Alex Dutcher 

Hallux Ecosystem Restoration, LLC 

 

Kyle Pias 

Hallux Ecosystem Restoration, LLC 

Grant Sizemore 

American Bird Conservancy

Stephen M. Vantassel 

Wildlife Control Consultant, LLC

 

 

Human-Wildlife Conflicts

Domestic cats (Felis catus) are a common 

household pet in the United States, with 

an estimated 25.4% of households owning 

cats (American Veterinary Medical 

Association 2018). While an increasing 

number of cat owners keep their pet cats 

exclusively indoors, a portion of society 

maintains that domestic cats are entitled 

to a free-ranging lifestyle and may even 

consider unowned domestic cats to be 

wildlife. Although wildlife managers 

recognize the beliefs of many concerned 

stakeholders, including advocates who use 

strong emotional appeals on behalf of 

cats, it remains that free-ranging and feral 

domestic cats are an invasive species 

spread by humans (Lowe et al. 2000) 

(Figure 1). 

For the purpose of this publication, a freeranging cat is any cat that spends time 

unrestrained outdoors regardless of 

ownership status. The term “feral cat” is a 

type of free-ranging cat, but one which is 

Wildlife Damage Management 

Technical Series

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service

Wildlife Services

October 2021 Free-ranging and 

Feral Cats

Figure 1. Free-ranging and feral cats impact native wildlife through 

predation, competition, and spread of disease.

Quick Links

Human-Wildlife Conflicts 1

Damage Identification 4

Management Methods 5

Economics 12

Species Overview 13

Legal Status 17

Glossary & Key Words 18

Resources 20

Appendix 25
unowned, has limited or no interaction with people, 

and frequently avoids or exhibits aggressive behavior 

toward people.

Free-ranging cats are associated with a number of 

sociological and ecological conflicts. They impact 

people directly through the spread of parasites and 

diseases, damage to gardens and property, and noise 

nuisances. Cats also cause conflict through their 

direct and indirect impacts on native wildlife through 

predation, competition, spread of disease, and 

impacts on species survival (e.g., nest failure, injury, 

behavioral changes). 

Removing free-ranging cats is the most effective 

strategy for addressing cat-caused damage. Such 

removals could include adoption, placement in a longterm holding facility (e.g., cat sanctuary), or 

euthanasia. Owned cats should be kept indoors or 

otherwise under their owner’s control. 

Wildlife 

Up to 164 million cats reside in the United States, of 

which an estimated 30 to 80 million are unowned 

(Loss et al. 2013) (Figure 2). A large portion of owned 

cats are also free-ranging (Loss et al. 2013). The 

threat which free-ranging cats pose to native wildlife 

cannot be understated. Proponents of free-ranging cats on 

the landscape argue that predation by such cats on wildlife 

is negligible when compared to other sources of mortality, 

however many studies have shown that cats are a major, if 

not the greatest, source of mortality to native birds, 

mammals, reptiles, and amphibians (Lepczyk et al. 2003; 

Beckerman et al. 2007; Van Heezik 2010; Lloyd et al. 

2013; Loss et al. 2013 and 2015; Woinarski et al. 2017 

and 2018; Li et al. 2021). While loss of habitat is the 

primary cause of species extinctions, cats have contributed 

to the extinction of at least 63 species in the wild around 

the world (Doherty et al. 2016). In addition to direct 

predation, cats impact species survival through nest 

failure, injury, and behavioral changes, such as reduced 

feeding opportunities due to harassment (Beckerman et al. 

2007; Bonnington et al. 2013). 

A wildlife rehabilitation facility in California reported that a 

third of all birds requiring treatment (36 species) sustained 

cat-related injuries, and one in Virginia found that, across 

ten years, cat interactions caused 13.7% of bird 

admissions and caused 80.8% of bird mortalities (Jessup 

2004, Mcruer et al. 2017). An analysis of data from 82 

rehabilitation centers across North America found that cats 

were responsible for 52% of bird intake, and 78% of those 

cat-related admissions died or had to be euthanized (Loyd 

et al. 2017).

In California, 67% of rodents, 95% of birds, and 100% of 

lizards brought home by cats were native species, and 

native birds were twice as likely to be seen in areas without 

cats (Crooks and Soule 1999). House mice (Mus 

musculus; an invasive species) were more abundant and 

native rodents less abundant in areas with cats (Hawkins 

et al. 2004). Cats also take common game birds, such as 

pheasants, native quail, grouse, turkeys (Meleagris 

gallopavo), and waterfowl, causing not only ecological but 

also economic harm. 

Cats sometimes kill invasive species, such as pigeons 

(Columba livia), house mice, Norway rats (Rattus 

norvegicus), and European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), but 

research indicates cats are not effective in controlling 

Figure 2. There are approximately 30 to 80 million unowned cats in the invasive species populations (Parsons et al. 2018). 

United States.

Page 2 WDM Technical Series─Feral Cats
In areas with feral cat colonies, cat “feeding stations” often 

attract local wildlife, such as raccoons (Procyon lotor) and 

coyotes (Canis latrans) (Hernandez et al. 2018). These 

animals may become habituated to people and aggressive 

toward food resources left by people for the cats, leading 

to more conflicts.

Human Health and Safety

Free-ranging and feral cats pose risks to public health and 

safety. They are the most common vectors of rabies in 

domestic animals, and it is unclear how many free-ranging 

cats are currently vaccinated for rabies and other diseases 

(Blanton et al 2007). Cats can transmit several other 

diseases and parasites to people including cat scratch 

fever (Bartonellosis), plague, ringworm, hookworm, 

salmonellosis, leptospirosis, and toxoplasmosis (Dubey et 

al. 2002; Bowman et al. 2010; Dabritz and Conrad 2010; 

Gerhold and Jessup 2013; Lepczyk et al. 2015; McGregor 

et al. 2015; Palerme et al. 2018; Chalkowski et al. 2019). 

Cats are a definitive host species of the parasite 

Toxoplasma gondii which causes toxoplasmosis. 

Consequences of T. gondii infection in people, wildlife, and 

livestock vary but may include behavioral changes, 

blindness, and even death (McAllister 2005; Aguirre et al. 

2019; Stelzer et al. 2019). Pregnant or 

immunocompromised people are particularly at risk. 

A single cat may excrete in its feces hundreds of millions of 

infectious T. gondii oocysts into the environment where any 

bird or mammal (intermediate host) may ingest or inhale 

them and become infected (Aguirre et al. 2019). Oocysts 

may then spread among intermediate hosts or back to a 

definitive host by the consumption of infected tissues. High 

percentages of free-ranging cats (9 to 80%) tested 

seropositive for T. gondii in the United States, meaning that 

they have been exposed and potentially shed oocysts 

(Dabritz and Conrad 2010). 

Livestock and Pets

Free-ranging and feral cats can contract and spread a wide 

variety of diseases, such as feline immunodeficiency virus 

(FIV or feline AIDS), feline leukemia virus (FeLV), feline 

panleukopenia virus (FPV), rabies, and distemper, to other 

domesticated animals. These diseases are highly 

contagious and transmitted through body fluids and direct 

contact. 

Any cat that spends time outside is also at risk for 

contracting and spreading various parasites to livestock 

and pets. For example, outdoor cats have been implicated 

in the spread of plague and typhus via the proliferation of 

fleas (Abbott and Rocke 2012; Anstead 2021).

Cats also impact livestock directly by preying on freeranging chickens and other domestic fowl (Borroto-Páez 

and Pérez 2018). 

Property and Nuisance Issues

Free-ranging and feral cats often use abandoned 

structures, including barns, sheds, warehouses, and 

homes as shelter and denning sites. Cats can fit into any 

hole that their head can fit through, so holes 3 inches in 

diameter or larger should be sealed to prevent entry. Cats 

can easily scale and jump over most fences. Only roll-top or 

predator-proof fences can keep cats out. 

Cats can be a major nuisance in residential areas. 

Unneutered male cats may spray urine on car tires, 

houses, landscaping, fences, shoes, and other items left 

outside. Cats prefer loose soil for their latrines, making 

sandboxes, flowerbeds, and vegetable gardens a popular 

spot for cats to dig up and urinate and defecate around 

(Figure 3). 

Unneutered male cats fight for territory and mates, yowling 

loudly late at night. During reproductive periods, female 

cats will also yowl. These disturbances can be a nuisance 

as they can keep people awake late into the night. 

Unregulated feral cat colonies are often established at 

county and city parks (e.g., Castillo and Clarke 2003) 

which puts county and city administrations at risk of 

litigation if an unsuspecting park patron were scratched 

or bitten. Wherever concentrations of free-ranging cats 

are found, the public may feel justified releasing their 

unwanted pets or stray cats, assuming that they will be 

cared for by someone else.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 3
Damage Identification

The ability to detect feral cats is dependent upon the 

environment, cat population density, and the level of 

socialization of the cats. For example, in areas where cats 

are fed and used to people being around, they might 

directly approach people or be easily seen on the 

landscape. In more remote wilderness areas, feral cats 

may be extremely difficult to detect. Cats in these areas 

are more secretive and rarely, if ever, seen. Detection 

relies almost entirely on the use of remote sensing devices, 

such as game cameras, or identifying sign and tracks. Hair 

snares treated with cat urine may be used to monitor for 

cat presence, however hairs may be difficult to distinguish 

from other species without microscopic or DNA analysis 

(Triggs and Brunner 2002; Hanke and Dickman 2013). 

It should be noted that even in areas with high densities of 

sociable cats, there will likely be individual cats that are 

not easily seen and avoid people, coming out to feed only 

after people have left the area. For this reason, game 

cameras should be used to conduct population 

assessments instead of simple visual counts of individuals. 

Carcasses of animals killed by domestic cats vary in 

condition based upon the taxon of the animal, its size, and 

whether the cat was hungry. If hungry, cats may eat whole 

small animals, such as invertebrates, small rodents 

(mouse-sized or smaller), reptiles, and amphibians. Small 

birds may be eaten whole, usually after feathers are 

plucked from the body. It is not uncommon to find a 

scattering or pile of body feathers where a cat has killed a 

small bird but no carcass. Uneaten small birds may also 

have their feathers removed by the cat (Figure 4). 

Smaller animals that have been killed, but not eaten, can 

be identified as cat kills by the puncture marks left from 

the cat’s incisors. When eating medium-sized animals, 

such as rats, the gastrointestinal tract of the animal may 

be discarded by the cat prior to consumption. These gut 

piles are good indicators of the presence of a cat kill. In 

larger animals, such as medium- to large-sized birds, often 

the breast and neck muscles are eaten, some of the 

organs are eaten (heart, liver), and bones may exhibit chew 

marks. The animal will often be left chest-up where it was 

eaten. 

Domestic cat feces have pointed ends, are sub-sectioned 

and can be similar in size to bobcat feces, but slightly 

smaller. Feces consistency will vary with diet.

Page 4 WDM Technical Series─Feral Cats

Figure 3. Cats prefer loose soil for their latrines, making sandboxes, Figure 4. Pigeon killed by cat. Notice plucked feathers near carcass.

flowerbeds, and vegetable gardens a popular spot for cats to dig up and 

urinate and defecate around. 
Management Methods

Responsible and professional reduction or elimination of 

wildlife damage is the goal of wildlife damage management 

practitioners. This is best accomplished through an 

integrated approach. No single method is effective in every 

situation, and success is optimized when damage 

management is initiated early, consistently, and adaptively 

using a variety of methods. Because the legality of different 

methods varies by state, consult local laws and regulations 

prior to the implementation of any method.

Some of the best measures to prevent cat damage start 

with local or state legislative actions. Encourage 

municipalities to ban the feeding of free-ranging cats. 

Feeding of free-ranging cats increases local cat abundance 

and densities and encourages irresponsible owners to 

abandon their cats. Furthermore, encourage municipalities 

to enact and enforce ordinances that prevent cats from 

existing outdoors and unrestrained to begin with or 

contributing to growing cat populations (e.g., 

microchipping, sterilization laws). Additional laws, such as 

leash-laws, which restrict the free movement of pet cats 

outdoors will aid in limiting cat damage and the spread of 

disease, as well as protect the health and wellbeing of pet 

cats.

When cats are removed from large landscapes such as 

islands, managers should prepare for potential increases 

in rodent populations which could harm native species 

(Courchamp et al. 1999; Ortega et al. 2021). However, this 

should not be used as a reason to maintain cat 

populations. Non-native species can sustain cat 

populations when native prey are seasonally absent. One 

study on Le Levant Island in the Mediterranean showed 

that cats shifted their diets from non-native species (e.g., 

invasive rats) to migratory native bird species as soon as 

birds arrive at breeding sites (Bonnaud et al. 2012). 

For a summary table of feral cat management methods, 

please see Appendix I. 

 

Biological Control

Biological control is the use of a parasite or disease to 

reduce or eliminate an organism. No biological controls are 

available in the United States for use with feral cats. Feline 

panleukopenia virus (FPV) has been used successfully to 

eradicate cats on Marion Island in the Southern Indian 

Ocean (Bester et al. 2002). FPV is a disease caused by a 

type of parvovirus closely related to the parvovirus found in 

dogs. The virus is spread by direct contact with infected 

cats or indirectly by contact with contaminated items.

Deterrents

Deterrents attempt to reduce cat predation on wildlife by 

hindering a cat’s ability to hunt. Sound deterrents, such as 

bells attached to collars, theoretically make it harder for 

cats to stalk their prey (Ruxton et al. 2002; Woods et al. 

2003; Nelson et al. 2005; Gordon et al. 2010). Brightly 

colored collars or bibs attempt to decrease a cat’s ability to 

hide and stalk its prey (Calver et al. 2007; Hall et al. 2015; 

Willson et al. 2015; Pemberton and Ruxton 2020). Other 

deterrent efforts seek to improve cats’ diets and play 

experiences to satiate their hunting instinct (Cecchetti et 

al. 2021). Deterrents can help to reduce certain types of 

cat predation but do not eliminate all predation and fail to 

address disease and harassment caused by free-ranging 

cats. 

Exclusion

Cats are difficult to exclude from areas due to their ability 

to climb a variety of materials, including wood, concrete, 

cinder block, and brick. Straight fences, without the use of 

rollers or metal sheet hoods at the top, are easily scaled by 

cats. 

Fencing and netting may be used to deter cats from 

gardens and flowerbeds, however very few fences are truly 

cat-proof. Fences should be at least 6 feet (ft) (1.8 meters 

(m)) tall with 11⁄2 inch (3.3 centimeters (cm)) square mesh 

with a curved overhang, at least 2 ft (0.6 m) in length, 

hanging over the outer perimeter of the enclosure. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 5
Page 6 WDM Technical Series─Feral Cats

Rollers installed on the tops of fences, such as the 

Oscillot® system, can help prevent cats from scaling 

fences, and may also be used by pet owners to keep pet 

cats within a fenced yard (Figure 5). Rollers can be 

constructed using metal brackets and PVC over pipes or 

smaller diameter lengths of PVC.

To completely prevent climbing, fence mesh should be 1⁄4 

inch (0.6 cm) square. However, this size may be costprohibitive for most property owners. Install 1⁄4-inch mesh 

screen on porches, sheds, vents, and other structures to 

block entry by cats. Keep doors and windows closed and 

install 11⁄2-inch mesh if ventilation is needed. 

Several non-electric fences have proven effective at 

excluding cats for the protection of endangered species 

and sensitive environments. The Xcluder® Kiwi fence 

consists of a 6.5 ft (2 m) wall supporting a 1⁄4-inch wire 

mesh that extends the height as well as projects out at 

least 1 ft (30 cm) beneath the ground from the base of the 

fence (Figure 6) (Day and MacGibbon 2007). It is secured 

to the ground and covered with soil. To prevent animals 

from going over the top of the fence, cut a 2-ft (60 cm) 

wide steel hood and angle it downward with about 1 ft of 

metal bent back into an arc so that the plate looks like an 

upside-down sled runner. Use custom made brackets to 

hold the hood securely. Temporarily effective or ineffective 

methods for excluding cats include cat spikes, electric 

fences, traditional fences/walls without hoods or rollers, 

hooded fences with mesh greater than 1⁄4 inch, and catnip 

beds. 

Fertility Control

Fertility control methods, such as contraceptives and TrapNeuter-Release (TNR), aim to limit cat population growth by 

eliminating reproduction. Although research is ongoing, no 

long-term contraceptives are currently available for freeranging cats. Though increasingly used by municipalities in 

the United States, TNR fails to reliably reduce free-ranging 

cat populations due to the inability to achieve a 70% or 

higher annual sterilization rate and increased 

Figure 5. Oscillot® system for preventing cats from climbing over Figure 6. Xcluder ® Kiwi fence. 

fences.
abandonment of new cats at TNR sites (Castillo and 

Clarke 2003; Natoli et al. 2006; Longcore et al. 2009). 

Furthermore, TNR can cost over $100 per cat (including 

trapping, spaying/neutering, vaccination, and transport). 

TNR is not condoned by animal cruelty organizations, 

such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, due 

to the risk of disease exposure and cruelty of life 

outdoors (PETA 2021, Barrows 2004).

Treated cats are still able to prey on native birds and 

mammals and transmit diseases (Jessup 2004; Gerhold 

and Jessup 2013). For these reasons, The Wildlife 

Society (TWS) opposes local and state ordinances that 

legalize TNR colonies of free-ranging and feral cats, and 

TWS, the American Bird Conservancy, and the American 

Society of Mammologists support the humane removal 

of cat colonies, as well as responsible cat ownership 

laws. 

Frightening Devices

Frightening devices are used to haze or scare cats away 

from an area where they may be causing damage. Most 

frightening devices are only temporarily effective, 

depending on individual cat behavior and tolerance. Cats 

often grow accustomed to frightening devices or learn 

how to evade their triggering mechanism. To avoid 

acclimation to the device, vary the position, appearance, 

duration, or frequency of the frightening stimuli, or use 

them in various combinations. Many motion-activated 

sprinklers, noise makers, and lights are battery powered 

and programmable.

Dogs that show aggression towards cats can be an 

effective deterrent when placed in fenced yards and 

buildings where cats are not welcome. Methods like 

spraying with a hose or yelling and clapping are largely 

ineffective due to their need for constant human 

presence. 

Habitat Modification

Habitat modification involves changing the landscape to 

reduce the availability of food, water, and shelter for free

-ranging cats. 

Eliminate sources of water by repairing leaky pipes and 

downspouts, and filling depressions where water can 

collect. Practice good sanitation by securing lids on 

dumpsters and placing trash in enclosed areas. Remove 

piles of boxes, lumber, unused equipment, and other 

debris. Secure or remove locations, such as abandoned 

buildings, sheds, and crawl spaces, where cats can find 

shelter, and seal holes 3 inches in diameter or larger. 

Do not feed free-ranging cats. Eliminate their hunting 

opportunities by placing bird feeders and birdbaths in open 

areas at least 10 ft from foliage or objects where cats can 

hide. Reduce habitat for non-native rodents by mowing 

grass and other vegetation. Control rodents, especially rats 

and mice, by proper use of sanitation, rodent-proof 

construction, and trapping. For more information on rodent 

control and rodent-proof construction, refer to the following 

publications entitled Controlling House Mice (https://

wildlife.unl.edu/pdfs/controlling-house-mice.pdf), 

Controlling Rats (https://extensionpublications.unl.edu/

assets/pdf/g1737.pdf), Rodent Proof Construction—

Structural (https://extensionpublications.unl.edu/assets/

pdf/g1530.pdf), and Rodent Proof Construction—Drains 

and Feeding Equipment (https://wildlife.unl.edu/pdfs/

rodent-proof-constructions-grains-feeding.pdf).

Pet owners can make some simple changes to help 

prevent damage from free-ranging cats, such as feeding 

their pets indoors and limiting the amount of food and 

water kept outdoors for their pets. Pet cats can be kept 

indoors or in outdoor enclosures, such as catios or catproofed fenced yards.

Repellents

Repellents are available for use on surfaces and around 

gardens, flower beds, and landscaped areas to discourage 

cats. Always follow product labels for proper and safe 

application. Although available, repellents have not been 

proven to provide long-term protection against cat damage.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has 

registered methyl nonyl ketone (EPA Reg.#2217-942 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 7
Page 8 WDM Technical Series─Feral Cats

Boundary and #2217-943) for use with cats. The 

compound is applied to surfaces and emits an odor that is 

foul-smelling to cats. 

Shooting

Shooting is an efficient method for reducing cat 

populations in specific areas. The use of firearms requires 

skill and training to ensure activities are conducted 

efficiently and humanely. It is important to note that the 

lethal removal of cats is a very sensitive, and often 

contentious issue, and may be illegal in some areas. 

Safety is a critical factor and may preclude the use of 

firearms due to local laws or human habitation. Consult 

local officials to determine if shooting cats is legal in your 

area. It is not legal to discharge a firearm, including air 

rifles, inside many cities. Additional complications arise 

when considering laws surrounding the legal status of freeranging cats and their treatment as pets or wildlife. In most 

cases, shooting is avoided inside city limits unless an 

animal poses a threat to native or protected species or 

public health and safety is at risk. Consider all 

management options and proceed accordingly.

The choice of firearm, caliber, and bullet will vary based on 

circumstances in the field. For instance, distance to target 

is important in the selection of the appropriate firearm 

(shotgun with No. 6 shot or larger, 22 caliber rifle, or air 

rifle with similar sized caliber). The accuracy of firearms 

may be enhanced with accessories, such as night vision, 

illuminated or fiber optic sights, and tripods or shooting 

stands. Additionally, the use of monitoring tools, such as 

game cameras, can aid in the planning of operations by 

identifying areas of higher activity or attractiveness to cats. 

Shooting over bait or lure from an elevated or hidden 

position may enhance effectiveness. Ensure that every 

carcass is recovered. The use of non-toxic bullets is 

recommended to prevent scavengers from exposure to 

lead.

Toxicants

Pesticides are an important component in integrated 

wildlife damage management and their use in the United 

States is regulated by federal and state laws. No toxicants 

are registered for use with cats in the United States. 

Outside of the U.S., sodium monoflouroacetate (Compound 

1080) and para-aminopropiophenone (PAPP) have been 

registered and used to control free-ranging cats. 

Trapping

Trapping describes cage traps, foothold traps, and bodygripping traps commonly used to capture free-ranging cats. 

Foothold and cage traps are designed to live-capture 

animals. Body-gripping traps are designed to lethally 

remove animals. 

Trapping rules and regulations vary by state. Consult local 

laws and regulations prior to using any traps. Traps should 

be checked frequently, with no more than 24 hours 

between checks for cage traps. Other trap types, such as 

foot holds, should be checked more frequently, depending 

on cat density and environmental exposure. Managers 

should always err on the side of caution and check traps as 

frequently as possible while balancing risk of scaring cats 

away from traps. Remote monitoring systems, such as 

cellular-transmitting cameras, can aid managers in 

ensuring traps are checked frequently.

Feral cats are difficult to capture, as they are intelligent 

and cautious and can easily become trap-shy. Poorly set 

traps can frighten cats away from traps, or allow them to 

escape. Cats learn from these experiences and will avoid 

traps. In the event that a cat becomes trap-shy, managers 

may need to disguise traps, use alternative traps, such as 

drop-traps or foot-hold traps, or use firearms. Trap 

companies and wildlife researchers continue to develop 

new styles of traps which may benefit cat management 

programs, so it is important to stay abreast of new 

developments and scientific research. 

Once trapped, cats should be handled carefully by trained 

professionals. Many experts are available, including those 
who work with private wildlife and animal control 

companies, such as National Wildlife Control Operators 

Association (NWCOA), USDA Wildlife Services, and 

municipal Animal Control agencies. Take special care to

determine if cats are owned. Many states have laws 

requiring owned pets to be tagged with a microchip, which 

can be scanned from outside of a trap using a chip 

scanner. Cats are protected by animal cruelty laws in many 

states and local municipalities, so it is important to consult 

local ordinances prior to starting a trapping program. 

Trapper education programs exist in many states. This 

training may be required prior to receiving a trapper’s 

license and actively trapping. Check with the local state 

agency for requirements and training opportunities. If none 

exist, the Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (AFWA) 

and some states offer online training. 

Best Practices

Successful trapping of cats requires careful preparation 

and attention to detail. Trappers should identify cat feeding 

areas, den sites, and travel routes using game cameras 

and visual surveys. Effort should be made to determine the 

number of cats present at the location in order to set 

management targets and assess progress of the program. 

Given the secretive and shy nature of many cats, some 

may never be seen. 

Always use fresh bait. Depending on the climate, baits may 

need to be replaced every day to ensure attractiveness. 

Preferred baits include protein-based baits with fat, such 

as fish packed in oil, beef, and cat food (moist or dry). Cats 

prefer bleached or unbleached tallow and yellow grease 

over other forms of fat. Fats appear to be most preferable 

when constituting 25% to 40% of the total diet (Kane et al. 

1982). Avoid adding propylene glycol to any baits since 

some cats may experience negative reactions. 

Where food is not a limiting or novel factor, gland-based 

bobcat or cat ‘curiosity lures’ can be effective tools for 

trapping both male and female cats. Lures can be placed 

in the back of a trap inside a scent “egg“ or on a stick or 

cotton ball. The use of lures instead of bait can help 

reduce non-target captures.

Curiosity lures take advantage of a cat’s senses of smell, 

hearing, and sight (Figure 7). Fresh catnip, hanging strips 

of aluminum foil, and battery-operated squeaker lures can 

be placed in the darkened end of the trap to capture cats. 

Be mindful to wear scent-free gloves when handling traps, 

and use scent-free clothing when working your trap sets. 

Check traps frequently to remove captured cats and 

ensure the bait remains fresh. The quick removal of 

trapped cats reduces the potential for trap shyness and 

avoidance in the remaining uncaptured cats.

Avoid placing traps in areas where they might be seen by 

the public to prevent people from tampering with the traps 

or stressing trapped animals. Camouflage traps to prevent 

theft and make the trap seem more natural to wary cats. 

Consider placing cage-traps on elevated surfaces, like 

ledges or logs, to minimize the chance of catching striped 

skunks (Mephitis mephitus). 

Learn how to handle non-target species before initiating a 

trapping program by visiting the Internet Center for Wildlife 

Damage Management (http://icwdm.org/) or contacting a 

trained professional. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 9

Figure 7. Scent and curiosity lures can be highly effective. Here an experimental 

lure is set outside of a trap to observe the animal’s response.
Page 10 WDM Technical Series─Feral Cats

Cage Traps

Cage traps used for cats may have one or two doors and 

should be 30 inches (76 cm) or longer and have an 

opening about 10 x 12 inches (25 x 30 cm). Traps should 

have 1⁄2-inch (1.3 cm) mesh and a wide handle guard to 

protect the handler and cat during transport. Double-door 

traps should be 9 x 9 x 32 inches (23 x 23 x 81 cm) or 

larger. Slightly taller traps may catch more trap-shy cats 

due to the increased space. Similarly, double-door traps 

may encourage entry by cats that refuse to enter a singledoor trap. Cats may be less likely to enter what appears to 

be a dead-end. Double-door traps can also be set without 

bait along narrow corridors, fence lines, and game trails 

(Figure 8). Solid-walled traps can be used instead of 1⁄2-

inch mesh to protect the handler and provide cats with a 

sense of security. 

Cage traps should always be set on a flat, stable surface 

with mesh on the floor of the trap completely covered. 

Expert trappers recommend the floor of the trap be 

covered with dirt and debris to match the surrounding 

landscape. Cats may hesitate to enter a trap if they feel 

wires under their feet, or if the trap wobbles when they 

take their first step inside. Additionally, the use of a 

stepping stick in front of the trap pan will prevent cats from 

standing in front of the pan and eating the bait without 

triggering the trap (Figure 9).

Traps should have shelter (a roofing shingle or corrugated 

plastic) over at least a third the length of the trap, and 

should be checked daily when active. Use of remote trap 

monitoring systems can aid in rapid notification of a trap 

closure. 

Trap numbers and placement depend on the number of 

cats, vegetation or other forms of cover, and public 

exposure. Ideally, use as many traps as possible to ensure 

cats are caught quickly. However, traps should be placed 

out of view of each other to avoid “educating” untrapped 

cats. The denser the vegetation or the cat population, the 

closer together the traps should be placed. Place traps 

along fence lines, near congregation areas (e.g., trash 

collection sites, fresh water sources) and near cat travel 

corridors in order to maximize the chance of a cat 

encountering a trap. Consult Vantassel and Meyer (2017) 

for tips on the use of cage and box traps. 

Foothold Traps

Foothold traps are live capture traps designed to capture 

an animal by the foot and restrain it (Figure 10). Do not 

use foothold traps on or near publicly maintained trails 

where capture of leashed animals or people is possible. 

Use No. 1 and 11⁄2 sized foothold traps with padded and 

offset jaws and double swivels to minimize risk of injury to 

Figure 8. A properly set double-door cage trap.

Figure 9. Stepping sticks placed in front of the pan force cats to step on the pan 

and trigger the trap.
the animal. It is important that foothold traps be washed, 

waxed, and in good working condition. For ease of setting, 

modify the trigger so that the “dog” (i.e., the bar that holds 

the jaw down and attaches to the trigger) makes a clicking 

sound as it positions into the notch. This modification is 

called a “night latch” and allows the setting of foothold 

traps in the dark. The trigger can be modified by using a 

flat file.

To set foothold traps, secure traps so that each set can 

withstand at least 50 pounds (lbs) (27 kilograms (kg)) of 

pull force. Ensure that each trap has at least two swivels, 

and that these will not become entangled in nearby 

structures or vegetation. Each foothold trap should be 

bedded (i.e., placed in the ground) so that it is perfectly 

stable when set. Once stable, ensure that the surface of 

the set blends in flush with the surface of the trail when it 

is covered with dirt and debris. Blind sets (i.e., traps 

without bait) may be made on known travel areas and near 

cat latrines. Set blind foothold traps along a trail using 

stepping sticks spaced the distance of a cat’s stride. 

Baited or lured sets can be used in open areas or where 

paths of cats are uncertain but presence is known. 

Most states mandate a daily trap check. It is 

recommended that traps are checked at least every 6 

hours for the humane treatment of trapped cats or use 

trap monitoring devices. 

Body-gripping Traps 

Body-gripping traps in sizes 220 and 280 can be used to 

quickly and humanely kill cats. 

Only experienced trappers should use body-gripping or 

Conibear® traps due to the risk of capturing non-target 

species. Non-target capture can be limited by set type, trap 

placement, and trap container. 

To reduce risk to non-targets, body-gripping traps can be 

placed in chimney cubbies (Figure 11) or another 

container, or at the top of inclined boards . The chimney 

cubby is typically a wooden box (approximately 37.5 x 10 x 

10 inches/95 x 25 x 25 cm) made with 1-inch thick 

boards. Quarter-inch mesh screen secures the ends. A 

removable box (approximately 12 x 9.8 inches/30 x 25 cm) 

made of 1-inch boards serves as the “chimney” and is 

mounted on top so that the completed cubby looks like an 

inverted “T”. Two body-gripping traps, such as Belisle® 

Super X 220, are set at both ends and baited. The goal is 

to encourage the cat to enter the box through the chimney 

to gain access to one of the baited traps. Note this trap set 

will also be attractive to non-target species, such as 

raccoons and opossums.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 11

Figure 10. Examples of foothold traps with A) padded and B) offset jaws. Figure 11. Chimney cubby with body-gripping trap inside. Chimney cubbies help 

to prevent risks to non-target species.
Economics

Few peer-reviewed economic studies have investigated 

the costs associated with free-ranging cats. More 

reliable, comprehensive, and standardized data are 

needed to fully understand the costs associated with 

domestic cats.

Predation by feral cats on birds has an economic impact 

of approximately $17 billion per year in the United 

States (Figure 12) (Pimentel et al. 2005). This assumes 

there are 30 million feral cats in the U.S. and 8 birds are 

killed per feral cat each year. Each adult bird is valued 

at $30. This cost per bird is based on the literature that 

reports that a bird watcher spends $0.40 per bird 

observed, a hunter spends $216 per bird shot, and 

wildlife specialists spend $800 per bird reared for 

release. This estimate does not include birds killed by 

other free-ranging cats or losses of other animals, such 

as small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. A more 

recent study calculated a conservative cumulative 

worldwide damage and management costs for cats 

between 1970 and 2017 to be approximately $22 

billion (Diagne et al. 2021). 

Page 12 WDM Technical Series─Feral Cats

Handling and Euthanasia

Wear protective equipment (i.e., gloves, safety glasses) 

when handling live or dead cats. Avoid contact with claws, 

teeth, blood, saliva, urine, or feces. As a precaution, those 

working with feral cats may want to consider getting a preexposure rabies vaccination. When working with a 

restrained or caged cat, move slowly and deliberately. 

Speak in a calm voice. Place a towel or blanket over the 

trap to reduce stress. Keep a live cat cool or in a shaded 

area to avoid heat-related injury. 

A catchpole and pet carrier will aid in the removal and 

transport of an animal from a cage or foothold trap to a 

local veterinarian for spaying, neutering, vaccination, 

adoption, or euthanasia. Be aware that these options may 

cost over $100 per cat. To capture a cat with a catchpole, 

place the loop over one of the front legs, securing the 

noose across the cat’s shoulder. Never overtighten the 

noose. Avoid looping the noose solely around the neck as 

doing so can cause severe injury to the cat. 

Cats captured in restraining devices may need to be 

transported to a different location for euthanasia. The 

American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) provides 

guidelines for euthanizing animals with firearms. Captured 

cats are commonly euthanized with a well-placed shot to 

the brain using a hollow-point bullet from a .22 rimfire 

cartridge (or of equivalent or greater velocity and muzzle 

energy). The AVMA approves of the use of barbiturates, 

inhaled anesthetics, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and 

potassium chloride in conjunction with general anesthesia, 

nitrogen gas, and argon gas, for the euthanasia of cats 

(Leary et al. 2019; Leary et al. 2020). 

Disposal

Follow local and state regulations regarding carcass 

disposal. In some disease-related cases, or in the case of 

animals euthanized using drugs, deep burial or 

incineration may be warranted/required. See the Wildlife 

Damage Technical Series publication on “Wildlife Carcass 

Disposal” (Vantassel and King 2018) for additional 

information. Figure 12. Domestic cats prey on birds, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and 

invertebrates in addition to eating food provided by people. Cat will kill prey even 

when their appetite is sated. 
Species Overview

Identification

The domestic cat is a mammal familiar to most people. It is 

a common household pet and is free-ranging in a variety of 

human-centric and natural environments. Felis catus is the 

only domesticated species in the Felidae family, and 

multiple domestic breeds have been developed within the 

species. Cats are thought to have become domesticated 

with the onset of agrarian societies and their exploitation 

of subsequent agricultural pests. 

Physical Description

Domestic cats are medium-sized carnivores. Their bodies 

average 18 inches (46 cm) in length with an average 12-

inch (30 cm) long tail. Males are typically larger than 

females. Feral cats range from 7 to 9 lbs (3 to 4 kg). 

Owned cats average slightly heavier, around 8 to 11 lbs (4 

to 5 kg), with some breeds averaging around 15 lbs (7 kg). 

Domestic cats have a lean, muscular, and flexible body 

with quick reflexes. Their bodies are covered in fur ranging 

from 1⁄2 to 2 inches (1 to 5 cm) or more in length, 

depending on the breed. Their coats come in a variety of 

colors and patterns. Tabby patterns are the most common, 

which may include varying amounts and locations of white 

patches. Solid black is another common coat color, but 

cats may also be white, orange, or a mix of many colors 

(calico). 

Their paws (or feet) have four hairless toe pads and one 

large, lobed heel pad with fur between the pads. Domestic 

cats have a long-furred tail (although some breeds may 

have short or no tails, and even no fur), which may be 

patterned or solid in color and its movement or position 

can often indicate the animal’s mood. 

Domestic cats have sharp canine teeth and curved, 

retractable claws for catching and killing prey. Cat senses 

revolve around the ability to hunt small mammals and 

birds, and therefore their night vision and hearing are very 

sensitive. Cats’ pupils are shaped as vertical slits and are 

adapted to dim light but cannot distinguish reds or greens 

well. Their sense of hearing allows them to hear a broad 

range of frequencies, and their large, pointed ears can 

independently rotate to help triangulate and amplify the 

location of sounds. 

Cats have movable sensitive hairs on their body called 

whiskers or vibrissae. Whiskers aid in navigation and 

sensation, providing cats with information on the size of 

gaps or location of objects in the dark. The majority of 

whiskers are located around the face, ankles, and feet. 

Range

The species of cat known today as the domestic cat was 

domesticated between 4,000 and 11,000 years ago in the 

Fertile Crescent area of the Middle East (Driscoll et al. 

2009). At least five wildcat lineages in Europe, China, 

South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East contributed to the 

modern domestic cat. The domestic cat was first spread 

throughout the Old World by the Romans around 300 AD. 

The next major cat dispersal event occurred with the onset 

of European and Asian trade routes around the globe. 

Today, the domestic cat is one of the most prolific and 

widespread invasive species, found on every continent 

except Antarctica, and on many remote islands and islets. 

Although commonly associated with urban environments, 

domestic cats can also be found in wilderness habitats. 

Tracks 

The tracks of cats are dimorphic (i.e., occurring in two 

different forms). Their rear feet measure 11⁄8 to 11⁄2 inches 

(2.9 to 3.8 cm) in width and 7⁄8 to 15⁄8 inches (2.2 to 4.1 

cm) in length, making them slightly smaller than their front 

feet which measure 1 to 15⁄8 inches (2.5 to 4.1 cm) wide by 

7⁄8 to 13⁄4 inches (2.2 to 4.4 cm) long (Figure 13). Though 

cats typically have 5 toes on their front feet, only 4 are 

functional and are visible in a paw print. Four toes are 

located on their back feet.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 13
Toes are arranged in a semi-circular pattern around the 

heel pad, with a leading toe, second lateral from the 

midline. The heel pad has a trapezoidal shape with 2 lobes 

at the top and 3 on the bottom. Nails are retracted unless 

the cat is chasing, climbing, or walking on slippery 

surfaces. Tracks tend to be straight and found near cover 

or along habitat edges where prey may be found. Cats 

often follow game trails made by other species, including 

ungulates or people. 

Sign

Cats may bury their scat (feces) and urine and often have 

one to many latrines around their territory, which they 

frequently visit. Male cats will spray urine on trees, fence 

posts, car tires, houses, etc., to mark their territory, often 

using a few of the same locations regularly. Occasionally, 

cats deposit scat in the middle of trails to mark their 

territory. Scats are twisted ropes with one blunt and one 

pointed end, and often contain fur and bones of prey items 

(Figure 14). A diet of predominantly kibble will produce 

scat of a smoother texture, while still maintaining a pointed 

end. 

Voice and Sounds

Domestic cats are capable of producing a variety of 

vocalizations to communicate with one another and with 

people. Such noises include purring, hissing, growling, 

grunting, trilling, and a range of “meowing” noises. In 

combination with body language, specifically the position 

and movement of the ears and tail, vocalizations can 

reveal a great deal about mood and sociability. Around 

people, feral cats are generally silent, sometimes hissing or 

growling as a sign of hostility and aggression. Owned cats 

or free-ranging cats which have interacted with people may 

emit a “meow” or “mew” which may be a greeting or food 

begging call. Purring often is a sign of contentment, often 

heard between a mother cat and kittens or a pet cat and a 

person, however, cats may also purr under stressful 

circumstances and when in physical distress. Certain 

vocalizations emitted by cats, such as the yowl of a female 

in heat or two cats fighting for territory, are widely 

considered a nuisance, especially when emitted late at 

night. 

Reproduction

Most mating occurs during spring and summer as estrous 

is triggered by increasing daylight. In tropical to temperate 

regions, however, cats will breed year-round, having 

multiple litters per year. 

Domestic cats are polyestrous, allowing a sexually mature 

female to produce up to 5 litters annually, with an average 

of 1.4 litters per year (Nutter et al. 2004). Females give 

Page 14 WDM Technical Series─Feral Cats

Figure 13. Cat tracks. Figure 14. Cat scat.
birth to 2 to 10 kittens, with an average of 3 per litter, 

with a 63-day pregnancy, on average. Cats reach sexual 

maturity usually around 10.5 months (Nutter et al. 

2004). 

Both genders are promiscuous. It is not uncommon for 

one litter to have multiple fathers, and for one male to 

impregnate multiple females. 

Young are raised at a single den site but are frequently 

moved to other locations. Kittens are weaned at 6 to 7 

weeks of age and disperse around 6 months of age. 

Males do not assist in the rearing of young and 

occasionally kill kittens.

Dens

Preferred den sites are concealed, offering cover, 

warmth, and protection from the elements. Domestic 

cats often use multiple dens over the pre-weaning 

period. They are often moved in order to avoid predators 

and aggression from breeding males. Den sites vary by 

habitat availability and may include anthropogenic 

structures, such as decks, sheds, and abandoned 

vehicles and structures (Figure 15). In Hawaii, feral cats 

have been documented using seabird burrows in 

mountain areas as den sites after the female cat killed 

the breeding seabirds.

Mortality

Average life expectancy of owned cats is 13 to 17 years 

(Spector 1956). Spayed and neutered cats have the 

longest life expectancy of owned cats (Cozzi et al 2017). 

The life expectancy of unowned and free-ranging cats is 

not well understood, but free-ranging cats are more 

likely to be exposed to a variety of diseases including 

Feline Leukemia Virus (FLV), Feline Immunodeficiency 

Virus (FIV), and are 2.77 times more likely to be infected 

with parasites (and parasite-spread diseases) than 

indoor-only cats (Levy et al. 2006; Chalkowski et al. 

2019). Factors which affect life expectancy of freeranging cats include ownership status, presence of 

predators (e.g., coyotes), proximity to busy roads, 

reproductive status, and cat density. Kittens of free-ranging 

cats have up to a 75% mortality rate. Schmidt et al. (2007) 

noted that feral cats had shorter lifespans than owned 

cats, however the difference was not statistically 

significant.

Population Status

Domestic cats are invasive in all 50 states in the U.S. and 

in most countries, globally. Population estimates are 

difficult to obtain due to the secretive nature of cats and 

lack of consistent census by local municipalities. According 

to the most recent estimates, there are approximately 94.2 

million owned cats (American Pet Products Association 

2018) and an estimated 30 to 80 million feral cats in the 

United States (Loss et al. 2013). 

Cat population densities are generally higher in residential 

areas, where people supplement populations with 

additional food sources and shelter. Density is lowest in 

areas uninhabited by people and in areas where native 

predators (e.g., coyotes, wolves, bears, mountain lions) still 

persist.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 15

Figure 15. Den sites vary by habitat availability and may include anthropogenic 

structures, such as decks, sheds, and abandoned vehicles and structures.
Habitat

Domestic cats are adaptable and reside in diverse 

environments including urban, suburban, rural, and areas 

without human habitation. The home range of a domestic 

cat can vary, and can change based on sex, ownership 

status, food availability, cat density, landscape features, 

and presence of predators (e.g., coyotes, wolves, feral 

dogs). 

Some studies have shown feral cats, in the presence of 

predators, to prefer urban and grassland habitats, avoiding 

open areas which may be lacking in cover or shelter (Horn 

et al. 2011). Food availability is also thought to be a factor 

in habitat selection, as small mammals, birds, and reptiles 

are more available in grassland habitats and some urban 

environments. Cats are drought tolerant and prefer 

warmer, dryer environments. In urban areas, cats spend 

more time in gardens, parks, and other related greenspace 

habitats, likely seeking prey (Thomas et al. 2014). 

Behavior

Cat behavior varies based on factors, such as socialization, 

habitat, food availability, cat density, and presence of 

predators. Cats hunt for both food and sport. Feral cats, 

not accustomed to human presence, are secretive by 

nature, and are most active in the early morning hours and 

evening/afternoon hours, using cover to move unnoticed 

by prey and potential predators. When they are not actively 

hunting or seeking mates, cats sleep for long periods of the 

day. 

Vocalizations directed at people are a sign of habituation, 

as cats used to human presence or interaction tend to 

‘meow’ even when caught in a cage trap. Unsocialized 

cats, when trapped, never meow at people, and will either 

be silent or growl and hiss. 

Cats are generally solitary outside of breeding, but young 

may follow their mother for a number of months postweaning. Cats rely on pheromones as an additional form of 

communication with potential mates and competitive 

counterparts. There are a number of scent glands in the 

Page 16 WDM Technical Series─Feral Cats

face, body, and toes as well as anal glands. These 

glands are often rubbed on various objects to leave 

pheromones and mark territory. Pheromones are also 

spread via urine in the case of territorial spraying by 

males. 

Studies of free-ranging cats indicate that cat home 

ranges vary widely. Home range size is influenced by a 

variety of factors, including but not limited to: ownership 

status, sex, food availability, habitat type, and shelter 

availability. Home ranges can be smaller than a 2.5 

acres (1 hectare) and as large as 4,942 acres (2,000 

hectares), but most average under 25 acres (10 

hectares) (Lepczyk et al. 2015). Male cats typically have 

larger home ranges than females (Liberg et al. 1994; 

Duffy and Capece 2012; Gehrt et al. 2013) and cats in 

rural and wilderness areas tend to have larger home 

ranges than cats in urban areas (Lilith et al. 2008; 

Metsers et al. 2010). However, contrary to popular 

belief, sexual status (neutered/spayed vs. unneutered/

unspayed) has little influence over home range size 

(Horn et al. 2011; Thomas et al. 2014). 

Food Habits

Domestic cats are obligate carnivores, meaning they 

only eat animal tissue, organs, and bones. Plant 

material is eaten for emetic purposes (i.e., to cause 

nausea and vomiting). 

As terrestrial hunters, domestic cats prey on birds, small 

mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates in 

addition to eating food provided by people. Domestic 

cats eat 10 to 20 small meals per day, consisting of 

prey or scavenged items. In the minutes prior to killing, 

cats will exhibit batting, mouthing, carrying, tossing, and 

tapping behaviors with their prey. The aforementioned 

“play” activities will be shorter in duration if the cat is 

hungry. Cats, however, may kill prey even when their 

appetite is sated (Adamec 1976; Loyd et al. 2013). 

Predation of native species by free-ranging and feral 

cats is thought to be a significant cause for decline in 

many species native to North America and the outlying 
states and territories. Scientific studies estimate that freeranging and feral cats kill 1.3 to 4.0 billion birds and 6.3 to 

22.3 billion mammals annually in the United States, and 

that the majority of diet items are native species (Loss et 

al. 2013). 

Even owned and fed cats hunt prey and often do not eat it 

(Woods et al. 2003). According to a study using animalmounted cameras, owned free-ranging cats only bring 23% 

of their killed and injured prey items to owners, eating only 

28% of prey at the kill site, and leaving 49% behind (Loyd 

et al. 2013). 

Cats, descended from the Near Eastern wildcat, are 

adapted to drier climates and ignore minor levels of 

dehydration. They compensate for reduced water intake by 

forming highly concentrated urine. Cats will drink from a 

variety of water sources but prefer moving water, such as 

streams or rivers. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 17

Legal Status

Cats are considered domestic animals and as such are 

governed by laws and regulations governing the treatment 

of pets and livestock, even though they often persist on the 

landscape as an uncontained and uncontrolled feral 

population. In general, the control of cats is governed by 

legislation covering the use and treatment of domestic 

species and enforced by the local animal control authority. 

Free-ranging cats present special legal challenges. Should 

they be considered invasive wildlife or domestic animals? 

The lack of clear-cut responsibility and jurisdiction 

complicates the management of free-ranging cats for 

landowners, conservationists, and management agencies. 
Page 18 WDM Technical Series─Feral Cats

Glossary

Catio: An outdoor enclosure for cats.

Definitive Host: An organism in which a parasite reaches 

maturity and reproduces. 

Feral Cat: A cat with limited or no interaction with people 

and frequently avoids or exhibits aggressive behavior 

toward people.

Free-Ranging Cat: A cat that spends time unrestrained 

outdoors regardless of ownership status. 

Home Range: An area routinely visited by an animal that 

includes all the resources the animal needs to survive and 

reproduce.

Indoor Cat: A cat that spends all of its time indoors or with 

restrained outdoor time (leashed or in a catio). 

Intermediate Host: An organism that supports the immature 

or nonreproductive forms of a parasite. 

Oocyst: Egg-like structure containing immature Toxoplasma 

gondii.

Owned Cat: A cat under the direct care of an owner, likely to 

have access to shelter, food, water, medical care, and 

vaccinations. Ownership definitions may vary by country, 

state, and county. 

Promiscuous: An animal that mates frequently and often 

with multiple partners.

Set: Where and how a trap or capture device is placed. 

Keywords

Cat, Felis catus, Feral, Free-ranging, Invasive, Predation

Figure 1. Photo by Adobe Stock

Figure 2. Photo by Adobe Stock

Figure 3. Photo by Adobe Stock

Figure 4. Phot by Adobe Stock

Figure 5. Photo by Oscillot® 

Figure 6. Graphic by Xcluder®

Figure 7. Photo by Hallux Ecosystem Restoration, LLC

Figure 8. Photo by Hallux Ecosystem Restoration, LLC

Figure 9. Graphic by Tomahawk Live Trap, modified by Hallux Ecosystem Restoration, LLC

Figure 10. Graphics by Joe Goodman in concert with the Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies

Figure 11. Photo by Landcare Research

Figure 12. Photo by Adobe Stock

Figure 13. Photo by Wildlife Control Consultant, LLC

Figure 14. Photo by Wildlife Control Consultant, LLC

Figure 15. Photo by Adobe Stock 

We thank Harris Glass, Brian Schoch, and Dave Trevino for providing critical reviews of this manuscript. 

Acknowledgements
U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 19

Disclaimer

Wildlife can threaten the health and safety of you and 

others in the area. Use of damage prevention and control 

methods also may pose risks to humans, pets, livestock, 

other non-target animals, and the environment. Be aware 

of the risks and take steps to reduce or eliminate those 

risks. 

Some methods mentioned in this document may not be 

legal, permitted, or appropriate in your area. Read and 

follow all pesticide label recommendations and local 

requirements. Check with personnel from your state 

wildlife agency and local officials to determine if methods 

are acceptable and allowed. 

Mention of any products, trademarks, or brand names 

does not constitute endorsement, nor does omission 

constitute criticism. 

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2021. Free-ranging and Feral Cats. Wildlife Damage 

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Wildlife Research Center. Fort Collins, Colorado. 25p.
Page 20 WDM Technical Series─Feral Cats

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Appendix —Damage Management Methods for Feral Cats

Type of Control Available Management Options 

Biological Control Few biological controls are available for use with domestic cats in the United States. Outside of the 

U.S., feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) has been used to control feral cats.

Deterrents Bells, brightly colored bibs/collars, and food-based deterrents

Exclusion • Net wire fencing with angled hood

• Rollers installed on top of fences

Fertility Control Spay and neutering

Frightening Devices Motion-activated sprinklers, noise makers, and lights

Habitat Modification • Eliminate sources of food, water, and shelter

• Eliminate or reduce vegetation and piles of debris in areas that may provide cover or resting 

habitat 

• Place garbage in sealed containers or enclosed areas

Repellents Foul smelling repellents: Methyl nonyl ketone (EPA Reg # 2217-942 Boundary and 2217-943) 

Shooting Allowed only with proper federal, state and local permits, or under state and local laws and regulations 

Toxicants No toxicants are registered for use with domestic cats in the United States. Outside of the U.S., sodium 

monoflouroacetate (Compound 1080) and para-aminopropiophenone (PAAP) have been registered and 

used to control feral cats.

Trapping Cage traps, foothold traps, and body-gripping traps allowed with proper federal, state and local permits, 

or under state and local laws and regulations