DISEASE RESPONSE STRATEGY 

NEW WORLD SCREWWORM MYIASIS 

JANUARY 2018
January 2018 ii

The Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan (FAD PReP)—Disease Response 

Strategy: New World Screwworm Myiasis (2018) provides strategic guidance for responding to an

animal health emergency caused by New World screwworm (NWS) in the United States. 

This Disease Response Strategy: NWS Myiasis was last updated in January 2018. Please send 

questions or comments to: 

National Preparedness and Incident Coordination 

Veterinary Services 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

4700 River Road, Unit 41 

Riverdale, MD 20737-1231 

Fax: (301) 734-7817 

E-mail: FAD.PReP.Comments@aphis.usda.gov

While best efforts have been used in developing and preparing the Disease Response Strategy: NWS 

Myiasis, the U.S. Government, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health 

Inspection Service (APHIS), and other parties, such as employees and contractors contributing to this 

document, neither warrant nor assume any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, 

completeness, or usefulness of any information or procedure disclosed. The primary purpose of this 

document is to provide strategic guidance to those government officials responding to a NWS 

infestation. It is only posted for public access as a reference. 

The Disease Response Strategy: NWS Myiasis may refer to links to various other Federal and State 

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5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. 
January 2018 iii

Contents

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 1

NATURE OF THE DISEASE.............................................................................................. 1

Hosts.. .................................................................................................................. 1

Life Cycle .............................................................................................................. 2

Morbidity and Mortality ......................................................................................... 3

Clinical Signs and Differential Diagnosis .............................................................. 3

Occurrence ........................................................................................................... 4

Environmental and Chemical Responses ............................................................. 5

Prevention ............................................................................................................ 6

Treatment ............................................................................................................. 6

Laboratory Diagnosis ............................................................................................ 6

NWS MYIASIS RESPONSE: CONTROL AND ERADICATION ................................................. 7

Strategy for Responding to NWS Myiasis in the United States............................. 7

Case Definitions ................................................................................................... 8

Critical Activities ................................................................................................... 9

NWS Eradication Using the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) ................................ 12

Criteria for Proof of Freedom from NWS Infestation ........................................... 22

REFERENCES AND RESOURCES................................................................................... 23

ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................... 25
January 2018 1

Disease Response Strategy: New World 

Screwworm Myiasis

INTRODUCTION

New World screwworms (NWS), Cochliomyia hominivorax, are fly larvae that 

infest living tissue of warm-blooded animals, causing a condition known as 

myiasis. Female NWS flies lay their eggs at the edges of wounds or on mucous 

membranes. The eggs hatch into larvae, which burrow into the tissue and continue 

to feed and grow. Infestations of NWS can be fatal if untreated. NWS is currently 

known to exist in parts of every country in South America except Chile, and in 

five countries in the Caribbean, but is not resident in the United States.

Other USDA APHIS Veterinary Services (VS) documents provide further

detail on incident coordination and response to foreign animal diseases (FADs)

and foreign pests, such as NWS. The APHIS Foreign Animal Disease

Framework: Roles and Coordination (FAD PReP Manual 1–0) provides an

introduction to APHIS FAD preparedness and response, an overview of the roles

and responsibilities of different government agencies involved in an FAD

response effort, as well as information on funding, incident management, and

communication strategy. Additionally, an overview of FAD response strategies is

available in the APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework: Response Strategies

(FAD PReP Manual 2-0). These documents along with Disease Response Plans,

National Animal Health Emergency Management System Guidelines, and other

strategic documents are available publicly at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/fadprep.

NATURE OF THE DISEASE

NWS myiasis occurs when female flies are attracted to warm-blooded animals 

and lay eggs at the edges of wounds or on mucous membranes like nostrils, ears, 

eye orbits, mouth, or genitalia. Within 10 to 12 hours, larvae (commonly known 

as maggots) emerge from the eggs and immediately begin to feed. As they feed on 

host fluids and underlying tissues, the damage caused by their hook-like 

mouthparts enlarges and deepens the wound. The odor, serum, and blood emitted 

by the infested wound can attract other female flies that also lay their eggs; the 

result is additional myiasis and increasing damage. Severe infestations can lead to 

host death.

Hosts

All living warm-blooded animals, including birds, can be infested by NWS, but it 

occurs most often in mammals (including humans). Unlike many other species of 
January 2018 2

blow flies, female NWS flies will lay eggs only on living animals because NWS 

larvae do not feed on dead tissue or carrion. 

Life Cycle 

The duration of the NWS life cycle varies depending on the local climate. In cool 

climates, a complete life cycle may take 2 to 3 months, whereas in temperate 

climates (average temperature is 22° C/72° F), the NWS life cycle lasts 

approximately 24 days. In tropical conditions (29° C/84° F), the entire cycle may 

be as short as 18 days. 

A female NWS fly mates with a male only once in her lifetime. Three to four days 

after mating she lays her eggs at the edge of an open wound or on mucous 

membranes of a living host. Every 3 or 4 days throughout her fertile lifespan, the 

female fly lays an egg mass of 100 to 350 eggs. The eggs hatch within 10 to 12 

hours, and the larvae burrow into the wound and begin to feed. The larvae go 

through three stages of development, called instars, which involve two molts. The 

first molt (into the 2nd instar) occurs after about 24 hours, and the second molt 

(into the 3rd instar) occurs after an additional day. 

Five to seven days after hatching, the mature larvae exit the wound and burrow a 

few centimeters into the ground where they pupate. If the larvae are unable to 

penetrate the soil or other substrate, they can move to a shaded area to pupate. 

Pupal development is temperature dependent. It can be as short as 7 days in 

warmer temperatures (28° C/82° F) or as long as 60 days in cooler temperatures 

(10–15° C/50–59° F), but pupae are killed if the soil is consistently below 8° 

C/46° F. 

After emerging as adults, male flies live approximately 14 to 21 days and feed on 

flower nectar, while female flies live an average of 10 days (maximum 30 days) 

and feed on both flower nectar and on animal wounds as they deposit eggs. Males 

are ready to mate about 1 day after emergence, but females usually take 3 days to

reach sexual maturity and become receptive to mating. Figure 1 provides an 

overview of the screwworm life cycle. 
January 2018 3

Figure 1. Life Cycle of New World Screwworm1,2

Morbidity and Mortality 

Morbidity is variable for NWS myiasis; in areas with high NWS populations, the 

percentage of newborn animals with infested navel wounds can reach 100 percent. 

If left untreated, animals can die of trauma, toxicity, and/or secondary bacterial 

infections within 1 to 2 weeks. When NWS was still resident in South Texas in 

the 1950s, white-tailed deer fawns experienced mortality rates of 20 to 80 percent. 

Clinical Signs and Differential Diagnosis 

NWS myiasis is often associated with pre-existing wounds, though infestation can 

also occur on mucous membranes, such as nostrils, eye orbits, ears, mouth, and 

genitalia. Characteristics of infested wounds include drainage, suppuration 

(discharge of pus), discharge of blood and serum, enlargement, and distinctive 

1

 Text adapted from: Fernández, P.J., & White, W.R. (2010). Atlas of Transboundary Animal 

Diseases. Paris: World Organization for Animal Health. 218–219. 

2

 Source of photos: USDA APHIS STOP Screwworms: Selections from the Screwworm 

Eradication Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library. 

http://specialcollections.nal.usda.gov/screwworm/index. 
January 2018 4

odor. Upon closer examination of the wounds, egg masses arranged in ‘shinglelike’ patterns/layers at the edges of the wound might be visible. 

NWS larvae are visible by the third day; they can be 2.0 millimeters to 1.5 

centimeters (0.08–0.60 of an inch) in length and are positioned with their 

posterior ends at the surface of the wound. In cases where the wound is deep, 

pocket-like and with a small opening, minor movement within the wound may be 

the only indicator of infestation. Secondary bacterial infections are also likely to 

occur, enlarging the wound area to 3 centimeters (1.2 inch) or more in width and 

up to 20 centimeters (7.9 inch) in depth. Co-infestation with maggot species that 

feed on dead tissue may also occur. Samples should be submitted to the National 

Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL) for expert identification (see 

Laboratory Diagnosis).

Animals with NWS infestations often display discomfort, lethargy, depression, 

and may separate themselves from the herd. Anorexia and decreased milk yield 

may also be observed. 

Occurrence 

As illustrated in Figure 2, NWS is found in tropical or semitropical regions of the 

Western Hemisphere, usually below 2,100 meters (7,000 feet) of elevation. From 

2010 to 2016, the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) received reports 

of NWS in either wild or domestic animals from Argentina, Aruba (immediately 

eradicated in 2011), Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, 

Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Panama (confined to zone near Colombian border), 

Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, United States (eradicated in 

2017), Uruguay, and Venezuela. NWS eradication programs have been successful 

in Curaçao, Puerto Rico, the U.S. and British Virgin Islands, United States, 

Mexico, and Central America. Imported cases of animal or human NWS myiasis 

are reported periodically in the United States, Mexico, and other countries where 

NWS has been eradicated. 
January 2018 5

Figure 2. Distribution of New World Screwworm 

Environmental and Chemical Responses

NWS flies are able to travel long distances to find a suitable host. Although they 

generally remain within a 3-kilometer (1.9-mile) range when there is a high host 

density and suitable environment, flies are known to move 10 to 20 kilometers 

(6.2 to 12.4 miles) in warm, humid settings. Long distance movement of NWS is 

generally a result of the movement of an infested animal. 

Although they prefer hot, humid environments, NWS are able to survive in a 

range of temperatures and climates. Table 1 provides information on the NWS 

response to certain environmental or chemical factors.
January 2018 6

Table 1. Response of New World Screwworm to Physical and Chemical 

Factors3

Factor Response

Soil Temperature Pupae are killed in soil temperatures consistently below 8° C 

(46° F) or by freezing.

Chemicals NWS is susceptible to insecticidal organophosphate,

carbamate, and pyrethroid compounds.

Ecology Flies prefer hot, humid environments, with air temperatures 

of 25 to 30° C (77 to 86° F) and relative humidity of 30 to 70 

percent, but they can survive in suitable humid microclimates 

(e.g., irrigated areas) in otherwise dry conditions. In addition, 

availability of hosts with suitable wounds is fundamental for 

persistence of populations.

Prevention 

In areas where NWS is found, measures should be implemented to prevent 

wounds and avoid myiasis. For example, eliminate wounding procedures (e.g., 

castration), handle livestock with care, and inspect pens for sharp objects. Please 

see the Prevention of Wounds and NWS Myiasis section for more information. 

Treatment 

Organophosphate, carbamate, and pyrethroid compounds are effective against 

larvae and adult flies. Animals suspected of NWS infestation should have their 

wounds treated at 2- to 3-day intervals and remain in quarantine until the wounds 

are healed to ensure mature larvae are killed before leaving the wound and 

dropping on the ground to pupate. For more information, see the Treatment of 

Wounds and Myiasis section. 

Laboratory Diagnosis 

NWS myiasis is on the U.S. National List of Reportable Animal DiseasesNational Animal Health Reporting System Reportable Disease List.4

 Accredited 

veterinarians must collect, submit, and report suspect NWS myiasis. Diagnostic 

testing for NWS will be performed by the NVSL in Ames, Iowa. Although other 

agencies and entities may make a tentative identification, NVSL will assign the 

definitive parasite identification. Identification is by microscopic examination of

the larvae (or possibly other life stages) and based on morphological 

characteristics. To obtain specimens for identification, gently remove larvae from 

several sites within the open wound using forceps. Because secondary myiasis 

3

 World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). (2013). Screwworm (Old World and New 

World). Technical Disease Card. www.oie.int. 

4

 The list can be located here for further reference: 

https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/monitoring-andsurveillance/sa_disease_reporting/ct_disease_list. 
January 2018 7

may be present and is most often found near the surface of the wound, it is

especially important to collect specimens from the deepest part of the wound. If 

possible, collect larvae of different sizes for submission. 

Preserve the specimens in alcohol (ethyl or isopropyl).5 The concentration should 

be 70 percent by volume, if the specimens are identified using stereo microscopy. 

If for scientific study, or the possible use of molecular identification techniques, 

then 95 percent ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is the preferred medium for preservation. 

Specimens should be submitted to the NVSL with a Parasite Submission Form 

(VS Form 5-38) available on the APHIS website, located here: 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/library/forms/pdf/VS_Form5_38.pdf. 

For detailed information concerning the handling and shipping of diagnostic 

specimens, as well as overall guidance on FAD investigations, please see APHIS 

VS Guidance Document 12001 and the FAD Investigation Manual (FAD PReP 

Manual 4-0), available at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/fadprep. 

NWS MYIASIS RESPONSE: CONTROL AND 

ERADICATION

The APHIS goals of an FAD response are to (1) detect, control, and contain the 

disease in animals as quickly as possible; (2) eradicate the disease using strategies 

that seek to protect public health and the environment, and stabilize animal 

agriculture, the food supply, and the economy; and (3) provide science- and riskbased approaches and systems to facilitate continuity of business for non-infested 

animals. 

Achieving these three goals will allow individual livestock facilities, States, 

Tribes, regions, and industries to resume normal production as rapidly as possible. 

The objective is to allow the United States to regain NWS-free status without the 

response effort causing more disruption and damage than the outbreak itself. 

Strategy for Responding to NWS Myiasis in the United 

States 

Two basic epidemiological principles form the foundation of a response to control 

and eradicate an infestation of NWS in the United States. 

1. Prevent contact between NWS flies and non-infested animals. This is

accomplished through

a. prevention, detection, and treatment of wounds in non-infested

animals; and

5 NVSL-Ames. (2017). Diagnostic Testing. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/lab_info_services/downloads/AmesDiagnosticTestingC

atalog.pdf. 
January 2018 8

b. quarantine of infested livestock, movement controls, and

inspections of livestock in regulatory control areas.

2. Stop the production cycle of NWS flies. This can be accomplished through

a. detection and appropriate treatment of infested animals; and

b. use of the sterile insect technique (SIT) (see later section).

Case Definitions 

The following case definitions are APHIS VS Center for Epidemiology and 

Animal Health (CEAH) definitions for NWS myiasis (draft November 2017). 

Suspect case: An animal or person with clinical signs consistent with blow fly or 

screwworm myiasis. 

Presumptive positive imported case: A suspect case that has travel history outside 

the United States to any screwworm-infested country within the previous 10 days. 

Presumptive positive autochthonous case: A suspect case that has no travel 

history outside the United States within the previous 10 days, and was 

 located near a previous confirmed positive, or

 identified as screwworm by a lab other than NVSL, or

 identified as screwworm by a collector with screwworm experience.

Confirmed positive imported case: NVSL confirms presence of screwworm from 

a presumptive positive imported case by visual identification of the egg mass, 

larvae (first, second, or third instars), or adult fly. 

Confirmed positive autochthonous case: NVSL confirms presence of screwworm 

from a presumptive positive autochthonous case by visual identification of the 

egg mass, larvae (first, second, or third instars), or the adult fly. 

REPORTING

NWS myiasis is a United States FAD and an OIE-notifiable disease. Suspect 

cases must be reported to a State Animal Health Official or APHIS VS Assistant 

District Director who will decide if the report warrants further investigation by a 

Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostician to assess the possibility of a NWS 

detection or infestation. For more information on FAD investigation procedures, 

please refer to APHIS VS Guidance Document 12001, and to the FAD 

Investigation Manual (FAD PReP Manual 4-0), available at 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/fadprep. 
January 2018 9

Critical Activities 

EPIDEMIOLOGY INVESTIGATION AND TRACING

For any detection of NWS myiasis in the United States, a thorough 

epidemiological investigation is required to determine if the infestation was 

acquired domestically or in a foreign location. If it is concluded that the myiasis 

was not acquired in the United States, the investigation must determine if a 

domestic population of NWS may be in the process of developing due to the 

myiasis introduced from a foreign source. If a domestic population of NWS is

known to be present or suspected to be developing, epidemiological 

investigation and movement tracing are critical in controlling and eradicating 

that population. 

Epidemiological investigation and tracing are typically the responsibility of 

multiple staff components within the Incident Command System (ICS), including 

the Disease Surveillance Branch (Operations Section), Epidemiologists (Planning 

Section), and the National Situation Unit (Planning Section). 

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

Information management and reporting during a NWS outbreak ensures that 

responders, stakeholders, and decision-makers have access to accurate and timely 

critical emergency response information. Ideally, local, State, Tribal, and Federal 

information management systems are compatible for information and data 

sharing. The Emergency Management Response System 2.0 (EMRS2) is the 

official USDA APHIS system of record during a NWS outbreak. EMRS2 contains 

data on infested animals, fly releases, fly trapping, movements and traces, any 

zones established, and other information. 

In a NWS outbreak, the response goal is to have EMRS2 information downloads 

or data entry processes performed at 12-hour or shorter intervals. Data should be 

entered as quickly as possible in both an accurate and consistent manner across 

widespread field operations. Field personnel should be provided with access to 

mobile technology devices necessary for collecting, monitoring, and sharing 

information. Information within EMRS2 will provide the data necessary for daily, 

Tracing

Trace Back: Identifying the origin and movements over the last 10 days for all 

animals and people detected with myiasis, in order to determine the original 

source of the myiasis, or potential locations of additional infestation. 

Trace Forward: The tracing of all animals and people that have left an 

infested location in the last 10 days and could have possibly transmitted

infestation to a new location. The premises that received the animals should 

be investigated and kept under surveillance. 
January 2018 10

weekly, and ad-hoc situation reports. It is imperative that outbreak information 

management, data quality, and data integrity are a priority. Additional resources 

on information management systems and tools can be found in Information 

Management and Reporting (FAD PReP Manual 3-0). 

COMMUNICATION 

APHIS Legislative and Public Affairs (LPA) will serve as the primary Federal 

government liaison with the news media in the event of a NWS outbreak. Under 

the ICS, a Joint Information Center (JIC) is established. During a NWS outbreak, 

APHIS LPA and the USDA Office of Communications operate from the JIC. 

Effective communication should be carried out and maintained by 

 establishing a network of stakeholders and systems for communication 

prior to an incident or outbreak; 

 briefing the media, public, industry, Congress, trading partners, and others 

on the NWS outbreak status and the actions being taken to control and 

eradicate the infestation; 

 coordinating with Federal, State, and local agencies (especially those 

responsible for public health or wildlife); Tribal entities; producer groups; 

and the Land-Grant University-based Cooperative Extension System to 

ensure consistent messaging regarding animal health, public health, and 

food safety; and 

 assuring consumers that USDA is working on animal health issues, in an 

informed and timely manner, along with the Federal Department of Health 

and Human Services, which is working on human health issues. 

In addition, all communications should highlight the importance of sound 

preventive measures and steps that producers and owners can take to protect 

against NWS infestation in their own animals. 

PUBLIC EDUCATION

Educating the public, particularly animal owners and hunters, to recognize and 

report possible cases of myiasis will be critical. A large publicity campaign may 

be warranted to broadly disseminate information and seek public cooperation 

during a NWS response. Due to the wide host range for NWS, awareness 

campaigns should partner with public health and wildlife agencies. 

Providing timely information to local livestock owners and producers, 

veterinarians, physicians, hunters, pet owners, and the general community can 

help generate reports of possible cases of NWS myiasis. Education on wound 

prevention and treatment can help limit the number of cases that occur. 

Cooperative Extension System agents have contact with animal owners and can 

serve a valuable role in an educational campaign. Although educational material 

may need to be tailored to the location and population affected by an outbreak, a 

basic example of information for the public is available at 
January 2018 11

https://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/animal_health/bro-new-worldscrewworm.pdf. Additional APHIS FAD PReP resources for the public include 

NWS Ready Reference Guides (1) Maps and Timelines, (2) Historical Economic 

Impact, and (3) Sterile Insect Response. Also available is the NWS Story Map, 

which includes interactive maps on the 2016–2017 Florida NWS Response. Links 

to these materials are available in the References and Resources section. 

QUARANTINE AND MOVEMENT CONTROL

Quarantines and movement controls are effective measures to prevent the spread 

of infestation. While controlling the spread of female NWS flies is nearly 

impossible, dispersal has been observed to be largely due to movement of animals 

with myiasis and not the result of flies seeking out new hosts.6 These animal 

movements can result in long-distance spread and establishment of infestations in 

entirely new geographic areas. Therefore, quarantines and movement controls will 

be a primary strategy of NWS response efforts. 

USDA may impose a Federal area quarantine and restrict interstate commerce 

from the infested States, asking the States (or adjoining countries) to provide 

resources to maintain and enforce the quarantine. State quarantines may be

placed on individual infested animals or premises with infested animals. Of most 

importance is the control of livestock movement within and out of an infested 

area, using a system that requires inspection for wounds and myiasis. This may 

include permit requests for permitted movement.7 For example, ICS personnel 

could issue a permit for movement out of a quarantine area after an inspection 

for wounds and myiasis, followed by treatment of the animal with an approved 

insecticide. Other approaches may also be reasonable, based on the 

epidemiological characteristics of the incident. 

All decisions in regard to quarantine and movement control will be based on 

science-based assessments of the current extent of NWS infestation, risk of 

6

 Animal Health Australia. (2007). Disease Strategy: Screw-Worm Fly (Version 3.0). 

Australian Veterinary Emergency Plan, Edition 3, Primary Industries Ministerial Council, 

Canberra, ACT. 

7

 For more information on permitting, please see the document Permitted Movement (FAD 

PReP Manual 6-0).

Quarantine refers to imposing restrictions on entering or leaving a premises, 

area, or region where disease exists or is suspected. Quarantine stops the 

movement of infested animals. 

Movement control refers to activities regulating the movement of animals 

within an area subject to certain criteria. Movement control is accomplished 

through a permit system that allows entities to make necessary movements 

without creating an unacceptable risk of spreading the infestation.
January 2018 12

spread, and the interaction of other factors, such as seasonal climate and weather 

conditions. 

Individual animal or premises quarantines can be lifted and movement can resume 

once all wounds of infested animals have been treated, other animals within the 

group or premises have been treated prophylactically, and re-inspection shows 

that no viable NWS remain. 

Control Area (or Other Zone) Designations 

Appropriate Control Area (or other zone) designations may be required for 

implementation of quarantine and movement control measures. The Incident 

Commander will work with the Disease Surveillance Branch (Operations Section) 

and Situation Unit (Planning Section) to establish a Control Area or other zones, 

once it is determined that a domestic population of NWS is present or suspected 

to be developing. Once the Control Area is established, quarantine and movement 

controls, including a permit system (as appropriate), may be implemented. 

NWS Eradication Using the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) 

SIT employs exposure of lab/factory-reared 5- to 6-day-old NWS pupae to

gamma radiation to create sterile NWS files. Field release of these mass-produced 

sterile flies results in sterile males overwhelmingly mating with wild female flies 

that then lay unfertilized eggs. Because female NWS flies normally mate only 

once, the wild population of NWS is progressively reduced and, ultimately, 

eradicated. 

USDA scientists performed a successful SIT field experiment in 1951 on Sanibel 

Island, Florida, but its proximity to infested mainland Florida didn’t allow for 

long-term eradication. In 1954, on the Caribbean island of Curaçao (Netherlands 

Antilles), SIT was used effectively to eradicate NWS in approximately 6 months. 

The next set of SIT applications in the United States started in 1957 in Florida. 

After the success of this campaign, SIT was used to eradicate NWS successively 

from the United States, Mexico, and Central America. 

Before the most recent autochthonous cases of NWS myiasis were detected in 

Florida in 2016, there had been at least 27 post-eradication findings of NWS 
January 2018 13

larvae in animals or people in the United States.8,9,10,11 These cases were typically 

linked to recent travel or residence of the host in a NWS-endemic country. In two 

separate incidents in 1987, both involving dogs with NWS myiasis detected after 

return from foreign travel, it was determined that use of the SIT was warranted. 

Sterile flies were released for 6 weeks around locations in Florida, Louisiana, and 

New Mexico, and no additional local NWS larvae were ever found. 

USE OF THE STERILE INSECT TECHNIQUE

Use of the SIT should be considered if it is determined that a population of NWS 

is present, or may be in the process of developing, within the United States. This 

determination is made based on multiple factors, or combinations of factors, 

relative to the index case of myiasis detected in an animal or human host. These 

factors include: stage of larval development, the affected host’s history of 

international travel, time elapsed since United States entry, locations visited since 

returning, treatment provided, and environmental and seasonal considerations. 

More specifically, there are two situations in which SIT should be considered: 

1. finding NWS larvae in an animal or person that did not travel outside of

the United States in the previous 10 days;

2. finding NWS larvae in an animal or person that did travel outside of the

United States in the previous 10 days, with evidence that larvae may have

left the host in the United States (e.g., myiasis detected 5 or more days

after United States arrival, or collection of NWS pupae) and could

complete pupation (e.g., access to soil, favorable local temperatures,

suitable seasonal climate).

In the second situation, intensive surveillance for NWS myiasis or flies may 

initially be a reasonable alternative to using the SIT. If surveillance finds evidence 

that confirms a population of NWS is present in the United States, SIT would then 

be called for to pursue eradication. 

8

 Alexander, J.L. (2006). Zoonosis Update: Screwworms. Journal of the American Veterinary 

Medical Association, 228(3), 357-367. 

9

 Spickler, A.R., & Roth, J.A. (Eds.). 2006. Screwworm-New World (Cochliomyia 

hominivorax) in the United States, 2000. In Emerging and Exotic Diseases of Animals (3rd ed.: 105-

107). Ames, IA: Institute for International Cooperation in Animal Biologics, Iowa State University 

College of Veterinary Medicine. 

10 USDA APHIS. (2008). 2007 United States Animal Health Report. Agriculture Information 

Bulletin No. 803. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/animal_health_report/downloads/AHR_08/ahr2007.pdf. 

11 Corn, J.L. (Ed.). (2011). Proceedings - 114th Annual Meeting of the United States Animal 

Health Association. Saint Joseph, MO. 

http://www.usaha.org/upload/Proceedings/USAHAProceedings-2010-114th.pdf. 
January 2018 14

It is important to note that the SIT would be just one of several control strategies 

employed in the event of an infestation; movement controls, tracing, surveillance, 

and treatment and prevention would be components of any NWS myiasis 

response. 

Production of Irradiated Pupae 

If it is determined that use of the SIT is warranted to control and eradicate an 

outbreak of NWS myiasis in the United States, APHIS VS will request that 

APHIS International Services (IS) oversee the production and shipment of 

irradiated (sterile) NWS pupae from the production facility in Pacora, Panama.12

 

The NWS production facility in Panama is designed and constructed for a barriermaintenance production capacity of 40 million pupae per week (year round) and a 

maximal production capacity of 100 million pupae per week for suppression of 

any outbreaks. The plant normally produces about 20 million pupae per week—

the number needed to maintain the NWS barrier zone in eastern Panama—and can 

ramp up production to 80 million pupae per week for 20 weeks or longer, if 

required. Based on those parameters, production can initially be increased to 

provide approximately 40 million sterile NWS pupae per week for shipment to the 

United States while still continuing at least a minimal level of barrier activities. 

That would be enough pupae to release sterile flies at the optimal rate (i.e., 875 

flies per square kilometer/2,266 flies per square mile per week) for the eradication 

of a NWS infestation covering 38,850 square kilometers/15,000 square miles. By 

comparison, the original eradication of NWS from the entire State of Florida in 

the late 1950s was accomplished with a maximal production of 50 million sterile 

pupae per week. 

The first air shipment of 4 to 6 million pupae could arrive in the United States as 

soon as 3 days after a request, assuming that preparations for receiving pupae and 

releasing flies at the infested location would be completed that soon. This quantity 

of pupae would produce enough flies to cover an infestation area of at least 3,885 

square kilometers/1,500 square miles for one week. Shipments of that size or

greater could be made on a daily basis, although the ideal operational tempo in the 

United States would more likely be to receive shipments twice per week. Within 

2 weeks of the initial request, shipments could total 40 million pupae per week. If 

required, production could eventually be increased to 80 million pupae per week 

to eradicate an outbreak, while still producing 20 million pupae per week for the 

Panama barrier zone. 

An import permit from APHIS VS National Import Export Services is required 

for shipments of pupae from Panama. The permit can be obtained in about an 

hour, once an address and specific person are identified to receive the incoming 

shipment. A permit is valid for multiple shipments and for a period of one year. 

12 Budgeting of response costs will need to include reimbursement to the Panama facility for 

pupae production at current market prices. 
January 2018 15

Timing of Sterile Fly Release 

In a worst case scenario, the initial detection of NWS myiasis would not occur 

until 3 weeks or more after the initial introduction of NWS larvae into a United 

States location favorable for pupation and ongoing maintenance of the NWS life 

cycle. In this scenario, a viable population of NWS flies would already exist in the 

United States at the time of myiasis detection in an animal or person. Releases of 

sterile NWS flies would be required for at least 9 to 12 weeks in order to control 

and eventually eradicate that population. The sterile fly releases would need to 

begin as soon as possible. During the 2016–2017 NWS outbreak in Florida, 

samples were not sent to the NVSL for identification until 84 days (4 life cycles) 

after presumptive positive identification by local veterinarians. 

Perhaps more likely is a scenario in which the initial introduction of myiasis is 

detected in an animal or person that recently entered the United States from a 

NWS-infested country, and it is determined that some of the larvae may have 

already exited the wound and begun to pupate. In such a scenario, even under 

ideal climatic conditions, it would be at least 10 days after the host entered the 

United States before the first female NWS flies could be mature and ready to 

mate. If release of sterile male NWS flies began by that time, establishment of a 

population of NWS flies probably could be prevented. 

Release Logistics 

Pupae would be shipped by express air delivery in large polystyrene foam coolers 

or insulated chests, each holding about 44 liters of pupae, enough to produce 

approximately 333,000 flies. Additionally, coolers could be shipped with 24 to 33 

liters of pupae each and packed with ice-packs for additional cooling if necessary. 

Due to variability over time, pupal size will be continually monitored to better 

estimate the quantity of sterile pupae that are shipped. 

The simplest and most rapidly implemented dispersal of sterile NWS flies will be 

through ground release. Ground release containers were used in Chiapas, Mexico, 

in outbreaks in 2001 and 2003, to augment aerial dispersal of sterile flies in 

specific key areas. Ground release containers were the sole means of dispersing 

sterile flies to eradicate outbreaks in Aruba in 2004 and 2011, and in Florida 

during the 2016–2017 outbreak. 

The pupae will need to be transported from the arrival airport to a handling site 

near the release area. This site can be as basic as an air-conditioned room or an 

open air space shaded by a roof. At this point, the pupae must be transferred from 

the shipping coolers into their intended ground release containers. These 

containers may be cardboard or plastic boxes, or even larger structures, depending 

on the needs of the particular situation. Release containers (Figure 3) can be 

placed in the field as early as the day following arrival from Panama, or the 
January 2018 16

emergence of the flies can be delayed for a few days by chilling the pupae to 50o F 

(10 o C) in a refrigerated room, a walk-in cooler, or a refrigerated tractor-trailer. 

Figure 3. Release Container Used in the Florida Keys, 2016–2017 

Photo: USDA APHIS Veterinary Services 

Sterile NWS flies should generally be released throughout an area within 10 

kilometers (6.2 miles) of each location where a case of myiasis has been detected. 

Similarly, in cases where an infested animal or person traveled to multiple 

locations during the period of larval maturation, release of flies may be warranted 

within 10 kilometers of each location where pupation could have occurred. 

Alternatively, in such exposed areas where myiasis has not been detected but fly 

development is considered possible, intensive surveillance may be applied 

initially, and sterile fly release may begin only if NWS myiasis is subsequently 

detected or wild NWS flies are trapped in the area. 

Dispersal of flies by air, from specially equipped fixed-wing aircraft, should be 

considered if factors, such as the large size of an infested area or limited 

accessibility to large portions of an infested area, make ground release impractical 

or ineffective. APHIS personnel, working with various plant and animal pest 

control or eradication programs, including the NWS program in Panama, have 

experience in contracting for air services.13

13 Dynamic Aviation is a provider of air services for SIT programs

(http://www.dynamicaviation.com/index.php/flight-solutions-and-services/sterile-insecttechnique/).
January 2018 17

Throughout the dispersal area, the weekly release rate of sterile NWS flies should 

be 875 per square kilometer, or 2,266 per square statute mile, or 3,000 per square 

nautical mile. Twice-weekly release (half the weekly target total in each release) 

was proven effective in the NWS eradication program in Mexico and Central 

America. That program employed fixed-wing aircraft to release flies at a regular 

rate (e.g., 6,000 flies per linear nautical mile) along flight lanes drawn in a grid 

manner over the targeted infestation area. The distance between flight lanes in the 

dispersal grid was usually 4 nautical miles, with subsequent flights splitting the 

lane width every 3 to 4 days.14

 

With ground release of flies, the pattern used in air release could be duplicated or 

some other pattern that achieves a uniform dispersal over a 7-day period could be 

employed. Depending on their size, release containers may be filled with from 

1,000 to 240,000 pupae each; this will produce a minimal release of 850 to 

204,000 sterile flies per container placement. A practical and versatile release 

container might contain 2,000 pupae to produce at least 1,700 sterile flies for 

release. Such a container would provide coverage for an area of about 4 square 

kilometers, or about 1.5 square statute miles, for half a week (i.e., each square 

kilometer needs 875 flies per week, each square statue mile needs 2,266 flies per 

week); the proper placement of 100 of these containers, twice a week, would 

release approximately enough flies to cover one complete 400 square kilometer 

infestation area. 

Another advantage of ground release is that it may be possible to more closely 

target habitats that are favorable for wild NWS flies rather than simply using a 

uniform dispersal pattern. Analysis of satellite imagery of the intended release 

area can potentially locate favorable habitat in which to concentrate ground 

releases. If favorable habitat areas are accessible for the placement of fly 

containers, more than 875 flies per square kilometer would be effectively released 

each week, and fewer flies would be released in areas with less favorable habitats. 

Experts from APHIS IS, APHIS VS CEAH, and the Agricultural Research 

Service of USDA should be consulted for such analysis. 

14 Smith, S.C. (2009). A Guide for the Eradication of Screwworms. Comision Mexico - 

Americana para la Eradicacion del Gusano Barrenador. 

http://www.flsart.org/screwworm/Screwworm%20Eradication%20Guide%20Print%20Version.pdf
January 2018 18

The area of release may be enlarged or reduced based on local conditions, 

including distributions of livestock, wildlife, and human populations. To facilitate 

the logistics of release, particularly by air, it may be useful to square the 10 

kilometer radius around an infested location into a 20 kilometers by 20 kilometers 

(12.4 miles by 12.4 miles) square area, comprising a total of 400 square 

kilometers (approximately 154 square miles) and centered on the location of 

myiasis detection or possible pupation. 

Release of sterile flies should continue for at least three life cycles, or about 9 

weeks in warm conditions, past the last detection of NWS myiasis within any 

given circle of 10 kilometer radius. Continuing release for four life cycles (about 

3 months) would provide even more certainty of eradication. Factors such as local 

weather, seasonal climate, and ecological conditions should be considered in 

determining when to stop releasing sterile flies. 

SURVEILLANCE

The purpose of surveillance for NWS is to define the extent of any current 

infestation, detect new infestations, and establish NWS-free areas. Surveillance 

activities can aid in establishing priorities for control and mitigation strategies and 

in evaluating the efficacy of response efforts. Surveillance is also critical to 

maintaining continuity of business and providing evidence for proving freedom 

from NWS myiasis following an outbreak. 

Visual inspection of animals will be a primary surveillance tool. Animals on 

premises in the Control Area and in a surrounding Surveillance Zone should be 

monitored every 5 to 7 days for wounds and evidence of NWS myiasis. Animals 

must also be visually inspected for wounds and myiasis prior to any permitted 

movement within, and potentially out of, the Control Area. All maggot specimens 

detected must be submitted to the NVSL for definitive identification. 

Trapping can be used to document the absence of fertile NWS flies (through their 

absence in traps) in the Surveillance Zone surrounding a Control Area and to help 

prove freedom from NWS after sterile fly release is discontinued. Trapping can 

Weekly Release Rate Summary

 Per square kilometer: 875 sterile NWS flies

 Per square statute mile: 2,266 sterile NWS files

 Per square nautical mile: 3,000 sterile NWS flies

Example

For an infestation area of 400 square kilometers, the following would result in 

a sufficient release of sterile NWS flies:

 100 containers

 Placed twice per week

 2,000 pupae per container (with an emergence rate of 85 percent or

more, this results in at least 1,700 sterile flies)
January 2018 19

also be used for quality control within the Control Area to evaluate the release and 

dispersal of sterile NWS flies. Taking into account typical flight distance and 

weather patterns, traps may be set up at varying distances from points of known 

infestation. Methods available for trapping NWS flies include luring flies to 

decomposing liver (ca. 0.5 kilogram/site/1 hour) and collecting them with nets, or 

wind-oriented traps with chemical attractants or baits. Swormlure-4, a blend of 

chemicals that releases a strong odor, has been used as an attractant for trapping 

with wind-oriented traps, such as the Vertical Sticky Trap. 

Once flies are attracted, different trapping mechanisms may capture them, 

including sticky boards and enclosures with insecticide strips. Trapping and 

surveillance activities should be conducted in favorable NWS habitats, such as the 

edges of wooded areas, and in such a manner that the trapping/surveillance site is 

located up-wind, so the odor of the attractant carries into the favorable habitat. 

For more information, please see the document Fly Surveillance & Site Selection 

Methods (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/fadprep, navigate to the NWS page). More 

detailed guidance on designing an outbreak-specific surveillance plan and conducting 

surveillance activities in the field will be available to Disease Surveillance Branch 

and other Incident Command personnel during an incident.

Educating local livestock owners and producers, veterinarians, physicians, 

hunters, pet owners, and the general community will facilitate passive 

surveillance for NWS myiasis. Agents of the Cooperative Extension System can 

serve a key role in disseminating information on surveillance and assisting in 

sample collection. 

Due to the wide host range for NWS, awareness campaigns should also partner 

with public health and wildlife agencies. Although the confirmation of NWS must 

be made by the NVSL, possible cases of myiasis in people should be reported 

through public health agencies; partnering with State wildlife agencies will 

facilitate surveillance for NWS myiasis in wildlife species. 

TREATMENT OF WOUNDS AND MYIASIS 

All wounds detected in animals within a Control Area should be treated 

prophylactically with insecticide, every 2 to 3 days until healed, to prevent female 

NWS flies from laying eggs and to kill any eggs or larvae already present. All 

detected myiases must be treated. The protocol for treatment is as follows:

1. Clean the wound and the surrounding tissue with warm water and a mild

antiseptic.

2. If myiasis is found, physically remove as many larvae as possible. Retain

10 or more larvae for identification (see Laboratory Diagnosis section).

3. Apply an effective topical treatment (i.e., insecticide) to kill any remaining

larvae.

4. Treat animal with longer-lasting systemic insecticide for prophylaxis.
January 2018 20

Table 2 provides current Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-registered 

products with known efficacy against NWS. All products are registered only for 

labeled use. Please check the EPA website (https://www.epa.gov/pesticides) to 

determine if products are still registered for use. 

Table 2. EPA Registered Products Against New World Screwworm*

Product EPA Registration

Number

Manufacturer Name and 

Contact

Active

Ingredient

0.5% Permethrin Aerosol 

Spray 71-1 L. Perrigo Company Permethrin

Champion Insecticide Spray 498-188 Chase Products 

Company

Permethrin

Claire Bed Bug, Lice and Dust 

Mite Spray 706-110 Claire Manufacturing 

Company Permethrin

Black Jack Multipurpose 0.5% 

Insecticide 8848-73 Safeguard Chemical 

Corp. Permethrin

CT Residual Spray 47000-100 Chem-Tech LTD Permethrin

Permethrin Insecticide Spray 

(Cantron IV) 11556-171 Bayer Healthcare LLC Permethrin

Permanone Multi-Use 

Insecticide Spray 73049-301 Valent Biosciences Corp. Permethrin

Co-Ral Coumaphos Flowable 

Insecticide 11556-98 Bayer Healthcare LLC Coumaphos

Co-Ral Fly and Tick Spray 11556-115 Bayer Healthcare LLC Coumaphos

*No recommendation implied.

PREVENTION OF WOUNDS AND NWS MYIASIS

Within the Control Area, measures should be implemented to prevent animal 

wounds and avoid NWS myiasis. For example, to the extent possible, eliminate or 

delay performing wounding procedures such as dehorning, branding, shearing, ear 

notching, tail docking, and castration. Additionally, livestock should be handled 

with care, and pens should be inspected for sharp objects. Measures should be 

taken to protect livestock from other wound-causing parasites, such as ticks. 

Untreated umbilical cords of newborn animals and foot lesions are commonly 

infested sites. Immediately treat all wounds with approved insecticides; it may 

also be prudent to follow up with precautionary spraying of animals with 

insecticide before transport. 

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

It should be assumed that some wildlife within an infested area will be subject to 

NWS myiasis. It is therefore important to minimize the potential dispersal of 

wildlife located within a NWS-infested area. One measure that should be 

considered is a temporary prohibition on hunting in the Control Area. APHIS VS 
January 2018 21

will collaborate closely with Federal, State, and local wildlife health officials to 

ensure that the most appropriate decisions are made in managing wildlife. 

EUTHANASIA

During NWS surveillance and control, individual animals may require euthanasia 

for welfare reasons. 

DISPOSAL

Disposal frequently is not a great concern, as depopulation activities will typically 

be minimal. If small numbers of dead animals must be disposed of, responders 

must ensure that no viable NWS larvae are on or in the carcass, especially if 

burial is used. Incineration is a preferred disposal method for NWS-infested 

carcasses. Because NWS feed only on living flesh, the focus of pre-disposal 

examinations should be on very recently deceased animals. For further 

information on disposal, see the National Animal Health Emergency Management 

System (NAHEMS) Guidelines: Disposal available at 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/fadprep. 

CLEANING AND DISINFECTION

Because NWS larvae are obligate parasites, requiring living flesh to remain 

viable, it is extremely unlikely that larvae would be transported on animal 

products or byproducts. However, there is a small risk that carcasses of very 

recently deceased animals might still be infested, and they should therefore be 

thoroughly checked before leaving the Control Area. Be aware that larvae 

typically and rapidly vacate a wound and pupate when the host animal dies. 

NWS larvae normally pupate in 2 to 3 centimeters (about 1 inch) of soil, but 

pupation can occur anywhere there is a slight buildup of organic material, such as 

in feces. Maggots can also pupate in other protected sites, like cracks and 

crevices, or below bedding materials. Therefore, areas where infested or 

susceptible animals have been held, including vehicles, must be immediately and 

thoroughly cleaned and treated with insecticide as part of an effective control 

effort. Furthermore, animal material that may contain viable pupae, such as 

manure, should be disposed of in a manner that will conclusively kill that stage; 

incineration is preferred. To avoid these situations, inspections and cleanings of 

transport vehicles should be conducted in areas with concrete or otherwise hard 

and sealed floors. Trucks, trailers, or other conveyances used to transport infested 

animals should also be treated with insecticide before further use. 

HEALTH AND SAFETY AND PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 

Protecting the health and safety of personnel assigned to emergency response 

activities is everyone’s responsibility. During an outbreak response, responders 
January 2018 22

may be exposed to a number of different hazards. Taking precautions to prevent 

adverse human health events related to emergency response efforts is important. 

NWS larvae can infest humans, so responders should take precautions when 

potentially exposed to NWS flies. If responders have open wounds, those injuries 

should be thoroughly cleansed and covered. For most responders, the appropriate 

level of personal protective equipment (PPE) during screwworm response efforts 

will be Level D. Level D is the lowest level of protection, and requires only a 

basic work uniform to protect the body against contamination and no respiratory 

protection. Disposable gloves, and possibly cut-resistant gloves (if warranted by 

specific activities), are needed for hand protection. Although this is the suggested 

minimal level of PPE for screwworm, the final decision is always based on an 

assessment of the specific circumstances and activities in the field. Some response 

activities may require the use of protection higher than Level D. 

For further information on health, safety, and PPE, see the NAHEMS Guidelines: 

Health and Safety and Personal Protective Equipment available at 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/fadprep. 

APPRAISAL AND COMPENSATION

The response to a NWS infestation should not require significant, if any, 

destruction of animals or other assets. However, USDA is authorized by the 

Animal Health Protection Act (7 U.S.C. 8301 et seq.) to pay claims to owners for 

any assets taken or destroyed in the course of a response effort. Title 9 of the 

Code of Federal Regulations, Part 53, outlines the expenses that the Department 

may pay for purchasing, destroying, and disposing of animals and materials in 

these situations. Fair market value appraisals will be made for animals and 

materials destroyed to prevent the spread of NWS. Please refer to the APHIS 

Livestock Appraisal, Indemnity, and Compensation website for further 

information. 

Criteria for Proof of Freedom from NWS Infestation 

The OIE does not provide specific criteria for proof of freedom from NWS 

myiasis. A declaration of NWS freedom after an infestation in the United States 

would be based on surveillance for NWS that includes trapping of flies and visual 

inspection of animals for myiasis. Depending on specific weather and seasonal 

conditions in the area(s) of infestation, surveillance should be carried out for 3 

months past the last NWS detection, generally 3–4 life cycles (~24 days/life cycle) 

during an outbreak. Historically, when eradicating NWS from a previously 

endemic area, USDA APHIS declares an area to be “Technically Free” of NWS 

after 6 months without a detection and “Officially Free” after 12 months without a 

detection. 
January 2018 23

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January 2018 25

ABBREVIATIONS 

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

CEAH Center for Epidemiology and Animal Health

EMRS2 Emergency Management Response System 2.0

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

FAD foreign animal disease

FAD PReP Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan

ICS Incident Command System

IS International Services

JIC Joint Information Center

LPA Legislative and Public Affairs

NAHEMS National Animal Health Emergency Management System

NVSL National Veterinary Services Laboratories

NWS New World screwworm

OIE World Organization for Animal Health

PPE personal protective equipment

SIT sterile insect technique

U.S.C. Code of Laws of the United States of America

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

VS Veterinary Services