POULTRY INDUSTRY MANUAL

National Animal Health 

Emergency Management System 

Foreign Animal Disease 

Preparedness & Response Plan

FAD PReP

United States Department of Agriculture • Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service • Veterinary Services

MARCH 2013
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Poultry Industry Manual • Page i

Poultry Industry Manual

The Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan (FAD PReP)/National Animal Health Emergency 

Management System (NAHEMS) Guidelines provide a framework for use in dealing with an animal health 

emergency in the United States. 

This FAD PReP Industry Manual was produced by the Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State 

University of Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, in collaboration with the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service through a cooperative agreement.

The FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual was last updated in March 2013. Please send questions or comments to:

Center for Food Security and Public Health

2160 Veterinary Medicine

Iowa State University of Science and Technology

Ames, IA 50011

Telephone: 515-294-1492

Fax: 515-294-8259

Email: cfsph@iastate.edu 

subject line FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual

While best efforts have been used in developing and preparing the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines, the US Government,

US Department of Agriculture and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service and other parties, such as employees 

and contractors contributing to this document, neither warrant nor assume any legal liability or responsibility for the 

accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information or procedure disclosed. The primary purpose of these FAD 

PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines is to provide guidance to those government officials responding to a foreign animal 

disease outbreak. It is only posted for public access as a reference. 

The FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines may refer to links to various other Federal and State agencies and private 

organizations. These links are maintained solely for the user’s information and convenience. If you link to such site, 

please be aware that you are then subject to the policies of that site. In addition, please note that USDA does not 

control and cannot guarantee the relevance, timeliness, or accuracy of these outside materials. Further, the inclusion 

of links or pointers to particular items in hypertext is not intended to reflect their importance, nor is it intended 

to constitute approval or endorsement of any views expressed, or products or services offered, on these outside 

websites, or the organizations sponsoring the websites. 

Trade names are used solely for the purpose of providing specific information. Mention of a trade name does not constitute 

a guarantee or warranty of the product by USDA or an endorsement over other products not mentioned.USDA prohibits 

discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, 

political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with 

disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) 

should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and telecommunications device for the deaf [TDD]).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326 W, Whitten Building, 

1400 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an 

equal opportunity provider and employer.

Iowa State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, age, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, 

sex, marital status, gender identity, disability or status as a U.S. Veteran. Any persons having inquiries concerning this may 

contact the Director of Equal Opportunity and Diversity, 3280 Beardshear Hall, ISU, Ames, IA 50011 (515) 294-7612. 

National Center for Animal Health 

Emergency Management

US Department of Agriculture (USDA)

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

U.S. Department of Agriculture

4700 River Road, Unit 41

Riverdale, Maryland 20737-1231

Telephone: (301) 851-3595

Fax: (301) 734-7817

E-mail: FAD.PReP.Comments@aphis.usda.gov 
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Poultry Industry Manual

Information provided here is meant to be used as a preparedness resource rather than a comprehensive document. 

Several key APHIS documents complement this “FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual” and provide further details 

when necessary. This document references the following APHIS documents:

• APHIS APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework documents

• FAD PReP/National Animal Health Emergency Management System Guidelines: 

- Biosecurity (2011) 

- Cleaning and Disinfection (2011)

- Disposal (2012)

- Personal Protective Equipment (2011)

- Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia (2011)

- Vaccination for Contagious Diseases (2011)

• FAD PReP Standard Operating Procedures (SOP):

- Biosecurity

- Cleaning and Disinfection

- Disposal

- Personal Protective Equipment

- Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia

- Vaccination for Contagious Diseases

• HPAI Response Plan: The Red Book, USDA-APHIS, September 2012 

• VS Guidance 12001.1 Policy for the Investigation of Potential Foreign Animal Disease/Emerging Disease 

Incidents (FAD/EDI)

These documents and many others are available on the USDA-APHIS National Center for Animal Health and 

Emergency Management website at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/emergency_management/
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Poultry Industry Manual • Page iii

Table of Contents

Poultry Industry Manual

The Imperative for Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response 1

Chapter 1: Broiler Industry 4

Darrell W. Trampel, DVM, PhD, DACVP; Malea Frank, BS; Katie Evans, BS; H. John Barnes, DVM, PhD, DACVP, DACPV

Chapter 2: Turkey Industry 46

H. John Barnes, DVM, PhD, DACVP, DACPV; Sarah E. Tilley, BS; Michael P. Martin, DVM, MPVM, DACPV 

Chapter 3: Egg Industry 98

Darrell W. Trampel, DVM, PhD, DACVP

Chapter 4: Gamebird Industry 130

Eva Wallner-Pendleton, DVM, MS, DACPV; R. Michael Hulet, PhD

Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry 150

Larry J. Allen, DVM, MPVM, PhD, DACVPM

International Trade 172

USDA Response to a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal Disease 173
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Poultry Industry Manual • Page 1 of 174

Poultry Industry Manual

THE IMPERATIVE FOR FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE PREPAREDNESS 

AND RESPONSE 

WHY FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASES MATTER

Preparing for and responding to foreign animal diseases (FADs), like highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and footand-mouth disease (FMD), are critical measures to safeguard our nation’s animal health, public health, and food supply.

There are significant potential consequences of an FAD outbreak in the United States. In addition to the economic 

impact, the social and psychological impact on both producers and consumers could be severe. The FMD outbreak 

in the United Kingdom had an estimated impact of between $12–18 billion. Studies have estimated a likely national 

welfare loss between $2.3–69 billion1 for an FMD outbreak in California, depending on delay in diagnosing the disease2.

CHALLENGES OF RESPONDING TO AN FAD EVENT

An FAD outbreak will be challenging for all stakeholders. For example, there will be disruptions to interstate 

commerce and international trade. Response activities are complex, and significant planning and preparation must 

be conducted before an outbreak. Outbreaks can become large and widespread. Large, geographically dispersed and 

diverse teams will need to be assembled rapidly and must react quickly. The response effort must have the capability 

to be rapidly scaled up, involving many times more resources, personnel, and countermeasures. As such, responding 

to an FAD—large or small—may be a very complex and difficult effort. 

LESSONS LEARNED FROM PAST FAD OUTBREAKS

Past outbreaks both in the United States and in other countries offer important lessons that can be applied to 

preparedness and response efforts. To achieve successful outcomes in future FAD response, it is vital to identify, 

understand, and apply these lessons learned:

• Provide a unified State-Federal-Tribal-industry planning process that respects local knowledge.

• Ensure the unified command sets clearly defined and obtainable goals.

• Have a unified command that acts with speed and certainty to achieve united goals.

• Employ science-based and risk-management approaches that protect public health and animal health, stabilize 

animal agriculture, the food supply, and the economy.

• Ensure guidelines, strategies, and procedures are communicated and understood by responders and stakeholders.

• Acknowledge that high expectations for timely and successful outcomes require the:

- Rapid scale-up of resources and trained personnel for veterinary activities and countermeasures, and

- Capability to quickly address competing interests before or during an outbreak.

• Rapid detection and FAD tracing is essential for the efficient and timely control of FAD outbreaks.

1. Carpenter TE, O’Brien JM, Hagerman AD, & McCarl BA. 2011. “Epidemic and economic impacts of delayed detection of foot-and-mouth 

disease: a case study of a simulated outbreak in California.” J Vet Diagn Invest. 23:26-33.

2. Estimates based on models may vary: Ekboir (1999) estimated a loss of between $8.5 and $13.5 billion for an FMD outbreak in California. 

Ekboir JM. 1999. “Potential Impact of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in California: the Role and Contribution of Animal Health Surveillance 

and Monitoring Services.” Agricultural Issues Center. University of California, Davis.
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Poultry Industry Manual

FAD PREP MISSION AND GOALS

The significant threat and potential consequences of FADs and the challenges of and lessons learned of effective and 

rapid FAD response have led to the development of the Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan, 

also known as “FAD PReP.” The mission of FAD PReP is to raise awareness, expectations, and develop capabilities

 surrounding FAD preparedness and response. The goal of FAD PReP is to integrate, synchronize, and deconflict 

preparedness and response capabilities as much as possible before an outbreak, by providing goals, guidelines, 

strategies, and procedures that are clear, comprehensive, easily readable, easily updated, and that comply with the 

National Incident Management System.

In the event of an FAD outbreak, the three key response goals are to: (1) detect, control, and contain the FAD in 

animals as quickly as possible; (2) eradicate the FAD using strategies that seek to stabilize animal agriculture, 

the food supply, the economy, and protect public health; and (3) provide science- and risk-based approaches 

and systems to facilitate continuity of business for non-infected animals and non-contaminated animal products. 

Achieving these three goals will allow individual livestock facilities, States, Tribes, regions, and industries to 

resume normal production as quickly as possible. They will also allow the United States to regain FAD-free status 

without the response effort causing more disruption and damage than the disease outbreak itself. 

FAD PReP DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS

FAD PReP is not just one, standalone FAD plan. Instead, it is a comprehensive US preparedness and response strategy 

for FAD threats. This strategy is provided and explained in a series of different types of integrated documents, as 

illustrated and described below. 

FAD PReP Suite of Documents and Materials

Note: APHIS=Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, NAHEMS = National Animal Health Emergency 

Management System, SOP = standard operating procedures.

Strategic Plans—Concept of Operations 

• APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework documents: These documents provide an overall concept of 

operations for FAD preparedness and response for APHIS, explaining the framework of existing approaches, 

systems, and relationships.

• National Center for Animal Health Emergency Management (NCAHEM) Stakeholder Coordination and 

Collaboration Resource Guide: This guide describes key stakeholders with whom NCAHEM collaborates.

• NCAHEM Incident Coordination Group Plan: This document explains how APHIS headquarters will organize 

in the event of an animal health emergency. 
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Poultry Industry Manual

NAHEMS Guidelines 

• These documents describe many of the critical preparedness and response activities, and can be considered 

as a competent veterinary authority for responders, planners, and policy-makers.

Industry Manuals

• These manuals describe the complexity of industry to emergency planners and responders and provide industry 

a window into emergency response. 

Disease Response Plans

• Response plans are intended to provide disease-specific information about response strategies. These documents 

offer guidance to all stakeholders on capabilities and critical activities that would be required to respond to an 

FAD outbreak.

Critical Activity Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

• For planners and responders, these SOPs provide details for conducting 23 critical activities such as disposal, 

depopulation, cleaning and disinfection, and biosecurity that are essential to effective preparedness and 

response to an FAD outbreak. These SOPs provide operational details that are not discussed in depth in 

strategy documents or disease-specific response plans.

Continuity of Business (commodity specific plans developed by public-privateacademic partnerships)

• Secure Egg Supply (SES) Plan: The SES Plan uses proactive risk assessments, surveillance, biosecurity, and other 

requirements to facilitate the market continuity and movement of eggs and egg products during an HPAI outbreak.

• Secure Milk Supply (SMS) Plan: Currently under development, the SMS Plan will help facilitate market continuity 

for milk and milk products during an FMD outbreak. This Plan also will employ proactive risk assessments.

• Secure Pork Supply (SPS) Plan: Currently under development, the SPS Plan will help facilitate market 

continuity for pork and pork products during an FMD, classical swine fever, swine vesicular disease, or African 

swine fever outbreak.

• Secure Turkey Supply (STS) Plan: Currently under development, the STS Plan will help facilitate market 

continuity for the turkey sector during an HPAI outbreak.

Outbreak Response Tools

• Case definitions, appraisal and compensation guidelines and formulas, and specific surveillance guidance are 

examples of important outbreak response tools.

State/Tribal Planning

• State and Tribal planning is essential for an effective FAD response. These plans are tailored to the particular 

requirements and environments of the State or Tribal area, taking into account animal populations, industry, 

and population needs.

Industry, Academic, and Extension Planning

• Industry, academia, and extension stakeholder planning is critical and essential: emergency management is not 

just a Federal or State activity.

APHIS Emergency Management

• APHIS directives and Veterinary Services (VS) Memorandums provide critical emergency management policy. 

APHIS Emergency Management documents provide guidance on topics ranging from emergency mobilization, 

to the steps in investigating a potential FAD, to protecting personnel from HPAI. 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 4 of 174

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Broiler Industry

PART I: UNITED STATES BROILER PRODUCTION 7

 

1.1 Scope of the Broiler Industry 7

1.1.1 Broiler Numbers and Location 7

1.1.2 Broiler Industry Structure 8

1.1.2.1 Contract Production 8

1.1.2.2 Vertical Integration 8

1.1.3 Service Technicians 9

1.1.3.1 Responsibilities and Monitoring 9

1.1.3.2 Health Maintenance 9

1.2 Breeding Flocks 9

1.2.1 Primary Breeders 9

1.2.2 Parent Breeders 10

1.2.3 Breeder Houses 11

1.2.4 Photostimulation 12

1.2.5 Mating 12

1.2.6 Feeding 13

1.2.6.1 Females 14

1.2.6.2 Males 14

1.2.6.3 Production Phase 15

1.2.7 Hatchery 15

1.2.7.1 Egg Collection, Selection, Storage, and Pre-Warming 16

1.2.7.2 Setter (Incubator) 16

1.2.7.3 Hatcher 17

1.2.7.4 Chick Processing 18

1.2.7.5 Chick Holding and Transport to Farms 18

1.2.7.6 Waste Disposal and Cleaning 18

1.2.7.7 Automation 18

1.3 Broiler Housing Facilities 19

1.3.1 Stocking Density 19

1.3.2 Feeder Systems 19

1.3.3 Drinker Systems 20

1.3.4 Lighting Systems 21

1.3.5 Heating Systems 21

1.3.6 Environmental Control Systems 22

1.3.7 Ventilation Systems 22

1.3.8 Litter 23

1.4 Brooding 23

1.4.1 House Configuration 23

Darrell W. Trampel 1, DVM, PhD, DACVP; Malea Frank 2, BS; Katie Evans 2, BS; 

H. John Barnes3

, DVM, PhD, DACVP, DACPV

Iowa State University1, University of Arkansas2, North Carolina State University3
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 5 of 174

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Broiler Industry

1.4.2 Feed 24

1.4.3 Water 24

1.4.4 Light 25

1.4.5 Temperature 25

1.4.6 Ventilation 27

1.4.7 Litter 28

1.4.8 Chick Delivery and Placement 29

1.4.9 Imprinting 29

1.5 Grow-Out 29

1.5.1 Feed 30

1.5.2 Water 31

1.5.3 Light 31

1.5.4 Temperature 31

1.5.5 Ventilation 32

1.5.6 Litter 33

1.5.7 Mortality 33

5.5.7.1 Culling 33

5.5.7.2 Carcass Disposal 33

1.6 Load Out 34

1.6.1 Feed Withdrawl 34

1.6.2 Catching 34

PART II: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE 35

1.7 Biosecurity 35

1.7.1 Conceptual Biosecurity 35

1.7.2 Structural Biosecurity 35

1.7.3 Operational Biosecurity 35

1.7.3.1 Visitors, Service Technicians, and Employees 36

1.7.3.2 Vehicles and Drivers 36

1.7.3.3 Equipment 36

1.7.3.4 Broiler Houses 36

1.7.3.5 Feed and Water 36

1.7.3.6 Rodent and Insect Control 36

1.7.3.7 Manure Removal and Dead Bird Disposal 37

1.8 Providing Animal Care 37

1.8.1 Feed 37

1.8.2 Water 37

1.8.3 Light 37

1.8.4 Temperature 37

1.8.5 Ventilation 37

1.9 On-Farm Waste Handling 37

1.9.1 Litter and Manure 37
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Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Broiler Industry

1.9.2 Residual Feed 38

1.9.3 Mortalities 38

1.10 Surveillance 38

1.10.1 Zone and Area Designations 38

1.10.2 People 38

1.10.3 Vehicle Traffic 39

1.10.4 Disease Monitoring 39

1.10.5 Surveillance and Sampling Prior to Movement of Chickens 39

1.10.6 Sample Submission 40

Acknowledgements 41

References 42

Photo and Illustration Credits 43
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 7 of 174

Chapter 1: Broiler Industry

PART I: UNITED STATES BROILER PRODUCTION

1.1 SCOPE OF THE BROILER INDUSTRY

Broiler chickens are bred and raised for meat production. The broiler industry is the most advanced system of animal 

food production and the United States has the world’s largest broiler industry. In 2012, data released by the National 

Chicken Council indicates that the broiler industry provides over 1 million jobs, $47 billion in wages, $197 billion in 

economic activity, and $17.2 billion in government revenue. Today’s broiler industry consists of around 40 vertically 

integrated companies which contract with about 29,500 farmers who produce 95% of this nation’s broiler chickens. 

About 5% of broilers are produced on company-owned farms. Since 2009, foreign ownership of US broiler companies 

has increased and now accounts for an estimated 25% of total production. The largest broiler companies, Tyson 

Foods and JBS-owned Pilgrim’s Pride, are transnational, multi-animal protein companies with global marketing and 

distribution of their products. The top five broiler companies in this country are listed in Table 1 below.

National

Ranking

Estimated Market 

Share (%)

Headquarters 

Location

2

1

3

4

5

Company

Pilgrim’s Pride

Tyson Foods, Inc.

Sanderson Farms

Perdue Farms

Koch Foods, Inc.

Colorado

Arkansas

Mississippi

Maryland

Illinois

24.1

27.1

9.2

8.9

7.8

Table 1. Leading Broiler Production Companies (2012)

1.1.1 Broiler Numbers and Location

Approximately 9.0 billion broiler chickens are produced in this country each year with a combined live weight of 

50 billion pounds resulting in the annual marketing of 36.5 billion pounds of chicken products on a ready-to-cook 

basis. Broiler chickens are marketed at an average age of 47 days with an average live weight of 5.80 pounds. 

The target weight of broilers at processing may be more or less than the average live weight, depending on the 

market and requirements of the processing plant. Average feed conversion of broiler chickens is 1.91 and average 

mortality from placement to marketing is 3.8%. The broiler industry in the United States is concentrated in the 

Southeast, due to a favorable climate and proximity to grains and final markets. The top five broiler-producing 

states are listed in Table 2 below.

National Ranking

2

1

3

4

5

State

Alabama

Georgia

Arkansas

North Carolina

Mississippi

Billions of Broilers

1.004

1.362

0.977

0.800

0.751

Table 2. Leading Broiler Production States (2012)
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 8 of 174

Broiler production by state is shown in Figure 1, below.

Figure 1. Broiler Production by State Number Produced, Thousand, 2012

USDA/NASS

04/20/12

MN

41,600

AL

1,021,100

GA

1,375,200

AR

1,027,380

WI

46,500 OH

59,600

PA

155,600

DE

217,800 MD

311,100

VA

243,800

WV

85,400

MO

285,200

KY

OK 310,000

214,700

TX

630,500

TN

190,300

MS

784,000 FL

61,800

SC

223,400

NC

786,900

MI

IN

IA NE

WA

OR

CA

LA

NY

U.S. Total: 8.61 Billion Head

8.07 Billion Head, 94% of U.S. Total

All Other Production States

1.1.2 Broiler Industry Structure

1.1.2.1 Contract Production

During the 1950s, contract growing of broiler chickens began in response to farmers losing their farms due to 

risks associated with financing chicks and feed. Consequently, feed companies, hatcheries, and others began 

to provide financing and credit for growing broiler chickens. Contractors (financiers) assumed most of the 

financial risk and profits were shared between the financier and the contract grower. Today, vertically integrated 

broiler companies are the primary contractors; independent contract growers produce 95% of broiler chickens. 

Broiler companies furnish chicks, feed, medication, flock supervision, and labor and equipment for catching and 

transporting broiler chickens from the farm to the processing plant. Growers furnish houses, equipment (feeders, 

waterers, brooders, and fans), water, electricity, fuel, litter, and labor and follow management protocols specified 

by the processing company (integrator). Chickens belong to the integrator, not the contract grower. However, 

when a chicken dies, proper disposal of the carcass is the responsibility of the grower. Contract growers are 

dedicated to a specific company and specific processing plant and are usually paid based on the number of pounds 

of live broiler chickens delivered to the processing plant and production efficiency parameters including feed 

conversion ratio and overall cost of production. Growers should visit each flock twice daily to remove moribund 

or dead birds, adjust the height of feeders and waterers, check for proper ventilation, and monitor litter moisture 

content to avoid excess ammonia production.

1.1.2.2 Vertical Integration

Before 1950, the broiler industry consisted of tens of thousands of small businesses. With the advent of vertical 

integration in the 1950s, those thousands became an industry of hundreds. Vertical integration is a business 

arrangement wherein multiple stages of the production and marketing system are owned by one enterprise. By the 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 9 of 174

mid-1960s, over 90% of broilers came from integrated farms. During the ensuing years, consolidation resulted in 

merging of companies to form the 40 odd companies that comprise today’s industry. Vertically integrated broiler 

companies own breeder flocks, hatcheries, chickens in the broiler houses, feed mills, processing plants, and a fleet 

of trucks. Trucks are needed to transport chicks from hatcheries to farms, feed from the feed mill to farms, broiler 

chickens from farms to the processing plant, and often product to buyers. Vertical integration allows coordination 

of capacities at each stage of production and creates one profit center. This system allows a high degree of control 

over how broiler chickens are raised, fed, and processed and results in use of the best available technology and 

management to produce and process chickens. An integrated broiler operation, usually referred to as a complex 

or division, typically has a centrally located hatchery, feed mill, and processing plant that coordinate with pullet, 

breeder, and broiler farms. Processing plant capacity determines the number of farms required to provide a steady 

supply of chickens for the plant and the size of the feed mill needed to provide feed for chickens and breeders 

on those farms. Transportation costs associated with moving feed are significant and many companies require 

contract grower farms to be located within a 10-30 mile radius from the feed mill. Production and processing of 1 

million broilers per week with an 8-week cycle requires 400 houses with an average capacity of 20,000 broilers. 

A typical broiler farm has four houses.

Integrators closely monitor factors affecting cost of production down to hundredths of a cent per pound. 

These factors include morbidity, mortality, rate of daily gain, feed conversion, and condemnations. Company 

veterinarians constantly monitor flocks for disease problems, which are quickly identified and corrected. 

Integrated companies are closed marketing systems and do not buy or sell birds in open livestock markets. 

There is little crossover of birds, people, or equipment between farms and between companies. Broilers are 

produced under single-age, all-in all-out production schemes which break the chain of disease transmission 

from one flock to the next. Extensive biosecurity programs limit access to poultry houses and encourage use 

of dedicated clothing and boots, discourage sharing of equipment, and prohibit contact with other birds 

including pets and other poultry.

1.1.3 Service Technicians

Service technicians are a critical part of broiler flock husbandry. Service technicians are employed by the 

integrator and act as a liaison between contract growers and company management. Company expectations and 

policy changes are presented to the growers by service technicians. Service technicians assist with scheduling 

chick arrivals, feed deliveries to farms, and final load-out for processing. Typically, service technicians visit each 

farm weekly and provide advice on best management practices for the strain of broiler chicken being grown to 

achieve the company’s target market weight. 

1.1.3.1 Responsibilities and Monitoring

Measurements are taken at specific times during grow-out and are monitored to evaluate flock health and 

progress. These measurements include water and feed consumption, mortality rates, and body weights. As 

flocks approach market weight, service technicians spot-weigh broilers and calculate the average rate of 

daily gain. This information, along with current health of the flock, is used to schedule flocks for processing. 

An unexplained decline in water consumption paired with a drop in feed consumption may indicate a 

disease challenge or equipment malfunction. Early investigation of flock problems by the grower and 

service technician is necessary to prevent large-scale problems from developing, and communication 

between the two is important.

1.1.3.2 Health Maintenance

Service technicians work with company veterinarians to diagnose and treat diseases. Service technicians 

typically perform on-site necropsies on several birds to help determine a disease diagnosis. Once a disease 

has been diagnosed and the company veterinarian has been consulted, field technicians determine the best 

way to handle the particular disease situation and may administer medication via water or feed and make 

recommendations to the grower.

1.2 BREEDING FLOCKS

1.2.1 Primary Breeders

Primary breeding companies are large international enterprises with geneticists, nutritionists, veterinarians, and 

computer specialists on their staffs. Today, there are only three major primary broiler breeding companies in the 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 10 of 174

world – Cobb-Vantress, Aviagen, and Hubbard. Cobb-Vantress incorporated the Hybro breed in 2007 and focuses 

on selection for feed conversion because feed is the single largest cost associated with producing broiler chickens. 

Aviagen’s product portfolio includes Ross, Arbor Acres, and Lohmann Indian River (LIR) brands. Aviagen is the 

largest broiler breeding company in the world with 44% of global market share and operates in over 85 countries. 

Hubbard is owned by Groupe Grimaud, the second largest multi-species animal breeding company around the 

world. Hubbard has a presence in nearly 100 countries and offers a range of genetic products to meet specific 

needs for different market segments. 

Primary breeding companies increase the genetic potential of broiler chickens by selecting for traits that 

improve production efficiency, such as rapid growth rate, feed efficiency, and breast meat yield and quality. 

Broiler breeding programs rely on quantitative genetics, computer science, and DNA chip technology to select 

breeding birds. DNA chip technology is a new genomic selection tool, which has been used to identify key 

genetic markers (single nucleotide polymorphisms) in pedigree selection programs. Genomic information is 

particularly helpful when selecting for sex-limited traits. Also, new measuring techniques, such as computer 

tomography to produce whole body reconstructions of broilers in three dimensions, have been included as one 

of the selection criteria. Primary breeding companies publish management guides for breeder and commercial 

broilers with standards of expected performance.

Genetic improvement of commercial broilers 

is achieved by using a production pyramid. 

A representative genetic pyramid illustrating 

production of broiler breeders is shown in the 

following figure. Primary breeders consist of 

pedigree, great grandparent, and grandparent 

generations that are owned by primary breeder 

companies. Eggs from pedigree flocks are 

hatched to produce great grandparent flocks, 

eggs from great grandparent flocks yield chicks 

for the grandparent generation. Grandparents 

consist of male and female lines, both of which 

are 2-way cross hybrids. Day-old chicks from 

male and female line grandparent stock are 

shipped to franchise hatcheries world-wide to 

create parent breeding flocks. Breeding the 

male and female parent lines together results 

in a 4-way cross broiler chicken. Primary 

breeder flocks are maintained under the highest 

level of biosecurity possible because of their 

value and critical importance in the production 

pyramid (Figure 2).

Live weights and feed utilization of commercial broilers have steadily improved over the last 50 years and over 

90% of this improvement can be attributed to genetic changes. However, optimal nutrition, disease control, and 

environmental conditions must be provided for broiler chickens to reach their genetic potential.

Selection for rapid growth over many generations has reduced the ability of broiler breeders to produce 

high quality eggs in large numbers. A strong negative correlation between rapid growth and reproductive 

efficiency has resulted in broiler breeder hens with lower peak egg production and a shorter duration of lay 

than egg-type chickens. In addition, a positive correlation exists between high growth rates and multiple 

ovulations. Multiple ovulations result in eggs which are unsuitable for incubation because of double-yolks 

and thin or soft shells. Maintenance of fertility, hatchability, and egg production are important issues in the 

broiler breeder industry.

1.2.2 Parent Breeders

Parent breeding flocks are typically owned by commercial broiler companies. Eggs produced by parent flocks 

are transported to company-owned hatcheries. Chicks from these hatcheries are taken to commercial broiler 

Grandparent

Pedigree/Elite

Great 

Grandparent

Parent

Production Farms

Figure 2. Structure of the U.S. Poultry Industry
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farms that are owned or contracted to the company. The chicks are raised as commercial broilers, slaughtered 

in company-owned processing plants, and marketed for human consumption. The relationship between primary 

breeders, parent breeders, and commercial broilers is illustrated in the Figure 3 below.

Figure 3. Primary Breeders, Parent Breeders, and Commercial Broilers

Primary breeder farms

Elite Great 

grandparent Grandparent Parent 

farms Broiler

farms

Farms:

Hatcheries: H H H H

Ownership:

Breeder company

Broiler production company

chicks

eggs eggs eggs eggs

chicks

chicks

chicks

Slaughter

1.2.3 Breeder Houses

In a typical breeder house, 2/3 of the floor is covered by wooden or plastic slats located on each side of the 

house and the center 1/3 of the floor consists of a litter-covered scratch and breeding area in the center of 

the house. Slat and litter houses allow for a higher stocking density, which reduces the housing cost per bird. 

Rows of automated mechanical nests are located on the slats near the edge of the scratch areas on each side 

of the house. Slats extend beyond the front of the automated nests and waterlines and female feeding lines 

are placed over the slats. Fewer eggs are laid on slat and litter floors than on all-litter floors, especially in 

houses with mechanical nest systems. Floor eggs should not be set because they are heavily contaminated 

with bacteria on the surface of the shells. Bacteria can invade the eggs, multiply, and potentially cause 

eggs to explode, which contaminates the incubator. In addition, a relatively high percentage of floor eggs 

may be broken, destroyed, or eaten). Most droppings are collected in an area beneath the slats which helps 

maintain the quality of litter in the centrally located scratch area. Temperature in the breeding house should be 

maintained between 59°F and 77°F.

Scratch and Breeding Area Feeding and Waterlines
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Biosecurity is higher on breeder farms than it generally is on 

commercial broiler farms, but it is not as stringently applied as on 

primary breeder farms. Breeder farms play a critical role in the 

operation of an integrated broiler company. Loss of a breeder flock to 

disease is not only costly, but loss of projected production from that 

flock makes losses much greater.

1.2.4 Photostimulation

Environmentally controlled rearing (“pullet”) houses need to be lightproofed so light intensity is less than 0.5 lux (0.05 foot-candles) when 

lights are off. Fans and air inlets are covered with light traps to exclude 

natural daylight; all light is supplied by electric lighting. Black-out 

pullet houses allow farm managers to control the age of sexual maturity by conditioning the brain to respond 

to subsequent stimulatory long day lengths. Chickens do not initiate testicular and ovarian development until 

they are exposed to increased day length and light intensity. Light-proof pullet housing makes it possible for 

farm managers to improve flock uniformity by delaying light stimulation until a high percentage of pullets 

in a flock are physically and reproductively mature. If the flock is provided sufficient feed at the time of 

photostimulation to support both maintenance and egg production, small hens not producing eggs consume 

more feed than required for maintenance and become overweight prior to onset of egg production. Ultimately, 

they will produce fewer eggs with reduced fertility and hatchability. Flocks stimulated at older ages have a 

greater percentage of hens with mature reproductive systems than flocks stimulated at younger ages. Males and 

females are reared on the same lighting program to ensure both sexes reach sexual maturity at the same time. 

A lighting program for broiler breeder chickens reared and producing eggs in light-controlled houses is given 

below from the Cobb Broiler Breeder Management Guide (2008).

Age(weeks)

3 - 20 8

15

14

13

11

5 - 10

40 - 60

40 - 60

40 - 60

40 - 60

1 - 3

20 - 21

21-22

22-23

23-60

Light (hours)

Gradual decrease from 24 hours at 

Day 1 to 8 hours by 14-21 days

Gradual decrease from maximum 

light (>20 lux) to 20 lux by Day 7

Light Intensity (lux)

Table 3. Cobb Broiler Breeder Management Guide (2008)

1.2.5 Mating

Males and females are transferred from the pullet farm to the production farm between 18 and 23 weeks of age. 

Broiler breeders reproduce by natural mating. Unlike commercial turkeys, artificial insemination is not used. 

Flock or mass mating allows a number of males to mix with an entire flock of hens. Management practices to 

enhance mating efficiency include feeding programs to control body weights in female and male broiler breeders 

and maintenance of an optimum male:female ratio in the breeding flock. The recommended gender ratio is about 

10 males per 100 females. Initially, eight males per 100 pullets may be better to reduce male aggression toward 

hens and other males, reduce female mortality, and encourage hen receptivity. Mating frequency of males is 

estimated to be 5-40 times per day. Mating frequency of hens is estimated to be about 0.5 to 1.0 per day. Broiler 

breeder male fertility is high (more than 95%) until approximately 40 weeks of age, but declines thereafter 

because of reduced rooster mating frequency, lower percentage of live sperm, and the need for hens to mate 

more often to maintain fertility. To compensate for a decline in mating activity, spiking or intra-spiking of the 

flock with new males is used to stimulate male interest in mating. Beyond 65-70 weeks of age, fertility drops to 

low levels and the flock is sold.
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Spiking consists of adding new, younger roosters to a flock to compensate for a decline in fertility, which generally 

occurs after 40-45 weeks of age, but can occur anytime and may occur more than once. During the first 6 weeks after 

spiking, increased mating is primarily due to old males that are stimulated by the presence of the young males. After 

6 weeks, increased mating is due to activity of the young males. For the first week after spiking there is an increase 

in male aggression with elevated male mortality and sexual interference (males preventing other males from mating). 

The result is approximately 12 weeks of increased or sustained fertility. During the first week after spiking, fertility 

declines slightly due to male aggression and mating interference but significantly increases by 2 weeks post-spiking.

Bringing new males into the flock creates a biosecurity risk. Intra-spiking overcomes this problem by exchanging 

males of the same age between houses on the same farm or between pens in the same house. Intra-spiking males are 

stimulated by encountering new hens and begin to mate immediately. Aggression and sexual interference increase for 

the first two weeks after intra-spiking but there is no significant increase in mortality from either the original males or 

spiked males. Double intra-spiking is possible and may help maintain higher levels of hatchability for up to 15 weeks.

1.2.6 Feeding

Controlling body weights of both males and females during rearing and egg 

production is a critical factor in determining their performance in the breeder 

house. Males and females are typically grown separately during the rearing 

period, as target body weights are different. Attaining target body weights as 

breeders age is achieved by regular adjustments of feed allowances based on 

weekly body weight measurements of chickens in the flock. Deviations from 

target body weight curves require adjustments to feed allocations that can be 

maintained or increased, but never decreased from day 1 of age until peak 

egg production at around 30 weeks of age. On days 7 and 14 after placement, 

10 birds can be weighed together in a bucket. Thereafter, birds should be 

individually weighed at the same time on the same day of every week before 

feeding. Onset of sexual maturity is influenced by body composition, so 

males and females must have both correct body weights and correct body 

composition at the onset of lay. At the onset of lay, the females’ body should have an adequate fat reserve as well as 

adequate muscle mass. Goals of a typical broiler breeder feeding program are shown in the table below.

Broiler Age Range

4 - 16 weeks

16 - 23 weeks

23 - 30 weeks

30 - 70 weeks

Control body weight by providing sucient nutrition for 

growth and maintenance while preventing birds from 

becoming overweight by small, regular feed increases.

Accelerate bodyweight gain and promote rapid development 

of ovaries and testes in preparation for egg production by 

increasing the feed allocation

Meet demands of growth and egg production while avoiding 

excessive weight gain with small, frequent feed increases.

Avoid excessive weight gain after peak egg production has 

been reached and physical growth has ended by slowly reducing 

feed for females based on bodyweight and egg weights.

Feeding Program Goals

Table 4. Goals of a Typical Breeder Feeding Program

Day 1 - 4 weeks Feed ad libitum
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1.2.6.1 Females

Overfeeding broiler breeder hens leads to development of abnormal ovarian structure, reduced egg production, 

impaired fertility, increased hen mortality, and increased frequency of defective eggs. At the onset of lay, 

overweight pullets have a tendency to develop multiple large yellow ovarian follicles (“superovulation”), each 

of which produces progesterone. Superovulation results in excessive progesterone production, which triggers 

multiple concurrent ovulations. Multiple ovulations result in regular eggs or large eggs containing double 

yolks, which have no shell, soft shells, or thin shells. These defective eggs have poor embryo viability and poor 

hatchability and are not suitable for incubation. Multiple ovulations also may result in laying more than one egg 

per day, abdominal laying, and laying eggs at abnormal times in the day (erratic ovipositioning). In addition, 

overweight hens are too large to breed effectively and tend to have sperm storage and sperm transport problems 

because of fat infiltration into sperm storage glands at the shell gland-vaginal junction of the oviduct.

Optimum ovarian function is one ovulation per day, which can be achieved by feed restriction. Feed restriction during 

rearing, breeding, or both reduces the weight of the ovary and number of large yellow follicles at sexual maturity, 

erratic ovulation, and defective eggs. Additional benefits of restricted feeding include reduced mortality and lower 

feed costs. Reproductive performance of broiler breeder hens on restricted and ad libitum feeding programs is 

documented and compared in the table below (International Hatchery Practice, Volume 20, No. 1, page 7, 2009). 

Mortality (%)

8.2

86

157

4

11.7

163

192

142

13.5

63

157

151

7.3

43

58

46

Body Weight (lbs.)

Egg Numbers

Hatch of Eggs Set (%)

Feed Intake (g/day)

24 - 37 weeks

37 - 60 weeks

No. Yellow Follicles

0 - 24 weeks

Ad libitum Restricted

Table 5. Broiler Breeder Hens (0 to 60 Weeks of Age)

1.2.6.2 Males

Achieving male body weight targets that closely adhere to growth curve recommendations by primary breeder 

companies is the single most important factor in attaining high flock fertility. Male growth and breast muscle 

development must be controlled, especially during the first 16 weeks of life when skeletal size is largely determined. 

Overfeeding broiler breeder males causes excess body weight and excessive development of breast musculature, 

both of which impair mating efficiency. Fertilization requires semen transfer from males to females by copulation. 

Excessive pectoral muscle creates an imbalance so overweight roosters have difficulty making cloacal contact with 

hens and transferring semen. Furthermore, excessive body weight is associated with development of foot pad and 

leg problems, which negatively impact the mating process and occur in more than 30% of broiler breeder males.

Sertoli cells protect developing sperm cells and proliferate between 2 and 12 weeks of age, not thereafter. Numbers 

of mature sperm produced is limited by the number of Sertoli cells, so maximum potential for sperm production is 

established by 12 weeks of age. From 16 to 23 weeks of age, nutrition must be sufficient to support maintenance, growth 

of testes, and production of reproductive hormones. Appropriate levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing 

hormone are critical for testes development and establishing a “feedback loop” between the brain and the testes.
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Feeding programs should allow males to increase their body weight gradually throughout the breeding period. 

Body weight gains should be limited to small, consistent amounts to prevent excessive breast muscle development. 

Male body weight loss will immediately result in diminished sperm production and decreased mating activity, so 

weight loss must be avoided.

1.2.6.3 Production Phase

Males need to be transferred to the production house 3-5 days earlier than the females, so they can learn to eat 

from the male feeder. After males and females are mixed, separate feeding systems are available so body weight 

and uniformity of males and females can be independently controlled. It is important that males do not have 

access to the females’ feed and vice versa. As roosters have larger heads 

than hens, males can be kept out of female feeders by exclusion systems 

such as grills or roller bars. Grills placed over hen feed troughs create 

vertical and horizontal restrictions which exclude males with greater head 

width and full combs, but allow females unimpeded access to the feed. 

With some strains of broiler breeders, the difference between the size of the 

heads or combs between males and females is insufficient to control feed 

access with grills. In these cases, a plastic bar, commonly called a “nose 

bone” is placed through the nares and nasal septum. Male feed lines need 

to be sufficiently elevated above the floor to prevent hens from reaching 

feed intended for roosters. In some housing arrangements a separate male 

water line runs down the scratch area, but, more commonly, the males use 

the female water lines above the slates.

Ideally, breeders should be fed daily, but skip-a-day feeding programs have been used when feeding space 

is limited and are most common. Broiler breeders consume their feed in a short period of time (less than 30 

minutes). Consequently, feed should be distributed to all chickens along the entire length of the feed line in less 

than 3 minutes so all birds can eat at the same time. If delivery takes too long, aggressive birds consume most of 

the feed as it leaves the hopper. If feed is not delivered along the length of the entire feed line in a short period 

of time, dominant birds have access to more feed and gain more weight each week than smaller, less dominant 

birds. Under these conditions, body weight uniformity declines even if initial body weight uniformity was good. 

Another problem that can occur with skip-a-day feeding is engorgement of food to the point that birds can 

compress the trachea and die of suffocation. When birds are seen in respiratory distress shortly after feeding, the 

crop needs to be checked to see if it is hard. If so, the bird can usually be saved by gently massaging the food 

laterally away from the trachea.

1.2.7 Hatchery

Hatcheries should be built in isolated locations away from feed mills, processing plants, or industrial 

buildings, which may produce contaminated dust or pollutants. Fences with a gate and a guard erected around 

the hatchery and decontamination equipment, showers, and change rooms for employees would provide 

maximum biosecurity, but currently are not common in the US. Separate rooms should be provided for the 

office, fumigation, egg grading, egg holding, setters (incubators), hatchers, chick grading and boxing, chickholding, supplies, and waste disposal. Central fogging systems, which provide a timed release of disinfectant 

mist from high pressure nozzles, should be located throughout the hatchery, including the setters and hatchers. 

Strategically located high pressure hot water outlets enhance sanitation efforts, and walls and floor surfaces 

should constructed of durable, easy to clean materials. Floors slope toward drains, which are trapped to prevent 

blockages. Each room should have its own ventilation system and air pressure in each room should be adjusted 

so that the cleanest rooms have the highest positive pressure.

Hatchery work and egg flow patterns contribute to biosecurity, as do placement of ventilation inlets and 

exhausts. The hatchery should be divided into clean and dirty areas, which must be separated to avoid 

cross contamination. Hatching eggs should enter one end of the building and chicks should leave from the 

other end. Ventilation systems should move air from clean areas to the dirty areas, in the same direction 

as hatching eggs move from setters to hatchers. Air pressure differences among the areas in the hatchery 

help minimize backflow of contaminates into clean areas. Ventilation systems need frequent inspection a

nd periodic cleaning. 
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1.2.7.1 Egg Collection, Selection, Storage, and Pre-Warming

Development of the embryo begins at the time of fertilization in the infundibulum of the oviduct and proceeds 

as the egg is formed until ovipositioning. As the egg cools, the rate of embryo development slows and it enters 

diapause. Careful handling of the egg is necessary to preserve the integrity and viability of the early embryo prior to 

incubation and further development. 

Eggs should be collected at least 3 times per day in normal temperatures and 5 times per day when temperatures 

are above 85°F. Frequent gathering reduces the probability that eggs become contaminated with bacteria from feces 

or nest materials, and prevents overheating of eggs in summer and chilling of eggs during winter. Clean nest eggs 

should be collected first and submitted to the hatchery for incubation. Dirty nest eggs, cracked eggs, and floor eggs 

depress hatchability and should be collected and packaged separately. These eggs are not suitable for incubation. 

Most contamination in hatcheries originates on the breeder farm.

Egg selection is used to eliminate eggs that are less likely to hatch and produce quality chicks. Egg size is a 

selection criterion since unusually large or small eggs do not hatch as well as medium-sized eggs. Overweight and 

underweight eggs can be removed by automated equipment. Round or elongated eggs and eggs with thin or wrinkled 

shells do not hatch well and should not be sent to the hatchery. Dirty eggs may be contaminated with yolk, dried 

blood, or feces and these should be removed and discarded.

Eggs are moved into an air-conditioned egg room for storage until they are 

picked up and taken to the hatchery. They should be held in storage on the farm 

for as short a time as possible. After being picked up from the egg room on 

the breeder farm, they are placed in an egg holding room in the hatchery and 

stored there until they are incubated. Each day of storage adds one hour to the 

time required for incubation, so fresh and stored eggs should be set at different 

times. Diffusion of carbon dioxide and water vapor from the egg through pores 

in the shell contributes to loss in hatchability during storage. After 6 days of 

storage, hatchability declines by approximately 0.5 to 1.5% per day. Eggs 

should be cooled to below 75.2°F and held at 75-80% humidity in the storage 

room. Cooling eggs below physiological zero for broiler breeder eggs (75.2°F) 

minimizes embryo development during storage. The longer eggs are held in 

storage, the lower the recommended storage temperature.

Pre-warming eggs prior to setting is advisable to avoid temperature shock to the embryo and prevent 

condensation of moisture on the external surface of the egg’s shell (egg sweating). Eggs may sweat when 

transported from a cold storage room on the farm to a warm hatchery or from a cold storage room in the 

hatchery to the setter room of the incubator. Eggs need 6 to 18 hours for pre-warming and good air circulation 

should be provided during the pre-warming period. A dedicated pre-warming room should provide a temperature 

of 73°F and 45% relative humidity.

1.2.7.2 Setter (Incubator)

Incubation involves bringing fertile eggs to hatching by natural or artificial 

means. Artificial incubation frees breeding hens from the necessity of 

incubating eggs so the hens can continue to produce eggs. Five well-known 

environmental factors impact embryonic development – temperature, 

humidity, ventilation, egg turning, and egg orientation. An incubator in a 

commercial broiler hatchery is shown in the photo on the right.

The recommended temperature for setters is 99.5 – 100°F in multi-staged 

machines. Later in incubation, embryos are relatively resistant to cooling. 

In contrast, overheating can cause malformations, malpositions, or 

may be lethal.Malformations may include exposed brains, missing eyes, 

beak or face abnormalities, or viscera outside the body cavity. All setters 

have hot spots and cold spots, and care should be taken that embryos in hot spots are not subjected to heat 

stress. In single-stage incubation, temperature can be reduced to compensate for the heat produced 

by growing embryos. 
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Relative humidity in setters should be 50-60% depending on manufacturer’s recommendations. Water vapor is lost 

through the pores of the shell. Egg weight decreases because of water loss during incubation. While most animals try 

to conserve water, bird eggs must lose water during embryonic development to facilitate hatching. Metabolic water 

generated by the embryos must diffuse through the shell to maintain the relative water content of incubating eggs. A fresh 

egg should lose approximately 12% of its weight by 18 days of incubation due to loss of water from the egg. Loss of 

moisture during embryonic development allows the air cell to enlarge and occupy 1/3 of the egg by 19 days of incubation.

Ventilation in the setter must support embryonic respiration by providing an adequate supply of oxygen and 

removing excess carbon dioxide. The average chicken egg has around 10,000 pores, which allow oxygen and carbon 

dioxide to move through the shell by diffusion. Fresh air entering the setter contains 21.6% oxygen. If fresh air is 

dry and supplies little moisture, it may be necessary to humidify air in the room containing the setter; conversely, 

if ambient humidity is high, it may be necessary to dehumidify the air before it enters the incubator. Exhausted 

air leaving the setter removes water vapor, carbon dioxide, and excess heat. Carbon dioxide levels in the machine 

should not exceed 0.4%, as embryos can die if carbon dioxide levels become too high

Turning eggs in the setter on a regular schedule assists in the development of extra-embryonic membranes and aids 

in temperature control. In modern hatcheries, turning devices rotate eggs 90 degrees and are equipped with timing 

mechanisms so eggs are turned every hour. It is extremely important that eggs be placed in the setter with the large end up.

1.2.7.3 Hatcher

Hatchers are kept in a separate room to isolate the down, egg debris, and 

micro-organisms generated during hatching from the rest of the hatchery. 

Hatchers have chick-holding trays where eggs are laid on their sides to allow 

free movement of chicks out of the shell at hatching.

After 18 days of incubation, eggs are removed from the setter, vaccinated, 

and transferred to the hatcher. Eggs may be candled to identify and remove 

infertile eggs and dead embryos so live chicks are not exposed to these 

potential sources of pathogenic bacteria after hatching. In ovo injection 

systems are routinely used for administration of vaccines to protect broiler 

chickens against Marek’s disease, infectious bursal disease, and fowl pox. 

Vaccination in ovo requires far less labor and time and is less stressful to the chicks than subcutaneous administration 

of Marek’s disease vaccine. In ovo vaccination machines can vaccinate 60,000 eggs per hour while consistently 

delivering the correct dose to the correct location in the embryo. Chicks vaccinated in ovo can be moved out of the 

hatchery without delay, which reduces the time between hatching and access to feed and water in the brooder house.

Most broiler hatcheries hatch twice a week from each hatcher. The hatcher is cleaned and disinfected between 

hatches. Hatchers must be dry and up to proper temperature before receiving hatching eggs. Moisture must be 

adequate to ensure that shell membranes remain soft and pliable so chicks can escape from the eggs. Additional 

moisture may be supplied by a spray system. Temperature is slightly lower than the setter (98°F) to avoid 

overheating and the relative humidity of around 70% is higher than the setter.

The hatch window is the period of time when chicks emerge from the eggs. Chicks peck the inside of the eggshell until 

the shell is sufficiently broken to allow chicks to escape from the egg, a process called pipping. Internal pipping occurs 

a couple days before hatching when the beak of the embryo penetrates the air cell. Variability in hatching time is to 

be expected from chicks in a single setting because eggs in a hatch may differ in storage time and storage conditions, 

environmental conditions within the same setter or hatcher, age of breeder flocks supplying the eggs, shell characteristics, 

and original egg size. Eggs that hatch too early are susceptible to dehydration, which may result in increased early chick 

mortality and poor broiler performance. Eggs that hatch too late have poor hatchability, impaired chick quality, increased 

numbers of pipped but unhatched eggs, and increased numbers of unhatched eggs that contain live embryos. 

Pulling the hatch refers to removing chicks from the hatcher. Chicks should be removed when most are dry and 

fluffed up but while around 5% are still damp on the back of their necks. Removing chicks from the hatcher too soon 

results in “green chicks” that are still wet, susceptible to chilling, or have open navels that provide entry points for 

bacteria. Excessive dehydration, elevated mortality after placement, and reduced growth and flock uniformity occur 

in chicks that remain in the hatcher too long.
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1.2.7.4 Chick processing

After being separated from hatching tray debris, chicks are graded into first 

quality or culls. Chicks that possess anatomical deformities, partially closed 

navels, crooked toes, excessively wet down, or twisted legs are culled.

The gender of day old chicks can be determined by feather sexing or vent 

sexing. Feather sexing is based on the length of the primary and covert 

feathers on the wing. The top row of feathers is composed of the coverts 

and the bottom row of feathers are primary feathers. In females carrying fast 

feathering genes, coverts are always shorter than primaries. Males carry slow 

feathering genes, so covert feathers are always as long as primary feathers. 

Vent sexing involves examination of the cloacal wall to detect rudimentary 

male copulatory organs.

Spray vaccination of day-old chicks in the hatchery is a commonly used for 

mass administration of vaccines against Newcastle disease and infectious 

bronchitis. Aerosolized vaccine viruses contact mucous membranes of the 

nasal passages, trachea, and lungs and stimulate both local and systemic 

immunity. In addition, coccidiosis vaccines may be administered by a spray, 

which settles over the down on chicks and is subsequently ingested. 

Chicks are sorted, counted, and placed into chick boxes before being moved 

to the chick holding area.

1.2.7.5 Chick Holding and Transport to Farms

After being placed into chick boxes, chicks are moved into the chick holding 

room where the flock to be delivered to the farm is assembled. It is common for 

flocks to have a hundred thousand or more chicks. The chick holding room at 

the hatchery should have a temperature of 75°F and relative humidity of 70%. 

These conditions are close to the chicks’ thermo-neutral zone at which they are 

comfortable. Chicks are delivered to the farm in specialized vehicles equipped 

with heating, cooling, and ventilation systems to control the chick’s environment. 

Chick delivery drivers are well trained and keep a log book, which records the 

time the truck leaves the hatcher, all stops, and time of arrival at the farm. The 

vehicle cab has a display showing the transport conditions.

1.2.7.6 Waste Disposal and Cleaning

With 85% hatchability, 15% of eggs will be infertile or contain dead embryos. Hatchery waste includes infertile 

eggs, dead embryos still in the egg, down, shell fragments, dead chicks, and cull chicks. Waste disposal may occur 

by incineration or hatchery waste may be processed into livestock food known as hatchery by-product. Cleanup 

after pulling the hatch, processing chicks, and holding chicks is critically important. A Material Safety Data Sheet 

should be on file for each disinfectant used in the hatchery and eyewash stations should be available for employees 

inadvertently exposed to chemicals. Microbiological monitoring using swabs or culture plates should routinely be 

used to monitor the level of contamination in a hatchery. Critical areas for sampling include egg room air, air inlets 

of each setter and hatcher, inside each setter, vaccination room air and surfaces, vaccine and diluent samples, chick 

room air, and chick processing equipment surfaces.

1.2.7.7 Automation

Automated hatcheries may hatch more than two million chicks per week and have shorter throughput times, which 

promote chick quality. Automation provides gentler handling of eggs, more precise vaccination, more accurate chick 

counting, and a better working environment for employees. Fully automated hatcheries require less labor, only one 

employee for every two million chicks hatched per year. Computer-controlled machines are available to grade eggs 

before setting and to monitor and control temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide, and egg turners in each setter. At 

18 days of incubation, automated machines will candle eggs, perform in ovo vaccination, and transfer eggs to the 

hatcher. After hatching, machines can separate chicks from broken shells and hatching debris, count and weigh 

chicks, vaccinate with in-line sprayers, place chicks in boxes, and remove debris from the hatchery.
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1.3 BROILER HOUSING FACILITIES

Enclosed housing is standard for the broiler industry and limits exposure to 

disease-carrying wild birds and animals. Houses should provide a source of 

heat for brooding and ventilation to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide, 

moisture, and ammonia. Houses should protect chickens from predators and 

exclude rodents and other harmful pests, such as litter beetles. The footing of a 

chicken house forms a solid barrier around the base of the house and prevents 

wood rot, sagging roofs and entry of pests and other intruders. Insulation is 

placed under the roof and occasionally on side and end walls to help retain heat 

during winter and exclude radiant heat in summer. Houses with solid side walls 

have air inlets located down the sides that allow fresh air to enter houses when 

an exhaust fan pulls air from the house. 

Broiler houses typically measure 43’x 500’ and are constructed from metal, wood, or a combination of the two. 

However, house size ranges from 30’ to 66’ wide and 300’ to 600’ long. Steel truss houses are more efficient and 

have fewer rodent problems, allow for quicker construction and have better longevity. Wood truss houses tend to 

be less expensive to build and, when properly designed with a drop ceiling, provide efficient tunnel ventilation and 

heating. Floors consist of concrete or compacted soil.

1.3.1 Stocking Density

Correct stocking density is necessary to obtain optimal broiler performance, uniformity, product quality, and meet 

welfare requirements. Stocking density is influenced by climate (temperate vs. subtropical), season, (summer vs. 

winter), housing type (open-sided vs. solid-wall), target broiler weight at processing, and local welfare regulations. 

In winter, additional broilers may be placed in a house because heat produced by extra birds is more easily removed 

with colder outside temperatures. A guide to stocking densities according to bird numbers and live weight is given 

below from the Arbor Acres Broiler Management Guide (2010).

Bird Live Weight (lb) Bird Weight (lb/ft2 Birds/ft ) 2

4.0

3.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

Square Feet/Bird

0.70

0.50

0.85

0.90

1.00

1.4

2.0

1.2

1.1

1.0

5.73

5.99

5.91

6.70

7.04

Table 6. Stocking Densities According to Bird Numbers and Live Weight

8.0 1.15 0.9 6.99

Maintaining normal stocking density is vital for a healthy flock. If overcrowding occurs, body weight suffers as well 

as feed consumption and efficiency. In addition, mortality can increase along 

with condemnations. In brief, the negative financial impact of overcrowding 

is tremendous. In 2012, average stocking density of broiler flocks was 0.84 

ft2 /chicken placed or 7.4 lb/ft2.

1.3.2 Feeder Systems

Adequate feeding space is critical to obtaining optimum growth rates and 

uniformity. Most broiler house feed lines have automatic round pans that 

are 12 inches in diameter and designed to meet feeding requirements of 45-

80 birds (lower ratio for bigger birds). Feed is distributed to pans through a 

metal tube containing an auger. At the far end of each feed line is a control 

pan, which controls the run-time of the auger. When feed levels in control 
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pans are low, a relay switch signals augers to run and distribute feed throughout the system. Benefits of a feed 

pan system are faster fill times, unrestricted bird movement throughout the house, less feed wastage, easy height 

adjustment, and no accessible moving parts while allowing broilers continuous access to feed in a comfortable 

manner. Feeder pan height should be adjusted daily so the base of the pan is level with the birds’ backs. The 

number of feed lines that are needed depends on house width. Guidelines given below are from the Arbor Acres 

Broiler Management Guide (2010).

House Width (feet) Number of Feed Lines

50

42

65

85

3

2

4

5

Table 7. Feed Lines by House Width

Each broiler chicken house typically has two 10-12 ton feed storage 

bins from which feed is augered into feed hoppers inside the house. 

Outside feed bins may be found near the middle or at one end of 

the chicken house. Capacity of feed storage bins should be equal to 

5 days of feed consumption and feed bins should be watertight to 

reduce mold and bacterial growth. Two feed bins for each house 

allows for rapid change of feed if medication is necessary and also 

can be used to prevent mixing of old and new feed in the same bin if 

one bin is filled at a time.

1.3.3 Drinker Systems

Adaptation of closed water systems in the early nineties was one of the 

great improvements in the broiler industry. Closed water systems are 

a marked improvement over open systems, such as bell drinkers, cups, 

troughs, or open water founts, all of which resulted in an unsanitary 

water supply. Closed water systems are less likely to be contaminated than open systems and, as there is better 

control of water usage by the birds, litter remains drier, which improves bird health. In addition, closed water 

systems do not require daily cleaning, which reduces labor. Closed water systems dispense water when the 

chickens peck at a metal trigger or nipple. Movement of the trigger up and down or side-to-side allows water 

to flow from the water line pipe to the nipple. A regulator located at the beginning of each line controls the rate 

of flow through the drinkers and can be adjusted depending on the age of birds and the drinker system. Critical 

to proper drinker management is checking for air locks, and ensuring an even depth of litter so broilers have 

uniform access to all drinkers. Drinkers should be just high enough that birds must slightly stretch to reach 

the trigger pin while their feet are flat on the floor. Birds should have their necks at a 45-degree angle when 

accessing water at the nipple.

Two types of closed water systems are used: low flow rate nipple drinkers and high flow rate nipple drinkers. Most 

broiler producers use low flow rate nipple drinkers, which operate at a flow rate of up to 2 fluid ounces per minute. 

Pressure is adjusted to meet water flow requirements and one nipple supplies water for approximately 10 chickens. 

A few broiler houses have high flow nipple drinkers with cups to catch water that may drip from the nipple. One 

nipple in high flow rate systems supplies water for approximately 12 broiler chickens. The actual number of birds 

per nipple depends on bird age, climate, flow rate, and design of the water system.

Water meters are an excellent tool for monitoring water usage and estimating feed consumption because the two are 

highly correlated. The water use:feed consumption ratio varies with ambient temperature as shown in the table on 

page 21 provided by the Cobb Broiler management Guide.
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Temperature (oF) Water to Feed Ratio

68

39

79

99

2.0 : 1

1.7 : 1

2.5 : 1

5.0 : 1

Table 8. Water Use to Feed Consumption Ratio

Sudden changes in water consumption are a tell-tale sign of potential problems, such as stress, a feed issue, disease, 

or a water system leak. During hot weather, water lines should be flushed to ensure that water is as cool as possible. 

In the event that the main system fails, water storage tanks on the farm should have sufficient capacity to provide at 

least 24 hours of water at maximum consumption.

1.3.4 Lighting Systems

Lighting is a vital component of broiler production and represents 25-40% of electrical costs. Light intensity and 

photoperiod (day length) directly influence the time broiler chickens spend eating along with the general health and 

well-being of the birds. A period of darkness improves feed efficiency due to reduced metabolism during darkness 

and complements normal diurnal rhythms of bone mineralization and digestion. In addition, a period of darkness 

reduces the incidence of sudden death syndrome, ascites, and skeletal disorders. Most companies recommend 4 to 

6 hours of darkness each day. Longer periods of darkness may exacerbate the negative effects of increased stocking 

density and limited feeder space.

Two types of bulbs are used for artificial lighting in solid side wall or dark curtained houses. The most 

common lights are 60 watt incandescent bulbs or 15-26 watt dimmable compact fluorescent light bulbs 

(CFL). Incandescent is the traditional light bulb used in broiler houses because of its affordability, ease of 

installation, and good spectral range. However, incandescent bulbs are losing popularity due to their short life 

span (5-6 months), high heat production, and relatively poor energy efficiency. CFL bulbs have a 60% energy 

savings over incandescent bulbs and produce 3 to 5 times the amount of light per watt but lack durability and 

lose intensity over time. Currently, light emitting diode (LED) bulbs are gaining popularity due to durability 

and energy savings.

1.3.5 Heating Systems

Heating a house is critical to brooding success. Broiler houses can be heated through convection heat and/or radiant 

(infrared) heat. Forced air heaters (space heaters) are convection heaters, which heat air and create a uniform 

temperature throughout the entire house. Chicks do not have the option of seeking a more comfortable temperature 

by moving to a different location. Space heaters are usually placed in the middle of a house where air movement is 

slow. Broiler chickens and the litter will not be warm until most air in a house has been heated.

More commonly, small, round area heaters (“pancake brooders”, canopy, infrared or radiant heaters) are placed 

approximately 3-5 feet above the litter and create a large heated circular area underneath the heater. Radiant heat 

is transferred via infrared heat waves and these heaters (spot heaters) are very efficient because they heat objects 

toward which the heat waves are directed – not the air. Heat waves emitted from the glowing source of radiant 

brooders heat birds and the litter. These heaters create different temperature zones and chicks can move to the zone 

that best suits their temperature needs. A combination of radiant and space heaters can be used. Radiant heaters are 

often the primary heat source until chicks reach 14 days of age (end of brooding period) with forced air heaters used 

thereafter to provide supplemental heat.

Radiant tube heaters are a third option and consist of long tubes located along the apex of the roof or along 

the walls. Radiant tube heaters warm the entire floor surface of the house and create a uniform environment. 

However, they must be carefully managed to avoid making the floor too hot and driving chicks away from 

feed and water.
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1.3.6 Environmental Control Systems 

Computerized environmental controllers are available for broiler 

houses with natural ventilation and for broiler houses with tunnel 

ventilation. Environmental controllers provide real-time information 

on temperature, relative humidity, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and static 

pressure in a house and have a non-erasable memory that provides 

a record of environmental conditions in the house over time. Stored 

information includes a record of maximum and minimum house 

temperatures, including where and when they occurred in the chicken 

house. Similar data are recorded for heater and fan runtimes, relative 

humidity, and water consumption. Sophisticated computer control 

systems receive input from various thermal sensors located throughout 

the house at bird height and can turn fans or heaters on or off in order to maintain house temperatures 

within 3°F of the desired temperature, which decreases as broiler chickens age. Most controllers have a 

high and low temperature alarm system and a power failure alarm system. Environmental controllers from 

all houses on a broiler farm can be linked to software on personal computers so data can be accessed by 

flock managers in their home at any time of the day or night. Flock managers can use the software to change 

parameters in the controllers.

1.3.7 Ventilation Systems 

Ventilation is the primary means for controlling the environment in a chicken house. There are two types of 

ventilation systems: natural ventilation used in open-sided housing and power ventilation used in controlled 

environment housing, commonly referred to as “tunnel ventilation”. Natural ventilation requires continuous 

monitoring and adjustment of curtains in response to changes in temperature, humidity, wind velocity, and 

wind direction. Typical open-sided houses have curtains on the sidewalls that can be opened or closed. When 

house temperatures are warm, curtains are closed to allow a larger volume of air to move through the house. 

On hot days, circulation fans can be used to increase the rate of air exchange and foggers or misters can be 

used in combination with the fans to create an even greater cooling effect. When house temperatures are cool, 

curtains are closed to restrict the flow of air. The air exchange rate in natural ventilation houses depends on 

outside winds with mechanical assistance from fans.

Power ventilation systems provide more control over air exchange rates and air flow patterns, which allows flock 

managers to create more uniform conditions within a house. Electric exhaust fans pull air out of a house, which 

creates a negative static pressure inside the house and brings outside air into the house through computer-controlled 

openings in the sidewalls. The speed of air entering a house is determined by the amount of negative pressure 

(vacuum) in the house, which is controlled by matching the inlet area and fan capacity. “Migration fences”, usually 

composed of lengths of 10” drainage pipe, are placed across the house to form three or more areas in the house. 

These keep the chickens distributed uniformly in the house and prevent them from migrating toward the air inlet end 

of the house where there is more light and piling up. 

The objectives of ventilation are to provide adequate oxygen to support the metabolic needs of the chickens, control 

relative humidity to maintain litter conditions, and remove carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), dust, 

and ammonia. Carbon monoxide may be produced if dust partially blocks air inlets on brooder stoves resulting in 

inefficient combustion of natural gas or liquid propane fuel. Because moisture is constantly introduced into a chicken 

house through bird excreta, bird respiration, spillage from drinkers, and fuel burned in brooder stoves; proper airflow 

is vital to prevent excess moisture accumulation in the litter. Ammonia is produced in the presence of moisture by 

bacterial breakdown of uric acid in bird excreta that accumulates in the litter. Prolonged exposure to high levels 

of ammonia causes structural damage to the respiratory system (>25 ppm), damage to the eyes (>60 ppm), and 

has a detrimental effect on body weight and feed efficiency. Limiting the amount of litter moisture through proper 

ventilation significantly reduces ammonia formation. The quantity of moisture and ammonia removed through 

ventilation is influenced by the temperature and humidity of incoming air, but is more dependent on its speed and 

direction. If inlets direct incoming air towards the chicken house ceiling, air temperature and moisture-holding 

capacity of incoming air will increase. Every 20°F rise in the temperature of incoming air cuts its relative humidity 

in half, improving its ability to remove house moisture.
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Ventilation rates should be slowly increased each week as birds age to keep ammonia and moisture in check. 

When more than the minimum air exchange rate is needed, temperature sensors override the minimum ventilation 

timer to keep fans running. Ventilation should keep relative humidity at 70% or below to ensure that moisture will 

evaporate from litter. Relative humidity should remain above 50% to ensure that adequate moisture is left in litter 

to prevent dusty conditions. 

1.3.8 Litter

Choosing the type of bedding material used in a broiler house is an important decision. Bedding dilutes 

excreta, absorbs fecal moisture, promotes drying of manure, provides a cushion for breast muscle and feet, 

and insulates the floor during cold weather. A good bedding material should be lightweight, highly absorbent, 

able to dry quickly, soft and compressible, inexpensive, useful as fertilizer, non-dusty, and free of pesticide 

residues, mold, and pathogens. The most common types of bedding are rice hulls and pine shavings, either 

separate or as a mix. While these are the preferred choices, rice hulls are now being burned for energy and 

pine shavings are used to manufacture particleboard, making these sources expensive. Alternative beddings 

sources with less desirable qualities include peanut hulls, chopped wheat or pine straw, pine bark, hardwood 

shavings, sawdust, chopped straw, shredded paper, peat moss, and sand. New bedding should be placed in a 

house at a depth of 3-4 inches.

1.4 BROODING

The two major stages of raising broiler chickens are brooding and grow-out. Brooding occurs during the initial 14 

days of a broiler chicken’s life or until the chicks are feathered and able to maintain body temperature. Frequent 

monitoring by producers enables quick identification and correction of problems, as well as documenting good, 

consistent growing conditions. Brooding is the most critical time in the life of a flock, and producers should monitor 

flocks a minimum of 3 times each day and walk the length of the brooding area several times during each inspection 

of the flock. The quality of care given to chicks during the first hours and days in the house can have a profound 

effect on final flock performance. While walking through the house, producers check feeders and drinkers, and 

monitor temperature, ventilation, and litter conditions. Dead birds need to be removed, recorded in the mortality 

record, and disposed of properly. Chicks that cannot reach food and water should be culled, documented in the flock 

records, and discarded. Producers should observe the behavior, activity level, and distribution of chicks in the house. 

Uniform distribution of chicks, with all areas of the house containing some chicks, is the goal. Signs of discomfort 

or stress should be investigated and addressed quickly. Distress signals include loud chirping, panting, or failure of 

lethargic, sluggish chicks to move away when approached by the grower. Loud chirping may indicate overheating, 

lack of feed, or lack of water. Panting by a large number of birds indicates the house is too warm and needs to be 

cooled down. Special attention should be given to flocks when weather conditions are unusually hot or unusually 

cold, or when large fluctuations in outdoor temperatures occur during the day. Flocks showing signs of disease 

warrant extra care and monitoring.

1.4.1 House Configuration

Two systems of temperature control are employed during brooding: a) whole house brooding with placement 

of chicks throughout the entire house and b) partial house brooding with chicks placed in a limited area of a 

house. Whole house brooding typically occurs in houses with solid sidewalls or in houses located in warm 

climates. Partial house brooding is used by most broiler producers to lower energy costs by heating only part 

of the house and reducing labor required to keep feed trays filled. Floor to ceiling plastic brooding curtains 

are placed across the width of the house to partition the house in half or thirds, and a solid barrier is placed 

on the floor in front of the curtain to prevent drafts. The area of the house used for brooding is called a brood, 

brooder, or brooding chamber. Typically, half of a chicken house is initially heated with radiant (canopy) 

heaters so chicks can select their preferred temperature. The remainder of the house is empty until the chicks 

are 11 to 16 days of age. In summer, broilers may be released into the remainder of the house at 11 days of 

age to reduce early bird density. In winter, partial house brooding may be extended to 16 days of age to reduce 

heating costs. Since the first few days of the brooding period require the greatest amount of heat, partial house 

brooding saves a significant amount of fuel.

At 11-16 days of age, broiler chicks require more floor space to reduce competition for feeder and drinker 

space. Preparations to provide a uniform, comfortable environment for the chicks will encourage them to 

move into the newly opened section of the house. Prior to removing the plastic curtain divider, the adjacent 

empty section of the house must be heated and ventilated to the same temperature as the area of the house 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 24 of 174

being used for brooding. A uniform temperature will heat water in the water lines, encouraging water 

consumption and preventing broilers from becoming chilled by drinking cold water. Additionally, feeders 

in the unused section of the house must be filled with clean, fresh feed and supplemental feeders may be 

moved to the unused section of the house to help stimulate bird migration. Once these preparations are 

made, the brooding curtain and solid barrier on the floor can be removed, allowing chicks to occupy the 

remainder of the house.

1.4.2 Feed

The most important goal of management during the first week is to ensure that baby chicks consume enough feed 

and water because chick weight at 7 days of age is strongly correlated to final body weight at slaughter. Feed 

intake during the first 7 days is exceedingly important because chick weight is directly related to feed consumption 

and chicks should weigh 4.5 to 5.0 times their initial body weight by 7 days of age. Seven day weights are a 

measurement of the success of brooder management. Broiler chickens should be fed ad libitum so their crops are full 

of feed and water when lights are turned off in the evening and feed and water are immediately available as soon as 

lights are turned on in the morning.

Careful management and plenty of extra feed trays help chicks readily 

access feed and are necessary to ensure a good start. Feed should be 

clean, free of mold and have consistent particle size with minimal fines 

(powdery feed). Supplemental feeders are placed in houses during 

brooding and are essential for providing ample opportunity for young 

chicks to access feed. Supplemental feeders are plastic or paper feed trays 

that may be hand-filled and may include paper laid on the litter surface. 

Approximately 25% of the brooding area should be covered by the 

supplemental feed trays and paper with automatic feeding and drinking 

systems nearby. Most feed lines contain extra spouts that can be turned 

down so feed pours directly into the supplemental trays. Feed trays 

should be low to the ground and easy for chicks to access. After chicks 

learn the location of feed lines, growers can begin to remove supplemental feed trays, with one third typically 

removed over a period of several days. Sudden changes in feed location can disorient chicks, causing them to 

eat litter and predisposing them to disease.

Phase feeding of poultry started in the 1960s and is used to meet changing nutrient requirements of chickens 

as they grow. Four to 6 diets may be fed throughout the life of a broiler chicken. Separate feed formulations 

are used for pre-starter, starter, grower, finisher, and withdrawal rations. Transitioning from one feed ration to 

another is based primarily on the age and weight of broiler chickens in the house. During the brooder period, 

pre-starter and starter feeds are presented to the chicks in the form of crumbles (pelleted feed that has been 

crushed into smaller particles) or mini-pellets. Prestarter feeds need to provide nutrients that are easily digested 

because young chicks lack some of the digestive enzymes that digest carbohydrates and amino acids found in 

older birds. Prestarter and starter feeds stimulate a good appetite and maximize nutrient intake to support a 

high growth rate. They are fed while the chicks are relatively small and represent only a small part of total feed 

costs during the life of a flock.

1.4.3 Water

Water is the most immediate need when chicks arrive at a broiler 

house because they can easily dehydrate during hatching, processing, 

and transport to the farm. Supplemental mini-drinkers are placed near 

automated feeding and drinking systems and never allowed to run dry. 

Prior to arrival of chicks, water lines need to be filled with adequate time 

for water in the lines to warm. Water temperature during the first week 

should be around 77°F because cold water will chill chicks. At chick 

placement, drinkers are lowered to the chick’s eye level for the first 2 

to 3 hours with sufficient water pressure to produce a droplet of water 

suspended from the nipple. Suspended water droplets and a narrow layer 

of paper under water lines may be used to attract chicks to the water 

source. The sound of chick feet clicking on paper attracts other chicks, which discover the nipple drinkers 
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when they investigate the noise. Within a few days, the thin paper breaks apart and disappears. Supplemental 

mini-drinkers can be removed approximately 2 days after placement.

1.4.4 Light

During brooding, as well as during the entire flock life, lighting is provided during the majority of the day. 

Adequate hours of light each day and adequate light intensity are needed during the first 7 days to stimulate 

feed consumption and development of the digestive system. Providing chicks with 24 hours of light during 

the first day after placement is common. From days 2 through 7 after placement, 23 hours of light followed 

by 1 hour of darkness is typically recommended. During the first week, a light intensity of approximately 

2 to 4 foot-candles (30-40 lux) at chick height over the feed and water lines is used to help stimulate feed 

consumption. Too little light exposure during brooding results in chicks failing to thrive. During the second 

week, foot candles can be gradually decreased to around 0.5 to 1.0 (5–10 lux), while the daily photoperiod 

changes to approximately 18 hours of light and 6 hours of darkness. A period of darkness is provided each 

day to allow the chicks to become familiar with darkness so they do not panic and suffocate from piling in the 

event of an electrical system failure. Melatonin is produced in the pineal gland during hours of darkness, which 

promotes development of the immune system. Lower light intensity has been associated with a reduction in 

aggressive behaviors such as fighting, cannibalism, and feather picking, and a reduction in skeletal disorders 

including tibial dyschondroplasia and enlarged hocks.

Preventing excessive growth between 7 and 21 days of age helps reduce mortality from metabolic conditions, 

such as pulmonary hypertension syndrome (“ascites”) and sudden death syndrome. Growth control may be 

achieved by physical feed restriction, diet dilution, and lighting schedules, which limit feeding time by providing 

a period of darkness. Slower initial growth followed by compensatory growth promotes improved feed efficiency 

and allows the skeleton of broiler chickens to develop and become more mature before significant amounts of 

muscle mass are added.

1.4.5 Temperature

Maintaining correct environmental temperature for chicks during the first two weeks of life is critically important. 

At hatch, and for about the first 5 days of life, chicks are poikilothermic, which means their body temperature 

is determined by the temperature of their environment. Thermoregulation is not fully developed until sometime 

between 7 and 14 days of age. Chicks that are too hot or too cold will have less than optimal feed consumption, 

growth rate, and feed conversion. When ambient temperatures are in the thermal neutral zone, chicks can 

maintain their body temperatures at normal levels (104-106°F rectal temperature measured with a child’s ear 

thermometer) with minimal energy expended to regulate their body temperature. Temperatures outside the 

thermal neutral zone result in less energy expenditure for growth and more energy spent cooling by panting or 

warming by increasing body heat production. Chicks that are too hot have depressed appetites, pant, and stretch 

out on the litter. Panting leads to excessive water loss and dehydration. Chicks that are too cold tend to sit on the 

floor, huddle together for warmth instead of searching for food or water, and utilize energy in the feed to generate 

body heat instead of for growth. Chicks that have been chilled are more susceptible to disease because their 

immune and digestive systems have been compromised. Chilled chicks have cold feet, which can be detected by 

placing a chick’s feet on the caretaker’s neck. 

Visual observation of chick distribution in a house at 1 - 2 hours after placement allows growers to gauge the 

comfort of chicks and make appropriate temperature and ventilation adjustments. In houses with pancake heaters, 

either alone or in combination with large space heaters, chicks should be distributed uniformly under and around the 

outer area of the pancake brooders. If chicks are far away from the heat source, the stove area is too hot. If chicks 

are huddled and clustered directly under the stove, the temperature is too cool. Non-uniform clustering of chicks 

with avoidance of certain areas indicates a draft. In houses heated with large space heaters, the ideal distribution of 

chicks is uniform spacing throughout the house, with no large areas being avoided and no large groups of chicks 

clustered together. Chicks normally group together, but warm chicks will break from these groups and randomly 

form new groups that continue to form and disperse. If chicks avoid certain areas in a house, they may be too cool or 

drafty; large open areas with no birds usually indicate drafts. Chick distribution and activity associated with different 

temperature and draft conditions under pancake brooders are shown in the Cobb Broiler Management Guide (2010) 

and chick distribution with different temperatures during whole-house brooding is shown in the Ross Broiler 

Management Guide (2010) (Figure 4).
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Figure 4. Chick Distribution with Pancake Brooders

Just Right

Constantly cheeping 

chicks evenly spread.

Too Cold

Noisy chicks huddled

under brooder.

Too Drafty

Noisy chicks huddled

together away from a draft.

Too Hot

Drowsy chicks spread

around perimeter.

Inuence of Bright Light

draft or noise.

Key

Chicks

Brooder

Chick Distribution with Whole-house Brooding

Too High Temperature Correct Temperature Too Low Temperature
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Floor temperature may be more important than air temperature because chicks are in contact with litter via 

bare feet. If the floor is cold, chicks lose body heat to the floor through their feet and through their body when 

they sit down. Chicks placed on cold litter will migrate to feeder lids within 2 hours of placement. Floor 

temperatures can be measured with an infrared thermometer. During brooding with force air heating, the target 

floor temperature on day one is 90°F. With radiant heaters (brooder stoves), the target floor temperature is 

105°F. Brooder houses should be preheated so the floor temperature, air temperature, and relative humidity are 

stabilized by 24 hours prior to chick placement.

Air temperature recommendations vary with relative humidity and strain of chick, but typically ambient air 

temperature at chick level should be around 90°F (or a little less) when chicks enter a house with a relative 

humidity of 60-70% to prevent dehydration of chicks. Dry bulb temperatures should be higher when relative 

humidity is lower and vice versa. Air temperatures should gradual decrease thereafter. Insulated broiler houses 

have ventilation systems designed to keep house temperatures within 3 degrees of the desired temperature. 

Adjustments to temperature should be made gradually and flocks need to be observed after adjustments are made 

to be certain that birds are not excessively cooled or heated. While automated temperature control systems have 

alleviated the grower of making manual adjustments to control the environment, growers must still be conscious 

of potential problems that can arise in controllers and check house temperatures frequently. Recommended dry 

bulb house temperatures at different broiler ages when relative humidity is 60% or 70% are shown in the table 

below taken from the 2009 Ross Broiler management Guide.

Broiler Age (Days) 60% Relative Humidity 70% Relative Humidity

Dry Bulb Temperature

3

1

6

9

12

Target Temperature

82.4

86.0

80.6

78.8

77.0

84.0

87.4

81.9

80.1

78.3

81.1

84.6

78.8

77.0

75.2

Table 9. Recommended Dry Bulb House Temperatures

15 75.2 76.6 73.4

18

21

24

27

73.4

71.6

74.5

72.9

71.4

70.3

69.8 71.1 68.4

68.0 69.3 66.7

1.4.6 Ventilation

Minimum ventilation rates are needed to remove ammonia, moisture, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide from 

broiler houses. During brooding, the goal for air exchange is replacement of approximately half of the air in an 

entire house each minute on a 5 minute cycle. Therefore, if a house is 500 feet long, air should move at the rate of 

250 feet per minute. Minimum air exchange rates are maintained by fans controlled by a timer. Minimum ventilation 

recommendations in cubic feet per minute for a house designed to hold 20,000 broiler chickens have been provided 

by Lacy and Czarick from the University of Georgia.
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Bird Age (Weeks) Below 30°F Above 60°F

Nighttime Temperature

2

1

3

4

3,000

2,000

5,000

8,000

30 - 60°F

4,000

2,000

7,000

10,000

5,000

2,000

8,000

11,000

Table 10. Minimum Ventilation Rates (Cubic Feet Per Minute)

6

5

7

14,000

11,000

17,000

16,000

13,000

19,000

17,000

14,000

20,000

Relative humidity should be monitored, with a target of 60-70% during the first 3 days in the brooder 

chamber. Humidity exceeding 70% limits the amount of evaporation that occurs in a house, causing wet litter 

and excessive litter caking. Wet litter combined with high litter pH promotes microbial growth, including 

bacterial pathogens, and ammonia production. If relative humidity falls below 50% during the first week 

of life, chicks will begin to dehydrate, the house will become dusty, and respiratory problems may occur in 

the flock. High pressure foggers or misters used for cooling on hot days, or backpack portable sprayers, can 

be used to increase relative humidity during brooding. As chicks grow older, relative humidity can decline 

with no ill effect.

Ammonia can be a problem when brooding on built-up litter during cold times of the year. Atmospheric 

ammonia should never exceed 20 ppm. In addition to causing corneal ulcers and blindness, high levels of 

aerial ammonia can damage cilia in the respiratory tract. Loss of cilia prevents removal of bacteria 

associated with inhaled dust particles, which may lead to bacterial respiratory tract disease and septicemia. 

High ammonia levels in the litter may contribute to foot pad “burns” and breast blisters causing broilers to 

be downgraded at processing. It is important for broiler producers to minimize foot pad damage so chicken 

feet (“paws”) can be sold in Asian markets.

1.4.7 Litter

At the beginning of brooding, litter can be new, or as is more often the case, reused litter from a previous flock. 

Litter used for brooding successive flocks is referred to as “built up” litter. Chicks on built up litter generally do 

better than chicks on new litter. The latter can result in a phenomenon called “New house” syndrome. If new litter 

material can be acquired at a reasonable price and land is available for disposal of old litter, then most broiler houses 

are totally cleaned once per year. Old litter is spread on farm land as a fertilizer and new litter is placed in the house. 

However, availability and cost constraints associated with replacing litter for each flock often necessitate reusing 

litter. After a flock has been removed from a broiler house at the end of a production cycle, litter intended for reuse 

is “de-caked”. “De-caking” is accomplished by removing the wettest and most compressed parts of litter (top few 

inches) from the chicken house followed by tilling and evenly spreading the remaining litter across the floor in 

preparation for the next flock. “De-caking” releases trapped ammonia and allows the litter to dry. Another procedure 

that is gaining favor is to windrow the litter down the center of the house and let it compost. Composting is an 

excellent way of reducing pathogens in litter. After it is spread out in the house, old litter is usually “top-dressed” by 

placing 1- 2 inches of new litter over the old litter.

It is important to maintain proper levels of litter moisture (20-30%). Litter moisture can be evaluated by squeezing 

it in the hand. When litter is released, it should slightly adhere to the hand and break down when dropped. Litter that 

is too wet (> 35%) forms a complete ball when squeezed. Wet litter can result in excessive ammonia production by 

bacteria in the litter and contributes to development of breast blisters, foot pad ulceration, and excess condemnations 
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at processing. Wet litter can be caused by water line leaks, excess humidity, inadequate moisture removal due to 

poor ventilation, watery droppings associated with enteritis, high salt or high protein rations, poor quality fats, and 

improper drinker management. Lack of clumping when squeezed indicates the litter is too dry, which can lead to 

dusty conditions and contribute to respiratory infections.

When proper litter conditions are maintained, growth will be closer to optimum targets, there are few to no flies and 

parasites, feed efficiency is improved, and feathering is better.

1.4.8 Chick Delivery and Placement

Chicks are transported from hatcheries to farms on the day they are 

hatched. Chicks delivered to a single house should be from breeders 

of a similar age and genetic background. Under an “all-in, all-out” 

system, all chicks enter a house on the same day and leave the house 

for transport to a processing plant on the same day. Most commercial 

broiler hatcheries are completely automated with little labor needed 

for separation of chicks from shells, vaccinations, or placement into 

delivery boxes. The majority of the broiler industry uses straight run 

chicks, which include males and females in the same flock. No beak 

conditioning is done on broilers at the hatchery. Vaccinations posthatching are done primarily through spray cabinets where each box of 

100 chicks is dosed with an aerosol vaccine. Spray vaccines for coccidiosis are usually colored so chicks will 

ingest the vaccine off the down of other birds. Prepared chicks are placed in ventilated boxes and loaded into 

an environmentally controlled vehicle, usually a chick bus or enclosed trailer that may transport over 100,000 

chicks at a time. After chicks are taken to a farm, they need to be immediately unloaded from the transport 

vehicle and moved into the chicken house to avoid dehydration and overheating. On delivery of chicks, 

growers assume responsibility for care of the birds. 

Growers and company personnel are responsible for placing chicks inside 

the house. Pallets of chick boxes are driven into the house on a forklift. 

Starting at the back of the house, chick boxes are emptied by hand so chicks 

are placed near to and have immediate access to clean, fresh feed and water. 

If supplemental feed is on paper, chicks should be placed on the paper. 

Placement of 20,000 chicks can take less than ten minutes with a skilled 

crew. Chicks are monitored to make sure they are locating feed and water, 

and to ensure house temperature and ventilation are correct. The goal is 

active, curious chicks that eat and drink in less than 24 hours. By 8 hours 

after placement, at least 80% of chicks should have crops that are full, soft, 

and rounded if chicks have been eating and drinking properly. By 24 hours 

after placement, 95-100% of chicks should have a full crop. A crop-fill 

evaluation should be done on at least 100 chicks selected from three different locations within the house. If feed 

consumption is delayed, chicks will use both fat and protein from their yolk sac for energy resulting in inadequate 

protein available for growth.

1.4.9 Imprinting

During the first two weeks of life, chickens imprint on their environment. Imprinting involves formation of habits 

and associations that remain throughout their lives. Producers have a brief opportunity to introduce flocks to positive 

habits and conditions. Chicks are stimulated to locate feed and water as soon as possible and are introduced to 

periods of darkness. The imprinting period is a good opportunity for producers to control and encourage desirable 

behaviors in a flock.

1.5 GROW OUT

Grow-out, the second stage of broiler growth, begins when the house dividers are removed and chickens move 

into the entire house. This period typically begins at 11-16 days of age and continues until the broilers are 

removed for processing. During grow-out, broilers are no longer as fragile and not quite as susceptible to disease 

or changes in temperature. However, care must continue in the grow-out stage to enable the broilers to reach 

their maximum potential.
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1.5.1 Feed

Feed is the largest single cost in broiler production. Broiler chicken feed consists largely (about 85 percent) 

of corn and soybean meal. There are no major differences in nutritional requirements between broiler strains 

but goals of a nutrition program may differ between production companies. Rations formulated by poultry 

nutritionists may be designed to attain maximum profitability of live birds or they may be designed to optimize 

yields of certain carcass components, such as breast muscle. High energy rations optimize live weight gain and 

feed conversion but may result in higher carcass fat content and a higher incidence of metabolic disorders. Diets 

with optimal crude protein and amino acids may produce slower weight gains and poorer feed conversion but 

yield more lean muscle in carcasses. Formulation of broiler rations is influenced by availability of raw materials 

and their cost, age and sex of chickens in the house, and desired live weights at slaughter. Furthermore, rations 

may be modified during periods of high ambient temperature to minimize heat stress or reduce environmental 

contamination associated with nitrogen and/or phosphorus excretion. In 2012, average cost per ton of feed was 

$347. Average feed cost per pound of broiler meat was $0.31.

Soybean meal is the major source of protein and amino acids in poultry feed throughout the world. The amino 

acid profile of soybean meal is excellent for chickens. Protein and amino acids are absorbed from the gut and 

are primary constituents of skeletal muscle, feathers, bone matrix, ligaments, skin, nerves, and organs. Feeds are 

often supplemented with synthetic amino acids, such as methionine, lysine, and threonine, to satisfy requirements 

for growth-limiting amino acids. Sulfur-containing amino acids, such as methionine, are the first limiting amino 

acids in broiler feed because they are used for feather growth, which has priority over muscle growth. Lowering 

feed costs by lowering protein levels may result in deficiencies of one or more amino acids and reduction in breast 

meat yield. Corn and wheat are primary sources of energy-producing carbohydrates in broiler diets with lesser 

amounts of energy coming from fats or oils. Energy is needed to support rapid growth, maintenance of body 

tissues, and activities of the birds. A vitamin-mineral premix is used at varying levels throughout the life of broiler 

chickens. Vitamins include fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and water soluble vitamins (B-complex and C). Limestone 

and oyster shell are sources of calcium, which is needed for formation of bones, blood clotting, and intracellular 

communication. Phosphorus is required for bone formation, energy transfer, and phospholipids. Potassium, sodium, 

chloride, and magnesium work with phosphates and bicarbonates to maintain correct levels of osmotic pressure 

and pH. Trace minerals are part of larger organic molecules involved in many metabolic reactions and include iron, 

iodine, copper, manganese, zinc, and selenium.

Enzymes are used in broiler chicken feed to improve digestibility of feed ingredients. Phytate phosphorus accounts 

for 60-70% of phosphorus in plants and is poorly digestible. Phytase is widely used in broiler chicken feed to release 

phosphorus bound to phytic acid in plant materials. Inorganic phosphorus is expensive to purchase and using phytase 

lowers feed costs by lowering the amount of inorganic phosphorus needed in the ration. In addition, phytase has a 

positive effect on the environment by reducing the amount of phosphorus excreted in droppings. Other enzymes 

can be employed to improve the digestibility of carbohydrates in cereals grains. Wheat, barley, sorghum, oats, and 

rye contain non-starch polysaccharides (previously called fiber), which become more digestible after the addition of 

appropriate exogenous enzymes to the feed. New enzymes that are not destroyed by heating and can be added to the 

feed before pelleting are being developed.

During the grow-out period, feeding programs attempt to optimize body weight uniformity, feed efficiency, average 

daily gain, and livability. As the broilers grow, each successive diet has a lower level of protein and a higher level 

of energy. Changing nutrient requirements as broiler chickens age are satisfied by providing separate grower, 

finisher, and withdrawal feeds in the form of pellets, larger particles that deliver more volume per bite. The change 

from crumbles to a pellet diet is initiated by the integrator who supplies the feed. Each pellet provides a complete 

nutritional package when eaten. Pelleted feeds are easier to handle and produce better feed efficiency and growth 

rates than mash feeds. High temperatures during pelleting reduces bacterial levels in feed by 5 to 10 times, however, 

spore-forming bacteria are not completely inactivated. Grower feed is given to broilers for 14 to 16 days after the 

starter feed. It has the highest nutrient density, which supports maximum growth rates. Finisher feeds are given 

from approximately 25 days of age until processing and account for the major volume and cost of feeds ingested by 

broiler chickens. Using least cost feed formulation is important when designing finisher feeds to maximize financial 

returns. Withdrawal feeds are fed for a sufficient period of time prior to slaughter (usually around 5 days) to meet 

federal drug withdrawal requirements for antibiotics, growth promoters, or coccidiostats so drug residues do not 

occur in broiler chicken tissues following processing.
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1.5.2 Water

Water is an essential nutrient for digestion that should be continuously available. Approximately 70% of a broiler’s 

body weight is water, of which 70% is intracellular and 30% extracellular. Providing sufficient, clean water is 

critical to a flock’s success. Water should not contain excessive amounts of minerals, bacteria, nitrates, or nitrites. 

Water consumption increases with bird age and ambient temperatures and is influenced by relative humidity and diet 

composition. Excessively warm water reduces intake so flushing water lines during hot weather helps to provide 

cool water and encourage water consumption. Broiler chickens in temperate climates drink approximately twice as 

much water as feed consumed on a weight basis. Water consumption rates shown in the table below were derived 

from those published by Leeson and Summers in the book entitled Commercial Poultry Nutrition (3rd edition).

Age (Weeks) 68°F 90°F

Ambient Temperature

3

1

6

9

26.2

6.3

62.9

78.6

50.0

10.5

131.0

157.0

Table 11. Daily Water Consumption of Broiler Chickens (gallons/1,000 birds)

1.5.3 Light

Lighting programs for broiler chickens during grow-out are either restricted 

or intermittent. Restricted lighting programs use a daily photoperiod of about 

18-20 hours of light with 4-6 hours of darkness during a 24 hour day, depending 

on the desired live weight at slaughter. Numbers of hours of light available 

each day and the light intensity affect bird behavior and activity. A light 

schedule should provide adequate dark time for broilers to rest, but be short 

enough to prevent lengthy periods when the flock is without feed. Feed takes 

approximately 4 hours to pass through the intestinal tract of broiler chickens. 

Aggressive feeding behavior resulting in skin scratches, which predispose to 

infectious process and increased condemnations at processing, occurs when the 

birds do not have feed for more than 6 hours. Periods of darkness longer than 6 

hours exacerbate problems associated with high stocking densities and limited 

feeder space. In addition, too much light exposure may cause increased activity of broiler chickens and lead to carcass 

bruising, infectious process, and poor feed conversion. After chicks are released from the brood chamber and have spread 

uniformly throughout the house, light intensity may be dropped to about 0.5 to 1.0 foot candle (5-10 lux). A dimmer 

switch can be used to gradually increase light intensity over a one hour period after lights come on in the morning and 

slowly decrease light intensity over a one hour period before lights go off in the evening.

Intermittent lighting programs often use 6 cycles of one hour of light followed by 3 hours of darkness in a 24 hour day.

1.5.4 Temperature 

Heating and cooling the house is an essential part of raising broiler chickens. Average house temperatures must be 

reduced as broiler chickens age because rapidly growing chickens generate substantial amounts of heat throughout 

the house. In the case of a ventilation failure, death results from overheating rather than inadequate oxygen. Instead of 

supplying heat, as occurs during brooding, heat removal becomes more critical. Older birds are more difficult to keep 

cool because they are better feathered and insulated and generate significant amounts of body heat. Broiler chickens 

remove excess body heat through sensible and latent heat loss mechanisms. Sensible heat loss occurs via convection, 

radiation, and conduction. Latent heat loss takes place by evaporation of water from the respiratory tract. In summer, 

approximately one third of body heat lost by broilers occurs from sensible heat loss and two thirds from evaporative 

cooling via panting. Once birds begin panting, efficiency of body weight gain and feed conversion are sacrificed. 

Therefore, the closer poultry producers maintain ideal temperatures during summer heat, the better bird performance.
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The majority of broiler houses have computerized environmental controllers that control temperature based 

on feedback from thermal sensors. Environmental controllers activate fans, side-wall inlets, tunnel ventilation, 

evaporative cooling pads, and curtains as needed to achieve the desired temperature. Foggers, evaporative cooling 

pads, and sprinklers are frequently used to cool houses and birds in summer. During hot weather, tunnel ventilation 

allows for maximum airflow in a house. To prevent temperature build up, air speeds for older birds in a house 

should be around 500 to 600 ft/min. Air movement at this speed creates a wind-chill effect and pulls trapped heat 

from between the chickens. Air is drawn into the house through evaporative cooling pads, which further aids in 

maintaining house and bird temperatures. Insulation is of great importance to prevent transfer of radiant heat from 

the roof to the broilers. While the cost of insulation is quite high in parts of the world, it is still more effective than 

over-sizing ventilation and cooling systems.

High relative humidity on hot days impairs the efficacy of evaporative cooling by the ventilation system and 

reduces heat loss through evaporation of water off the birds’ respiratory system, which can result in high mortality. 

Conversely, if relative humidity is low and house conditions are dusty, respiratory problems, airsacculitis, poor feed 

conversion, and poor weight gains are likely to occur.

1.5.5 Ventilation

Modern broiler houses use power tunnel ventilation and have solid 

side walls, roof insulation, evaporative cooling pads, and fogging 

systems. Automated systems control house temperature and monitor 

static pressure, air velocity, and negative pressure. Computer 

controllers can be programmed to adjust the minimum ventilation 

rate as birds age so that adequate moisture and gas removal occur 

even during cold conditions. Tunnel ventilation systems have air 

intakes at one end of a house and exhaust fans at the other end. 

Negative pressure is created within air-tight houses by turning on 

electric exhaust fans that draw air out of the house. The speed at 

which air enters the house is determined by the vacuum created within 

the house and the size and shape of air inlets. Typically, air is drawn through the length of a house at the 

rate of about 500 feet per minute, which creates a wind-chill effect and lowers the effective temperature 

by about 10o F. Tunnel ventilation, when combined with evaporative cooling pads and fogging systems, 

effectively cools broiler chickens during periods of intense summer heat unless the humidity is also high. 

With evaporative cooling, air is drawn through wetted cellulose pads and energy released during evaporation 

reduces the temperature of air entering the chicken house. Fogging systems cool incoming air by evaporation 

of water that has passed through fogger nozzles.

Older chicken houses use natural ventilation, usually lack insulation, and have curtains on the sidewalls that 

can be raised or lowered. Natural ventilation consists of air currents that enter one side of a house, pass over 

broilers in the house, and leave through the opposite side wall. The rate of air exchange depends primarily on 

outside winds and sidewall fans that are used to improve air circulation and help create a wind-chill effect. In 

older houses without automated control systems, growers must adjust curtains several times a day to optimize 

ammonia and moisture removal and still maintain good growing conditions. On hot summer days, curtains 

are lowered to allow more outside air to enter the house and foggers or misters are used when further cooling 

is needed. In addition, circulation fans can be used to increase air speed at bird level. During cold weather, 

curtains are raised to limit the flow of air into a house and circulation fans are used to mix incoming cold air 

with warm air in the house.

Ventilation is used to remove heat from broiler houses during summer and to remove moisture from broiler 

houses during winter. A flock of 20,000 seven-week-old broilers produces approximately 500,000 British 

Thermal Units (BTUs) of heat each hour in a chicken house. In addition, on hot days, heat entering a house 

through the ceiling and side walls may add another 150,000 BTUs. If excessive heat is not removed, broiler 

chickens may die. The air exchange rate during grow-out should be double the air exchange rate during 

brooding. Exhaust fans controlled by a timer, not by a thermostat, pull hot air out of broiler houses and may 

completely exchange the air in one minute. In cold weather, minimum ventilation is maintained to bring fresh 

air into houses and prevent moisture build up. Air exchange may occur once per minute in 3-6 minute cycles, 

which will optimize air quality without over chilling the air.
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1.5.6 Litter

Over time, litter builds up and gradually decreases in quality. As 

chickens age, they excrete larger amounts of waste that accumulates 

resulting in litter becoming “caked”, or clumped. As much as 100 tons 

of litter and excreta can be produced during the course of a year from 6 

flocks in a 40’ by 400’ house. Due to the shortage of bedding material 

available to the industry, it is a common practice for producers to reuse 

litter (bedding plus excreta) for a year or longer, a process referred to as 

using “built-up litter”. Composting built up litter between flocks helps 

reduce pathogens, parasites, and insect pests that can carry over in the 

litter from the previous flock. 

1.5.7 Mortality

In the first week, mortality may be around 1% but should decrease to 0.5% or less during the second week. Through 

weeks 3 and 4, mortality should remain very low. It may slowly increase from week 5 through the end of production. 

Typically, 6-week-old flocks of broiler chickens go to market with only 2-4% mortality during the life of the flock. 

Average mortality of broiler flocks between placement and processing was about 3.6% in 2011 in the United States.

It is vital to be conscious of bird health throughout grow-out, especially towards load-out. As birds approach market 

age, high mortality greatly increases financial loss because a substantial amount of labor and feed have been put into 

growing these older chickens. The greatest economic loss comes from birds condemned at processing. Mortality 

must be monitored daily and dead birds promptly removed from the house.

1.5.7.1 Culling

Culling to remove sick chickens is important in preventing or limiting disease outbreaks. Growers should walk 

houses daily to check for sick and dead birds, record their number, and dispose of carcasses properly. Broiler chicks 

that have crossed beaks, show signs of illness, cannot stand to eat or drink, are blind, or are excessively small should 

be culled. These chicks consume feed and water but are likely to die and spread disease. Culling birds on the farm 

prior to load-out helps reduce losses from condemnation at processing. Chickens to be culled are usually killed by 

cervical dislocation or carbon dioxide gas.

1.5.7.2 Carcass Disposal

Disposal of dead birds is regulated by local, state, and federal governments to control the impact of carcass disposal 

on air quality, water quality, and the spread of disease. Disposal of mortality is a daily necessity since dead birds can 

harbor pathogenic microorganisms with potential transmission to other poultry. Cost of supplies, labor reliability, 

maximum anticipated daily mortality, and degree of biosecurity associated with each method must be assessed.

Carcass disposal methods include composting, rendering, burial, and incineration. Burial has been banned in most 

states due to the risk of contaminating ground water. Most states allow on-site or landfill burial through permit only 

and only under catastrophic conditions. Incineration is the most biologically safe way to dispose of dead birds. It does 

not negatively impact water quality when ash is properly handled and does not contribute to problems with disease, 

insects, or vermin. However, incinerators must be properly designed to avoid odor problems and should be located 

down-wind from residences and other poultry houses. Because of fuel costs, incineration tends to be expensive.

Composting is popular because it is inexpensive to manage and, when done properly, creates an environmentally 

friendly, pathogen-free fertilizer. Composting requires construction of a solid floor and covered roof system that 

has adequate primary and secondary bin capacity to meet the predicted mortality level for the farm. Composting 

is achieved by providing a mixture of carbon, nitrogen, air, and water to encourage microbial growth. A carbon to 

nitrogen ratio of 25-40:1 is created by layering litter and other organic material, such as straw, with moisture-rich 

carcasses. The level of moisture in the composting material should be 40-60%. Addition of air by turning the material 

at set intervals creates the perfect recipe for natural aerobic breakdown of organic materials. In properly constructed 

piles, temperatures are expected to reach between 120 to 160°F within the first 10 days. It is generally thought that 1 

to 2 days at 149°F is sufficient to inactivate pathogens. Once the compost temperature begins to drop below 55°F, it 

should be aerated by turning the pile or moving composting material to a secondary bin. Composting requires 16 to 

20 days for the first heat cycle and roughly the same amount of time for the second heat cycle. Major drawbacks to 

composting are construction and labor costs, since the system requires careful and frequent management.
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Rendering is the process of mechanically processing carcasses to reduce tissue size with subsequent cooking and further 

refinement resulting in the formation of a carcass meal. Rendering was once a popular method of carcass disposal 

because dead birds were processed into a value-added, protein-rich feedstuff that could be added into poultry feed or 

pet food. Rendering has now fallen out of favor, primarily because of biosecurity issues and high fuel costs. Movement 

of rendering trucks handling dead birds and moving from farm to farm has been identified as a risk factor for spreading 

diseases, such as avian influenza. Significant costs are associated with transporting carcasses to rendering facilities.

1.6 LOAD-OUT 

Load out is usually done at night or under very dim lighting conditions, 

which helps keep birds calm during the catching process. Catching 

broilers at night reduces the probability of scratches, fractured leg 

or wing bones, and suffocation from piling. Feeder lines, water 

lines, and other equipment that might interfere with catching crews, 

or injure birds, need to be raised or removed. Research has shown that 

50% of bruising occurs in the last 3 days that broiler chickens are in 

houses, so it is vital to avoid injuring birds while catching and loading 

to minimize condemnations at the plant due to bruising. In 2011, 

average broiler whole bird condemnations at processing caused by 

bruising were about 0.001%.

1.6.1 Feed Withdrawal

Withholding feed from broiler chickens immediately prior to catching, loading, and transportation to a processing 

plant is a standard management practice. Objectives of feed withdrawal are to reduce fecal excretion and external 

cross-contamination during transportation and to reduce fecal contamination of poultry carcasses that may occur 

during automated evisceration in a processing plant. During this time, broilers’ crops are emptied of feed and the 

volume of ingesta in the intestines is markedly reduced, but cecal contents may or may not be evacuated. Integrators 

provide producers with a load-out time and a detailed feed withdrawal schedule. After 6-10 hours without feed, 

intestines are flattened and lie low in the body cavity, which allows automated machines to eviscerate the birds 

without breaking the intestine.

When feed withdrawal time is too short, contamination ensues, causing processing plants to use more water and 

more labor to process the flock. When feed withdrawal time is too long (greater than 12-14 hours), water can be 

transferred from muscles to the digestive tract, creating watery intestinal contents and increasing the likelihood 

of fecal contamination. 

Typically, feed is withdrawn approximately 6 hours prior to loading by raising feed lines but broiler chickens should 

still have access to water right up to catch time to prevent dehydration. Until feed lines are raised, feed should be 

available in all feed pans to assure that feed withdrawal is done uniformly throughout the flock. However, producers 

should avoid adding large amounts of finisher feed into the feed system at the start of the withdrawal period and allow 

birds to clean up feed in pans. When feed in a pan is down to dust, chickens in a house are out of feed. If only feed dust 

remains in feeders when feed lines are raised, the broilers have been without feed for longer than the recommended 

time and correct procedures were not followed. Numbers of Salmonella and Campylobacter in crops and ceca at 

processing are increased after prolonged feed withdrawal because broilers begin to consume litter and fecal material.

1.6.2 Catching

Broiler chickens can be caught using manual labor or a mechanical harvester. All equipment, including feeders, 

waterers, brooders, and fans, must be raised to the ceiling or removed from the house before catching begins. Manual 

catching crews containing 7 or 10 people typically catch between 7,000 and 8,000 chickens per hour. A person catching 

chickens by hand may lift 5 to 10 tons of broilers during an average shift. Manual catching may result in rough 

handling and excessive excitement in the flock and be a major cause of injury to the birds. With manual catching, 

broilers should be caught by two legs, supported by a hand under the breast, and placed (not thrown) into crates.

Mechanical harvester crews usually consist of a team of 4 people who operate 2 catching units, a packing unit, 

and a forklift. Four people operate as two catching teams, which use independent catching and packing units but 

share transport trucks. Mechanical catching machines have long rubber fingers that transfer broiler chickens from 

the surface of the litter to conveyor belts for delivery to a caging system at the rear of the machine. Mechanical 
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harvesters can catch, batch count, and load up to 8,000 chickens per hour. Chickens are transferred by a short 

conveyor to packing units which consist of a 5-tier by 3-drawer packing module. Forklifts transfer loaded packing 

modules to a transport truck that usually holds 20 modules stacked 2 high. Approximately 6,000 broiler chickens are 

loaded on each truck. When operated correctly, mechanical harvesters require no human contact with the chickens 

and reduce bruising and other causes of downgrading.

Producers are encouraged to be present during load-out to verify that the chickens are loaded carefully. During loadout, producers are encouraged to walk the house with the loading crew foreman to do a final check for dead birds. 

If broilers die right before or during load-out, they should be loaded onto the truck to be counted in the final weight. 

Each load of chickens is weighed immediately on arrival at the processing plant and this weight will be used to 

determine the producer’s pay.

PART II: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE

1.7 BIOSECURITY

Poultry medicine focuses on prevention through biosecurity, vaccination, medication, and harmonizing the 

environment. Each disease control strategy requires a financial investment with an expectation of a financial return 

on investment. The function of a health program is not necessarily to eradicate or completely eliminate a disease, but 

to find a level that will optimize return on investment.

Biosecurity encompasses procedures that reduce the probability of disease outbreaks and includes two components: 

a) bioexclusion prior to an outbreak (keeping pathogens out) and b) biocontainment after an outbreak (keeping 

pathogens from leaving an infected flock to prevent disease transmission). 

Biosecurity is critical from start to finish of a flock and should be in place on every farm. Farms with poor 

biosecurity are vulnerable to diseases, which have the potential to ruin an entire flock. Loss of income from an entire 

flock is an enormous financial burden on growers. The importance of biosecurity cannot be overstated. 

1.7.1 Conceptual Biosecurity

Conceptual biosecurity requires selecting a location for a broiler farm that will isolate the premises from other 

domestic poultry, wild waterfowl, and livestock, which are potential reservoirs of infectious diseases. Broiler 

farms should be geographically separated from other poultry units because pathogenic bacteria and viruses may 

be carried by the wind or by various vectors and fomites to adjacent premises. Ducks and geese are reservoirs of 

avian influenza and Newcastle disease viruses so broiler farms should not be located near lakes, ponds, or rivers. In 

addition, broiler farms should not be located near highly traveled public roads, hatcheries, feed mills, or processing 

plants. Single-age sites help reduce cycling of field and live vaccine viruses. Broiler houses on a farm should be 

separated into units that can be isolated and quarantined should the need arise.

1.7.2 Structural Biosecurity

Investments in biosecurity are necessary to protect broiler chickens from exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms. 

Buildings and other structures on the farm should be constructed to minimize the risk of infectious disease microbes 

entering a chicken house. Fences with gates should be built to prevent access by unauthorized visitors, wildlife, 

and domestic animals. Roads should be located to allow clean vehicles to approach chicken houses and to divert 

potentially contaminated vehicles away from the houses. Equipment and supplies to decontaminate vehicles and 

farm equipment should be purchased and readily available for use when needed. Showers and changing rooms 

should be provided for employees and visitors. Signs should be posted to serve as visual reminders of the important 

role of biosecurity in keeping broiler chickens healthy.

Chicken houses should be bird-proof and rodent-proof. Grain on broiler farms will always attract birds, rodents, and 

wild animals, such as skunks and raccoons. Houses, feed storage areas, and water sources should be constructed to 

exclude free-flying wild birds and rodents. Wild birds can be vectors for numerous diseases including Mycoplasma, 

Salmonella, and avian influenza. Rodents can be a reservoir of Salmonella or Pasteurella.

1.7.3 Operational Biosecurity

Operational biosecurity consists of routine procedures intended to prevent introduction of infectious disease agents. 

Components of a good biosecurity plan include (but are not limited to) the following measures.
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1.7.3.1 Visitors, Service Technicians, and Employees

• No visitors should be allowed on the farm or enter broiler chicken houses unless absolutely necessary. 

Footwear, hands, and clothing can carry infectious micro-organisms onto a farm. Everyone must be respectful 

of growers and their investments so visitor restrictions must include neighbors and contract work crews.

• Visitor logbooks should be routinely used. Visitors who have had contact with birds during the preceding 72 

hours should be prohibited from entering broiler houses.

• Visitors and laborers should wear clean coveralls, hair nets, and clean footwear and must use disinfection 

stations provided at the door before entering a chicken house.

• Service technicians and other company personnel should wear protective coveralls, hairnets, and shoe covers. 

They also should use antibacterial hand sanitizer and spray tires and undersides of vehicles with an 

antimicrobial solution between farm visits.

• Service technicians should wash their vehicles after visiting sick chickens. When service technicians know 

they are going to visit a farm with sick birds, they should visit that farm last during the day.

• Employees should not have contact with other birds not owned by the business– including birds at live 

markets, pet birds, domestic chickens, fighting chickens, ducks, geese, waterfowl, exotic birds, quail, partridge, 

or pheasants. In the event that contact is made with any of the above, employees should agree to comply with a 

24-hour waiting period before returning to work. 

• Employees should wear clean, laundered, or new disposable coveralls and a hat in addition to disinfected 

rubber footwear (i.e., protective clothing).

• Disposable items used during the flock visit should be bagged and left on the farm.

1.7.3.2 Vehicles and Drivers

• All vehicles should be cleaned before entering a farm. Feed delivery trucks should be washed and sanitized between 

farm visits. Transport trucks and load-out equipment should be cleaned and disinfected prior to entry onto the farm.

• Drivers should wear clean boots (rubber or disposable) before getting out of the vehicle and should use a hand 

sanitizer before leaving and after re-entering the cab.

1.7.3.3 Equipment

• All equipment should be cleaned and disinfected before it is brought onto a farm. Equipment that has been in a 

chicken house should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before being placed back into a vehicle.

• Sharing equipment between broiler farms is not recommended. In the event that equipment must be shared, effective 

cleaning and disinfecting should take place between uses. Equipment should be inspected prior to entry onto the farm.

1.7.3.4 Broiler Houses

• Doors should be secure even when houses are empty and all possible entries for wild birds should be sealed 

and checked frequently.

• Cats and dogs should not be allowed in broiler houses because they can harbor enteric pathogens, Pasteurella 

in their mouths, and influenza viruses, or be mechanical carriers of pathogens on their feet, hair coat, or in their 

upper respiratory system.

• Footbaths should be available outside all entry points to the chicken house and everyone entering a house 

should dip both feet. Foot baths typically contain phenolic or quaternary ammonium antimicrobial liquids, dry 

chlorine, or hydrated lime powder.

1.7.3.5 Feed and Water

• Feed bins should be secured to prevent contamination by wild birds or rodents.

• Spilled feed should be cleaned up promptly to prevent attracting wild birds and rodents.

• Water sources should be secure and deny access to free-flying birds or rodents and their excreta. Water sources 

should be chlorinate or otherwise disinfected.

• Lids of feed bins need to fit properly and remain closed to keep rain from soaking the feed. Wet feed fosters 

mold growth and multiplication of micro-organisms.

1.7.3.6 Rodent and Insect Control

• Rodent control is critical for disease prevention. Rats, mice and other rodents contaminate feed and litter with 

Salmonella via their feces. Farms should have bait stations around the perimeter of chicken houses that prevent 

pets and livestock from gaining access to the bait, but provide easy access to the bait by the rodents. Rotation 

of bait is essential.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 37 of 174

• Insect control also is important because insects can harbor infectious agents and permit them to survive from 

one flock to the next. Darkling beetles are vectors of virtually every disease known to poultry, while their 

larvae are destructive to insulation. The life cycle of a darkling beetle is 6-8 weeks and warm, nutrient-rich 

poultry house environments are ideal locations. Beetles can become resistant to pesticides, so rotation of 

products between flocks is necessary for optimal control.

1.7.3.7 Manure Removal and Dead Bird Disposal

• Composting should be managed to ensure that carcasses are covered to prevent access by wild animals and to 

maintain adequate temperatures for composting.

• When on-farm incineration is used, carcasses should be protected from exposure to wild animals.

• Trucks moving manure or dead birds should be covered to prevent dissemination of potentially contaminated 

feathers and follow a designated, approved route.

• Trucks moving manure or dead birds should be cleaned and disinfected after deliveries and before entering 

another farm. Movement of avian influenza virus between farms has been associated with contaminated 

rendering trucks.

1.8 PROVIDING ANIMAL CARE

1.8.1 Feed

In the event of a foreign animal disease (FAD), provisions for feeding unaffected flocks in the quarantine zone must 

be provided. If all of a broiler company’s farms and the company feed mill are within the same quarantine zone, 

then the only consideration for feed delivery trucks is to avoid routes that take them by affected farms. Feed will not 

be delivered to an Infected Premises because flocks on those farms will be depopulated. Feed already present on an 

Infected Premises will be destroyed on the farm.

When only some broiler company farms receiving feed from the company feed mill are within the same quarantine 

zone, some company feed delivery trucks will be dedicated to deliver feed to farms within the quarantine zone and 

other company feed delivery trucks will be dedicated to deliver feed to farms outside the quarantine zone. Within the 

Control Area, trucks should deliver feed to a single premises instead of delivering feed to several farms. Routes and 

farm deliveries need to be recorded in the event that additional flocks develop the FAD. Before feed delivery trucks 

leave a farm, they must be carefully cleaned and disinfected, especially if they are leaving the quarantine zone and 

returning to the feed mill.

1.8.2 Water

Water is provided from municipal or on-farm sources. No special provisions for delivering water are needed.

1.8.3 Light

No special provisions for lighting are needed. Dimming lights prior to mass euthanasia may help calm the chickens.

1.8.4 Temperature

No special provisions are needed beyond those for normal production as described above. 

1.8.5 Ventilation

No changes from normal ventilation are indicated. Ventilation can be shut down just prior to mass euthanasia of an 

affected flock, but should not cause extreme discomfort or result in death of the birds. There is no data to indicate 

that exotic Newcastle disease (END) or highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAI) survive very long in the 

environment, and airborne transmission is unlikely.

1.9 ON-FARM WASTE HANDLING

1.9.1 Litter and Manure

After depopulation of an infected flock, chicken houses should be closed and litter should remain in the house 

for at least 2 weeks. If possible, the house should be heated to accelerate destruction of the virus. Moving litter 

shortly after a diseased flock has been removed from a house puts other flocks at risk because viable virus is almost 

certainly still present in the litter. Avian influenza viruses are destroyed in litter by heating to 135°F (56°C) for 90 

minutes or heating to 140°F (60°C) for 10 minutes. In-house composting of litter to temperatures higher than those 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 38 of 174

required to destroy avian influenza virus is recommended, especially when litter composting is combined with inhouse composting of dead birds. A negative test(s) of the litter for viable avian influenza virus should be obtained 

prior to removal of litter from the house. When litter is removed, it must be transported in covered trucks and trucks 

must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected afterwards.

1.9.2 Residual Feed

Residual feed from an infected flock must be removed from feed lines, hoppers, and bins and added to the litter prior 

to litter composting. Feed from a premises with an infected flock cannot be removed from the farm or used to feed 

other birds. Feed may be transferred from a premises that has tested negative to another negative premises within the 

same Control Area, but not outside the Control Area. 

1.9.3 Mortalities

Mass euthanasia is usually accomplished by using carbon dioxide, although fire foam is showing promise as a better 

method. Catastrophic losses, regardless if they are from heat, accidents, weather events, END, or HPAI, require 

extraordinary measures. Permission to bury carcasses on the premises or to incinerate large numbers of birds because 

of an emergency may be granted, but more often, these measures remain unavailable. Movement to a landfill where 

carcasses will be buried is an option, but not all landfills accept animal disposal and costs associated with transporting 

and using the landfill may be high. Information on possible use of landfills needs to be obtained prior to a crisis.

In-house composting of carcasses is cost effective and can be used when birds die or are euthanized in the house. 

Birds are piled into one or more rows down the middle of the house, covered with at least 2 feet of litter, and left 

for 2 weeks. Daily temperatures should be taken using a probe to ensure that composting temperatures are sufficient 

to kill END or HPAI viruses. When internal temperatures of the composting material drops, the composting rows 

should be aerated by turning in the house or the compost should be removed to a secondary composting facility on 

the farm where the process can be continued until complete. Compost should be sampled and found to be negative 

for viable HPAI or END viruses before it is removed from the house. Following removal of compost material, the 

house must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.

1.10 SURVEILLANCE

1.10.1 Zone and Area Designations 

The Incident Commander will work with the Operations Section and Situation Unit within the Planning Section to 

determine appropriate zones, areas, and premises designations in the event of an HPAI outbreak. These zones, areas, 

and premises designations are used in quarantine and movement control efforts. The Infected Zone immediately 

surrounds an Infected Premises. The Buffer Zone immediately surrounds an Infected Zone or Contact Premises. The 

Control Area consists of the Infected Zone and Buffer Zone. A Surveillance Zone is outside and along the border of 

the Control Area. A Free Area (FA) is not included in any Control Area.

The Infected Zone is frequently illustrated by a concentric circle with a radius of approximately 2 miles (3.0 

km) around the Infected Premises. Similarly, the Buffer Zone is shown as a concentric circle with a radius of 

approximately 6.2 miles (10 km) around the infected premises. Because the Control Area includes both the Infected 

and Buffer Zones, the Control Area extends for a radius of 6.2 miles (10 km) around the Infected Premises. In 

reality, Control Areas are influenced by geography, political boundaries, and movements within the company having 

an infected farm(s). Criteria for issuing permits that allow movement of products within, between, or out of zones, 

should be in place and agreed on prior to an outbreak. As a rule, nothing moves on or off a farm with a known or 

suspected infected flock except what is essential for disposing of the flock and subsequent cleaning and disinfection.

1.10.2 People

Avian influenza viruses are highly transmissible. Movement of people among farms is the most common means 

by which the virus is transferred from one flock to another. Access to the Control Area is restricted to essential 

personnel and only necessary movement within the Control Area is allowed. Regular visits to flocks by service 

technicians are stopped and replaced by telephone consultations. All personnel are required to follow strict 

biosecurity procedures for entering and leaving premises. Disposable personal protective equipment (PPE) should 

be used and left on the farm. Any non-disposable items must be disinfected, double-bagged, and the outer bag 

disinfected prior to removal from the farm and disinfection again later in a secure area. Personnel need to shower 

and change clothes after leaving a farm. A record of personnel movement is kept.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 39 of 174

Avian influenza can infect people and may even cause death. Appropriate protective gear including a respirator 

(N-95 or better) and goggles should be worn for one’s personal safety. People entering a positive flock need to 

be healthy without symptoms of possible human influenza, and they should be up-to-date on their vaccination 

for seasonal flu. Clinical signs of influenza in people include conjunctivitis, fever, and respiratory disease. While 

seasonal flu vaccination does not protect against avian influenza, it does minimize the possibility of reassortment of 

gene segments between human and avian strains of influenza viruses. If any workers in contact with infected flocks 

develop symptoms consistent with influenza, they must be seen immediately by a physician and tested for influenza. 

Workers may be put on prophylactic antivirals, but the value of this procedure is controversial. Taking antivirals can 

provide a sense of false security and relaxation of personal protection. 

Cancelling local and regional poultry sales and shows during a FAD outbreak is a prudent measure to prevent 

potential spread of the disease to other areas. 

1.10.3 Vehicle Traffic

Vehicle access to a Control Area is restricted and includes vehicles moving all types of poultry and some types of 

livestock. Movement is by permit only. Control points along roads into and out of the Control Area may be needed. 

Vehicles are cleaned and disinfected when leaving an affected farm. Portable disinfection stations may be set up 

to facilitate vehicle decontamination. Particular attention should be given to the inside of vehicles (they should be 

either uncarpeted or have rubber flooring that can be easily disinfected), wheels, tires, and undercarriage. Routes by 

which vehicles travel are recorded and, if available, a GPS monitoring device is placed in each vehicle. 

In the event of an H5 or H7 Low-Path AI outbreak, controlled slaughter of flocks may be permitted. Flocks should be 

processed as soon as possible even if they are not at the normal age. Flocks in the Control Area that are too young for 

processing may need to be euthanized to depopulate the area in preparation for repopulation and release of the quarantine. 

1.10.4 Disease Monitoring

Swabs shall be collected for 5-bird pooled samples (see below) from the daily dead birds or euthanatized sick birds 

from each flock on each premises every other day for 14 days. Contact Premises (CP), Suspect Premises (SP), and 

Monitored Premises that test negative should be re-sampled as described for At-Risk Premises (ARPs). Monitored 

Premises may be sampled more frequently depending on the need to ship product but at the minimum must be 

sampled as listed above. For ARPs, swabs should be collected for 5-bird pools on each premises every 5 days for the 

duration of the quarantine.

1.10.5 Surveillance and Sampling Prior to Movement of Chickens

• Number of Broilers Sampled. One 5-bird pooled sample must be tested by RRT-PCR for each 50 dead broilers 

and found to be negative from every house on the premises for two consecutive days prior to movement of live 

broilers or broiler hatching eggs. The time interval between sample collections on consecutive days must be 

at least 18 hours. If there are less than 5 dead broilers in the house, the remainder of the samples should be 

taken from sick broilers. Two 5-bird pooled samples that test negative provide a 95% level of confidence that 

HPAI will be detected if at least 40% of sampled broilers are shedding HPAI virus. For products that move 

daily, one 5-bird pool from each house on the premises must test negative by the RRT-PCR test on each day 

prior to movement of eggs and broilers.

• A 5-bird pooled sample consists of combined samples taken from five broilers from each flock on a premises 

that died of natural causes during the preceding 24 hours or sick broilers that were euthanized during the 

preceding 24 hours. If there are less than 5 dead broilers available to create a pool, remaining samples should 

be taken from euthanized sick broilers.

• A flock consists of broiler chickens of the same age in one building that are marketed on the same day. 

• Time to Sample Dead or Euthanized Sick Broilers Chickens. Samples must be taken within 24 hours prior to 

movement of live chickens (or broiler chicken products) from the premises. If an unusual HPAI virus proves to be 

slow-moving, adjustments to the sampling protocol will be made. For example, if broiler chickens from one farm

will be marketed on four consecutive days, then samples will be collected each day for four days from all houses

with birds. Targeting dead and euthanized sick birds reduces the sample size required for the 99% confidence 

level because the prevalence of HPAI infected birds should be higher in this group than in the house as a whole. 

• Chickens Selected for Sampling. Oropharyngeal swabs must be taken only from dead or euthanized sick 

broilers and dead chickens should be sampled before sick chickens. Sick birds selected for euthanasia and 

sampling should exhibit clinical signs compatible with HPAI (depression or respiratory signs).
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 40 of 174

• Location of Sampling. Dead chickens from each house (flock) must be placed in a leak-proof container (such 

as a heavy-duty plastic garbage bag) each morning. Each container shall be labeled with the farm of origin, 

house of origin, number of birds found dead in the house that day, and the premises identification. Containers 

must be brought to a location near the premises designated by the Incident Command (IC).

• Sampling Procedure. An individual authorized by the IC will sample each chicken by swabbing the oropharynx 

of each dead chicken in the leak-proof container. One Dacron swab is used to swab the palatine (choanal) cleft 

on the roof of the mouth and the trachea of one chicken, picking up as much mucus as possible. Thereafter, 

the swab is vigorously swirled in 1.0 to 2.0 ml of Brain-Heart Infusion (BHI) broth and as much fluid as 

possible is squeezed out of the swab by pressing the swab on the inside of the tube before withdrawing the 

swab from the BHI tube. Swabs from 5 broilers should be swirled in one BHI tube.

• Disposal of Chickens after Sampling. After samples have been taken, farm personnel shall dispose of 

carcasses in accordance with an approved biosecurity protocol.

1.10.6 Sample Submission

• Laboratory Submission. BHI tubes containing oropharyngeal samples (5 oropharyngeal swabs/BHI tube) will 

be submitted as directed by the IC to an authorized State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (VDL). These 

samples must be submitted on the day of sample collection by a State or Federal regulatory official or an ICauthorized person. The State VDL and IC will establish the time of day by which samples must be submitted to 

an authorized VDL (for example, by 12:30 p.m.).

• Laboratory Testing and Reporting. VDL personnel performing RRT-PCR will test samples immediately on 

receipt and electronically send test results to the IC by the end of each day. The IC will report test results to 

farm managers as soon as results are available. If the RRT-PCR test on the dead bird pool is not negative, 

additional diagnostic testing will be conducted.

• Negative RRT-PCR Results Required. Prior to movement, all the premises’ tests of 5-bird pools taken 24 

hour before movement must be negative.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 41 of 174

Acknowledgements

Information for the Broiler Industry chapter of the Poultry Industry Manual was obtained from the following sources:

• Aho, P. W. Introduction to the US Chicken Meat Industry. In: Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg 

Production (5th edition). D. D. Bell and W. D. Weaver, eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, 

Massachusetts. pp.801-818. 2002.

• Arbor Acres Broiler Management Guide. (2009 Revision). Accessed 2012. http://en.aviagen.com

• Bell, D. D. A Model Integrated Broiler Firm. In: Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production (5th edition). 

D. D. Bell and W. D. Weaver, eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, Massachusetts. pp.819-827. 2002.

• Cobb Broiler Management Guide. (2010 Revision) Accessed 2012. www.cobb-vantress.com

• Foreign Animal Diseases. United States Animal Health Association “Gray Book.” http://www.aphis.usda.gov/

emergency_response/downloads/nahems/fad.pdf. 

• Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Response Plan – The Red Book. September 2011. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/

	 newsroom/hot_issues/avian_influenza/contents/printable_version/summary_hpai_response_plan.pdf. Accessed 2012

• Hubbard Broiler Management Guide. Accessed 2012. www.hubbardbreeders.com

• Lacy, M. P. Broiler Management. In: Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production (5th edition). D. D. Bell 

and W. D. Weaver, eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, Massachusetts. pp.829-868. 2002.

• Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers. Commercial Poultry Nutrition (3rd ed.) Nottingham University Press, 

Nottingham, England. 2005.

• National Chicken Council (http://www.nationalchickencouncil.org) Accessed 2012

• Ross Broiler Management Guide. (2009 Revision). Accessed 2012. http://en.aviagen.com/assets/Tech_

Center/Ross_Broiler/Ross_Broiler_Manual_09.pdf

• Scanes, C. G., G. Brant, and M. E. Ensminger. Poultry Science (4th ed.) Pearson Prentiss Hall, Upper Saddle 

River, New Jersey. 2004.

• Standard Operating Procedures for HPAI. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/avian_influenza/	 	

contents/printable_version/HPAI_SOP_24.pdf

• USDA-APHIS HPAI Response Plan Summary. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/avian_ 

	 influenza/contents/printable_version/SummaryHPAI-Response092007Draft.pdf

This FAD PReP Industry Manual was produced in collaboration with USDA-APHIS-VS National Center for 

Animal Health and Emergency Management by the Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State 

University of Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine through a cooperative agreement.

The Broiler Industry chapter of the Poultry Industry Manual prepared for the USDA National Center for Animal 

Health Emergency Management (NCAHEM) was authored by:

• D. W. Trampel, DVM, PhD, DACVP

• Malea Frank, BS

• Katie Evans, BS

• H. John Barnes, DVM, PhD, DACVP, DACPV

Illustrations were designed by:

• Dani Ausen, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

• Katlyn Harvey, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

• Andrew Kingsbury, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

Images were provided by:

• Dr. Michael Wineland

Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University

• Dr. Michael Martin

Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 42 of 174

Acknowledgements

• Dr. Susan Watkins

Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas

This chapter was reviewed by:

• Dr. Michael Martin

Poultry Health Management Team, North Carolina State University

• Dr. Michael Wineland

Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University

• Ms. Valerie Hendrickson

Technical Writing Consultant, Raleigh, North Carolina

• Dr. Pedro Villegas

Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, University of Georgia

• Dr. Larry Allen

Animal Health Branch, California Department of Food and Agriculture

• Dr. Susan Watkins

University of Arkansas

• Dr. Arlene Buchholz

USDA-APHIS Area Emergency Coordinator Pennsylvania/New Jersey
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 43 of 174

Aho, P. W. Introduction to the US Chicken Meat Industry. In: Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production 

(5th edition). D. D. Bell and W. D. Weaver, eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, Massachusetts. 

pp.801-818. 2002.

Arbor Acres Broiler Management Guide. (2009 Revision). Accessed 2012. www.aviagen.com

Cobb Broiler Management Guide. (2010 Revision) Accessed 2012. www.cobb-vantress.com

Bell, D. D. A Model Integrated Broiler Firm. In: Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production (5th edition). D. D. 

Bell and W. D. Weaver, eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, Massachusetts. pp.819-827. 2002.

Foreign Animal Diseases. United States Animal Health Association “Gray Book.” http://www.aphis.usda.gov/

emergency_response/downloads/nahems/fad.pdf. 

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Response Plan – The Red Book. September 2011. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/

	 newsroom/hot_issues/avian_influenza/contents/printable_version/summary_hpai_response_plan.pdf. 

Accessed 2012

Hubbard Broiler Management Guide. Accessed 2012. www.hubbardbreeders.com

Lacy, M. P. Broiler Management. In: Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production (5th edition). D. D. Bell and 

W. D. Weaver, eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, Massachusetts. pp.829-868. 2002.

Leeson, S. and J. D. Summers. Commercial Poultry Nutrition (3rd ed.) Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, 

England. 2005.

National Chicken Council (www.nationalchickencouncil.org) Accessed 2012

Ross Broiler Management Guide. (2009 Revision). Accessed 2012. http://en.aviagen.com/assets/Tech_Center/

AA_Broiler/AA_Broiler_Manual.pdf

Scanes, C. G., G. Brant, and M. E. Ensminger. Poultry Science (4th ed.) Pearson Prentiss Hall, Upper Saddle River, 

New Jersey. 2004.

Standard Operating Procedures for HPAI. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/avian_influenza/contents/

printable_version/HPAI_SOP_24.pdf

USDA-APHIS HPAI Response Plan Summary. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/avian_influenza/	 	

	 contents/printable_version/SummaryHPAI-Response092007Draft.pdf

References
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 44 of 174

Page 1 Photo strip: Left to right: Chicks; Holstein heifers; Landrace pigs; Red Angus/Simmental cross 

 beef cow with calf; and feedlot cattle. Photo sources: USDA; Mark Kirkpatrick, Idaho; Iowa State 

 University; Beth Carlson, North Dakota; and Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University. 

Page 2 FAD PReP Suite of Documents and Materials Graphic illustration by: USDA

Page 7 (Top) Table 1. Leading Broiler Production Companies (2011). Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, 

 Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Table 2. Leading Broiler Production States (2011). Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, 

 Iowa State University

Page 8 Figure 1. Broiler Production by State Number Produced, Thousand, 2011. Content provided by: USDA 

 National Agriculture Statistics Service; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 10 Figure 2. Structure of the U. S. Poultry Industry, 2010. Content provided by: USDA APHIS VS 

 NAHMS; Graphic illustration by: Kate Harvey, Iowa State University

Page 11 (Top) Figure 3. Health and Management Practices on Breeder Chicken Farms in the United States, 

 2010. Content provided by: USDA APHIS VS NAHMS; Graphic illustration by: Kate Harvey, 

 Iowa State University

(Bottom) Broiler breeder house. Approximately 2/3rds of the house is occupied by raised slats 

while the remaining central part is litter-covered floor called the scratch area. Breeding occurs in 

 the scratch area. Nest boxes are near the outer edge of the slats and extend down both sides of the 

 house. The male feed line is raised and can be seen elevated above the scratch area. A row of lights 

 provides the duration and intensity of lighting needed to stimulate reproduction (left). Breeder 

 hens at feeders. Females spend most of their time on the slats, only going to the scratch area when 

 receptive to breeding. Feed and water lines are placed above slats for use by the hens. The grill on 

 the feed line prevents males from eating feed provided for females. The larger head and comb of 

 a male compared to females can be seen. Note how the water line is positioned so hens have to 

 stretch their necks at about a 45o angle to drink. Evaporative cooling pads that help maintain air 

 temperature and quality are located in the background (right). Photo sources: Michael Wineland, 

 North Carolina State University (left); Michael Wineland and Michael Martin, North Carolina 

 State University (right)

Page 12 (Top) Biosecurity. It is important for everyone to understand the need for biosecurity. Photo source: 

 Michael Martin, North Carolina State University

(Bottom) Table 3. Cobb Broiler Breeder Management Guide (2008). Content provided by: Cobb 

 Breeder Management Guide (2008); Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 13 (Top) Breeder farm feed delivery. Feed delivery trucks bring breeder feed prepared in a feed mill 

 to the farm. The small bins are for male feed, which is strictly controlled. A breeder farm can be 

 recognized by the presence of two sizes of feed bins. Photo source: Poultry Health Management 

 Team, North Carolina State University

 (Bottom) Table 4. Goals of a Typical Breeder Feeder Program. Graphic illustration by: Dani 

 Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 14 Table 5. Broiler Breeder Hens (0 to 60 Weeks of Age). Content provided by: International Hatchery 

 Practice, Volume 20, No. 1, page 7, 2009; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 15 Roosters scratch. In this house, a separate water line above the scratch area is provided for males. 

 More commonly, males get water from female water lines above the slats. Note that the water line 

 is positioned so males have to stretch to access water. Photo source: Michael Martin, North 

 Carolina State University

Page 16 (Top) Egg room. After eggs are collected and put into trays, they are placed in an air-conditioned 

 egg room where they are held until picked up and taken to the hatchery. Eggs are usually picked 

 up 2-3 times each week. Photo source: Poultry Health Management Team, North Carolina 

 State University 

 (Bottom) Incubator. Each trolley within the incubator contains eggs in different stages of 

 incubation. After 18 days, eggs are removed, usually vaccinated in ovo, and transferred to setters 

 that have been scheduled to hatch that batch of eggs. Photo source: Poultry Health Management 

 Team, North Carolina State University 

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 1: Broiler Industry • Page 45 of 174

Page 17 Eggs in hatcher tray. Eggs in the hatcher are not turned as they are in the incubator. These eggs are 

 scheduled to hatch the following day, but a few chicks are already beginning to hatch. Photo 

 source: Michael Martin, North Carolina State University

Page 18 (Top) Separation of chicks. Chicks are mechanically separated from shells and other hatch debris 

 and move via conveyer belts to the processing area. Photo source: Poultry Health Management 

 Team, North Carolina State University

 (Center) Feather sexing – male on left. The sex of most contemporary broiler strains can be 

 determined by examining the length of feathers on the outer wing. Those of the male are shorter or 

 equal in length (chick on right) whereas those of female chicks are longer (chick on left). Photo 

 source: Michael Martin, North Carolina State University

(Bottom) Chicks in hatchery. After being counted into chick boxes (usually 100 chicks/box), the 

number of boxes of chicks needed for the flock are assembled in the chick holding room. The flock 

 is then loaded into specially equipped “chick buses” and taken to the farm where they are placed. 

Breeder flocks that provide chicks to the farm are known, but chicks are commingled in houses 

 and the source of individual chicks is no longer traceable. Photo source: Michael Martin, North 

 Carolina State University

Page 19 (Top) Broiler Farm. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University of Arkansas

(Center) Table 6. Stocking Densities According to Bird Numbers and Live Weight. Content 

 provided by: Arbor Acres Broiler Management Guide (2010); Graphic illustration by: Dani 

 Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Control pan on feed line. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University of Arkansas

Page 20 (Top) Table 7. Feed Line by House Width. Content provided by: Arbor Acres Broiler Management 

 Guide (2010); Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

(Bottom) Feed hopper in a barn. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University of Arkansas

Page 21 Table 8. Water Use to Feed Consumption Ratio. Content provided by: Cobb Broiler Management 

 Guide; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 22 Controller showing temperature. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University of Arkansas

Page 24 (Top) New chicks on supplemental feeders. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University 

 of Arkansas

 (Bottom) New chicks finding water. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University of Arkansas

Page 26 Figure 4. Chick Distribution with Pancake Brooders. Content provided by: Cobb Broiler 

 Management Guide (2010), and Arbor Acres Broiler Management Guide (2009 Revision); 

 Graphic illustration by: Kate Harvey, Iowa State University

Page 27 Table 9. Recommended Dry Bulb House Temperatures. Content provided by: Ross Broiler 

 Management Guide (2009); Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 28 Table 10. Minimum Ventilation Rates (Cubic Feet Per Minute). Content provided by:Lacy and 

 Czarick, University of Georgia; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 29 (Top) Chick unloading. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University of Arkansas

 (Bottom) Chick placement. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University of Arkansas

Page 31 (Top) Table 11. Daily Water Consumption of Broiler Chickens (gallons/1,000 birds). Content 

 provided by:Leeson and Summers, Commericial Poultry Nutrition (3rd Edition); Graphic 

 illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Low light level used for growing broilers. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University 

 of Arkansas

Page 32 Tunnel ventilation fans. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University of Arkansas

Page 33 Litter removal from barn. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University of Arkansas

Page 34 Broilers before market. Photo source: Susan Watkins, University of Arkansas

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 46 of 174

Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Turkey Industry

INTRODUCTION 48

PART I: TURKEY PRODUCTION 48

 

2.1 Scope of the Turkey Industry 48

2.1.1 Turkey Numbers and Location 50

2.1.2 Turkey Production Systems 51

2.1.3 Turkey Industry Structure 51

2.1.3.1 Vertical Integration 51

2.1.4 Economics 52

2.1.5 Capital Investment 53

2.1.6 Allied Industries 53

2.1.7 Diverse Workforce 53

2.1.8 Premises Registration and Traceback 53

2.2 Life Stages and Poultry Husbandry Needs 54

2.2.1 Production Cycle of Turkeys 54

2.2.2 Breeding Flocks 54

2.2.2.1 Primary Breeders 54

2.2.2.2 Parent Stock (Commercial or Multiplier Breeders) 54

2.2.2.2.1 Breeder Toms 55

2.2.2.2.2 Breeder Hens 55

2.2.2.2.3 Artificial Insemination 58

2.2.3 Turkey Hatching 59

2.2.3.1 Poult Servicing 59

2.2.4 Turkey Brooding 60

2.2.4.1 Brooder Houses 60

2.2.4.1.1 On-farm Brooding 63

2.2.4.1.2 Off-site Brooding (Brooder Hubs) 64

2.2.4.2 Physiological Development of Poults 64

2.2.5 Turkey Finishing 65

2.2.5.1 Range (Pasture) Finishing 65

2.2.5.2 Confinement Finishing 65

2.2.6 Mortality 67

2.2.7 Flock Records 68

2.3 Feeding and Nutrition 68

2.3.1 Feed Cost and Consumption 69

2.3.2 Age and Sex Nutritional Requirements 70

2.3.3 Feed and Water Intake 70

2.3.4 Least Cost Feed Formulation 71

2.3.5 Feed Mixing and Delivery 72

2.3.5.1 Feed Delivery to Farm 72

2.3.5.2 Feed Storage and Delivery to Turkeys 72

H. John Barnes, DVM, PhD, DACVP, DACPV; Sarah E. Tilley, BS; Michael P. Martin, DVM, MPVM, DACPV

Poultry Health Management Team, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 47 of 174

Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Turkey Industry

2.3.5.3 Feed Records 73

2.4 Turkey Movement 73

2.4.1 Day-old Poult Delivery 73

2.4.2 Transfer to Finishing 74

2.4.3 Load-out and Transfer to Processing 74

2.4.4 Steps in Processing 74

2.5 Movement of Other Products 75

2.5.1 Mortality 75

2.5.2 Litter and Manure 76

PART II: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE 76

2.6 Biosecurity 77

2.6.1 Biosecurity Plan 77

2.6.2 Pests, Wild Birds, and Other Animals 78

2.6.3 People 78

2.6.4 Cleaning and Disinfection of Facilities, Equipment, and Vehicles 78

2.6.5 Surveillance 79

2.7 Providing Animal Care 79

2.7.1 Feed 79

2.7.2 Water 79

2.7.3 Ventilation 79

2.7.4 Light 79

2.7.5 Environmental Temperature 79

 

2.8 On-Farm Waste Handling 79

2.8.1 Litter and Manure 80

2.8.2 Residual Feed 80

2.8.3 Mortalities 80

2.9 Surveillance 80

2.9.1 People 80

2.9.2 Vehicle Traffic 81

2.9.3 Disease Monitoring 81

2.9.4 Sample Collection 81

2.9.5 Sample Submission 81

Acknowledgments 83

References 86

Photo and Illustration Credits 88

Glossary 91
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 48 of 174

Chapter 2: Turkey Industry

INTRODUCTION

Turkeys are primarily ground dwelling birds in the order Galliformes, 

family Phasianidae that are more closely related to pheasants than chickens. 

Domestication of wild turkeys took place in Mesoamerica prior to the arrival 

of Europeans in the New World. The origin of modern commercial turkeys can 

be traced to the Mexican subspecies of the wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo 

gallopavo. Descendants of these early domesticated turkeys (Pavo creollo) 

can still be found in rural areas of southern Mexico, although breeding with 

reintroduced European strains has occurred. Domesticated turkeys from North 

America were exported to Europe shortly after colonization of the New World 

began, where they were bred for various characteristics and re-exported to other 

parts of the world including back to North America. Turkeys were highly prized 

for their meat qualities and were served on special occasions. It is believed 

that confusion with guinea fowl provided by merchants from Turkey, known 

as “turkey coq” in Europe, led to the name turkey, but other theories also exist. 

Crossing domestic European turkeys with the wild turkey resulted in a larger, 

more robust, colorful bird that became known as the Bronze turkey. The Broadbreasted Bronze turkey, developed through selection of Bronze turkeys for 

growth, became the worldwide standard for commercial turkey production until 

the 1950’s, when it was replaced by the Broad-breasted White turkey. Primary 

turkey breeding companies have continued to select breeding stock resulting in 

annual improvements in growth and feed efficiency (Smith, 2006).

PART I: TURKEY PRODUCTION

2.1 SCOPE OF THE TURKEY INDUSTRY

Profitable production of turkey meat is the goal of the commercial turkey industry 

in the United States. The U.S. is the largest producer of turkey in the world 

accounting for just over half of the annual world production of 2.6 million metric 

tons followed by the European Union-27 member states. The U.S. also continues 

to be the largest consumer of turkey meat, but per capita consumption of turkey

is highest in Israel at approximately 22 pounds/per person, followed by per 

capita consumption in the U.S. at approximately 17 pounds. Turkey is consumed 

throughout the year, but consumption in the U.S. still 

peaks during the Thanksgiving and Christmas holiday 

season. Primary trading partners purchasing U.S. 

turkey were Mexico, China, Canada, Russia, Hong 

Kong, Taiwan, Dominican Republic, and Panama; 

Mexico accounted for over half of all turkey exports.

In many ways, the turkey industry is similar to the 

broiler industry as both use intensive management 

systems to achieve the goal of producing meat. 

However, there are differences including the way 

in which breeding stock is obtained and managed, 

length of time flocks are grown, production 

characteristics, physiologic differences, prevalence 

of backyard/niche flocks, and presence of a freeliving population of wild turkeys. The turkey is 

not merely an over-sized chicken; they are actually 

quite different from each other (Table 1).

Russia

100,963

Hong Kong

96,988

China (Taiwan)

69,333

China (Mainland)

308,755

Dominican Republic

63,152

Panama

52,103

Canada

105,612

Other

532,168

Mexico

1,555,763

Figure 1. U.S. Turkey Exports (1,000 pounds) by Country 

from 2006-2010
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 49 of 174

Breeding stock usually supplied as fertile eggs

Male and female breeders managed separately

TURKEYS

Reproduction by articial insemination

Hens become broody if not controlled

90 - 120 fertile eggs/hen

Larger, brown speckled eggs

28 day incubation period

Poults sexed at hatch

Poults sexed by vent examination

Servicing at hatch*

Separate hen and tom farms

Poults usually brooded in rings in brooder house

Moved to separate housing for nishing

Faster growth rate

Require higher protein starter (28%)

Feeds more expensive

Free-living native turkeys

Processed at older ages (16-22 weeks)

More susceptible to disease

More resistant to avian paramyxovirus 1

More susceptible to avian inuenza virus

*See glossary under ‘Servicing’.

Breeding stock usually supplied as chicks

Turkeys and chickens are much dierent from each other. Turkeys should not be thought of 

as just big chickens.

Male and female breeders commingled

BROILERS

Reproduction by natural mating

Broody control not important

150 - 175 fertile eggs/hen

Smaller, light brown eggs

21 day incubation period

Chicks not sexed at hatch

Chicks sexed by sex-linked feathering

Usually no servicing at hatch

Sexes usually grown together on same farm

Chicks brooded in section of production house

Brooded and nised in same house

Slower growth rate

Lower protein starter (18%)

Feeds less expensive

No free-living chickens

Processed at younger ages (6-9 weeks)

Less susceptible to disease

More susceptible to avian paramyxovirus 1

Less susceptible to avian inuenza virus

Table 1. Dierences Between Commercial Turkeys and Broilers

Larger adult ( ~26 lbs, ~50 lbs) Smaller adult ( ~7 lbs, ~12 lbs)
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 50 of 174

2.1.1 Turkey Numbers and Location

Approximately 260 million turkeys are grown in the 

U.S. annually. Most commercial production occurs in 

the North-central, Central, Mid-east, and Mid-Atlantic 

regions of the U.S., and California (Figure 2). Top turkey 

producing states in 2010 are listed in Table 2. In 2010, 

combined production of the top three states, Minnesota, 

North Carolina, and Arkansas, accounted for 43% of total 

U.S. production. Top turkey producing companies are 

listed in Table 3 and information about turkey companies 

in the U.S. can be found at http://www.poultryegg.org/

economic_data/docs/USTurkeyCompanies.pdf. Two 

genetic strains of turkeys are used for commercial 

production in the U.S.: Aviagen Turkeys (formerly 

Nicholas Turkeys), located in Lewisburg, West Virginia, 

and Hybrid Turkeys located in Kitchener, Ontario. A 

third strain, BUTA (British United Turkeys of America), 

is no longer marketed in the U.S. but is grown internationally as BUT. BUT breeding stock also is owned by Aviagen, Inc.

Rank State Number of Birds (head, millions) Pounds Produced (millions) Value (millions)

Table 2. Top Turkey Producing States in the US in 2011. 

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Minnesota

North Carolina

Arkansas

Missouri

Virginia

Indiana

California

South Carolina

Pennsylvania

Ohio

South Dakota

Utah

West Virginia

Other

46.5

32.0

30.5

17.5

17.5

16.0

15.0

11.5

7.5

5.0

4.4

4.3

3.3

37.5

1,171.8

1,132.8

603.9

568.8

460.3

579.2

421.5

448.5

174.8

210.0

180.4

97.6

92.4

1,177.4

799.2

772.6

411.9

387.9

313.9

395.0

287.5

305.9

119.2

143.2

123.0

63.9

66.6

803.0

Source: USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2012 Summary

Rank Company Pounds (millions)

Table 3. Top Turkey Producing Companies in the U.S. in 2011 (Live Weight Processed).

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Butterball

Jennie-O Turkey Store

Cargill Value Added Meats

Farbest Foods

HIllshire Brands

Kraft Foods, Inc./Oscar Meyer

Foster Farms

Perdue Farms

House of Raeford Farms

Virginia Poultry Growers

Source: 2012 Watt Poultry USA

1,300

1,290

1,095

360

340

280

274

271

245

259

Figure 2. Number of Turkeys Raised, 2010 

(Per Thousand Head)

CA

15,200 NC

30,000

VA

17,000 MO

18,000

SD

4,600

WV

3,100

AR

28,000

IN

16,000

SC

11,900

UT

4,600

MN

47,000

OH

4,600

PA

7,400
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 51 of 174

2.1.2 Turkey Production Systems 

While the vast majority of turkeys in the U.S. are Broad-breasted White turkeys raised intensively for commercial 

meat production, other types of turkeys are kept for similar or different purposes.

Some turkey flocks are raised to preserve specific breeds. These are known as 

“Heritage Turkeys”. Some breeds are extremely rare with fewer than a hundred 

individuals known to exist. Recognized heritage breeds are those described in 

the American Poultry Association Standard of Perfection judging guide: Black, 

Bronze, Narragansett, White Holland, Slate, Bourbon Red, Beltsville Small 

White, and Royal Palm. Other color varieties also are often accepted as heritage 

breeds or are referred to as “Heritage-type” turkeys. Characteristics of heritage 

turkeys are an ability to mate naturally, long reproductive period, ability to thrive 

in free-range systems, and slow growth. Images of heritage turkeys can be found 

at http://www.porterturkeys.com4/ and http://albc-usa.org/cpl/wtchlist.html.

Small flocks of turkeys, usually heritage-type turkeys, are produced for 

specialty niche markets or direct sale. Management systems vary, but typically, 

heritage-type turkeys are raised seasonally for the holiday market with access 

to free-range and minimum confinement. 

Occasionally turkeys are kept along with a menagerie of other birds in backyard 

flocks (see Chapter 4), but they are not common because turkeys are more 

expensive to maintain, require a higher level of management, can contract 

histomoniasis (a serious, often fatal disease) and Mycoplasma gallisepticum from 

chickens, have a lower reproductive potential, and do not produce marketable 

eggs. In addition to captive rearing of turkeys, production in many areas coincides 

with the range of free-living wild turkeys, making disease transmission between captive and free-living flocks possible.

2.1.3 Turkey Industry Structure 

Most commercially raised turkeys are produced by vertically integrated companies that have one or more complexes. 

Less commonly, turkeys are produced by cooperatives formed by owners of the production facilities. However, 

cooperatives also own or control various steps in the production cycle and are vertically integrated.

2.1.3.1 Vertical Integration 

Vertically integrated companies control multiple 

stages of the production cycle, which facilitates 

synchronization of scheduling to meet product 

demand and plan for future markets, removes 

middlemen, and integrates profit centers to 

maximize financial returns. Costs are spread over 

the entire production process. Not every stage has 

to generate a profit so long as overall production is 

profitable. For example, day-old poult costs may 

be higher for a superior strain of turkey, but these 

costs may be offset by increased productivity of the 

superior birds when they are grown. Maximizing 

profit by balancing inputs and outputs for each stage 

of production requires excellent supervisory skills 

and decision making. 

The degree of vertical integration varies among 

companies. Structure of a typical vertically 

integrated turkey company is shown in Figure 

3. Each stage is managed as either a cost or a 

profit center. A complex consists of a vertically integrated unit that usually includes breeders, hatchery, brooding, 

finishing, feed mill, and processing. Larger companies often have multiple complexes located in different 

Grow Out

Consumer

Distribution

Further Processing Rendering Plant

Breeder Hen Flocks

Hatchery

Institutional

Tom Stud Farm

Brooder Hub

Feed Mill

Processing Plant

Retail Export

Figure 3. Structure of a Typical Vertically 

Integrated Turkey Company
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 52 of 174

geographic areas, either within a state or in other states. Production of around 12 million turkeys in a complex is 

considered optimum for resource utilization; however, the number of birds produced in a complex varies greatly 

among companies. Some integrated turkey companies also raise other commodity livestock such as broiler 

chickens or pigs because production of these animals is similar to that for turkeys, e.g., feed manufacturing and 

delivery, processing, and marketing.

How much a company actually owns in the integration and how much it controls through contractual arrangements 

differs among companies. When aspects of production are owned and operated by the company, critical stages such 

as breeding, which require close control and a high level of management, are more likely to be owned and operated 

by the company. Losses on the breeding farm have an impact throughout the whole company. Sometimes a company 

will own part of a production step, while the balance will be contracted.

Most finishing is done by contract producers who provide the facilities and labor in return for a contract price when 

the flock is marketed. Bonuses are provided for superior results in performance parameters including livability, 

growth, and feed conversion. The company owns the birds and provides feed, health care, and technical expertise 

for the birds. Service technicians, employed by the company, oversee the turkeys through regular visits to the flocks 

during which they monitor the flock’s progress and advise on management and health. Service technicians usually 

have formal post-secondary education or long-term experience raising turkeys. Sometimes they also have their own 

farm and flocks, which they grow under contract for the company. They are not permitted to have other types of 

poultry in any numbers or contract flocks with another company. 

When depopulation is necessary, such as limiting spread of a foreign animal disease, it can become problematic as 

to how payments for compensation should be made. Payment for the birds is made to the company, but the producer 

also loses much of their income because of the depopulation. Usually an equitable solution is determined between 

the company and contract growers and may have been predetermined in the contract. Similarly, dead bird disposal 

can be an issue between the company and contract producer. The grower is responsible for the collection and disposal 

of mortality in the flock, which can be a considerable expense if mortality is high, especially when birds are older.

2.1.4 Economics 

Both fixed costs for buildings, equipment, utilities, taxes, and mortgage payments, and variable costs including 

poults, labor, transportation, processing, health care, and feed go into the cost of producing turkeys. Feed accounts for 

approximately two-thirds of the cost of production. Prices for corn and soybean meal, the main feed ingredients, largely 

determine the cost of feed. Turkey feeds tend to be more expensive than feeds for broilers because of the higher protein 

and energy requirements for optimal turkey growth. Similarly, feeds for young birds, which have higher protein and lower 

energy, are more expensive than feeds for older turkeys, which have lower protein and higher energy. Overall feed costs 

in 2011 are over $300/ton and expected to rise further due to the high price of corn, soybean meal, and supplemental fat.

Turkey accounts for approximately 13% of income generated from the sale of poultry products in the U.S.. Between 2006 

and 2010, around 260 million turkeys were raised annually in the U.S.. An average of 7.4 billion pounds live weight was 

produced that was worth an average of nearly 4 billion dollars. Price per pound averaged 53.6 cents. Per capita consumption 

averaged just over 17 pounds/person. Exports accounted for slightly more than 10% of processed turkey (Table 4).

Year Head

(millions)

Pounds

(billions)

Value

(millions)

Price/lb

(dollars)

Export 

(%)

Per capita 

Consumption

Table 4. Annual Production of Turkey in the U.S.

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service, National Agricultural Statistics Service

16.9

17.5

17.6

16.9

16.4

17.1

547 (10.2)

547 (10.9)

676 (9.2)

534 (10.6)

583 (9.7)

577 (10.1)

.479

.523

.565

.500

.615

.536

3,551

3,954

4,477

3,573

4,371

3,985

7,418

7,566

7.922

7,149

7,107

7,432

262.0

266.8

273.1

247.4

244.2

258.7

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

5 Year Average
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 53 of 174

2.1.5 Capital Investment

Construction of a new turkey finishing farm with four houses in the Southeastern U.S. will cost around $1.5 million 

dollars exclusive of land (a minimum of 20 acres [8.1 ha]), land preparation, a well to provide adequate water, and 

utilities. However, costs may vary considerably according to geographic location, type of housing, current market 

prices, and size of the farm. Houses are usually 40 to 50 feet (12.2-15.2 m) wide and 500 to 700 feet (152-213 m) 

long. Previously, houses were curtain-sided and relied heavily on natural ventilation, but current housing is closed 

(solid side-wall housing), heavily insulated, and tunnel ventilated with automated fans and controllers. Backup 

generators provide electricity in the event of a power failure. Contract prices per pound of turkey are generally range 

from 4.5-5.0 cents/lb live weight. Number of pounds of turkey produced annually depends on the type of management 

system (on-site or off-site brooding), size of the farm, and efficiency of production. Brooding of poults on-site or 

off-site affects contract prices. Many companies have moved to off-site brooding at farms called “brooder hubs”, 

especially for tom production, to maximize the biosecurity value of “All in/All out” production (see Section 2.4). 

Brooding off-site permits a greater number of flocks to be grown on a farm because 5 to 6 weeks of the growing 

cycle occur on the brooder hub. Hen flocks are usually marketed at 14-18 weeks weighing 14-18 pounds (6.4-8.2 kg) 

while tom flocks are marketed at 20-22 weeks weighing 40-44 pounds (18-20 kg).

Return on investment is also highly variable. Assuming a house has 25,000 ft2 (50 x 500 ft) [2323 m2 (15 x 152m)], hens 

are stocked at a final density of 2.5 ft2 (0.23 m2) per bird (10,000 hens), livability is 95% (9500 hens), average weight is 15 

lbs (6.8 kg), grower pay is 4.5 cents per lb (9.9 cents per kg), and 4 flocks are produced with off-site brooding (~10 weeks 

for finishing and a minimum of 2 weeks downtime between flocks), the projected gross income would be (9500 hens x 4 

flocks x 15 lbs x $.045) $25650. For toms, the same calculations (5625 toms [stocking at 4 ft2/bird x 90% livability] x 3 

flocks x 41 lbs [18.6 kg] x $.045) would result in a projected annual gross income of $31,130. If the brooder hub also is 

managed as a contract operation, a contract price for the turkeys is provided for this phase of the production cycle based on 

livability or other production parameters. Contract growers of breeders are paid for number of eggs. Often this is specified 

to be settable eggs (normal clean eggs suitable for incubation) that can be used for hatching, rather than total eggs.

2.1.6 Allied Industries

Not only is the turkey industry a producing industry, it also is a consuming industry. The greatest input is feed; corn 

and soybeans account for 83-91 percent of total feed ingredients. The turkey industry consumes over 7.67 million 

tons of corn and 2.5 million tons of soybean meal annually. In Minnesota, the number one turkey producing state, 

corn and soybean consumption by the turkey industry is equivalent to the production of nearly 2000 grain farmers.

Other inputs required by the turkey industry are housing and equipment, vehicles, additional feed ingredients, 

products for cleaning and disinfection, and health products including vaccines and pharmaceuticals. Many of these 

products are provided by industries allied to the turkey industry, which may also provide technical expertise to 

support use of their products. In areas where there are multiple integrated poultry or swine companies, formation 

of a cooperative to provide supplies to the companies at cost have been created. 

2.1.7 Diverse Workforce

Most workers on commercial and breeder turkey farms are of foreign descent, especially Hispanic. Knowledge of 

conversational Spanish, or having a person of Hispanic descent on an investigative team, is helpful when trying to 

learn how flocks are actually being managed on a farm. Interviewing the producer and farm workers about biosecurity 

or other management practices often results in divergent answers. Gaining the trust of the farm workers is particularly 

helpful in the event that a foreign animal disease control program is needed. Workers in processing plants also often 

come from diverse backgrounds, more so than those that work on turkey farms. 

2.1.8 Premises Registration and Traceback

Knowledge of the location, type, and size of turkey flocks is important for disease control, especially in the event of a 

foreign animal disease outbreak. Prompt diagnosis and rapid, effective containment is critical to minimize the economic 

impact of an outbreak. Each turkey company has excellent record systems and can track a flock from its breeder 

source to the lot in which it was processed. Subsequently, trace back of processed product to the company and flock of 

origin is possible by examining processing and production records. For security purposes there has been reluctance to 

integrate farm and flock information among companies, but this has been done in several states where turkey production 

is important (e.g., North Carolina). Access to these databases is strictly controlled and cannot be released. Cooperation 

between Federal and State agencies is in concert with the current United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 

position on animal traceability (Animal Disease Traceability Framework: Comprehensive Report and Implementation 

Plan, USDA, 2011, http://www.aphis.usda.gov/traceability/downloads/report_implementation_plan.pdf). 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 54 of 174

Interstate movement of poultry, including turkeys, also will be covered under the new traceability regulation. Unless 

exempted, each lot or group of birds will be identified by an Interstate Certificate of Veterinary Inspection (ICVI) 

issued by a Federal, State, or accredited veterinarian. Exemptions to the regulation can be found in the 2011 Animal 

Disease Traceability Plan. In this plan, poultry will be identified by sealed and numbered leg bands according to 

National Poultry Improvement Plan (NPIP) regulations, a group identification number, or other means agreed to by 

State or Tribal officials. A timeline for implementing the traceability plan for poultry has not been established.

2.2 LIFE STAGES AND POULTRY HUSBANDRY NEEDS

2.2.1 Production Cycle of Turkeys 

Fertile eggs are produced on breeder farms by hens that are periodically inseminated artificially with fresh semen from 

tom turkeys maintained separately from the hens. Eggs are usually cleaned, surface disinfected, and stored in an egg 

cooler on the breeder farm for 1-4 days before being transported to a hatchery where they are held for another 3-7 days 

before being placed into the incubator (setter). After approximately 25 days of incubation, eggs are transferred to the 

hatcher where they remain until the poults hatch at around 28 days. Poults are sexed and serviced (see 2.3.1) at the 

hatchery, taken to either hen or tom farms where they are grown to market weight, loaded onto transport trucks, and 

taken to the plant where they are processed (see 4.4). Product from the processing plant is shipped to distributors for 

additional processing or sale.

2.2.2 Breeding Flocks

2.2.2.1 Primary Breeders

Genetic improvement of commercial turkeys is done using 

a pyramid system similar to that for broilers and swine. A 

representative genetic pyramid illustrating production of 

Aviagen turkey breeders is shown in Figure 4. As many 

as 5 generations go into producing commercial turkeys. 

Individual lines are purebred so that the final generation 

is a three- or four-way cross. It takes about 4 years for 

pedigree genetics to be realized in the commercial meat 

birds. To obtain turkeys with the highest production 

potential, substantial selection pressure is applied to 

primary breeders. Primary breeders are maintained under 

the highest level of biosecurity possible because of their 

value and critical importance in the production pyramid. 

Each pedigree tom is ultimately responsible for producing 

over 8 million commercial turkeys and just over 94.5 tons 

of turkey meat, while each pedigree hen is ultimately responsible for around 800,000 commercial turkeys and nearly 

9.5 tons of turkey meat. Primary breeder companies are independent of commercial turkey producers.

Primary breeders select for turkeys that improve production efficiency (growth rate, feed utilization, meat yield 

and quality), reproductive performance (number of eggs, number of poults, poult cost), and ability to do well in 

production environments (high livability, low morbidity). During the past few decades, live weights and feed 

utilization of commercial turkeys have increased approximately 2.3% and 1% per year respectively. Realization of 

these annual improvements in genetic potential requires meeting the turkey’s nutritional, environmental, and health 

requirements for optimal production. Attention to growth (body weight control) and skeletal (frame) development, 

proper light stimulation, and good nutrition are essential for optimal rearing of both breeder hens and toms.

2.2.2.2 Parent Stock (Commercial or Multiplier Breeders)

Female parent breeding stock is usually supplied by primary breeders to commercial companies as fertile eggs 

from the hen line while tom parent breeders are provided as day-old poults. One or both grandparent lines are 

hybrids. When they are crossed to create the parent breeders (also called multiplier breeders), the commercial 

turkeys will be either 3-way or 4-way hybrids. Eggs supplied by the primary breeders for parent stock are hatched 

in the most biosecure method available to the company. Sometimes a hatchery separate from where commercial 

poults are hatched is used, but more commonly, breeder eggs are hatched in the same hatchery by themselves 

without commercial poults being hatched at the same time. In the hatchery, breeder poults are serviced the same as 

Figure 4. “The Pipeline”

Grandparents

GGP

Pedigree

Parent Stock

Commercials

Consumers

Processing

Today’s

Commercial

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

100 GGPs

3500 GPs

122,500 PS

8,085,000

Commercials

94,595 

Tons of Meat

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Today’s

Pedigree

1 x 10 

Source: Aviagen Turkeys, Nicholas

Genetic 

Improvement

Pedigree

Selection
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 55 of 174

commercial poults (see 2.3.1). Off-sex poults (males from the female line) are raised as commercial poults, but their 

productivity is lower. Breeder (“replacement”) hens and toms go to breeder farms where they are raised separately. 

2.2.2.2.1 Breeder Toms

Replacement tom poults are placed on a tom only (“stud”) farm, in a separate facility on a breeder replacement farm, 

or in a separate pen in a house that also has replacement hen poults. Ideally, breeders are placed on single-age farms 

that are isolated from commercial farms and other poultry. Regardless of the exact arrangement, sexes are reared 

separately. Facilities for breeders are thoroughly cleaned and disinfected prior to arrival of the poults. Except for 

providing approximately twice the floor space and optimizing biosecurity and management, brooding breeder toms 

is not significantly different from brooding commercial toms (see 2.4). 

Controlling weight and development is essential for producing good breeders. To aid in development of male breeders, 

starter feed with higher protein (28%) and energy levels is provided for at least 4 weeks. Feed is generally not restricted 

until candidate breeders are selected at 16-18 weeks of age. This permits identification of the best males based on how 

well they have grown and developed. Following selection, weights of specific toms are determined weekly and growth 

is controlled through either qualitative (ad libitum feeding) or quantitative feeding programs (limited feeding). Both 

programs use low density rations that typically have around 10% protein. However, it is important for toms to continue 

to gain a recommended amount of weight throughout the production period, and to weigh approximately 50 lbs (22.5 

kg) at 30 weeks when semen is first collected. Just over 200 lbs (91 kg) of feed per tom are needed to meet this target. 

Uniformity also is important; 90% of toms need to be at target weight (average weight ±10%) when semen is first 

collected. Standard body weights and recommended feeding programs are available online for both Aviagen (Nicholas) 

and Hybrid commercial turkeys (see Acknowledgements). 

From one to 15 weeks of age, breeder toms are given more floor space 

than commercial toms to promote activity and develop strong legs (4-6 ft2

[0.3-0.6 m2]. They receive 8-10 ft2 [0.7-0.9 m2] from 16 weeks to the end 

of semen production). After selection, groups of 20-25 toms are placed into 

pens of at least 250 ft2 [23 m2] in the tom barn. Groups often are divided 

into the heaviest toms, which are the prime breeders and used most often 

for insemination, intermediate toms used when additional inseminations are 

needed, and lighter toms kept in reserve. 

Light stimulation initiates sexual development of breeder toms. Several 

factors need to be considered when determining how the birds should be light stimulated including type of housing, 

feeding program, exposure to ambient light, geographic location, and time of the year. Compared to hens, toms are 

more responsive to light intensity than day length and will respond to lower light levels. Prior to 24 weeks of age, 

exposure of males to less than 12 hours of light within light-proof “dark out” houses that are designed to control 

light intensity and exclude light during the remainder of the day, is recommended to prevent premature testicular 

development. At 24 weeks, or approximately 6 weeks prior to semen collection, day length is increased to at least 

14 hours of light at 20-30 lux. Development of secondary sex characteristics and male behavior signify appropriate 

responses to light stimulation. Longer day lengths or gradual weekly increases in day length may be needed under 

certain conditions. However, day length should never exceed 18 hours of light. It is important to provide even 

lighting and not decrease either light intensity or duration during sexual development and semen production. 

Only a small number of males placed as poults are actually retained as breeders. Selection pressure results 

in only the best males being used for breeding. Identification of candidate breeders begins at placement and 

continues throughout the life of the flock. Birds with physical defects or are undersized are removed. It is 

important to provide good growing conditions and keep the birds healthy to allow desirable traits of the breeders 

to be fully expressed. Particular attention is given to conformation, leg strength, and walking ability. At around 

17 weeks, candidate breeders are individually evaluated for fitness, growth, and development. Each tom is 

weighed and judged against an average for the flock. Typically, a maximum of 30% of the best males are 

selected. Unselected males are removed and processed.

2.2.2.2.2 Breeder Hens

Breeder replacement hens are brooded and raised in breeder replacement (rearing) houses as single age flocks 

similar to brooding and growing commercial hens. Biosecurity is high because of their value and critical role in 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 56 of 174

providing fertile eggs for the company. Breeder replacement hens are typically given about twice as much floor 

space (4-5 ft2) as their commercial counterparts, and are provided an optimal environment, especially as it relates to 

air quality. Around 17 weeks of age, hens to be used as breeders are selected. In contrast to toms, selection pressure 

for candidate breeder hens is minimal, generally around 5%. Following selection, they are placed into a light-proof 

“dark-out” house and exposed to short day lengths (6-8 hrs light [L]:16-18 hrs dark [D]) for at least 12 weeks. At 

29 weeks, hens are moved into the laying house where they are photostimulated (minimum 14L:10D @ 100 lux), 

rapidly mature sexually in response to the increased light, and begin egg production between 31 and 32 weeks of 

age. Egg production peaks a few weeks later when around 75% of the hens will lay eggs each day. Peak production 

is followed by a gradual decline throughout the remainder of the production period. Egg production typically lasts 

for 28 weeks but may be a few weeks shorter or longer depending on how the flock is producing, need for fertile 

eggs, and economics. Each hen produces between 100 to 120 eggs from which 90 to 100 poults are hatched. Typical 

overall hatchability is 82 to 84 percent. Hens may be brought into a second egg production cycle (“recycled”) by 

moving them back to a dark-out house and inducing molting. Recycled hens produce fewer eggs, but eggs are larger 

resulting in high quality poults. Breeder hens are processed for meat at the end of their egg laying cycle(s). 

Management considerations for turkey breeder hens include nutrition, weight management and hen development, 

vaccination, light control, insemination, broodiness control, and egg production and handling. Desirable outcomes 

for a turkey breeder flock are uniform egg production that meets or exceeds breed standards, high peak egg 

production, persistence of egg production (total eggs/hen housed), and high fertility and hatchability, which all 

contribute to reduced poult cost.

Weight control and development to achieve optimal reproductive performance are more important for breeder 

replacement hens than toms. Overweight hens are poor breeders, prone to reproductive disorders, produce fewer 

eggs, more likely to become broody, and more likely to be culled. Determining weekly weights of a representative 

number of hens beginning at 3 weeks of age is ideal, but critical weight determinations are at 6, 16, and 22 weeks. 

At least 50 birds should be weighed to get an accurate average weight. The amount and type of feed allocated to 

the birds is based on the average weight of the flock. Higher protein feed is given to flocks that are lighter than the 

target, while heavier flocks are moved more quickly onto lower protein rations. Adjustments in growth need to be 

made gradually; hens must continually gain weight prior to egg production even if they are above the target. Hens 

are usually switched to a laying ration when they are moved to the laying house, but in some cases, a pre-lay ration 

that is intermediate between the conditioning ration and laying ration is used for the last few weeks in the dark-out 

house. The average weight of breeder hens at photostimulation needs to be around 26 lbs (11.8 kg). 

Sexual development and initiation of egg production are highly dependent 

on light exposure including duration, intensity, and wavelength. Replacement 

hens are naturally photorefractory when they are young, but afterwards 

become photosensitive to even very low levels of light. If exposed to 

additional light during dark-out, sexual maturity begins prematurely and hens 

will be poor breeders. Hen flocks that become sexually mature during the 

time when it would occur naturally (increasing day length) tend to produce 

more eggs, even when maintained in a light-controlled environment. Hens 

receptive to breeding display a characteristic “squatting” behavior that 

has occasionally been confused with lameness. This should be seen in the 

majority of the hens after light stimulation. Initial insemination is done at 

this time. Inseminating the hens too soon can result in vaginitis, peritonitis, 

impaired reproduction, and death (Gazdzinski and Barnes, 2004). If squatting is seen during dark-out, it indicates a 

problem with light control. It is critical that neither the duration nor intensity of light is reduced while the hens are in 

production. Day length can be increased, but should not exceed 18 hours.

Vaccination of breeder hens is done to prevent mortality and maintain egg production and quality. Although not as important 

in turkeys as it is in broiler chickens, a few vaccines are given to provide maternal immunity to poults (e.g., hemorrhagic 

enteritis). Another purpose of breeder hen vaccination is to reduce or eliminate vertical disease transmission (e.g., avian 

encephalomyelitis virus, Salmonella). Vaccination programs vary among companies and geographic region. Inactivated oilemulsion vaccines are given several weeks prior to photostimulation to avoid drops in egg production that occur when they 

are used while hens are laying. Inactivated vaccines made with aluminum hydroxide can safely be used when the hens are 

in production. Commercially available vaccines used in turkey breeders are listed in Table 5. Under special circumstances, 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 57 of 174

inactivated autogenous vaccines are prepared and used following strict guidelines. An example of an autogenous vaccine 

in current use is one that contains Pasteurella multocida, Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (“ORT”), and Erysipelothrix 

rhusiopathiae to aid in the prevention of fowl cholera, ORT, and erysipelas respectively. Vaccines for chickens are 

sometimes used off-label in turkeys and usually have good efficacy. An example of such use is immunizing breeder 

replacements with herpes virus of turkeys (HVT)-vectored avian paramyxovirus 1 (Newcastle) vaccine. Live mycoplasmal 

vaccines are not recommended for turkeys, as they are more virulent in turkeys than they are in layer chickens.

Vaccine Type Administration Comments

Table 5. Vaccines Used in Turkey Breeder Hens.

Avian paramyxovirus 1 

(Newcastle)

Avian paramyxovirus 1 

(Newcastle)

Paramyxovirus 3

Inuenza

Hemorrhagic enteritis

Avian 

encephalomyelitis

Pox

Turkey rhinotracheitis

Erysipelas

Fowl cholera

Salmonella

Colibacillosis

Live. Strains C2, B1, La Sota, N-79, N-63, 

Clone 30, etc.

Inactivated.

Inactivated.

Inactivated. H1N1, 

H3N2 swine strains.

Live. Avirulent, 

pheasant origin.

Live. Strain 1143.

Live. Fowl, turkey, 

pigeon types.

Live, inactivated.

Avian 

metapneumovirus.

Inactivated.

Live, inactivated.

Strains M-9, 

PM-1, CU.

Inactivated.

Live, inactivated.

Water, spray, 

intranasal, eye-drop.

Injection.

Injection.

Injection.

Water.

Wing-web, water, 

spray.

Wing-web, feather 

follicle.

Water, eye-drop, 

intranasal, coarse 

spray, injection.

Injection.

Water, wing-web, 

SQ or IM injection 

(inactivated).

SQ injection.

Spray, SQ injection 

(inactivated).

Vaccines made for chickens typically include 

infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). There is no 

evidence that IBV will infect turkeys.

Often combined with other vaccines (e.g., 

PMV3, Inuenza). Used in breeders to provide 

high immunity of long duration. 

Often combined with other inactivated 

virus vaccines.

Often combined with other inactivated 

virus vaccines.

Splenic homegenate vaccines should not be 

used in breeders.

Often combined with pox and given via wing 

web inoculation.

Often combined with AE and given via wing 

web inoculation.

Used where TRT is endemic.

Often combined with other bacterial antigens.

One to 2 “priming” vaccinations given in water 

with low virulent strains followed by injection 

with higher virulent strain.

Used to reduce Salmonella contamination of 

eggs and vertical transmission.

Intramuscular vaccination with 

inactivated vaccine can produce severe 

granulomatous myositis.

Egg production commences 2 to 3 weeks after hens are placed into the laying 

house and exposed to increased light. Eggs from young breeders are smaller 

and produce smaller poults that are more difficult to start when placed on a 

brooder farm. It is important during the early laying period to train the hens 

to use the nest for laying. Eggs laid outside the nest (“floor eggs”) are more 

likely to be contaminated and either not hatch or explode when incubated 

due to growth of gas-forming bacteria that penetrate the egg shell. A nest 

box needs to be provided for every 4 to 6 hens. Semi-trap nest boxes prevent 

more than one hen from entering the nest box. Both manual and automatic 

nest boxes are used. To obtain the most sanitary eggs, bedding in nest boxes 

needs to be kept clean, eggs collected frequently, and hens not permitted 

to remain on the nest. Abnormally small, large (double-yolk), misshapen, 

cracked, or excessively dirty eggs are removed and discarded. In contrast to broiler hatching eggs, turkey hatching 

eggs are often washed in a warm (110-120°F, 43-49°C) detergent-sanitizer solution. However, egg washing is not a 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 58 of 174

substitute for management practices that result in production of clean eggs, or a salvage procedure for excessively 

dirty eggs. After drying, eggs are identified, dated, packed, and placed into an egg cooler where they are kept at 

55-65°F (13-18°C) until they are picked up, usually twice a week, and moved to the hatchery. Eggs may be kept 

at slightly warmer or cooler temperatures if they are going to be stored for shorter or longer periods respectively. 

Optimal relative humidity is 60-80%. Sweating of eggs as they are transported to the hatchery can be a problem 

if ambient temperature and humidity are high. Moisture that develops on the eggs from sweating favors bacterial 

multiplication and wicking of bacteria into the egg through pores in the shell. 

Turkey breeder hens retain some of their natural instinct to brood a clutch of a dozen or so eggs after they have been 

laid. Prevention of broodiness is necessary to obtain maximum egg production. Broody hens may be difficult to 

recognize but usually they want to stay in the nest box, go out of production, or are more aggressive at protecting the 

nest. Some hens do not show any signs. Once a hen becomes broody, her reproductive cycle has ended until after she 

molts. Several management practices are used to prevent broodiness including 

providing a house environment that is not conducive to nest building, making 

sure the hen does not stay in the nest box longer than necessary, keeping hens 

out of nest boxes overnight, providing uniform lighting without dark areas, 

frequently collecting eggs including picking up floor eggs, checking for hens 

that return to a nest box shortly after having laid an egg, and marking hens 

showing signs of becoming broody. Suspect broody hens are transferred to 

broody pens where their normal environment and routine are altered, or they 

are moved among pens in the same house. When a hen resumes squatting, she 

is not broody and can be returned to the flock. While controlling broodiness 

is important, it is equally important not to be overly aggressive and interrupt 

production of normal hens. 

2.2.2.2.3 Artificial Insemination 

A common belief is that commercial turkeys are incapable of natural breeding due to their large breast size. This is 

not entirely correct. They can mate naturally, but the process is not efficient enough to meet the needs of commercial 

production. Artificial insemination is used to improve and maintain a high level of fertility in commercial turkey 

flocks. Toms are large birds and expensive to maintain, which makes maximum use of semen from each tom essential 

to minimize poult costs. Typically, a single reproductively sound male is sufficient for inseminating between 16 and 

22 hens. Artificial insemination has also been useful for controlling venereal diseases, especially mycoplasmosis, by 

preventing mating with infected hens, 

Semen is collected from tom turkeys by manual ejaculation (“milking”), 

pooled, chilled to 1-3°C (33-37°F), and used as quickly as possible, ideally 

within 30 minutes. Good quality semen is thick, creamy, and white whereas 

semen that is thin, watery, and yellow is poor quality and should not be used. 

Usually between 0.3 and 0.6 ml of semen is produced per ejaculation that 

contains 2 to 6 billion spermatozoa. Semen can be collected twice a week 

without affecting its quality. Even if semen is not needed and will be discarded, 

toms should be ejaculated at least weekly to maintain production.

Fertility depends on number of spermatozoa inseminated. Semen is typically 

diluted 1:1 with semen extender to contain between 300 and 400 million 

spermatozoa per insemination depending on the age of the breeder hens to 

be inseminated. Semen extenders are added to pooled semen to increase 

semen volume so that more hens can be inseminated, but they do not affect 

the lifespan of the spermatozoa. Semen is deposited by gently blowing it 

through a pipette inserted deeply into the female’s everted vagina. By placing 

semen directly into the vagina, spermatozoa are deposited close to sperm 

host (“sperm storage”) glands where they can survive for up to 3 weeks 

or longer. However, to insure continual high fertility, insemination of hens 

is done multiple times during the first few weeks, followed by weekly 

inseminations thereafter. Additional inseminations and inseminating hens 

outside of the daily peak of egg production are also done.
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Insemination requires precision and coordination to be done effectively and efficiently. Details are beyond 

the scope of this chapter but can be found in technical information available from Aviagen Turkeys (http://

en.aviagen.com/turkeys/), Hybrid Turkeys (http://www.hybridturkeys.com/), and The Midwest Poultry Federation 

(Bakst and Long, 2010).

2.2.3 Turkey Hatching

When fertile eggs from the breeder farm arrive at the hatchery, they are placed into an egg holding room where they 

are maintained at the same temperature and humidity as the egg room on the farm. Eggs are held for 2-14 days after 

having been laid depending on several factors including breeder production, egg availability, supply and demand, 

and transportation issues. Optimal hatchability occurs when eggs are stored for approximately 7 days. Setting freshly 

laid eggs less than 2 days or older eggs over 14 days of age results in significantly reduced hatchability.

Hatching typically occurs 4 times a week on Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Friday. Wednesday is used for 

thorough cleaning of the hatchery. Some companies may use non-hatch days for hatching hen parent stock. Racks 

containing the eggs are often placed into an area for up to 12 hrs to warm up prior to being placed into the incubator. 

Incubators may be filled with a single setting of eggs (single-stage incubator) or have sets of eggs added sequentially 

(multi-stage incubator). Both types have advantages and disadvantages. Incubator temperature and humidity are 

precisely controlled based on the type of incubator and characteristics of the eggs, especially how long they have 

been stored, age of breeders when eggs were laid, and timing and duration of the hatch window. The more uniform 

the eggs, the easier it is to set incubator conditions for optimal hatching.

At approximately 25 days of incubation, eggs are transferred to the hatcher. In ovo injection of turkey eggs is not 

as common as it is for broiler eggs, but can be done at this time. Poults hatch between 27 and 28 days. A narrow 

hatch window is desirable to minimize variability among poults. Hatchability is usually 82-86% with few culls 

or small poults. In the hatcher, poults are allowed to dry and have their navels seal over before they are pulled, 

separated from unhatched eggs and shells, and prepared for movement to the farm. A sample of unhatched eggs 

from each group of eggs in the incubator may be examined to determine why they did not hatch, especially if 

there are hatchability problems with particular flocks or incubators. Categories of unhatched eggs include 

infertile, and early, middle, or late embryo death. Correct position of the embryo in the egg is determined (head 

needs to be up and under the right wing), whether internal pipping occurred, how much residual albumin and 

urates are present, vascular development of the chorioallantoic membrane, and if the embryo is malformed. Cull 

poults, unhatched poults, egg residue, and shells are usually macerated on site. Maceration equipment must be 

well maintained to make sure euthanasia of cull and unhatched poults is instantaneous.

Hatchery design and sanitation, particularly cleaning and disinfection, are extremely important in the production of 

healthy poults. Contact of open navels with bacteria in the environment can lead to infection and death. Fungal spores 

inhaled by poults from mold growth in the ventilation system results in losses due to brooder pneumonia. Programs 

based on culturing environmental swabs and air plates are used in most hatcheries to monitor sanitation. A one-way 

path through the hatchery with egg arrival on one side, poult shipment on the other side, and incubators, hatchers, and 

processing area in between is the best design. Some turkey hatcheries require showering of all personnel and wearing 

clean clothing provided by the company before entering the egg/poult areas. Adequate facilities to clean and disinfect 

all equipment are needed.

2.2.3.1 Poult Servicing

Newly hatched poults undergo several procedures in the hatchery to prevent diseases and trauma, and prepare 

them for the farm. Collectively, these procedures are called servicing and include sex determination, trimming 

of the beak and toes, and administration of injections of vitamins, fluids, or antibiotics. Historically, the snood 

of male poults also was amputated during servicing to protect turkeys from erysipelas, which often began in 

the snood traumatized by males fighting to determine dominance, but that practice is rarely done today. Aerosol 

application of vaccines, such as Newcastle disease, may also be done if the disease occurs in the area where the 

turkeys will be grown.

Males and females are separated using vent sexing by specialists trained in this procedure. Sufficient pressure 

is applied to the abdomen to evert the vent, permitting visualization of the primordial phallus in the male, or its 

absence in the female. Accuracy by well-trained individuals can exceed 98%. The usual sex ratio of poults is 

52% males and 48% females. 
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Trimming of the beak and toes is done to reduce trauma among birds in the flock from pecking, feather pulling, 

and scratches, which can lead to infection and death or necessitate culling. The procedures are done with either a hot 

blade that immediately trims and cauterizes the tissue or specially designed equipment that utilizes laser light 

or microwaves, which causes necrosis and sloughing of beak and toe tissue within a few weeks leaving a healed 

surface. After using these methods of beak and toe trimming for several years, no significant adverse effects have 

been identified and they have become the standard in the turkey industry (National Turkey Federation, 2009). Poults 

are counted and placed into boxes divided into 4 quarters, each with 20-25 poults.

Following servicing, boxes containing the poults are stacked and organized into flocks in a warm, dimly-lit, holding room 

to rest overnight. Early the following morning the poults are delivered to the farm in specially designed vehicles (“poult 

buses”) that provide controlled temperature and ventilation for the poults. Placing all poults on a farm from a single 

breeder flock is ideal; however, most flocks consist of poults from multiple breeder flocks. The more breeder flock sources 

a commercial flock has, the more likely the flock is to have health problems. Every attempt should be made to match 

poults as closely as possible. For example, if a flock is put together with poults from young breeders (which produce small 

poults that are difficult to start) and poults from recycled breeders (which are larger and easier to start), mortality among 

poults from young breeders will be higher and their growth rate will be less than if they were brooded by themselves.

Poult Hatchery Poult Buses

2.2.4 Turkey Brooding

Brooding is the period after hatching during which a turkey poult requires supplemental heat. The term also is used 

when the poult is in the brooder house. Brooding is done in a house specifically designed for this purpose. Poults are 

usually allocated at least one ft2 (0.1 m2) per bird. They are usually restricted in brooding rings during the first few 

days of life. The brooding period encompasses the first 5-6 weeks of the turkey production cycle. 

2.2.4.1 Brooder Houses

Preparations for brooding begin as soon as the previous flock in the house has been removed. Litter and all organic 

material are removed and insecticides or other control measures for darkling (litter) beetles (Alphitobius diaperinus) are 

applied while they are still active. Over the next several days, the house, entry way and surrounding areas, equipment, 

water lines, feed lines, and feed bins are thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Fans, timers, lighting, alarms, curtains or 

air inlets, and other equipment are similarly inspected to insure they are in good working order. After cleaning, the house 

is closed and left vacant. The sooner the house is prepared, the longer the down time before the new flock arrives. A 

minimum down time of 10 days is recommended, but longer times are preferred to permit microbes in the house to die.

Fresh, clean, dry litter (usually kiln-dried pine shavings) is delivered to the farm and spread evenly over the floor to 

a depth of 3-4 in (7.6-10.2 cm). A spray may be applied to the surface of the litter to help reduce fungal spores and 

other contaminants. Brooder equipment is checked several days before placement and any repairs made. Brooder 

stoves should have a blue flame and cycle appropriately in response to changes in temperature settings. A yellow 

flame indicates incomplete combustion, which generates carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide above 20 ppm is 

detrimental to poults and people working in the house. Pancake or pan brooders are usually set at 24 in (61 cm) but 

may be raised or lowered slightly to obtain optimal litter temperatures. Brooders must always have a safety chain 

to prevent them from accidentally falling into the litter, and propane lines need to be checked with soapy water for 

leaks. Radiant tube heating systems mounted on the ceiling are used in some newer brooder housing. They rely less 

on heating circulating air than traditional pan brooders. Regardless of the type of brooding equipment, it needs to 

provide even, appropriate house temperatures at the level of the poults.
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At least one day before placing the poults, fresh feed is delivered 

to the farm and the house is set up. It is important to use fresh 

feed, as it will stimulate the poults to eat. Circular or oval brooder 

rings, 12-14 ft (3.7-4.3 m) in diameter and 12-18 in (30.5-45.7 

cm) high made of new corrugated cardboard are placed in the litter 

around each pan brooder. Single brooder rings are sufficient for 

around 300 poults. Some growers use an oval double ring that is 

suitable for more poults and surrounds two or more conventional 

pan brooders. Larger rings also are used for radiant heat brooder 

stoves. In houses with radiant tube heating, birds may be placed 

directly in the house with cardboard only used to round the corners 

of the house to prevent piling of poults for the first few days. 

Conventional and supplemental feeders and drinkers are radially 

arranged about midway between the brooder equipment and wall 

of the ring and completely filled with fresh feed and water. Poults 

are provided with at least 1 in (2.5 cm) of drinker space and 1.25 

in (3.2 cm) of feeder space. Nipple drinkers are becoming more 

common and are replacing traditional bell drinkers. For starting 

poults, cups on nipple drinkers should be filled.

Brooders are lit the day before poults arrive to warm the food, 

water, litter, and house to the desired environmental temperature. 

Temperatures of the litter under the brooders and at the edge of the 

ring should be checked with an infrared gun to be sure they are 

between 100-115°F (38-46°C) and 75-85°F (24-29°C) respectively. 

It is important to have a 20-30°F (9-15°C) gradient between the 

center and edge of the ring to allow each poult to locate its own 

comfort zone. House temperatures are more uniform when radiant 

tube heating is used. Ventilation fans are adjusted to run a minimum

of one minute out of five minutes. Thermostat fans are set to run when target temperatures exceed 2°F (1°C). Poor 

ventilation results in weak, inactive poults that do not start well. Ammonia and carbon dioxide levels above 25 

ppm and 2500 ppm respectively are detrimental to the poults. Measurements of gases need to be at bird level to be 

meaningful. A carbon monoxide detector can be taken into the house when poults are being checked first thing in the 

morning to determine if toxic levels exist, but dust may interfere with its operation if it is left in the house continuously. 

Lighting needs to be uniform with an intensity of 50-70 lux.

On the day of placement, poults are delivered early in the morning so they have the full day to adjust to their new 

surroundings and begin eating and drinking, which are critical to the poults getting a good start. Poults must drink 

or they will not eat. Equal numbers of poults are allocated per ring. They are gently transferred from poult boxes 

to the rings and given a short interval to spread out and acquaint themselves with their new environment. Dead or 

cull poults are removed and may be saved by refrigeration or freezing for possible future diagnostic use. If there 

are no significant disease problems in the first few days after placement, cull and dead poults that have been saved 

can be discarded. As a general rule, the earlier poults die after placement, the more likely the problem came from 

the hatchery or breeder flock; conversely, the later they die, the more likely the farm environment was the source 

of the disease.

While the birds need to be checked frequently the first day and night, conditions in the house need to remain as quiet 

and calm as possible. Poults are curious and gather along the side of the ring in response to sounds or activity in the 

house. This is detrimental, as they need to be learning to eat, drink, and find their comfort zone. Poults often sleep off 

and on during much of the first day, but by the second day, they should be active and evenly distributed. Clustering 

of poults under a brooder or along the edge of the ring indicates that conditions are too cool or hot respectively and 

need to be checked and adjusted. Poults in one spot away from the heat source indicate a possible draft. Poults receive 

constant light on the first day.

During the next few days, poults continue to be checked frequently; drinkers are adjusted to compensate for litter 

compaction and average poult size, cleaned, and kept filled. After poults are drinking well, the depth of water in the 

Radiant Heat Brooder Stove

Brooder Hub Setup
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 62 of 174

drinkers can gradually be reduced to decrease spillage and soiled litter. Spilled or soiled feed is removed and feeders 

adjusted and refilled. Feeders are generally kept completely filled for the first couple of weeks. Height of drinkers and 

feeders is adjusted to be at the level of the poults’ shoulder. Soiled litter that accumulates around drinkers and feeders 

is either tilled into adjacent good litter or removed and replaced. Light duration is reduced to provide a period of at 

least one hour of darkness so the poults will not panic if there is an electrical failure.

Poults are more challenging to start than chicks. They have little available energy reserves when they hatch and 

must rapidly switch from a lipid-based to a carbohydrate-based metabolism by synthesizing glycogen from protein 

via gluconeogenesis. Attempts to assist in this process through nutrition have not been successful. Weak poults, 

undersized poults, and “flip-overs” (poults that get over on their backs and cannot right themselves) are removed and 

either culled or placed into a “hospital” pen where they have access to fresh feed and water, but a lower temperature. 

A few poults never learn to eat or drink. Sometimes they can be recognized because they still have the egg tooth, 

which normally is knocked off when a poult begins to eat. Occasionally it is possible to teach them by dipping their 

beaks into water and feed, but most often, they die of starvation. Such birds are called starve-outs and are found 

mainly between 4-6 days of age. Starve-outs occur more frequently in poults that come from young breeder flocks. 

Poults in the hospital pen that recover can be returned to the rest of the flock.

A common practice is to combine two pens together after 3-5 days and remove 

them altogether by 7 days. Cardboard that formed the rings is discarded. In 

some instances, it may be helpful to put cardboard in the corners of the house 

to round them out for a few more days to prevent piling. Similarly, any open 

containers (e.g., buckets) or equipment should be taken out of the house to 

prevent poults from getting into them and smothering each other. Supplemental

drinkers and feeders are gradually removed as the poults learn to use the 

equipment that will remain in the house. For turkeys, it is important that this 

change be made gradually over 3 or 4 days. Temperatures under the brooder 

and in the house are reduced by approximately 5°F (2.8°C) weekly until they 

match ambient temperatures, and ventilation is increased to control litter 

moisture, ammonia, and dust levels in the house.

Poults grow rapidly during the remainder of the brooding period. It is important to check them at least twice 

a day, and to adjust feeders and drinkers to the correct height and depth every few days. Feeders and open drinkers

are adjusted to shoulder height so that poults need to slightly bend their head and neck over the edge of the 

feeder or drinker to eat or drink. Birds should be able to walk under feeders and drinkers. If feeders and 

drinkers are raised too high, the birds can irritate their necks when they eat or drink, which can lead to a form 

of persecution (“cannibalism”) called neck picking. Litter needs to be raked daily or removed to prevent buildup 

of cake along feed lines and around drinkers. Mortality is picked up at least twice daily, recorded, and disposed 

of by burning, composting, or rendering depending on state regulations and availability. If mortality exceeds a 

certain threshold (commonly one bird per 1000), and there is no obvious cause, a diagnostic investigation may 

be indicated during which fresh dead and clinically affected turkeys are examined to establish a diagnosis. 

Vaccination for hemorrhagic enteritis is done between 4-5 weeks of age in most turkey flocks; other vaccinations 

may be given via water or spray if indicated. Vaccinations should be completed at least one week prior to the 

turkeys being moved to finishing.

Feeder Drinker
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2.2.4.1.1 On-farm Brooding 

Until the past 15 years, almost all turkeys were brooded in a separate brooder house, constructed and equipped for 

brooding, on the same farm where they were grown and finished. These are called ‘brood and grow’ farms. Both 

two- and three-stage production systems evolved to maximize utilization of housing and equipment on the farm, and 

amortize fixed costs over maximum production. In multi-stage production systems, two or three flocks of different 

ages are always on the farm. This makes disease control difficult as older flocks on the farm serve as reservoirs 

of infectious agents for the younger birds. Spread of disease from older flocks on the farm to the next flock as it 

was placed led to infection in younger birds, increasing severity of disease because of early exposure, increased 

exposure, and passage through successive groups of birds. On-farm brooding is still done, especially for hen flocks, 

but it is becoming less common as the industry moves to off-site brooding.

Two-stage systems have a brooder house matched with either two or three finishing houses. Typically there are 

two finishing houses for hen production and three finishing houses for tom production, but there is farm-to-farm 

variability. The brooder house is divided into two sections for hens or three sections for toms. Turkeys in one section 

of the brooding house usually populate one finishing house. At around 5 weeks of age, turkeys in each section are 

slowly walked through temporary corridors constructed of wooden panels and stakes, or, less commonly, a permanent 

breezeway, from the brooder house to a finishing house. Turkeys are easily moved using “flags” - poles with one or 

more strips of plastic or cloth attached to the end. In the finishing houses, hens and toms receive at least 2 or 3 ft2 (0.2 

- 0.3 m2) of floor space respectively, which accounts for the brooder:finishing house ratios of 1:2 for hens and 1:3 for 

toms. After the brooder house is vacated, it is cleaned, disinfected, and prepared for the next flock, which arrives before 

the older flock on the farm has been processed. Larger farms have multiples of this same 3 or 4 house design.

Double brooding is a variation of two-stage production used for growing tom flocks. The longer cycle for toms allows 

two flocks of turkeys to be brooded for two finishing house units. These farms typically have one brooder house and 6 

finishing houses or their equivalent (e.g., 4 larger houses with floor space equivalent to 6 conventional sized houses). 

Each finishing unit needs to have at least 3 times the floor space of the brooder house. While technically a two-stage 

system of production, this system has many of the same disadvantages of three-stage production including three age 

groups on the farm, continuous production on the farm, and minimum downtime between flocks in the brooder house. 

Health problems tend to be greater on these farms, similar to those of farms using three stages of production.

Efficiency of the two-stage system declined as hens grew faster and were marketed as whole birds at younger ages 

and toms were held longer and marketed for further processing (“cut-up”) at older ages. Either there was inadequate 

turn-around time in the case of hens, or the brooder house sat idle for an extended period for tom flocks. This ushered 

in the 3-stage production system for tom turkeys, again designed to maximize use of housing and equipment. In this 

system, production is divided into 3 stages – brooding (0-5 weeks), intermediate (6-11 weeks), and finishing (12-18 

weeks). Brooding and intermediate stages are done in a single house. One-third of the house is used for brooding, while 

the remainder is used for the intermediate stage. The two parts are separated by a solid partition with doors that can be 

opened. Ventilation flows from brooding to intermediate sections to conserve heat from the brooding end of the house, 

and it is simple to move birds from brooding to intermediate by opening the partition, turning lights on in the 

intermediate section, and turning them off in the brooding section. Birds naturally migrate to the lighted section of 

the house. Finishing takes place in separate houses on the same farm similar to that in 2-stage production.

While both two- and three-stage production systems make economic sense, they violate the basic “All in/All 

out” principle of biosecurity. In these production systems, either two or three flocks are on the farm at the same 

time, and there is never a time when the farm is completely depopulated. Especially problematic is the 3-stage 

system where two different flocks are in the same barn. As enteric diseases such as turkey coronaviral enteritis, 

poult enteritis complex, and poult enteritis mortality syndrome (PEMS) emerged as serious problems in the 

turkey industry, controlling them on multi-stage farms became difficult to impossible. Losses from disease soon 

outweighed the economic advantages of staged growing. While some staged growing still exists, especially for 

hens, three-stage production is probably no longer practiced, and two-stage production is becoming less common.

A couple of single-stage variants of on-farm brooding are occasionally done on older ‘brood and grow’ farms. One 

single stage management system is similar to production of broiler chickens. The house is divided by a removable 

partition (often a drop curtain) into two parts. Typically about one-half or one-third of the house is used for brooding 

hens and toms respectively. When brooder stoves are no longer needed at around 3-4 weeks, the partition is removed 

and the flock has the entire house where they stay until they are processed. Separate feed lines for younger and older 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 64 of 174

birds are needed, but a single water line is usually adequate. This production system is best suited to growing light 

hens. It is possible to produce three hen flocks, but only two flocks of toms annually in this production system. With 

either type of turkey, this system still lacks economic efficiency compared to multi-stage growing. 

The other single stage production system has similarities to multi-stage production systems. Poults are brooded in 

one or more brooding houses on the farm. When they reach 5-6 weeks of age, most of the birds are moved to other 

houses on the farm, but some of the birds remain in the brooder houses. In this way, all of the birds on the farm are 

a single age, but there are empty houses on the farm with longer down time while the poults are brooding and 

therefore there are greater overhead expenses. Also, this is usually not done with tom turkeys, as the equipment 

used in the brooding houses is not adequate for growing toms to processing.

2.2.4.1.2 Off-site Brooding (Brooder Hubs)

To capture the health advantages of “All in/All out” production and economic benefits of multi-staged growing, 

many companies have moved to off-site brooding. These farms only brood turkeys and are commonly called “brooder 

hubs”. Brooder hubs are most efficient for producing toms because of their longer production cycle and higher value 

at processing, which can be divided between brooding and finishing farms. One brooder hub can provide poults for 

two groups of tom finishing farms. Having a facility dedicated solely to brooding permits a high level of biosecurity, 

intense management focused on the needs of the young turkey, quantity purchases of supplies, especially propane, and 

total clean out between flocks. Poults are delivered to the brooder hub, grown to 4-5 weeks of age, loaded into transport 

coops, and taken to several finishing farms where they are grown to processing. Determining the average weight when 

poults are transferred from the brooder farm to the finishing farm and dividing it by their age in days provides the 

overall average daily gain for the brooding period. In addition to livability, average daily gain is an excellent way to 

monitor how well poults grew during brooding and the measure correlates well with how they will process. After 

turkeys have been removed from the brooder hub, it is thoroughly cleaned, disinfected, and prepared for the next flock.

Disadvantages of this production system are the stress of moving the turkeys from the brooder hub to finishing 

farms, possibility of trauma during loading and unloading, and that several finishing farms could be adversely 

affected if the poults experience a disease on the brooder hub that depresses their growth and development. The 

abrupt change in environment during transfer often sets the turkeys back for a few days as they re-learn how to 

get food and water and re-establish their social interactions. It is common for them to lose up to 10% of their body 

weight during moving and the first few days after being placed into the finishing farm. They generally regain this 

lost weight before they are processed.

2.2.4.2 Physiological Development of Poults

Turkey poults are precocial and may seem developed at hatch, but actually, they are still immature and require several 

weeks to develop completely functional body systems. An example is the immune system, which will not be capable of 

fully responding to an antigen until the turkey is around 6 weeks of age. Vision is poorly developed at hatching, which 

may help explain why poults have difficulty finding 

food and water after hatching. Consumption of feed 

as soon as possible after hatching is important as this 

initiates development of the digestive and immune 

systems and stimulates the absorption of yolk, 

which contains maternal antibodies and nutrients 

essential for early growth (Halevy et al., 2003).

It is important to understand the “nutrient budget” 

as it pertains to poult growth and development 

(Figure 5). Prior to hatching, everything required 

by the turkey embryo to develop into a poult comes 

from the hen via the egg. After hatching, everything 

required by the turkey to maintain itself and grow 

comes from nutrition via the digestive system. This 

includes feed intake, digestion, absorption, and 

assimilation at the cellular level. Early growth and 

development of the digestive system is several 

times greater than the body as a whole.

Figure 5. Nutrient Budget

Maintenance

Demand Organs

(brain, heart, viscera, etc.)

Supply Organs

(bone, dark muscle, white muscle)

Immune Stress

Nutrients Digested and Absorbed
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Organs of the digestive tract, along with those critical for survival (immune, cardiovascular, respiratory, nervous, 

and special senses) comprise the “Demand” organs. Nutrients are preferentially supplied for maintenance, response 

to immune stresses, and demand organs. When the digestive system is functioning normally, supply organs also are 

provided with nutrients, based on the needs of the developing poult, to the skeletal system, dark muscles, and lastly 

white muscles. If nutrients are not adequately provided by the digestive system because of inadequate feed intake 

or enteric disease, a greater proportion of the nutrient budget shifts from the supply organs to deal with immune 

stress and provide for the demand organs. This results in stunting, poor skeletal development, and reduced muscle 

and ultimately meat, especially white meat, at processing. If nutrients are not available, as in severe disease and 

anorexia, muscle is catabolized to provide for maintenance, immune stresses, and minimum nutrients essential for 

survival. These birds become runted, rarely ever recover, and need to be culled.

Growth of turkeys is rapid. At hatching, poults weigh around 60 g, while toms have an average weight of 20.5 kg 

when they are processed at 20 weeks of age. Thus, male turkeys increase their original body weight over 340 times 

in a period of 140 days; an average of nearly 2.5 times their initial weight every day. Growth rates of hens are 

similar, but not as rapid, and they are marketed earlier at lower body weights. Failure to grow, even for a few days, 

becomes obvious because of the high growth rate, which leads to poor flock uniformity.

2.2.5 Turkey Finishing

Key to managing turkeys during finishing is to provide adequate ventilation, clean cool water, good quality feed, and 

a healthy sanitary environment with sufficient space. The importance of animal husbandry and management cannot 

be over emphasized. Disease is usually an indication of a failure in management – something was done that should 

not have been done, or, conversely, something that should have been done was not done. 

2.2.5.1 Range (Pasture) Finishing

Initially, turkeys were produced during the summer on open range, primarily 

for the Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays. Small turkey flocks for niche 

markets are still raised this way, but finishing on range is rarely used anymore 

for commercial flocks. Poults are obtained in late winter or early spring and 

brooded in a brooder house. After brooding, at about 8 weeks of age, they 

are moved onto pasture where they remain until they are processed. Number 

of turkeys per acre varies widely from 100-250 depending on soil type and 

vegetation. Part of the nutrition for the birds is provided by the environment, 

but the turkeys still require commercial feeds. Shelters, feeders, and drinkers 

are provided. Roosts and 2-3 ft2 (0.2-0.3 m2) of floor space are provided under 

the shelters. Health problems include predation, weather-related losses, theft, and diseases contracted from free-living 

animals. Fowl cholera, caused by Pasteurella multocida, is often present in the mouths of rodents and small carnivores, 

including dogs and cats. It is a common cause of high mortality in range flocks. Free-living birds, especially migratory 

waterfowl, can shed avian paramyxoviruses and influenza viruses in their feces and introduce them into the flock. 

Dividing the pasture and periodically rotating the flock through the different sections reduces disease risks.

2.2.5.2 Confinement Finishing

Finishing houses are prepared for the arrival of the turkeys from the brooding house, but, unless there was a disease 

outbreak in the previous flock, they are only completely cleaned and disinfected annually. Equipment is checked, repaired, 

and structural repairs are done as needed. Water lines are flushed and disinfected. Feed lines are emptied and cleaned; feed 

bins are inspected for residual caked feed and cleaned if indicated. Entryways and areas around the house are inspected 

and cleaned. Vegetation along the sides of the house is sprayed with herbicide and rodent bait stations are replenished. 

Caked litter is removed and the remaining litter worked so that it is friable. Litter is occasionally composted by moving it 

into one or more raised “wind-rows” the length of the house. Heat from composting significantly reduces infectious agents 

in the litter. If the floor is exposed, rock salt, at the rate of 75-100 lbs (34-45.5 kg) per 1000 ft2 (93 m2) can be applied to 

dehydrate and kill coccidia oocysts and helminth eggs. Litter is spread evenly throughout the house to a minimum depth 

of 4 in (10 cm). Litter from empty brooding houses may be added to ‘top dress’ litter in finishing houses. After the turkeys 

are in the house, caked litter that builds up along feed lines and around drinkers needs to be removed and replaced.

Hens and toms are provided with at least 2 ft2 (0.2 m2) and 3 ft2 (0.3 m2) of floor space respectively. Stocking densities 

of 6-10 lbs/ ft2 (29-49 kg/m2) are recommended and should not exceed 15 lbs/ ft2 (73 kg/m2) when environment and 

management are ideal. Stocking density in summer may need to be lower than it is in cooler months. Higher stocking 
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densities are possible with controlled ventilation housing compared to naturally ventilated housing. Overcrowding 

results in increased mortality, lower weights, decreased feed utilization, and downgrading at processing. 

For a few days after the turkeys arrive from the brooder house, it helps for the grower to keep feeders full to 

encourage them to eat, and to frequently walk the birds so they can quickly adjust to their new surroundings. The 

turkeys will not need this much attention when they become accustomed to their new environment, and the amount 

of feed in feeders can be reduced to minimize spillage.

Light influences activity, eating, drinking, and growth. Excess light contributes to aggressive behaviors and 

persecution. Lighting programs vary; 8-10 hours of darkness are recommended with a minimum of 4 hours of 

darkness. Intermittent lighting programs in which lights come on and off every few hours during the night are 

sometimes used in an effort to stimulate eating and increase growth.

During finishing, turkeys should be checked at least twice daily; more frequently if there is a problem. Time spent with 

the flock provides added benefits because turkeys socialized by frequent contact with people are healthier and more 

productive than turkeys that are not well socialized. Movement through the birds needs to be slow and unhurried. Fast 

movement or poor socialization causes the turkeys to become frantic, and injuries can result from their efforts to escape 

a person’s presence by attempting to fly. If the flock is close to processing, injuries result in increased downgrading of 

the turkeys because of scratches, bruises, and even possible wing fractures. Healthy, socialized turkeys are alert and 

inquisitive. They follow behind the person checking the flock and peck at their boots and clothing. Adult tom turkeys 

may not be checked as frequently prior to processing because of aggressive behavior towards people.

As turkeys drink right after they eat, feeders and drinkers should be located close to each other (8-12 ft; 2.4-3.7 m). Bell 

drinkers (“plassons”) are spaced about 30 ft (9.1 m) apart; each one is sufficient for 100 birds. Feeders and drinkers need 

to be adjusted to the average shoulder height every 2-3 days because of the turkeys’ rapid growth. In hot weather, allowing 

water lines to drip slightly at the end outside of the house will help keep cool water in the lines. Water temperatures above 

86°F (30°C) reduce consumption by the birds. Obviously dirty drinkers are cleaned, but it is not practical to attempt daily 

cleaning. Any waterers that are leaking are repaired or replaced. Similarly, grossly contaminated or caked feed is removed 

and discarded. Water levels are adjusted to 0.5-0.75 in (1.3-1.9 cm) and feed levels set at a depth of 2-3 in (5-7.6 cm).

Drinkers can be rotated to prevent heavy caking of litter by moving them in a 3- (triangle) or 4-point (square) 

pattern using extra hooks from which the drinkers can be suspended. If litter around a drinker is excessively wet, 

the height of the drinker and depth of water in the drinker lip is checked and adjusted. Soaked litter needs to be 

removed and replaced as quickly as possible. Drinkers that are leaking must be shut off and repaired as soon as 

they are found. Controlling moisture in the house with ventilation under ideal conditions is difficult enough, let 

alone when unnecessary extra water from faulty drinkers has been added to the environment.

Proper ventilation minimizes ammonia and dust, and helps control litter moisture. Ideal litter moisture is between 

25-40%, but it varies widely depending on the location in the house. Litter moisture below 25% predisposes to dusty 

conditions and aspergillosis, while ammonia and fly multiplication occur when levels are above 40%. Excessively 

moist conditions provide ideal conditions that favor the survival of enteric pathogens including bacteria, viruses, 

and coccidia. Adjustments to the ventilation can be done during daily flock checks. These should be done as early 

as possible so that the result(s) of the change(s) can be confirmed as correct. It may be necessary to return to the 

house later to check on the changes. As a general rule of thumb, if conditions in the house feel good to the grower, 

they are probably about right for the turkeys as well. Fans are adjusted to achieve recommended temperatures and 

air exchanges.Turkeys are more susceptible to high heat and humidity than 

chickens and must be kept as cool as possible during periods of excess heat. 

Keeping the galvanized roof of the finishing house in good condition by 

covering rusted areas with reflective paint will help reduce heat buildup in the 

house. Circulating or box fans, with or without supplemental misting, may be 

needed to get sufficient air movement over the turkeys. Evaporative cooling 

using misting systems, cool pads, and sprinkler systems on the roof can be 

useful during periods of extremely hot conditions, especially when relative 

humidity is low. If birds are being finished in tunnel houses, they have 

evaporative cooling, but still need to be managed to minimize heat stress. 

Automated in-line generators and alarm systems are essential for solid-wall 
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tunnel houses to provide electricity and alert the grower when there is a power failure. During a power failure, heat 

buildup reaches lethal levels in as short as 20 minutes and can lead to loss of the entire flock if power to run the fans 

is not restored quickly. Back-up generators and alarms should be tested at least once every month to make sure they 

respond when the power is turned off and fuel levels in the generators should be checked.

A thorough search for dead birds and their removal must be done every time the flock is checked, as these are potential 

sources of disease for the rest of the flock. Disposal of dead birds occurs by burning, composting, or rendering unless 

they are needed for diagnostic purposes. Burial does not work well on most farms because scavengers dig up carcasses 

and effluent from decomposing carcasses may contaminate the aquifer. Mortality is recorded on a standard form and 

reported to the company. Excess mortality events (>1/1000), without an obvious cause, should be reported. If mortality 

is extremely high (>1/100), this constitutes an emergency, and should be reported to the integrator immediately along 

with preventing traffic from coming on or off the farm until the cause is identified and possibility of a foreign animal 

disease has been ruled out. Disposal of hundreds of dead turkeys near market age can present problems as they usually 

have to be taken to a landfill that will accept them. If mass depopulation is needed, in-house composting may be an 

alternative, but heat from composting can be a fire hazard if carcasses are too large. Communal disposal or dead bird 

pickup sites are frequently responsible for spreading disease in an area and are not recommended.

In addition to dead birds, cull birds should be identified and euthanized if they are non-responsive to stimuli, do not move 

away when approached, cannot get to food or water, are a disease risk for the flock, are severely persecuted by other 

birds, are not marketable, or for humane reasons. Birds do not show pain as we do, so one’s judgment has to be used 

to determine euthanasia for humane reasons. Several methods of euthanasia are available, but no method is completely 

satisfactory. After suitable training, cervical dislocation and blunt force trauma are commonly used to euthanize smaller 

and larger turkeys respectively. Other methods of euthanasia are not readily available to producers (American Veterinary 

Medical Association, 2007). Recently the Turkey Euthanasia Device, a non-penetrating captive bolt stunning device, has 

become available to euthanize larger birds by blunt force trauma (http://www.turkeyeuthanasiadevice.com/).

Light hen, heavy hen, and tom flocks finish their production cycles at around 

14, 18, and 20 weeks of age respectively. Typical average weights are 14-15

lbs (6.4-6.8 kg) for light hens, 18-20 lbs (8.2-9.1 kg) for heavy hens, and 40-45 

lbs (20.4 kg) for toms, but vary widely based on company and region. These 

weights and ages match those when the turkeys are most efficient with respect 

to rate of growth and feed utilization. Transferring turkeys from finishing houses 

to coops on live-haul trucks so they can be taken to a processing plant is termed 

“load-out”. Load-out is done at night to decrease stress on the birds, to move the 

birds when temperatures are cooler, and to have the turkeys at the processing 

plant the following day. Turkeys are often put on continuous light for up to 

a week to prepare them for load-out. Feed lines are turned off several hours 

before load-out so the turkeys can consume feed remaining in the pans. Approximately 12-14 hours before the turkeys 

are scheduled to be processed, feed lines are raised. This empties the digestive tract of the turkeys prior to processing to 

minimize contamination from fecal material and ruptured crops. Water is generally not restricted. A weight loss of around 

10%, termed “shrink”, occurs between load-out and processing, mostly from emptying of the digestive tract.

2.2.6 Mortality

Mortality includes birds that die and those that are culled (see above). It results from a variety of causes including 

failure to adapt after hatching, infections and infectious diseases, genetic disorders, developmental defects, accidents, 

and other non-infectious disorders. In well-managed flocks, the majority of deaths result from non-infectious causes. 

Losses are greatest during the first week of life, but should not exceed 2%, unless poults are from either young or 

very old breeders, in which case it may be as high as 4-5%. Poults from young breeders are smaller, not as developed, 

and have greater difficulty starting. After the first week, mortality should be less than 0.5% weekly. Investigation of 

daily mortality exceeding 0.1% or weekly mortality exceeding 1% should be done. In tom flocks, mortality gradually 

increases after 16 weeks and may reach 1% per week by the time they are processed because of increased aggression 

as they approach sexual maturity and musculoskeletal disorders. Total mortality depends on the type of turkey and 

duration of the production cycle. Hens usually finish with total mortality of 5-6% while total tom mortality is 10-12%.

Losses from mortality accrue from the value of the turkey when it dies, which includes the feed it has consumed, and 

potential product market value. The most expensive mortality occurs when birds die en route to the processing plant; 
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least expensive mortality results from losses just after placement. When evaluating mortality, value of the turkey at 

the time it dies needs to be considered rather than just total mortality.

2.2.7 Flock Records 

Several records are kept on each flock including poult placement ticket, feed delivery tickets, service technician’s flock 

evaluations, mortality chart, processing results, and flock close-out record. Some companies also use a biosecurity log 

to record who goes onto a farm, where they came from, when they arrive and leave, and purpose of their visit. Poult 

placement tickets provide information on the number delivered, conditions, breed, and breeder flock source, permitting 

traceback to specific breeder flocks. Feed delivery tickets document the time, amount, and type of feed delivered to the 

flock. Flocks are periodically visited and evaluated by service technicians, employed by the company, to provide 

growers with advice and technical information. They also handle routine management and health issues. An evaluation 

form is completed and provided to the grower at each visit. Mortality is recorded daily by the grower on a standard form 

and periodically reported to the company. A final summation of the flock’s overall performance that incorporates the 

various records that have been kept on the flock is generated via a computer to provide all of the relevant production 

and economic information. This often is used to compare flock performance among similar flocks marketed during the 

same time period.

2.3 FEEDING AND NUTRITION

With average growth rates of toms over 2 lbs (1 kg) and hens around 1.25 lbs (0.6 kg) per week, several different 

rations are required during the production cycle to provide for the needs of the turkeys and to minimize costs. 

Programs with 5-7 or more different feeds are fed for 2-4 weeks each. The duration that each feed is given depends 

on the type of turkey (hen or tom) and growth and development of the turkeys. If their weights are less than the 

goal, they can be kept on an earlier feed longer to encourage possible compensatory growth. 

Feeds must be readily available, palatable, and of good quality. Adequate feeder space for the age of the turkey and a 

constant supply of feed are essential. Turkeys that do not have feed develop loose, watery, discolored droppings that 

can rapidly cause litter to deteriorate and "slick over". Feed lines may be broken down by the turkeys and, when feed 

does arrive, turkeys become frantic trying to get to the feed and often become injured in the resulting mêlée. Also, feed 

restriction can predispose to feather picking and persecution (“cannibalism”). Height and depth of feed in the feeders 

need to be constantly adjusted to prevent feed wastage. Eating spilled feed from the litter predisposes to crop mycosis 

(candidiasis). It is important to examine new feed on arrival to see if it looks the way it should with respect to color, 

odor, and form, e.g., crumbles for young birds and pellets for older birds. When a flock started on a new load of feed 

relative to when an excess mortality event occurs, is important to know during a disease investigation. 

Although taste is not considered well developed in turkeys, they still respond to feeds and sometimes may 

refuse to eat them. Smell and texture are likely involved in feed acceptance. Starter feeds composed of good 

firm crumbles of the correct size (<3mm) are important for young poults. Poults are attracted to bright light and 

have a preference for green color (Ferket and Gernat, 2006). Spraying green food coloring, putting inducements 

such as fine grit, rolled oats, or finely minced “greens”, or shining bright lights on the feed may help stimulate 

newly hatched poults to begin eating. Also, brightly colored marbles placed on feed and in water are occasionally 

used. Turkeys may appear to be eating, but are actually just picking at the feed and not eating it. A better way to 

determine if the turkeys are actually eating is to catch a number of turkeys and palpate the crop at the base of the 

neck on the bird’s right side to determine if it contains food. 

As turkeys grow, they are switched to progressively larger pellets. Excessive fine particles ("fines") in the feed 

reduce consumption and may also contribute to deficiencies, as fines contain a greater proportion of minerals 

compared to crumbles or pellets. Although it is labor intensive, periodically dumping fines out of feed lines, putting 

them back into the hopper, and refilling the feeders will stimulate eating. It is a poor practice to turn off feed lines 

and leave fines in the feeders for turkeys to clean up. Similarly, manually cycling feed lines off and on stimulates 

feeding. Lighting programs that have periods of light and dark during the night increase feed consumption, but 

require careful management.

Feeding grit is not as common as it used to be because commercial pelleted rations are easily broken down. However, 

the practice still remains useful, especially if birds engage in litter or feather eating. Grit enhances growth and 

development of the ventriculus (“gizzard”). Crushed granite works well, but limestone or crushed seashells also 

may be used, although the mineral in them is not required if the birds are being fed a commercial ration. Size of 
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grit needs to be appropriate for the size of the bird. Grit is first given at 1-2 weeks of age (2-5 lbs; 1-2 kg per 1000 

turkeys) and every 4-6 weeks thereafter at double the initial rate. 

2.3.1 Feed Cost and Consumption

Feed accounts for approximately two-thirds of the total cost of production. Small differences in utilization (feed 

conversion ratio) result in significant economic differences because of the volume of feed required for millions of 

turkeys in an integrated company. Cost of turkey feed depends on the cost of the main ingredients - corn, soybean 

meal, and fat. Corn makes up 47-69%; soybean meal 35-18%, and fat 3-6% of starter and finisher diets respectively. 

Collectively, corn and soybean meal account for 82-87% of ingredients in feeds fed to commercial turkeys. Soybeans 

contain a trypsin inhibitor that is detrimental to the growth of young turkeys, but is destroyed by heating. The amount 

of urease, which also is destroyed by heating, is used to determine how well soybeans have been processed. High 

potassium levels in soybeans can cause diarrhea when used in all-vegetable diets.

Feed conversion ratio varies with the density of the diet. Turkeys eat to fulfill their energy requirements. Balancing 

protein, especially essential amino acids, with energy is necessary to have a diet that meets the needs of turkeys. Feed 

conversion ratios for light hens and toms fed typical commercial diets range from 2.0-2.2 and 2.6-2.8 respectively. 

Approximate feed consumption for light hens, heavy hens, and toms to 14, 18, and 20 weeks respectively is 42 lbs 

(19.1 kg) , 63 lbs (28.4 kg), and 111 lbs (50.2 kg). Measures of productivity include average daily gain, cost per unit of 

production, and breast meat yield. Target weights, feed consumption, and conversion ratios are summarized in Table 6.

Week Weight 

(lb)

Weight 

(kg)

Feed 

(lb)

Feed 

(kg)

Conv. 

Ratio

Table 6. Weekly Target Weights, Feed Consumption, Feed Conversion Ratios, 

and Average Daily Gain for Commercial Hen and Tom Turkeys.

Hens Toms

Weight 

(lb)

Weight 

(kg)

Feed 

(lb)

Feed 

(kg)

Conv. 

Ratio

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

0.35 0.16 0.41 0.19 1.17

0.76

1.49

2.41

3.56

4.96

6.60

8.38

10.32

12.23

14.23

16.20

18.07

19.82

21.39

22.88

24.15

25.28

26.31

27.29

-

-

0.34

0.68

1.09

1.61

2.25

2.99

3.80

4.68

5.55

6.45

7.35

8.20

8.99

9.70

10.38

10.95

11.46

11.93

12.38

0.93

1.93

3.22

5.05

7.40

10.34

13.64

17.51

21.85

26.80

31.80

36.94

42.04

47.13

52.35

57.35

62.66

67.86

73.29

-

-

0.42

0.88

1.46

2.29

3.36

4.69

6.19

7.94

9.91

12.16

14.42

16.76

19.07

21.38

23.75

26.01

28.42

30.78

33.24

-

-

1.22

1.30

1.34

1.42

1.49

1.57

1.63

1.70

1.79

1.88

1.96

2.04

2.12

2.20

2.29

2.37

2.48

2.58

2.69

-

-

0.36 0.16 0.38 0.17 1.06

0.76

1.57

2.80

4.42

6.35

8.52

10.93

13.52

16.32

19.19

22.12

25.09

28.07

31.04

33.92

36.74

39.46

42.11

44.66

47.07

49.35

0.34

0.71

1.27

2.00

2.88

3.86

4.96

6.13

7.40

8.70

10.03

11.38

12.73

21.35

22.38

14.08

15.39

16.66

17.90

19.10

20.26

0.86

1.89

3.54

5.83

8.67

12.25

16.42

21.29

26.83

32.88

39.63

47.03

54.81

63.00

71.82

81.04

90.66

100.63

110.63

121.18

132.07

0.39

0.86

1.61

2.64

3.93

5.56

7.45

9.66

12.17

14.91

17.98

21.33

24.86

28.58

32.58

36.76

41.12

45.65

50.18

54.97

59.91

1.13

1.20

1.26

1.32

1.37

1.44

1.50

1.57

1.64

1.71

1.79

1.87

1.95

2.03

2.12

2.21

2.30

2.39

2.48

2.57

2.68

Source: Aviagen Turkeys and Hybrid Turkeys performance goals

Average daily gains: light hens (14 weeks) - 0.2 lb, 92 g/day; heavy hens (18 weeks) - 0.2 lb, 92 g/day, toms (20 weeks) 

- 0.32 lb, 145 g/day 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 70 of 174

2.3.2 Age and Sex Nutritional Requirements

Young turkeys respond to protein, especially levels of the 

essential amino acids methionine and lysine. Ten amino 

acids are essential and must be provided in the diet to avoid 

restricting growth (Table 7). Limiting amino acids in diets 

include lysine, methionine, and threonine. Synthetic methionine 

and lysine are added to diets to supplement what is in feed 

ingredients. Other essential nutrients include linoleic acid, 

water- and fat-soluble vitamins, and minerals. Nutritionassociated problems in turkeys include foot deformities, 

footpad (plantar) dermatitis, and poor feathering associated 

with lack of B-vitamins that can be destroyed by high heat 

during pelleting. Spontaneous fractures of leg bones are 

associated with early diets where the specific nutrient(s) 

involved have yet to be identified. 

In contrast to young turkeys, older turkeys respond more to higher energy levels, which are often provided by 

adding higher levels of fat to finishing diets. Antioxidants are added to fat to minimize rancidity. The level of 

rancidity can be determined by a peroxide test. Protein levels decline and energy levels increase in different feeds 

during the production cycle. Hens and toms receive the same feeds, but the duration each one is fed to each sex is 

different. A typical feeding program for commercial turkeys using an 8-diet program is presented in Table 8. 

Diet

Table 8. An 8-Diet Program for Feeding Commercial Turkeys. 

Protein* %

ME; kcal/lb

ME; kcal/kg

Lysine %

Methionine

Methionine & cysteine %

Calcium %

Phosphorus %

* Protein and energy levels are balanced. As energy increases, protein is also increased to provide sucient essential 

 amino acids because feed consumption will go down.

Hens, weeks fed

Toms, weeks fed

Source: Hybrid Nutrient Guidelines, 2011 Commercial Program [8 phases].

27.5

1293

2850

1.62

0.65

1.05

1.40

0.75

0-4

0-4

26.0

1338

2950

1.49

0.59

0.96

1.40

0.75

4-6

4-6

23.5

1383

3050

1.39

0.53

0.90

1.30

0.65

6-9

6-8

21.5

1452

3200

1.25

0.47

0.81

1.20

0.60

9-12

8-10

19.5

1580

3325

1.07

0.41

0.71

1.10

0.55

12-14

10-12

18.0

1576

3475

0.98

0.41

0.68

1.00

0.50

14-16

12-14

17.0

1597

3520

0.89

0.38

0.66

1.00

0.50

16-19

14-16

16.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1610

3550

0.80

0.38

0.63

0.90

0.45

19-22

16-14

After selection at around 16 weeks of age, feeds for breeder turkeys are lower in protein and energy than commercial 

turkey feeds to help control growth. It is important that feeds contain all essential nutrients to support development. 

To prevent over-conditioning, hens are put on low density conditioning (holding) rations and their weights are 

closely monitored. Feeding is adjusted to average flocks weights. A few weeks prior to moving to the laying house, 

breeder replacement hens may be given a pre-lay ration, but, the value of this practice is controversial. The laying 

ration, containing 2.6-2.8% calcium and 0.35-0.40% available phosphorus, is provided when hens are moved to the 

laying house and light stimulated. With onset of egg production, feed intake decreases as egg production increases, 

which results in hens losing up to 2 pounds (1 kg) body weight. Weight loss is apparently essential for optimal egg 

production. Later, as feed consumption increases, hens gain weight and may be as much as 2 pounds (1 kg) heavier at 

the end of lay than they were at the beginning of lay. If hens are to be molted and kept for a second egg-laying cycle 

(“recycled”), this additional weight needs to be lost before they are brought back into egg production.

2.3.3. Feed and Water Intake 

Feed consumption varies with temperature. It increases when temperatures are below the turkey’s comfort zone 50-

60°F (10-16°C) and decreases when temperatures are higher. Summer and winter rations often differ from each other 

Table 7. Essential Amino Acids

Methionine*

Phenylalanine

Threonine*

Tryptophan

Valine

Arginine

Histidine

Isoleucine

Leucine

Lysine*

*Most likely to be limiting amino acids
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 71 of 174

to account for these differences in consumption. Composition of rations is adjusted to ensure that levels of essential 

amino acids are adequate. Best feed conversion occurs at higher temperatures around 75-80°F (24-27°C). 

Water is essential for feed consumption and growth. As with feeders, adequate water for the age of the turkeys 

needs to be available. Turkeys do not eat if they do not have water. The rule of thumb is that turkeys consume 

approximately twice as much water as they do feed, e.g. one quart (0.95 l) of water per pound (0.45 kg) of feed, 

but in reality this relationship is highly variable. Toms consume more water than hens. Water must be cool 

and potable. Water consumption increases considerably with increased ambient temperature, feed ingredients, 

especially sodium and crude protein, and in the early stages of disease. Measuring water consumption daily using 

a water meter can be useful in identifying early stages of a problem. Approximate water consumption by age and 

sex is presented in Table 9. 

Weekly Water Consumption

Table 9. Estimated Daily and Weekly Water Consumption per 1000 

Commercial Hen and Tom Turkeys at 68-77°F (20-25°C).

Increase the above values by 20% for every 5°F (2.8°C) increase in ambient temperature between 75-90°F (24-32°C). 

Water consumption decreases over 90°F (32°C) because activity of the turkeys decreases.

Source: NRC Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th ed.

Daily Water Consumption

Age

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

15/15

26/28

35/43

48/62

66/85

81/108

100/131

120/152

Gallons

55/55

99/107

132/162

182/236

250/320

307/410

377/494

454/574

Liters Age

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

147/176

166/202

174/221

176/235

177/245

177/252

178/257

179/261

Gallons

557/667

629/764

660/836

666/889

669/926

671/954

674/971

677/989

Liters Age

17

18

19

20

179/263

- /264

- /265

- /266

Gallons

680/994

- /1000

- /1003

- /1006

Liters

Age

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

102/102

182/198

246/300

337/436

462/592

568/758

697/914

840/1062

Gallons

385/385

690/750

930/1135

1274/1650

1750/2240

2150/2870

2640/3460

3180/4020

Liters

3900/4670

4400/5345

4620/5850

4660/6220

4680/6480

4700/6680

4720/6800

4740/6920

Liters

1030/1234

1162/1412

1220/1545

1231/1643

1236/1712

1242/1765

1247/1796

1252/1828

Age Liters

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Age

17

18

19

20

1257/1839

- /1849

- /1854

- /1860

Gallons

680/994

- / 7000

- /7020

- /7040

Liters

2.3.4 Least Cost Feed Formulation

Numerous alternate energy and protein sources from grains other than corn, or manufacturing by-products are available

to use (NRC Nutrient Requirements for Poultry, 9th edition) depending largely on cost and availability. Computer 

programs calculate replacement value of non-traditional feed ingredients to arrive at a feed that contains everything 

required for growth and development, but also is least expensive to manufacture and use. Alternate grain sources, 

especially wheat, barley, and rye, and soybean meal, contain anti-nutrients (non-starch polysaccharides) which reduce 

their usefulness for feeding, increase ingesta viscosity that slows digestion and absorption, and cause wet, sticky 

droppings which can lead to foot pad lesions. Addition of enzymes (β-glucanase, arabinoxylanase, cellulase, and 

xylanase) to the feed is often used to overcome these problems. Wheat contains very little biotin, which should be 

increased when wheat replaces part of the corn in a ration. Older varieties of milo (sorghum) contained high levels of 

tannins that bound proteins and could not be used for feeding young birds, but newer varieties with low tannin levels 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 72 of 174

have been developed and are grown today. Milo also is low in xanthophylls, which results in pale, white carcasses. 

When using milo, it may be necessary to add pigments to the diet if a more yellow carcass is desired. 

Phosphorus is expensive. As much as 60-70% of the phosphorus in plants is bound by phytic acid and unavailable 

to turkeys as they lack the necessary enzymes. Phytases are used to release the bound phosphorus. In addition, 

trace minerals bound by phytic acid also are released and made available. Phytase is measured in units; 500 units 

of phytase will free one gram of phosphorus.

2.3.5 Feed Mixing and Delivery

Usually a complex has one large feed mill that is responsible for manufacturing 

all feeds. Sometimes, the mill also makes feeds for other domestic animals, 

e.g. pigs or chickens. It is useful to know what feed ingredients, especially 

ones that may cause a deficiency or toxicity, are in the mill, including ones that 

may be used for other animals. Feed mills are typically located centrally and 

adjacent to a railroad. They have their own rail siding to permit buying grain 

by the train load (80 or more cars is common). Mills have storage capacity for 

main ingredients, but rarely is the reserve more than enough for a few days' 

feed production. All steps in the manufacture of feeds are controlled using 

specialized computer programs. Feeds are accurately produced, unless there is 

an unrecognized mechanical failure in a bin.

Most commercial feeds are pelleted at high temperatures, 70-90°C (158-194°F), using steam. Advantages include 

improved growth and feed utilization, increased nutrient availability, decreased waste, improved palatability, decreased 

selective eating, ease of handling, and killing of vegetative organisms (including Salmonella). However, it is possible 

for feed to be pelleted at a lower temperature, which needs to be verified if pelleted feed is suspected to be the source of 

a microorganism. Pellets are formed using a pellet mill. Feed is heated, compressed, and forced under pressure through 

a die that determines the diameter of the pellet. A roller around the die “nips” off the feed extruded through the die. 

After pelleting, up to 10% fat can be sprayed onto pellets. When pellets have cooled, thermolabile products such as 

enzymes or probiotics are applied. Pellet quality depends mainly on the composition of the feed. Some ingredients bind 

together well to form good quality pellets, whereas others do not. Fines are sifted out and reprocessed. 

2.3.5.1 Feed Delivery to Farm

After feed is made, it is loaded by weight into feed delivery trucks. These 

trucks have a trailer divided into compartments. Each compartment can be 

loaded with a different feed or different amount of feed. At the farm, an auger 

on the truck delivers the feed through the top of a feed bin. Feed deliveries 

are a biosecurity concern. Trucks are usually decontaminated when entering 

and leaving the farm. Decontamination on the farm is generally done by the 

driver using a sprayer provided at the entrance to the farm. More elaborate 

facilities that provide cleaning and disinfection for all feed trucks are often at 

or near the feed mill. These facilities have automatic, drive-through spraying 

with either a drive-through bath or undercarriage sprayers. Drivers should 

not go into the flocks or, in most instances, get out of the truck. If they do 

need to leave the truck, they should put on disposable personal protective 

gear and leave it on the farm when they have finished off-loading the feed. A service technician monitors the amount 

of feed remaining and orders feed, although in some situations, this may be the responsibility of the grower. Feed 

remaining after birds have left either a brooding facility or finishing house is picked up and either reprocessed or 

delivered to another farm. Feed associated with a toxicity problem needs to be destroyed. Usually, this feed is placed 

into a municipal land-fill. 

2.3.5.2 Feed Storage and Delivery to Turkeys

Each house usually has two feed bins located outside on a concrete pad, next to a drive for the feed delivery truck. Two feed 

bins per house make it possible to put fresh feed in one bin while older feed is being finished from the other bin. Two bins 

prevent mixing of fresh and old feed, and allow deliver of a full load of feed. If feed is being weighed, a smaller bin with a 

scale is used to measure the amount of feed before it is given to the birds. Feed bins on breeder farms may be located just inside 

the perimeter of the farm boundary line so feed bins can be filled over the fence without the truck having to enter the farm.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 73 of 174

Bins are made of corrugated galvanized metal rings that are joined together. Each ring holds a certain amount of 

feed. Capacity of the bin can be increased or decreased by changing the number of rings. How much feed remains 

can be estimated by tapping on the bin and listening for the hollow sound of the empty part of the bin. The roof is 

slanted to permit visualization of the fill hole in the top used to put feed into the bin. A hinged lid covers the fill hole 

and a chain extends from the lid to permit it to be raised and lowered without having to climb to the top of the bin. 

The lid must fit properly, be undamaged, and be closed each time after feed is delivered. The lid should be designed 

so that it is not blown open by the wind. A ladder extends along the side of the bin to permit access to the lid in case 

it is necessary to see inside or to clean out the bin. On the bottom of the bin is a cone (center draw hopper) that also 

contains a known amount of feed. An auger at the bottom of the cone carries feed through a tube into the house. 

Between the cone and auger is a sliding plate that can be opened or closed to direct feed from one bin or the other. 

An access port on the auger housing permits examination of feed, feed sampling, removal of foreign material that 

may jam the auger, and pick up of left over feed. Potential problems with feed storage are overheating during the 

summer with loss of nutrients, moisture accumulating in the feed and causing bridging so that the feed does not 

flow easily down the cone to the auger, and foreign material in the feed that gets into the auger and stops it from 

operating. A steel ball is often put into the cone to help prevent feed from bridging.

Feed flows by gravity from the bin to the auger and is moved into the house where it goes through a drop tube 

into a hopper on the end of the feed line. A switch that responds to the weight or volume of feed in the hopper 

automatically turns the auger on and off to keep feed in the hopper at all times. If the switch fails, either the 

hopper becomes empty causing the feed line to run continuously, or feed will flood the hopper and empty onto 

the floor. Making sure hoppers are working properly is an important part of daily maintenance. Like the feeder 

bin cone, a metal ball is often placed into the hopper to prevent bridging and help feed flow freely. At the bottom 

of the hopper is a boot that connects with the feed line. The feed line consists of a spiral rotating “chain” within a 

tube. Feed is moved through the tube by the rotating chain. Spaced along the feed line are feeders that are 

attached to openings on the bottom of the tube. They contain cones that can be raised or lowered to control the 

level of feed in the pans. After feed floods the pan, it backs up into the cone and feed line to stop the flow of feed 

to the pan and direct it to other feed pans further along the line. Feeders progressively fill until the end of the feed 

line is reached where the control feeder is located. It automatically switches the hopper on and off depending on 

the amount of feed it contains. It is important for turkeys to eat feed from the control pan similarly to the other 

feed pans in order to keep feeders filled.

2.3.5.3 Feed Records 

A feed ticket accompanies each batch of feed delivered to the house. A copy of the feed ticket is left on the farm. On 

the ticket is the date and time, information about type of feed, amount of feed delivered, medication(s) added to the 

feed, concentration of medication(s), and purpose(s) of medication(s). 

2.4 TURKEY MOVEMENT

Various segments of the turkey industry are constantly on the move. While this is necessary for producing the 

turkeys, it also increases the risk of spreading infectious agents. For breeding, semen is collected and taken from the 

stud farm to the hen breeder farms for insemination. Crews responsible for cleaning and disinfection, vaccination, 

load-out, transfer of turkeys from brooding to finishing, and insemination move among farms to do their work. 

Service technicians travel to farms to oversee production, advise on management and health, conduct pre-placement 

audits to make sure brooder houses are properly prepared, and assist with placement of poults. Ideally, farm visits by 

service technicians are limited to two a day, but often it is necessary for them to check more flocks. Any farms with 

disease problems are done last, unless it is an emergency. 

2.4.1 Day-old Poult Delivery

Flocks are assembled in the hatchery as poults complete servicing. After resting overnight in the holding room, 

poults are loaded into a special poult transport vehicle (sometimes called a “poult bus”) that provides ventilation and 

a temperature controlled environment for the poults during the move. Proper ventilation is critical to the health of 

the poults. Loading of poults is done early in the morning and they are taken to the farm where they will be placed. 

Poults can tolerate long shipping distances that last a day or more, but for most companies, farms are usually located 

within 2 hours of the hatchery. After poults have been delivered, the poult delivery vehicle is cleaned, disinfected, 

and prepared for the next delivery. Poult delivery depends on the hatching schedule, but typically they are delivered 

to farms on Tuesday, Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 74 of 174

2.4.2 Transfer to Finishing

In staged production, turkeys are simply walked from the brooding house to the finishing house as described 

previously. However, now that most brooding is done off-site, the birds must be loaded into coops at the brooder 

hub and taken to the finishing farm. Placing turkeys into coops at 

the brooder hub is similar to the way turkeys are loaded out for 

processing (see 4.3) except the trailers on which the coops are 

mounted are lower to the ground, coops have less headroom, and 

coops can be tilted hydraulically. At the finishing farm, turkeys 

are off-loaded by backing the trailer into the house, opening the 

coop doors, raising the back of the coop so that it tilts outwardly, 

and allowing the turkeys to slide out of the coops onto the litter. 

2.4.3 Load-out and Transfer to Processing

Load-out is done using a special machine called a “turkey loader” 

that has a conveyor belt for transferring turkeys from the house to 

coops mounted on a live-haul truck trailer. The turkey loader can 

be raised and lowered to adjust to the different levels of coops. 

On the day the flock is to be removed from the farm, the loader 

is hauled to the farm where it is placed just inside an end door of 

the finishing house where transfer of the turkeys will take place. 

The other end is placed alongside the coops on the live-haul truck 

when it arrives. A catch pen, constructed with movable panels and 

stakes, funnels the turkeys into the loader in the house. Turkeys 

are gently driven into the catch pen where they move onto the 

conveyer belt, which takes them to the coop. Individuals referred 

to as “coopers” stand on either side of the loader and move the 

turkeys into the coops. Coordinating movement of the truck and 

loader makes it possible to move the turkeys into coops with 

minimum handling. The number of turkeys per coop depends on 

their type and size, size of the coop, environmental conditions, and 

distance to the processing plant. Typically, coops are in 5-7 levels 

and range in height from 14-19 in (36-48 cm).

2.4.4. Steps in Processing

At the processing plant, trailers with coops loaded with turkeys are placed into a holding shed where air is circulated 

by large fans and misting may be used if temperatures are high. Trailers are pulled into the plant when it is time 

for the birds to be processed. The location and height of the trailer is periodically adjusted to permit turkeys to be 

manually removed from the coops and hung by their feet and legs in shackles that are attached to a moving chain. 

The area is kept darkened and a bar contacts the breast of the birds to help keep them quiet, reduce wing flapping, 

minimize distress, and reduce parts condemnations due to hemorrhages, bruising, or broken wings. The chain moves 

the birds into the stunning area and bleed-out tunnel where they receive an electrical shock with alternating current 

(150-200 m/amps, 90 volts, 10-15 seconds) to induce unconsciousness followed by severing at least three of the four 

major vessels in the neck. Birds die of cerebral anoxia before they regain consciousness. Blood drains from carcasses 

as they move through the tunnel to the scald tank, where they are immersed in hot water (~140°F, 60°C) for 2-2.5 

minutes, after which they go to pickers that remove feathers with a set of whirling rubber fingers. When defeathering 

has been completed, shanks are removed by cutting the legs through the hock joints and carcasses are rehung by the 

head and legs on a separate chain referred to as the evisceration line. Having two separate chains to interrupt the flow 

of carcasses through the plant between defeathering and evisceration is necessary to prevent carcasses from being 

held in the scald tank if the evisceration line has to be stopped. 

Evisceration begins with a circular cut around the vent and vacuuming of the terminal gut contents, followed by 

a J-cut in the body wall and drawing of visceral organs out of the carcass. Automation is becoming more frequent 

in turkey processing plants, but it is still less common than in broiler processing plants. Carcasses and viscera are 

inspected by a USDA inspector, and parts judged to be adulterated are removed and condemned. Carcasses are either 

passed, passed with trimming done by plant personnel, removed from the line for reprocessing, or condemned. 

Reprocessing to clean up a carcass or remove parts to be condemned is done either on the reprocessing line or at 

Load Out Cooping

Load Out
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 75 of 174

special stations, depending on the reason the carcass was removed from the processing line. Reprocessing may 

occur for fecal or crop content contamination, bile staining, bruises, fractures, airsacculitis, or osteomyelitis. Green 

discolored livers are used at processing as an indicator of osteomyelitis.

Plant personnel remove the giblets and do any final trimming before the carcass enters the chiller where the internal 

temperature will be lowered to ≤40°F (4.4°C). After chilling, the carcass is either bagged, along with a giblet pack 

for sale as a whole bird, or cut up for further processed products. Generally, hens are sold as whole birds and toms 

provide cut up products and other manufactured foods. Processing yields for turkeys range from 81 to 83% for light 

hens and toms respectively. Value-added turkey products are increasing, but are not as common as chicken products,

largely because turkey has yet to become a staple for fast-food markets. Once processing has been completed, 

product is stored frozen at a maximum temperature of 0°F (-17.7°C) until it is shipped. Minimum temperature for 

product to be sold as fresh (never frozen) turkey is 26°F (-3.3°C). 

An alternative to electrical stunning is use of controlled-atmosphere stunning. In this procedure, coops of birds travel 

through chambers containing mixtures of gas comprised of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and argon. Anoxia results in either 

unconsciousness or death. This method is considered to provide welfare benefits and is being used more frequently in 

Europe, but there are technical issues associated with it and it has not been widely adopted in the U.S.. 

2.5 MOVEMENT OF OTHER PRODUCTS

2.5.1 Mortality

It is preferable to keep mortality on the farm. Dead bird disposal is regulated 

and in most poultry producing areas must be done within 24-48 hours. 

Options for on-farm disposal of dead birds include incineration, composting,

or burial. Procedures must conform to air and water quality standards to 

prevent pollution, and dead birds need to be kept away from scavengers, 

pets, and other livestock (e.g. not feeding dead birds to pigs). Incineration is 

the most costly disposal method, but it is also provides the highest level of 

biosecurity because all mortality is handled on site. Incinerators meeting air 

emission requirements are expensive, and fuel costs continue to rise making 

incineration costly, especially when large birds are involved. Different states 

may have different regulations regarding air quality emissions that can 

affect use of certain incineration techniques. Burn rates for typical incinerators are 100-200 lbs per hour. 

Composting can be highly effective, but requires careful management. If done properly, the resulting compost makes 

a good soil amendment for crops and pasture. In some States, composted carcasses cannot be spread on pastures 

where cattle will graze because of the possibility of botulism. Two cubic feet (56.5 cm3) of primary and secondary 

composting space is needed for each pound (0.45 kg) of carcass. Temperatures need to be monitored to ensure that 

composting is occurring. They should reach 130-150°F (54-66°C) within 24-48 hours of loading the composter. 

Composting temperatures established by the Environmental Protection Agency for pathogen reduction are 128°F 

(53.3°C) for 5 days, 131°F (55°C) for 2.6 days, or 158°F (70°C) for 30 minutes. Although high temperatures, 

above 150°F (65.5°C) only require a short time and are highly effective in controlling pathogens, they are not 

recommended, as aerobic organisms necessary for composting are also killed. On-site composting provides the best 

biosecurity, but some companies provide central composting facilities.

Burial, or use of disposal pits, tends to be least costly, but cannot be used in many areas because of potential 

contamination of ground water and regulations. Ground water contamination can be a source of disease for poultry and 

other animals. It also is common for scavengers to dig up buried carcasses and spread infectious agents around the farm or 

to adjacent farms. Other methods of on-farm dead bird disposal, including refrigeration/freezing of mortality for disposal 

after the flock is processed, extrusion, and lactic acid fermentation, are being explored but have not been widely adopted.

Rendering is a method of dead bird disposal in which mortality is picked up on a scheduled basis, delivered to a 

common pick-up site, or delivered directly to the rendering plant where carcasses are processed. It is only available 

in limited areas. Traveling among farms to a communal dead bird drop off-site or to the rendering plant increases 

the risk of disease spread. In addition, there are concerns about feeding animal protein back to animals. For these 

reasons, rendering is currently used less frequently as a method of dead bird disposal than it was previously. 
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2.5.2 Litter and Manure

Turkeys produce slightly over a pound of manure per pound of feed, which is approximately 75% moisture. Manure 

mixes with litter through activity of the birds, but tends to be concentrated along feed lines and around drinkers. As 

it dries, it forms a hard layer on the surface referred to as “cake”. In addition to manure, litter contains shavings or 

other organic material on which the birds were started, feathers, and spilled feed. Litter in finishing houses contains 

manure from several flocks and is rich in nutrients, especially nitrogen that has value as fertilizer. However, nitrogen 

is depleted from litter as it is stored and composted, reducing its value as fertilizer. 

Finishing houses are usually cleaned out annually and the litter spread onto fields. Contract arrangements are 

necessary if the litter is to be put onto land that is not owned by the grower and applications are strictly regulated. 

Land application requires knowing the volume of litter, level of nutrients in the litter, nutrient requirements of the 

crop(s) to be fertilized, and existing nutrients in the soil. Litter must be applied in a manner that will not result in 

contamination of waterways from runoff and the crop(s) will need supplemental fertilizer not provided from the 

litter. Excess phosphorus and buildup of heavy metals (zinc, copper, arsenic) used in production of turkeys and 

concentrated from multiple flocks are concerns for land application of litter. Most litter is applied to crop land, but 

there are efforts to convert litter into energy either on-farm or communally. It is a poor practice to apply litter on 

fields immediately adjacent to other poultry operations, as beetles in the litter migrate to nearby houses and some 

infectious agents can be spread in the dust generated when the litter is applied.

Litter from brooder houses has less nitrogen since it contains manure from only a single flock. It has limited value 

as a fertilizer and is more expensive to apply to land compared to finishing litter. It can be transferred to finishing 

houses to replace litter that was removed or supplement existing litter, or it can be used for composting mortality as 

it has a high carbon:nitrogen ratio. 

PART II: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE

Both Newcastle disease (END) and high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) are nationally and internationally 

reportable diseases that affect turkeys. In the U.S., infections with low pathogenicity (lentogenic) avian 

paramyxovirus 1 viruses are still commonly referred to as Newcastle disease, whereas, internationally, infections 

with these strains are called avian paramyxovirus 1 infections. Infections of birds with high pathogenicity 

(mesogenic, velogenic) avian paramyxovirus 1 viruses are termed Exotic Newcastle Disease (END) in the U.S., 

while internationally these are called just ‘Newcastle Disease’. Strains of low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) 

viruses that have either H5 or H7 surface hemagglutinins are reportable because they can suddenly mutate from a 

low to a high pathogenicity virus. Compared to chickens, turkeys are more resistant to ND virus infection but more 

susceptible to infection with AI viruses. Neither END nor HPAI is endemic in the U.S. so they are referred to as 

“foreign” or “exotic”. LPAI occurs with some regularity in U.S. commercial and breeder turkey flocks in areas of 

intense swine production or where there are large numbers of migratory waterfowl. Waterfowl and pigs are frequent 

sources of AI viruses for turkeys (Capua and Alexander, 2009).

Clinical signs of mild ND or LPAI virus infections are similar and may range from inapparent to a mild respiratory 

disease characterized by nasal discharge, snicking, rales, dyspnea, conjunctivitis, and sinusitis. Mortality is usually 

low, but concurrent factors such as age, poor air quality, impaired immunity, and co-infections with bacteria, 

mycoplasmas, or other viruses can markedly increase mortality. Turkeys typically exhibit decreased activity, 

huddling, anorexia, and diarrhea. Egg production drops, production of abnormal eggs, and nil to low mortality are 

seen in affected breeders. Lesions include swollen sinuses, often containing caseous exudate, rhinitis, conjunctivitis, 

tracheitis, and pulmonary congestion and edema. Swollen kidneys, visceral gout, and multifocal necrosis and 

hemorrhage in the pancreas also are occasionally seen. Pneumonia, pericarditis, airsacculitis, and splenomegaly 

are seen when these diseases are complicated by other factors. Yolk peritonitis is commonly seen in breeders, often 

accompanied by acute oophoritis and salpingitis (Pantin-Jackwood and Swayne, 2009).

Exotic ND in commercial U.S. turkey flocks is extremely rare. However, turkeys are susceptible to experimental 

infection and become infected when they are commingled with other birds that have the disease (Piacenti, et al. 

2006). Clinical signs and gross lesions are similar for END and HPAI.

HPAI is a multi-systemic disease that affects most organs in the body. Early indications of HPAI in both commercial 

and breeder turkeys are a sudden drop in feed consumption and excessively high, unexplained mortality that may 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 77 of 174

approach 100%. Premonitory clinical signs are usually not observed, but as the disease progresses, turkeys become 

anorexic, inactive, and non-responsive to stimuli or their environment. Nervous signs characterized by dropped 

wings, incoordination, tremors, opisthotonos, recumbency, and paddling often occur prior to death. Terminally the 

birds may flip over and die on their backs. Gross lesions result from necrosis of vascular and lymphoid tissues. 

Edema, hyperemia, and hemorrhage occur in many organs, but tend to be most obvious in the lungs, proventriculus, 

ventriculus, pancreas, gut-associated lymphoid tissue, subcutaneous tissues, and fat deposits. Spleens are often 

enlarged with multifocal necrosis. Similar lesions are seen in breeders along with acute ovarian regression, 

oophoritis, salpingitis, and yolk peritonitis. There may be no gross lesions in turkeys that die peracutely. Images of 

poultry affected with HPAI, END, and other diseases can be viewed at http://partnersah.vet.cornell.edu/avian-atlas/.

Early diagnosis and containment are critical for minimizing the impact of an END or HPAI outbreak. All individuals 

from farm workers to management need to be familiar with the clinical signs and know how to respond if either 

of these diseases is suspected. Abrupt onset of high mortality with near 100% morbidity is likely to be the earliest 

indication, especially for HPAI because of the susceptibility of turkeys to avian influenza viruses. A history of LPAI 

infections in other flocks in the area or unusual mortality among free-living birds, especially waterfowl, may precede 

an HPAI outbreak. END may not be as obvious, as turkeys are more resistant to infection and vaccination, which is 

practiced in many turkey producing areas, may modify the response to ND virus infection.

Daily mortality of 0.1% should raise the likelihood of a disease problem, but may not trigger an investigation. 

Mortality of 1% in any group of turkeys should be investigated to determine the cause. If mortality exceeds this 

and approaches 10%, an emergency should be declared and the problem investigated immediately. If there is no 

obvious cause for the deaths (e.g., heat, accident, adverse weather, or poisoning) and there are indications of a 

possible foreign animal disease, the farm should be shut down and no traffic allowed on or off the farm. The 

possibility of a foreign animal disease is reported to management while the person investigating the disease stays 

on the farm to be sure it is secure and waits for a Foreign Animal Disease investigator to arrive. Regulatory 

authorities, usually the State Veterinarian, are contacted by management. They will send a specialist trained in 

foreign animal diseases to investigate the problem. It is important that birds not be taken off the farm to a corporate 

or state diagnostic laboratory. If a disease emergency is declared, and a quarantine established, moving birds to a 

laboratory will only widen the quarantine zone. Appropriate samples will be collected and submitted to a facility that 

specializes in diagnosis of foreign animal diseases. Usually, preliminary results to determine if the flock has either 

END or HPAI are available within 24 hours.

Identification of flocks with LPAI is more problematic as clinical signs are variable and not specific. Often LPAI 

infection is inapparent and only detected from routine serology for AI done at processing. All flocks submitted for 

disease diagnosis should be screened for possible LPAI. 

2.6 BIOSECURITY 

Biosecurity is the preventative measures taken to reduce the risk of infectious diseases being introduced into an 

animal population. When biosecurity is not implemented, or when there is a lapse in biosecurity, a susceptible host 

or population may be exposed to infectious organisms. Some infectious diseases may be detrimental to the health 

and well-being of the animals, or present a food safety risk. Diseases that are reportable by state and/or federal 

governments can have a broader impact; possibly affecting trade, movement of birds and product, or require an 

organized response to contain the disease. Therefore, procedures are put into place in turkey flocks to either exclude 

known risk factors or minimize risk when it is unavoidable.

2.6.1 Biosecurity Plan

A biosecurity plan provides instructions on how to mitigate biosecurity risks for everyone within a company or 

site. Development of specific procedures in the plan is based on risk assessment; evaluating frequency, likelihood, 

impact, and controllability of certain biosecurity risks. Documented biosecurity procedures within the plan should 

be practical, clear, and effective. Most biosecurity procedures have an associated cost, so a cost/benefit analysis is 

usually performed before implementation. Biosecurity plans frequently change based on new information, monitoring 

of existing procedures, or changing biosecurity risk factors. Compliance, a critical aspect of a biosecurity plan, is 

improved by using checklists; sign-off sheets, incentives for good compliance, and/or disincentives for poor compliance.

Biosecurity plans are structured in many different ways. One method of developing a biosecurity plan is based 

on three steps−conceptual, structural, and operational biosecurity. Conceptual biosecurity involves evaluating the 
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potential location of new poultry operations including regional density, proximity to other poultry/animal facilities, 

flyways, prevailing winds, potential for flooding or other adverse weather events, and movement of poultry in 

the region. Structural biosecurity involves fixed cost elements of the facility including layout and design such as 

impervious surfaces, adequate drainage, perimeter fencing, changing/employee space, shower facilities, and vehicle 

wash stations. Operational biosecurity involves the routine operations and specific farm practices such as rodent, 

insect, and wild animal control, limiting access of people to the farm, requiring personal protective equipment, 

cleaning and disinfection, litter management, and disease surveillance.

2.6.2 Pests, Wild Birds, and Other Animals

Procedures need to be in place to control rodents, insects, and other animals that may transmit infectious diseases 

to a turkey flock. Bait stations are used to control rodents and insects. It is important that bait is not accessible to the 

turkeys. When used, rodent bait stations are routinely checked and rebaited when needed, and placed properly along 

the edge of a wall where rodents typically run. Bait stations are most effective in preventing disease transmission 

when used on the exterior of buildings and clearing vegetation around the house by at least 18 in (0.5 m) is useful

for preventing rodents. Housing should be checked for areas where wild birds or other animals could enter the flock 

and holes should be patched if needed. Placing feed bins on cement slabs and removing any spilled feed deters 

rodents and wild birds that may be attracted to the feed. Allowing pets on farms, even if they are used for rodent 

control, is considered a poor practice as they can become infected with diseases carried by rodents and transmit them 

to the turkeys. Similarly, permitting pets to scavenge dead birds may result in their becoming carriers and spreading 

an infectious agent to other flocks on the farm or nearby farms.

2.6.3 People

Several procedures are useful in minimizing the risk of people introducing infectious diseases into turkey flocks. 

Employees should have clean clothes. Clean cloth or disposable coveralls and hair covering is recommended. Some 

facilities may have a liquid or dry bleach footbath that should be clean and utilized if it is to be effective. A footbath 

station may include a cover, scrub brush, and/or cement slab to minimize organic contamination. Gloves and/or 

ability for employees to clean their hands (sanitizer or sink) are recommended. Especially with breeders, facilities

may include shower-in/shower-out facilities where all people are required to at least shower in and put on clean 

clothes prior to entering the farm. Employees travelling to multiple farms each day need to consider age and 

health status of the flocks when determining the order of farm visits. Employees must avoid all other avian contact, 

especially other poultry and wild waterfowl. A logbook for all people entering the farm helps to ensure that they 

meet requirements for not having been in contact with other poultry within a specified time. Accurate logbooks can 

be useful in determining what farms need to be quarantined in the event of a disease outbreak. Visitors, especially 

if they enter the flocks, should be minimized. Clearly visible signs warning away visitors need to be posted at all 

entries. Locks and fences are also useful in preventing unwanted visitors from entering the farm or houses.

Foot Bath Breeder Farm Biosecurity

2.6.4 Cleaning and Disinfection of Facilities, Equipment, and Vehicles

Equipment is cleaned and disinfected prior to being brought onto a farm or moved between flocks. Also, the house is 

cleaned or cleaned and disinfected between flocks as indicated. Vehicle access to farms may be restricted, or allowed 

with guidelines, e.g., restrictions on distance from the farm and cleaning and disinfection. When cleaning surfaces, 

vehicles, and equipment it is important to remove organic material first before disinfection, as most disinfectants do 

not work well in the presence of organic material. Important properties of the disinfectant should be known such as 

range of activity, contact time required, corrosiveness, and human health implications.
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Plans for disposing of carcasses and litter need to be in place and followed. Methods of disposal include 

spreading litter on fields, composting, incineration, burial, or rendering of carcasses (see 5.1). Not all of these 

options may be available, based on state and local regulations and proximity to ground water sources. Rendering 

and litter trucks present a significant biosecurity risk when moving among farms and appropriate precautions 

need to be taken.

2.6.5 Surveillance

Surveillance for disease is an important part of any biosecurity plan because it helps to assess the effectiveness of 

the biosecurity procedures and permits an infectious disease to be isolated to a single house or farm. Surveillance 

can include evaluating farm data records, testing birds serologically, fecal floatations, environmental sampling for 

microorganisms, and necropsy of mortality. Data records that include basic flock information (source, numbers 

placed), mortality, production parameters, feed deliveries and consumption, service technician reports, and water 

consumption need to be kept for each flock and consulted if there is a health problem. Changes in any parameter 

can indicate onset of disease. Although mortality may be necropsied periodically to evaluate the flock, a spike in 

mortality warrants a disease investigation and possible submission of birds to a diagnostic laboratory.

2.7 PROVIDING ANIMAL CARE

2.7.1 Feed

In the event of a foreign animal disease, provisions for feeding unaffected flocks in the quarantine zone need to be 

provided. How this is done will depend on whether the feed mill is located within or outside of the quarantine zone. 

If the entire farm distribution of the complex and feed mill are within the quarantine zone, then the only consideration 

is for feed delivery trucks to avoid, as much as possible, routes that take them by affected farms. Feed will not be 

delivered to flocks confirmed to have the disease as those flocks will either be depopulated or scheduled for 

depopulation. Feed being given to affected flocks is destroyed on the farm (see 8.2).

Dedication of feed delivery trucks to either deliver feed to farms within the quarantine zone or farms outside 

of the quarantine zone is possible when only part of the farms are within the quarantine zone. Within the 

Control Area, single feed deliveries are preferred over delivering feed to several farms. Routes and farm 

deliveries need to be recorded in the event that additional flocks develop the disease. As feed delivery trucks 

leave a farm, they must be carefully cleaned and disinfected, especially if they are leaving the quarantine zone 

and returning to the feed mill. 

2.7.2 Water 

Water is provided from municipal or on-farm sources. No special provisions for delivering water are needed.

2.7.3 Ventilation

No changes from normal ventilation are indicated. Ventilation can be shut down just prior to mass euthanasia of an 

affected flock, but should not cause extreme discomfort or result in death of the birds. There is no indication that 

either END or HPAI viruses survive very long in the environment, and airborne transmission is unlikely.

2.7.4 Light

No special provisions for lighting are needed. Dimming lights prior to mass euthanasia may help calm the turkeys.

2.7.5 Environmental Temperature

No special provisions are needed beyond those for normal production as described above. 

2.8 ON-FARM WASTE HANDLING

Containment areas consist of the infected premises (flock/farm), the Control Area, and the buffer-surveillance 

zone. While illustrated as concentric circles of approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) for the control zone and 

an additional 4 miles (6.4 km) for the buffer-surveillance zone in guidelines, they actually conform to the 

geography, political boundaries, and movements within the company or companies with the affected farm 

or farms in contact or close proximity to it. Criteria for issuing permits which allow movement of products 

within, between, or out of zones, need to be in place and agreed on prior to an outbreak. As a rule, nothing 

moves on or off a farm with a known or suspected infected flock except what is essential for disposing of the 

flock and subsequent cleaning and disinfection.
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2.8.1 Litter and Manure

Houses are closed and litter containing the manure remains in the house for at least 2 weeks after depopulation. 

If possible, heating the house is done to accelerate destruction of the virus. Moving litter right after a diseased 

flock has been removed puts other flocks at risk, as viable virus is still present in the litter. Avian influenza viruses 

are destroyed in litter by heating to 135°F (56°C) for 90 minutes or 140°F (60°C) for 10 minutes. Composting 

litter in the house, which results in temperatures higher than those needed to destroy avian influenza virus is 

recommended, especially if it is combined with in-house composting of dead birds. A negative test of the litter for 

viable AI virus may be required prior to it being permitted for removal from the house. When litter is removed, 

it must be transported in covered trucks that are thoroughly cleaned and disinfected afterwards. Regulations for 

litter application on land remain unchanged. 

2.8.2 Residual Feed

Residual feed from an infected flock is removed from the feed lines, hoppers, and bins and added to the litter. It 

cannot be removed from the farm or used to feed other birds. Feed may be transferred from a flock that has tested 

negative to another flock within the same containment zone, but not outside the containment area. 

2.8.3 Mortalities

Mass euthanasia is done using carbon dioxide, although fire foam is showing promise as a better method (Rankin, 2010).

Catastrophic losses, regardless if they are from heat, accidents, weather events, END, or HPAI, require extraordinary 

measures. Permission to bury or incinerate large numbers of birds because of an emergency may be granted, 

but more often, these measures remain unavailable. Movement to a landfill where carcasses will be buried is an 

option, but not all landfills accept animal disposal and the costs of transporting and using the landfill may be high. 

Information on possible use of landfills needs to be determined prior to a crisis. 

A cost effective method is in-house composting, which can be used when birds die or are euthanized in the house. 

Birds are piled into one or more rows down the middle of the house, covered with at least 2 feet of litter, and left 

for 2 weeks. It is recommended that daily temperatures be taken using a probe to be sure composting is occurring. 

Composting temperatures are sufficient to kill most infectious agents. When the temperature of the mortality 

compost drops, it is turned in the house to aerate the compost, or it is removed to a secondary composting facility 

on the farm where the process can be continued until it is complete. Sampling the compost and negative tests for 

HPAI or END viruses may be required before it can be removed from the house. Cleaning and disinfection of the 

house are done after the compost has been removed from the house. 

2.9 SURVEILLANCE

2.9.1 People

Avian influenza viruses are highly transmissible. Movement of people among farms is the most common means by 

which the virus is transferred from one flock to another. Access to the containment zone is restricted to essential 

personnel and only necessary movement within the zone is allowed. Regular visits to flocks by service technicians 

are stopped and replaced by telephone consultations. All personnel are required to follow strict biosecurity procedures 

for entering and leaving a premises. Disposable personal protective equipment (PPE) should be used and left on the 

farm. Any non-disposable items must be disinfected, double-bagged, and the outer bag disinfected prior to removal 

from the farm and disinfection later in a secure area. Personnel need to shower and change clothes after leaving a 

farm. A record of personnel movement is kept.

Avian influenza can infect people and may even cause death. Appropriate protective gear including a respirator 

(N-95 or better) and goggles should be worn for one’s personal safety. People entering a positive flock need to 

be healthy without symptoms of possible human influenza, and they should be up-to-date on their vaccination 

for seasonal flu. Clinical signs of influenza in people include conjunctivitis, fever, and respiratory disease. While 

seasonal flu vaccination does not protect against avian influenza, it does minimize the possibility of mixing between 

human and avian strains of the virus. If any workers in contact with infected flocks develop symptoms consistent 

with influenza, they must be seen immediately by a physician and tested for influenza. Workers may be put on 

prophylactic antivirals, but the value of this procedure is controversial. Taking antivirals can provide a sense of false 

security and relaxation of personal protection. 
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Cancelling local and regional poultry sales and shows during a foreign animal disease outbreak is a prudent measure 

to prevent potential spread of the disease to other areas. 

2.9.2 Vehicle Traffic

Vehicle access to the quarantine zones is also restricted. This includes movement of animals other than turkeys 

including other poultry and livestock. Movement is by permit only. Control points along roads into and out of 

the area may be needed. Vehicles are cleaned and disinfected when leaving an affected farm and when leaving 

each zone. Portable disinfection stations may be set up to facilitate control of vehicle decontamination. Particular 

attention is given to the inside of vehicles (they should be either uncarpeted or have rubber flooring that can be 

easily disinfected), wheels, tires, and undercarriage. Routes by which vehicles travel are recorded and, if available, a 

GPS monitoring device is placed in each vehicle.

In the event of an H5 or H7 LPAI outbreak, controlled slaughter of flocks may be permitted. Flocks should be processed 

as soon as possible even if they are not at the normal age. Flocks in the containment area that are too young for processing 

may need to be euthanized to depopulate the area in preparation for repopulation and release of the quarantine.

2.9.3 Disease Monitoring

Daily mortality for all flocks within the containment area is reported by telephone and any reports of increased 

mortality are investigated by a foreign animal disease specialist. Extensive sampling of the compost, litter, and 

environment is done after depopulation. Negative tests for these samples within 24 hours are indicative the disease 

is not present, but a premise is not declared free of the disease until two consecutive negative tests that are at least 

seven days apart have been obtained.

Routine surveillance of poultry flocks, including turkeys, for both HPAI and LPAI is done in most poultry producing areas. 

Birds associated with live poultry markets, birds in the NPIP program (breeders), small hobby (“backyard”) flocks, and 

waterfowl are also tested. In the NPIP program, testing 30 breeders per flock provides 95% confidence that not more than 

10% of the flock has AI. Breeder flocks that test negative are identified as “U.S. H5/H7 Avian Influenza Clean”. Currently 

98% of all turkey breeders in the U.S. are tested annually. Six samples are submitted from commercial flocks within 3 

weeks of processing. Flocks testing negative are identified as “U.S. H5/H7 Avian Influenza Monitored”. Approximately 

90% of commercial turkey flocks are currently being tested. Serum samples are examined for antibodies to AI and tracheal 

samples from birds submitted for diagnosis of a respiratory disease or an acute egg drop are tested for AI virus.

Commercial influenza rapid antigen tests that provide results in <15 minutes can be used on the farm for preliminary 

testing. Positive results are meaningful, but negative results should not be interpreted that the flock is not infected. 

While these tests have high specificity, sensitivity is low because relatively high amounts of virus are needed for the 

test to be positive (i.e., false negatives are more common than false positives).

2.9.4 Sample Collection

Monitoring is best done by placing mortality in a sealed plastic bag in a bin next to the roadway so that going onto the 

farm is unnecessary (“barrel surveillance”). Oropharyngeal or tracheal swabs from at least five dead or culled birds 

are collected. If no dead birds are found on the morning of the sampling, and there are no cull birds from the flock that 

need to be tested, samples are collected from 11 randomly selected turkeys per flock. Swabs are tested by real time, 

reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) or rapid antigen capture immunoassay. The latter can be 

done on site to provide a rapid preliminary diagnosis in less than 15 minutes. Samples for virus isolation are collected 

in a suitable viral transport medium, usually Minimum Essential Medium (MEM) or Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) 

Medium that contains antibiotics and antifungals to discourage growth of contaminants. Up to five swabs of the same 

type and source can be pooled into one tube of viral transport medium. If cloacal swabs are also being collected, they 

should be kept separate and not pooled together with tracheal swabs. Virus isolation takes 3-10 days, but is necessary 

for confirmation and determination of the virulence and molecular characteristics of the virus. Priority for sampling 

is given to flocks experiencing clinical signs, especially high mortality, flocks in the Control Area, and flocks in the 

buffer-surveillance zone that are within 48 hours of processing.

2.9.5 Sample Submission

Samples are submitted to an animal disease diagnostic laboratory with at least BSL-2+ containment facilities that 

have the ability to test for foreign animal diseases. These laboratories form the National Animal Health Laboratory 

Network and are overseen by the National Veterinary Services Laboratory in Ames, Iowa.
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For an example of a detailed plan to deal with both LPAI and HPAI and the necessary information and permissions 

required to be in place prior to an outbreak, the reader is referred to the North Carolina Response and Containment 

Plan for Highly Pathogenic and Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza. http://www.ncagr.gov/vet/aws/documents/NC_

New_AI_Plan_DRAFT_6-22-09_HPAI_LPAI.pdf. 

USDA-APHIS HPAI Response Plan Summary is available at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/

avian_influenza/contents/printable_version/SummaryHPAI-Response092007Draft.pdf and the Standard Operating 

Procedures for HPAI can be found at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/avian_influenza/contents/

printable_version/HPAI_SOP_24.pdf

Comprehensive information on control of foreign animal diseases can be found in the United States Animal Health 

Association book Foreign Animal Diseases (“Gray Book”) http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/

downloads/nahems/fad.pdf.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 83 of 174

Acknowledgements

Information for the Turkey Industry chapter of the Poultry Industry Manual was obtained from the following sources:

• This American Livestock Breeds Conservancy. (2007). How to Raise Heritage Turkeys on Pasture. ALBC, 

Pittsboro, NC. 108 pgs.

• American Veterinary Medical Association (2007). AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia, 39 pgs. http://www.avma. 

org/issues/animal_welfare/euthanasia.pdf

• Animal Disease Traceability, USDA. (March 2010). Comprehensive Report and Implementation Plan 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/traceability/downloads/report_implementation_plan.pdf

• Aviagen Turkeys. Management Essentials for Breeder Turkeys. http://www.aviagenturkeys.com/media/183474/

breeder_mgtess.pdf

• Aviagen Turkeys. Management Essentials for Commercial Turkeys. http://www.aviagenturkeys.com/

media/183481/mgmt_ess_commercials.pdf

• Bakst, MR and Long, JA. (2010). Techniques for Semen Evaluation, Semen Storage, and Fertility Determination, 

2nd ed. The Midwest Poultry Federation, Buffalo, MN. 113 pgs. http://www.midwestpoultry.com/

• Capua, I and Alexander, DJ. (2009). Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease. A Field and Laboratory Manual. 

Springer-Verlag Italia, Milan. 186 pgs.

• Ferket, PR and Gernat, AG. (2006). Factors that affect feed intake of meat birds: a review. Int’l J Poult Sci 

5:905-911.

• Flory GA, Bendfeldt, ES, Peer RW, et. al. (2006). Guidelines for in-house composting poultry mortality 

as a rapid response to avian influenza. Virginia Cooperative Extension, http://www.deq.virginia.gov/Portals/0/ 

DEQ/Water/VirginiaPollutionAbatement/In-House_Composting_Fact_Sheet.pdf

• Gazdzinski, P and Barnes, HJ. (2004). Venereal colibacillosis (acute vaginitis) in turkey breeder hens. Avian 

Dis 48:681-685.

• Halevy O, Nadel Y, Barak M et al. (2003). Early posthatch feeding stimulates satellite cell proliferation and 

skeletal muscle growth in turkey poults. J Nutr 133:1376-1382.

• Hybrid. Breeder Management Guide. http://www.hybridturkeys.com/Hybrid%20Resources/~/media/Files/ 

Hybrid/Hybrid%20Library/Management/Breeder%20Management%20Guide1.ashx

• Hybrid. Commercial Management Guide. http://www.hybridturkeys.com/Hybrid%20Resources/~/media/Files/ 

Hybrid/Hybrid%20Library/Management/CommercialManagementGuide_VF1.ashx

• Heritage Turkey Breeds. http://www.porterturkeys.com/

• Lesson, S and Summers, JD. (2005) Commercial Poultry Nutrition, Chap 7. Feeding programs for turkeys. 

Nottingham Univ Press, Nottingham, England. pgs. 345-369.

• Lister, S. (2011) Turkeys, in Management and Welfare of Farm Animals: The UFAW Farm Handbook, 5th ed., 

J. Webster, editor. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK. Pgs. 500-512.

• Marsden, SJ. (1971). Turkey Production, USDA, ARS, Agriculture Handbook No. 393. 77 pgs.

• National Research Council, Subcommittee on Poultry Nutrition. (1994). Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th 

Ed., National Academy Press, Washington, DC. http://www.nap.edu/books/0309048923/html/ )

• National Turkey Federation. (2009). Animal care and best management practices. http://www.eatturkey.com/ 

about/pdf/ProductionWelfare2009FINALRev11810.pdf 

• North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. (2009). North Carolina Response and 

Containment Plan for Highly Pathogenic and Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza. http://www.ncagr.gov/vet/aws/

documents/NC_New_AI_Plan_DRAFT_6-22-09_HPAI_LPAI.pdf

• Pantin-Jackwood, MJ and Swayne, DE. (2009). Pathogenesis and pathobiology of avian influenza virus 

infection in birds. Rev Sci Tech Off Int Epiz 28:113-136.

• Piacenti, AM, King, DJ, Seal, BS, et al. (2006). Pathogenesis of Newcastle disease in commercial and specific 

pathogen-free turkeys experimentally infected with isolates of different virulence. Vet Pathol 43:168-178

• Poultry Monitoring & Surveillance, http://www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/nahss/poultry/index.htm

• Rankin, MK. (2010). Comparison of Water Based Foam and Inert Gas Emergency Depopulation Methods 

of Turkeys. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Delaware. 70 pgs. http://dspace.udel.edu:8080/dspace/bitstream/

	 handle/19716/9787/Mary_Rankin_thesis.pdf?sequence=1

• Scott, ML. (1987). Nutrition of the Turkey. M.L. Scott of Ithaca, Ithaca, NY. 180 pgs.

• Smith, AF. (2006). The Turkey: an American Story. Univ. IL Press, Chicago. 224 pgs.

• Swayne, DE. (2008). Avian Influenza. Blackwell Press, Ames, IA. 605 pgs.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 84 of 174

Acknowledgements

• United States Animal Health Association. (2008). Foreign Animal Diseases (“Gray Book”), 472 pgs. http://

www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/downloads/nahems/fad.pdf

• United States Department of Agriculture-APHIS. (2007). Summary of the National Highly Pathogenic Avian 

Influenza (HPAI) Response Plan, 86 pgs. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/avian_influenza/

	 contents/printable_version/SummaryHPAI-Response092007Draft.pdf

• United States Department of Agriculture-APHIS. Standard Operating Procedures for HPAI, 267 pgs. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/avian_influenza/contents/printable_version/HPAI_SOP_24.pdf

• University of Minnesota. Mortality Management, http://poultryu.umn.edu/PublicationsandResources/

MortalityManagement/index.htm

This FAD PReP Industry Manual was produced in collaboration with USDA-APHIS-VS National Center for Animal 

Health and Emergency Management by the Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University of 

Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine through a cooperative agreement. 

The Turkey Industry chapter of the Poultry Industry Manual prepared for the USDA National Center for Animal 

Health Emergency Management (NCAHEM) was authored by:

• H. John Barnes, DVM, PhD, DACVP, DACPV

• Sarah E. Tilley, BS

• Michael P. Martin, DVM, MPVM, DACPV

Illustrations were designed by:

• Dani Ausen, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

• Katlyn Harvey, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

• Andrew Kingsbury, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

Images were provided by:

• Dr. H. John Barnes

North Carolina State University

• Ms. Jeannette Beranger

American Livestock Breeds Conservancy

• Ms. Oberlin Brinker

North Carolina State University

• Dr. Jihad Douglas

Aviagen Turkeys, Inc.

• Dr. Derek Emmerson

Aviagen Turkeys, Inc.

• Dr. Yan Ghazikhanian

Aviagen Turkeys, Inc.

• Dr. Annika Hoffman

North Carolina State University

• Dr. David Ley

North Carolina State University

• Dr. Michael Martin

North Carolina State University

• Dr. Don McIntyre

Hybrid Turkeys

• Dr. David Rives

Prestage Farms
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 85 of 174

• Dr. Jean-Pierre Vaillancourt

University of Montreal

• Dr. Harry van de Hoef

Hybrid Turkeys

A special thanks goes to the primary breeder companies who have provided a wealth of information online on how 

to raise healthy and profitable breeder and commercial turkeys. Their websites are http://www.aviagenturkeys.com/

us/home.aspx and http://www.hybridturkeys.com/.

This chapter was reviewed by:

• Ms. Kristine Alpi

North Carolina State University

• Dr. Tahseen Aziz

North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services

• Dr. Yan Ghazikhanian

Sonoma, California

• Dr. Eric Gonder

Butterball, LLC

• Ms. Valerie Hendrickson

Technical Writing Consultant, Raleigh, North Carolina

• Dr. Annika Hoffman

Aviagen Turkeys, Inc., Lewisburg, West Virginia

• Dr. Shannon Jennings

Nash Johnson and Sons, Farms, Inc., Rose Hill, North Carolina

• Dr. Tom Powell

Nash Johnson and Sons, Farms, Inc., Rose Hill, North Carolina

• Dr. David Rives, Clinton, North Carolina

Prestage Farms, Inc.

• Dr. Darrell W. Trampel

Iowa State University

• Ms. Carol Vreeland

North Carolina State University

• Dr. David Frame

Utah State University Extension Poultry Specialist

Acknowledgements
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 86 of 174

References

American Livestock Breeds Conservancy. (2007). How to Raise Heritage Turkeys on Pasture. ALBC, Pittsboro, NC. 

108 pgs.

American Veterinary Medical Association (2007). AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia, 39 pgs. 

http://www.avma.org/issues/animal_welfare/euthanasia.pdf

Animal Disease Traceability, USDA. (March 2010). Comprehensive Report and Implementation Plan 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/traceability/downloads/report_implementation_plan.pdf

Aviagen Turkeys. Management Essentials for Breeder Turkeys. 

http://en.aviagen.com/assets/Tech_Center/Turkeys_breeders/ATI/mgt_guides/Breeder_MgtEss.pdf

Aviagen Turkeys. Management Essentials for Commercial Turkeys. 

http://en.aviagen.com/assets/Tech_Center/Turkeys_commercial/ATI/mgt_guides/Mgmt_Ess_Commercials.pdf

Bakst, MR and Long, JA. (2010). Techniques for Semen Evaluation, Semen Storage, and Fertility Determination, 

2nd ed. The Midwest Poultry Federation, Buffalo, MN. 113 pgs. http://www.midwestpoultry.com/ 

Capua, I and Alexander, DJ. (2009). Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease. A Field and Laboratory Manual.

Springer-Verlag Italia, Milan. 186 pgs.

Ferket, PR and Gernat, AG. (2006). Factors that affect feed intake of meat birds: a review. Int’l J Poult Sci 5:905-911.

Flory GA, Bendfeldt, ES, Peer RW, et. al. (2006). Guidelines for in-house composting poultry mortality as a rapid 

response to avian influenza. Virginia Cooperative Extension, http://www.deq.state.va.us/waste/pdf/ 

factsheet1va.pdf

Gazdzinski, P and Barnes, HJ. (2004). Venereal colibacillosis (acute vaginitis) in turkey breeder hens. Avian Dis 

48:681-685.

Halevy O, Nadel Y, Barak M et al. (2003). Early posthatch feeding stimulates satellite cell proliferation and skeletal 

muscle growth in turkey poults. J Nutr 133:1376-1382

Hybrid. Breeder Management Guide. http://www.hybridturkeys.com/Hybrid%20Resources/~/media/Files/Hybrid/ 

Hybrid%20Library/Management/Breeder%20Management%20Guide1.ashx

Hybrid. Commercial Management Guide. http://www.hybridturkeys.com/Hybrid%20Resources/~/media/Files/

 Hybrid/Hybrid%20Library/Management/CommercialManagementGuide_VF1.ashx

Heritage Turkey Breeds. http://www.porterturkeys.com/

Lesson, S and Summers, JD. (2005) Commercial Poultry Nutrition, Chap 7. Feeding programs for turkeys. 

Nottingham Univ Press, Nottingham, England. pgs. 345-369.

Lister, S. (2011) Turkeys, in Management and Welfare of Farm Animals: The UFAW Farm Handbook, 5th ed., J. 

Webster, editor. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK. Pgs. 500-512.

Marsden, SJ. (1971). Turkey Production, USDA, ARS, Agriculture Handbook No. 393. 77 pgs.

National Research Council, Subcommittee on Poultry Nutrition. (1994). Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th Ed., 

National Academy Press, Washington, DC. http://www.nap.edu/books/0309048923/html/
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 87 of 174

National Turkey Federation. (2009). Animal care and best management practices.

http://www.eatturkey.com/about/pdf/ProductionWelfare2009FINALRev11810.pdf 

North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. (2009). North Carolina Response and Containment 

	 Plan for Highly Pathogenic and Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza.

http://www.ncagr.gov/vet/aws/documents/NC_New_AI_Plan_DRAFT_6-22-09_HPAI_LPAI.pdf

Pantin-Jackwood, MJ and Swayne, DE. (2009). Pathogenesis and pathobiology of avian influenza virus infection in 

birds. Rev Sci Tech Off Int Epiz 28:113-136.

Piacenti, AM, King, DJ, Seal, BS, et al. (2006). Pathogenesis of Newcastle disease in commercial and specific 

pathogen-free turkeys experimentally infected with isolates of different virulence. Vet Pathol 43:168-178

Poultry Monitoring & Surveillance, http://www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/nahss/poultry/index.htm

Rankin, MK. (2010). Comparison of Water Based Foam and Inert Gas Emergency Depopulation Methods of 

Turkeys. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Delaware. 70 pgs. http://dspace.udel.edu:8080/dspace/bitstream/

	 handle/19716/9787/Mary_Rankin_thesis.pdf?sequence=1

Scott, ML. (1987). Nutrition of the Turkey. M.L. Scott of Ithaca, Ithaca, NY. 180 pgs.

Smith, AF. (2006). The Turkey: an American Story. Univ. IL Press, Chicago. 224 pgs.

Swayne, DE. (2008). Avian Influenza. Blackwell Press, Ames, IA. 605 pgs.

United States Animal Health Association. (2008). Foreign Animal Diseases (“Gray Book”), 472 pgs. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/downloads/nahems/fad.pdf 

United States Department of Agriculture-APHIS. (2007). Summary of the National Highly Pathogenic Avian 

Influenza (HPAI) Response Plan, 86 pgs. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/avian_influenza/		

	 contents/printable_version/SummaryHPAI-Response092007Draft.pdf

United States Department of Agriculture-APHIS. Standard Operating Procedures for HPAI, 267 pgs. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/hot_issues/avian_influenza/contents/printable_version/HPAI_	 	

SOP_24.pdf

University of Minnesota. Mortality Management, http://www.ansci.umn.edu/poultry/resources/mortality.htm 

References
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 88 of 174

Page 48 (Top) Descendants of early domesticated turkeys (Pavo creollo) can still be found in rural areas of 

 southern Mexico. Photo source: Dr. Jean-Pierre Vaillancourt, University of Montreal

 (Second from top) Bronze turkeys resulted from crossing European strains with the Eastern wild 

 turkey (Meleagridis gallopavo silvestris). Selection of Bronze turkeys for body weight resulted in 

 the Broad-breasted Bronze turkey, which became the basis of commercial turkey production. 

 Broad-breasted White turkeys subsequently replaced the bronze-colored strains and are now the 

 type of turkey grown for meat production. The original Bronze turkey is still grown by heritage 

 turkey growers, but the numbers are limited. Photo source: Jeannette Beranger, American Livestock 

 Breeds Conservancy

 (Third from top) Broad-breasted White turkey hens, 12 weeks of age, in a commercial flock. 

 Almost all turkeys grown commercially in the U.S. are Broad-breasted White turkeys. Photo 

 source: Oberlin Brinker, North Carolina State University 

 (Bottom) Figure 1. Primary trading partners purchasing U.S. turkey in 2010 were Mexico, China, 

 Canada, Russia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Dominican Republic, and Panama. Mexico accounted for 

 over half of all turkey exports. Content provided by: Dr. Michael Martin; Graphic illustration by: 

 Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 49 Table 1. Differences Between Commercial Turkeys and Broilers. Graphic illustration by: Dani 

 Ausen, Iowa State Univeristy

Page 50 (Top) Figure 2. U.S. commercial turkey production in 2010. Approximately 260 million turkeys are 

 produced annually, mostly in the North-central, Central, Mid-east, and Mid-Atlantic regions of the 

 US, and California. During 2010, combined production of three states Minnesota, North Carolina, 

 and Arkansas, accounted for 43% of total US production. Content provided by: NASS, USDA; 

 Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Center) Table 2. Top Turkey Producing States in the US in 2010. Content provided by: USDA, 

 National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2010 Summary; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa 

 State University

 (Bottom) Table 3. Top Turkey Producing Companies in the U.S. in 2010 (Live Weight Processed).

 Content provided by: 2010 Watt Poultry USA; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa 

 State University

Page 51 (Top) Narragansett tom turkey, one of 8 recognized breeds of heritage turkeys. Photo source: 

 Dr. Michael Martin

 (Center) Heritage turkeys being raised in a free-range system in North Carolina for holiday 

 markets. Photo source: Dr. David Ley, North Carolina State University

(Bottom) Figure 3. Structure of a typical vertically integrated turkey company. Content provided 

 by: Dr. Michael Martin; Graphic Illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 52 Table 4. Annual Production of Turkey in the U.S. Content provided by: USDA, Economic Research 

 Service, National Agricultural Statistics Service; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa 

 State Univeristy

Page 54 Figure 4. As many as generations go into producing commercial turkeys. Individual lines are 

purebred so the final generation is a three- or four-way cross. It takes about 4 years for pedigree 

 genetics to be realized in the meat birds. Very high selection pressure is applied to primary 

 breeders, particularly males. Each pedigree tom ultimately produces over 8 million commercial 

 turkeys and just over 94.5 tons of turkey meat, while each pedigree hen produces around 800,000 

 commercial turkeys and nearly 9.5 tons of turkey meat. Content provided by: Jihad Douglas, Derek 

 Emmerson, and Dr. Yan Ghazikhanian, Aviagen Turkeys, Inc; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, 

 Iowa State University

Page 55 Stud farm. Tom turkeys are kept in pens and ejaculated 1-2 times per week to collect semen. Light 

 intensity is high and emits light enriched in both red and blue colors. Photo source: Drs. Don 

 McIntyre and Harry van de Hoef, Hybrid Turkeys

Page 56 Squatting hens. When hens are receptive to mating, they squat down and spread their wings. This 

 should not be interpreted as an indication of lameness. Photo source: Drs. Don McIntyre and 

 Harry van de Hoef, Hybrid Turkeys

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 89 of 174

Page 57 (Top) Table 5. Vaccines Used in Turkey Breeder Hens. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa 

 State University

 (Bottom) Turkey hen breeding farm. A nest box is provided for every 4 to 6 hens. Semi-trap nest 

 boxes prevent more than one hen from entering the nest box. These are manual nest boxes; eggs are

 gathered several times a day. A net above the nest boxes is lowered in late afternoon and raised 

 in early morning to prevent hens from sleeping in them overnight. The drinker is called a Plasson 

 drinker after the manufacturer. Hens can easily drink from the drinkers but can also walk under them. 

 Photo Source: File Photo, Poultry Health Management Team, North Carolina State University

Page 58 (Top) Broody hen control. Marked hens are showing signs of early broodiness. They will be 

 moved to brooder pens where their environment and routine will be changed until they begin 

 squatting again or go broody. If a hen becomes broody, she will not lay eggs again until after a 

 molt. Photo source: File Photo, Poultry Health Management Team, North Carolina State University

 (Center) Semen collection from tom turkey. Stroking the tom and applying pressure to the vent 

 will express semen, which is collected, pooled, prepared, and used to inseminate the hens. Photo 

 source: Drs, Don McIntyre and Harry van de Hoef, Hybrid Turkeys

(Bottom) Insemination of a hen. A measured amount of semen containing a calculated number of 

 viable spermatozoa is drawn up in a thin tube (straw), which is inserted in the vagina. Semen is 

 expressed near the sperm-host glands. Photo source: Drs. Don McIntyre and Harry van de Hoef, 

 Hybrid Turkeys

Page 60 Turkey hatchery. Following servicing, boxes containing the poults are stacked and organized into 

flocks in a warm, dimly-lit, holding room to allow the poults to rest overnight (left). Poult delivery. 

 Early the following morning, poults are delivered to the brooding facility in special vehicles 

 (“poult buses”) that provide ventilation and temperature control (right). Photo sources: Dr. H. John 

 Barnes (left); Dr. Jocelyn Romano, North Carolina State University (right)

Page 61 Brooder house setup. Many variations exist on how houses are set up to brood poults after placement. 

 Seen here are double rings that surround two conventional gas brooder stoves (“pancake brooders”) 

 that would accommodate up to 600 poults. Green feeders are supplemental and will be gradually

 removed as poults learn to go to the feed line (currently raised up near the ceiling). Water is being 

 provided by a double line of nipple drinkers with cups. The house is freshly bedded and has been 

 thoroughly cleaned. This house is on a “brooder hub” used for off-site brooding of poults (top). Radiant 

gas brooder stove. Radiant heat stoves are more efficient than traditional convection brooder stoves 

because they heat the floor and birds directly rather than the air. Radiant brooder stoves cover a wider 

 area so brooder rings have to be larger and stoves are suspended high above the brooding ring 

 (bottom). Photo sources: File Photo, Poultry Health Management Team, North Carolina State 

 University (top); Dr. Annika Hoffman, North Carolina State University (bottom)

Page 62 (Top) Brooding, day 4. Supplemental feeders and drinkers are removed gradually as poults transition 

 to eating and drinking from automatic water and feed lines. Green supplemental bucket feeders 

 and a jar drinker are seen here. Some feeders have been moved away from the brooder stove. 

 Photo source: File Photo, Poultry Health Management Team, North Carolina State University

 (Bottom) Brooding, week 4. Young turkeys are eating from drop feeders on the feed line. The bottom 

 of the feed hopper is in the upper left. Feed level in the pans is kept low to prevent spilling of feed. 

Line running along the top of the feed line can be electrified (“shocker wire”) to keep birds from 

 perching on the feed line. (left). Brooding, week 4. Young turkeys are drinking from an automatic 

Plasson bell drinker. Lip of the drinker has been adjusted to shoulder height of the birds and the 

 amount of water in the circular trough is low to prevent it from being spilled. (right). Photo Source: 

 File Photo, Poultry Health Management Team, North Carolina State University (both)

Page 64 Figure 5. Nutrient Budget. Everything that constitutes the turkey's structure and most of its 

 function comes through the digestive tract via nutrient intake, digestion, and absorption. Essential 

 functions and tissues preferentially receive nutrients followed by tissues that are not essential 

 for survival. Content provided by: Dr. H. John Barnes; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, 

 Iowa State Univeristy

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 90 of 174

Page 65 Range turkey flock. Turkeys used to be produced during the summer on open range, primarily for 

the holiday season. Small turkey flocks for niche markets are still raised this way, but finishing on 

range is rarely used anymore for commercial flocks. Turkeys, especially toms, become quite 

 colorful because of sun exposure. Photo source: File Photo, Poultry Health Management Team, 

 North Carolina State University

Page 66 Tunnel finishing house. Most new houses use tunnel ventilation. Houses have tight construction 

 and large fans pull air through evaporative cooling pads to minimize heat stress. Dual feed tanks 

 provide several options on how feed is delivered to the farm and fed to the birds. Photo source: 

 Dr. H. John Barnes

Page 67 Finishing, week 18. Tom flock nearing market age. Tom flocks finish their production cycles 

 at around 20 weeks of age. Typical average weights of toms at processing are 40-45 lbs 

 (18.1 - 20.4 kg). Photo source: Dr. Annika Hoffman, North Carolina State University

Page 69 Table 6. Weekly Target Weights, Feed Consumption, Feed Conversion Ratios, and Average Daily 

 Gain for Commercial Hen and Tom Turkeys. Content provided by: Aviagen Turkeys and Hybrid 

 Turkeys performance goals; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 70 (Top) Table 7. Essential Amino Acids. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Table 8. An 8-Diet Program for Feeding Commercial Turkeys. Content provided by: 

 Hybrid Nutrient Guidelines, 2011 Commercial Program [8 phases]; Graphic illustration by: Dani 

 Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 71 Table 9. Estimated Daily and Weekly Water Consumption per 1000 Commercial Hen and Tom 

 Turkeys at 68-77°F (20-25°C). Content provided by: NRC Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th 

 ed; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 72 (Top) Feed mills are typically located centrally and adjacent to a railroad. They have their own rail 

 siding to permit buying grain by the train load (80 or more cars is common). Mills have storage 

 capacity for main ingredients, but rarely is the reserve more than enough for a few days of feed 

 production. Photo source: Dr. David Rives, Prestage Farms 

 (Bottom) Feed delivery truck. Feed delivery trucks have a trailer divided into compartments. Each 

 compartment can be loaded with a different feed or amount of feed. At the farm, an auger on the 

 truck delivers the feed through the top of a feed bin. Photo source: Dr. Annika Hoffman, North 

 Carolina State University

Page 74 Turkey load out. A turkey loader (right side of picture) is placed just inside an end door of the 

finishing house. The other end is placed alongside coops on the live-haul truck trailer. A catch pen, 

 constructed with movable panels and stakes, funnels turkeys into the loader in the house. A 

 conveyor belt on the loader transfers turkeys from the catch pen to the coops (top). "Coopers" 

 stand on either side of the loader and move the turkeys into the coops (bottom). Photo source: 

 Dr. Annika Hoffman, North Carolina State University (both)

Page 75 On-farm incinerator. Incineration is the most costly method of disposing of dead birds, but it 

 is also provides the highest level of biosecurity because all mortality is handled on site. Photo 

 source: Dr. H. John Barnes

Page 78 Footbath. Footbaths should be clean and utilized if they are to be effective. Organic material tends 

 to neutralize most disinfectants. A footbath station may include a cover, scrub brush, and/or 

 cement slab to minimize organic contamination. If the footbath is located inside, dry bleach is a 

 good disinfectant to use (left). Breeder farm biosecurity. A shower-in/shower-out facility provides 

 the only personnel entrance onto the farm. The six-foot chain-link fence topped with strands of 

 barbed wire surrounds the farm (right). Photo sources: Dr. H. John Barnes (left); File Photo, 

 Poultry Health Management Team, North Carolina State University (right)

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 91 of 174

Glossary

All In/All Out

Management system in which all birds are placed on a farm at the same time and they are all removed from the farm 

at the same time; provides a period of “down time” between flocks when there are no birds on the farm

Barrel Surveillance

Examination of fresh mortality that has been placed into a plastic bag and a barrel by the roadway for foreign animal 

disease sampling

Beard 

A tufted mass of long, black, hair-like bristle feathers that extends from a specialized area of skin on the lower neck; 

length of the beard determines trophy status of wild turkeys; some hens may also have beards but they are small

Brooder Hub

Farm dedicated to brooding that provides turkeys to finishing farms at around 5 weeks of age; off-site brooding; one 

brooder hub supplies turkeys to several finishing farms

Brooding

The period in the production cycle when poults are in the brooder house; they will require supplemental heat for 2-4 

weeks depending on environmental temperatures

Broodiness, Broody Hen 

Hen in the early stages of ceasing to produce eggs. A number of procedures are used to identify affected hens and 

prevent them from going out of production.

Cake 

Hard, dry crust composed of manure, moisture, and litter that forms on the litter surface especially around feeders 

and drinkers where turkeys defecate most frequently

Candidate 

Young replacement breeder that has the desired characteristics for becoming a parent breeder

Caruncle 

Fleshy, round protuberances on the unfeathered skin of the neck

Conditioning 

10 to 12 week period between selection and transfer to the laying house when breeder hen candidates are maintained 

on 6 to 8 hours of light

Coopers 

Individuals on the platform of a turkey loader who place turkeys into coops

Cracking 

Everting the vagina of the breeder hen in preparation for insemination

Culls 

Birds that are non-responsive to stimuli, do not move away when approached, runted or markedly stunted, cannot 

eat or drink, are a disease risk for the flock, are severely persecuted by other birds, are not marketable, or need to be 

removed from the flock for humane purposes

Curtain House 

Part or all of the house wall is open but covered by a curtain that can be raised or lowered to control ventilation; fans 

often supplement air movement
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 2: Turkey Industry • Page 92 of 174

Glossary

Dark-Out House

Light-proof housing used for conditioning replacement breeder hens

Demand Organs 

Tissues that are critical for survival and normal function, e.g., brain, heart, lungs, digestive organs, etc.

Dewlap 

Fold of skin that extends from the lower beak to the middle of the neck

DOA 

Acronym for “dead-on-arrival”, birds are dead when they arrive at the brooder hub, finishing farm, or processing 

plant; flocks with respiratory disease or adverse environmental conditions during load out and hauling are associated 

with more DOA birds at processing

Down Time 

Interval between when a house or farm is cleaned and disinfected and the next flock is placed. Minimum 

recommended down time is 10 days. Longer the down time the more opportunity there is for infectious agents to die.

Exotic Disease 

Disease that does not occur naturally in the U.S.. Syn. Foreign disease

Exotic Newcastle Disease (END) Virus 

An avian paramyxovirus 1 that has an intra-cerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI) of at least 0.7, or has multiple basic 

amino acids at the hemagglutinin cleavage site typical of a virulent Newcastle disease virus. Viruses previously 

classified as mesogenic, viscerotropic velogenic, and neurotropic velogenic are included. 

Extender 

Sterile diluent used to dilute semen to the optimal concentration of spermatozoa for insemination

Finishing (Grow-Out) 

The period of time in the production cycle between brooding and processing; turkeys are in the finishing house on a 

finishing farm

Finishing Farm 

Farm dedicated to growing the turkeys from brooding to processing. Syn. Grow out farm.

Flags

Poles with one or more strips of plastic or cloth attached to the end used for moving turkeys

Flip-Over 

Young poults less than a few days old that get over on their backs and cannot right themselves

Floor Eggs 

Eggs not laid in the nest that usually are more soiled and contaminated than nest eggs

Flushing 

Common name for diarrhea in a flock. May result from enteric disease, nutrition, or following a period of feed deprivation.

Foreign Animal Disease 

Disease that does not occur naturally in animals in the U.S.. Syn. Exotic disease
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Frame 

Common name for the skeleton of a turkey; used to select potential breeders

Germinal Disc 

Small white spot on the yolk where fertilization and embryo development occurs. Syn. blastodisc

Gobble

Distinctive sound made by an adult male turkey

Gobbler

Common name for an adult male turkey. Syn. Stag (European), Tom (North American)

Hen 

Female turkey that is no longer a poult; term used for both immature and mature female turkeys

Hatcher 

Specialized incubator that provides specific conditions for hatching, typically during the last 3 days of incubation

Hatchery 

Facility that is dedicated to the storage, incubation, and hatching of fertile eggs to produce poults

Hatch Residue

Material left behind in hatching trays after the poults have been removed

Heritage Turkey

Specific pure breeds of turkeys recognized in the Standard of Perfection judging guide including Black, Bronze, 

Narragansett, White Holland, Slate, Bourbon Red, Beltsville Small White, and Royal Palm. Term may also be used 

to describe other color varieties. Characteristics are ability to mate naturally, long reproductive period, ability to 

thrive in free-range systems, and slow growth

High Pathogenicity (Highly Pathogenic) Avian Influenza (HPAI) Virus

H5 or H7 avian influenza viruses that have an intravenous pathogenicity index (IVPI) in 6 week old chickens >1.2, 

causes mortality in at least 75% of intravenously inoculated 4-8 week old chickens, has multiple basic amino acids at 

the hemagglutinin cleavage site typical of a virulent influenza virus, or can infect cell cultures in the absence of trypsin

Hospital Pen 

Separate area where weak, flip-over, and other poor growing poults can be placed for recovery; they have access to 

fresh feed and water, but are kept at a lower temperature

Incubator

Machine that provides conditions necessary for normal embryo development, typically during the first 25 days for 

turkeys; may be single-stage (contains a single age group of eggs) or multi-stage (continuous flow of different age 

groups of eggs); common name = setter

Intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI) 

Ten one-day-old SPF chicks are inoculated intracerebrally with 0.05 ml of a 1:10 dilution of allantoic fluid from infected 

chick embryos and observed for 8 days. Each day, chicks are scored as 0 (normal), 1 (sick), or 2 (dead). An average 

score of 0.7 or higher during the observation period confirms an avian paramyxovirus 1 is Newcastle disease virus.

Glossary
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Intravenous Pathogenicity Index (IVPI) 

Ten 4-8 week-old SPF chickens are inoculated intravenously with 0.1 ml of a 1:10 dilution of allantoic fluid from 

infected chick embryos and observed for 10 days. Each day, chickens are scored as 0 (normal), 1 (sick), 2 (severely 

sick), or 3 (dead). An average score of 1.2 or higher during the observation period confirms an avian influenza virus 

is highly pathogenic

Livability

Percent of flock placed at hatch that is processed; opposite of mortality. Livability + mortality = 100.

Load-Out

Process of removing turkeys from the finishing farm to take them to the processing plant

Low Pathogenicity (Low Pathogenic) Avian Influenza (LPAI) Virus

An avian influenza virus that does not meet the definition of a high pathogenicity avian influenza virus

Lux (lx) 

A standard measurement of light intensity, one lux is the amount of light cast by one lumen over a square meter; one 

foot candle equals 10.8 lx

Milking

Process of collecting semen from male turkeys to be used for insemination

Mis-Sex 

A poult that was identified as the wrong sex in the hatchery, typically these will make up less than 2% of a flock

Morbidity

Percent of the flock showing clinical signs

Mortality 

Percent of the flock placed at hatch that is not processed; opposite of livability. Mortality + + Livability = 100.

Multiplier Breeders 

Parent breeders that produce commercial turkeys; usually owned by the integrator

Nutrient Budget 

Distribution of nutrients for maintenance, immune stress, demand organs, and supply organs

Off-Sex 

Toms from the hen line parents (females from the tom line are retained by the breeder company)

Oocyte

Immature female reproductive cell in the ovary; ovulated and becomes an ovum after meiosis

Ovum 

Haploid female reproductive cell that develops from an oocyte after the second polar body is formed during meiosis; 

occurs in the infundibulum of the oviduct

Persecution

Purposeful persistent harassment and infliction of injury on a bird by one or more birds in the flock; commonly 

erroneously called cannibalism

Glossary
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Photorefractory

Hen or tom does not respond to light stimulation by sexual development or production of eggs or spermatozoa; 

normal in the juvenile bird

Photosensitive

Hen or tom responds to light stimulation by developing secondary sex characteristics or behavior and initiates 

production of eggs or spermatozoa

Photostimulation 

Increasing the duration, intensity, and/or wavelength of light exposure to bring a flock into active reproduction

Pipping

Internal: penetration of the beak through the shell membrane into the air cell; External: penetration of the beak 

through the shell in preparation for hatching

Polar Body 

Small nuclear remnant of meiosis in the ovum that results from asymmetrical cell division, contain excess 

chromosomal material and typically degenerates

Poult

Young turkey of either sex; there is no agreement on the age at which a turkey should no longer be called a poult; 

generally young turkeys that are still being brooded are called poults. It is inappropriate to call a young turkey a chick. 

Poult Bus

Vehicle that transports poults from the hatchery to the brooding facility

PPE

Acronym for Personal Protective Equipment worn to protect against contamination and spread of infectious agents 

from one flock to another and to protect against infection with zoonotic agents

Primary Breeders 

Lines of breeders owned and managed by the primary breeding company that produce the pedigree, great-grandparent, 

and grandparent generations

Range Turkeys 

A production system that was common when turkey consumption was seasonal. After brooding, flocks were placed 

on pastures with shelters, feeders, and drinkers during the summer and marketed in the fall. Range production of 

commercial turkeys has been replaced by year-round confinement rearing. 

Recycle 

Hens in a second lay cycle following a molt; term also used for a molted hen

Replacement Hens/Toms 

Young parent breeding stock that is being raised to replace existing parent breeders after their production cycle has 

been completed 

Semen 

Fluid and spermatozoa produced by the male reproductive tract

Servicing 

Procedures done to poults in the hatchery to prevent diseases and trauma and prepare the poults for placement on the 

farm; includes sex determination, beak trimming, toe trimming, and injections of nutrients or pharmaceuticals

Glossary
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Settable Eggs 

Normal sized and shaped, clean fertile eggs that can be placed into the incubator and are likely to hatch

Setter 

Common name for an incubator

Shrink 

Amount of weight lost between load-out and processing.

Skins 

Eggs that are laid without a shell; usually only the flattened shell membrane remains

Slicking Over 

Litter that rapidly becomes wet and slimy when a flock develops diarrhea (“flushing”)

Snick, Snicking 

Noise made when turkeys have an upper respiratory disease, equivalent to sneezing in mammals

Snood

An elongated, erectile appendage in the form of a tapering cylinder located in front of the eyes that hangs over the 

side of the head; prominently displayed by dominant males

Spermatozoon (- zoa, pl.) 

Haploid male reproductive cell that unites with the ovum to produce an embryo; commonly called sperm

Spermatocrit 

Percentage of packed spermatozoa in semen; compared to mammals, avian spermatocrits are very high because of 

the concentrated nature of avian semen

Sperm Holes 

Multiple perforations in the vitelline membrane caused by spermatozoa entering the yolk; used as an indicator of 

fertility and normal spermatozoon function; a minimum of 50 sperm holes indicate fertility

Sperm Host (Storage) Glands 

Specialized glands located at the base of tubules in folds at the junction of the shell gland and vagina that can 

maintain the viability of spermatozoa for as long as 2-3 weeks

Squatting 

Characteristic sitting position with lowered wings that signals a turkey hen is receptive for breeding

Stag 

Male turkey, term used primarily in Europe. Syn. Tom.

Straw 

Thin tube used for inseminating the hen with semen from a tom

Strutting

Male breeding display, tail is erect and fanned out, wings are drooped, and often a “booming” sound accompanies strutting

Stud Farm 

Farm where breeder toms are kept

Glossary
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Supply Organs 

Tissues that are not essential for survival and normal function, e.g., muscles

Tights 

Hens out of production, refers to the small, round, dry, contracted vent of these birds

Tom 

Male turkey that is no longer a poult; term is used for both immature and mature male turkeys. Syn. Stag. 

Tunnel House (Ventilation) 

Solid wall housing that has evaporative cooling in one end and fans in the other end; negative pressure ventilation

Turkey Loader 

Specialized machine that has a conveyor belt and can be raised and lowered to match coops on a trailer; used to 

transfer turkeys from a brooder hub to a finishing farm and from the finishing farm to the processing plant

Vent Sexing 

Method to determine the gender of a poult by everting the vent and determining the presence or absence of a 

primordial phallus

Glossary
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Table of Contents

Chapter 3: Egg Industry

PART I: UNITED STATES EGG PRODUCTION 101 

 

3.1 Scope of the Egg Industry 101

3.1.1 Laying Hen Numbers and Location 101

3.1.2 In-Line Egg Farms 101

3.1.3 Off-Line (Nest Run) Egg Farms 103

3.1.4 Niche Market Egg Farms 103

3.1.5 Capital Investment 103

3.2 Life Stages and Poultry Husbandry Needs 103

3.2.1 Production Cycles of Egg-Type Chickens 103

3.2.2 Replacement Pullets 103

3.2.2.1 Brooder House 103

3.2.2.2 Physiological Development of Pullets 104

3.2.2.3 Flock Uniformity 104

3.2.2.4 Lighting 104

3.2.3 Laying Hens 104

3.2.3.1 Feed and Water 104

3.2.3.2 Egg Collection 105

3.2.3.3 Light 105

3.2.3.4 House Temperature 105

3.2.3.5 Mortality 105

3.3 Feeding and Nutrition 105

3.3.1 Feed Cost and Consumption 105

3.3.2 Strain and Age Nutritional Requirements 105

3.3.3 Feed Intake, Egg Weight, and Body Weight 105

3.3.4 Least Cost Feed Formulation 105

3.3.5 Feed Mixing and Delivery 106

3.4 Laying Hen Facilities 106

3.4.1 Cages 106

3.4.2 Enriched Colony Cages 106

3.4.3 Cage-Free 106

3.4.4 Free Range 106

3.5 Whole Shell Eggs Processing and Movement 107

3.5.1 Sources of Whole Shell Eggs 107

3.5.1.1 In-line Eggs 107

3.5.1.2 Off-line (Nest Run) Eggs 108

3.5.2 Steps in Whole Shell Egg Processing 109

3.6 Egg Breaking and Liquid Egg Movement 110

3.6.1 Sources of Breaking Eggs 110

Darrell W. Trampel, DVM, PhD, DACVP

Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 99 of 174

Table of Contents

Chapter 3: Egg Industry

3.6.1.1 In-Line Eggs 110

3.6.1.2 Off-line (Nest Run) Eggs 110

3.6.2 Egg Breaking Machines and Products 110

3.6.2.1 Steps in Egg Breaking 110

3.6.2.2 Breaking Machines 110

3.6.2.3 Non-pasteurized Liquid Egg Products 110

3.6.3 Non-pasteurized Liquid Egg Products Movement 111

3.6.4 Pasteurized Liquid Egg Products Movement 112

3.7 Movement of Other Products 112

3.7.1 Manure 112

3.7.2 Egg Shells 113

3.7.3 Inedible Liquid Egg 113

3.8 Regulation of Shell Egg and Egg Breaking Operations 113

3.8.1 Egg Farms and Laying Hens 113

3.8.2 Shell Eggs 114

3.8.3 Breaking Plants and Egg Products 115

PART II: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE 115

3.9 Biosecurity Measures 115

3.9.1 Biosecurity Concepts 115

3.9.2 Farm Outside Areas 116

3.9.3 People 116

3.9.4 Chickens 116

3.9.5 Pest and Animal Control 116

3.9.6 Cleaning and Disinfection of Vehicles, Equipment, and Egg Handling Materials 116

3.9.7 Feed 116

3.9.8 Manure Removal 116

3.10 Providing Animal Care 116

3.10.1 Feed 116

3.10.2 Water 117

3.10.3 Ventilation 117

3.10.4 Light 117

3.10.5 Environmental Temperature 117

3.11 Product Handling 117

3.11.1 Whole Shell Eggs 117

3.11.2 Clean-in-Place Requirements for Liquid Egg Tankers, Lines, and Silos 118

3.11.3 Liquid Egg Tanker Exterior Wash Procedure 119

3.11.4 Egg Shells 119

3.11.5 Inedible Liquid Egg 119

3.11.6 Manure 119

3.11.7 Mortalities 119
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Table of Contents

Chapter 3: Egg Industry

3.12 Surveillance 120

3.12.1 People 120

3.12.2 Vehicle Traffic 120

3.12.3 Disease Monitoring 120

3.12.4 Sample Collections 120

3.12.5 Sample Submission 121

3.13 Appraisal and Compensation 121

3.14 Mass Depopulation and Euthansia (FADS PREP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 121

3.15 Disposal (FAD PREP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 121

3.16 Cleaning and Disinfection (FAD PREP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 121

3.17 Wildlife Management and Vector Control 122

3.18 International Trade 122

Acknowledgements 123

Photo and Illustration Credits 125

Acronyms 126

Glossary 127
Chapter 3: Egg Industry

FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 101 of 174

PART I: UNITED STATES EGG PRODUCTION

3.1 SCOPE OF THE EGG INDUSTRY

3.1.1 Laying Hen Numbers and Location

Producing eggs for human consumption is a major agricultural industry in the United States. In the 1950s and 1960s, 

egg production was concentrated in the southeastern United States where producers put up inexpensive houses and 

utilized regulated railroads to bring in feed and ship eggs all over the country. As railroads were deregulated, 

southeastern producers lost their economic advantages and much egg production moved to the Midwest. Most 

commercial egg production now occurs in the Midwest, eastern areas of the United States, and in California. 

According to the American Egg Board, 192 egg producing companies with flocks of 75,000 hens or more account 

for 95% of all layers in the United States. In 2010, there were 61 companies with 1 million-plus layers and 13 of those 

companies own 5 million-plus layers. In 2009, the average number of laying hens in this country was 280 million 

with an average daily rate of lay of 75%. Large commercial producers tend to be highly automated, however, hand 

gathering is still practiced on some larger operations in western states where labor is readily available. The 

leading egg-producing states are listed in Table 1. The five largest egg production companies in the United States 

own approximately 50% of all egg-type chickens in the USA. These companies are listed in Table 2.

National Ranking

2

1

3

4

5

State

Ohio

Iowa

Pennsylvania

Indiana

California

Millions of Layers in Production

26.9

52.3

24.4

22.8

18.9

Table 1. Leading Egg Production States (2012)

National Ranking

2

1

3

4

5

Company

Rose Acre Farms, Inc.

Cal-Maine Foods

Moark, LLC

Daybreak Foods

Rembrandt Enterprises

Millions of Layers in Production

23.7

33.5

14.9

13.5

13.4

Table 2. Leading Egg Production Companies (2012)

3.1.2 In-Line Egg Farms

 In-line egg operations are characterized by an automated egg collection system that carries eggs directly from 

chicken houses to the egg processing plant (building). These farms produce, process, pack, and ship eggs at one 

location. Large commercial “in-line” farms containing 50,000 to 6 million laying hens produce over 85% of table 

eggs in the United States. The average number of chicken houses in a large, integrated egg production complex is 
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10 and a complex may consist of 15 or more houses. Each house contains 50,000 to 350,000 laying hens. In-line 

chicken houses are highly-automated and eggs are moved on egg conveyor belts through enclosed passageways in a 

line to a processing building where eggs are processed within 24 hours after being laid. During processing, eggs are 

washed to remove fecal material and stains from shells, rinsed with a sanitizer, dried, candled to remove eggs with 

defects such as cracks or blood spots, weighed by computerized electronic scales, sorted by size, graded, and packed 

into cartons by automated equipment. Automated, high speed machines may process up to 400 cases of eggs per hour. 

A large number of chickens is required on the farm to keep machines operating at capacity. The day on which 

USDA-graded shell eggs were packed is shown on the carton by a Julian date. 

Figure 1. Egg Laying House

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Houses

Eggs Washed, 

Graded, Packed,

Cold Storage

Egg Belt

Outside Feeding Bin

Aisle Between Rows of Chickens Empty Cartons

Outside Fans on Chicken Houses
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3.1.3 Off-Line (Nest Run) Egg Farms

“Nest run” or “off-line” egg farms do not have a processing facility and typically consist of one or two chicken 

houses which lack processing equipment. Nest-run egg operations currently range from about 75,000 to 500,000 

hens and eggs are collected in henhouses either by hand or by egg belt and moved to the egg room. In the egg room, 

they are placed on egg flats (fiber or plastic) and are then packed onto farm pallets or sometimes farm racks. Off-line 

eggs are packed “as is” without having been washed, sized, and/or candled for quality. Full pallets are placed in a 

refrigerated cold storage room. Nest run eggs may be held at their production farms for 2 to 4 days under refrigerated 

conditions after being laid, though some farms may ship the eggs quicker without the need of refrigeration. 

3.1.4 Niche Market Egg Farms

Niche market farms account for less than 10% of eggs produced in the U.S. but account for the majority of egg 

production farms. These farms include small and large cage free, aviary-housed, free range, organic, and nutraceutical 

operations, and such farms may have several hundred to several thousand hens. In some cases, these farms house 

up to 50,000 to 75,000 hens. Smaller farms with less than 10,000 laying hens are likely to hand gather the eggs, but 

larger farms depend on mechanical gathering using egg collection belts to gather eggs from nests. Eggs produced on 

niche market farms may be marketed at the farm, brought to market by the farmer, or picked up by a processor.

3.1.5 Capital Investment

A typical Midwest multi-age, in-line egg production facility contains 1.5 to 4.0 million laying hens. With a 75% 

average rate of lay and eggs priced at $0.95 per dozen, 1.25 to 3.0 million eggs produced each day have a market 

value of $98,960 to $237,500. Typical modern in-line egg production operations in the Midwest may have chickens 

in cages with 67 square inches per bird, grading and packing equipment, egg-breaking machines to produce liquid 

whole eggs, and rooms for packing, cooling, and storing eggs. Capital investment for this type of facility ranges from 

$24 million for an operation with 1 million chickens ($24/hen) to $80 million for a 4 million bird complex ($20/hen). 

Maximum egg storage capacity in cooler rooms at most egg production premises is limited to the number of eggs 

produced during a period of 48 hours.

3.2 LIFE STAGES AND POULTRY HUSBANDRY NEEDS

3.2.1 Production Cycles of Egg-Type Chickens.

Large commercial egg operations require coordination between the hatchery, pullet growing farms, egg packing plant, 

and feed mill. Pullets needed to replace spent hens represent the second largest cost of egg production. In a typical 

production system, companies purchase day-old pullets from hatcheries that are owned and operated by genetics 

companies with direct sales to egg producers. Pullets are raised in wire cages in brooder/grow-out buildings on rearing

farms owned by the production company or by a contract pullet grower. The size and number of rearing houses 

required depends upon the size and number of layer houses being supplied with replacement pullets and the number 

of egg production cycles in the laying house. A single rearing house can supply 3 layer houses in a single cycle (no 

molt) system, 5 layer houses in a two-cycle (one molt) system, and 7 layer houses in a three-cycle (2 molt) system. 

Day-old chicks are initially placed in cages on one or two tiers, but around 4 weeks of age the flock is subdivided 

and chicks are moved into cages on the remaining one or two tiers. At 16-17 weeks of age, pullets are transferred to 

cages in a laying house where they will stay for the remainder of their productive life. Moving at this age provides 

adequate time for pullets to recover from the stress of moving. Light stimulation to encourage onset of egg production 

should not begin until one week after pullets have entered the laying house. Egg production begins around 18-19 

weeks of age. The length of the productive life of a laying hen depends upon the number of egg production cycles 

utilized on the egg farm. Typically, the productive life of laying hens ends at 78-80 weeks in a one-cycle system, at 

102-106 weeks in a two-cycle system, and at 140 -150 weeks in a three-cycle system. Approximately 80% of laying 

hens in the USA are molted at least once. Annual egg production per hen has risen from 213 in 1962 to 281 in 2009.

3.2.2 Replacement Pullets

3.2.2.1 Brooder House

Brooder houses should be cleaned and disinfected at least 2 weeks prior to arrival of chicks. Effectiveness of this 

process should be documented by visual inspection and by environmental cultures to detect E. coli and Salmonella.

Heavy, water-proof paper placed on the floor of wire cages allows chicks to walk without falling through spaces 

between wires, helps to control temperature and reduce drafts, and permits feeding off the paper. Day-old chicks 

cannot regulate their body temperature, so it is critical to provide proper environmental temperatures (92-95 F). 
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Humidity during the first week should be at least 50% to prevent dehydration. Access to water from cup or nipple 

drinkers is facilitated by lowering water pressure so that a hanging drop of water is visible to the chicks. Feed should be 

placed on cage papers in front of trough feeders which should be completely filled with starter feed before chicks are 

placed in the cage. It is very important that pullets destined for alternative housing systems be raised in the same system. 

Pullets must know how to move about the system and how to find feed and water when placed in the laying house.

3.2.2.2 Physiological Development of Pullets

It is critical that pullets have the correct body weight and correct body composition at the onset of lay so egg production 

and shell quality can be sustained during the production period. Laying hens that are too small lack the calcium and 

protein reserves necessary to sustain egg production. During the first 6 weeks of life, the digestive tract and immune 

system develop. From 6 to 12 weeks of age, the skeleton achieves 95% of its adult size and muscle is formed. Between 12 

and 18 weeks of age, the reproductive tract develops. Egg production generally begins between 19 and 21 weeks of age 

depending on body weight and the lighting program. Low body weights and stress can delay the onset of egg production.

3.2.2.3 Flock Uniformity

Beginning at 4 weeks of age, 100 pullets should be weighed each week to monitor average body weights and 

uniformity. Uniformity is represented by the percentage of pullets within 10% of the average body weight of 

individuals within the flock. Uniformity at 16 weeks of age is an important indicator of pullet flock quality. Growout programs strive to attain 85-90% body weight uniformity. Changes in feed formulations (starter to grower 

to developer) should be based upon achieving target body weights. 

3.2.2.4 Lighting

The intensity and duration of light during brooding and grow-out directly impacts growth and onset of sexual 

maturity. Day length can be used to prevent or delay onset of egg production in underweight pullets or to encourage

early onset of egg production. Most brooder/growout houses are light-proof and all light exposure comes from electric 

light bulbs. Typically, pullets are exposed to 20-22 hours of light with an intensity of 30 lux during their first week of life. 

During the second week, the number of hours of light is reduced to 20 and the intensity is reduced to 5 lux. Subsequently, 

the number of hours of light per day is slowly reduced to 10-12 hours by 9 to 10 weeks of age. Typical lighting programs 

provide a constant 10-12 hour day length until 18 weeks of age. If optimum average pullet weights are attained, light 

stimulation begins at 17-18 weeks with initial weekly increases in day length of 30 minutes followed by adding an 

additional 15 minutes of light each week until 16 hours of light per day is attained. If maximum egg size is desired, reducing 

day length by 15 minutes per week between 10 and 15 weeks and delaying light stimulation until 19 or 20 weeks of age 

will delay sexual maturity until pullets have heavier body weights resulting in larger eggs, fewer cloacal prolapses, and 

fewer eggs over the production cycle. To promote greater feed consumption, the light period can be reduced more slowly to 

provide more feeding time. To maximize egg numbers, chickens can be exposed to early light stimulation at 15-16 weeks of 

age which results in egg production 7-10 days earlier than normal and smaller eggs during the production cycle.

3.2.3 Laying Hens

3.2.3.1 Feed and Water

Water pipes and feed troughs extend the length of the cage rows and provide feed and water to chickens in each 

cage. One or two nipple or cup drinkers in the rear or upper part of each cage are attached to a water pipe. Feed 

troughs pass along the front of each cage and feed is mechanically moved along the trough by a chain or auger system. 

Feed troughs are filled automatically and are regulated by a time clock.

Watercup and Nipple Feed Auger at a Laying Site
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 105 of 174

3.2.3.2 Egg Collection

Sloped wire mesh floors extend outside of the cages and allow eggs to roll 

beneath the feed trough onto an egg conveyor belt which extends the length 

of the cage rows and transports eggs out of the laying house to the

processing facility. 

3.2.3.3 Light

Most light programs for laying hens during egg production consist of 16 hours 

of light with 10 to 30 lux at bird level and 8 hours of darkness. If light intensity 

is not sufficient, egg production is impaired. If light intensity is too great, 

cannibalism, cloacal prolapse, and nervousness may increase. Dirty light bulbs 

reduce light intensity and need to be cleaned and burnt out light bulbs should 

be promptly replaced.

3.2.3.4 House Temperature

Automated, computer-controlled environments maintain proper temperature, 

light, and humidity. Optimum environmental temperatures range from 57 to 

79°F. Temperatures outside this range adversely affect feed conversion, egg 

production, egg quality, and water consumption. Controlled ventilation and 

insulation are necessary to maintain proper temperatures and humidity. 

3.2.3.5 Mortality

Normal mortality ranges from 0.05%/week in young to mid-age layers, and on up to 0.18%/week in older age flocks. 

In addition to age, normal mortality can be influenced by bird strain, management, and housing style. Depending 

primarily on age, a mortality rate of 0.15-0.20%/week is a threshold signal for producers to take “diagnostic action” 

in young to mid-age laying hens.

3.3 FEEDING AND NUTRITION

3.3.1 Feed Cost and Consumption

Feed is the largest cost of egg production (approximately 60%). Each one million laying hens on a farm require 

approximately 120 tons of feed per day, 7 days per week. Ration formulas are tailored to meet the physiological 

needs of egg-type chickens and optimize their performance during each stage of growth and egg production.

3.3.2 Strain and Age Nutritional Requirements

Feed ingredient quality, strain of layer, and egg size requirements are used to develop a feeding program. Different 

genetic strains of egg-type chickens have different growth profiles and rations must be formulated to meet the 

requirements of each strain. Separate rations are formulated for pullets prior to the onset of sexual maturity (indicated 

by comb development) and for adult hens during the first egg production cycle, molting, and the second egg production 

cycle. First production cycle rations include pre-lay (3 weeks prior to 5% egg production); pre-peak (5% to 50% egg 

production); peak (50% egg production to 3 weeks post-peak); and post-peak. Second egg production cycle rations 

include prelay, peak, and post-peak. Phase feeding can be used to reduce the nutrient content of feed as egg production 

and associated nutritional needs decline. Laying hens are usually fed a mash feed.

3.3.3 Feed Intake, Egg Weight, and Body Weight

Feed intake determines nutrient intake and egg weights provide information about the adequacy of nutrient intake. 

Feed intake and egg weight are monitored throughout the laying period. Feed intake declines with inadequate space 

per bird, after beak trimming, during periods of heat stress, because of inadequate hours of light, following some 

vaccination procedures, and when consuming high energy rations. Adjusting the intake of protein, methionine or 

methionine plus cystine, and/or energy can be used to manage egg size. Feed formulations are adjusted as necessary 

to attain chicken body weight, body weight uniformity, egg production, and egg weight objectives. 

3.3.4 Least Cost Feed Formulation

A professional nutritionist establishes feeding specifications, monitors performance, and revises the program as 

necessary for most egg production companies. Computer software utilizes data concerning nutrient requirements of 

the chickens at specific stages of their life cycle, nutrient content of available feed ingredients, price of available feed 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 106 of 174

ingredients, ingredient restrictions, and nutrient restrictions to generate a ration formula which will meet nutritional 

needs at the least possible cost. Computers are used to formulate diets so that some strains of laying hens can produce 

a dozen eggs on less than 3 pounds of feed and require less than 2 pounds of feed to produce 1 pound of eggs. 

3.3.5 Feed Mixing and Delivery

The mixing system and coordination of delivery are important to a successful feeding program. Feed is mixed 

in automated mills and delivered in covered hopper trucks to feed tanks at the egg farm. Ingredients are stored 

in separate bins, weighed with a computerized batch control system, and mixed under the direction of the batching 

system. Neither feed ingredients nor finished feeds are seen during the mixing process, so feed ingredients should 

be sampled at the mill before delivery and inspected at the farm upon delivery. Layer feed is not pelleted and tends to 

segregate, especially large particles of calcium, so a blend of several samples should be used for analysis. Saving 

samples from each feed delivery for 3 months is recommended.

3.4 LAYING HEN FACILITIES

3.4.1 Cages

Cage systems or “battery cages” are used to house 95% of laying hens in 

the United States. “Battery” refers to a collection of cages. Most cages on 

commercial egg farms hold 5 to 10 laying hens. Cage systems consist 

of enclosures constructed of wire mesh arranged in rows and stacked in 

multiple (4 to 8) tiers in “high rise” or manure belt houses. Approximately 

71% of commercial chicken houses in this country are “high rise” houses 

with two levels - chickens on the upper level and a manure pit on the lower 

level beneath the cages. Fully or partially offset cages with wire mesh floors 

in a stair-stepped “A” frame configuration allow droppings to fall into a 

deep pit below the cages without passing through cages in lower tiers. 

Partially offset cages use a dropping board or plastic shield to protect chickens in cages on lower tiers. In highrise houses, manure forms cones beneath each row of cages and manure removal may occur only once per year. 

About 22% of chicken houses are “manure-belt” houses with a conveyor belt below each tier of cages. In manurebelt houses, manure is removed daily and stored in a separate building. Watering, feeding, and egg collection are 

completely automated. 

3.4.2 Enriched Colony Cages

Chickens in “enriched” or “furnished” cages have access to curtained nest boxes, perches, an abrasive strip to reduce 

excessive growth of claws, and an area for pecking, dust-bathing, and scratching. Dust pans are frequently placed on 

top of the nest boxes. Enriched colony cages house 40-60 hens and provide approximately 50% more space per hen 

than traditional cages.

3.4.3 Cage-Free

Cage-free systems include both floor-raised (deep litter) and aviary systems. Chickens in cage-free systems are kept 

indoors but do not reside in cages and have access to communal nest boxes with automated egg collection, perches, and 

litter. Floor-raised chickens are kept on a single level (the floor) which consists of 1) a slatted-floor area over a shallow

manure pit or manure belt and 2) a litter area over a solid floor. Feeders, waterers, and low perches are placed on the 

slatted floors. Chickens in aviary systems have access to multiple tiered plastic-slatted or welded wire platforms on 

each side of the house separated by a solid floor covered with litter. Feed, water, perches, light, and automated nests 

with egg belt collection are usually available on the tiered platforms. Drinkers 

are frequently placed in front of the nests to encourage chickens to use the nests. 

Each tier may have a manure belt. Platforms are “stair-stepped” so that chickens 

can easily jump from one level to the next. Approximately 5% of eggs produced 

in the United States are from cage-free systems. 

3.4.4 Free Range

Chickens in free range systems have at least some time each day when they 

are given access to an outdoor area. Most free range chicken houses have 

doors along the sides which are opened later in the day after most eggs have 

been laid and closed in the evening. The outdoor area may range from an open 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 107 of 174

pasture to a fenced perimeter area extending along the sides of the house. About 1.8% of laying hens in the United 

States are raised under organic, free range conditions.

3.5 WHOLE SHELL EGGS PROCESSING AND MOVEMENT

3.5.1 Sources of Whole Shell Eggs

3.5.1.1 In-line Eggs

Highly computerized egg processing equipment accepts eggs entering the egg processing plant on conveyor belts 

and automatically washes, candles, weighs, and places eggs into cartons containing different sized eggs (small, 

large, extra-large, or jumbo). The capacity of egg processing equipment influences the number of laying hens on 

a farm. Egg producers strive to have sufficient numbers of hens to keep the processing equipment operating at 

full capacity during an 8-hour shift. Some in-line egg operations purchase eggs from off-line farms so that the 

egg processing equipment can be more fully utilized. Egg processing plants require a dry storage room to hold 

packing materials, a room for the processing equipment, and a cold storage room to hold eggs after they have 

been placed in cartons.

Stand-Alone 

Processing Facility

Washing/Sanitizing -

Grading or Breaking

Off-line Farms

Distribution to Breaking

or Further Processing

(hens may be on premises)

In-line

Processing Facility

Washing/Sanitizing -

Grading or Breaking

In-line Shell

Egg Operation

Distribution to Retail

and Food Service

(no hens on premises)

Hen 

House

Figure 2. Pathways of Shell Egg Processing and Distribution
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 108 of 174

3.5.1.2 Off-line (Nest Run) Eggs

At least 20% of eggs are packed off-line. An in-line egg operation may receive eggs from one or more off-line 

operations and this process is called “side loading.” Nest run eggs from off-line farms may be transported to the 

“transfer room” of an in-line facility. In the transfer room, shell eggs from off-line operations are removed from 

their bulk packaging (pallets, racks, and flats) and introduced via vacuum lifts to an egg conveyor belt prior to 

washing. Nest run eggs are merged with eggs from the in-line facility on the egg conveyor belt. Nest-run eggs may 

be marketed via the “spot market” or as part of contractual agreements made between producers and processors of 

shell eggs or egg products. 

C

D

Figure 3. Nest-Run Egg Production and Processing

Farm X

Nest-Run Egg Operation 

(Off-line)

Hen 

House

Egg Packaging Location

A Truck carrying eggs from Farm X may stop 

 to pick up eggs at Farm Y

B Eggs may be delivered to distribution center

C Eggs may be delivered to stand-alone 

 processing facility (no hens on premises)

D Eggs may be integrated into mixed 

 operation for processing

Nest-Run Egg Operation 

(Off-line)

Hen 

House

Egg Packaging Location

Farm Y

Stand-Alone 

Processing Facility

Washing Grading or Breaking

A

B

Movement of eggs/materials

Circulation of materials

In-Line Operation with side 

loading Processing Facility

Washing Grading or Breaking

Hen 

House

Nest-run eggs moved off-farm 

along with associated materials

Distribution Center
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 109 of 174

3.5.2 Steps in Whole Shell Egg Processing

Approximately 70% of eggs produced in the United States are sold as whole shell eggs. Shell egg operations 

include 1) washing; 2) sanitizing external egg surfaces; 3) candling/inspection of shell eggs; 4) weighing, 

grading and packaging shell eggs; and 5) storage and transport to market. Egg washer conveyors move eggs 

into the egg washing machine where they are washed with detergents. Contamination of internal contents 

is minimized during washing by prohibiting immersion of eggs in the wash water and requiring that the 

temperature of the wash water be maintained at 90°F or higher, and at least 20°F warmer than the temperature 

of the eggs to be washed. USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service recommends an egg washing temperature 

of 110°F which improves egg cleaning. Immediately following the detergent wash, shell eggs are sanitized 

by rinsing with potable water containing an approved sanitizer, such as chlorine or quaternary ammonium 

compounds. Chlorine rinse water must contain between 100 ppm and 200 ppm chlorine. Sanitizing the external 

surface of the egg does not remove pathogens that may be present in the albumen or yolk, such as Salmonella 

enteritidis. After the sanitizing rinse and drying, egg processors have the option of coating the surface of 

shell eggs with a food grade mineral oil to conserve albumen quality. Candling is a process wherein eggs are 

passed over an intense light that allows internal and external defects to be detected. Eggs with internal defects 

are identified by workers or by computerized detection equipment and removed for disposal as inedible egg 

products. Eggs with external defects, such as fecal material on external shell surfaces, are removed from the line 

for rewashing. Eggs are weighed individually by specialized computer-controlled machines and automatically 

directed into separate packing lanes based on individual egg weights. Eggs may be placed on cardboard, foam 

or plastic flats or in cartons containing 12, 18, or 30 eggs. Egg cases can be stored on site in a cold storage room 

or immediately transported to distributors or customers. Cold storage rooms must be refrigerated and capable 

of maintaining an ambient temperature no greater that 45°F (7.2°C). Shell egg cooler rooms must be equipped 

with accurate thermometers to monitor cooler room temperatures and a device to measure relative humidity. 

Humidifying equipment capable of maintaining sufficient relative humidity to minimize shrinkage should be 

used. Shell eggs destined for breaking plants may be temporarily held at a warehouse or go directly to an egg 

breaking facility. U.S. egg producers pack about 140 million cases of eggs each year.

Egg Washing System

Egg Packaging System Eggs in Cartons and in Boxes

Candling of Eggs
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 110 of 174

3.6 EGG BREAKING AND LIQUID EGG MOVEMENT

3.6.1 Sources of Breaking Eggs

Egg breaking operations process approximately 30% of eggs produced in the United States. Breaking facilities can 

be located on the farm where the eggs are produced (in-line and on-site) or at some other off-site location. Egg 

breaking operations may obtain eggs from company-owned farms or purchase eggs from other egg producers who 

have surplus eggs. All eggs produced on company-owned farms are sent to breaking and high quality eggs from 

these farms result in high quality finished products. Eggs purchased from other egg producers have traditionally 

consisted of undersized, oversized, cracked, dirty, or stained eggs.

3.6.1.1 In-Line Eggs

In-line operations may produce washed, sanitized, and graded shell eggs for retail or food service customers 

and concurrently send eggs to a breaking plant. Surplus, small, and under-grade eggs may be diverted to a 

company-owned, on-site breaking facility or transported to a stand-alone regional breaking plant at another 

location. Eggs are collected from individual barns and carried to on-site breaking plants via a collection of 

belts and conveyors. Large in-line egg farms with breaking plants may have up to 4 million laying hens on the 

premises. Some in-line operations have equipment arranged so that shell eggs from other farms can be side 

loaded and merged with eggs produced on their own farm. In contrast, other in-line facilities break only eggs 

produced on that farm. 

3.6.1.2 Off-line (Nest Run) Eggs

Nest run eggs can be delivered to either an in-line egg operation with a breaking plant or taken to a stand-alone, 

centrally located egg breaking plant that receives shell eggs for breaking from multiple farms. Nest run eggs are 

usually held in bulk until they are broken. 

3.6.2 Egg Breaking Machines and Products

3.6.2.1 Steps in Egg Breaking

The primary steps associated with egg breaking are 1) washing the shell eggs; 2) sanitizing external shell surfaces; 

3) candling/inspecting the shell eggs; 4) breaking the shell and separating the contents; 5) screening and chilling 

liquid eggs; and 6) storage and transport for further processing.

3.6.2.2 Breaking Machines

Breaking machines are located in a separate room from the transfer and washing processes. Breaking machines are 

mechanical devices designed to open individual shell eggs in a series of operations that allow control and inspection 

of each individual egg. Individual eggs are picked up by the machine, the shell is broken, and contents of each egg 

are secured in an individual “cup” for inspection. High speed machines have the capacity to break up to 140,000 

eggs per hour.

3.6.2.3 Non-pasteurized Liquid Egg Products

Machines may be set up to produce liquid whole eggs (natural proportions of yolk and white), liquid yolk, and/

or liquid egg whites. Production of liquid yolk and liquid white is known as “separation”. Liquid egg is collected 

as separate streams of whole egg, whites, or yolk and pumped through screens that remove shell fragments and 

break down native structures of the yolk membrane and egg white. The screening process results in homogeneous 

fluids that are transferred via stainless steel-enclosed pipes through a heat exchanger where the temperature 

of liquid egg components is reduced to ≤ 40°F prior to accumulation in chilled storage tanks. Non-pasteurized 

liquid egg (NPLE) is held in chilled and agitated storage tanks until transfer for further processing at the breaking 

location or at an off-site facility. Approximately 425,000 eggs are required to fill a single 50,000-pound liquid 

egg tanker truck. Regardless of the plant location, all shell eggs are converted to liquid egg for further processing 

as depicted in Figure 4. 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 111 of 174

Figure 4. Egg Breaking Operations.

This document describes how a Breaking Plant converts 

shell egg to nonpastuerized liquid egg products and 

prepares for transport to an off-site egg 

pasteurization facility.

Eggs are placed on the conveyor, automatically indexed 

into rows and guided through the egg washers. Egg 

washers employ rows of mechanical brushes to scrub the

shell; heated water (min 90°F and ≥20°F egg temp) with 

USDA approved caustic detergent added; and a series of 

spray bars to clean the shells.

Eggs are then conveyed under a sanitizing spray 

where the egg shells are flooded with a 100 to 200 

ppm chlorine.

Immediately following the egg wash, each egg is fully 

inspected via the candling process. Unclean eggs are 

removed and sent back for rewash; cracked or rejected 

eggs are placed in the waste inedible egg system. 

Eggs then move into the breaking room - a separate 

room from washing. 

The egg breaking machine automatically breaks open 

the eggshell and allows the liquid to drain out.

Egg whites and egg yolks move across an inspection

station and are 100% visually inspected.

Liquid egg products are pushed through in-line 

screening filters.

Liquid egg is moved through closed system piping 

where it is immediately cooled to 40°F or below.

Liquid egg is then piped into an enclosed temperature 

controlled storage silo.

From the storage silo the liquid egg is piped into a 

washed, sanitized and inspected insulated food grade 

stainless steel tanker. The tanker is sealed by FSIS prior 

to movement from the breaking facility.

Liquid egg is then transported to a further processor 

where it is, by law, pasteurized.

Egg Breaking Plant 

Flow Chart

Egg Washing

Shell Egg

Sanitizer Spray

Shell Egg Candling

Shell Egg Break

Produces 

Liquid Whole Egg

Liquid Egg Yolk

Liquid Egg White

 Liquid Whole 

Egg Filtering

 Liquid Egg 

Yolk Filtering

 Liquid Egg 

White Filtering

 Liquid Whole 

Egg Cooling

 Liquid Egg 

Yolk Cooling

 Liquid Egg 

White Cooling

 Liquid Whole 

Egg Storage

 Liquid Egg 

Yolk Storage

 Liquid Egg 

White Storage

 Liquid Whole 

Egg Transport

 Liquid Egg 

Yolk Transport

 Liquid Egg 

White Transport

Further

 Processing

Further

Processing

Further 

Processing

9CFR Ref.

590.515

590.51

590.516

590.522(o)

590.52

590.522(v)

590.53; 590.532

590.522(y)

3.6.3 Non-pasteurized Liquid Egg Products Movement

Non-pasteurized liquid egg products are transported under Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) seal in large insulated 

tanker trucks or in smaller containers such as “totes” or plastic “lined barrels.” Transfers to tankers, and/or other containers, 

are accomplished using sanitary enclosed transfer lines and pumps. FSIS inspectors inspect the condition of the tanker or 

containers prior to loading NPLE, monitor the transfer of NPLE to transport tankers or containers, provide documentation 

that will accompany the NPLE in transport, and seal the tanker or transport vehicle. At the receiving destination, FSIS 

inspectors are required to receive the NPLE, break the seal, and document the condition of the contents when received. 

Tankers are offloaded via flexible lines that connect the tank truck to pumps and stainless steel receiving lines and storage 

tanks. Totes are generally emptied by attaching a line with a pump to transfer the liquid contents to enclosed lines. Product 

in barrels may be emptied via pumps or barrel-dumps, and the NPLE is then handled via enclosed process lines.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 112 of 174

3.6.4 Pasteurized Liquid Egg Products Movement

Pasteurization of liquid eggs is required by law and may occur at an in-line or off-line breaking plant. Pasteurized liquid 

egg may be moved from the pasteurized storage tank at an in-line breaking plant by pumping it directly into large tanker 

trucks and transported off the premises for further processing at a different location. Alternatively, pasteurized liquid 

eggs at a stand-alone centrally located egg breaking plant can be moved through internal pipes for further on-premises 

processing such as cooking, drying, and packaging. Pasteurized liquid egg products from stand-alone plants are moved 

to appropriate distribution warehouses to be transported to customers at a later time. The journey of liquid egg product 

after pasteurization until it is put on conveyance trucks to be transported off the premises is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Liquid Egg Handling

Pasteurized 

Storage Tank

Cooking

Various

Packaging

Packaging Packaging

Drying

Pasteurized Liquid Egg 

for Transportation O 

the Premises

Distribution 

Warehouse

Distribution 

Warehouse

Distribution 

Warehouse

Packaged Pasteurized 

Liquid Egg Produces 

for Transportation o 

the Premises

Packing

Materials

Warehouse

3.7 MOVEMENT OF OTHER PRODUCTS

3.7.1 Manure

During egg production, the amount of manure produced each day is approximately equal to the quantity of feed 

consumed. Manure from laying hens may contain more than 70% moisture. High-rise and manure belt chicken 

houses use manure-drying systems to reduce the volume and weight of manure and to minimize odors caused by 

ammonia production. High-rise chicken houses provide space for manure storage on the lower level, beneath the cages. 

Droppings fall through the wire mesh floors of cages on the upper level into a manure storage area on the lower level. 

Drying occurs as air moves over manure cones that form beneath each row of cages. Manure is typically removed 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 113 of 174

from the lower level during warm months of the year when the ground is not frozen. In manure-belt houses, droppings 

fall through the wire mesh floors onto a manure conveyor belt. In these houses, manure is removed on a regular basis 

(daily, twice weekly, or weekly) and stored in a separate building where drying and composting occurs. Manure is a 

valuable source of organic matter, nitrogen, and phosphorus for plants and is used as a fertilizer for crops. Manure 

disposal usually occurs by spreading on crop land or grassland.

Manure Pit Manure Storage on a Laying Farm

3.7.2 Egg Shells

Shells are a by-product of normal egg grading and processing activities. Eggs with leaking shells, dirty eggs, or eggs 

accidentally broken and recovered from equipment, floors, or other surfaces during processing are separated into 

shells and inedible liquid egg product. The mixture of eggs, egg contents, and shells is pumped through a centrifuge 

where shells are removed from liquid egg contents. The centrifugation process physically reduces shells to small 

pieces of shell and shell membranes. Shells from egg breaking machines are continuously conveyed to a centrifuge. 

Wet centrifuged shells may be collected in trucks or bins for transport to off-site drying, to a landfill, to land application, 

or they may be continuously conveyed to an on-site dryer. 

Shell drying is usually conducted using horizontal drum dryers. Centrifuged shells are conveyed into the drum dryer 

where they are mixed with air heated to temperatures in the range of 1,000 to 1,500°F. The body of the dryer rotates 

around its long axis imparting a tumbling action to the shells so that there is constant mixing of shells with hot air. 

During this process, water is evaporated such that the moisture content of the dried shells/membranes is reduced to less 

than 8%. The exit temperature of the shells and exhaust air is in the range of 210 to 220°F. Dried shells are an excellent 

source of calcium and phosphorus in proportions required by laying hens and are frequently included in laying 

hen rations. Also, dried shells may be transported to off-site locations for land applications or other industrial uses. 

3.7.3 Inedible Liquid Egg

Inedible liquid egg is a by-product of normal egg grading and processing activities and may include eggs whose shelf life 

has expired or processed eggs that do not meet specifications. A mixture of eggs and shells may be collected in barrels 

and held under refrigeration for transport to a dedicated processing facility or the mixture may be pumped through a 

centrifuge where the shells are removed from the liquid egg (see 7.2 above). Inedible liquid egg has the composition and 

physical characteristics of whole liquid egg and generally is partially diluted with water used to clear the lines. It may also 

contain non-egg ingredients such as salt, sugar, gums, starch, and non-fat dried milk that are normal ingredients in egg 

product formulations. Liquid inedible egg is generally chilled and held at temperatures below 45°F until transported to 

drying facilities or processed. Inedible liquid egg is by definition not suitable for human consumption, but may be suitable 

for animal food. Egg products inspection regulations require all inedible egg to be denatured (typically by adding a food 

grade dye) to prevent accidental use for human food. See 9 CFR 590.45 or 7 CFR 57.45.

3.8 REGULATION OF SHELL EGG AND EGG BREAKING OPERATIONS

3.8.1 Egg Farms and Laying Hens

Federal regulations concerning laying hens and eggs are written to ensure food safety by preventing contamination

of food with particular pathogens, such as Salmonella spp. Regulation of chickens producing eggs for human 

consumption is the responsibility of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). On July 9, 2009, FDA published 

in the Federal Register a final rule entitled “Prevention of Salmonella Enteritidis in Shell Eggs During Production, 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 114 of 174

Transportation, and Storage.” The regulation became effective on July 9, 2010 for producers with 50,000 or more 

laying hens and will become effective on July 9, 2012 for producers with 3,000 or more laying hens. The Egg Safety 

Rule is intended to reduce Salmonella enteritidis (SE) and requires a) monitoring of pullets, b) minimum biosecurity 

standards, c) rodent and insect control, d) cleaning and disinfection of poultry houses, e) refrigeration of eggs on the 

farm (45°F or less), f) environmental monitoring, and g) record keeping.

3.8.2 Shell Eggs

Regulation of shell eggs is shared among various Federal agencies and State governments, or shell eggs may 

be processed according to industry-generated protocols. Federal authority to regulate egg safety is shared by the 

Department of Health and Human Services’ (HHS’) Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the United States 

Department of Agriculture’s (USDA’s) Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS). In addition, USDA’s Animal 

and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) supervises the National Poultry Improvement Plan which certifies 

poultry breeding stock and hatcheries as SE-free and USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) conducts a 

surveillance program to ensure proper disposition of restricted shell eggs (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Egg Safety from Production to Consumption

Chick 

Breeding

(APHIS)

Egg Laying 

on Farm

(FDA)

Shell Egg

Packing

(FDA, AMS)

Egg Products

Processing

(FSIS)

Shell Egg

Transport

(FSIS)

Egg Products

Transport

(FDA)

Home

Restaurants/

Institutions

(FDA)

Wholesale

(FDA)

Retail

(FDA)

Hen 

House

Production

Processing

Distribution:

Transportation

Distribution:

Storage

Handling and 

Preparation
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 115 of 174

FDA has jurisdiction over the safety of foods generally, including shell eggs, under the Federal Food, Drug, and 

Cosmetic Act (FFDCA; 21 U.S.C. 301 et seq.). Under the Public Health Service Act (PHSA; 42 U.S.C. 201 et seq.), 

FDA also has the authority to prevent the spread of communicable diseases, including the authority to regulate foods 

when the foods may act as a vector of disease, as in the case of SE in eggs. FDA is responsible for: (1) investigating SE 

outbreaks, reported by CDC and State/local health departments, due to foods in interstate commerce, (2) performing 

trace backs to identify the source of the implicated eggs, (3) testing flocks, (4) diverting eggs from SE-positive flocks, 

(5) collecting flock data to help track the spread of SE among layer flocks, and (6) promoting better quality control.

USDA has primary responsibility for implementing the Egg Products Inspection Act (EPIA; 21 U.S.C. 1031 

et seq.). Under EPIA, FSIS has primary responsibility for the inspection of processed egg products to prevent the 

distribution of adulterated or misbranded egg products. The AMS offers a voluntary shell egg grading program 

(7CFR56) which includes minimum facility sanitation and construction requirements as well as daily oversight of 

egg wash and rinse water temperatures, sanitizer strength, and cold storage temperatures. Also, AMS oversees a 

shell egg surveillance program that places limitations on restricted eggs, such as eggs that are cracked, dirty, contain 

blood, leak fluid, or are inedible (7CFR57). The shell egg surveillance program prevents the movement or sale of 

adulterated or misbranded eggs for human food. Eggs in cartons bearing the USDA shield have been graded and 

checked for weight and the carton must include a code which identifies the packing plant and day of packing. Shell 

egg operations that do not fall under 9CFR590 and choose not to participate in the voluntary AMS shell egg grading 

program typically adhere to state regulations or follow industry-generated protocols. State regulations vary, and 

many states rely on industry protocols rather than regulating shell operations at the state level.

3.8.3 Breaking Plants and Egg Products

FSIS is responsible for inspection of egg breaking plants and the inspection of liquid, frozen, and dried egg products 

used by food manufacturers, food service, institutions, and retail markets. FSIS mandates specific washing and 

sanitization conditions for eggs prior to breaking (9CFR590) and all plants breaking eggs under 9CFR590.24 are 

required to have continuous inspection by an FSIS inspector. Inspectors must be onsite whenever breaking equipment 

is operating unless specifically exempted. FSIS requires a label that indicates refrigeration of egg products is needed. 

Egg products may be shipped between official plants as either unpasteurized (raw) or pasteurized egg products in 

bulk tankers. When bulk shipments of liquid egg products are handled in this manner they are required by regulation 

[9 CFR 590.410 (b)] to be shipped under USDA seal (cannot be a company seal) and be accompanied with a FSIS PY200, Egg Products Inspection and Grading Certificate. The USDA commodity specification for the egg product requires 

a tamper evident seal to be applied to tanker shipments. Seals applied to such shipments are normally embossed with an 

alpha-numeric code. Alpha-numeric codes on seals and proper sealing of tankers are verified by an FSIS inspector prior 

to shipment. Individual seal codes are documented on USDA certificates accompanying shipments.

Bulk Tanker shipments of pasteurized liquid egg products to non-official outlets (further processors or manufacturers 

that are not official FSIS plants) are not required to be shipped under USDA seal and certificate. FSIS highly 

recommends for biosecurity purposes and to maintain the integrity of these shipments that the shipping plant seal/

secure the shipment to maintain product integrity and protect the product against tampering. 

PART II: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE

3.9 BIOSECURITY MEASURES

3.9.1 Biosecurity Concepts

Biosecurity encompasses procedures that reduce the probability of disease outbreaks and includes two components: 

bioexclusion prior to an outbreak (keeping pathogens out) and biocontainment after an outbreak (keeping pathogens 

from leaving an infected premises to prevent disease transmission). Components of a comprehensive biosecurity 

plan include conceptual biosecurity, structural biosecurity, and operational biosecurity. Conceptual biosecurity refers 

to selecting the location of an operation to provide isolation of the premises. Poultry farms should be geographically 

separated from other poultry units. Relationship of the farm site to lakes, ponds, rivers, public roads, hatcheries, and 

feed mills needs to be considered. Disease agents may be blown or carried by various vectors and fomites to adjacent 

premises. Structural biosecurity requires that buildings in a complex be separated into quarantinable units by erecting 

fences and building roads in appropriate places. Decontamination equipment, showers, and change rooms should

be installed for employees. Houses, food storage areas, and water tanks should be constructed to exclude free-flying
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 116 of 174

wild birds, rats, and mice. Operational biosecurity consists of management decisions and routine procedures intended 

to prevent introduction of infectious disease agents.

3.9.2 Farm Outside Areas

Footwear disinfection stations, site-provided footwear, or site-provided foot covers should be available outside all 

external entrances. External entrances to chicken houses and the processing plant should be kept locked during 

non-business hours. Secure entry gates should require visitors to obtain permission before entering the premises.

3.9.3 People

Keep out unnecessary visitors and equipment and allow only essential 

personnel on the farm. A visitors logbook should record the a) visitor’s

name, b) company, c) time of entry, d) statement confirming no contact 

with premises containing birds or rendering activities during the preceding 

48 hours, e) time of leaving, and f) a contact telephone number. Employees 

should receive biosecurity training and should not own or come into 

contact with other birds – including pet birds, domestic chickens, fighting 

chickens, ducks, geese, waterfowl, exotic birds, quail, partridge, or pheasants. 

Employees should not hunt waterfowl or upland gamebirds. Workers should 

wear clean, laundered, or new disposable coveralls and boots. Separate outer 

clothing should be assigned to individual houses. Hands should be washed and disinfected on entry and exit from houses. 

If drivers are required to make multiple stops at more than one individual farm in any given day, they should be prohibited 

from entering chicken houses or egg processing areas. Visitors must not enter chicken houses unless absolutely necessary. 

3.9.4 Chickens

Records of daily feed consumption, water consumption, egg production, and mortality should be available for each flock 

since placement in the chicken house. In commercial egg operations, a flock consists of all laying hens within one house.

3.9.5 Pest and Animal Control

Rodents and insects can transmit disease between houses on a premises and between premises. They can also serve as a 

reservoir of disease whereby an infectious agent survives from one flock to the next. Rodent and insect control programs 

must be in place to prevent transmission of infectious disease by rats, mice, other rodents, flies, beetles, and other insects. 

Cats and dogs must not be allowed in chicken houses and egg processing areas. Backyard poultry must be excluded from 

the premises and control measures to discourage the presence of wild and migratory birds should be in place.

3.9.6 Cleaning and Disinfection of Vehicles, Equipment, and Egg Handling Materials

Clean manure spreaders, tractors, truck tires, and undercarriages with a strong detergent and then apply disinfectant 

to kill disease-causing micro-organisms that can linger on surfaces. Equipment and tools brought to the farm must 

be cleaned and disinfected prior to entering the farm. Avoid lending or borrowing equipment to or from producers on 

other premises – equipment may carry infectious agents. Only clean, sanitized, and disinfected plastic egg flats or 

new disposable egg flats should be allowed on the premises.

3.9.7 Feed

Feed bins must be secured to prevent contamination by wild birds or rodents. Spilled feed should be cleaned up 

promptly to prevent attracting wild birds and rodents.

3.9.8 Manure Removal

Manure trucks must never go from one poultry farm to another on the same day. Manure trucks must be washed with 

detergent and disinfected prior to arrival at the farm.

3.10 PROVIDING ANIMAL CARE

3.10.1 Feed

During a disease response, the on-farm inventory of feed must be promptly ascertained along with the rate at which 

it will be depleted in order to determine when more feed will be needed. Transportation routes may be disrupted, 

so plans for alternate feed sources and delivery routes should be made before the situation arises. Depending on the 

feeding system in place, manual feeding may be required. Records should be maintained including the date, origin, 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 117 of 174

and amount of the feed delivery. Ration formulations must be followed to avoid disruption of egg production. Feeder 

space should be sufficient to allow all birds to eat at the same time.

3.10.2 Water

Chicks, pullets, and hens should have continuous access to clean drinking water. The manufacturer’s guidelines for 

the number and placement of drinkers should be consulted, but general recommendations for watering space for 

layers are as follows:

6-18 weeks 0.8 minutes 15

0-6 weeks 0.6 minutes 20

older than 18 weeks 1.0 minutes 12

Age Minimum linear trough 

space/bird 

Maximum number of birds

per cup or nipple

Table 3. General Recommendations for Watering Space for Layers

Perimeter space needed for round waterers can be determined by multiplying linear trough space by 0.8 inches. Water 

pressure must be regulated carefully with automatic devices and watering cups. Manufacturer recommendations should 

be used initially and adjusted if necessary to obtain optimal results. Automatic watering devices may require frequent 

inspection to avoid malfunctions. Inspectors should test the drinking systems in at least 4 cages to be sure that they are 

functioning properly.

3.10.3 Ventilation

Poultry houses should be designed to provide a continuous flow of fresh air for every bird. Ventilation systems 

usually consist of a series of fans and/or louvered openings. Fans and louvers must both operate properly to allow 

adequate air flow. Sufficient ventilation to minimize levels of carbon monoxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and 

dust is critically important. Ammonia concentration to which chickens are exposed should ideally be less than 

10 ppm and should not exceed 25 ppm. In pullet or layer houses that require mechanized ventilation, stand-by 

generators with alarm systems must be provided and tested regularly. Such systems should be sufficient to supply 

emergency power for lighting, watering, ventilation, and feeding.

3.10.4 Light

Lights should be provided to allow effective inspection of the feed delivery and water systems and the physical condition 

of layers in each cage. Inspection of the chickens should be conducted daily. Light intensity should be 0.5 to 1.0 foot 

candle for all birds at feeding levels during production. Specialized equipment is needed to measure the intensity of light.

3.10.5 Environmental Temperature

Environmental conditions within the house should allow the birds to maintain their normal body temperature 

without difficulty. Chicks cannot regulate their body temperature, so providing supplemental heat in brooder houses 

is critical. Enclosed and environmentally controlled layer houses are insulated and body heat from the chickens 

provides heat for the house. 

3.11 PRODUCT HANDLING

3.11.1 Whole Shell Eggs

Prior to processing, confirm that the equipment is clean and ready for operation. Ensure that water levels are correct, 

wash water is at the target temperature (above 90 °F), chemical supply lines for detergents and sanitizers are connected, 

concentrations are at supplier recommendations, and the fresh water supply line is open. Sign the operation log, noting the 

date and time, temperature of wash and rinse, detergent concentration, and chlorine concentration in rinse. After completing 

all pre-operation checks, introduce eggs into the washing system. Maintain the operating log, noting the temperature of 

wash and rinse waters; detergent, chlorine, or other disinfectant concentrations; and condition of wash water for excessive 

foaming and egg buildup. Systems where detergent is manually added require more frequent monitoring of detergent or 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 118 of 174

chemical strengths than those featuring automated monitoring of concentration. Chlorine in the rinse must be at or above 

100 ppm and less than 200 ppm. Make corrections as required to operate the system in established ranges for temperature 

and chemical concentrations. Note corrective actions in the operating log. At mid-shift, drain the wash water tank and 

perform mid-shift cleaning. Repeat pre-operational checks before starting operations. See 7 Code of Federal Regulations

(CFR) 56.77(f) (1–15) or 9 CFR 590.515 and 516. Additional procedures and documentation may be required when 

operating or receiving flocks in a Control Area defined by the State Veterinarian’s office or APHIS veterinary representative.

3.11.2 Clean-in-Place Requirements for Liquid Egg Tankers, Lines, and Silos

The following procedures are recommended minimum steps for cleaning and disinfection (C&D) of plastic, 

washable, egg-handling materials. Minimal requirements are given to clean egg tankers, lines, and silos in 

relation to time, temperature, concentration, and flow. Procedures require appropriate system design to wet all 

surfaces. Prepare the clean-in-place (CIP) system as defined for the plant. Execute the CIP, meeting the minimal 

time, temperature, concentration, and flow requirements outlined in the tables below.

Process

Caustic wash

Pre-rinse

Rinse*

Sanitizer

Time

7.0 minutes

5.0 minutes

3.0 minutes

2.0 minutes

Temperature

150 ̊F

Ambient

Ambient

Ambient

Concentration

1.5-2.5%

1500-2500 ppm

Flow

70 gal/min

Table 4. Clean-in-Place Requirements for Liquid Egg Tankers

Process

Caustic wash

Pre-rinse

Rinse*

Sanitizer

* Apply an acid rinse as needed to remove mineral build-up (minimum 5,000ppm).

Time

10.0 minutes

5.0 minutes

5.0 minutes

2.0 minutes

Temperature

150 ̊F

Ambient

Ambient

Ambient

Concentration

1.5-2.5%

1500-2500 ppm

Flow

> 5ft/sec

Table 5. Clean-in-Place Requirements for Liquid Egg Lines

Process

Caustic wash

Pre-rinse

Rinse*

Sanitizer

* Apply an acid rinse as needed to remove mineral build-up (minimum 5,000ppm).

Time

15.0 minutes

5.0 minutes

5.0 minutes

2.0 minutes

Temperature

150 ̊F

Ambient

Ambient

Ambient

Concentration

1.5-2.5%

1500-2500 ppm

Flow

70 gal/min

Table 6. Clean-in-Place Requirements for Liquid Egg Silos
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 119 of 174

3.11.3 Liquid Egg Tanker Exterior Wash Procedure

Make sure that all openings on the tanker are closed tightly. Clean the undercarriage and tires with a high-pressure 

washer and appropriate detergent to remove dirt or ice. Foam the entire exterior of the tanker, undercarriage of the 

trailer, and tires with a soft, metal-type, general purpose foaming cleaner. Follow the manufacturer recommended 

procedures for this product. Let foam sit on all areas for 5 to 10 minutes. Rinse with a quaternary ammonium 

or chlorine sanitizer after foam. Minimum sanitizer concentration for quaternary sanitizer is 200 ppm (or per 

manufacturer’s recommendation). Minimum sanitizer concentration for chlorine is 50 ppm. Check the concentration 

of the sanitizer on every tanker and record the results on the exterior wash certificate. After all areas are rinsed with 

sanitizer, complete the exterior wash certificate. Give one copy of the exterior wash certificate to the driver and file 

the other copy with the tanker unloading paperwork.

3.11.4 Egg Shells

Produce, collect, and handle shells consistent with good manufacturing practices. Clean and maintain all transport 

vehicles following protocols for C&D of exteriors and interiors (and cab interior if drivers are allowed outside of the 

cab during loading or unloading of the wet shells). Remove all debris and organic material through physical cleaning

and high-pressure washing. Wash with an approved detergent and rinse with potable water. Apply an approved 

disinfectant, following label instructions. Clean the cab interior with approved disinfectants. Document by filling out 

the dryer log and provide supporting information as needed.

3.11.5 Inedible Liquid Egg

Produce, collect, and handle inedible liquid egg consistent with good manufacturing practices. Maintain inedible egg 

at temperatures less than 45 °F until pasteurized and dried or otherwise heat-treated. Clean and maintain all process 

lines, centrifuges, bins, trucks, and dryers following protocols for CIP of liquid process systems, including the interior 

and exterior of tankers, hand-cleaning where applicable. Clean and disinfect the interiors of trucks transporting 

inedible eggs in barrels or similar containers following procedures for cleaning interiors of trucks transporting nest 

run shell eggs. At the drying facility, pasteurize the inedible liquid egg. For inedible liquid egg with solids less than 

25 percent, process with a minimum hold time of 188 seconds at 60 °C (140 °F ). Maintain pasteurized inedible egg 

under refrigeration until dried and packaged. Maintain dried, inedible egg following good manufacturing process. 

Applications of inedible egg may include a thermal heating or cooking preparation procedure for feeding to animals. 

Thermal treatments exceeding 70 °C (158 °F) should be acceptable. Document by filling out the pasteurization log 

and providing supporting information as needed.

3.11.6 Manure

Manure truck drivers must remain in the truck at the pullet or layer farm and remain in the truck cab during manure 

loading, removal, and vehicle cleaning and disinfection. Individuals involved in manure loading, collection, removal, 

or vehicle cleaning should wear dedicated clothing and use dedicated equipment. These activities should be recorded 

in a logbook with the date, time, and the person’s name. Individuals spreading manure should wear disposable plastic 

boots (at a minimum) and leave them outside the vehicle. Before entering a personal vehicle and leaving the farm, 

individuals involved in manure removal should shower (if possible), change clothes and shoes, and clean the interior 

of their personal vehicles.

Manure-hauling vehicles should be cleaned and disinfected before arriving at the designated location for the first 

time. At the farm or site entrance and exit, clean and disinfect the undercarriage and tires using a portable sprayer or 

similar suitable equipment. Unload the manure at the designated dump point. A designated unloading person should 

be present at the dump site so the driver can remain in the cab. At the end of the working day, if the truck will not 

be coming back to the same farm or site, it should be cleaned. Remove all visible organic matter with a pressurized 

sprayer. Thoroughly clean the inside and outside of the vehicle and spreader or trailer with foam or spray detergent 

and designated brush. Rinse with water.

3.11.7 Mortalities

Each morning, dead chickens should be removed from the cages and from the houses. The goal of carcass disposal 

is to facilitate decomposition of carcasses and destruction of any pathologic disease agent present while limiting 

the spread of disease. One method will not fit all circumstances so several carcass disposal options should be 

considered. Composting is accomplished by placing carcasses and carbon sources such as litter, straw or wood 

shavings, in simple uninsulated bins and allowing normal decay processes carried out by bacteria and fungi to occur. 

Additional disposal methods include incineration, on-site burial, burial in public landfills, and rendering.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 120 of 174

3.12 SURVEILLANCE

Within 48 hours of the identification of the index case, a surveillance plan will be implemented to define the extent 

of the highly contagious FAD outbreak and to detect unknown but Infected Premises and new cases quickly through 

a combination of observation and laboratory testing. This surveillance plan may include the susceptible wildlife 

population in the area. Information will also be gathered for a surveillance plan to identify disease-free zones so 

that this portion of the plan can be implemented within seven days of the identification of the index case. Infected, 

Contact, Suspect and At-Risk Premises will all be involved in some level of surveillance in an effort to control and 

contain disease spread or determine freedom from disease. Initial surveillance of susceptible animals will be visual 

inspection. As soon as practical, surveillance will include laboratory testing of susceptible animals. Contact and 

Suspect Premises should be inspected at least three times per maximum incubation period for the disease under 

investigation. During the highly contagious FAD event, surveillance could include on-farm observation, testing 

market animals, and at slaughter.

3.12.1 People

Visitors and employees can introduce or spread disease to susceptible animals if steps are not taken to mitigate these 

risks prior to entry. Sanitation and hygiene practices are important to prevent disease agent spread and include 

wearing clean clothing, coveralls, footwear, and washing hands before and after animal contact or glove removal. If 

the highly contagious FAD is zoonotic, additional personal protective equipment must be worn by all those handling 

animals. The movement of people on and off the farm during a disease event must be documented to aid exposure 

assessments. Using a written log to record name, contact information, last contact with a susceptible animal species,

and reason for being on farm including facilities entered/animals contacted is crucial. Prior to a disease event, records 

of this information may not be as readily available on all operations. During an outbreak, personnel on farm should 

be limited to those essential for the day-to-day operation, making it easier to trace and minimize the risk of disease 

introduction. For all employees, records should be kept that includes their name, address, phone numbers, emergency 

contact, and information pertaining to off-site animal contact. In the event of a zoonotic highly contagious FAD, 

public health officials may recommend human surveillance via diagnostic testing. Contacting employees will be 

critical. Higher risk personnel on a poultry operation are those individuals that visit multiple premises within a given 

day and have contact with other poultry or their housing areas. This includes employees having off-farm avian 

contact, veterinarians, and service providers such as individuals hired to beak trim, vaccinate, or move chickens, 

equipment repair personnel, rendering trucks, feed delivery persons, and sales persons. Strict adherence to biosecurity 

protocols should be required for farm entry and avian contact during an highly contagious FAD event.

3.12.2 Vehicle Traffic

Vehicles and equipment can indirectly expose susceptible birds through mechanical disease transmission. Installing 

a barrier that requires vehicles to stop before entering the premises provides an additional control point and can 

facilitate monitoring and recording vehicle details. Cleaning and disinfecting tires, wheel wells, and the undercarriage 

of all vehicles which enter or leave a farm will likely be required on all Infected or Monitored Premises. It may be 

prudent to park vehicles that are not required on farm off-site. People and vehicle traffic on and off an operation during 

a disease outbreak should be documented. A written or electronic record describing the vehicle, driver name and 

contact information, last farm(s) visited, and reason for visit should be maintained for tracking purposes. This could 

be challenging for operations without personnel living on-site.

3.12.3 Disease Monitoring

During an outbreak situation, susceptible animals on all operations must be closely monitored for clinical signs of 

the highly contagious FAD that meet the case definition. Poultry caretakers, especially on Contact, Suspect, or At-Risk 

Premises should be aware of the clinical signs and who to contact if disease is suspected. Accurate and rapid public 

awareness campaigns will be used to disseminate disease recognition and reporting information to animal producers

and caretakers within the Control Area and Surveillance Zone. Poultry operations within the Buffer Zone will 

be routinely monitored utilizing slaughter surveillance, serological surveys, and investigation of reports of suspect 

disease. Slaughter surveillance will also occur in the Surveillance Zone. Free Area surveillance will occur through 

normal surveillance channels. Surveillance results and approved biosecurity protocols as a “proof of negative” status 

may be required for permitted movements of susceptible birds within the Control Area.

3.12.4 Sample Collections

Premises with the highest risk of infection will have birds sampled for disease testing. Handling tissues and fluids 

from these operations requires strict adherence to biosecurity and infection control procedures. Poultry at harvest 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 121 of 174

facilities may also have samples collected. Unless otherwise specified, samples will be collected by trained animal 

health personnel (veterinarians, animal health technicians – private or government). Depending on the disease, specific

tissues and/or fluids will be obtained on farm after performing a full post-mortem exam (whenever possible). 

Guidelines will be provided regarding the specific type of tissues needed, fresh or fixed, fluids (serum, whole 

blood), and details related to how to label and package them appropriately. See VS Guidance 12001.1 Policy for the 

Investigation of Potential Foreign Animal Disease/Emerging Disease Incidents (FAD/EDI) for more information. 

Personal protective equipment (PPE) such as coveralls and gloves must be worn by personnel handling the birds, 

tissues, and fluids. If the disease is zoonotic, enhanced PPE should include goggles and an appropriate respirator 

(N-95 or N-99) or a full face shield if aerosolization is not a route of human exposure. All equipment used on farm 

to collect and transport samples and protect the personnel should be properly cleaned and disinfected in the designated 

area prior to leaving the farm. Care should be taken not to contaminate diagnostic samples with disinfectant as the 

highly contagious FAD will be inactivated providing false negative results. See the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines 

and SOP: Personal Protective Equipment (2011), Biosecurity (2011), and Cleaning and Disinfection (2011) for 

more information.

3.12.5 Sample Submission

Early in the disease outbreak there may be a single laboratory or a select group of laboratories that can perform the 

diagnostic testing. Guidance will be provided regarding sample submissions to laboratories. This may change as the 

outbreak continues and other laboratories are able to perform the specific tests. Contact personnel at the receiving 

laboratory will provide specifics related to sample submission. There are some fundamental principles that must be 

adhered to in the event of a highly contagious FAD investigation to ensure accurate, rapid results. Once samples 

are obtained, proper labeling is PARAMOUNT to ensure results are correctly reported. Submit samples with the 

appropriate paperwork (hard copy or electronic). This may consist of forms provided by the laboratory or animal 

health authority. The premises must be properly identified on all paperwork and sample packaging using a premises 

identification number, if available. Again, proper completion of the paperwork is essential so that the results are 

accurately reported to the submitting veterinarian or animal health authority. In some cases, samples could be 

submitted to demonstrate absence of the disease for permitted poultry movement and accurate, timely result 

reporting is essential. Samples obtained in the field should be properly packaged to prevent leakage (individually 

sealed plastic bags around each fluid tube) and thus contamination of samples within or external to the box/cooler. 

Completed paperwork should also be placed in a sealed plastic bag. Cold packs are recommended instead of ice for 

transporting samples. Be aware of environmental temperatures and provide enough cold packs to keep tissues from 

degrading in transport.

3.13 Appraisal and Compensation

Animal health regulatory officials will create an inventory of poultry designated for depopulation and appraise their 

fair-market value in order for compensation to be paid. Contaminated materials on farm (feed, bedding) will also 

be appraised as they may need to be disposed of in an effort to control disease spread. Facilities and equipment that 

cannot be properly disinfected must also be destroyed and fair market value assessed.

3.14 Mass Depopulation and Euthansia (FADS PREP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP)

To control disease spread, infected and exposed poultry may be depopulated by qualified personnel according to 

USDA-APHIS and AVMA guidelines. The method and procedures used for depopulation will depend on available 

resources and the population dynamics of susceptible poultry on the premises. This requires location-specific 

planning and preparation which is addressed in the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP: Mass Depopulation 

and Euthanasia (2011).

3.15 Disposal (FAD PREP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP)

Poultry carcasses and associated contaminated materials (e.g., feed, bedding) must be disposed of in a way to limit 

disease spread, using State or municipality approved methods. Once euthanasia is complete, specific personnel 

will be assigned to an operation to carry out these activities. For additional information, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS 

Guidelines and SOP: Disposal (2012).

3.16 Cleaning and Disinfection (FAD PREP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP)

Facilities that housed infected poultry and equipment used in their daily care must be cleaned and disinfected 

to prevent the spread of disease to live poultry returned to the operation. Coordination of equipment, supplies, 

scheduling, and certifying work completed by the producer, contractors, or animal health response teams will be 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 122 of 174

carried out by USDA-APHIS-VS. Items that cannot be adequately cleaned and disinfected will be properly disposed 

of once their value is determined. For additional information, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP: 

Cleaning and Disinfection (2011).

3.17 Wildlife Management and Vector Control

Wildlife susceptible to the highly contagious FAD can complicate disease eradication or control efforts. A 

coordinated effort between local, State, Tribal and federal agencies including the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

the Department of the Interior and State wildlife agencies is necessary to accomplish control without jeopardizing

environmental ecosystems. Producers’ knowledge of area wildlife and potential exposure will be vital in this 

assessment and management process.

3.18 International Trade

The intent of compartmentalization is to separate populations of poultry on the basis of management systems, 

which would allow veterinary authorities to demonstrate and maintain disease freedom in certain commercial 

establishments. This concept could be important for both domestic and international movement of poultry and 

poultry products, and thus the poultry economy. These markets are vital to the poultry industry. In the event of 

a highly contagious FAD outbreak affecting poultry, international trade of poultry and poultry products will be 

halted. Compartmentalization is a relatively new concept and has not been fully implemented anywhere. The 

success of compartmentalization will ultimately be the result of bilateral agreements between the importing 

country and the exporting country; and our individual international trading partners will need to agree to 

recognize compartmentalization for a specific highly contagious FAD at their discretion. Compartmentalization in 

the face of an outbreak where resources are directed to immediate eradication and control measures would likely 

result in the diversion of limited resources of the official veterinary infrastructure and prolong the duration of 

quarantine measures. Zoning for most highly contagious FAD is a better utilization of resources and the benefit 

of progress toward eradication is shared by all within the disease free zone rather than only the owners of the 

compartment. Although zoning remains the preferred approach, compartmentalization could help the U.S. 

facilitate disease control and the interstate movement of animals and animal products in the event of a highly 

contagious FAD outbreak and help to maintain domestic markets. In this case, using the concept of ‘free’ flock 

status to regain domestic commercial movements should be considered first. Compartmentalization parameters 

must be established and agreed upon with trade partners prior to the disease outbreak, internationally and between 

states. Successful compartmentalization is going to depend on producers, industry, and State and Federal animal 

health authorities developing and strengthening relationships and agreeing on procedures preceding a highly 

contagious FAD outbreak. 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 123 of 174

Acknowledgements

Information for the Egg Industry chapter of the Poultry Industry Manual was obtained from the following sources:

• An Assessment of the Risk Associated with the Movement of Washed and Sanitized Shell Eggs Into, 

Within, and Outside of a Control Area during a Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Outbreak. May 18, 2009 

draft. (Collaboration between the Egg Sector Working Group, the University of Minnesota’s Center for Animal 

Health and Food Safety, and USDA:APHIS:VS:CEAH)

• An Assessment of the Risk Associated with the Movement of Nest run Eggs Into, Within, and Outside of a 

Control Area during a Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Outbreak. January 12, 2009 draft. (Collaboration 

between the Egg Sector Working Group, the University of Minnesota’s Center for Animal Health and Food 

Safety, and USDA:APHIS:VS:CEAH)

• An Assessment of the Risk Associated with the Movement of Pasteurized Liquid Egg and Its Products Into, 

Within, and Outside of a Control Area during a Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Outbreak. June 11, 2008 

draft. (Collaboration between the Egg Sector Working Group, the University of Minnesota’s Center for Animal 

Health and Food Safety, and USDA:APHIS:VS:CEAH)

• An Assessment of the Risk Associated with the Movement of Nonpasteurized Liquid Egg (NPLE) and Its 

Products Into, Within, and Outside of a Control Area during a Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Outbreak. 

January 16, 2009 draft. (Collaboration between the Egg Sector Working Group, the University of Minnesota’s 

Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, and USDA:APHIS:VS:CEAH)

• Bruce Behrens. Is it the Feed? A Guide to Diagnosing Feed Related Problems in Commercial Egg Production 

Flocks. Iowa Egg Industry Symposium Proceedings. 2003.

• Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production (5th edition), Donald D. Bell and William D. Weaver, Jr, 

editors. 2002.

• Egg Safety from Production to Consumption: An Action Plan to Eliminate Salmonella Enteritidis Illness Due 

to Eggs. President’s Council on Food Safety. December 10, 1999.

• Hy-Line Variety W-36 Commercial Management Guide (2009-2011). A publication of Hy-Line International, 

West Des Moines, Iowa

• United Egg Producers Animal Husbandry Guidelines for U. S. Egg Laying Flocks – Guidelines for Cage 

Production (2010 Edition).

This FAD PReP Industry Manual was produced in collaboration with USDA-APHIS-VS National Center for Animal 

Health and Emergency Management by the Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University of 

Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine through a cooperative agreement.

The Egg Industry chapter of the Poultry Industry Manual prepared for the USDA National Center for Animal Health 

Emergency Management (NCAHEM) was authored by:

• D. W. Trampel, DVM, PhD, DACVP

Illustrations were designed by:

• Dani Ausen, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

• Katlyn Harvey, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

• Andrew Kingsbury, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

Images were provided by:

• Andrew Kingsbury

Iowa State University

This chapter was reviewed by:

• Dr. Larry J. Allen

California Department of Food and Agriculture, Animal Health Branch
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 124 of 174

Acknowledgements

• Danelle Bickett-Weddle, DVM, MPH, PhD, DACVPM

Iowa State University

• Dr. Kenton Kreager

Hy-Line International

• Dr. Eva Wallner-Pendleton

Pennsylvania State University
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 125 of 174

Photo and Illustration Credits

Page 101 (Top) Table 1. Leading Egg Production States (2012). Content provided by:United Egg Producers; 

 Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University. 

 (Bottom) Table 2. Leading Egg Production Companies (2012). Content provided by: Egg 

 Industry magazine; Graphic illustration by: Katlyn Harvey, Iowa State University

Page 102 (Top) Figure 1. Illustration of an egg laying house. Content provided by:Center for Food Security 

 and Public Health, Iowa State University; Graphic illustration by:Dani Ausen, Iowa State University 

 (Bottom) Outside feeding bin (top left). Outside fans on the chicken houses (top right). Aisle 

 between rows of chickens (bottom left). Empty cartons (bottom right). Photo Source: Andrew 

 Kingsbury, Iowa State University (all)

Page 104 Watercup nipple (left). Feed auger at a laying site (right). Photo Source: Andrew Kingsbury, 

 Iowa State University (both)

Page 105 (Top) Eggs moving on a conveyer belt under the feeder system. Photo Source: Andrew Kingsbury, 

 Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Incandescent light. Photo Source: Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State University

Page 106 (Top) Chickens in cages at a laying site. Photo Source: Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Free range chickens. Photo Source: Jane Galyon, Iowa State University

Page 107 Figure 2. Pathways of Shell Egg Processing and Distribution. Content provided by: Morgan Hennesy 

 and Janel Funk, CEAH risk assessment for Shell Eggs; Graphic illustration by: Katlyn Harvey, 

 Iowa State University

Page 108 Figure 3. Nest-Run Egg Production and Processing. Content provided by: Morgan Hennesy and Janel 

 Funk, CEAH risk assessment for Nest run Eggs; Graphic illustration by: Katlyn Harvey, Iowa 

 State University

Page 109 Egg washing system (top left). Candling of eggs (top right). Egg packaging system (bottom left). Eggs

 in cartons and in boxes (bottom right). Photo Source: Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State University (all)

Page 111 Figure 4. Egg Breaking Operations. Content provided by: Morgan Hennesy and Janel Funk, CEAH 

 risk assessment document for Nonpasteurized Liquid Eggs; Graphic illustration by: Katlyn Harvey,

 Iowa State University

Page 112 Figure 5. Liquid Egg Handling. Content provided by: Morgan Hennesy and Janel Funk, CEAH risk 

 assessment for Pasteurized Liquid Eggs; Graphic illustration by: Katlyn Harvey, Iowa 

 State University

Page 113 Manure pit (left). Manure storage on a laying farm (right). Photo Source: Andrew Kingsbury, 

 Iowa State University

Page 114 Figure 6. Egg Safety from Production to Consumption. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa 

 State University

Page 116 Biosecurity signs. Photo Source: Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State University

Page 117 Table 3. General Recommendations for Watering Space for Layers. Content provided by: 

 United Egg Producers; Graphic illustration by: Katlyn Harvey, Iowa State University

Page 118 (Top) Table 4. Clean-In-Place Requirements for Liquid Egg Tankers. Content provided by: 

 University of Minnesota Center for Animal Health and Food Safety; Graphic illustration by: 

 Katlyn Harvey, Iowa State University

 (Center) Table 5. Clean-In-Place Requirements for Liquid Egg Lines. Content provided by: 

 University of Minnesota Center for Animal Health and Food Safety; Graphic illustration by: 

 Katlyn Harvey, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Table 6. Clean-In-Place Requirements for Liquid Egg Silos. Content provided by: 

 University of Minnesota Center for Animal Health and Food Safety; Graphic illustration by: 

 Katlyn Harvey, Iowa State University
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 126 of 174

Acronyms

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection System

AMS Agricultural Marketing Service

C&D Cleaning and Disinfection

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CIP Clean-In-Place

EDI Emerging Disease Incident

FAD Foreign Animal Disease

FAD PReP Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan

FDA U. S. Food and Drug Administration

FSIS U. S. Food Safety Inspection Service

ISU Iowa State University of Science and Technology

NAHEMS National Animal Health Emergency Management System

NPLE Non-pasteurized Liquid Eggs

PPE Personal Protective Equipment

PReP Preparedness and Response Plan

SE Salmonella enteritidis

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

VS Veterinary Services, a division of APHIS
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 127 of 174

Glossary

All-In-All-Out 

Completely filling a room, building or site with chickens and then completely emptying it to allow for cleaning and 

disinfection before the next group of chickens arrives. 

Ambient temperature

The air temperature maintained in an egg storage facility or a transport vehicle.

Appraisal

The assignment of a value for a specific animal, arrived at by looking at the animal and considering all of its attributes 

and the current value of similar animals.

At-Risk Premises

Premises that have susceptible animals but none of those susceptible animals have clinical signs compatible with the 

FAD. Premises objectively demonstrate that they are not Infected Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect Premises.

Battery Cages

“Battery” refers to a collection of cages.

Biosecurity

Biosecurity encompasses procedures that reduce the probability of disease outbreaks and includes two components: 

bioexclusion prior to an outbreak (keeping pathogens out) and biocontainment after an outbreak (keeping pathogens 

from leaving an infected premises to prevent disease transmission.

Cage Free

Chickens in cage-free systems are kept indoors but do not reside in cages and have access to communal nest boxes 

with automated egg collection, perches, and litter.

Cleaning and Disinfection (C&D)

Practices involving a combination of physical and chemical processes that kill or remove pathogenic microorganisms – 

a combination that is vital for the eradication of disease. 

Contact Premises

Premises with susceptible animals that have been exposed directly or indirectly to animals, contaminated animal 

products, fomites, or people from an Infected Premises.

Detergent

Chemical products used to disperse and remove soil and organic materials from surfaces by reducing surface tension

and increasing the penetrating ability of water. This can improve a disinfectant’s ability to reach and destroy microbes

within or beneath the dirt. Some disinfectants (i.e., quaternary ammonium compounds) have detergent properties.

Disinfectant 

A substance used on inanimate surfaces that destroys or eliminates a specific species of infectious or other public 

health microorganism, but not necessarily bacterial spores, in the inanimate environment. Disinfectants are regulated 

by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Disinfection can also be achieved by physical means 

(e.g., heat, light).

Egg Breaking 

Egg breaking consists of breaking the shell and separating the liquid egg contents (albumen and yolk) from the shells.

Exposed

Contact with birds, equipment, personnel, supplies, or any article infected with, or contaminated by, communicable 

poultry disease organisms.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 128 of 174

Glossary

Exposed Premises

Premises that have been determined to be related by sound epidemiological evidence to a known infected premises, 

also referred to as contact premises.

Flock

All laying hens within one chicken house.

Franchise Hatchery

A hatchery which has been authorized by a franchise breeder to produce and sell products under the breeders strain 

or trade name.

Free Range

Chickens in free-range systems have at least some time each day when they are given access to an outdoor area

Hatchery

Hatchery equipment on one premises operated or controlled by any person for the production of baby poultry.

Highly Contagious Foreign Animal Disease (FAD)

A disease that spreads rapidly from animal-to-animal as well as flock-to-flock through direct contact, aerosol, oral, 

fomites, or vector-borne transmission. Highly contagious FADs may be recognized by above normal morbidity or 

mortality per unit time, where morbidity could be characterized solely by a decrease in production.

In-Line

In-line egg operations are characterized by an automated egg collection system that carries eggs directly from chicken 

houses to the egg processing plant (building).

Infected Premises

Premises where presumptive positive case or confirmed positive case exists based on laboratory results, compatible 

clinical signs, case definition, and international standards.

Mortality

Death of an animal; dead animals can be referred to as mortalities.

Multiplier Breeding Flock

A flock that is intended for the production of hatching eggs used for the purpose of producing progeny for commercial 

egg or meat production or for other non-breeding purposes. 

Nest Run Eggs

“Nest run” or “off-line” eggs have been packed as they come from the production facilities without having been 

washed, sized, and/or candled for quality, with the exception that some checks, dirties, or other obvious under grades 

may have been removed.

Off-Line Egg Farms

“Nest run” or “off-line” egg farms do not have a processing facility and typically consist of one or two chicken houses 

which lack processing equipment. Eggs must be shipped to a processing plant at another location.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 

Equipment used as a barrier between an individual and a hazard that could result in an injury or occupational illness.

Poultry

Domesticated fowl, including chickens, turkeys, ostriches, emus, ducks, geese, swans, pheasants, grouse, partridges, 

quail, guinea fowl, and pea fowl, which are bred for the primary purpose of producing eggs or meat. 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 3: Egg Industry • Page 129 of 174

Glossary

Premises 

Includes a tract of land, and all of its buildings, as well as a separate farm or facility that is maintained by a single 

set of services and personnel.

Primary Breeding Flock

A flock composed of one or more generations that is maintained for the purpose of establishing, continuing, or 

improving parent lines.

Processing of Whole Shell Eggs

Shell egg processing includes 1) washing; 2) sanitizing external egg surfaces; 3) candling/inspection of shell eggs; 

4) weighing, grading and packaging shell eggs; and 5) storage and transport to market. 

Pullet

Immature female chickens prior to the onset of egg production.

Quarantine

To place animals in strict isolation to prevent the spread of disease. 

Quarantined Area

During an animal health emergency, areas around infected premises may be placed under quarantine. The 

geographical region around the infected premises is referred to as the Infected Zone and movement restrictions for 

susceptible species may be implemented.

Relative Humidity 

Is a ratio, expressed in percent, of the amount of atmospheric moisture present relative to the amount that would be 

present if the air were saturated. Since the latter amount is dependent on temperature, relative humidity is a function 

of both moisture content and temperature.

Sanitize

To treat with a product which is registered by the Environmental Protection Agency as germicidal, fungicidal, 

pseudomonicidal, or tuberculocidal, in accordance with the specifications for use as shown on the label of each product.

Sanitizer

A substance that reduces the bacterial population in the inanimate environment by significant numbers, but does not 

destroy or eliminate all bacteria or other microorganisms.

SOP

Standard Operating Procedures that provide specific details related to various topic areas.

Strain

Poultry breeding stock bearing a given name produced by a breeder through at least 5 generations of closed 

flock breeding.

Suspect Premises

Premises with susceptible animals under investigation for a report of compatible clinical signs for the FAD agent.

Vector 

Insects or arachnids capable of transmitting pathogens from an infected birds to another bird, usually through a bite.

Zoonotic Disease/Zoonoses 

Diseases transmissible from animals to humans under natural conditions. 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 130 of 174

Table of Contents

Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry

PART I: UNITED STATES COMMERCIAL GAME BIRD PRODUCTION 132

 

4.1 Scope of the Game Bird Industry 132

4.1.1 Groups of Birds 132

4.2 General Profile of the Commercial US Game Bird Industry 133

4.2.1 Production Farms 133

4.2.1.1 Types of Production 133

4.2.2 Hunting Preserves 133

4.2.2.1 Types of Hunting Preserves 133

4.3 Structure of the Game Bird Industry 133

4.3.1 Breeders 134

4.3.2 Hatcheries 134

4.3.3 Commercial Production 134

4.3.4 Hunting Preserves 135

4.4 Pheasant Production 135

4.4.1 Managing Pheasant Breeders 135

4.4.2 Hatching Pheasant Eggs 136

4.4.3 Brooding Pheasant Chicks 136

4.4.4 Moving to Outdoor Flight Pens 136

4.4.5 Management/Disease Challenges in Flight Pens 136

4.5 Partridge Production 137

4.5.1 Chukar Partridges 137

4.5.1.1 Managing Chukar Breeders 137

4.5.1.2 Hatching Chukar Eggs 137

4.5.1.3 Brooding Chukar Chicks 137

4.5.2 Hungarian (Grey) Partridges 137

4.5.2.1 Managing Hungarian (Grey) Partridge Breeders 137

4.5.2.2 Brooding Hungarian Partridge Chicks 137

4.6 Bobwhite Quail Production 138

4.6.1 Managing Breeding Quail 138

4.6.2 Hatching Quail Eggs 138

4.6.3 Brooding Quail 138

4.6.4 Moving to Outdoor Flight Pens 139

4.7 Mallard Duck Production 139

4.7.1 Managing Mallard Breeders 139

4.7.2 Hatching Mallard Eggs 139

4.7.3 Brooding Ducklings 139

4.7.4 Mallard Duck Hunting Preserves 140

Eva Wallner-Pendleton1, DVM, MS, DACPV; R. Michael Hulet2, PhD

Animal Diagnostic Laboratory1 and Department of Poultry Science2, Pennsylvania State University
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 131 of 174

Table of Contents

Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry

4.8 Nutrition 140

4.9 Movement of Game Birds and Products 142

4.9.1 Eggs 142

4.9.2 Chicks 142

4.9.3 Started Birds 142

4.9.4 Mature Birds 142

4.10 Biosecurity Measures: Response to a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal Disease 142

in Game Birds

4.10.1 Biosecurity Concepts for Game Birds 142

4.10.2 Biosecurity for Hunting Preserves 143

4.11 Guidelines on Handling Upland Game Birds and Waterfowl in the Event 143

of a Suspected Case of Notifiable Avian Influenza (NAI) or Any Exotic/Notifiable 

Disease Event

4.11.1 Response to a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal Disease in Game Birds 143

4.11.2 Guidelines for Routine Handling and Processing of Upland Game Birds and Waterfowl 144

 to Prevent Disease Transmission by Avian Influenza (H5N1) or Other Zoonotic Diseases

Acknowledgments 145

Photo and Illustration Credits 147

Glossary 149
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 132 of 174

Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry

PART I: UNITED STATES COMMERCIAL GAME BIRD PRODUCTION

4.1 SCOPE OF THE GAME BIRD INDUSTRY

The term “game bird” describes any species of bird that can be used for hunting, including upland game birds, 

waterfowl, and woodland birds, such as the American Wood Cock and Mourning Doves. However, only those 

species which are captive, reared in significant numbers, and raised-for-release will be discussed in this chapter.

The game bird industry, with producers organizing into national and state associations, began as early as the 

1940s. However, significant growth in the industry was noted starting in the 1970s and has continued to increase 

into the present time. The reason for this growth is believed to be due to the rapid decline of native birds, which 

reduced opportunities for successful harvesting of wild game on rural lands. Decline of the native game bird 

population is believed to be the result of changing agricultural practices that caused a loss of habitat and cover for 

native game bird species. Game bird production is used to supplement wild populations while hunting preserves 

increase opportunities to successfully harvest game birds. Development of hunting preserves was also seen as a 

good use of existing agricultural land not used during fall and winter months. Game birds could be released onto 

crop land at the end of the growing season to derive income for the farmer over the winter.

4.1.1 Groups of Birds

Game birds can be divided into two main groups: Upland Game Birds and Waterfowl.

4.1.1.1 Upland Game Birds include birds in the order Galliformes, family Phasianidae: 

Common Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus): 

• Also known as the ring-neck pheasant (pictured left, top). It is native to

Russia, but became widely dispersed throughout Europe and Asia. 

Pheasants were brought over to North America as early as the 1700s.

Partridges: 

• There are three species commonly produced for hunting in the USA 

including Chukar Partridge (Alectoris chukar), Red-legged Partridge 

(Alectoris rufa) and Grey Partridge (Perdix perdix), also known as the 

Hungarian Partridge. Chukar Partridges originated in Eurasia, Israel, 

Turkey, Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan. 

Northern Bobwhite Quail (Colinus virginianus):

• These birds are native to the New World, including the USA, Mexico, 

and the Caribbean.

4.1.1.2 Waterfowl include birds in the order Anseriformes, 

family Anatidae:

Mallard Duck (Anas platyrhynchos):

• Widely dispersed dabbling duck (pictured left, bottom) found throughout 

North America and Eurasia and introduced almost everywhere else. 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 133 of 174

4.2 GENERAL PROFILE OF THE COMMERCIAL U.S. GAME BIRD INDUSTRY

The game bird industry consists of two primary sections: production farms and hunting preserves.

4.2.1 Production Farms

Game birds are produced in almost every state in the U.S. However, certain geographic locations tend to produce 

more of certain species of game birds. Most Bobwhite Quail are grown in Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 

Alabama, and Mississippi. Top pheasant producing states include Minnesota, Kansas, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, 

South Dakota, and Wisconsin. Mallard ducks are produced primarily along the United States coastal areas, with 

large releases found on the mid-Atlantic and southern states.

Game bird production in the United States is estimated to consist of 10.8 million pheasants, 40 million quail, 4 

million Chukar partridges, and 1 million mallard ducks.

4.2.1.1 Types of Production

Game bird producers can be divided into full-time commercial businesses, part-time commercial businesses, and 

hobby operations.

1. Commercial full-time production operations

• Most of these operations produce 20,000 to 300,000 birds annually, with a few having even more. Large 

commercial game bird farms are relatively few in number. 

2. Hobby or part-time commercial operations

• Most game bird farms in this category raise anywhere from 100 birds to 15,000 birds each year. 

4.2.2 Hunting Preserves

Most game birds are grown for eventual release onto regulated hunting preserves. However, some are released onto 

public lands, while a few are sold to restaurants, food retail outlets, and live bird markets.

4.2.2.1 Types of Hunting Preserves

Regulated hunting preserves can be classified as either public or private.

1. Public Preserve

• Approximately 80% of preserves are open to the public. They operate on set hours and anyone can show up 

and pay for the opportunity to harvest a game bird.

2. Private Preserve

• An approved membership at the preserve would be required before one would be allowed the opportunity 

to hunt.

4.3 STRUCTURE OF THE GAME BIRD INDUSTRY

Unlike the commercial poultry industry, very few game bird operations are fully integrated vertically. The game 

bird industry is comprised of the following four activities: breeding, hatching, production, and operating a hunting 

preserve. Some businesses participate in all four areas of the industry. However, the majority specialize in only 

certain areas. It would be likely for a breeder to both hatch and produce birds, but it would be difficult for them 

to run a hunting preserve as well. Similarly, a hunting preserve could also raise birds, but it would be difficult for 

them to keep breeders and hatch chicks. A typical commercial game bird farm contains breeders, a hatchery, and a 

production facility. Some game farms also manage a shooting preserve during the hunting season. These farms may 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 134 of 174

sell hatching eggs, day-old chicks, started birds, or mature birds to customers within a narrow or wide geographical 

area. In contrast, a typical hobby game bird farm would most likely only buy chicks or started birds to grow out to 

maturity. Diversification is more likely to exist in commercial operations because game birds are largely seasonal 

breeders and this helps generate income year round for owners. Breeding season begins in early spring and ends 

mid to late summer. Some operations have succeeded in lengthening egg production cycles through artificial 

light stimulation, but year round breeding is rare. Most farms raise more than one species of game bird, but a few 

produce only one species (all pheasants, all quail, or all mallards for instance). Hence, many game bird farms can be 

classified as multi-stage, multi-age, and multi-species operations. 

4.3.1 Breeders

Only a handful of game bird producers are true primary breeders engaged in genetics. Most breeders select 

breeding stock from their own production birds based upon phenotypic traits, such as size, health, feather 

color and iridescence, and behavioral traits considered desirable for hunting. In particular, it is important to 

maintain the “wild” behaviors of game birds. Over the years, many varieties have been developed, especially 

in pheasant populations. 

4.3.2 Hatcheries

Numerous producers obtain eggs from breeders, raise the birds up to sexual 

maturity, and then use them to produce hatching eggs for commercial 

bird production. In addition to breeder pens, these premises may have 

a hatchery on site as well as buildings and pens to raise the commercial 

birds. Breeders are seldom kept beyond one egg production cycle. Instead, 

spent breeders are frequently allowed to recondition and re-feather and then 

are sold in the fall for hunting.

The following season’s breeding stock may be purchased from other breeders 

or may be selected from a portion of the commercial birds that are held back 

for this purpose.

4.3.3 Commercial Production

Day-old game bird chicks or ducklings are initially placed into brooder buildings, very similar to brooder houses 

designed for poultry, with artificial lighting, supplemental heat, feeders, and drinkers. Between 1-2 months of age 

(depending on the species and weather conditions) most game bird chicks are given access to the outdoors. After 

sufficient acclimation to the outdoors, most game birds are moved to outside pens until they are “flight ready” and 

can be sold to hunting preserves or released into the wild. 

Outside flight pens are enclosed with netting. Inside most flight pens, dense vegetation provides cover for the birds 

and helps to reduce aggression within the flock. Lambs quarter, corn, and other crops may be planted based upon 

what grows best in a geographic area. Except for birds intended for use as breeders during the following season, 

almost all commercial game birds are sold for hunting. Most game birds are sold in regionalized areas, but some of 

the larger commercial producers deliver birds throughout the country. If any birds remain after the end of the hunting 

season, other market outlets are found.

Pheasant Chicks Ready for Transport Flight Pen Vegetation
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4.3.4 Hunting Preserves

Regulated hunting preserves licensed to hunt game birds are found 

throughout the United States. These preserves vary in size from small 

family operations to huge resort-like facilities complete with guided 

hunting, lodging, gourmet restaurants, and other activities such as fishing 

and sporting clay shooting.

When hunting preserves purchase birds from outside sources, game birds 

are held in holding pens after delivery until their release onto the hunting 

grounds. “Flight-ready” birds are obtained as needed and seldom held more 

than two weeks. Ideally, game birds in each new delivery are held in a 

separate pen to prevent co-mingling of birds from different sources.

Hunting preserves invest extensively to develop suitable habitat with 

cover crops, weed control, managed hunting paths, fence rows, and natural 

barriers to enhance environmental appearance and hunter safety. Larger 

preserves often hire full-time agronomists and wildlife managers to prepare 

the preserve to look managed - but not overly manicured. Hunting preserves 

are also regarded as tourism and recreational facilities. Many preserves have 

overnight accommodations with hospitality and cooking staff on site. In 

addition, hunting preserves often have kennels with trained dogs to retrieve 

and point game. Lastly, some of the larger preserves have hunting gear and clothing available for purchase.

4.4 PHEASANT PRODUCTION

4.4.1 Managing Pheasant Breeders

Choosing the right variety of bird for breeding stock is a matter of regional preference. 

Pheasants are often divided into two primary types: large or small.

1. Larger pheasants are slower flyers, but are meatier and more impressive-looking due to their body size and 

tail length. Mongolians are an example of a large pheasant strain (approximately 3.5 lb. average). In addition 

to Mongolians, there is an all white pheasant which was bred primarily for meat production. 

2. Small pheasants are faster flyers and more challenging to hunt. Chinese Blue Backs are one of the small 

varieties and the Kansas Blue Back is currently the smallest variety (approximately 2-3 lb average). Melanistic 

Mutants are a very dark variety.

Pheasants show sexual dimorphism. Roosters have bright iridescent 

feathering, a white ring around the neck, rusty colored breasts, green/blue 

heads with red facial marking, and long barred tails. Hens by comparison are 

relatively dull with dusky, nondescript feathering.

For egg production to begin, 14 hours of light are required. As with other 

birds, artificial light can be used to stimulate early onset of sexual maturity 

if the natural day length is under 14 hours. From March 1-July 1, artificial 

lighting is not required and most breeders rely on natural day length.

When sexually mature, hens and roosters are placed together in outdoor breeder 

pens. A typical space requirement for breeders is 25-30 square feet per bird. 

One rooster per 8-12 hens is sufficient to maintain fertility. Too many males 

will result in excessive fighting between roosters and trauma to hens. 

Breeder pens should be devoid of cover crops to make finding eggs easier. 

Nest boxes lined with wood chips or straw are placed in pens, but ground 

eggs are still very common. On average, a single pheasant hen will lay 

approximately 75 eggs. A typical 75% hatch rate results in production of 50-

60 live chicks per breeder hen.
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Eggs should be collected at least daily, but during hot or rainy periods, egg collection should occur 3-5 times per 

day. Eggs are washed, sanitized, and set in the incubators.

4.4.2 Hatching Pheasant Eggs

Pheasant eggs are set every 7-14 days. Incubator temperature should be 

approximately 99.5°F and wet-bulb humidity set at 84%-85%. The 

incubation period for pheasant eggs is 24 days. At around 21 days of age, 

eggs are transferred into a hatcher with a temperature of 98.5°F. Humidity 

also increases at this time due to hatching of chicks.

Commercial pheasant chicks are usually sold straight-run. However, some 

chicks are sexed immediately after hatching for customers who demand 

males or females. Chicks are sexed by examining the patch of long down 

under the eyes of the rooster and hen (the down patch is much wider in the hen) or by looking for the presence of a 

developing wattle in the male.

4.4.3 Brooding Pheasant Chicks

After hatch, pheasants are placed inside brooder barns very similar to 

facilities used for raising floor poultry. Low light intensity in the brooder 

barn is very important in helping reduce aggression among chicks. Spot or 

partial house brooding is more common than heating the entire house. Room 

temperature is variable (85°- 88° on average) with the temperature under the 

hoover at 100°F. Temperatures are then dropped 5°F per week until ambient 

temperatures are attained.

4.4.4 Moving to Outdoor Flight Pens

Between 5-8 weeks of age, game birds are ready to be placed outdoors. 

Specs, also called peepers or blinders, are often placed on the birds one week 

prior to when they are moved outside. Specs are hour glass-shaped pieces 

of plastic that are placed over the cere on the upper beak. They are kept in 

place with a thin, long piece of plastic inserted through external nares, the 

nasal septum, and through holes in the specs. Specs allow birds to see to the 

side, but not straight ahead. They are an effective tool to reduce cannibalism. 

Game birds are kept in flight pens until they are ready to be sold.

4.4.5 Management/Disease Challenges in Flight Pens

Once outdoors, severe weather (heavy rains, late spring snow storms, hail, and winds) may cause some mortality. 

Predators, such as hawks, owls, skunks, and weasels, sometimes take a heavy toll on the flock. Sometimes nuisance birds 

(such as starlings and blackbirds) descend in large numbers on the netting and are a disease risk to game birds, which can 

be seen in the photograph below. Internal parasites are the most common diseases seen in the flight pens. Thread worms 

(Capillaria species) may cause severe weight loss and high mortality. Tracheal worms (gapeworms, Syngamus trachea) 

cause respiratory distress and elevated death loss. Noise cannons may be brought in to frighten prey and pests.

Nuisance Birds on Netting Noise Canon
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4.5 PARTRIDGE PRODUCTION

4.5.1 Chukar Partridges

Three strains of partridge are raised for production and commercial hunting,

the Chukar partridge being the most common. The European Red-leg 

partridge is the least common. Some breeders cross Chukar females with 

Red-leg males to create a hybrid called a Chukar Red-Leg Cross. Chukar 

Partridges originated in Eurasia, Israel, Turkey, Afghanistan, India, and 

Pakistan and are adapted to arid and semi-arid country in higher elevations. 

In many western states, such as Idaho, Montana, Nevada, and eastern 

Oregon, the Chukar has become established as a wild game bird species.

4.5.1.1 Managing Chukar Breeders

Male Chukar are slightly larger than females and have thicker necks. The bill and tarsus of males have a deeper 

orange coloration. Breeding stock are generally selected between late December and early March. Chukars can be 

pair-mated, kept in trios or quartets (1 male to 3-4 hens), or colony mated in pens at a 1:5 ratio. Egg production 

averages 40-60 eggs per hen each season. Chukars are highly sensitive to excess moisture and fecal-borne pathogens, 

such as coccidia, and do best when raised on wire. When breeder birds are in wire cages, eggs are often collected 

using roll-away systems. Eggs should be collected several times a day, especially in hot or wet weather.

4.5.1.2 Hatching Chukar Eggs

Chukar eggs are set every 7-14 days. However, Chukar eggs can be stored for up to a month and still remain 

hatchable. The incubation period for Chukar eggs is 23 days.

4.5.1.3 Brooding Chukar Chicks

Chukars chicks are brooded similarly to methods used for pheasants 

(described above) but best results are attained if chicks are raised on wire after 

2-3 weeks of age due to their extreme susceptibility to coccidiosis. Chicks 

are also highly prone to piling and subsequent suffocation, so uniform whole 

house heating and low light intensity during brooding are recommended. 

Chicks can be moved to flight pens at 8 weeks of age to condition them for 

hunting. Preserves often purchase Chukar partridges after 15-16 weeks of age.

4.5.2 Hungarian (Grey) Partridges

Hungarian Partridges are smaller than Chukars and have a chestnut “V” on 

the lower breast. In general, they are much more difficult to raise compared 

to other game birds, because they are very excitable and easy to stress.

4.5.2.1 Managing Hungarian (Grey) Partridge Breeders

Hungarian Partridges must be bred in pairs. Because they require more 

acclimation, future breeders are paired in mid-winter. They begin breeding 

around mid-May and stop egg production around mid-August. Typical egg 

production per hen is 50 eggs during a season. Each breeder hen will produce 

approximately 35 chicks per breeding season. The incubation period for 

hatching eggs is 24 days.

4.5.2.2 Brooding Hungarian Partridge Chicks

Hungarian Partridges are brooded quite differently from other game birds. 

Brooding occurs in small groups in heated brooder boxes with paper on the 

floor instead of bedding or on wire. Chicks are fed soft foods, such as chopped 

eggs, in addition to starter feed, during the first three days of life. Watermelon 

is commonly given for energy and moisture. Since chicks are tiny, feed particle 

size is very important and must be ground very fine. Even with extra care, 

high first week mortality of up to 50 % sometimes occurs. After 10 days of 

age, chicks are brooded in a brooder room similar to other game bird chicks. 

Hungarian partridges are moved out to flight pens around 8-10 weeks of age.
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4.6 BOBWHITE QUAIL PRODUCTION

Bobwhite Quail are indigenous to the United States. However, as farming 

practices have changed, loss of habitat has resulted in a significant decline in 

bird numbers. The decline in wild Bobwhite Quail populations has increased 

the demand for commercially raised birds for stocking private and public 

hunting preserves as well as for meat production. Bobwhite Quail production 

occurs throughout the United States, but is greatest in southern states.

Several species and subspecies of Bobwhite Quail exist. The most 

common wild bird, and most frequently produced domesticated quail, is 

the Eastern Bobwhite.

4.6.1 Managing Breeding Quail

Quail breeder candidates are often raised in dimly lit and environmentally 

controlled buildings to prevent stress, reduce cannibalism, and encourage uniform sexual maturation. Birds are 

grown on 10-11 hours of light. At 19 weeks of age, light intensity is increased by 1 hour per week until 25-27 weeks 

of age and/or 17 hours of light per day is attained. This day length is maintained throughout the breeding cycle. 

Breeders achieve consistent egg production at ~ 22 weeks of age.

Housing for breeders can vary, with some producers maintaining quail in floor 

pens while others keep them off the ground on slatted floors. Quail breeders 

can be kept in large colony housing, in smaller cages housing up to 20 birds, 

or in small cages as pairs (maximum 1 cock bird per 3 hens). Raising birds 

on wire results in cleaner eggs and fewer problems with diseases, such as 

ulcerative enteritis, but cages must be maintained in a state of good repair. 

Breeder hens are beak trimmed and males may be beak trimmed (but to a 

lesser degree). In all systems, lower light intensity (0.5 ft candle) is desirable 

to calm the birds and reduce cannibalism.

Depending on the management system used (natural light only, 17 hour 

artificial light, or year round production with preseason lighting), numbers of eggs produced per hen may 

vary from 50-200+ eggs a year. At the end of the breeding season, spent quail are allowed to recondition and 

are sold to preserves.

4.6.2 Hatching Quail Eggs

Eggs should be gathered at least 3-5 times daily. Collected eggs should be held in cold storage at 50-65° to stop 

embryonic development (which occurs above 68°). Eggs are slowly pre-warmed before being placed in incubators to 

prevent condensation of moisture on external surfaces of egg shells.

Bobwhite Quail eggs are incubated for 23-24 days at 99.5°F and 84-86% relative humidity. During the last three 

days of incubation, the temperature is lowered to 99°F or kept the same and relative humidity rises to as high as 90% 

during hatching.

4.6.3 Brooding Quail

Quail are increasingly being raised in converted broiler houses for 17 weeks under very low light conditions on 

wood shavings with nipple drinkers. This management program reportedly has resulted in improved livability, less 

feed consumption, and fewer disease issues. 

Beak trimming is often practiced, especially where lights cannot be 

adequately dimmed. Trimming can be done at the hatchery or at 2-3 weeks of 

age. Also, beak trimming may be done prior to moving quail to outside flight 

pens. It is important to allow beaks to re-grow prior to shipping quail to a 

hunting preserve.

Brooder temperatures should be 98-100°F during the first week, and then 

lowered 5°F each week until ambient temperatures are reached.
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4.6.4 Moving to Outdoor Flight Pens

Bobwhite Quail can be raised in traditional brooders and then moved to flight pens at ~ 6 weeks of age. During their 

time in flight pens, it is important to not crowd the birds and to watch for evidence of cannibalism. Approximately 2 

square feet per bird is recommended for flight pens. Shelter and hiding places provided by dense vegetation in flight 

pens is helpful in allowing quail to escape from aggressive pen mates. Bobwhite Quail are sold to private or public 

hunting preserves, dog trainers, or plantations.

4.7 MALLARD DUCK PRODUCTION

Mallard ducklings are raised commercially and sold to hunting preserves, 

primarily along the east coast of the United States.

4.7.1 Managing Mallard Breeders

Next year’s breeding stock are selected from the current year’s commercial 

flocks based on phenotypic characteristics such as feather color and quality, 

leg strength and conformation, body size, and overall health. Most mallards 

are colony mated with one drake to 4-7 hens. Each hen will produce (on 

average) 34 sellable ducklings in one year. Hens lay their eggs in outside nest 

boxes which are commonly lined with straw. 

Still, the incidence of eggs laid on the ground is often high. Dirty eggs can be a 

problem, especially in rainy weather. The egg production cycle is generally from 

the first of April until mid-July. Eggs are usually gathered once a day, washed in 

a warm sanitizer at 110°F for a short period, and held for one week before being 

set. At the end of the lay cycle, breeders are allowed to molt and then are sold.

4.7.2 Hatching Mallard Eggs

The incubation period for a Mallard duck egg is 28 days. Incubation 

machines are set at 99.5°F with an 85°F wet bulb temperature. 

4.7.3 Brooding Ducklings

After hatch, one-day-old ducklings have their right dew claw removed which differentiates them from their wild 

counterparts. Ducklings are placed into a heated brooder, often on vinyl-coated wire, and kept in a smaller pen 

for one week.

Clipping a Dew Claw Brooding Ducklings on Wire Older Ducks on the Pond

Ducklings are moved to a larger pen at two weeks of age where trough waterers provide access to a plentiful supply 

of water. At 3 weeks of age, ducklings are given access to the outdoors and multiple ponds which may or may not 

have overhead netting. Ducklings do not leave ponds because of their tendency to stay with hatch mates as well as the 

ready availability of feed. Feed must be supplied constantly to avoid problems with feather picking and aggression. 

Groups are segregated by age, such as five week olds or 8 week olds, until shipped to a hunting preserve.

Management steps to control disease in this type of husbandry system are important. First, because of high bird 

density on the ponds, water has a high organic and nitrogen load. To prevent botulism, fresh water and aeration are 

frequently added into the ponds.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 140 of 174

Second, because the feeders are kept outdoors, any feed that becomes wet or spills on the ground must be 

removed frequently. Wet feed can become moldy and maggot-blown, encouraging botulism and mycotoxin 

development. Ducks are highly susceptible to both toxicities and high death losses are possible if these toxins 

become established.

Third, because mallard ducks are raised outdoors, often in uncovered ponds, predator losses can be quite high. 

Hawks, owls, weasels, raccoons, foxes, coyotes, and snapping turtles take large numbers of ducklings annually. 

Aeration Feeders

4.7.4 Mallard Duck Hunting Preserves

Commercial mallard duck hunting is allowed on state-permitted private lands. States offering these permits include 

Pennsylvania, Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland, Georgia, and Alabama. Hunting season is 

typically October-May 1st. It is estimated that up to 4 million mallards have been released since 1983. 

 Ducks are usually purchased between 6-8 weeks of age and placed on ponds or flooded crop land, but they also 

can be purchased as adults for release. These ducks are provided protein pellets and grains, such as milo, corn, and 

millet, until hunting season commences. During hunting season, supplemental feed is withdrawn and ducks must 

eat grains planted in fields. Deliberate baiting of hunted birds is not allowed; this minimizes co-mingling with wild 

waterfowl. Ducks are provided some cover and multiple ponds as resting places. Preserves are hunted once or twice 

per week to reduce stress and hunting pressure on the population.

Hunting Preserve Ducks on Flooded Crop Land

4.8 NUTRITION

Nutrient requirements of game birds have not been as thoroughly studied as requirements for commercial poultry 

such as layers, broilers, and turkeys. Game birds nutritional requirements are often extrapolated from poultry 

rations. As in poultry rations, dietary formulations are different according to the age of the birds. Starter feeds, 

grower feeds, maintenance feeds, and breeder rations are fed. Their feeds most closely resemble turkey rations and 

it is assumed that game birds have higher requirements for protein and amino acids. Also, game bird feeds contain 

more vitamins and minerals than chicken diets. As in poultry, feed is the single highest cost to produce game birds. 

The end goal is to develop healthy, well-feathered, muscled, active, and athletic birds that will challenge sportsmen 

in the field.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 141 of 174

There are most likely different requirements for each species of bird being raised. Ducks, pheasants, quail, and 

partridges probably differ in dietary needs but these differences have not been well-studied. Requirements for 

Ring-necked pheasants and Bobwhite Quail are given below (Table 1), but researched dietary recommendations 

for partridges or mallard ducks are not available.

Nutritional deficiencies are sometimes suspected in these species. Often, problems with unexplained weight gain, 

poor feathering, uneven growth, reduced egg production, and fertility are seen in field situations. However, it is 

important to note that although a balanced formulation may be originally obtained, game bird rations are more 

prone to degradation due to several factors:

1. Most game bird operations are not large enough to quickly use up purchased feeds. Large volumes may 

be purchased for economical reasons, but smaller producers may need to store this feed for several

months before obtaining new feed. Feed may suffer a decline in quality, especially if stored over hot 

summer months.

2. Breeder formulations are kept constant throughout the breeding cycle. While there are advantages to fixed 

formulations (as opposed to least-cost rations used in poultry production), if consumption declines due to 

heat, intake of important nutrients will also be reduced. In such instances, feeding a more nutrient-dense 

diet may improve egg production, shell quality, and hatchability.

3. Once game birds are moved outside to flight pens, feed is obtained in outside feeders that are exposed to 

harsh elements, such as heat or moisture. This can lead to nutrient decline and mycotoxin development.

Table 1. Nutrient Requirements of Ring-Necked Pheasants and 

Bobwhite Quail as unit per kilogram of Diet (90% dry matter)*

*Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, Ninth Revised Edition, 1994. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

Protein

ME Energy

Calcium

Chlorine

Sodium

26

2800

0.65

0.11

0.15

0.45

20

2800

0.65

0.11

0.15

0.30

24

2800

2.40

0.11

0.15

0.70

Nutrients 0-6

Weeks

7-12 

Weeks Breeding

Nonphytate 

Phosphorus

28

2800

1.00

0.11

0.15

0.55

%

Kcal

%

%

%

%

24

2800

0.85

0.11

0.15

0.50

18

2700

0.53

0.11

0.15

0.45

15

2800

2.50

0.11

0.15

0.40

0-4

Weeks

Unit/kg

Diet

4-8

Weeks

9-17

Weeks Breeding

Ring-Necked Pheasants Bob-White Quail
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 142 of 174

4.9 MOVEMENT OF GAME BIRDS

Products being moved can be classified according to the following categories: eggs, chicks, started birds, mature 

birds, and flight-ready birds.

Cardboard Chick Box Truck and Trailer Trucks and Trailers

Many different transport containers are used, including plastic crates, 

wooden crates, and cardboard boxes. Vehicles used to move game birds 

include small trucks with cabs, semi trucks, or specially designed trailers.

4.9.1 Eggs

Eggs are typically sold from March through July. They could be sent 

anywhere in the world, because eggs can remain in transit up to 5 days 

without major effects on their hatchability. Eggs are either picked up, 

delivered, or shipped using Fed Ex, UPS, United States Postal Service, or an 

airline.

4.9.2 Chicks

Chicks are typically sold from April through August. They can be shipped to 

any destination within a 3 day journey without seeing any major effects on livability. However, a 1 to 2 day trip is 

preferable. Chicks are picked up, delivered, or shipped by the United States Postal Service.

4.9.3 Started Birds

Started birds are typically sold from June through September. Started birds usually move regionally because they are 

either picked up or delivered to locations that can be reached within 24 hours.

4.9.4 Mature Birds

Mature birds are typically sold from September through mid-April. They usually move regionally. Mature game 

birds are either picked up or delivered to locations that can be reached within 48 hours. Hobby operations send 

birds much shorter distances compared to larger commercial operations because it is not cost effective for them. 

Due to higher costs to drive long distances, a lot of birds need to be delivered at one time to minimize the cost per 

bird for delivery. 

4.10 BIOSECURITY MEASURES: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN 

ANIMAL DISEASE IN GAME BIRDS

4.10.1 Biosecurity Concepts for Game Birds

While many biosecurity measures are shared between commercial avian species, there are unique aspects in game 

bird production that need to be addressed in the event of a contagious foreign animal disease outbreak.

Game bird production facilities often incorporate breeding birds, hatcheries, growing birds, and sometimes hunting 

preserves all on the same premise. If exposure to a highly contagious foreign animal disease would occur, there is 

the possibility of significant economic loss to producers as the disease most likely could not be contained within one 

building or between various types of birds located on the same premises. If depopulation were necessary, not only 

would commercial flocks be affected, but next year’s breeding stock replacements would also have to be destroyed. 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 143 of 174

For preventative biosecurity purposes, game bird producers can reduce disease risks by separating breeding facilities, 

hatcheries, commercial bird production and hunting preserves on different premises with separate personnel caring 

for them. In particular, the breeders and next years’ breeders should be isolated from commercial birds since they are 

very expensive to replace.

Flight-ready game birds may be sold in a wide geographic area. To reduce time required, and to minimize 

transportation costs, multiple farm and premises deliveries are often arranged. A single large truck may visit 

multiple customers and premises at a time, unload a number of birds at each location, and then return with soiled 

crates and vehicle back to the farm. To minimize disease risk, growers should ideally unload bird deliveries offsite at mutually agreed locations, instead of driving onto each farm and potentially contaminating themselves by 

unloading birds for customers. All vehicles and crates should be cleaned and disinfected prior to returning to the 

home farm.

Mixing of mallard duck production and upland game bird production is a potentially risky practice. Waterfowl 

are commonly exposed to low-pathogenic strains of avian influenza but rarely suffer any noticeable ill effects. 

If there is enough direct or close indirect contact between upland game and waterfowl, cross-infection of 

diseases may occur. While Avian Influenza cross-infection is the primary concern, other diseases such as avian 

cholera might also occur. 

Some producers that raise both mallards and other game birds have successfully controlled disease by keeping 

ducklings and upland game birds far apart physically and confining ducklings under netting. However, ideally, raisedfor-release waterfowl and upland game birds should be kept separate. Furthermore, poultry, such as chickens and 

turkeys, should not be mixed with waterfowl and upland game birds.

4.10.2 Biosecurity for Hunting Preserves

Birds delivered to hunting preserves rarely survive beyond a few weeks and the risk of disease spreading from these 

preserves to commercial poultry is very low. Mixing of bird deliveries should be minimized for the sake of bird 

health and for the preserve owners. Only the number of game birds needed should be obtained to reduce the need for 

extended holding.

4.11 GUIDELINES ON HANDLING UPLAND GAME BIRDS AND WATERFOWL IN 

THE EVENT OF A SUSPECTED CASE OF NOTIFIABLE AVIAN INFLUENZA (NAI) 

OR ANY EXOTIC/NOTIFIABLE DISEASE EVENT 

Mild forms of Avian Influenza (AI, North American strains) are considered endemic in waterfowl and shorebirds. 

Serotypes that affect these birds are variable, and most produce little to no clinical disease in their hosts. Low 

pathogenicity avian influenza infections in upland game birds are uncommon. Similar to poultry, low pathogenic 

strains of avian influenza may or may not result in positive antibodies in exposed birds with or without mild 

respiratory disease symptoms. Upland game bird infections with AI are usually the consequence of close contact 

with wild or domestic waterfowl. Preventing avian influenza in upland game birds is important. The National 

Poultry Improvement Plan has added avian influenza surveillance and testing for upland game bird and raised-forrelease waterfowl. For more information, please contact the following website: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/

animal_health/animal_dis_spec/poultry/

4.11.1 Response to a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal Disease in Game Birds

Depopulation methods are challenging in game bird facilities because breeders and flight birds are housed 

outdoors. Herding them together and moving them into an enclosed space would be necessary to achieve 

euthanasia via CO2 gas or foam methods. Small groups of game birds could be euthanized by trained teams 

using cervical dislocation. 

Disinfecting outdoor pens involves cleaning and disinfecting feeders, drinkers, and nest boxes. Netting material is 

best destroyed because it is very difficult to disinfect properly. Lastly, vegetation should be mowed down and the 

soil tilled and composted. Brooder houses can be cleaned and disinfected similar to commercial poultry buildings.

Whatever methods are utilized, placement of sentinel birds on the premise should be used to verify that the virus has 

been effectively destroyed in the environment.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 144 of 174

4.11.2 Guidelines for Routine Handling and Processing of Upland Game Birds and 

Water fowl to Prevent Disease Transmission by Avian Influenza (H5N1) or Other 

Zoonotic Diseases

Human infections with an avian influenza virus are extremely rare. The H5N1 virus, which has infected domestic 

poultry,game birds, and wild birds in Asia, primarily has resulted in illnesses and occasionally deaths in people 

exposed to droppings, blood, or discharges from sick or dead birds as well as from consumption of under-cooked 

meat. Fortunately, this AI virus strain is not known to exist in the Americas.

Several recommendations are suggested for hunters or those who process game bird meat to prevent AI infection. 

These guidelines are also helpful to prevent other zoonotic diseases from birds to people as well:

1. Do not butcher game birds that have been found sick or dead.

2. Do not eat, drink, or smoke while handling or butchering game birds.

3. Wear rubber gloves when cleaning game birds and wash hands thoroughly after cleaning is completed. 

4. Wash tools and surfaces with soap and water followed by disinfecting the area with a 10% bleach solution.

5. Cook game birds to an inside temperature of 165°F.

For more information, visit the Alaska hunter safety website below: http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/news/

avian_bulletin_9-30-05.pdf
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 145 of 174

Acknowledgements

Information for the Game Bird Industry chapter of the Poultry Industry Manual was obtained from the following sources:

• Agricultural Alternatives: Partridge Production. 1998. Pennsylvania State College of Agricultural Sciences, 

Cooperative Extension. The Pennsylvania State University. 1998.

• Agricultural Alternatives: Pheasant Production 2004. Pennsylvania State College of Agricultural Sciences, 

Cooperative Extension. The Pennsylvania State University.

• Game Birds Profile. Dan Burden. Revised June 2010. AgMRC . Iowa State University. www.agmrc.org/

	 commodities__products/agritourism/game_birds_profile.cfm

• Game Bird Propagation. John Mullin. 6th Edition. 2000. Wildlife Harvest Publications. Goose Lake, Iowa.

• Grower’s Reference on Gamebird Health. L. Dwight Schwartz. 1995. Avicon, Inc. 3871 Sandlewood Drive. 

Okemos, MI 48864.

• How to Begin and Survive A Commercial Gamebird Farm. Leland Hayes Gamebird Publications.

http://www.lelandhayes.com/

• Managing Game Birds. 1994. Michigan State University Extension Bulletin E-692. C.J. Flegal

• Preserving Wildlife and Rural America. Produced by the North American Gamebird Association (NAGA) and the 

North American Gamebird Foundation. http://www.mynaga.org/

• Raising Bobwhite Quail For Commercial Use. The Mississippi State Cooperative Extension Service. Tom T. 

Smith. http://www.poultry.msstate.edu/pdf/extension/raising_quail.pdf

This FAD PReP Industry Manual was produced in collaboration with USDA-APHIS-VS National Center for Animal 

Health and Emergency Management by the Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University of 

Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine through a cooperative agreement.

The Game Bird Industry chapter of the Poultry Industry Manual prepared for the USDA National Center for Animal 

Health Emergency Management (NCAHEM) was authored by:

• Eva Wallner-Pendleton, DVM, MS, Diplomate ACPV

Avian Diagnostician and Field Investigator, Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University

• R. Michael Hulet, PhD

Associate Professor, Department of Poultry Science, Pennsylvania State University

Illustrations were designed by:

• Dani Ausen, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

• Katlyn Harvey, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

• Andrew Kingsbury, BFA

Graphic Designer, CFSPH

Images were provided by:

• Ms. Lindsay Harlow

Pennsylvania State University

• Dr. R. Michael Hulet

Pennsylvania State University

• Dr. Eva Wallner-Pendleton

Pennsylvania State University

• Mr. B. S. Thurner Hof

www.wikipedia.org

• Ms. Linda White

Wolfe’s Gamebird Hatchery

This chapter was reviewed by:

• Danelle Bickett-Weddle, DVM, MPH, PhD, DACVPM

Iowa State University
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 146 of 174

Acknowledgements

• Ms. Lindsay Harlow

Pennsylvania State University

• Dr. Darrell W. Trampel

Iowa State University

• Dr. David Frame

Utah State University Extension Poultry Specialist
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 147 of 174

Page 132 (Top) Examples of different species of game birds explained in this chapter. From right: 

 Ring-necked Pheasant, Duck, Chukar Partridge, Bob-White Quail, and Hungarian (grey) partridge. 

 Photo sources: Dr. Eva Wallner-Pendleton (left and center), Lindsay Harlow (second from left), 

 Linda White, freelance writer (fourth from left), and Mike Hulet (right)

 (Center) This photo is of a Ring-Neck Pheasant. Photo source: Eva Wallner-Pendleton, 

 Pennsylvania State University 

 (Bottom) Ducks on a hunting preserve pond. Photo source: Lindsay Harlow, Pennsylvania 

 State University

Page 133 Panoramic view of a netted outdoor pheasant pen. Photo source: Eva Wallner-Pendleton, 

 Pennsylvania State University 

Page 134 (Top) Eggs in an incubator. Photo source: Eva Wallner-Pendleton, Pennsylvania State University

 (Bottom) Pheasant chicks ready for shipment in a typical live transport box (left). Vegetation in 

 netting (right). Photo source: Eva Wallner-Pendleton, Pennsylvania State University (all)

Page 135 (Top) Hunter hunting in a blind. Photo source: Eva Wallner-Pendleton, Pennsylvania State University

 (Second from top) Hunting lodge. Photo source: Eva Wallner-Pendleton, Pennsylvania State University

 (Third from top) Male and female pheasant. Photo source: Eva Wallner-Pendleton, Pennsylvania 

 State University 

(Bottom) Feeder and a nest box in an outside pen. Photo source: Eva Wallner-Pendleton, 

 Pennsylvania State University

Page 136 (Top) Digital readings of Natureform incubator. Photo source: Lindsay Harlow, Pennsylvania 

 State University

(Second from top) Pheasant chicks in a brooding ring. Photo source: Lindsay Harlow, Pennsylvania 

 State University

 (Third from top) Placing specs on pheasants. Photo source: Eva Wallner-Pendleton, Pennsylvania 

 State University 

(Bottom) Nuisance birds on an outside pen net (left). Noise cannon (right). Photo source: Eva 

 Wallner-Pendleton, Pennsylvania State University (both)

Page 137 (Top) Chukar. Photo source: Eva Wallner-Pendleton, Pennsylvania State University

 (Second from top) Chukars raised on wire with inside and outside access. Photo source: Eva 

 Wallner-Pendleton, Pennsylvania State University

 (Third from top) Partridge on a wire (left). Photo source: Michael Hulet, Pennsylvania 

 State University

 (Bottom) Partridges on wire. Photo source: Michael Hulet, Pennsylvania State University

Page 138 (Top) Quail in the grass. Photo source: BS Thurner Hof via Wikipedia.com 

 (Center) Young quail on wire. Photo source: Michael Hulet, Pennsylvania State University

 (Bottom) White quail housing. Photo source: Wolfe’s Gamebird Hatchery

Page 139 (Top) Ducks on flooded crop land for hunting preserve. Photo source: Lindsay Harlow, 

 Pennsylvania State University

 (Center) Eggs in a nest box. Photo source: Lindsay Harlow, Pennsylvania State University

(Bottom) Clipping of the dew claw (left). Ducklings brooded on wire (center). Older ducks on 

 outside ponds (right). Photo sources: None (left), Lindsay Harlow, Pennsylvania State University 

 (center and right)

Page 140 (Top) Pipes used for aeration of the duck ponds to prevent bacteria from growing. (left). Outside 

 feeder (right). Photo source: Lindsay Harlow, Pennsylvania State University (all)

(Bottom) Ducks in flight on a hunting preserve (left). Ducks on flooded crop land (right). Photo 

 source: Lindsay Harlow, Pennsylvania State University (all)

Page 141 Table 1. Nutrient Requirements of Ring-Necked Pheasants and Bobwhite Quail as Unit per 

 Kilogram of Diet (90% Dry Matter). Content provided by: National Academy Press, Washington 

 D.C. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 148 of 174

Page 142 (Top) Cardboard box used to ship or transport live game bird chicks (left). Truck with a trailer and 

 yellow crates used to transport ducks. (center). Trucks and trailers used to transport game birds 

 (right). Photo sources: Michael Hulet, Pennsylvania State University (left), Lindsay Harlow, 

 Pennsylvania State University (center), Eva Wallner-Pendleton, Pennsylvania State University (right)

 (Bottom) Crates used to transport live game birds. Photo source: Lindsay Harlow, Pennsylvania 

 State University 

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 4: Game Bird Industry • Page 149 of 174

Glossary

Game Bird

Any bird that is used for hunting.

Upland Game Bird

Wild turkeys, partridges, pheasants, and quail (birds in the order of Galliformes). Excluded from this group are 

waterfowl and pigeons.

Started Bird

Birds ready to leave the brooder house, generally between five and eight weeks of age.

Mature Bird

Birds that have achieved adult weight and plumage and are ready for release onto a preserve or into the wild.

Commercial Production

Game birds raised to generate income for the grower.

Hobby Production

Birds raised for recreational purposes.

Hatching Eggs

Fertile eggs incubated for production of live chicks. 

Flight-Ready

Birds ready for release or placement into the wild or on preserves.

Raised for Release

Game birds being raised for release onto a preserve or into the wild, as opposed to birds that are raised for meat 

production or breeding.

Straight – Run

Raising or selling birds of both sexes together. Chicks intended for straight-run production are not sexed after hatching. 

Hoover

A wide, saucer shaped, propane-fueled heater for brooding baby chicks.

Tarsus

The shank or featherless area of the leg below the hock.

Vertical Integration

Multiple phases of production encompassed in one company. For instance, a verically integrated company may have 

breeders, hatchery, commercial production, and hunting preserves. They may also have a feed mill.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 150 of 174

Table of Contents

Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry

5.1 Introduction 152

 

5.2 Scope of the Backyard Poultry Industry 152

5.2.1 Demographics 152

5.2.2 Business Structure 154

5.2.3 Components 155 

5.2.4 Economics 156

5.2.5 Allied Industries 156

5.2.6 Diverse Workforce 157

5.2.7 Business Continuity 157

5.2.8 Animal Disease Traceability 157

5.3 Production Cycles for Backyard Poultry 157

5.3.1 Breeding Flocks and Hatcheries 157

5.3.2 Breeding Seasons, Fighting Season, Show Schedules, Movements, Molting 158

5.4 Husbandry Practices for Backyard Poultry 158

5.4.1 Housing and Containment 158

5.4.2 Feeding and Watering Systems 159

5.4.3 Feed Sources and Delivery 159

5.4.4 Health Care 159

5.4.5 Marketing 159

5.4.6 Manure Disposal 159

5.4.7 Disposal 159

5.4.8 Record Keeping 160

5.5 Backyard Poultry and Product Movements, Marketing 160

5.5.1 Transportation Methods 160

5.5.2 Breeding and Fighting Season 160

5.5.3 Quarantined Birds 160

5.5.4 Marketing Methods and Practices 160

5.6 Biosecurity Measures for Avian Influenza and Exotic Newcastle Disease 161

5.7 Poultry Husbandry Needs 162

5.8 Product Handling 162

5.9 Surveillance 162

5.9.1 People 163 

5.9.2 Vehicle Traffic 163

5.9.3 Disease Monitoring 163

5.9.4 Sample Collection 163

5.9.5 Sample Submission 164

Larry J. Allen, DVM, MPVM, PhD, DACVPM

Animal Health Branch, California Department of Food and Agriculture
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 151 of 174

Table of Contents

Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry

5.10 Euthanasia and Mass Disposal (see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 164

5.11 Appraisal and Compensation for Depopulated Animals 165

5.12 Cleaning and Disinfection (see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 165

5.13 Wildlife Management 166

Acknowledgments 167

References 163

Photo and Illustration Credits 168

Acronyms 170

Glossary 171
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 152 of 174

Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Backyard poultry production is as varied and inclusive as are the myriads 

of backyards that house the birds. If enough backyards are visited,every 

conceivable poultry housing type and husbandry method will be observed. 

Backyard poultry, kept for all possible purposes, as well as pet birds of 

all types are maintained in various numbers and combinations (commonly 

included with a wide variety of non-avian species) in all types of 

neighborhoods and areas ranging from the most urban to the most rural 

-- even in isolated apparently inhospitable areas such as the remote desert. 

In many areas, the presence of backyard poultry is hardly noticeable; in 

other areas chickens as well as other poultry species roam and/or fly about 

freely. Some backyard poultry owners operate highly elaborate systems for 

breeding and/or raising birds and keep detailed records of their genetics 

and production. Others leave the birds to more or less fend for themselves 

among the vast array of untended objects and clutter on an enormous 

variety of premises.

Great differences in backyard facilities and husbandry practices present 

a widely variable series of challenges to taskforce personnel responding 

to an event of a highly contagious avian disease, such as avian influenza 

or exotic Newcastle disease. Surveillance, diagnostic, depopulation, and 

cleaning and disinfection teams will encounter every imaginable set of 

circumstances and all types of conditions in which they will have 

to conduct their activities. Great variation also will be encountered 

among backyard poultry owners. Some are highly cooperative, informed, 

sophisticated producers while others are the extreme opposite and difficult 

people with whom to deal. Some are openly belligerent to government 

employees. This latter category, although rare, sometimes makes it necessary 

to obtain judicial warrants and assistance from law enforcement in order to 

depopulate poultry during an exotic disease control event.

As will be seen throughout this chapter, the universal theme is that 

backyard poultry are ubiquitous, commonly found in all imaginable 

types of backyard facilities, and are kept under all possible husbandry 

circumstances by a wide spectrum of owners for as many purposes and 

reasons as there are owners.

5.2 SCOPE OF THE BACKYARD POULTRY INDUSTRY

5.2.1 Demographics

Keeping poultry in backyards is a widespread and very popular hobby that 

is practiced throughout society in every conceivable manner and place, in 

all circumstances including the most urban of neighborhoods. Likewise, 

production and husbandry practices are as many and varied as the number 

of places that keep poultry. Backyard poultry most commonly refers to 

chickens, however, the word poultry is defined in statutes and regulations 

in various ways in different states and countries to include numerous 

species even domestic rabbits (1). Certain species may be included as 

poultry in some states, but not in others. The World Organization for 

Animal Health (OIE), formerly known as the Office International des 

Epizooties, defines poultry as, “all domesticated birds, including backyard 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 153 of 174

poultry, used for the production of meat or eggs for consumption, for the production of other commercial 

products, for restocking supplies of game, or for breeding these categories of birds, as well as fighting cocks 

used for any purpose” (2). 

The term, “backyard poultry,” however, has never been clearly defined. 

It would seem obvious that avian species defined as poultry and kept in 

a backyard would qualify as “backyard poultry.” However, the dividing

line between backyard flocks and small commercial flocks remains 

unclear and arbitrary, and difficult to precisely define. The United States 

Department of Agriculture (USDA), National Animal Health Monitoring

System (NAHMS) Poultry ’04 study (3) used the number of birds (other 

than, or in addition to pet birds) per residence as the dividing line 

between backyard (fewer than 1,000 birds) and commercial poultry 

operations (1,000 or more birds).

In the event of an exotic disease outbreak, such as avian influenza or exotic Newcastle disease, many if not 

all domestic and captive avian species may be targeted for disease control and eradication activities. These 

activities will bring responders, such as members of the National Animal Health Emergency Response Corp 

(NAHERC), into contact with a wide variety of backyard poultry facilities and circumstances. Pet birds 

continuously kept inside homes or in backyards may or may not be included in disease control protocols. In 

a disease control deployment, taskforce management will make these determinations and communicate that 

information to operations personnel. If there is any doubt about taskforce directives, responders should ask for 

complete clarification prior to taking any definitive action.

The USDA Poultry ‘04 study found an average of 29.4 residences that were located within a 1-mile radius of 

a commercial poultry operation. Of these, 1.9 had backyard poultry flocks (3,4). The primary reason cited for 

owning backyard birds was for pleasure or hobby (40.6%) while about 25% of owners cited food or family 

tradition (3,4). In backyard flocks, egg layer chickens were found in 63.2% of the premises and represented 

37.5% of all birds. Pet birds made up only 0.3% of the total bird population of backyard flocks. The presence of 

guinea fowl varied from 4.3% in the East to 31.7% in the Midwest (3).

An average backyard flock consists of 35.1 birds (average numbers of birds 

per flock ranged from 26.1 in the Southeast to 49.2 in the East). Almost one 

third of backyard flocks consist of fewer than 10 birds (3). Backyard 

poultry owners may have only a single pet chicken or duck, maybe a 

few hens for egg production, perhaps a mixed group of exotic chickens 

for breeding and/or show purposes, possibly in conjunction with some 

ducks, geese, guineas, or countless other combinations. In other situations, 

backyards may contain substantial numbers of birds. Applicable zoning laws 

may preclude or limit the number of birds that can be kept. However, such 

restrictions and limitations are frequently ignored by owners and overlooked 

or poorly enforced by animal control agencies that consistently must operate 

with limited personnel and diminished budgets. 

Gamefowl (fighting cocks) were reported in about 50% of backyard flocks 

in the southeastern U.S., but in only 4.1% of backyard flocks in the eastern 

region. In certain areas and ethnic neighborhoods, gamefowl are a consistent 

finding and may be present in highly variable numbers.

Pet birds are commonly kept and/or propagated in backyards. Small 

birds such as finches or quail, can be kept in extremely large numbers 

within a small space. As with most aspects of backyard poultry, there 

is great variability among pet birds regarding species, numbers, 

housing, purpose and use of the birds which are commonly found in 

urban, suburban, and rural neighborhoods. Owners belong to all ethnic 

and all age groups.
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In certain areas, and particularly with gamefowl owners, it is common to find 

multiple owners that have rented small portions of a larger facility to house 

their poultry. Facilities originally designed and previously used as horse stables 

or stalls are frequently converted into chicken coops by urban and suburban 

gamefowl industry members. Concerns and considerations for disease spread 

and control are particularly high during the cockfighting season which begins 

on Thanksgiving Day and continues until the following August. Gamefowl 

may be transported and moved frequently and over long distances putting these 

birds at increased risk of contracting or spreading an exotic disease.

Hobby birds of many kinds are found in backyard as well. These birds may 

include racing pigeons, which technically are not poultry (unless they are 

raised for human consumption), but nevertheless are susceptible to many of the same diseases as poultry. Hobby birds, 

by their very nature, frequently travel and/or are transported over long distances at frequent intervals. Additionally, it 

is not uncommon to find ratites, such as ostriches and emus but rarely rheas, in backyards. As stated repeatedly, the 

only consistent component of keeping and rearing of backyard poultry (and other birds) is variability.

5.2.2 Business Structure

The highly variable nature of backyard poultry production means that, for most owners, there is no business 

structure or there may be a loosely defined business. This is because, in many cases, poultry keeping is more of a 

hobby than a business. Many hobby flock owners do not keep records of any kind or they may keep minimal records 

which may amount to a desk drawer full of feed store receipts. In these situations, birds are maintained only for the 

enjoyment of the birds per se, or to produce a few eggs for home use. In some cases, small flocks are maintained 

for the purpose of selling a few eggs in the neighborhood, possibly because they may have the appeal of being the 

source of local free-range or organic fresh eggs. 

There are a few exceptions to this type of recordkeeping. Bird fanciers raising show birds usually maintain 

elaborate records of their birds detailing the genetics, breeding and production of birds and/or hatching eggs. An 

occasional gamefowl producer/breeder may keep elaborate computerized records of the genetics and production 

of each member of the entire flock and work for years to develop their “ideal” fighting cock. The fighting cock 

industry, which may range from a weekend hobby to a substantial commercial enterprise will, therefore, vary 

greatly among owners regarding the business structure and types of records they maintain.
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5.2.3 Components 

In the event of an exotic disease outbreak, responders to backyard poultry 

issues may encounter a wide spectrum of poultry as well as many other 

avian and non-avian species kept in the backyard setting. Many times, 

a hodgepodge of many species of birds will be encountered in the same 

backyard and frequently along with various other non-avian species. This 

collective group of backyard poultry and other types of birds are kept 

for a variety of reasons and purposes, such for pets, a hobby, egg and/or 

meat production, 4H or FFA projects, or cock fighting. The OIE definition 

of poultry appears to include pigeons that are raised for meat or egg 

production, but does not include racing pigeons unless one construes the 

meaning of “other commercial product” (see Section 1.1) to include the 

commercial aspects of racing as a product.

Clubs: Numerous and varied poultry fancier clubs exist, members of which

raise their birds in backyards. Multiple exotic breeds may be present in the same 

backyard. These birds frequently are exhibited at breed shows or various other 

poultry shows. University Avian Sciences Extension and/or Veterinary Extension 

faculty frequently interact closely with such fancier clubs and, therefore, are 

an excellent source of further information and liaison contact with members.

Project poultry: Project poultry are poultry that are kept and raised 

by students for 4-H or FFA projects. Project poultry may be raised for 

many purposes, including egg laying and meat production. If they are of 

a recognized or exotic breed, project birds may be exhibited at local fairs 

or state fairs in competition for awards and prizes or to satisfy the need 

for a school project. Because these birds are transported into congregation 

points and then go out again to other events, there is an element of risk for 

disease transmission and spread. Many fairs and poultry exhibitions have 

established inspection points for all birds entering the premises. Poultry 

Health Inspectors (PHI’s) are usually trained by or associated with 

university extension services and examine birds before they are admitted 

to an event (5). Any bird showing signs of contagious disease may be 

excluded from admission onto the premises and is referred to a veterinarian 

for further evaluation.

Gamefowl: A substantial component of backyard poultry is made up by 

the gamefowl (cockfighting) industry. This industry is only beginning to be 

understood, primarily as a result of the 2002-03 exotic Newcastle disease 

epidemic in California, Nevada, Arizona, and Texas. Individual holdings 

within the gamefowl industry are highly variable with flocks ranging from 

a few birds in a backyard to thousands in large elaborate commercial 

enterprises. Estimates of total numbers of gamefowl range from 3-8 million 

birds in California alone, held by some 50,000-60,000 owners. California’s 

gamefowl industry represents an estimated 33-40% of the total national 

gamefowl flock which may consist of some 8-24 million birds. Gamefowl 

owners represent many racial and ethnic groups with the majority being 

Hispanic but also including Caucasian, Filipino, Vietnamese, Thai, Cuban, 

Hmong, and Chinese. Some are involved in the sport whereas others raise 

the birds simply because they are fanciers of the breeds. There are about 750 

California members in the United Gamefowl Breeders Association, a national 

organization made up of about 15,000 gamefowl breeders and 150,000 

gamefowl owners (5).

Doves and Pigeons: Doves and Pigeons: Although not considered poultry 

in United States federal regulations (7), or in California state regulations (9) 
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unless they are to be used as human food, doves and pigeons are commonly found in backyard settings. Often these 

birds are kept purely for the pleasure of owning them or for production of squab meat. Fancy pigeons are frequently 

very expensive birds and may require a special appraisal if they have to be depopulated. Racing pigeons, or 

homing pigeons, are routinely transported long distances and then released to fly home. This activity presents some 

concerns about spreading disease, especially if an exotic disease outbreak or a quarantined area exists along their 

flight pathway. A policy for handling such species should be adopted and implemented by taskforce management in 

disease control activities.

Upland Game Birds: While upland game birds such as pheasants, quail, and chukars are usually raised in 

commercial facilities for sale to hunt clubs or to live bird markets, they also may be encountered in backyards 

where they may be raised for home consumption. These species, in addition to being raised for meat, are 

sometimes kept as purely ornamental birds, particularly the exotic types like Golden pheasants. Because of their 

very small size, quail may be raised in large numbers in very small spaces. It is entirely feasible that commercial 

quail production may be conducted in backyards or inside industrial buildings with no outward indication that 

any type of birds may be present. Raising game bird species may require a permit from the state’s wildlife or 

fish and game department. In California, the Department of Fish & Game has regulatory authority over breeding 

these species in captivity (8). This regulatory agency may be contacted to assist emergency disease responders 

locate game bird breeders in an outbreak event.

Pet Birds: Pet birds include such species as parakeets, cockatiels, parrots, finches, canaries, and mynah birds, but 

also may include almost any species including chickens, ducks, and sometimes turkeys that have been hand raised 

from babies at Easter time. The author has observed a group of adult pet turkeys that were allowed to live and roost 

inside their owner’s home.

Ratites: Ostriches and emus may be found in backyards, but rheas are less common. These species present their own 

unique challenges to taskforce personnel who may be assigned to disease surveillance testing, diagnostic teams, or to 

depopulation and disposal crews. Restraint and handling of these species can be difficult and dangerous, and is best 

left to the owner whenever possible. When taskforce personnel must handle these birds, chemical restraint in addition 

to the owner’s assistance is essential, particularly if the flock is to be depopulated. Owners may be given the option to 

depopulate their own birds if they wish to do so. This activity should be monitored to ensure that all appropriate birds 

are depopulated. If the depopulation and disposal team is to handle ratites, it is most beneficial to ask the owner or a 

veterinarian familiar with ratites for assistance in capturing and restraining the birds. Use of chemical restraint, i.e. 

sedative and/or anesthetic drugs, makes depopulation much easier and safer for the disease control team.Various drugs 

are readily available for this purpose, although many of them are scheduled controlled substances that will require a 

Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) license to purchase, possess and use. Inventory control records to account for these 

scheduled products are required to be kept.

Other Varieties: Backyards have been observed to contain virtually any and all kinds of other birds, including but 

not limited to: guinea fowl, peacocks, finches, mynah birds, parrots, love birds and many other species. Some of 

these birds may be kept in cages within the owner’s home. In advance of an outbreak situation, protocols should 

be developed regarding the policies and contingencies for handling in-house cage birds in the event of a highly 

contagious disease outbreak requiring disease control action.

5.2.4 Economics 

Most backyard poultry and hobby birds are kept solely for the owner’s use and enjoyment and have little 

economic impact other than that resulting from purchases of feed, equipment and other supplies, or perhaps 

from sales of eggs or young birds that might be produced. However, gamefowl raised in backyards frequently 

do have significant financial importance to the owners. Income generated by gamefowl was estimated at $50 

million annually in California in 2001 (5). Sales of gamefowl exported to other countries were estimated at 

about $125 million annually. In addition to sales of these birds, winnings from cockfighting events and 

“Derbies” are likewise substantial (5).

5.2.5 Allied Industries

For the backyard poultry producer or hobbyist, the local feed store serves as the central hub or meeting point where 

not only feeds and supplies are obtained, but husbandry questions, health issues of the birds, and virtually any other 

subject pertaining to backyard poultry are discussed and advice sought and/or given. Also, feed stores serve as a 
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common location where all the biosecurity issues of all the customers’ premises may come together. Foot traffic 

from each premises commonly ends up in the feed store on a regular basis and has the potential to bring with it 

disease organisms that can then be transported to other premises on the shoes of other customers of the store. 

The situation is somewhat similar to large commercial feed mills that have trucks going onto commercial poultry 

premises with the potential of carrying disease organisms on the vehicles and/or the driver’s shoes and clothes. 

Because of this, there is a degree of risk of spreading diseases via the feed stores. Likewise, there is an opportunity 

for flock owners to practice good biosecurity between the backyard flock and the feed store, if owners are informed 

of the risks and how to avoid spreading disease and how to protect their own flocks. Biosecurity at such locations is 

especially critical during an outbreak situation, such as the 2002-03 exotic Newcastle disease outbreak in California. 

Feed stores represent a valuable opportunity to conduct training and outreach to the poultry-owning public to help 

them practice better biosecurity and thus reduce the risk of disease in their flocks.

Swap meets and auctions may have poultry and/or other birds for sale and, similar to feed stores, can serve as a central

meeting or collection point for backyard poultry owners. The same potential for spreading disease organisms from 

backyards to the swap meet or auction and subsequently to other backyard flocks exists as with feed stores. Live birds 

may be bought and sold in these facilities and, therefore, the risk of spreading avian diseases through this mechanism is 

always present. Owners and vendors should be educated and made aware of this risk, and should be instructed in 

biosecurity methods to protect their flocks and their customers’ flocks. 

5.2.6 Diverse Workforce

Backyard poultry ownership is ubiquitous worldwide and widely prevalent within most, if not all, ethnic 

groups represented in the United States. This is especially true for the gamefowl culture which is thoroughly 

and irrevocably entrenched into the Hispanic population as well as many other cultures including Asian and 

Pacific Islander groups and a number of Caucasians. Larger gamefowl holdings frequently have employed 

caretakers, in addition to the owners, to look after the birds. Employed gamefowl caretakers are predominately 

Hispanic. The ability to converse in the Spanish language is especially beneficial when dealing with the 

cockfighting industry. For workers employed by the commercial poultry industry, ownership of other poultry 

or birds is strongly discouraged and usually forbidden. Likewise, bird ownership by employees of some larger 

backyard operations may be discouraged, but this stipulation is far more difficult or impossible to enforce. In 

any case, it is virtually impossible to preclude commercial poultry industry workers from having some degree 

of outside involvement in gamefowl activities. This connection to the gamefowl industry, therefore, represents 

an additional risk of disease introduction and/or spread from the gamefowl industry to commercial poultry 

facilities. Consequently, it is essential for poultry facility workers to consistently practice strict biosecurity 

methods. Many large commercial poultry firms require their employees to comply with a strict company 

biosecurity policy or face dismissal.

5.2.7 Business Continuity

Protocols have been developed that detail the steps and time intervals to be followed to repopulate a 

commercial poultry enterprise after a depopulation event for control of an exotic disease (10). These protocols 

are, thus far, not applicable to backyard poultry owners whose flocks have been depopulated as a disease 

control method. Similar protocols should be developed to guide backyard operations in repopulation methods 

following an outbreak situation.

5.2.8 Animal Disease Traceability

Producers should contact their state animal health agency and determine the state requirements for registering their 

premises. This information is helpful in the event of an animal disease outbreak to notify producers with susceptible 

species. Individual animal identification requirements vary by state and may depend on the event if the birds are 

taken to shows or exhibitions.

5.3 PRODUCTION CYCLES FOR BACKYARD POULTRY

5.3.1 Breeding Flocks and Hatcheries 

Many chickens, ducks and other species raised by individuals in backyards are obtained from the local feed store, 

usually in the spring around Easter. Many feed stores have baby chicks or other baby poultry for sale at this time, 

but may not have them available during the remainder of the year. Similarly, there are various breeding flocks 

that offer baby poultry for sale during most, if not all, of the year. Some larger source flocks operate their own 
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hatchery and will ship birds anywhere in the country by overnight courier. Feed stores may obtain their baby birds 

from any available source, including local breeder flocks, commercial hatcheries, or anywhere birds are available. 

Consultation with the store owner or manager should reveal the sources of birds, if it is necessary to trace or to 

conduct surveillance for disease control.

5.3.2 Breeding Seasons, Fighting Season, Show Schedules, Movements, Molting 

As previously indicated, most baby poultry hatchlings are available in the spring, but larger firms make the birds 

available year round. For gamefowl chickens, the usual breeding season begins in January and lasts for about 3 months. 

Gamefowl chicks are raised for about a year before they become breeding stock. Fighting cocks (often called battle 

cocks) often are culled breeders that are available for sale through local dealers or directly at local swap meets. The 

fighting season, commonly referred to as “playing,” begins on Thanksgiving Day and continues until the following

August. The usual molting time for gamefowl extends from July to November. During the molt, battle cocks are more 

difficult to handle and are not often moved during this time. Molting should be completed by November before the 

cockfighting season begins.

5.4 HUSBANDRY PRACTICES FOR BACKYARD POULTRY

5.4.1 Housing and Containment

A wide variation of housing and many methods for containment of poultry may be observed in the backyard setting. 

Traditional chicken houses of various designs and sizes are commonly used for backyard poultry. The housing type 

may also vary with the type of bird it serves. Chickens will often roost in trees, if accessible. Sometimes corral fences, 

haystacks, sheds, barns, junk piles, and most anything that will suit the birds may be used for roosting. Waterfowl may 

prefer to roost on the ground nearwater, or inside a building depending on options available to them. Gamefowl often 

are kept as “trios,” a breeding group of 1 rooster and 2 hens, that are maintained in a separate housing unit. Many of 

these units may be arranged in a “row house” type of layout. Gamefowl roosters must be kept individually or they may 

be separated by being tethered by a strong cord attached to one leg. Keeping gamefowl at a distance to prevent physical 

contact with one another is necessary to prevent fighting. Gamefowl cocks often are housed in used barrels or small 

A-frame structures tethered to a small stake driven into the ground. In other arrangements, gamefowl cocks may be 

maintained in individual cages most frequently with an opaque divider such as plywood or similar material separating 

the cages. Also, it is common to find poultry, and particularly gamefowl, housed in stables originally intended for 

horses which have been converted for use as chicken houses. Sometimes birds, and other types of livestock, may be 

housed inside industrial buildings in urban areas without any outward appearance that birds are present inside. 
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5.4.2 Feeding and Watering Systems 

Depending on the numbers of birds and the type of housing in which birds 

are kept, feed and water may be dispensed in almost any type of container 

imaginable. Usually pans, bowls, or used containers of all sorts and sizes 

are used. Depending on the facility, this may also include any of the many 

commercially available feed or water dispensers or containers and even 

automated systems designed for chickens or other types of birds. 

5.4.3 Feed Sources and Delivery

For the most part, feeds and other supplies are obtained at the local feed store 

and taken to the backyard facility in the owner’s vehicle. Larger backyard 

facilities may have feed, usually in bags, delivered to the backyard by a feed 

store vehicle. Gamefowl breeders sometimes have feeds specially formulated at a feed mill or ordered through a 

local feed store and delivered to the facility by a store vehicle or their own vehicle. Once feed arrives at the backyard 

facility, it is commonly transported by wagon, wheelbarrow, by hand, or placed into self-feeders. Feeds utilized by 

gamefowl breeders include various supplements and other feed additives (including boiled eggs) in a quest to provide 

optimal growth rations and to produce the best possible gamefowl. 

5.4.4 Health Care

Backyard flock owners rarely rely on a veterinarian for avian health issues. The Poultry ’04 study found that 

only 2.9% of backyard flocks utilized veterinary services, but as flock size increased, the percentage of flocks 

using veterinary services also increased. Vaccination was practiced by only 2.8% of backyard flocks, but also 

increased with flock size (3,4). Cost of veterinary services is likely to be the greatest deterrent to flock owners, 

but low usage also may be partially explained by limited numbers of avian veterinarians and even fewer numbers 

of poultry veterinarians who are available to assist backyard poultry owners with health issues for their birds. 

As a result, many owners simply rely on their own judgment, product advertisements in trade journals or 

poultry magazines, the internet, and mostly advice from feed store operators, other breeders, farm advisors, their 

neighbors and any others whom they think may have the answers they need about avian health issues.

Another option for backyard poultry owners seeking avian health information and advice may be to take birds to a 

veterinary diagnostic laboratory, such as the California Animal Health and Food Safety Services Laboratory where 

a professional diagnosis can be obtained. In the California system, this diagnosis is free of charge to poultry 

“hobbyists,” that is, those with flocks of fewer than one thousand birds. Some laboratories will accept shipments sent 

by bus but owners should be sure to telephone ahead for shipping instructions.

5.4.5 Marketing

Backyard producers may market their products such as eggs and live birds by “word of mouth” advertising in the local 

area. More commonly, marketing is done at the local swap meet, auction, or farmers market or by road signs in front of 

the residence. In other cases, advertising by internet website or in trade journals and newspapers is utilized.

5.4.6 Manure Disposal

Methods for disposal of poultry waste may vary depending on how many birds are kept and the amount of space 

available. In backyards with large spaces and few birds (pasture poultry system), it may be acceptable to let the 

manure dissipate into the soil. In many cases, the space and numbers of poultry necessitate collection and disposal 

of waste by other means. In some cases, it may be suitable to rake up the manure and dispose of it by placing it 

in the household trash container. Larger quantities of waste may necessitate disposal by other means. Composting 

and/or application to landscaping or gardens are generally acceptable manure disposal methods. Backyard poultry 

owners should check local ordinances for restrictions on methods for disposal of poultry waste in their area. 

5.4.7 Disposal 

Mortalities from backyard poultry operations also present a disposal issue in addition to manure disposal. Small 

holdings that only have the occasional dead bird may dispose of dead birds by placing them into household trash, 

provided that the waste collection authority is willing to accept this material. Composting dead poultry has become 

one of the preferred methods. If done properly, composting is a sanitary, odor-free, and efficient method to dispose 

of dead poultry and it produces a useful product at the end of the process. In some locations, laws may permit burial 

on site. Incineration is another acceptable method, but may not be practical or permitted in certain locations due to 
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laws restricting burning. Rendering is an acceptable method for disposal of dead poultry, but rendering facilities are 

frequently reluctant to accept poultry carcasses. Over recent years, rendering companies have declined substantially 

in numbers and in the areas they service. This disposal method may be difficult to find and is unlikely to be an 

option for the majority of backyard poultry facilities.

5.4.8 Record Keeping 

Record keeping methods for backyard poultry operations have been discussed previously in section 5.2.2 

(Business structure) on page 154.

5.5 BACKYARD POULTRY AND PRODUCT MOVEMENTS, MARKETING

5.5.1 Transportation Methods

Transportation methods used vary according to the scope and needs of a particular operation. Out of necessity

the owner of a few backyard chickens may simply place the birds into a small box, cage, other container, or 

even a paper grocery bag and transport them by car. Larger operations that transport birds or eggs to swap 

meets or farmers markets may utilize larger cages and trucks or vans dedicated to this purpose. Gamefowl 

roosters being transported to cock fight events must be held in individual cages to prevent fighting. For this 

purpose, various types of individual cages, or cages designed to carry multiple birds with each bird within its 

separate compartment are utilized. These cages fit into the trunk of a car or the back of a truck and can be 

easily disguised or hidden. Birds that are being smuggled across borders frequently are hidden by variety of 

means to avoid detection.

5.5.2 Breeding and Fighting Season 

Movement of poultry for breeding or cock fighting purposes is commonly done in a variety of ways as described in 

section 5.5.1 above. 

5.5.3 Quarantined Birds

Smuggling of various birds, particularly psittacine birds, is a big business particularly from Latin American origins. 

Gamefowl are commonly taken into and out of the United States, both legally and illegally, for breeding and/or cock 

fighting events by many different means. 

During the exotic Newcastle disease quarantine in California in 2002-03, it was common for gamefowl to be moved 

around illegally in spite of restrictions imposed by state and federal quarantines against such movements. The 

purpose of this illegal movement was to avoid having the flock, or at least selected birds within the flock, depopulated 

due to infected or exposed birds being traced or epidemiologically connected to that flock. One of the favorite ingenious 

ways for gamefowl owners to move birds was to place them in rental pickups obtained from the same commercial 

firm that supplied vehicles to the Federal-State Taskforce. The taskforce had leased a substantial number of pickups 

and other box trucks and to identify those vehicles had finger painted an identifying number on the inside of the 

windshield. In order to avoid detection, many gamefowl owners leased the same types of pickups or trucks from the 

same rental company and painted similar looking numbers on the inside of the windshield. Using these “look-alike” 

vehicles, the birds would be moved in, out, or within the quarantined area without arousing any suspicion and with 

little chance of being detected. This scheme was not discovered until after the outbreak was over and the taskforce 

disbanded. After the fact, we learned that many movements of this type had taken place over a long time interval while 

quarantines were in place.

5.5.4 Marketing Methods and Practices

Backyard poultry may be marketed in any number of ways including direct sales on premises, taking birds to 

swap meets or auctions or even by internet sales. Approximately 17.8% of backyard flocks sold or gave away 

live birds in the year preceding the NAHMS survey (3). The NAHMS study found that backyard flocks that 

had introductions of new birds within the past year ranged from 28.3% to 51.7% with an average of about 36% 

(3). About 3.6% of backyard bird owners moved birds to congregation points where other birds are present. 

Most of these movements were within the same county or state of residence. As previously discussed, taking 

live birds into and out of congregation points introduces a risk that disease pathogens may be transported 

along with the birds. As a means of reducing this risk, it is important for disease control officials to maintain 

a liaison with market operators and to conduct regular training in biosecurity methods and to conduct regular 

surveillance testing of birds moving in these markets.
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5.6 BIOSECURITY MEASURES FOR AVIAN INFLUENZA AND EXOTIC 

NEWCASTLE DISEASE

An incursion of a foreign animal disease, such as avian influenza or exotic Newcastle disease, necessitates an 

emergency response to contain and eradicate the outbreak as quickly as possible. This is vitally important to 

protect the production industry of the state(s) and the entire country, as well as to ensure continuity of a plentiful 

and wholesome food supply from the affected industry and protect the public health. In preparation for such 

an adverse event many government agencies have developed response plans and have stockpiled some of the 

common materials needed for the initial response to an outbreak. Part II of the current document is a summary of 

the organized response to an exotic disease introduction. Various reference documents are available that provide 

further guidance to disease control activities in response to a highly contagious disease event. (10, 11). 

Backyard or hobby poultry producers will be affected by state and federal quarantines, if they are located within the 

area. Similarly, infected premises and contact premises that are backyards will be handled in the same way as any 

other premises where the highly contagious disease occurs. Movement restrictions may apply to poultry and birds in 

backyards within quarantined areas. Use of a permit system as part of the movement controls may allow uninfected 

entities to continue to operate (11.).

General principles of biosecurity share considerable similarity across all species and across different categories 

within a given species, for example the six types of poultry represented in this manual. Differences in biosecurity 

programs for various types of poultry operations come from variation in the type of premises involved, the 

magnitude of the operation, the amount of risk of disease at the specific premises, funding available, and the 

practicality of the intervention considering the risk-benefit to be achieved by including each component under 

consideration into the flock biosecurity plan.

Backyard poultry biosecurity is extremely variable due to a multitude of reasons including the design, construction, 

location, size, layout of the facility, and what’s in the areas adjacent to the operation as well as the cost. To 

provide adequate biosecurity to protect the wide variety of backyard poultry operations, it may be necessary to 

apply non-standard approaches and innovative thinking to fit the specific premises at hand, while keeping in mind 

the objectives and intent of a biosecurity plan.

By definition, biosecurity is the application of any protective practice or intervention method that could decrease 

the risk of disease by preventing or diminishing the movement of pathogenic organisms into or out of a premises. 

Biosecurity reduces the probability of disease occurrence in a poultry flock to the lowest possible level. In the 

process of preparing a biosecurity plan, careful consideration must be given to the various options available, 

the practicality of each intervention method considered, the cost/benefit of the practice, and the feasibility 

of executing each component of the biosecurity protocol for the specific premises. Ideally, strictly-practiced, 

effective biosecurity is a critically important component of successful poultry production in all types of poultry 

operations from small backyard flocks to the largest commercial operations. An additional benefit of using good 

biosecurity practices is that they protect against all diseases and are not limited or applicable only to highly 

contagious diseases, such as avian influenza (AI) or exotic Newcastle Disease (END).

The three basic components of flock biosecurity include: isolation, traffic control, and sanitation (12). Isolation means 

the confinement of birds within an environment that can be controlled and protected, and refers to physical separation 

away from other poultry, people and equipment. Whenever possible, poultry facilities should be located well away 

from lakes or rivers that will attract wild waterfowl, roads on which poultry may be hauled, and other poultry 

production premises. In the case of backyard facilities, however, there is little or no control over what may be located 

in the adjacent environment, the backyard’s location or what kinds of poultry may be kept on a nearby premises. 

Fencing around the facility and a buffer zone around poultry houses that is maintained free of vegetation to 

discourage rodent activity will be beneficial. Traffic control refers to all persons, vehicles, equipment and any other 

items that enter, move within the premises, or exit from the poultry facility. The fewer movements into or out of the 

facility, the less likely disease organisms will be brought onto or taken out of the premises. Sanitation is the cleaning 

and disinfection of equipment, vehicles, materials and other items, and the cleanliness of personnel on the premises. 

Sanitation is composed of about 90% cleaning and 10% disinfection. Because very few disinfectants are effective 

in the presence of organic matter, such as manure, mud or other debris, it is necessary to remove this material by 

thorough cleaning before a disinfectant is applied. 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 162 of 174

When doing cleaning and disinfection of backyard poultry facilities it is essential to remember:

1. It is impossible to disinfect soil, litter or manure, therefore, spraying disinfectant solutions on the ground (soil) 

has no beneficial effect. 

2. Chemical disinfectants were not intended to be sprayed on live birds, either as a disease prevention or 

treatment method. 

3. Chemical disinfectants (such as formaldehyde or Virkon-S and many others) are not to be sprayed on the skin 

(bodies) of workers as part of a shower-in/shower-out process. 

4. Chemical disinfectants may be dangerous and must be used according to directions, e.g. formalin or 

formaldehyde is toxic and a known carcinogen and may be used only in certain applications.

Infectious disease agents may be introduced into, or escape from a poultry production facility in many ways including:

• Movements of diseased birds, or birds that have recovered from an illness, but have become carriers of the 

causative organism, or movements of healthy birds into a contaminated environment.

• Vehicles, shoes, and clothing of visitors, workers, delivery or service personnel that move between flocks 

or premises.

• Fomites including feeders, waterers, cages, coops, carts, or other equipment that may be moved or shared 

between different premises or even in multiple houses on the same premises

• Carcasses of dead birds following improper disposal

• Movement and disposal of manure or other waste materials

• Contaminated water, feed or feed bags, soil, or litter 

• Rodents, wild animals, and free flying birds or insects

• Contaminated trucks or vehicles of any kind

• Eggs and egg handling equipment

Of the many ways that disease organisms may be introduced into a flock, the most critical methods involve movements 

of contaminated birds, people and equipment. Whenever possible, non-porous, impervious materials, such as metal 

or plastic cages, coops, and other equipment should be used because they are more easily cleaned and disinfected. 

Birds should be obtained from reliable sources and then should be isolated for 2-4 weeks before being introduced 

into the rest of the flock. People should be restricted from entering the premises unless it is essential for them to do 

so and then they should wear protective outer clothing and shoe covers. Similarly, vehicles and equipment should 

not be brought onto the premises unless necessary, and unless thoroughly cleaned (e.g. by high pressure power 

washing) and disinfected before entry and upon exiting the facility. Movements of persons and equipment within a 

given premises should be made beginning with the youngest birds first and progressing to the oldest, and from the 

resident birds first then moving toward the isolation area last. Another important component of backyard poultry 

biosecurity is the exclusion and control of rodents, wild birds, and insects from the premises. 

These disease control principles should be applied and/or modified to suit the conditions of a particular premises and 

practiced accordingly at all times. However, practicality should be continuously kept in mind and strict biosecurity 

methods should be even more strenuously applied during times when outbreaks of diseases such as AI or END are 

known to be occurring.

5.7 POULTRY HUSBANDRY NEEDS 

(See Part I, Section 1.2) Husbandry needs for a backyard poultry flock will be the same in the face of an outbreak as 

they would be in normal circumstances unless the flock is selected for depopulation. 

5.8 PRODUCT HANDLING 

Backyard poultry producers seldom have any product other than young or adult birds, or eggs either for 

consumption or for hatching, or that are in the process off being hatched by the hens. Baby or juvenile birds 

could be considered product, but for purposes of depopulation and disposal, all live birds on a premises should 

be handled in the same way. On occasion, nests full of eggs, usually goose, duck, or gamefowl eggs, are 

encountered and appraised with assistance from the owner. The eggs are then disposed of by including them 

with the depopulated birds.

5.9 SURVEILLANCE 

Surveillance includes two types of disease control activities. First, is the search component or looking for the 

presence of susceptible species, that is, finding out where the birds are and where they are not located. Door-to-
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 163 of 174

door surveys, and completion of a questionnaire when birds are found, are frequently used to document which 

premises have poultry. In an outbreak situation, this activity is most often done in quarantined areas around 

infected premises to define the extent of the outbreak. It is especially critical to conduct surveillance around 

commercial poultry production facilities when an outbreak exists in the general area. The purpose of this activity 

is to monitor poultry near commercial facilities as a means of protecting the commercial industry. From the data 

obtained, maps may be generated that show the location of poultry and bird-owning premises and show spatial 

relationships between the various types of facilities. 

The second surveillance component, is the continued monitoring and testing of flocks located in or near quarantined 

areas and of suspect or high risk premises through repeated surveillance visits to observe birds for signs of illness 

and to collect samples for disease testing. OIE Guidelines specify minimum surveillance to obtain adequate data to 

ensure freedom from disease. Those guidelines should be consulted when establishing a surveillance program after 

an outbreak has been controlled. 

After the outbreak, continued surveillance is conducted to demonstrate disease free status. Once disease free status 

is established, surveillance may be conducted as a means of early detection in case disease returns. In the interim, 

door-to-door surveys provide very little benefit considering the cost and time involved in conducting the activity. 

A better method for early detection of a new incursion of disease is to use surveillance testing at poultry concentration 

points. This includes random testing of birds in market channels, such as swap meets, auctions, live bird markets, 

and other concentration points, such as fairs, shows and other expositions. It is of utmost importance to keep and 

maintain good records of surveillance activities in a database that can be readily and easily accessed.

5.9.1 People 

Personnel assigned to surveillance activities must first be given adequate training in the protocols for biosecurity, 

sampling methods, and sampling quantities (how many birds to sample in the various situations and what 

types of samples to collect and how to prepare the samples and accompanying paperwork for submission to the 

laboratory). Some types of surveillance may be limited to canvassing neighborhoods looking for poultry and 

gathering data pertaining to the flocks when found.

5.9.2 Vehicle Traffic 

Surveillance crews should park their vehicle on the street outside the premises whenever possible. If suitable 

parking is not available outside the premises, or outside the farm gate, vehicles should be parked as far away from 

the area containing the birds as practical. The intent of this is to reduce the risk of bringing disease organisms 

into a premises, or out of the premises on the vehicle. In addition, tires and wheel wells should be sprayed with 

disinfectant on arrival and again before departing the premises. It is good practice to take the vehicle through a 

commercial car wash that includes a high pressure power wash with soap and hot water, if possible, at the end of 

each day’s operations.

5.9.3 Disease Monitoring 

This is another application of surveillance, usually applied to premises outside the infected zone or buffer zone, within 

the free area, part of the control area that have demonstrated that they should not be classified as infected premises, 

contact premises, suspect premises or at-risk premises. Also please refer to Section 5, above.

5.9.4 Sample Collection 

Taskforce personnel conducting surveillance sampling and diagnostic crews that respond to sick calls will be 

collecting samples for laboratory testing to determine disease status of the flock of interest. It is critically important 

that these crews practice very strict biosecurity while visiting premises and obtaining samples. The following 

section gives a generic example of a protocol followed by diagnostic and surveillance crews for visiting a backyard 

poultry facility. However, both surveillance and diagnostics crews should follow protocols established for the 

taskforce event at hand. (10)

1. DO NOT enter premises with dead or sick birds. If you observe dead or sick birds, leave the premises and call 

your supervisor or the Administrative Assistant in Epidemiology and report your findings. 

2. A biosecurity line must be established between the premises and the vehicle. Use the biosecurity procedures 

and personal protection equipment (such as Tyvek suits, double boots, double rubber gloves, hairnet, face 

mask, and goggles). Refer to the Standard Operating Procedure Manual for instructions, or in the absence of 

such a manual, contact the operations supervisor for direction.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 164 of 174

3. Two members of the three-person surveillance team will enter the premises. One crew member will hold and 

handle the bird(s). The other crew member will collect oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs and handle media tubes.

4. Oropharyngeal and/or cloacal swabs must be collected and handled according to prescribed procedures. Refer 

to the standards for the area in which you are operating, i.e., the surveillance zone, or the quarantine zone.

5. The third crew member is the clean person who remains at the biosecurity line established between the premises 

and the vehicle. This crew member calls for the premises identification information and takes decontaminated 

samples at the biosecurity line and stores them in an ice chest that will be used to transport them. This crew 

member also processes the trash when the other two crewmembers return to decontaminate at the biosecurity line 

prior to returning to the vehicle at the end of the collection.

6. The two crew members who collect the samples should complete the paperwork and prepare sample tubes 

for submission to the laboratory before crossing the biosecurity line. 

5.9.5 Sample Submission 

Taskforce management should provide protocols for collecting samples. Similarly, diagnostic laboratories 

should provide specific guidelines for collecting samples and preparing them for submission to the laboratory. 

Continuous interaction of taskforce and laboratory management will be necessary throughout the disease 

control program.

5.10 EUTHANASIA AND MASS DISPOSAL (SEE FAD PREP/NAHEMS GUIDELINES 

AND SOP)

In the event of a disease control taskforce to contain and eliminate an exotic disease outbreak, such as AI or END, 

backyard poultry facilities present a wide array of challenges to the euthanasia and disposal crews. As previously 

explained, backyards are as varied and different in size, design, and content from each other as there numbers of 

such places. Some backyards are highly organized, very neat and orderly, well-cleaned, and maintained. Also, 

there is the opposite extreme and every conceivable arrangement in between the two. Each backyard, as it is 

designated for depopulation, must be assessed and a strategy devised for catching, euthanizing, and disposing of 

the birds. Backyards frequently contain a wide range of other items, such as inoperative cars (sometimes with 

trees growing up through them), used or inoperative equipment, and materials of all types, sizes and amounts, 

refuse that has been disposed of by placing it in “storage” in the backyard, and myriads of any and all other 

things collectively referred to as junk, trash, or clutter. This, combined with the fact that chickens and other birds 

frequently are allowed to roam freely about the premises, presents various challenges for capturing loose birds 

for euthanasia and preventing their escape to other premises. At the same time, such conditions potentially may 

present additional hazards to the depopulation and disposal crew. During the pre-depopulation assessment, these 

potential hazards can be noted and any additional equipment for safety and/or capturing the birds (such as fishing 

dip nets or chicken leg snaring rods) that may be needed can be obtained. In some places, it may be impossible to 

catch large numbers of loose birds. In that case, the option of doing the depopulation after dark when the birds are 

roosting in trees, or elsewhere among the items present in that backyard and could more easily be caught could 

be considered. Sometimes, owners may have a dog(s) that usually will ignore loose chickens in the facility, but 

if given the signal by the owner, these same dog(s) will be thoroughly delighted to catch and retrieve the loose 

chickens. That system is routinely used by owners where loose chickens regularly are free to move about the 

facility. Each backyard premises will present its own set of circumstances and challenges that will have to be 

evaluated and accommodations made to fit the conditions.

Once birds are caught, they are carried to the euthanasia station located as near as feasible to where the birds are 

housed. The euthanasia station consists of cylinders of compressed CO2 mounted onto carts, and some of the 

heavyweight plastic or cardboard barrels with plastic trash bag liners. CO2 is administered into this chamber via 

a hose introduced through a hole the same size as the hose through one of the barrel lids that has been specially 

modified, such that the hose from the CO2 tank can be introduced inside the barrel. As the barrel is filled with poultry 

carcasses, the bag is closed and the modified barrel lid is replaced by a regular lid that is secured onto the barrel 

with the special locking metal band. The barrels are then disposed of in a landfill or as determined by taskforce 

management. Other similar systems and methods of applying CO2 and disposal of the carcasses may be used.

There are five basic methods for disposal of backyard poultry carcasses: bury, burn, render, landfill, or compost. 

For commercial premises, strong consideration should be given to disposal by composting, either on-site in 

the same houses the poultry were in at the time of euthanasia, or at another acceptable site. Disposal of poultry 

euthanized by a disease control taskforce has been, as was the case in the 2002-03 California END Taskforce, 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 165 of 174

by using a landfill that will accept dead poultry. At the onset of the taskforce, the Planning Section should make 

determinations as to what disposal method(s) will be used and determine protocols to follow. In the California 

taskforce (2002-03), carcasses were initially placed in heavy weight trash bags and “double bagged” to prevent 

bags leaking or tearing open. Later on, this method was revised to include placing carcasses in double plastic 

bags inside of heavyweight cardboard barrels with metal lids and a special type metal ring and latch device to 

seal the barrels. Filled barrels were placed in a roll-off dumpster container which was later loaded onto semitrucks for transfer to landfills. Barrels were then buried in the landfill. As trucks left the landfill, drivers sprayed 

the wheels and wheel wells with a disinfectant solution. 

5.11 APPRAISAL AND COMPENSATION FOR DEPOPULATED ANIMALS 

At the time a backyard premises is designated for depopulation, this assignment will be given to the depopulation 

crew. Sometimes the depopulation crew includes a person designated as the appraiser. In this case, when the crew 

arrives at the premises, the designated appraiser will consult with the owner to determine a count of each type of 

bird on the premises and then establish an appraisal value. When the appraisal was completed and the owner had 

signed the forms, depopulation began. Owners received payment for their birds at some later date, generally 1-2 

months after the paperwork was processed. An alternate method was to send the appraiser to the premises in advance 

of the depopulation team. During the 2002-03 California END Taskforce, this latter method was rarely used due to 

limitations in the numbers of trained personnel available to do appraisals and the large number of depopulation and 

disposal teams operating in the field. In that case, depopulation team leaders usually were quickly trained and tasked 

with the appraisal process. Guidelines were provided by taskforce management about the value and limits of 

appraised value of various types of poultry and other birds.

5.12 CLEANING AND DISINFECTION (SEE FAD PREP/NAHEMS GUIDELINES 

AND SOP) 

As soon as possible following depopulation and disposal of the birds, a team should be assigned to visit the backyard 

premises to clean and disinfect and to remove and dispose of contaminated materials that cannot be cleaned. The 

objective of backyard cleaning and disinfection is to reduce the potential for virus spread from an infected or dangerous 

contact premises. Cleaning and disinfecting activities on such premises should be limited to areas inhabited by, or 

exposed to, poultry. Task Force on-site supervisors should evaluate each premises with this objective in mind and make 

a reasonable determination as to whether materials can be effectively cleaned and disinfected or should be discarded. 

In general, cleaning and disinfection crews will follow guidelines established by taskforce management. The following 

general guidelines (10) may be helpful, especially in the initial phases of the outbreak:

Materials commonly found in backyards generally fall into three categories:

• Structures: Rooms and pens/cages;

• Clutter: Items that are not structures for housing birds and require judgment as to whether they can be cleaned 

and disinfected effectively or must be discarded; and

• Trash: Items that impede the cleaning process and should be discarded.

The following items should be considered for disposal instead of disinfection:

• Rotten, unglued, splintered, broken, insect- (termites) infested, or otherwise unsound wood that cannot be 

cleaned and disinfected;

• Deteriorating chipboard or particleboard;

• Plastics and other materials that are damaged with grooves, deep gouges, cracks, split, slits, or that are broken 

or otherwise structurally unsound;

• Tarps that are torn, shredded, contaminated with feces, or have exposed fibers;

• Metal items that cannot be easily cleaned and disinfected. Some large metal items (e.g. appliances, car bodies, 

and lawn mowers), should be cleaned and disinfected as thoroughly as possible and left on-site.

• Porous materials that will require excessive effort to clean and disinfect;

• Other materials with surfaces that are likely to harbor contamination;

• Clutter that may be perfectly sound but cannot be effectively disinfected. These items may include carpet, 

cardboard, feed, and bedding material;

• Open feed bags or containers (closed impermeable bags of feed may be sprayed with disinfectant and removed 

from the contaminated area,

• Trash (anything of no value that cannot be cleaned). Examples of trash include empty bottles, milk cartons, 

aluminum cans, and paper.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 166 of 174

5.13 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

The role that wildlife and wild birds, including waterfowl, other migratory birds, pigeons, and other non-migratory 

birds, may play regarding disease in backyard poultry remains controversial. Potential roles for these species 

should be considered early in an outbreak by disease control management authorities and appropriate protocols 

for managing wildlife should be adopted. 
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 167 of 174

Acknowledgements

Information for the Backyard Poultry Industry chapter of the Poultry Industry Manual was obtained from the 

following sources:

• California Code of Regulations, Title 3 (Food and Agriculture), Division 2 (Animal Industry), Chapter 5 (Poultry 

Inspection), Subchapter 1 (General Provisions), Article 1, Section 1200 (a) (24). [defines rabbits as poultry]

• World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). 2008 Terrestrial Animal Health Code, Article 10.4.1, General 

provisions, #2). [definition of poultry]

• USDA, APHIS, VS, National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS). Poultry ’04, Part I: Reference of 

health and management of backyard/small production flocks in the United States, 2004. 

• Garber, L. P., G. Hill, J. Rodriguez, G. Gregory, and L. Voelker. Non-commercial poultry industries: surveys of 

backyard and gamefowl breeder flocks in the United States. Prev. Vet. Med. 80:120-128. 2007.

• Bradley, F. A. Biosecurity: Educational Programs. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 16:77-81. 2007.

• Castellan, D. M., F. A. Bradley, and H. E. Webster. END Report: Biosecurity Best Practices for Game Fowl. 

An official USDA Report. 2004.

• Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Part 145.1 (definitions). 2005.

• California Code of Regulations __________ (defines pigeons as poultry if used for human food)

• California Fish & Game Code, Chapter 2, Section 3200 et. seq. 2009.

• END SOP Manual California, Final 10-30. California Dept of Food & Agriculture, Animal Health & Food 

Safety Services. 2003.

• USDA. National Animal Health Emergency Management System (NAHEMS) Guidelines, Response 

Strategies: Highly Contagious Diseases, April, 2009 Draft)

• Jeffrey, J. S. Biosecurity for poultry flocks. Poultry fact sheet No. 26. University of California, Davis, 

Veterinary Medicine Extension. March, 1997.

• Garber, L. P., K. Forde-Folle, A. Beam, and G. Hill. Survey of small-enterprise chicken operations in the 

United States. Prev. Vet. Med. 90:204-210. 2009.

This FAD PReP Industry Manual was produced in collaboration with USDA-APHIS-VS National Center for Animal 

Health and Emergency Management by the Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University of 

Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine through a cooperative agreement.

The Backyard Poultry Industry chapter of the Poultry Industry Manual prepared for the USDA National Center for 

Animal Health Emergency Management (NCAHEM) was authored by:

• Larry J. Allen, DVM, MPVM, PhD, DACVPM

Illustrations were designed by:

• Dani Ausen, BFA

• Katlyn Harvey, BFA

• Andrew Kingsbury, BFA

Graphic Designers, CFSPH

Images were provided by:

• Dr. Larry J. Allen

California Department of Food and Agriculture, Animal Health Branch

• Dr. Everado Mendes

California Dept of Food and Agriculture, Meat, Poultry, and Egg Safety Branch

This chapter was reviewed by:

• Danelle Bickett-Weddle, DVM, MPH, PhD, DACVPM

Iowa State University

• Dr. Darrell W. Trampel

Iowa State University

• Dr. David Frame

Utah State University Extension Poultry Specialist
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 168 of 174

References

California Code of Regulations, Title 3 (Food and Agriculture), Division 2 (Animal Industry), Chapter 5 

(Poultry Inspection), Subchapter 1 (General Provisions), Article 1, Section 1200 (a) (24). [defines 

rabbits as poultry] last revision, 2009.

World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). 2008 Terrestrial Animal Health Code, Article 10.4.1, General 

provisions, #2) [definition of poultry]

USDA, APHIS, VS, National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS). Poultry ’04, Part I: Reference of health 

and management of backyard/small production flocks in the United States, 2004. 

Garber, L. P., G. Hill, J. Rodriguez, G. Gregory, and L. Voelker. Non-commercial poultry industries: surveys of 

backyard and gamefowl breeder flocks in the United States. Prev. Vet. Med. 80:120-128. 2007. 

Bradley, F. A. Biosecurity: Educational Programs. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 16:77-81. 2007.

Castellan, D. M., F. A. Bradley, and H. E. Webster. END Report: Biosecurity Best Practices for Game Fowl. An 

official USDA Report. 2004.

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Part 145.1 (definitions). 2005.

California Code of Regulations, Title 3 (Food and Agriculture), Division 2 (Animal Industry), Chapter 5 (Poultry 

Inspection), Subchapter 1 (General Provisions), Article 1, Section 1200 (a) (24) (defines pigeons [squabs] 

as poultry if used for human food), last revision, 2009.

California Fish & Game Code, Chapter 2, Section 3200 et. seq. 2009.

END SOP Manual California, Final 10-30. California Dept of Food & Agriculture, Animal Health & Food 

Safety Services. 2003.

USDA. National Animal Health Emergency Management System (NAHEMS) Guidelines, Response Strategies: 

Highly Contagious Diseases, April, 2009 Draft)

Jeffrey, J. S. Biosecurity for poultry flocks. Poultry fact sheet No. 26. University of California, Davis, Veterinary 

Medicine Extension. March, 1997.

Garber, L. P., K. Forde-Folle, A. Beam, and G. Hill. Survey of small-enterprise chicken operations in the United 

States. Prev. Vet. Med. 90:204-210. 2009.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 169 of 174

Page 152 (Top) Free range chickens in a backyard. Photo source: Dr. Everardo Mendes, California 

 Department of Food & Agriculture, Meat, Poultry and Egg Safety Branch.

 (Second from top) Chickens housed with other avian species (pigeons). Photo source: Dr. Everardo 

 Mendes, California Department of Food & Agriculture, Meat, Poultry and Egg Safety Branch.

(Third from top) Exotic breeds of chickens frequently are found in backyard facilities. Photo 

 source: Dr. Everardo Mendes, California Department of Food & Agriculture, Meat, Poultry and 

 Egg Safety Branch.

 (Bottom) Example of an unkempt, make-shift backyard facility. Photo source: Dr. Larry J. Allen, 

 California Department of Food & Agriculture, Animal Health Branch

Page 153 (Top) Example of an unkempt, make-shift backyard facility. Photo source: Dr. Everardo Mendes, 

 California Department of Food & Agriculture, Meat, Poultry and Egg Safety Branch.

 (Center) Gamefowl kept in any available housing. Photo source: Dr. Everardo Mendes, California 

 Department of Food & Agriculture, Meat, Poultry and Egg Safety Branch.

 (Bottom) Gamefowl breeding pair. Photo source: Dr. Larry J. Allen, California Department of 

 Food & Agriculture, Animal Health Branch

Page 154 (Top) Gamefowl roosters housed individually. Photo source: Dr. Larry J. Allen, California 

 Department of Food & Agriculture, Animal Health Branch 

 (Bottom) Unkempt, make-shift backyard facility (top left). Unkempt, make-shift backyard facility 

 (top right). Gamefowl facility at a remote location in the desert (bottom left). Interior view of a 

 gamefowl facility (bottom right). Photo source: Dr. Larry J. Allen, California Department of 

 Food & Agriculture, Animal Health Branch (all)

Page 155 (Top) Backyard poultry housed with a variety of other avian and non-avian species. Photo 

 source: Dr. Everardo Mendes, California Department of Food & Agriculture, Meat, Poultry and 

 Egg Safety Branch

 (Second from top) Multiple species of poultry housed together in a backyard (ducks, turkeys, 

 chickens) Photo source: Dr. Everardo Mendes, California Department of Food & Agriculture, 

 Meat, Poultry and Egg Safety Branch 

 (Third from top) Poultry and livestock (sheep) maintained in the same backyard. Photo source: 

 Dr. Everardo Mendes, California Department of Food & Agriculture, Meat, Poultry and Egg 

 Safe Branch 

 (Fourth from top) Broiler chickens and egg layer chickens maintained separately but in the same 

 room of a backyard facility. Photo source: Dr. Everardo Mendes, California Department of Food & 

 Agriculture, Meat, Poultry and Egg Safety Branch

 (Bottom) Goose co-located in a gamefowl housing facility. Photo source: Dr. Larry J. Allen, 

 California Department of Food & Agriculture, Animal Health Branch

Page 158 Backyard poultry kept in a wide variety of housing (top left). Gamefowl trio (top right). Rooster in

 make-shift individual housing (bottom left). Make-shift multiple-unit housing for gamefowl 

 (bottom right). Photo sources: Dr. Everardo Mendes, California Department of Food & Agriculture,

Meat, Poultry and Egg Safety Branch (top left), Dr. Larry J. Allen, California Department of Food 

 & Agriculture, Animal Health Branch (top right, bottom left, and bottom right)

Page 159 Variation in methods to provide water and feed. Photo source: Dr. Everardo Mendes, California 

 Department of Food & Agriculture, Meat, Poultry and Egg Safety Branch

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 170 of 174

Acronyms

AI Avian Influenza

CAHFS California Animal Health and Food Safety Services Laboratory

DEA Drug Enforcement Agency

END Exotic Newcastle disease

FAD Foreign Animal Disease

FAD PReP Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan

HCD Highly Contagious Disease, e.g. avian influenza, exotic Newcastle disease

NAHEMS National Animal Health Emergency Management System

NAHERC National Animal Health Emergency Response Corp

NAHMS National Animal Health Monitoring System

OIE Office International des Epizooties, currently referred to as the World Organization for Animal Health

PHI Poultry Health Inspector

SOP Standard Operating Procedure

USDA United States Department of Agriculture
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • Chapter 5: Backyard Poultry Industry • Page 171 of 174

Glossary

Biosecurity 

Any management practice that may help reduce the risk of transmission of disease, i.e., anything that can be 

done to prevent or reduce the risk of disease entering into or escaping from a defined area such as a poultry 

production premises.

CO2

Carbon dioxide gas

Derby (or Derbies) 

Multiple cockfighting events, tournaments

Gamefowl 

Cockfighting birds, also referred to as show birds, exhibition birds, avian athletes, gallos de pelir, gallos para combate

Ratites 

Ostriches, emus, rheas

Trio (gamefowl trio) 

One rooster and two hens maintained as a breeding unit

Upland Game Birds 

Game birds that commonly inhabit areas located away from wetlands or bodies of water, e.g. pheasants, quail, and

chukar partridge
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • International Trade • Page 172 of 174

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

The United States is the world’s largest poultry producer and the second-largest egg producer and exporter of poultry 

meat. U.S. poultry meat production totals over 43 billion pounds annually: over four-fifths is broiler meat; most 

of the remainder is turkey meat; and a small fraction is other chicken meat. In 2012, total export value of broilers, 

turkeys, and eggs and egg products reached $5.7 billion. International exports of broilers totaled nearly 7,280 million 

pounds valued at over $4.6 billion USD. Approximately 797 million pounds of turkeys sold to other countries had 

a total value of $678 million. Exports of shell eggs (155 million dozen) and egg products (equivalent to 146 million 

dozen shell eggs) had a total value of $263 million.

BROILERS

The United States is the world’s second-largest exporter of broiler meat behind Brazil. In 2012, approximately 

21.4% of broiler meat produced in the U.S. was exported. Demand for U.S. broiler products has fluctuated over 

the last several years because of changing economic conditions and currency exchange rates in major importing 

countries. The largest importers of U.S. broiler products are Russia, China (including Hong Kong), and Mexico. 

Together, these markets accounted for over half of U.S. broiler product exports, on a quantity basis.

TURKEYS

The United States is the world’s largest exporter of turkey products. In 2012, 13.5% of total U.S. turkey production 

was purchased by other countries. Less than 1 percent of turkey exports are whole birds; the majority of shipments 

are lower-valued turkey parts or ground or mechanically deboned meat (MDM). Many importing countries mix the 

ground or MDM turkey meat with other meats in sausage production. Mexico is by far the largest importer of U.S. 

turkey meat, accounting for over half of turkey exports.

EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

The United States is the third largest egg producer in the world, behind China and the European Union. 

Approximately 4.1% of eggs produced in this country were exported in 2012. Whole shell eggs for consumption 

are exported primarily to Hong Kong, Canada, and Mexico. Egg products (dried and nondried albumin; dried and 

nondried yolk) are used mainly in restaurants and in the baking and prepared-foods industries. Major destinations for 

U.S. exports of dried albumin are Japan, Spain, and Israel, while Canada is the largest importer of nondried albumin. 

Japan, Mexico, and Canada are the top destinations for dried yolk, while Japan, Canada, and South Korea are the top 

importers of nondried yolk.

INTERNATIONAL MARKETS

These markets are vital to the poultry industry. In the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak affecting poultry, 

international trade of broilers, turkeys, eggs and egg products will be halted. Compartmentalization may potentially 

play a role in an effort to retain markets during recovery from a highly contagious FAD, once zoning efforts have 

been exhausted or proven inadequate.

Source:

• USDA Economic Research Service. Accessed April 2013 at http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/animal-products/poultry-eggs/

trade.aspx

Regionalization, also known as zoning, separates animal subpopulations to maintain disease-free status in one or 

more zones. Regionalization defines animal subpopulations primarily on a geographical basis. As an FAD response 

tool, regionalization can facilitate international trade, as well as FAD eradication.

For more information on regionalization, please see the FAD PReP SOP: Overview of Regionalization for 

International Trade, as well as 9 CFR 92.2, which lists 11 factors that should be evaluated in establishing a region. 

Compartmentalization, which distinguishes between animal subpopulations by “management and husbandry 

practices related to biosecurity,” has not yet been implemented within the United States with any trading partners 

(OIE, Chapter 4.4). Disease-free compartments must be recognized by trading partners prior to an outbreak for 

product movement. For further information on compartmentalization, please see the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health 

Code (2012), Chapter 4.4, as well as sections on compartmentalization in disease-specific chapters (for example, see 

Chapter 10.4 on infection with viruses of notifiable avian influenza ).
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • USDA Response to a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal Disease • Page 173 of 174

USDA RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE

DESIGNATION OF ZONES, AREAS, AND PREMISES 

A critical component for FAD response is the designation of zones, areas, and premises. Epidemiological investigation 

and tracing will be used to classify premises. It is the responsibility of the Incident Management Team to designate 

zones and premises in an FAD outbreak. These zones, areas, and premises designations will be used in quarantine and 

movement control efforts.

Table 1 summarizes the premises designations that would be employed in an FAD outbreak response. Table 2 

summarizes the zone and area designations that would be used in an FAD outbreak response. 

Table 1. Summary of Premises Designations

Premises Category Zone

Infected Premises (IP) Infected Zone

Contact Premises (CP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone

Suspect Premises (SP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone, 

Surveillance Zone, 

Vaccination Zone

At-Risk Premises (ARP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone

Monitored Premises (MP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone

Vaccinated Premises (VP) Containment 

Vaccination Zone, 

Protection 

Vaccination Zone

Free Premises (FP) Surveillance Zone, 

Free Area

Denitions

Premises where a presumptive positive case or 

conrmed positive case exists based on laboratory 

results, compatible clinical signs, case denition, 

and international standards.

Premises with susceptible animals that may have 

been exposed to the FAD agent, either directly or 

indirectly, including but not limited to exposure to 

animals, animal products, fomites, or people from 

Infected Premises.

Premises under investigation due to the presence 

of susceptible animals reported to have clinical 

signs compatible with the FAD. This is intended to 

be a short-term premises designation.

Premises with susceptible animals, but none have 

clinical signs compatible with the FAD. Premises 

objectively demonstrates that it is not an Infected 

Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect Premises. 

At-Risk Premises seek to move susceptible animals 

or products within the Control Area by permit. 

Only At-Risk Premises are eligible to become 

Monitored Premises.

Premises objectively demonstrates that it is not an 

Infected Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect 

Premises. Only At-Risk Premises are eligible to 

become Monitored Premises. Monitored Premises 

meet a set of dened criteria in seeking to move 

susceptible animals or products out of the Control 

Area by permit.

Premises where emergency vaccination

has been performed. This may be a secondary

premises designation. 

Premises outside of a Control Area and not a 

Contact or Suspect Premises.
FAD PReP Poultry Industry Manual • USDA Response to a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal Disease • Page 174 of 174

Table 2. Summary of Zone and Area Designations

Denition

Infected Zone (IZ) Zone that immediately surrounds an Infected Premises.

Zone

Zone that immediately surrounds an Infected Zone or a 

Contact Premises. Buer Zone (BZ)

Control Area (CA) Consists of an Infected Zone and a Buer Zone.

Emergency Vaccination Zone classied as either a Containment 

Vaccination Zone (typically inside a Control Area) or Protection 

Vaccination Zone (typically outside a Control Area). This may be 

a secondary zone designation.

Vaccination Zone (VZ)

Free Area (FA) Area not included in any Control Area.

Surveillance Zone (SZ) Zone outside and along the border of a Control Area.

Figure 1 illustrates all the zones and premises. Note: Figures are not to scale. The Vaccination Zone can be either a 

Protection Vaccination Zone or Containment Vaccination Zone

Figure 1. Example Zones and Premises

 Zones and Areas Premises

Infected Zone Buffer Zone Vaccination Zone Surveillance Zone

For details on the zones, areas, and premises, please see the APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework: Response 

Strategies. For additional information integrating the zones, areas, and premises designations with specific FAD 

response strategies, please see the disease specific response plans, such as the HPAI Response Plan: The Red Book. 

These documents are available on the USDA-APHIS National Center for Animal Health Emergency Management 

website at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/emergency_management/