other poultry) to 

approximately 240 days (heavier carcasses such as mature cows 

and horses).

When selecting composting as a disposal method, an important consideration is the availability of large 

quantities of carbon sources-both as a cover material and as a thick base layer. For example, emergency 

bovine composting may require 10-12 cubic yards of cover material (ground cornstalks, ground straw, or 

corn silage) per 1,000 lb. of carcass. If very large numbers of carcasses must be disposed, locating, 

transporting, and grinding sufficient quantities of cover material will be a significant task. 

3.2.3 Indoor Composting

The poultry industry has widely implemented indoor composting for bird mortalities. Indoor composting 

processes are less affected than outdoor composting by weather events, ambient temperatures, and 

seasonality. This option may work well in poultry houses without significant indoor constraints such as 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 15 

support poles. When compared to outdoor composting, indoor 

composting is more protected from the wind, has less risk from 

scavengers, and from drying conditions. Indoor composting often 

presents some challenges for space limitations and restricted space 

for the use of heavy equipment to turn piles. Copious amounts of 

water are used for foam depopulation of poultry and, although 

some water can expedite composting, excessive water volume can 

prolong decomposition times in the composting process. When 

choosing indoor composting as a disposal method following foam 

depopulation, the Virginia Cooperative Extension Service reports it 

is important to use a neutral pH water source that is “soft” or 

minimally hard and has low sediment concentrations. There are 

also some differences in environmental and biosecurity impacts 

between indoor and outdoor composting and these are addressed in 

Section 3.7.2.

3.2.4 Outdoor Composting

When composting is the selected disposal method for large animal species such as beef and dairy cattle, it 

typically occurs outdoors. Site selection for outdoor composting is critical and experts should be 

consulted to identify and secure an optimal composting site. In general, potential sites must be located at 

least 300 feet away from bodies of water and should be well drained and downwind of public areas or 

communities. Site accessibility should not be hindered by typical seasonal weather changes and a 

reasonable plan to control runoff must be in place. Since composting is very sensitive to environmental 

moisture levels, it is recommended that outdoor compost piles be covered with a tarp or roof in more 

humid climates so that excessive pile wetness does not prolong composting times. However, this would 

not likely be possible during an animal health emergency. Piles would likely be formed into long, narrow 

windrows. Since emergency outdoor windrow composting is typically unsheltered, adverse weather 

events such as high wind weather advisories and extreme precipitation can affect compost pile quality. To 

help offset any added moisture, base and cover layers of the compost pile may be made more absorbent

by constructing them with additional thickness. Engineers and personnel experienced with composting 

should be consulted to determine the recommended thickness for a given situation.

3.3 Rendering

3.3.1 Overview of Rendering Disposal Method

Rendering is an off-site process that uses heat to convert carcasses 

into protein-based solids (meat and bone meal), water, and melted 

fat/tallow. Rendering plants may be integrated with existing 

packing or poultry processing plants or may operate independently 

and obtain animal carcasses from farms, ranches, or other entities. 

Integrated rendering plants associated with a packing plant or 

poultry processing facility may produce edible fats and proteins

that might be used in the manufacture of gelatins or cosmetics if 

they conform to Food and Drug Administration (FDA) processing 

standards. Since independent rendering plants often obtain input 

materials from a variety of sources, the resulting rendering 

products are deemed inedible for humans but may be used in some livestock feeds, soap, and other 

production processes. Only inedible rendering will be discussed in this document. 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 16 

Independent full-service rendering companies are capable of efficiently transporting and processing one 

million or more pounds per day of raw animal by-products and mortalities. Only rendering facilities that 

comply with applicable regulations should be considered for performing the rendering process. If 

rendering is being considered during an animal health emergency, then care must be taken to coordinate 

activities with the rendering plants so that their facilities are not overwhelmed. Rendering plants typically 

have service contracts with other entities that must be fulfilled and, if operating contractually at full 

capacity, may be unable to accept emergency carcasses and associated waste material. Plans for 

temporary storage should be considered because decomposed carcasses cannot be rendered. As part of 

planning, efforts should be made during disease-free periods to negotiate Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite 

Quantity (ID/IQ) contracts with rendering facilities that can enable an effective and efficient response.

Additionally, adequate biosecure transport must be arranged to deliver waste material from depopulation 

site to rendering plant.

If rendering is chosen as a disposal method during an animal health emergency, careful consideration and 

planning are critical in developing a workable plan. The number of rendering plants is reportedly much 

lower than it was 30 years ago. Many rendering plants may be operating at or near capacity as part of 

normal business operations and the surge capacity may be limited. Some areas no longer have local 

rendering plants, necessitating long distance transport in specially designed trucks. Prior to rendering any 

material from an animal health emergency, all parties need to be aware of the fact that some rendered 

product may not be marketable. A plan for the final disposal of that product must be developed. 

Landfilling or burial may be options. Rendering facilities sometimes have established biosecurity 

procedures in place to minimize risk of pathogen transmission. In some cases, biosecurity protocols may 

be modified if necessary to address specific diseases. Rendering facilities also have procedures in place 

for dealing with waste water and other byproducts associated with the rendering process. This Guidelines’

associated SOP provides direction in general planning and coordination when choosing rendering as a 

disposal option. The National Renderers Association maintains a list of members, including rendering 

plants. The association may be accessed at http://www.renderers.org. 

3.3.2 Overview of Dry Rendering Process

There are two types of inedible rendering: dry rendering and wet rendering. Dry rendering is the only type 

of rendering process currently utilized in the U.S. rendering industry, and materials are processed using 

either batch or continuous rendering. Carcass materials subjected to continuous rendering use a single 

cooker to complete the heating and cooking process. In contrast, batch rendering involves transfer of the 

heated product to another cooking cylinder before completion of the cooking process. 

In general, the dry rendering process occurs off-farm, necessitating transport that poses some risk of 

pathogen spread. These risks can be mitigated through careful route selection, and use of leak-proof 

rendering transport trucks or emergency installation of plastic liners to make non-leak-proof trucks tight.

Modern rendering facilities are constructed to separate raw material handling from the processing and 

storage areas. The process is performed and monitored through computer technology to achieve time and 

temperature recordings for appropriate thermal kill values for specific microorganisms.

Dry rendering cooks ground carcasses in their own fat while contained in a horizontal, steam-jacketed 

cylindrical vessel equipped with an agitator. The final temperature of the cooker (250-275°F) destroys 

harmful pathogens and produces usable end products such as meat, feather, bone, and blood meal that can 

be used in animal feeds.

Heat generated by steam condensation is applied to the jacket and agitator blades to ensure uniform heat 

distribution and shorten the time necessary for cooking the carcass materials. Indirect heat of the dry 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 17 

system converts the moisture in the carcasses to steam; the resulting steam pressure inside the vessel, 

combined with continuous agitation, breaks down fat cells and disintegrates the material. The cooker is 

brought to the required steam pressure at which it is maintained for a specified period of cooking time. 

Cooked material is monitored periodically to determine when the cooking process is complete. The slight 

grittiness and fibrous nature of the cracklings (a solidified protein material product resulting from the 

rendering process) provides indications of the progress of the cooking process. After cooking, steam 

generated inside the cooker is removed through a steam release valve adjusted at specific pressure.

3.3.3 Dry Rendering Using Batch Configuration

Dry rendering systems may be used in a batch configuration. In the first stage, the raw material from a 

receiving bin is conveyed to a crusher or similar device to reduce its size to pieces of 1-2 inches for 

efficient cooking. Cookers are heated at normal atmospheric pressure to around 212°F until the moisture 

is driven off through vents in the form of steam and the temperature rises to 250-275°F depending on the 

type of raw materials. This high temperature breaks the cell structure of the residue and releases the fat as 

tallow. The cooked material is discharged into a separate container, which allows the free-run fat to drain 

away from the protein solids known as tankage or cracklings. 

The heating process during batch rendering normally takes 2-3 hours. In terms of loading, some plants 

discharge raw materials to the batch cooker when the batch maximum temperature is reached; others 

utilize a holding time of up to 30 minutes. After the heating process, which normally takes up 2-3 hours, 

the tallow is decanted off and the solids are emptied from the cooker.

3.3.4 Dry Rendering Using Continuous Rendering Configuration

In continuous rendering all the rendering processes are done simultaneously and consecutively. Most

continuous rendering systems require little to no manual operation and finished products will be generated 

at a constant rate if there is a constant supply of carcasses. Continuous rendering systems are generally 

equipped with automatic controls for both time and temperature. More automated control is exercised 

over the crushing of big particles, uniform mixing of raw material, and the maintenance of required 

time and temperatures of the cooking processes. Compared to batch rendering configuration, 

continuous systems also generally offer greater flexibility, allowing a wider range of time and 

temperature combinations for cooking raw materials. Figure 3 shows the dry rendering process using the 

continuous system.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 18 

3.4 Permitted Landfill/Burial 

3.4.1 Overview of Permitted Landfill Methods

Some types of commercial or industrial permitted landfills may provide a reasonable option for carcass 

disposal in some cases. Modern landfills are required to meet design and operating standards outlined in

Subtitle D of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). These RCRA regulations are 

contained in Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Parts 239-299. Key features of the permitted 

landfill design include liners, leachate containment systems, and gas collection systems.

Three types of permitted landfills exist in the United States: construction and demolition, hazardous 

waste, and municipal solid waste. Municipal solid waste landfills are often the most appropriate for 

catastrophic carcass disposal, as the carcasses can be layered between compacted soil and solid waste 

materials. These landfills are generally clay and/or synthetically lined and have leachate collection and 

gas recovery. They include municipal solid waste landfills (MSWLFs) and industrial solid waste landfills 

that are in compliance with Federal criteria. Landfills meeting the criteria to be included in Subtitle D are 

an optimal type of landfill for catastrophic animal carcass disposal. Landfill sites may be privately owned 

or may be operated by municipalities. Approximately 1,600 solid waste landfills currently operate in the 

U.S. See EPA’s I-WASTE Tool for a listing of landfills (http://www2.ergweb.com/bdrtool/login.asp).
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 19 

It is important for emergency planners to understand that many smaller or older landfills are unlikely to 

have extensive environmental protection features. Large landfills, or those specifically planned to handle 

toxic materials are more likely to meet criteria for Subtitle D regulations but are also less common and 

may be more difficult to access. Small local landfills (the type most likely to be found in rural regions 

where livestock are raised) may not include leachate collection/treatment, gas collection, or synthetic 

membrane liners. However, landfills are usually located at sites specifically selected to minimize potential 

risks to groundwater, surface water, and other environmentally sensitive areas. Many smaller or medium 

sized landfills may decline carcasses and will not participate in emergency disposal operations because of 

lack of personnel, equipment, and stockpiled soil to rapidly cover a sudden influx of carcasses.

For landfills to be considered a viable disposal option, officials 

should obtain a pre-catastrophe agreement with the landfill 

management/ownership for use of a landfill if necessary during an 

animal health emergency. Use of this method requires careful 

planning because of the limited capacity of most landfills as well as

high regulatory requirements. See the associated SOP for additional 

information regarding planning and operation procedures for this 

disposal method.

In some instances, acceptance of carcasses may be restricted or 

prohibited from some solid waste landfills. In other instances, the 

site operator will be required to obtain additional regulatory 

approvals before accepting the materials. Operational issues at a 

landfill—opening of a new disposal cell, recent odor complaints, 

pending permit approvals, or lack of available capacity (such as at 

smaller landfills)—may limit carcass disposal or make it unacceptable to the landfill operator. Public 

perception may also present issues for obtaining approval for disposal at publically owned landfills. This 

is of particular concern when the disease has zoonotic potential. The generator of the waste, likely the 

State or Federal government who has or will pay indemnity for the animals, remains liable for 

environmental contamination caused by a landfill even if the government agency wasn't responsible for 

the actual release. Therefore, only well-run landfill operations with few violations should be used to avoid 

future clean-up liability.

Landfill sites are typically staffed and operated on an as-needed basis and include regular hours of 

operation. In the event that a landfill is used to dispose of significant volumes of carcass material during 

an FAD outbreak, it is likely that additional staff will be required as a result of extended hours of 

operation, additional security or traffic control, or additional biosecurity measures such as cleaning and 

disinfecting of transport vehicles. Additional training for landfill employees on the biosecurity measures 

necessary to prevent the spread of an FAD may be needed.

Most states have regulations that define allowable carcass disposal options. In many states disposal in 

landfills is permitted, although different options may be allowed under different circumstances. The fact 

that landfilling may be allowed does not necessarily mean it will be an available option; it is generally at

the landfill operator’s discretion as to whether or not carcass material will be accepted. 

During the 2001 outbreak of FMD, the UK identified minimum criteria for determining the suitability of a 

landfill for disposal of infected animal carcasses. The criteria were based on the assumptions that 

infectivity of material deposited in the landfill would be low and short-lived, and that the carcass material 

could generate leachate for up to 20 years after disposal. The criteria include the following:

• Location. Prohibited use of some sites based on proximity to various protected zones, aquifers, 

water tables, floodplains, etc.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 20 

• Liner. Required that the base and sides be comprised of at least 1 meter of well-engineered clay.

• Leachate management. Required an effective and robust leachate management system to ensure 

efficient collection of leachate for the next 20 years. Required contingency planning for treatment 

and disposal of leachate of very high organic loading for a period of at least 20 years.

• Gas management. Required adequate gas management infrastructures to collect gas from the 

whole of the site.

• Monitoring. Required a monitoring plan for groundwater, surface water, and leachate as well as 

an associated contingency plan in the event of an identified problem.

• Odor & vermin control. Required effective odor and vermin control plans.

• Documentation. Required documentation of the location, number, and extent of animal carcasses 

deposited within the site for future reference.

The resources and infrastructure necessary to dispose of animal carcasses at a landfill site are much the 

same as those required to operate the landfill on a daily basis. However in cases such as animal disease 

outbreaks, the disposal of large volumes of carcass material may require unique resources. When it is 

necessary to dispose of large numbers of carcasses using a commercial landfill, it is especially important 

to consider transportation in the planning because obtaining a sufficient number of large trucks suitable 

for transporting carcasses is often a limiting factor. Large quantities of cleaning and disinfecting supplies 

and additional personal protective equipment will be needed for the biosecure movement of trucks and 

personnel. For more information, see the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Cleaning and Disinfection 

(2011) and Personal Protective Equipment (2011) as well as the associated SOP.

3.4.2 Overview of Unlined Burial Techniques 

Burial techniques discussed in this section are differentiated from the previously discussed landfill 

disposal options because they are designed and engineered solely for the disposal of carcasses and 

associated materials while landfills are/were utilized for other uses prior to becoming considered as a 

disposal option in the event of an animal health emergency. Unlined burial techniques may be utilized 

during an animal health emergency. The use of unlined burial as a disposal option has been utilized in 

several recent animal health emergency events, including FMD in the UK and South Korea. In general,

unlined burial of carcasses and related materials such as ash from other disposal procedures involves 

placing them in a trench or large, earthen hole or pit. Eventually, buried materials are degraded and 

broken down into minerals and organic material. Carcass degradation will generate significant quantities 

of leachate and groundwater contamination may result. The property owner is typically liable for all 

environmental remediation costs associated with the disposal method. As with all on-site burial options, 

the costs of installing and maintaining groundwater monitoring wells; collecting water samples, lab 

analysis of samples, environmental remediation (particularly groundwater remediation), etc. should be 

taken into account. Land taken out of production for disposal also brings costs. 

An extensive inventory of heavy equipment will likely be necessary to facilitate burial when used as a 

disposal method. Machinery and equipment will be needed for digging burial pits, burying carcasses and 

associated material, as well as cleaning and disinfection activities. Equipment such as backhoes, 

bulldozers, dump trucks, scrapers, and trench diggers will be necessary. Exact equipment requirements 

will vary between sites and scenarios. 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 21 

3.4.2.1 Unlined Trench Burial

Unlined trench burial typically takes place on or adjacent to premises where euthanasia occurs. Trenches 

involve the excavation and creation of trapezoidal or vertical trench for placement of carcasses in the 

trench. Care must be taken to maintain trench wall integrity when utilizing heavy machinery to excavate 

near the edges of the trench. Waste materials are then covered with the excavated material (backfill

trenches may vary from an estimated 4 feet to 8 feet in depth and are typically about six feet wide so that 

two large animal carcasses may be placed side by side within the trench. Trench burial is a disposal 

method that typically takes place on-farm. A schematic example of trench burial is provided in Figure 4.

Soil type is critical in the decision to utilize trench burial.

Important characteristics in determining the suitability of a site 

for burial include: 

• Soil properties (texture, permeability, surface fragments, 

depth to water table, depth to bedrock)

• Slope or topography

• Hydrologic properties

• Proximity to water bodies, wells, public areas, roadways, 

dwellings, residences, municipalities, or property lines

• Accessibility

• Subsequent intended use of site

A less permeable soil type such as loam soil is appropriate for 

burial. Highly permeable soils should not be present in areas where 

burial is being considered. Resources such as the National Resource Conservation Service (NRCS)and 

appropriate State and university sources should be part of the sampling and geotechnical assessment. In 

addition, the strategic use of the NRCS Geographic Information Systems (GIS) tool to evaluate 

environmental suitability may provide valuable guidance in decision making for site selection. In states 

where carcass disposal is regulated, trench burial is frequently one of the options allowed. However, State 

regulations vary considerably in terms of specific criteria required for a suitable burial site. In addition, 

the appropriate Services must be obtained to insure no underground lines or similar hazards are present 

where digging is proposed. If predators are a problem, special care must be taken to prevent them from 

accessing carcasses. If trench burial is being considered, the premises must be assessed to determine if it 

is large enough for on-site burial of the carcasses. See the FAD PReP SOP: Disposal for specific details 

in construction of a trench burial site.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 22 

The length of time required to dispose of carcasses via trench burial will depend on:

• The time required to identify an appropriate site.

• The time required to gain approval of the site by regulatory bodies such as environmental 

regulatory agencies.

• The species and total number of carcasses to be buried.

• The total excavation area and volume required.

• The type, quantity, and availability of excavation equipment, as this determines the time required 

to excavate the necessary area. An estimate of the typical capacity of excavator-type equipment 

(i.e., a backhoe) can be roughly equated to the bucket size.

Response time can likely be minimized if as many of these issues as possible are addressed prior to the 

time of need.

The principal by-products resulting from burial of carcasses are those that result from the decay process, 

namely leachate and gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and others. The quantity of 

these by-products produced will relate to the volume of carcass material buried. Generally these byproducts are of no commercial value. The property owner is typically liable for all environmental 

remediation costs associated with the unlined trench burial. As the carcass mass decomposes over time, 

settlement of the site will occur. Additional backfill may be required to prevent pooling of water at the 

site and to help restore the natural land surface. Depending on the volume of carcass material buried, 

some additional repair steps to contain gas or leachate may be needed.

3.5 Thermal Disposal Methods

3.5.1 Overview of Thermal Methods

Thermal methods use high-temperature combustion to destroy animal carcasses and associated animal 

materials. Incineration is a method that has been used historically as a disposal option and continues to be 

utilized in some circumstances. It was used extensively during the 1967 and 2001 FMD outbreaks in the 

UK. Various fuel sources are used to start and accelerate combustion and include diesel fuel, propane, and 

furnace or waste oils. Gasoline or other highly explosive accelerants should not be used. To effectively 

render Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (TSE) agents noninfectious, materials must be 

subjected to very high temperatures - at least 1,560° Fahrenheit (850° Celsius) for at least 15 minutes. If 

possible, a higher temperature of 1,830° F (1000° C) should be reached to optimize the likelihood that 

TSE agents are rendered noninfectious, although viral agents are inactivated at lower temperatures. This 

section will discuss fixed-facility incineration, open air/uncontrolled burning, and air-curtain incineration.

3.5.2 Fixed-Facility Incineration

Fixed-facility incineration takes place in a completely contained 

environment and is usually highly controlled. Fixed-facility 

incinerators are typically fueled by diesel, natural gas, or propane

and have emission control devices installed as part of an 

environmental protection plan. Disposal using fixed-facility 

incinerators may also use enormous amounts of fuels such as diesel 

or propane. This incineration method has been successfully used in 

the UK to dispose of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)

infected cattle. Fixed-facility incineration can be highly efficient

disposal method which produces little residue as carcasses and 

associated materials are reduced to inert ash.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 23 

Some larger animal production facilities have on-site incinerators, and veterinary schools and diagnostic 

laboratories may also use incineration to dispose of animal carcasses. Although private facility 

incinerators may play a part in disposal during an FAD response, it is unlikely that they would have

sufficient continuous capacity to handle large emergency losses. Small, fixed-facility incinerators may be 

operated on some farms. However, these are sized for routine production losses and would be too small 

for catastrophic whole-herd disposal.

The concept of incinerating carcasses in large hazardous waste, municipal solid waste, and power plants 

has also been suggested as a potential disposal method. However, large-scale whole-carcass disposal 

would be problematic given the batch-feed requirements at most biological waste incineration plants. 

Hazardous waste incinerators typically require waste to have a heating value of at least 5000 BTU/lb. If 

waste material has a heating value of less than 5000 BTU/lb., then additional fuel must be added to 

maintain correct temperatures. Pathological waste such as animal waste usually has a heating value of 

approximately 1000 BTU/lb. and requires substantial addition of fuel to maintain an appropriate 

temperature. In addition, carcasses are approximately 70 percent water as opposed to preferred waste 

which is typically around 25 percent water. Thus, many waste incineration facilities simply refuse to 

accept dead animals because of the low heating value and high water content. Additional issues in 

accepting pathological waste include lack of capacity to dispose of the additional waste and problems 

with acceptability of processing pathological wastes.

The type of species has a large influence on the speed at which carcasses are incinerated; the greater the 

percentage of animal fat, the more efficient the carcass will burn. Swine have a comparatively high fat 

content and burn hotter and more quickly than other species. Because of the higher fat content often 

present in swine, personnel should avoid placing too much high fat material in the unit at one time 

because the liquid fat can accumulate and overflow the incinerator to surrounding areas. The throughput 

of fixed-facility incinerators depends on the chamber’s size. Large carcasses may need to be macerated 

prior to incineration to efficiently and properly combust the remains. For small animal carcass 

incinerators, which can be used on farms for fallen stock, the throughput may reach only 110 lbs. per 

hour. Larger facilities dedicated to the incineration of animal remains may be able to accommodate 

larger volumes.

Most large incinerators are fitted with afterburners that further reduce emissions by burning the smoke 

exiting the primary incineration chamber. The State agency responsible for environmental compliance

will likely require carcass incinerators to meet State air quality (opacity) (and other) requirements.

Incinerator ash is typically considered acceptable for landfill disposal.

3.5.3 Open-air/Uncontrolled Burning

Historically, open-air or uncontrolled burning has been used to 

thermally destroy animal carcasses and associated materials during 

animal health crises. Open-air burning may be termed uncontrolled 

burning because it has the least opportunity for inputs to be 

monitored. Neither the fuel nor air inputs can be controlled, the 

result of open-air burning is often an incomplete (very smoky) and 

relatively low-temperature combustion. Many states allow for 

incineration of carcasses on-farm but specifically prohibit burning 

them in the open. Open-air burning should be conducted as far 

away as possible from the public. Only properly trained and 

credentialed personnel should conduct open-air burning and local 

fire authorities should be included in decision making. Public 

perception of open-air burning is overwhelmingly negative and, if 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 24 

selected as a disposal method, this aversion must be addressed during planning. Open pyre burning during 

the FMD outbreak in the UK brought such negative press and public concern that the British government 

stopped this practice in the early months of the outbreak.

Using this method, carcasses can be burned in open fields, on combustible heaps called pyres, or with 

other burning techniques that are unassisted by incineration equipment. To enable and promote thermal 

production, materials such as hay, straw, dry timbers, or other kindling is added to the carcasses. In 

addition, diesel or other fuels are typically used in open-air burning. State regulations should always be 

checked before a decision is made to use open-air burning as a disposal method. In addition, the potential 

for aerosol pathogen transmission from open air burning must be addressed when considering this 

disposal method. 

Open-air burning is the most lengthy of all incineration processes. The type of species burned influences 

the length of time; the greater the percentage of animal fat, the more efficient a carcass will burn. For 

example, swine typically have a higher fat content than cattle or horses and will burn more quickly. 

3.5.4 Air-Curtain Incineration

Air–curtain incineration is a thermal method that uses a combination of forced air and fuel (such as diesel 

or wood) to burn carcasses and/or associated materials. This method, which may be either a mobile 

technology or fixed technology, still burns carcasses or other materials outside but, in contrast to 

open-air burning, a manifold is used to greatly increase the air flow. Introduction of this high volume air 

greatly increases the temperature and accelerates carcass combustion process when compared to open-air 

burning. This can occur up to six times faster than open-air burning. Large-capacity fans driven by 

diesel engines deliver the high-velocity air down into either a metal refractory box or burn pit (trench). 

This process is extremely fuel-intensive.

Air-curtain systems vary in size according to the carcass mass to be incinerated. Air-curtain incineration

can be used on the farm and, technically, is an open-air thermal disposal method since it does occur in the 

outside environment. The incinerator can produce significant noise and should be located away from 

residential centers and the general public to avoid producing a noise nuisance. The use of refractory boxes 

is particularly useful when soil type makes trench digging difficult or when higher water tables are an 

issue. Resources associated with using air-curtain incineration are generally portable. Transportation and 

placement would be limited by terrain or other environmentally limiting factors.

Dry wood or coal for fuel is essential for air-curtain incineration and plays a critical role in ensuring a 

proper air/fuel mixture. Diesel may also be used to fuel the fire as well as the air-curtain fan. Speed of 

throughput depends on the manufacturer, design, and management of the air-curtain system. The type of 

species also influences the throughput; the greater the percentage of animal fat, the hotter and more 

efficient a carcass will burn. 

Air-curtain incineration, like other combustion processes, yields ash. Air-curtain incineration may be 

advantageous for disposal if it occurs in pits where the ash can be buried. However, in sensitive 

groundwater areas ash will most likely be disposed of in permitted landfills.

3.6 Other Disposal Procedures

Disposal experts continue to develop and refine effective disposal methods that may be used safely and 

with minimal negative environmental effects. Novel methods that will be briefly discussed in this

Guideline include lactic acid fermentation, gasification, in situ plasma vitrification, and alkaline 

hydrolysis. Currently, these disposal options are expensive and are typically used only by highly 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 25 

specialized operations such as veterinary schools or large research facilities. They are typically sized for 

routine operations rather than emergencies. 

3.6.1 Alkaline Hydrolysis

Alkaline hydrolysis uses high temperature (such as steam heat), pressure and pH (usually strong base like 

potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide) to process carcasses and associated materials. Using this 

mobile technology, solid by-products and a sterile aqueous solution are the products of the conversion of 

lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. This technology can take place on-site or at a fixed-facility. Alkaline 

hydrolysis is limited by low carcass material capacity, and is also time consuming, requiring at least 3 

hours to kill microbial pathogens and 6-8 hours to deactivate transmissible spongiform encephalopathy 

(TSE) prions. Because it is one of only a few technologies that can destroy BSE, it remains a viable 

disposal method. However, the use of alkaline hydrolysis for disposal in a large-scale animal health crisis 

is significantly limited by its low capacity. In addition, alkaline hydrolysis results in significant quantities 

of potentially hazardous liquid waste. This hazardous waste, termed effluent, has an extremely high pH 

and must be discharged in an environmentally safe manner. 

3.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a disposal method that has historically been used successfully for a variety of 

livestock species. Using this technology, carcasses may first be ground, then placed in a digester and 

decomposed by anaerobic bacteria. Gas, mostly methane, is released as a result of the digestion process.

This technology may be appropriate to consider for all livestock and poultry species, and it results in a 

product that may be used as fertilizer. However, this would be unlikely if carcasses were infected with a 

contagious disease prior to undergoing anaerobic digestion. Temperatures may vary considerably during 

the anaerobic digestion process and may not consistently reach high enough temperatures to deactivate

pathogens of concern such as those causing anthrax or clostridial diseases.

Lactic acid fermentation is a type of anaerobic carcass digestion that reduces carcasses to water, methane, 

and carbon dioxide. This process does not inactivate normal proteins and therefore should not be used in 

cases of confirmed or suspected TSE. It can, however, be used for carcasses infected with other virus and 

bacterial diseases. Before being subjected to fermentation using lactic acid, carcasses must first be preprocessed by grinding. Ground carcasses and associated materials are then mixed in fermenting tanks 

with lactic acid bacteria and fermentable carbohydrates such as whey, corn, or sucrose. This induces a 

process that results in the production of lactic acid as well as odors from ammonia, carbon dioxide and 

other organic smells. To reduce odors, digested carcass material should be stored in sealed and controlledvented containers. Although regulatory restrictions are usually low, the speed is not great and the process 

may take 7-10 days to complete. Once the carcass material has undergone sufficient fermentation, the 

material may be stored in vented vats and transported to a rendering facility. With the exception of TSE’s, 

disposal using lactic acid fermentation results in a lower risk of transmitting infection when transporting 

carcasses off-site.

3.6.3 Gasification

Gasification is an emerging thermal technology that converts carcasses into gasses—mainly carbon 

dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen. Some ash is also produced and can be managed using 

methods outlined for incineration. The conversion, which takes up to 12 hours, requires the use of slow 

heating (1,100-1,900 ° F) in containers that contain primary (gasification) and secondary (combustion)

chambers. Some of the produced gas may be used for heat energy to further the gasification process. 

There are two types of gasification systems: batch and continuous. Continuous gasifiers, still under 

development, are advantageous because they are more efficient when compared to batch systems.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 26 

3.6.4 Plasma Vitrification

In situ plasma vitrification, or simply vitrifaction, is an emerging technology that is still being studied. 

This process uses electrically generated heat to ionize compressed air. All gaseous emissions resulting 

from the procedure are captured and treated. This process results in temperatures in excess of 7000°C in 

the torch and, when carcasses are subjected to the high temperatures in the vicinity of the torch, water is 

completely vaporized. Still in an experimental phase, this method may produce sufficient heat to 

inactivate BSE prions and mobile configurations are possible. It has been shown to destroy all known 

contaminants (chemical agents, viruses, bacteria, fungal and prion pathogens). It also pyrolyzes organic 

materials, vitrifies inorganic materials. One advantage of this method is that it reduces the biomass of the 

original substance by about 97%. It also produces a rock-like solid residue that is highly resistant to 

leaching with no requirement for hazardous waste disposal. Air emissions from plasma vitrification are 

not well-characterized.

A disadvantage is that transportation of carcass material is required if a mobile configuration is not

utilized, thus increasing the risk of spreading infection. Also, carcasses larger than 100 pounds should be 

shredded before entering the plasma reactor. However, worker exposure to pathogens is minimized for 

smaller carcasses. It is somewhat limited by processing speed, currently at about 6-8 tons/day per module.

3.7 Environmental and Biosecurity Considerations of Disposal Options

3.7.1 Overview of Environmental and Biosecurity Considerations

This section will discuss environmental and biosecurity considerations associated with major disposal 

options outlined in sections 3.2-3.5. Consideration of potential negative environmental impacts and 

biosecurity factors must figure into effective disposal planning and response. All disposal options present 

some potentially negative environmental effects and must be accounted for in planning. Biosecurity risks 

are also present to varying degrees in each of the presented disposal methods.

Appropriate environmental regulatory agencies and stake holders should be included in planning for 

disposal site selection. Potential negative environmental effects of the selected disposal method on

air quality, water quality, soil integrity, and other environmental factors should be considered. For 

example, when considering disposal methods, particularly unlined burial, the distance between the 

proposed disposal site and water reservoirs and wells should be determined so that appropriate

environmental measures can be implemented to avoid contamination. It is critical that disposal planning 

include steps to prevent or mitigate negative environmental effects that may also ultimately impact human 

or animal health.

Potential human and vehicular traffic must also be considered and steps should be taken to maintain 

biosecurity in the surrounding areas. In planning for disposal, the initial stages will require access to roads 

and open areas that can provide a way for large trucks and other vehicles to access the disposal site. 

Careful planning and implementation of a biosecurity plan to prevent spread of infection from trucks and 

other equipment involved in transportation is critical to limiting disease.

Of particular concern is planning for disposal when the animal health event involves a TSE, diseases 

caused by prions. Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) is a type of TSE disease that poses an 

especially difficult challenge because the causal prions are extremely temperature resistant. Other 

diseases in this category include scrapie and chronic wasting disease. Very high temperatures 

(at least 1,830 °F or 1,000 °C) must be reached for a minimum of 15 minutes to destroy prions. 

Currently, only alkaline hydrolysis and fixed-facility burning can successfully destroy BSE prions in 

animal carcasses.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 27 

Efforts should also be directed at protecting wildlife and domestic scavengers from consuming or being 

exposed to carcasses and any associated infectious materials or pathogens. Exposure to or consumption of 

infectious materials by scavengers may increase the risk of mechanical transfer of the pathogen by 

wildlife or scavengers following contact with contaminated material. Scavenging may also result in the 

unintended movement of infected tissue or of accidental infection of susceptible wildlife that could then 

expose other susceptible animals.

3.7.2 Composting

Indoor and outdoor composting has similar environmental and 

biosecurity considerations and will be discussed together in this 

section. The initial composting phase may contribute to significant 

odors if site selection and technical procedures are not completed 

correctly. Care should be taken to select an appropriate site 

(downwind and adequate distance) to minimize the likelihood of 

causing a public odor nuisance. When using either indoor or 

outdoor composting, environmental and biosecurity risks will be 

decreased by utilizing well drained locations that are located

outside floodplains and away from ground and surface water 

sources. Both indoor and outdoor composting requires prolonged 

management, maintenance, and monitoring. Care must be taken to 

identify a site that will have all-season access by personnel. Poor 

compost pile quality can result in various negative environmental 

effects and biosecurity concerns.

When outdoor composting is conducted at a proper site on well-compacted soil with appropriate cover, 

the risk of environmental contamination is low. One of the more likely forms of contamination is nitrogen 

in the form of ammonia or nitrate which is produced by decaying carcasses and could be released in the 

groundwater and surrounding soil. Ammonia concentrations beneath compost windrows have been shown 

to increase 40-160 times. These increases were limited to the top 15 cm of soil, however, and no 

statistically significant increases in ammonia were found below 90 cm. Further this is mitigated by using 

a 2-foot base of carbon source, which is the current standard practice. Total nitrogen added to the soil by 

composing has been estimated to be 25% or less of the amount of nitrogen added to the soil if carcasses 

were buried instead of composted. Environment plays a role in the amount of nitrogen released outside 

the compost pile. Regions where precipitation is higher will have an increased risk of nitrogen distribution 

from composting compared to more arid regions.

On-site composting reduces the biosecurity risks associated with transporting waste material off-site. 

However, if off-site carbon sources must be obtained, then biosecurity plans must be in place for 

incoming transportation vehicles to be decontaminated prior to leaving the site. 

Covering the carcasses with sufficient material prevents the attraction of flies and scavengers (of 

particular concern in outdoor composting). If composting is performed properly, the temperatures 

achieved will inactivate most pathogens. One study demonstrated that 89% of compost piles using corn 

silage as the outer envelope (first few inches of compost pile) material of the compost pile met EPA Class 

A standards for biosolids (55° C or 131oF for at least 3 consecutive days) and 100% met Class B 

standards for biosolids (40° C or 104oF for at least 5 consecutive days). Other types of envelope material 

had lower success rates, so the choice of envelope material can be important in quickly achieving 

pathogen-killing temperatures, particularly during cold seasons.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 28 

Care must also be taken to ensure that core zones of the compost pile reach appropriate temperatures. It is 

unrealistic to expect all zones of an unturned or infrequently turned compost pile to reach pathogen killing 

temperatures. A practical approach is to place pathogen contaminated tissues in the core of the pile where 

temperatures are naturally highest and to use a sufficient thickness of envelope material around the core to 

insulate the core. This helps to retain heat and sustain higher temperatures where the contaminated 

material is located. Temperatures in the outer zones (top and sides of the pile) are less important since this 

material is not pathogen contaminated. Even if lethal temperatures are reached, some bacterial pathogens 

have been known to regrow when temperatures decline again. The regrowth populations, however, rarely 

equal peak populations found in untreated material because other factors in addition to temperature inhibit 

growth (e.g., organic acids, ammonia, and competitive microorganisms). Inhibition of bacteria can decline 

during long-term storage (i.e., two years), however, allowing pathogens to regrow.

As stated earlier, indoor composting may be chosen to dispose of poultry carcasses that have been 

depopulated using foam. Compared to outdoor composting, indoor composting may present less risk for 

spreading of infectious material outside the composting area due to uncontrolled weather or 

environmental effects. Regardless of composting method, composted materials should be tested prior to 

transportation to assure disease causing pathogens are not present. 

3.7.3 Rendering

The rendering process is closely regulated to keep it environmentally safe, but biosecurity during 

handling and transportation can be problematic. If rendering is chosen as a carcass disposal option, 

selection of a facility with optimal biosecurity protocols is critical. Continuous rendering is often 

preferable when compared to batch rendering because of the decreased risk of spreading infectious 

disease. During batch rendering, each time a vessel is opened (for discharge of rendered contents or for 

re-filling), airborne particles are released and biosecurity is threatened. The airborne particles may 

compromise biosecurity when they are released and land on surfaces.

Rendering plant personnel should be familiar with the Code of Practice approved by the North American 

Rendering Industry. Though these practices were likely developed more for preventing pathogens from 

entering pet food supplies, they are relevant to processing waste materials during an animal health 

emergency. Rendering personnel should be trained in the site-specific biosecurity plan. Additional 

information can be found at http://www.animalprotein.org.

Handling and transportation of carcasses and other waste material increase the risk of spreading disease. 

This risk may be exacerbated if the number of carcasses exceeds facility capacity and some of the 

carcasses must be stored. Once the carcasses have been rendered, however, the end product is generally 

considered biosecure. The temperatures typically produced during rendering can kill many pathogens 

such as Salmonella spp. Escherichia coli, as well as other pathogens that may cause diseases such as 

botulism, tuberculosis, Plague, and tetanus. Carcasses that are contaminated with endotoxins, chemical 

residues, or are infected with pathogens that are not killed by rendering cannot be rendered into feed 

ingredients but are sometimes safe for landfills.

3.7.4 Permitted Landfill/Burial

3.7.4.1 Permitted Landfill

The construction of new trenches into the solid waste sections of an existing landfill may release odors 

and blowing trash. However, soil is an excellent odor absorbent and good landfill practices include 

prompt covering of odorous materials. Only fenced landfills should be utilized for disposal so that the 

impact of any blowing trash is minimized. Additional cover soil and/or improved gas collection may be 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 29 

necessary to control the odor. Leachate recirculation may be required as a precautionary treatment, and 

some agencies require air and leachate sampling. Large numbers of carcasses can generate high amounts 

of leachate and methane that exceed landfill capacity. Any leaks or seepage should be repaired 

immediately. If the landfill is properly permitted and operated, these issues should be non-existent 

or minimal.

The output material resulting from the disposal of animal carcasses in landfills would be generally similar 

to that resulting from typical operations: leachate and landfill gas. Because these are normal byproducts of 

the landfill municipal site waste, systems are already in place to collect and treat these outputs. Depending 

on the type of pathogen, no additional systems will be necessary. However, because the composition of 

animal carcasses differs from that of typical municipal site waste, the disposal of significant quantities of 

carcass material in a landfill could affect the quantity and composition of leachate and landfill gas 

generated, and may warrant adjustments to the collection and/or treatment systems.

Like all off-site disposal methods, transportation of carcasses to landfills presents additional biosecurity 

challenges and plans must be in place to prevent spread through lapses during transportation. Workers 

who handle infectious carcasses need to take proper precautions and should be equipped with appropriate 

PPE in accordance with site-specific plans. In cooperation with appropriate public health agencies and 

medical assistance teams, personnel should be monitored afterward for signs of illness if pathogen of 

interest is zoonotic. Proper storage for carcasses awaiting disposal should prevent scavenging by wildlife. 

Carcasses that have been infected with persistent or potentially persistent pathogens should not be placed 

in landfills without prior regulatory approval.

3.7.4.2 Unlined Trench Burial

Unlined burial is often considered a disposal method that can be rapidly implemented. However, using 

burial as a disposal method during an animal health emergency also has significant environmental 

challenges. Contamination from leachate, runoff and ash burial can result in negative impacts to both 

private and public water supplies. The selection of a burial site is critically important and care must be 

taken to ensure that water sources are protected as well as private property and residences and public 

spaces such as roads, public lands, community parks, etc.

In addition to protecting water sources, goals for burial should include odor mitigation and prevention of 

negative environmental impacts on soil and air quality. Decomposition of carcasses and related materials 

is lengthy and residues may persist in the soils for years. Burial of significant numbers of carcasses in 

mass burial sites will create tremendous volumes of leachate requiring further management and disposal. 

Additionally, gaseous products may require extra management if produced in significant quantities. 

Certain geological conditions, such as sandy soil and a high seasonal water table, can increase the risk of 

contaminants reaching the groundwater. For this reason, states that allow the burial of livestock usually 

have regulations that dictate how close a burial pit can be located to water sources.

Although nitrogen is ubiquitous in the environment, mass burial practices can exceed the normal load. 

One thousand pounds of carcasses contains about 20 pounds of nitrogen, so high density mass burial (30 

lbs. /ft2) over a large area can add the equivalent of over 20,000 pounds of nitrogen per acre to soil 

beneath the carcasses. Bacteria (and sometimes fungi) convert this nitrogen to ammonium, which is 

highly toxic to fish if it reaches the water supply. Ammonium is then converted to nitrate, which is a 

concern for drinking water because it can cause human health problems. Nitrates also contribute to the

deposition of excessive nutrients in surface water (termed eutrophication), a process that leads to algal 

blooms, reduced water quality, fish kills, and decreased biodiversity. Though not as prevalent as nitrogen, 

phosphorus is another by-product of decomposition that can cause eutrophication.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 30 

If on-site burial is chosen, then biosecurity considerations associated with transportation of potentially 

infected material is not required. On-site burial limits the movement of carcasses—thus preventing the 

geographic spread of infection—but the burial process does not inactivate pathogens. This poses 

biosecurity risks that must be accounted for if burial is chosen as a disposal method. Some pathogens can 

be very persistent. Cattle carcasses that have been experimentally infected with Salmonella typhimurium, 

Salmonella enteritidis, Bacillus cereus, and Clostridium perfringens have been shown to cause extensive 

contamination in the soil and in a nearby drainage ditch within one week of burial. In addition, the EPA 

has reported that avian influenza virus has the potential to survive in groundwater for more than thirty 

days. These pathogens continued to be isolated for another 15 weeks. Anthrax spores, from the bacterium 

Bacillus anthracis, can be especially problematic because they can survive for long periods in the soil and 

can resurface even without mechanical disturbances such as plowing. Thus, carcasses infected with spore 

forming bacteria may not be candidates for burial and incineration should be strongly considered as an 

option. Pathogens, like chemicals, can also reach the water supply, but the risk seems to be related to 

similar geological factors. Burial is also not a suitable disposal option to consider for animals infected 

with or exposed to a TSE. 

Regardless of the cause of an animal health emergency, if burial is used as an option, then plans must 

include long term monitoring, management and environmental testing of burial sites. Plans should also 

include steps for environmental remediation in the likely event that monitoring reveals elevated levels 

of contaminants.

3.7.5 Thermal Methods

Thermal methods have important environmental and biosecurity 

considerations. In terms of monetary costs, air-curtain and 

fixed-facility incineration are considered relatively economical 

disposal methods. During an animal health emergency

involving a TSE the use of fixed-facility incineration is very 

biosecure and advantageous because this method is capable of

inactivating prions.

Open burning may negatively affect groundwater and other public 

and private water sources supplies but air-curtain and fixed-facility 

incineration do not typically result in environmental water issues. 

Negative air quality effects are of particular concern when utilizing

open-air burning. Thus, proper planning and effective 

communication with all applicable agencies and stakeholders is critical when considering this method.

If fixed-facility incineration is chosen as a disposal method, biosecure transport to the facility and 

plans for temporary carcass storage should be included in overall planning. This planning will be 

critical because fixed-facility incineration will likely be limited in its capacity to keep up with the 

depopulation rate.

3.7.5.1 Fixed-Facility Incineration

Although fixed-facility incineration can only dispose of limited amounts of waste material, this method 

has less negative environmental impact when compared to air-curtain or open-air burning. However, 

regulations are managed at the State level and may vary from state to state. It may be costly for a fixedfacility incinerator to comply with environmental regulations. Similar to what was described with openair burning; some air pollution is associated with this method. However, this problem can be mitigated 

with emission control devices and reduced when afterburners are installed on the incinerators to process 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 31 

the smoke. In addition, the ash generated using this method is often less problematic to manage compared 

to open–air burning because it is in a discrete closed container rather than distributed over open land. 

Cleaning and disinfection of a fixed incineration facility after it has processed infectious material presents 

a considerable challenge and it is essential for operators to be trained in biosecurity procedures.

Fixed-facility incineration may take place on-farm in some cases when the incinerator has already been 

installed on the premises. This may result in decreasing associated transportation costs as well as reducing 

likelihood of disease transfer associated with transportation of waste material. However, in an animal 

disease emergency, these smaller on-farm incinerators would likely be overwhelmed.

Operation of the fixed-facility incinerator by knowledgeable and trained personnel is critical to 

reduce negative environmental impacts because overloading of the incinerator can contribute to odor 

problems. In addition to odor issues, overloading of carcasses into the incineration unit can contribute 

to increased smoke.

Similar to open-air burning, the temperatures reached during incineration will inactivate many pathogens. 

In addition, the high temperature reached in a fixed-facility incinerator is capable of destroying prions.

The incineration unit must not be overloaded with carcasses and related waste material because that can 

cause temperatures to drop below optimal levels. Since this disposal method would likely require 

transportation of carcasses, one biosecurity risk that must be planned for is the increased risk of disease 

transmission during movement of carcasses from premises to the fixed-facility.

3.7.5.2 Air-Curtain Incineration

Incineration processes such as air-curtain incineration can emit hydrocarbons, heavy metals and metal 

salts, fuel specific chemicals, nitrous particles, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, dioxins and other 

pollutants into the air. Air-curtain incineration is the most rapid of the thermal disposal methods and can 

be considered for large-scale events. Air-curtain incineration is one of the most practical and

environmentally acceptable emergency incineration options. It is relatively clean-burning if operated 

correctly (not loaded too fast with carcasses), with a relatively high capacity that can be set up quickly on 

the disaster site. It can be a “fixed” or on-site technology as well as a mobile disposal technology. 

Because of its speed and capacity, it produces lower amounts of air-emissions compared to open-air 

burning. Air-curtain incineration traps unburned particles present in smoke under a curtain of air so they 

can be burned down to an almost gaseous state. Water misters may also be used to potentially further 

reduce emissions. Pollutants can be potentially further reduced with the use of a refractory box instead of 

trenches. Improper loading can produce smoke and odor, though, so air-curtain incinerators still require 

monitoring to ensure the safety of local residents. Even if emissions do not reach hazardous levels, the 

smoke and odor can generate nuisance complaints. Air-curtain incineration may also have indirect 

environmental impacts because carcasses typically have high water content (estimated 70%) and require 

large amounts of fuel to burn. In some cases, wood or coal may need to be transported long distances 

for use in incinerators. Residues produced by air-curtain incineration may contain nutrients that can 

cause algal blooms if local water sources become contaminated. This method requires less liquid fuel

than open-air burning but locating large amounts of wood fuel for this disposal option can be difficult 

in some regions.

Air-curtain incinerators are mobile, reducing the biosecurity risks associated with carcass transport. 

Incineration also destroys many viruses, so the ash may be disposed of either on-site or off-site. Although 

temperatures are typically higher than those reached in open-air burning, they cannot be adequately 

monitored or regulated to ensure that TSE infected material would be rendered non-infectious. Thus, 

this method is not recommended for disposal of carcasses with a suspected or confirmed infection with a 

TSE agent. 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 32 

3.7.5.3 Open-air Burning 

Uncontrolled open-air burning has the potential to generate excess pollutants in the form of smoke and 

odor, the possibility of creating a public nuisance, the risk of causing unintended fires, and the violation 

of regulatory restrictions. Uncontrolled open-air burning is distinguished from air-curtain incineration, 

which is also done in the open; because air-curtain incineration combustion is comparatively clean due to 

control of the air/fuel mixture during combustion. Uncontrolled open-air burning may also have indirect 

environmental impacts because carcasses have high water content and require large amounts of fuel to 

burn. The water content also makes open burning a slow process.

Incineration processes such as open-air burning can emit hydrocarbons, heavy metals and metal salts, fuel 

specific chemicals, nitrous particles, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, dioxins and other pollutants into the 

air. Ground water and soil contamination may also result from pollution by hydrocarbons. Open-air 

burning of carcasses yields relatively benign waste such as ash which does not attract pests. However, the 

volume of ash generated by open-air burning can be significant. Each ton of carcasses yields 0.3 tons of 

ash which presents another material that must be disposed of, particularly when many tons of carcasses 

are incinerated. Depending on groundwater considerations ash-disposal options range from burying it onsite to disposing of it at landfills. Additional clean-up challenges surround groundwater and soil 

contamination caused by hydrocarbons used as fuel.

Biosecurity risks must also be considered for open-air burning. Temperatures reached during open 

burning vary more than other incineration methods, so pathogens may not be inactivated and could be 

dispersed in smoke particles. As with all disposal options, any backlog of carcasses could pose an 

additional biosecurity threat and storage methods must be considered.

3.8 Transportation of Waste Materials

Although not always possible, on-site disposal is preferred from a biosecurity perspective so that 

biosecurity issues associated with transportation of carcasses are avoided. However, onsite disposal 

options have serious limitations such as environmental harm with unlined burial; lack of carbon sources

and inadequate space for composting; and limited throughput for transportable options, making transport 

likely. Transportation of carcasses requires thoughtful and extensive planning to ensure good biosecurity 

and to prevent further spread of disease. Biohazardous waste must be transported in closed, leak-proof 

dumpsters or trucks and the exterior of the loaded vehicle must be disinfected prior to transport.

Additional or secondary containment may be necessary.

In cases where conventional on-site disposal methods (e.g., burial or incineration) are deemed infeasible, 

plans should be made for the safe, efficient transfer of carcasses and material to another site for disposal. 

There are also additional costs involved in transporting as well as considerable time and investment in 

biosecurity and cleaning and disinfection of all transportation vehicles. Some pre-processing of carcasses 

may also be necessary before transportation to the main facility or disposal area. Careful planning is also 

necessary as animals, if not preprocessed, must be transported in a timely manner so that excessive decay 

has not set in.

Examples of situations in which off-site disposal may be considered include the following:

• Infectious material from laboratories in need of disposal and on-site disposal facilities are limited 

or unavailable.

• On-site constraints such as insufficient space, unsuitable soil, a high water table, or seasonal 

conditions make on-site disposal infeasible.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 33 

• All on-site locations are too close to areas of human habitation.

• Carcasses can be landfilled or rendered off-site more efficiently than they can be disposed of on 

the premises.

Transportation of contaminated waste materials from affected 

premises to off-site locations requires that special procedures be 

followed to prevent the spread of disease agents. In addition to 

EPA regulations, the U.S. Department of Transportation also 

requires materials to be classified prior to transport on public 

roads. According to the Department of Transportation Hazardous 

Materials Program Definitions And General Procedures at 49 CFR 

105.5(b), “Hazardous material means a substance or material that 

the Secretary of Transportation has determined is capable of 

posing an unreasonable risk to health, safety, and property when 

transported in commerce, and has designated as hazardous under 

section 5103 of Federal hazardous materials transportation law (49 

U.S.C. 5103).”

Vehicles must be cleaned and disinfected before they leave the 

affected premises and again after the material has been unloaded at the disposal site. Depending on State 

law, special escort vehicles also may be required. Before a visit to a premises that is known to be infected 

or potentially exposed, and thus scheduled for euthanasia and/or disposal, cleaning and disinfection 

procedures must be followed. The FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Cleaning and Disinfection (2011)

and Biosecurity (2011), as well as the associated SOP, should be consulted for further information. 

4. SITE-SPECIFIC DISPOSAL METHOD SELECTION CRITERIA

4.1 Overview

The selection of optimal disposal sites in an animal health incident involves a variety of factors and 

concerns. Disposal plans must be site-specific and account for many variables including pathogen and 

species type, environment, and public health perception. USDA APHIS Veterinary Services NACHEM 

has developed a series of questions to aid in determining the most appropriate site-specific method of 

disposal. The questions have been ordered to minimize waste of material and transport, and maximize 

generation of beneficial products. This decision tree can be reviewed in the FAD PReP SOP: Disposal.

This section summarizes some primary considerations in site selection, including decision making, on-site 

disposal, and additional disposal strategies such as off-site disposal 

and temporary storage.

4.2 Regional Limitations

Consultation with local, county, State, and Federal environmental 

officials will be necessary to obtain specific information for the 

region or community in order to minimize any negative 

environmental effects associated with the disposal of contaminated 

material. To gain information regarding geophysical considerations 

regarding soil type/condition and water table level, consult the 

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. All applicable 

public health or environmental protection laws, including fire 

codes and other regulations should be determined and followed. 

Regional climatic trends should also be considered (for example, 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 34 

the general direction of prevailing winds) and seasonal considerations (precipitation, thermal factors) 

when considering various on-site methods of disposal. When burial will be used as a method of disposal, 

local authorities must be consulted about the minimum permissible distance between wells and water 

reservoirs at the bottom of the burial pit. In addition, local authorities should be consulted to determine 

what permits need to be obtained as well as for general advice and recommendations.

4.3 Safety Considerations

The assigned Safety Officer should be consulted to provide guidance in disposal site selection. Proper site 

selection protocols must be followed to avoid injury. On-site burial decisions must be made by 

communicating and cooperating with appropriate technical and decision making groups within the 

incident command structure. Proximity to high-density housing or other public areas should be avoided, 

particularly if incineration or open-air burning is to be used. All personnel should be properly trained and 

knowledgeable of the planned strategies. A Safety Officer should be available at all times for further 

guidance and direction. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has outlined 

requirements and recommendations for those working in hazardous waste operations involving pathogens 

(CFR, Part 21, Chapter 1910, http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/hazardouswaste/index.html).

4.4 Number, Species, Types of Animals to be Disposed

The overall biomass of the animal carcasses to be disposed of must figure heavily into disposal method 

considerations. Obviously, the disposal of 1,000,000 chickens (each weighing perhaps 3.5 pounds) 

presents a different scenario than disposing of 1,000,000 head of cattle (each weighing an estimated 1,000 

pounds). Necessary equipment to handle carcasses will also vary by animal type and species as well as 

number. Personnel required to carry out disposal activities will also vary based on number, species, and 

types of animals to be disposed of. In addition, potential animal by-products should also be considered 

when planning. For example, disposal activities related to dairy cattle will also need to include plans for 

disposal of milk.

4.5 Considerations for Temporary Disposal Storage

Prompt carcass disposal following depopulation activities may be impossible due to factors such as 

exceeding the capacity of the selected disposal method and equipment breakdown. During an animal 

health emergency that involves depopulation, members of the Disposal Group strive to properly dispose 

of contaminated or potentially contaminated animal carcasses and related materials within 24 hours of 

depopulation. However, in a major animal health emergency, carcasses will likely exceed the capacity of 

available disposal methods and temporary storage may be necessary. As part of selecting a disposal 

option and planning disposal activities, preparations must occur to account for where and how carcasses 

and related materials will be stored before undergoing the selected disposal procedure. In such situations, 

carcasses and associated materials awaiting disposal should be secured to prevent unauthorized access 

and potential disease spread to susceptible species. Disease transmission can occur via humans, domestic 

pets, wild animals, birds and fomites.

The EPA has published regulations regarding storage and collection of solid waste, which can be applied 

to animal mortalities, which are essentially food waste. According to 40CFR243.200-1(a): 

“All solid wastes ... shall be stored in such a manner that they do not constitute a fire, health, or 

safety hazard or provide food or harborage for vectors, and shall be contained or bundled so as 

not to result in spillage. All solid waste containing food wastes shall be securely stored in covered 

or closed containers which are nonabsorbent, leak-proof, durable, easily cleanable (if reusable), 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 35 

and designed for safe handling. Containers shall be of an adequate size and in sufficient numbers 

to contain all food wastes, rubbish, and ashes that a residence or other establishment generates in 

the period of time between collections. Containers shall be maintained in a clean condition so that 

they do not constitute a nuisance, and to retard the harborage, feeding, and breeding of vectors. 

When serviced, storage containers should be emptied completely of all solid waste.”

One option for temporary storage involves refrigeration in a closed building. Another involves grinding 

and preserving carcasses. Guidance should be sought from State and local regulatory agencies regarding 

any required minimum setback distances. Care must be taken to plan for temporary storage in areas that 

are not near public areas or roads. In some cases, carcasses may be stored on trucks to await 

transportation for disposal. Trench silos or pits may also be used to temporarily store carcasses but care 

must be taken to prevent environmental contamination. Proper planning and implementation of 

a biosecurity plan to prevent the further spread of disease will be critical when planning for temporary 

disposal storage. 

5. CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE MATERIALS

During an animal disease emergency involving large numbers of animal mortalities, carcass disposal will 

be a priority. However, in addition to animal carcasses, significant amounts of associated materials will 

require disposal. Other common waste material types likely to be encountered during a response include:

• Animal by-products—milk, wool, etc.

• Bedding of all types, manure, hatchery waste

• Feeds-hay, grains, silage

• Equipment, supplies, and materials (e.g., personal protective equipment, trash, and sharps such as 

vaccination or diagnostic syringes and needles)

• Debris, including buildings and structures

All waste materials slated for disposal and/or transport during an FAD response must be correctly 

classified prior to disposal to assure that appropriate disposal and transportation methods are selected.

Most animal related waste generated during a response to an animal health incident will be classified as 

solid waste, but not classified as hazardous waste for disposal purposes. However, for transport purposes, 

infectious waste (including carcasses, bedding, etc.) which can cause disease or death in animals or 

humans is classified as hazardous material.

According to the EPA website (http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/wastetypes/wasteid/index.htm):

The hazardous waste identification (HWID) process is the crucial first step in the hazardous waste 

management system. Correctly determining whether a waste meets the Resource Conservation 

and Recovery Act (RCRA) definition of hazardous waste is essential to determining how the 

waste must be managed. The waste generator has responsibility for determining if a waste is a 

RCRA hazardous waste. (See: 40 CFR [Code of Federal Regulations] 262.11)

Waste classification can be complex and it may have far ranging implications of handling, transportation 

and disposal. Classification, transportation, and subsequent disposal of waste materials should comply 

with all applicable laws. Strict consideration needs to be given to federal laws, as well as the laws of the 

state where the waste is generated and where the waste is disposed of. In some instances, local 

jurisdictions will also have relevant and applicable regulations to consider. Classification is a determining 

factor in considering whether a proposed facility is permitted to accept the waste. Because regulations 

may vary between states, do not assume all states’ waste classification regulations are similar when 

planning and responding. This is particularly relevant if waste generated during a response could be 

transported across state lines for further processing. 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 36 

The relationship between state and federal government authority for waste classification and disposal may 

vary between responses and even between states for the same response. Personnel involved in decision 

making should identify and consult all relevant requirements for guidance on waste classification.

Unless designated as nuclear waste, all wastes are termed “solid.” Following designation as solid waste,

further classifications may occur. Solid waste materials related to disposal are likely to be further 

classified in into the following categories:

• Hazardous (solid) waste

• Medical and infectious (solid) waste 

Waste classifications may vary widely in regards to diseased animal disposal as well as disposal of 

associated waste materials. Professionals familiar with all regulations in the affected states should be 

included in planning and response related to waste classification and disposal methods. Once classified, 

the EPA’s I-WASTE Tool (http://www2.ergweb.com/bdrtool/home.asp) may provide guidance to those 

making disposal decisions. Further discussion of the tool as well as a disposal options matrix is found in 

the FAD PReP SOP: Disposal. 

5.1 Solid Waste

Subtitle D landfills can be used to dispose of solid waste that is not classified as hazardous as well as 

some medical waste. Most Subtitle D landfills are privately owned and operated; however, some 

municipalities still operate landfills. The local or state permit or license under which each landfill operates 

will dictate the range, quantity and types of materials they can accept; however, privately held landfills 

are generally under no obligation to accept wastes and they could restrict the disposal of response related 

materials. The development of pre-event agreements regarding the acceptance of appropriate responserelated solid waste could facilitate and expedite disposal.

5.2 Hazardous (Solid) Waste

Classification of waste is affected by 40 CFR 262.11( http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2011-title40-

vol26/xml/CFR-2011-title40-vol26-sec262-11.xml) which requires that any person generating a waste 

must determine if that waste is hazardous waste, following strict protocols.

The EPA (http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/index.htm) defines a hazardous waste as: “waste that is 

dangerous or potentially harmful to our health or the environment.” Hazardous wastes can be liquids, 

solids, gases, or sludges. They can be discarded commercial products, like cleaning fluids or pesticides, or 

the by-products of manufacturing processes.” As an example, many of the chemicals used to disinfect 

premises following disposal procedures may be considered hazardous waste. Any response related waste 

that is classified as hazardous waste will require special shipping and manifesting to a permitted 

treatment-storage-disposal facility approved to accept the materials being disposed of. The generator of 

the waste will need to obtain a generator number from the appropriate authority (state or federal) and the 

waste will need to be shipped by a permitted transporter. 

5.3 Medical and Infectious (Solid) Waste

A portion of the waste material associated with a response to an animal health emergency may be 

classified as medical and/or infectious waste. The Medical Waste tracking Act of 1988 

(http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/industrial/medical/index.htm ) defines medical waste as "any solid 

waste that is generated in the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals, in 

research pertaining thereto, or in the production or testing of biologicals." This definition includes “all 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 37 

waste materials generated at health care facilities, such as hospitals, clinics, physician's offices, dental 

practices, blood banks, and veterinary hospitals/clinics, as well as medical research facilities and 

laboratories.” There are exemptions from some waste being designated as medical waste but the 

determination must be performed using expert opinion. 

Several federal agencies regulate different aspects of medical waste management that could 

impact disposal:

• The Department of Transportation regulates medical waste transportation

• The Occupational Safety & Health Administration regulates medical waste in the workplace

• The Food and Drug Administration regulates medical devices such as sharps containers which 

safely contain needles used during an animal health emergency

The EPA does not have any specific or unique regulations on disposal of medical wastes at landfills. 

Although it may not be directly applicable to a livestock disease response, EPA does have regulations 

governing emissions from Hospital/Medical/Infectious Waste Incinerators as well as requirements under 

the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) for medical waste treatment technologies 

which use chemicals for treating the waste. These regulations may affect disposal technologies such as 

fixed-facility incineration as well as alkaline hydrolysis.

Regulated medical waste (RMW), also known as ‘biohazardous’ waste or 'infectious medical’ waste, is 

the portion of the waste stream that may be contaminated by blood, body fluids or other potentially 

infectious materials, thus posing a significant risk of transmitting infection. There are several key 

categories of waste that are typically classified as ‘regulated.’ Each category typically has special 

handling requirements that may be state-specific. Most state laws require RMW to be rendered noninfectious before it can be disposed of as solid waste. RMW is unique to the healthcare sector and 

presents a number of compliance challenges, however, contaminated animal carcasses, body parts and 

bedding from animals intentionally exposed to pathogens in research, biologicals production, or in vivo 

pharmaceuticals testing may be RMW. Unlike many regulations that apply to healthcare, most regulations 

governing medical waste are defined at a state, rather than a federal level. Adding yet a further level of 

complexity, authority for medical waste rules often comes from multiple agencies at the state level. 

EPA also provides guidance on medical-infectious waste. According to the EPA website 

(http://www.epa.gov/wastes/nonhaz/industrial/medical/disposal.htm), medical waste includes all waste 

materials generated at health care facilities, such as hospitals, clinics, physician’s offices, dental practices, 

blood banks, and veterinary hospitals/clinics, as well as medical research facilities and laboratories. 

Typically, State Departments of Health issue the regulations that determine which wastes are considered 

‘regulated’ or require special handling. Use the RMW State Locator 

(http://www.hercenter.org/rmw/rmwlocator.cfm) to find the definitions that apply in your state. The 

RMW State Locator provides contact information for individuals in state agencies who may help resolve 

questions of interpretation. Most waste generated during a response to an animal health crisis will be 

classified as solid waste. Some waste may be classified as medical waste and little, if any waste, is likely 

to be classified as hazardous waste. 

It is imperative that waste materials related to disposal during an animal health crisis are correctly 

classified. Because state rules and regulations vary for disposal of diseased animals and associated waste 

materials, all applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements must be consulted. Planning and 

response efforts for waste classification should include consultation with experienced personnel familiar 

with all disposal regulations in the affected areas. 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 38 

6. CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTION OF POTENTIAL DISPOSAL METHODS 

FOR SELECTED WASTE MATERIALS

6.1 Overview of Considerations

Expertise in disinfection should be sought prior processing liquid 

wastes such as milk, dairy wastewater, or fluids from lagoons. It is 

important to plan appropriately for biosecure disposal of manure, 

litter, and slurry infected or exposed to the bacterial or viral 

pathogen of concern. Depending on the pathogen, contaminated 

materials may be burned, buried, composted, or landfilled. Manure 

or litter that cannot be burned or buried should be fenced off. Once 

treated and rendered non-infectious, the waste can be applied to the 

land. Hatching eggs should be macerated to ensure death before 

disposing by burial or other means. 

Livestock feeds such as dry grains, hay, and straw all act as potent 

fomites and can harbor the infectious agent. If not properly 

handled and treated, they can facilitate the spread of infection. If on-site methods such as burying or 

incineration are used to manage carcasses, these materials may be processed in a similar manner. In some

cases, off-site management, such as transport to a landfill, could be an option. If this is chosen, 

biosecurity measures must be utilized to prevent further transmission of disease through transport of 

this material. 

Silage and wet or modified distiller grains may be composted on-site in some cases. It is possible to 

combine these with other feeds, straw, hay, manure, and bedding. The carbon nitrogen ratio as well as 

moisture and particle size must be carefully considered if substituting any of these materials for the 

primary carbon source. However, the addition of small amounts (1/2 yd3or 382 L) with each 1000 lb.

(454 kg) of carcass will have little effect. If germplasm such as semen or ova is determined to pose a risk 

of agent spread, it must be disposed of safely. Pathology incineration or burial represent viable options. 

Any germplasm that is not disposed of can be moved only under USDA permit. 

In order to ensure compliance with all environmental regulations, waste materials from a response 

should be sorted by class and material type. The plan should include consideration of the types of 

waste expected and the corresponding classifications. Once the various waste streams are identified, 

quantities of each waste type can be estimated to facilitate efficient transport and to identify appropriate 

disposal options.

6.2 Type and Strain of Pathogen

A comprehensive understanding of the type and strain of pathogen associated with the decision to 

depopulate and dispose of animals is essential to prevent further spread of infection and to safeguard 

human, animal, and environmental safety and security. In addition, it also weighs heavily in transportation 

planning as well as human safety—both during disposal activities and following them. Biosecurity and 

cleaning and disinfection protocols will be largely based on the type and strain of pathogen. The FAD 

PReP SOP: Disposal provides further details regarding potential health risks, disposal methods and 

potential pathways of pathogen transfer to humans. 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 39 

6.3 APHIS Emergency Management Tools Decision Tree and Checklist

USDA APHIS has developed emergency management tools to be utilized during an animal health 

emergency. Disposal decision trees are an aid to determining the most appropriate disposal option. This 

useful tool provides a simple and straightforward method to determine optimal types of disposal for a 

specific site. The tools can be accessed at: 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/tools/aphis_disposal_tree.shtml. 

In addition to the decision tree, a checklist has been developed by the USDA and provides further 

guidance to the Disposal Group Supervisor and other key decision makers in the creation of a realistic and 

effective site-specific disposal plan. The checklist has been included in the FAD PReP Standard 

Operating Procedures: Disposal and is based on the disposal goals defined in the Introduction of this 

Guidelines document.

• Efficient outbreak containment 

• Environmental sustainability including minimizing waste

• Stakeholder acceptance

• Cost effectiveness
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 40 

7. REFERENCES

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Carcass Disposal 

Frequently asked Questions. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/tools/off_site/htdocs/images/CarcassDisposalFA

Qs.pdf

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. National Veterinary 

Stockpile Questions & Answers. Subject: Depopulation, Disposal, and Decontamination (3D) 

Commercial Services. March 17, 2009.

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Procedures for On-site 

Burial and Treatment of AI Infected Poultry Carcasses. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/downloads/tools/Onsite%20Burial%20and%20T

reatment%20Job%20Aid.pdf

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Procedures for Outdoor 

Composting of AI-Infected Poultry Carcasses. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/downloads/tools/Outdoor%20Composting%20J

ob%20Aid.pdf

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Procedures for Secure 

Transportation of AI Infected Poultry Carcasses. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/downloads/tools/Secure%20Transportation%20J

ob%20Aid.pdf

Auvermann, B., Kalbasi, A., Ahmed, A. “Carcass Disposal: A Comprehensive Review.” Chapter 1. 

National Agricultural Biosecurity Center Consortium, USDA APHIS Cooperative Agreement 

Project, Carcass Disposal Working Group: August 2004. http://fss.kstate.edu/FeaturedContent/CarcassDisposal/PDF%20Files/CH%201%20-%20Burial.pdf

Bagley, Clell V., Kirk, John H., Farrell-Poe, Kitt: Cow Mortality Disposal. Utah State University 

Extension. October 1999. http://extension.usu.edu/waterquality/files/uploads/PDF/ag507.pdf

Bendfeldt, Eric S., Peer, Robert W., Flory, Gary A., Evanylo, Greg K., Malone, George W.: In-House 

Composting of Turkey Mortalities as a Rapid Response to Catastrophic Losses. Division of 

Animal and Food Industry Services, Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services.

http://www.extension.umaine.edu/ByproductsSymposium09/compendium/virginia_turkey_comp

osting_project.pdf

Berge, Anna Catharina B., Glanville, Thomas D., Millner, Patricia D., Klingborg, Donald J.: Methods and 

Microbial Risks Associated With Composting of Animal Carcasses in the United States. January 

1, 2009. JAVMA, 2009, 234(1), 47-56.

Blake, John P., Carey, John B., Haque, Aminul K.M., Malone, George W., Patterson, Paul H., Tablante, 

Nathaniel L., Zimmermann, Nickolas G.: Poultry Carcass Disposal Options for Routine and 

Catastrophic Mortality. Issue Paper 40. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. 

October 2008.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 41 

Bonhotal, Jean, Schwarz, Mary, Brown, Nellie: Natural Rendering: Composting Poultry Mortality: The 

Emergency Response to Disease Control. Cornell Waste Management Institute, Department of 

Crop & Soil Sciences, Cornell University. 2008. 

http://www.extension.umaine.edu/ByproductsSymposium09/compendium/cornell_compost_poult

ry_fact.pdf

Bonhotal, Jean, Telega, Lee, Petzen, Joan: Natural Rendering: Composting Livestock Mortality and 

Butcher Waste. Cornell Waste Management Institute, Department of Crop & Soil Sciences, 

Cornell University. 2002. 

http://www.extension.umaine.edu/ByproductsSymposium09/compendium/naturalrenderinglivesto

ckFS.pdf

Circeo, L.J., & Martin, R.C. (2001). In situ plasma vitrification of buried wastes. Georgia Institute of 

Technology, Environmental Technology Branch. Atlanta, GA. 2005. 

http://www.containment.fsu.edu/cd/content/pdf/132.pdf

de Klerk, P.F.: Carcass Disposal: Lessons from the Netherlands After the Foot and Mouth Disease 

Outbreak of 2001. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 2002, 21 (3), 789-796

DeRouchey, J.M., Harner, J.P., Murphy, J.P.: Catastrophic Morality Composting: Is It Safe and 

Effective? Poultry Science Association, Inc. 2005

Flory, Gary A., Bendfeldt, Eric S., Peer, Robert W.: Guidelines for Landfilling Poultry Mortality in 

Response to an Outbreak of Avian Influenza. Virginia Department of Environmental Quality, 

Virginia Cooperative Extension. September 15, 2006. 

http://www.extension.umaine.edu/ByproductsSymposium09/compendium/LANDFILLING_FAC

T_SHEET.pdf

Flory, Gary A., Bendfeldt, Eric S., Peer, Robert W.: In-Vessel Composting of Wild Birds, Game Birds 

and Backyard Poultry to Prevent the Spread of Avian Influenza (H5N1). Virginia Department of 

Environmental Quality, Virginia Cooperative Extension. October 2, 2006. 

http://www.extension.umaine.edu/ByproductsSymposium09/compendium/INVESSEL_COMPOSTING_FACT_SHEET.pdf

Flory, Gary A., Peer, Robert W., Bendfeldt, Eric S.: Evaluation of Poultry Carcass Disposal Methods 

Used During an Avian Influenza Outbreak in Virginia in 2002. Virginia Department of 

Environmental Quality, Virginia Cooperative Extension. September 27, 2006. 

http://www.extension.umaine.edu/ByproductsSymposium09/compendium/Evaluation_of_Avian_

Flu_Poultry_Carcass_Disposal_Methods_2002.pdf

Giovachino, Monica, Speers, Rosemary, Morgan, Dorothy, Catarious, David, Myrus, Elizabeth: 

Operation Palo Duro: Policy and Decision-Making in Response to an FMD Outbreak. The CNA 

Corporation. May 2007.

Glanville, T.D., Richard, T.L., Harmon, J.D., Reynolds, D.L., Ahn, H.K., Akinc, S.: Final Project Report 

- Environmental Impacts and Biosecurity of Composting for Emergency Disposal of Livestock 

Mortalities. Iowa Department of Natural Resources. March 1, 2006. 

http://www3.abe.iastate.edu/cattlecomposting/Emergency%20Mortality%20Composting%20Fina

l%20Report%204_04_06%20B.pdf
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 42 

Glanville, Tom: Emergency Livestock Disposal Planning. Department of Agricultural & Biosystems 

Engineering, Iowa State University. PowerPoint Presentation. December 2007. 

http://www3.abe.iastate.edu/cattlecomposting/MAC%20Mtngs%20Emerg%20Livestock%20Disp

osal%2012_07.pdf

Glanville, Tom, Harmon, Jay: Composting for Emergency Disposal of Poultry and Livestock Mortalities. 

Department of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State University. July 31, 2006. 

PowerPoint Presentation. 

http://www3.abe.iastate.edu/cattlecomposting/Emergency%20Mortality%20Composting%20Pres

entation.pdf

Glanville, Tom, Harmon, Jay: Composting for Routine Disposal of Poultry and Livestock Mortalities. 

Department of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State University. June 2006. 

PowerPoint Presentation. 

http://www3.abe.iastate.edu/cattlecomposting/Routine%20Mortality%20Composting%20Present

ation.pdf

Glanville, Tom: Pros and Cons of Swine Mortality Disposal Options. Department of Agricultural & 

Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State University. January 29, 2009. PowerPoint Presentation. 

http://www.extension.umaine.edu/ByproductsSymposium09/compendium/Pros_and_Cons_of_sw

ine_Mort_Disposal_4.pdf

Glanville, Tom: Understanding and Troubleshooting Mortality Composting. Department of Agricultural 

& Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State University. February 2008. 

http://www3.abe.iastate.edu/cattlecomposting/IPIC%20Troubleshooting%20Composting%20Feb

%2008%20Final.pdf

Gustafsson, Bengt, Andersson, Inger, Svendsen, Lorraine Steen: Handling of Farm Mortalities in Major 

Emergency Situations: An International Review. Animal, Agricultural, and Food Processing 

Wastes: Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium. 2000, 289-296.

Harper, Allen F., DeRouchey, Joel M., Glanville, Thomas D., Meeker, David L., Straw, Barbara E.: 

Swine Carcass Disposal Options for Routine and Catastrophic Mortality. Issue Paper 39. Council 

for Agricultural Science and Technology. July 2008.

Johnson, Christopher J., Pedersen, Joel A., Chappell, Rick J., McKenzie, Debbie, Aiken, Judd M.: Oral 

Transmissibility of Prion Disease Is Enhanced by Binding to Soil Particles. July 6, 2007. PLoS 

Pathogens. 2007, 3(7), 0875-0881.

Mukhtar, Saqib, Boadu, Frederick O., Jin, Yanhong H., Shim, Won-Bo, Vestal, Tom A., Wilson, Cody 

L.: Managing Contaminated Animal and Plant Materials: Field Guide on Best Practices. Texas 

A&M University. 

Myers, Lee M.: National Veterinary Stockpile Outreach Strategy. Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. PowerPoint Presentation. 

National Agricultural Biosecurity Center, Kansas State University. Carcass Disposal: A Comprehensive 

Review, August 2004. http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/handle/2097/662

National Animal Health Emergency Management System Guidelines, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

Operational Guidelines: Disposal. April 2005.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 43 

Pollard, Simon J.T., Hickman, Gordon A.W., Irving, Phil, Hough, Rupert L., Gauntlett, Daniel M., 

Howson, Simon F., Hart, Alwyn, Gayford, Paul, Gent, Nick: Exposure Assessment of Carcass 

Disposal Options in the Event of a Notifiable Exotic Animal Disease: Application to Avian 

Influenza Virus. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 3145–3154.

Scudamore, J.M., Trevelyan, G.M., Tas, M.V., Varley, E.M., Hickman, G.A.W.: Carcass Disposal: 

Lessons from Great Britain Following the Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreaks of 2001. Rev. sci. 

tech. Off. int. Epiz., 2002, 21 (3), 775-787

Vanier, Marty, Comer, Philip J., Hater, Gary, Kaye, Gordon I., Meeker, David L., Thacker, H. Leon: 

Ruminant Carcass Disposal Options for Routine and Catastrophic Mortality. Issue Paper 41. 

Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. January 2009.

Virginia Department of Environmental Quality. Evaluation of In-Vessel Composting for Poultry 

Mortality, October 2002. 

http://www.extension.umaine.edu/ByproductsSymposium09/compendium/invessel_composting_evaluation.pdf

Virginia Department of Environmental Quality, Virginia Cooperative Extension. Static Pile Composting 

of Wild Birds, Game Birds, and Backyard Poultry to Prevent the Spread of Avian Influenza 

(H5N1). August 22, 2006. 

http://www.extension.umaine.edu/ByproductsSymposium09/compendium/STATIC_PILE_COM

POSTING_FACT_SHEET.pdf

Wilkinson, K.G.: The Biosecurity of On-Farm Mortality Composting. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 

2007, 102, 609-618.

Xu, Weiping, Reuter, Tim, Inglis, G. Douglas, Larney, Francis J., Alexander, Trevor W., Guan, Jiewen, 

Stanford, Kim, Xu, Yongping, McAllister, Tim A.: A Biosecure Composting System for Disposal 

of Cattle Carcasses and Manure Following Infectious Disease Outbreak. Journal of 

Environmental Quality 38, 437-450. 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 44 

8. FOR MORE INFORMATION

• Riverside County California Waste Management Department has a video on animal carcass 

burial in landfills. Go to http://www.rivcowm.org/

• The Ohio State University offers a livestock producers’ program on mortality composting 

certification offered through their Agriculture and Natural Resources Office: 

http://oardc.osu.edu/ocamm/t01_pageview/Home.htm

• The Ohio State University also offers a compost course titled, “Science, Art of Large-Scale 

composting”. See http://oardc.osu.edu/ocamm/t01_pageview/Home.htm.

• Online Carcass Disposal Training Modules through APHIS are available at: 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/tools/aphis_role_emergency_tools.shtml

• University of Nebraska at Lincoln Extension:

http://www.extension.org/pages/28022/livestockand-poultry-mortalitycomposting#Routine_.26_Emergency_Carcass_Composting

• Cornell University Waste Management Institute - http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/mortality.htm

• Washington State University Agricultural Extension -

http://extension.wsu.edu/agriculture/animals/Pages/default.aspx

• Kansas State University, Purdue University, and Texas A&M University

http://fss.k-state.edu/FeaturedContent/CarcassDisposal/CarcassDisposal.htm

• The Solid Waste Association offers certification programs and educational programs on various 

solid waste topics: landfilling, composting, and the collection and transfer of solid waste. See 

http://swana.org/Education/Educate/tabid/53/Default.aspx for a list of programs.

• There is an annual symposium on the Management of Animal Carcasses, Tissue and Related 

Byproducts. See 

http://extension.umaine.edu/ByproductsSymposium09/proceedings/InternationalSymposiumPr

oceedings.pdf for a sample of the 2009 proceedings.

• Purdue University’s National Biosecurity Resources Center for Animal Health Emergencies 

offers a Graduate Certificate Program in Veterinary Homeland Security in. a class titled, 

“Euthanasia and Carcass Disposal” is offered as part of the certificate program. The course 

discusses different disposal methods such as rendering, burial, incineration, and composting. 

See http://www.biosecuritycenter.org/article/vetHomelandProgram for more information on the 

certificate program and course offerings. 

• USDA APHIS, Carcass Disposal Training Tool: On-site Burial and Treatment Course, 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/tools/on-site/htdocs/index.html

• USDA APHIS Online Carcass Disposal Options training module at 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/tools/aphis_role_emergency_tools_disposal_tr

aining.shtml
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 45 

• USDA APHIS, Carcass Disposal Training Tool: In-House Composting Training Module, 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/emergency_management/in-house_composting/

• Rendering information- Essential Rendering” a comprehensive scientific reference developed 

by the NRA. The link to Essential Rendering is: nationalrenderers.org/publications/essentialrendering

• For a list of renderers see http://assets.nationalrenderers.org/NRA2010directory.pdf

• For more information on ICS concepts, see FEMA training at 

http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/IS/ICSResource/index.htm

• A list of state environmental agencies is maintained by the United States Environmental 

Protection Agency at: http://www.epa.gov/epahome/state.htm

• A list of State Public Health Veterinarians is maintained by the AVMA at: 

https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/Reference/disaster/Pages/Disaster-Preparedness-Statepublic-health-veterinarians-of-the-United-States.aspx

• The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) have outlined requirements 

and recommendations for those involved in hazardous waste operations involving pathogens. 

(Code of Federal Regulations, Part 21, Chapter 1910, 

http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/hazardouswaste/index.html

• To locate a list of local landfills and other disposal sites for off-site disposal, go to the EPA’s IWASTE tool at: http://www2.ergweb.com/bdrtool/login.asp.

• To locate applicable information on health and safety, consult the APHIS Health and Safety 

Plan (HASP) -

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/hasp/health_safety_procedures.shtml
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 46 

9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Guidelines: Disposal for the Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan/National 

Animal Health Emergency Management System reflects the efforts of a number of people including 

USDA APHIS staff members, the Center for Food Security and Public Health at Iowa State University 

and a range of reviewers and subject matter experts. 

Authors and contributors from Iowa State University include:

• Reneé Dewell, DVM, MS

Veterinary Specialist, Center for Food Security and Public Health (CFSPH)

• Tom Glanville, PhD

Professor- Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Iowa State University

Assistance provided by:

• Danelle Bickett–Weddle, DVM, MPH, PhD, DACVPM 

Associate Director, CFSPH

• Janice Mogan, DVM 

Veterinary Specialist, CFSPH

• Megan Smith DVM

Post-Doctoral Associate, CFSPH

• Sarah Wissman-Tully

Third year veterinary student intern, CFSPH

• Stellena Nelson

Undergraduate Student, Technical Communications Major

Animal Ecology Minor; Department of English

Iowa State University

• Shaine DeVoe

Senior Animal Science Student, CFSPH

• William M. Diesslin, MS, CHMM, CSP

Assistant Director

Environmental Health and Safety

Iowa State University

Illustrations designed by:

• Dani Ausen, BFA, Graphic Designer, CFSPH

• Katlyn Harvey, BFA, Graphic Designer, CFSPH

• Andrew Kingsbury, BFA, Graphic Designer, CFSPH

Significant contributions to the content were provided by USDA APHIS VS:

• Lori P. Miller, PE

Senior Staff Officer, Environmental Engineer

Emergency Management and Diagnostics

• Darrel K. Styles, DVM, PhD

Senior Staff Veterinarian

Emergency Management and Diagnostics
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 47 

Significant contributions to the content also were provided by:

• Paul M. Lemieux, PhD

Associate Division Director 

US EPA Office of Research and Development 

National Homeland Security Research Center

• Randall L. Crom, DVM

Senior Staff Veterinarian

Preparedness and Incident Coordination

Emergency Management and Diagnostics

USDA APHIS Veterinary Services

• Frank Bryant

President 

SES, Inc.

• Eric Hess, CPSS, MEP

Vice President

SES, Inc.

• Amber Wilson

Agro-Security Specialist

SES, Inc.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 48 

10. PHOTO AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS

Page 2 This photo depicts participants in an emergency response training exercise. Photo source: 

Randy Schawang, David City, Nebraska

Page 4 Figure 1. This figure demonstrates a sample Incident Command System. Graphic 

illustration by: Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State University

Page 7 Figure 2. This illustration shows the position of a Disposal group within the ICS 

Structure. Graphic illustration by: Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State University

Page 12 (Top) Table 1. This table defines Zones and Areas established around some premises in 

the event of a highly contagious FAD. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State 

University

(Bottom) This photo shows the disposal of personal protective equipment that may 

be used during a FAD response. Photo source: Iowa Department of Agriculture and 

Land Stewardship

Page 13 This image depicts a composting pile at an outdoor composting facility. Photo source: 

Ken Hammond, USDA Agricultural Research Service

Page 14 This photo depicts heavy equipment and personnel involved in the turning of compost.

Photo source: USDA Agricultural Research Service

Page 15 (Top) This is an image of an indoor composting facility. Photo source: Danelle BickettWeddle, Iowa State University 

(Bottom) This is an image of a rendering plant. Photo source: David Meeker, National 

Renderers Association

Page 18 Figure 3. This schematic diagram illustrates the machinery, equipment, and material flow 

in a continuous dry rendering process. Content provided by: David Meeker, National 

Renderers Association

Page 19 This photo shows the disposal of waste material at a landfill. Photo source: David

Meeker, National Renderers Association

Page 21 (Top) Figure 4. This is a schematic diagram of trench burial. Graphic illustration by: 

Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State University

(Bottom) This is an image of trench burial. Photo source: Jeff G. Taber, County of Kings 

Department of Public Health, Hanford, California

Page 22 This photo is of a disposal using a fixed-facility incinerator. Photo source: Iowa State 

University Veterinary Diagnostics and Production Animal Medicine

Page 23 This is an image of burning waste material. Photo source: Norman Fuhrmann, Air 

Burners, LLC

Page 27 This image illustrates a compost pile with a thick cover. Photo source: Iowa State 

University Veterinary Diagnostics and Production Animal Medicine

Page 30 This is an image of open-air burning. Photo source: Norman Fuhrmann, Air 

Burners, LLC

Page 33 (Top) This is an image depicting cleaning and disinfection of a vehicle involved in a 

FAD response. Photo source: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University 

(Bottom) This image illustrates the importance of consultation with local, county, State, 

and Federal environmental officials to select an optimal disposal method during an FAD. 

Photo source: Alex Ramirez, Iowa State University

Page 38 This image depicts a responder in PPE and demonstrates the importance of considering 

safety when choosing a disposal method. Photo source: Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State 

University
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 49 

GLOSSARY

Animal

Any member of the animal kingdom, except a human (Animal Health Protection Act, 2002).

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Agency within USDA responsible for protecting livestock and plant health.

Biosecurity

A series of management practices designed to prevent the introduction of disease agents onto or prevent 

the spread from an animal production facility.

Biosecurity Plan

A plan or protocol that reflects biosecurity principles and procedures concerning the movement of 

personnel, vehicles, and equipment; examination of animals (alive or at necropsy); mass depopulation; 

and the disposal of animal carcasses, animal products, feed, water, straw, haw, and other materials 

potentially carrying a disease agent. 

Bovine

Common domestic cattle and other members of the Family Bovidae.

Cleaning and Disinfection (C&D)

Practices involving a combination of physical and chemical processes that kill or remove pathogenic 

microorganisms—a combination that is vital for the eradication of disease.

Compost

Compost is the semi-stable humus resulting from the biologic degradation of organic matter under 

aerobic conditions. 

Euthanasia

Deliberate ending of an animal’s life in a manner that causes minimal pain and distress.

Feedlot

An area of land where cattle are fattened for harvest. Cattle are kept in groups/pens and fed custom diets 

that are designed to increase their rate of gain.

Fomite

An inanimate object or material on which disease-producing agents may be conveyed (e.g., feces, 

bedding, harness, etc.).

Foreign Animal Disease

A terrestrial animal disease or pest, or an aquatic animal disease or pest, not known to exist in the United

States or its territories. 
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 50 

Hay

A high fiber crop (grass or legumes) that is mowed, allowed to dry in the field and made into bales 

(square or round) and moved to the dairy to be fed to cows as roughage.

Incident Command System

A standardized, on-scene, all-hazards incident management approach that allows for the 

integration of facilities, equipment, personnel, procedures, and communications operating within 

a common organizational structure; enables a coordinated response among various jurisdictions 

and functional agencies, both public and private; and establishes common processes for planning 

and managing resources.

Leachate

The liquid or fluid released from the decaying carcasses.

National Veterinary Stockpile (NVS)

Established by Homeland Security Presidential Directive 9 and operational in 2006. Able to deploy large 

quantities of veterinary resources anywhere in the continental U.S. within 24 hours.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Equipment used as a barrier between an individual and a hazard that could result in an injury or 

occupational illness.

Premises

A tract of land, including its buildings, or a separate farm or facility that is maintained by a single set of 

services and personnel.

Ruminant

Animals (cattle, sheep, goats, deer and camels) with a four-compartment stomach (rumen, reticulum, 

omasum, abomasum) that digests forages and grains and turns it into energy. Ruminants chew their cud 

(regurgitate forages from the rumen) to aid in digestion.

Zoonotic Disease/Zoonoses

Diseases that are transmissible from animals to humans under natural conditions.
FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012) 51 

ACRONYMS

APHIS

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 

(http://www.aphis.usda.gov); an agency of the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture

APPI

Animal Protein Producers Industry 

ARARS

Applicable or relevant and appropriate 

requirements

AVMA

American Veterinary Medical Association

BSE

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

CFR

Code of Federal Regulations

C&D

Cleaning and Disinfection

EMRS

Emergency Management Response System

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency

FAD

Foreign Animal Disease

FMD

Foot-and-Mouth Disease

GIS  

Geographic Information Systems

GPS

Global Positioning System

ICS

Incident Command System

I-WASTE

Incident Waste Assessment & Tonnage 

Estimator

MSWLF

Municipal Solid Waste Landfills 

NAHEMS

National Animal Health Emergency 

Management System

OSHA

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

NRCS

Natural Resources and Conservation Service

NVS

National Veterinary Stockpile

PPE

Personal Protective Equipment

SOP

Standard Operating Procedures

TSE

Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy

USDA

United States Department of Agriculture

VS

Veterinary Services; a division of APHIS