Jeff Hansen 

Biological Science Technician

USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services

Mountain View, Wyoming

Cat Urbigkit 

Livestock Producer

Sublette County, Wyoming

Human-Wildlife Conflicts

Gray wolves (Canis lupus) and Mexican 

wolves (Canis lupus baileyi) once again 

roam across landscapes where they have 

been absent for decades (Figure 1). With 

wolf range expansion comes increased 

opportunities for conflicts when wolves 

harass or prey on domestic livestock or 

other animals.

Wolves have relatively high reproductive 

and dispersal rates but detecting 

individual animals in low-density 

populations is difficult without a concerted 

monitoring effort. In fact, wolf presence in 

an area often is not known until there is a 

confirmed livestock depredation. 

Ranchers and wildlife damage 

management experts need not wait for 

livestock depredations to occur before 

wolves are detected in an area. 

There are a variety of simple and 

inexpensive tools and techniques for 

monitoring for wolf presence (Figure 2). 

This publication provides information on 

the benefits of monitoring and monitoring 

techniques. For additional information on 

wolf damage management, please see the 

Wildlife Damage Management Technical 

Series publication on gray wolves. 

Wildlife Damage Management 

Technical Series

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service

Wildlife Services

March 2021 Monitoring for Wolves

Figure 1. Documenting the presence of wolves in Wyoming through the use of a 

camera trap (above). These and other simple methods provide information that can 

be used to help prevent or minimize wolf depredations. 

Quick Links

Human-Wildlife Conflicts 1

Benefits of Monitoring 2

Monitoring Methods 2

Data Management 8

Glossary & Key Words 10

Resources 11 
Benefits of Wolf Monitoring

Monitoring for the presence of wolves can pose difficulties 

but there are numerous reasons for ranchers, wildlife 

damage management professionals, and others to 

undertake such efforts. Documenting the presence of 

wolves provides information that livestock owners can use 

in making decisions about managing livestock to help 

prevent or minimize wolf depredations. Wildlife damage 

management professionals may be able to use monitoring 

information when assessing livestock depredation events 

and verifying wolf depredations in cases involving damage 

payments. The information may also help determine 

whether the presence of wolves is responsible for changing 

behaviors and movements of livestock, game species, or 

other wildlife sharing the landscape with wolves.

In addition to determining wolf presence, monitoring for 

wolves can involve more structured surveillance (i.e., 

reporting, data collection, data analysis, and subsequent 

action). Once wolves are detected, monitoring can shift to 

collecting information about the number of wolves in the 

area, as well as their status (e.g., breeding or nonbreeding, 

presence/absence of young, resident [territorial] or 

transient [nomadic] animals). Monitoring can reveal 

important wolf activity patterns, such as movement rates 

and patterns (e.g., day versus night, frequency), use of 

travel corridors, seasonal habitat shifts, and denning or 

rendezvous sites.

Monitoring systems for wolves also allows for the detection 

of other wild predators that use the same landscape and 

may present a risk to livestock.

Monitoring Methods

Livestock owners should review the history of livestock 

depredations on their property to identify potential 

monitoring locations. Initial efforts should focus on 

detecting predator signs (i.e., scat, hair, tracks) in areas 

with landscape features that influence predator 

movement. The goal is to identify frequent wolf travel ways 

Page 2 WDM Technical Series—Monitoring for Wolves

or corridors, as well as any territorial markers (i.e., feces 

and ground scratching) made by wolves. Establishing 

camera traps at these locations can provide confirmation 

of wolf presence and other useful information, such as the 

number, sex and age of animals, and movement patterns. 

(See Camera Traps). 

Initial field surveys for signs of wolves can be conducted on 

foot, horseback, all-terrain vehicle or other vehicle. Search 

along fence lines, fence crossings, soft spots or sandy 

areas, game trails, creek crossings and other topographical 

features that serve to direct animal movement. Wolves 

tend to use roads for travel and will follow terrain lines 

(saddles and ridges) and livestock/game trails in their 

movements.

Livestock producers, wildlife damage management 

professionals, and others may use the monitoring methods 

described below either alone or in combination and may 

need to try several locations where wolves are suspected. 

It is important to note that detecting wolf presence can be 

difficult and finding locations that wolves visit will take time 

and effort. Pack size, density and territory size can affect 

the efficiency of detection.

Figure 2. Materials needed for a simple wolf monitoring kit include a dirt sifter, broom, 

marking tape, ruler, tape measure, notebook, pen, game/trail cameras, camera cards, 

batteries, Plaster of Paris, bottle of water, plastic cup, and spatula.
Track Traps

It is said that “wolves live by their feet,” and often the 

most visible sign they leave is tracks on the ground. 

Learn to identify and distinguish the difference 

between wolf tracks and other predators or large farm/

ranch dogs that may use the area. Search for wolf 

tracks on dusty, sandy, muddy, or snow-covered roads 

and trails. 

Wolves leave large oval-shaped tracks measuring 

about 3 to 4 inches wide by 4 to 5 inches in length 

from toe to end of double-lobed heel pad. Wolf tracks 

are often in a single narrow line, with the track of the 

hind foot placed within or in front of the forefoot 

(Figure 3). The front foot is larger than its hind foot. A 

wolf’s stride (the distance between hind and front foot 

tracks) ranges from 24 to 38 inches for a wolf at a 

walking or trotting pace.

Track “traps” can be made by clearing a section of 

dusty/sandy ground of all existing tracks and debris 

using a broom, rake, or sifter (Figure 4). Conduct 

regular checks for fresh tracks on that section of 

ground. Examine and document any fresh tracks 

before clearing the area again to present an untracked 

surface. Use this technique along fence lines where it 

appears animals are entering and exiting a pasture, and on 

roads or trails.

Identifying tracks may be difficult on hard ground, but 

finding wolf tracks in fresh snow is an easy way to 

determine the number of animals present, as well as their 

travel routes.

Making Plaster Casts

Plaster of Paris can be used to make simple plaster casts 

of wolf tracks which aid in identification of individual 

animals (Figure 5). On one ranch in Wyoming, the smallest 

wolf track observed was from an adult female with a 4-inch 

long track, while the largest track (nearly 6 inches long) 

was from an adult male.

To prepare the plaster mixture, fill a plastic cup about half 

full of water, and while stirring, add the plaster (about 2 

parts plaster to 1-part water), mixing well. The mixture will 

start to thicken and should be fluid, but not runny, when 

poured carefully into and over the track. Protect the track 

while the plaster sets; place a bucket over the track and 

leave it for a few hours before carefully removing it from 

the ground with a spatula or shovel and leave it in a safe 

place to dry for a day or two.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 3

Figure 3. Wolf tracks are often in a single narrow line, with the track of the hind foot 

placed within or in front of the forefoot.

Figure 4. Track “traps” are made by clearing a section of dusty/sandy ground of all 

tracks using a broom, rake, or sifter.
When making casts in fine soils or snow, gently spray the 

track with a layer of hair spray to firm up the surface prior 

to pouring the plaster mixture.

Scat

Wolves will leave scat (feces) deposits on their travel 

routes but finding wolf scat can be difficult when wolf 

population densities are low. Look for scat during field 

surveys for signs of wolf presence. Wolf scat often contains 

hair and bone fragments, and is identifiable by its size [at 

least 1 inch (2.54 centimeters (cm)) in diameter], corded 

form, and tapered end (Figure 6). If the wolf has recently 

consumed meat, the scat deposit may consist of loose, 

dark-colored piles with little form. An accumulation of wolf 

scats in a confined area indicates the presence of a den or 

rendezvous site.

Scent Marks

Wolf territoriality is expressed via scent marks that include 

scat, urine, and ground scratching (Figure 7). Mature, 

dominant wolves exhibit scent-marking behavior, primarily 

at the edge of their territories and near rendezvous sites. 

Setting up track traps or camera traps at these locations 

provides an additional opportunity for monitoring for wolf 

presence.

Domestic dogs will naturally seek out and urinate in spots 

previously marked by wild predators. If the situation allows, 

bring along a dog and allow it to find canine scent marks 

along ranch roads or trails. If the dog shows an interest 

and urinates in an area, mark that location and monitor it 

for wolf sign.

Fenceline Hair

Like coyotes (Canis latrans), wolves will crawl under some 

fences. But more often, wolves will crawl between wire 

fence strands (as do many livestock guardian dogs), 

snagging hair on the barbs in the process. As secondary 

roads along fence lines are surveyed for wolf sign, check 

for hair snagged on wire fences. If tracks indicate wild 

canines are entering and exiting a pasture via a spot in the 

fence line, clear off any hair stuck to the barbs (scorching 

the hair off the wire with a lighter works well) and recheck 

those fence segments during future visits, examining any 

hair samples that remain. Visual inspection of hair length 

and color can provide clues to species, but genetic analysis 

is needed for a conclusive determination. Some agencies 

may be able to provide genetic analysis of hair and scat to 

determine the species.

Carcass Investigations

Examine any fresh carcasses (livestock or wild ungulates) 

immediately after being discovered in the field to 

Page 4 WDM Technical Series—Monitoring for Wolves

Figure 5. Plaster of Paris can be used to make simple plaster casts of wolf 

tracks which aid in identification of individual animals.

Figure 6. Gray wolf scat. 
determine whether the animal was killed by a predator or 

scavenged. Assistance with or guidance on how best to 

conduct a carcass investigation may be available from 

state fish and game agencies or the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture’s Wildlife Services program.

Smaller predators tend to chew or gnaw on bones, while 

larger predators often break bones of a carcass when 

feeding.

Signs of a struggle, such as sprayed blood, torn-up ground, 

and trampling indicates a possible depredation, so check 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 5

Figure 7. “Scratch-up” or scratches on the ground may indicate an area where a gray 

wolf left a scent mark.

Figure 8. Peeling back the hide on a carcass can reveal the presence of 

canine bite marks. Measuring the distance between the puncture wounds 

can aid in identification of the species responsible. 

Species Bite Mark Measurements 

(in centimeters (cm))

WOLF 

Upper canine width

Lower canine width

Canine diameter

4.5 to 5.5 cm

3.0 to 4.0 cm

1.0 to 1.6 cm

COYOTE 

Upper canine width

Lower canine width

Canine diameter

2.0 to 3.5 cm

2.3 to 2.8 cm

0.4 to 0.7 cm

MOUNTAIN LION 

Upper canine width

Lower canine width

Canine diameter

3.8 to 5.7 cm

2.6 to 4.5 cm

1.1 to 1.3 cm

BLACK BEAR 

Upper canine width

Lower canine width

Canine diameter

5.5 to 6.5 cm

4.5 to 5.5 cm

1.5 to 1.9 cm

Table 1. Tooth size and bite mark measurements vary by predator species. Bite mark 

measurements can help identify the predator species involved in a livestock 

depredation. Credit: Investigation and Evaluations of Predator Kills and Attacks, 

British Columbia Conservation Officer Service.

around the carcass for predator tracks. A lack of 

evidence may suggest that the animal died from other 

causes and was subsequently scavenged by wolves or 

other predators. 

A field necropsy on the carcass may help determine its 

cause of death. A timely response to the site is critical for 

an accurate determination. Skinning the animal and 

peeling the hide back can reveal the presence of bite 

marks that should be measured (Figure 8; See Table 1 
for predator bite mark measurements). The collection of 

blood around the bite marks (i.e., hemorrhaging) indicates 

the prey was alive at the time of the bite (Figure 9). Search 

for other signs by walking in expanding circles around the 

depredation site looking for tracks, scat, carcass parts, 

feeding location, and other clues. Multiple species may 

visit and scavenge the carcass, so confusing signs of more 

than one predator species is possible.

Consider setting up a trail/game camera aimed at the 

depredation site to capture images of predators that may 

return to try to feed on the carcass. 

Howl Surveys

Wolves may be more vocal during the summer when their 

young are located at rendezvous sites. Conducting howl 

surveys in remote areas can be used to detect the 

presence of adults and young in a wolf pack. 

Draw Stations

A draw station is a place for traveling predators to visit. 

Some may come to eat, smell identifiers (like urine or scat) 

left by other predators or leave scat or urine of their own. 

The longer a draw station is in place, the more activity it 

receives. Check state regulations regarding the use of draw 

stations and certain baits. 

Page 6 WDM Technical Series—Monitoring for Wolves

Draw stations may include locations that already exist (e.g., 

carcass sites) or are created by adding lure or bait to 

increase animal interest and activity. It could include 

something as simple as lure placed on a piece of hide 

hung in a tree, or a road-killed animal (legally possessed). 

Please note that moving dead livestock is generally 

restricted by state law, and landowner permission is 

required if wild animal carcasses are brought onto a 

property. 

Draw stations are created to attract wolves to a location 

where track traps and/or camera traps can be installed 

(Figure 10). Common wolf draw stations include: 

• Altering natural scent-marking stations with the 

addition of an attractant;

• Adding an additional attractant at a location where a 

large animal carcass is discovered; or

• Adding an attractant at a location likely used by 

predators, such as a road, fence, or trail junction.

Recommended attractants for use at draw stations vary 

and can be used alone or in combination. Common 

attractants include:

• Placing a sheep hide, pig hide, or a dead animal.

Figure 9. A field necropsy on dead livestock can help determine the cause of death. 

The collection of blood around bite marks indicates the prey was alive at the time of 

the bite.

Figure 10. Camera traps at draw stations can confirm the presence of gray wolves 

in an area.
• Bringing a domestic dog to the site, and allowing it to 

naturally “mark” the spot.

• Using a bar or shovel to dig a hole where a lure can be 

poured into the ground. Commercial lures can be used, 

or make a simple homemade lure of hard-boiled, 

peeled eggs mixed in a blender with a little water until 

the mixture is pourable. 

Predators other than wolves are often detected at draw 

stations, and some of these animals will also mark or roll 

on the ground, leaving their own scent and sign, providing 

further attractants for wolves to investigate. 

Camera Traps

Camera “traps” are locations where motion-activated game 

or trail cameras are installed to capture images or video of 

animals. Installation of camera traps along suspected 

travel routes of wolves and at draw stations allows for 

photographic documentation of wolves. Both camera traps 

and track traps may provide details of sex and individual 

animal identification, as well as provide an indication of 

the number of animals in a pack (although it is rare that all 

members of a pack are captured in a single camera 

image).

There are numerous game/trail cameras on the market, 

with prices ranging from $50 up to several hundred 

dollars, including models that send images directly to a cell 

phone. The more special features incorporated into a 

camera, the higher its cost. Many of the cameras in the 

$100 to $140 range are ideal for monitoring predators. 

Initial detection efforts focus on capturing still images of 

wolves rather than videos, since recording videos quickly 

drains the camera’s battery power, takes up more space 

on camera memory cards, and is usually not fruitful until 

wolf travel patterns are determined. 

There are three types of lighting or flash included with 

game cameras: 1) no glow (no visible light, generally more 

expensive); 2) low glow or infrared (emits a dim light; midrange price); and 3) white or incandescent flash (bright 

flash that allows full-color images even at night; but which 

often startles the animals being photographed; lower cost). 

Both the no-glow and low-glow cameras work well for 

detecting predators and use limited battery power. Nighttime photos are taken in black and white, while daytime 

images are taken in color.

The two most important features to look for in a remote 

trail camera are trigger speed and recovery time. Trigger 

speed is how fast the image is taken once motion is 

detected. It should be less than half a second. A fast 

trigger speed can be the difference between entirely 

missing an animal and recording the presence of an 

elusive carnivore. The recovery time is how fast the camera 

resets before taking the next image. It should be less than 

a second.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 7

Figure 11. Motion-activated trail/game camera set up to capture images of animals 

at a scent mark. 
Most quality game cameras have basic features that are 

useful when documenting the presence of predators. 

These include at least 12-megapixel image quality, burst 

mode (taking multiple images when triggered), wide 

detection zones, and time and date stamps. Some 

cameras incorporate viewing screens, but these are 

unnecessary if access to a camera card reader on a 

computer is available. 

Most game cameras come in weather-proof housing units, 

but there are a variety of additional housing and locking 

systems on the market should those be needed at a given 

locality.

Place camera traps opportunistically along dirt roads or 

trails, at draw stations, or other attractants (Figure 11). 

Cameras should be mounted about hip-height when 

attached to fence posts. Cameras placed too low to the 

ground will detect vegetative movement in the wind. If the 

camera is mounted with a strap, be sure the ends of the 

strap are gathered and held securely so that they do not 

move in the wind, triggering the camera, thereby wasting 

battery life and filling up camera card memory.

To detect predators at an animal carcass, try strapping a 

camera to an old rusty can or bucket that can be set on the 

ground and pointed at the carcass. In general, cameras 

should be mounted between 12 to 40 inches above 

ground level, with a focal point of 10 to 20 feet. 

Purchase and format two secure digital memory (SD) 

camera cards for each camera. Label them for each 

camera so it is easier to track where the images were 

taken. When checking cameras in the field, insert the 

appropriately labeled empty card into the camera after 

retrieving the used card. 

A 32-gigabyte memory card can record thousands of 

images and is an appropriate size for most mid-range 

priced game cameras. Check the cameras often and adjust 

the aim and location as needed, as well as experiment with 

different settings. Carry extra batteries when checking 

cameras and change the batteries as needed. Some 

cameras will only require new batteries once or twice a 

year.

Page 8 WDM Technical Series—Monitoring for Wolves

Data Management and Analysis

Once a wolf or wolf sign has been detected on a property, 

record details of the event and add new detection events 

as they occur. Occasional review of this data may reveal 

behavioral patterns useful to both livestock managers and 

wildlife damage management professionals should a 

depredation issue arise. Monitoring information may 

provide insights to managers as they consider actions to 

protect livestock. 

Records

Record dates, locations, and details each time a wolf is 

detected, as well as any other relevant information, on a 

calendar, in a field journal or notebook (Figure 12). Use a 

cell phone camera to record images of wolf sign. 

Entering wolf monitoring data on a calendar helps to 

determine wolf movement patterns, such as the frequency 

of visits to a location, which often varies by season. 

Compare this data to livestock herd movement and 

changes in livestock management practices, as well as 

other factors such as opening dates of hunting seasons. 

These events may disturb or influence wolf behavior and 

movement.

The importance of keeping records cannot be over 

emphasized and taking the time to review and analyze the 

Figure 12. Tracking dates of wolf-related events, livestock movements, and other 

factors, such as hunting seasons, provides insights into what is happening on the 

landscape and helps determine appropriate management actions.
data may provide insights into what is happening on the 

landscape.

Working with Cooperators

Monitoring for wolves can be a cooperative venture 

involving ranchers, wildlife damage management 

specialists, wildlife agency personnel, and adjacent 

landowners. In a coordinated effort, neighboring 

landowners are alerted to the presence of wolves in the 

immediate area and can be included in an expanding wolf 

monitoring network. State and federal wildlife managers 

may provide their expertise in trapping and placing radio 

telemetry collars on wolves to further aid in monitoring and 

preventing wolf depredation. State and federal agencies 

may also be able to analyze predator DNA in saliva from 

wounds of recently found livestock carcasses, feces or hair 

samples to aid in species identification.

Potential Management Actions

One of the main benefits of monitoring data is that it can 

be used to guide future livestock protection and wildlife 

damage management plans and actions. For example, 

livestock owners may be able to alter grazing rotations to 

avoid conflicts with wolves in certain seasons or may be 

able to graze larger classes of livestock in areas where 

wolves are detected. Monitoring may also reveal areas 

that require extra livestock protection, such as adding 

range riders, increasing the number of livestock guardian 

dogs, or implementing other protective measures. 

Radio Collaring

Monitoring data can be used by federal or state agency 

personnel to select appropriate locations for live trapping 

and radio collaring wolves (Figure 13). Capturing and 

collaring a wolf not only allows that animal to be tracked, 

but also reveals whether the wolf is associated with other 

wolves or an entire pack. This allows for the monitoring of 

larger groups and can help determine wolf pack territories, 

seasonal distribution changes, and important denning and 

rendezvous sites. It also helps producers determine if and 

where livestock depredation is occurring.

Legal Status

The legal status of wolves varies from state to state. Wolf 

populations are managed by a variety of federal, state, 

tribal and local agencies dependent on the conservation 

status of the population. In some areas, wolves are listed 

as a federally protected species, while in other areas 

wolves may be treated as a trophy game animal subject to 

regulated harvest, or as an unprotected species with no 

limits on take. Check local and state regulations before 

implementing any wolf management actions. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 9

Figure 13. Monitoring data can be used by federal or state agency personnel to select 

appropriate locations for live trapping and radio collaring wolves. 
Page 10

Acknowledgements

Figure 1-5, 7-13. Photos by Cat Urbigkit 

Figure 6. Photo by California Department of Fish and Wildlife

We thank Eric Gese, David Ruid, and Kraig Glazier for providing critical reviews of this manuscript. We also thank our 

interagency cooperators, including Ken Mills and Zach Turnbull of the Wyoming Game & Fish Department, as well as numerous 

personnel with USDA Wildlife Services. We are thankful for the years of mentoring provided by the late David “Ted” Jensen, 

Wildlife Services pilot in southwestern Wyoming.

Glossary

Depredation: The act of consuming agricultural resources 

(crops, livestock). 

Monitoring: The regular observation and recording of 

activities.

Necropsy: A surgical examination of a dead animal to learn 

why it died. 

Surveillance: Activity involving the collection, analysis, and 

interpretation of large volumes of data originating from a 

variety of sources. 

Key Words

Depredation, Gray Wolf, Canis lupus, Monitoring, 

Surveillance 

Disclaimer

Wildlife can threaten the health and safety of you and 

others in the area. Use of damage prevention and control 

methods also may pose risks to humans, pets, livestock, 

other non-target animals, and the environment. Be aware 

of the risks and take steps to reduce or eliminate those 

risks. 

Some methods mentioned in this document may not be 

legal, permitted, or appropriate in your area. Read and 

follow all pesticide label recommendations and local 

requirements. Check with personnel from your state 

wildlife agency and local officials to determine if methods 

are acceptable and allowed. 

Mention of any products, trademarks, or brand names 

does not constitute endorsement, nor does omission 

constitute criticism. 

Citation

Hansen, J. and C. Urbigkit. 2021. Monitoring for Wolves. 

Wildlife Damage Management Technical Series. USDA, 

APHIS, WS National Wildlife Research Center. Fort Collins, 

Colorado. 11p.

WDM Technical Series—Monitoring for Wolves
Page 11

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