COW-CALF INDUSTRY MANUAL

National Animal Health 

Emergency Management System 

Foreign Animal Disease 

Preparedness & Response Plan

FAD PReP

United States Department of Agriculture • Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service • Veterinary Services

JANUARY 2012
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FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page i

The Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan (FAD PReP)/National Animal Health Emergency 

Management System (NAHEMS) Guidelines provide a framework for use in dealing with an animal health 

emergency in the United States. 

This FAD PReP Industry Manual was produced by the Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State 

University of Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, in collaboration with the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service through a cooperative agreement.

This FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines are under ongoing review. This document was last updated January 2012. 

Please send questions or comments to:

Center for Food Security and Public Health

2160 Veterinary Medicine

Iowa State University of Science and Technology

Ames, IA 50011

Telephone: 515-294-1492

Fax: 515-294-8259

Email: cfsph@iastate.edu 

Subject line FAD PReP Cow Calf Industry Manual

While best efforts have been used in developing and preparing the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines, the US Government,

US Department of Agriculture and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service and other parties, such as employees 

and contractors contributing to this document, neither warrant nor assume any legal liability or responsibility for the 

accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information or procedure disclosed. The primary purpose of these FAD 

PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines is to provide guidance to those government officials responding to a foreign animal 

disease outbreak. It is only posted for public access as a reference. 

The FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines may refer to links to various other Federal and State agencies and private organizations. These links are maintained solely for the user’s information and convenience. If you link to such site, please be 

aware that you are then subject to the policies of that site. In addition, please note that USDA does not control and cannot 

guarantee the relevance, timeliness, or accuracy of these outside materials. Further, the inclusion of links or pointers to 

particular items in hypertext is not intended to reflect their importance, nor is it intended to constitute approval or endorsement of any views expressed, or products or services offered, on these outside websites, or the organizations sponsoring 

the websites. Trade names are used solely for the purpose of providing specific information. Mention of a trade name does 

not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by USDA or an endorsement over other products not mentioned.

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apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program 

information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 

(voice and telecommunications device for the deaf [TDD]).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326 W, Whitten Building, 

1400 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an 

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Iowa State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, age, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, 

sex, marital status, gender identity, disability or status as a U.S. Veteran. Any persons having inquiries concerning this may 

contact the Director of Equal Opportunity and Diversity, 3280 Beardshear Hall, ISU, Ames, IA 50011 (515) 294-7612. 

National Center for Animal Health 

Emergency Management

US Department of Agriculture (USDA)

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

U.S. Department of Agriculture

4700 River Road, Unit 41

Riverdale, Maryland 20737-1231

Telephone: (301) 851-3595 

Fax: (301) 734-7817

E-mail: FAD.PReP.Comments@aphis.usda.gov 
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THE IMPERATIVE FOR FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE PREPAREDNESS 

AND RESPONSE 

WHY FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASES MATTER

Preparing for and responding to foreign animal diseases (FADs), like highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and footand-mouth disease (FMD), are critical measures to safeguard our nation’s animal health, public health, and food supply.

There are significant potential consequences of an FAD outbreak in the United States. In addition to the economic 

impact, the social and psychological impact on both producers and consumers could be severe. The FMD outbreak 

in the United Kingdom had an estimated impact of between $12–18 billion. Studies have estimated a likely national 

welfare loss between $2.3–69 billion1 for an FMD outbreak in California, depending on delay in diagnosing the disease2.

CHALLENGES OF RESPONDING TO AN FAD EVENT

An FAD outbreak will be challenging for all stakeholders. For example, there will be disruptions to interstate 

commerce and international trade. Response activities are complex, and significant planning and preparation must 

be conducted before an outbreak. Outbreaks can become large and widespread. Large, geographically dispersed and 

diverse teams will need to be assembled rapidly and must react quickly. The response effort must have the capability 

to be rapidly scaled up, involving many times more resources, personnel, and countermeasures. As such, responding 

to an FAD—large or small—may be a very complex and difficult effort. 

LESSONS LEARNED FROM PAST FAD OUTBREAKS

Past outbreaks both in the United States and in other countries offer important lessons that can be applied to 

preparedness and response efforts. To achieve successful outcomes in future FAD response, it is vital to identify, 

understand, and apply these lessons learned:

•	 Provide a unified State-Federal-Tribal-industry planning process that respects local knowledge.

•	 Ensure the unified command sets clearly defined and obtainable goals.

•	 Have a unified command that acts with speed and certainty to achieve united goals.

•	 Employ science-based and risk-management approaches that protect public health and animal health, stabilize 

animal agriculture, the food supply, and the economy.

•	 Ensure guidelines, strategies, and procedures are communicated and understood by responders and stakeholders.

•	 Acknowledge that high expectations for timely and successful outcomes require the:

- Rapid scale-up of resources and trained personnel for veterinary activities and countermeasures, and

- Capability to quickly address competing interests before or during an outbreak.

•	 Rapid detection and FAD tracing is essential for the efficient and timely control of FAD outbreaks.

1. Carpenter TE, O’Brien JM, Hagerman AD, & McCarl BA. 2011. “Epidemic and economic impacts of delayed detection of foot-and-mouth 

disease: a case study of a simulated outbreak in California.” J Vet Diagn Invest. 23:26-33.

2. Estimates based on models may vary: Ekboir (1999) estimated a loss of between $8.5 and $13.5 billion for an FMD outbreak in California. 

Ekboir JM. 1999. “Potential Impact of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in California: the Role and Contribution of Animal Health Surveillance 

and Monitoring Services.” Agricultural Issues Center. University of California, Davis.
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FAD PREP MISSION AND GOALS

The significant threat and potential consequences of FADs and the challenges of and lessons learned of effective and 

rapid FAD response have led to the development of the Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan, 

also known as “FAD PReP.” The mission of FAD PReP is to raise awareness, expectations, and develop capabilities

surrounding FAD preparedness and response. The goal of FAD PReP is to integrate, synchronize, and deconflict 

preparedness and response capabilities as much as possible before an outbreak, by providing goals, guidelines, 

strategies, and procedures that are clear, comprehensive, easily readable, easily updated, and that comply with the 

National Incident Management System.

In the event of an FAD outbreak, the three key response goals are to: (1) detect, control, and contain the FAD in 

animals as quickly as possible; (2) eradicate the FAD using strategies that seek to stabilize animal agriculture, 

the food supply, the economy, and protect public health; and (3) provide science- and risk-based approaches 

and systems to facilitate continuity of business for non-infected animals and non-contaminated animal products. 

Achieving these three goals will allow individual livestock facilities, States, Tribes, regions, and industries to 

resume normal production as quickly as possible. They will also allow the United States to regain FAD-free status 

without the response effort causing more disruption and damage than the disease outbreak itself. 

FAD PReP DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS

FAD PReP is not just one, standalone FAD plan. Instead, it is a comprehensive US preparedness and response strategy 

for FAD threats. This strategy is provided and explained in a series of different types of integrated documents, as 

illustrated and described below. 

FAD PReP Suite of Documents and Materials

Note: APHIS=Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, NAHEMS = National Animal Health Emergency 

Management System, SOP = standard operating procedures.

Strategic Plans—Concept of Operations 

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework: Roles and Coordination: This document provides an overall 

concept of operations for FAD preparedness and response for APHIS, explaining the framework of existing 

approaches, systems, and relationships.

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework: Response Strategies: This document provides significant detail 

on response strategies and activities that will be conducted in an FAD outbreak.

•	 National Center for Animal Health Emergency Management (NCAHEM) Stakeholder Coordination and

Collaboration Resource Guide: This guide describes key stakeholders with whom NCAHEM collaborates.
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•	 NCAHEM Incident Coordination Group Plan: This document explains how APHIS headquarters will organize 

in the event of an animal health emergency. 

NAHEMS Guidelines 

•	 These documents describe many of the critical preparedness and response activities, and can be considered 

as a competent veterinary authority for responders, planners, and policy-makers.

Industry Manuals

•	 These manuals describe the complexity of industry to emergency planners and responders and provide industry 

a window into emergency response. 

Disease Response Plans

•	 Response plans are intended to provide disease-specific information about response strategies. These documents 

offer guidance to all stakeholders on capabilities and critical activities that would be required to respond to an 

FAD outbreak.

Critical Activity Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

•	 For planners and responders, these SOPs provide details for conducting 23 critical activities such as disposal, 

depopulation, cleaning and disinfection, and biosecurity that are essential to effective preparedness and 

response to an FAD outbreak. These SOPs provide operational details that are not discussed in depth in 

strategy documents or disease-specific response plans.

Continuity of Business (commodity specific plans developed by public-privateacademic partnerships)

•	 Secure Egg Supply (SES) Plan: The SES Plan uses proactive risk assessments, surveillance, biosecurity, and other 

requirements to facilitate the market continuity and movement of eggs and egg products during an HPAI outbreak.

•	 Secure Milk Supply (SMS) Plan: Currently under development, the SMS Plan will help facilitate market continuity 

for milk and milk products during an FMD outbreak. This Plan also will employ proactive risk assessments.

•	 Secure Pork Supply (SPS) Plan: Currently under development, the SPS Plan will help facilitate market 

continuity for pork and pork products during an FMD, classical swine fever, swine vesicular disease, or African 

swine fever outbreak.

•	 Secure Turkey Supply (STS) Plan: Currently under development, the STS Plan will help facilitate market 

continuity for the turkey sector during an HPAI outbreak.

Outbreak Response Tools

•	 Case definitions, appraisal and compensation guidelines and formulas, and specific surveillance guidance are 

examples of important outbreak response tools.

State/Tribal Planning

•	 State and Tribal planning is essential for an effective FAD response. These plans are tailored to the particular 

requirements and environments of the State or Tribal area, taking into account animal populations, industry, 

and population needs.

Industry, Academic, and Extension Planning

•	 Industry, academia, and extension stakeholder planning is critical and essential: emergency management is not 

just a Federal or State activity.

APHIS Emergency Management

•	 APHIS directives and Veterinary Services (VS) Memorandums provide critical emergency management policy. 

APHIS Emergency Management documents provide guidance on topics ranging from emergency mobilization, 

to the steps in investigating a potential FAD, to protecting personnel from HPAI. 
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The information provided here is meant to be used as a preparedness resource rather than a comprehensive 

document. Several key APHIS documents complement this “FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual” and provide 

further details when necessary. This document references the following APHIS documents:

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework documents 

•	 FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: 

- Biosecurity (2011) 

- Cleaning and Disinfection (2011)

- Disposal (2012)

- Health & Safety (2011)

- Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia (2011)

- Personal Protective Equipment (2011)

- Vaccination for Contagious Diseases (2011)

•	 FAD PReP Standard Operating Procedures (SOP):

- Biosecurity

- Cleaning and Disinfection

- Personal Protective Equipment

- Continuity of Business

•	 FMD Response Plan: The Red Book, USDA-APHIS

•	 VS Memo 580.4 Procedures for Investigating a Foreign Animal Disease/Emerging Disease Incident 

(FAD/EDI) August 2010

These documents are available on the FAD PReP collaboration website: https://fadprep.lmi.org. For those with 

access to the APHIS intranet, they are available on the internal APHIS FAD PReP website: http://inside.aphis.usda.

gov/vs/em/fadprep.shtml
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Table of Contents

Purpose 1

Intent 1

Scope 1

Learning Objectives 1

PART I: UNITED STATES COW-CALF PRODUCTION 2

 

1. Scope of the Cow-Calf Industry 2

1.1 Cow-Calf Numbers 2

1.2 Animal Production 4

1.2.1 Location and Movement 4

1.2.1.1 Pasture Management 5

1.2.2 Classification of Cow-Calf Operations 5

1.2.3 Workforce 6

1.2.4 Business Continuity 6

1.3 Disease Traceability 7

2. Beef Cattle Production Stages 8

2.1 Cow-Calf 8

2.2 Backgrounders/Stockers 9

2.3 Feedlots 9

2.4 Harvest Facilities or Packing Plants 10

3. Life Stages & Reproduction 10

3.1 Breeding Adults: Cows, Heifers, and Bulls 10

3.1.1 Cows and Heifers 10

3.1.2 Bulls/Breeding Soundness 11

3.1.3 Bull Management 12

3.1.4 Female Reproductive Cycle 12

3.1.5 Natural Mating 13

3.1.6 Artificial Insemination and Embryo Transfer 13

3.2 Gestation 13

3.2.1 Pregnancy Testing 13

3.3 Calving 14

3.3.1 Spring vs. Fall Calving 14

3.3.2 Calving Management 14

3.3.3 Calf Management 16

3.3.3.1 Graft Calves 17

3.3.4 Weaned Calves 17

3.4 Post-Calving Cow 17

4. Cattle Appearance and Behavior 18

4.1 Cattle Appearance 18

4.2 Cattle Behavior 18

4.3 Methods for Safe Movement and Restraint of Beef Cattle 18

4.3.1 Handling Bulls 21

4.3.2 Working Horses and All-Terrain Vehicles 21
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Table of Contents

5. Animal Husbandry 22

5.1 Facilities 22

5.2 Culling Cows and Bulls 22

5.3 Diets and Feeding 22

5.3.1 Water Access 23

5.4 Routine Vaccinations and Parasite Control 23

5.5 Sick Animal Care and Treatment with Drug Withdrawal Information 24

5.6 Carcass Disposal 25

PART II: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE 27

6. Designation of Zones, Areas, and Premises 27

7. Disease-Specific Biosecurity Measures 29

7.1 Zoonotic Disease of Cattle 29

8. Providing Animal Care 29

8.1 Provision of Feed and Water 29

8.2 Vaccinating 30

8.2.1 Routine 30

8.2.2 Specific to Disease Event 30

9. Product Handling 31

9.1 Animals in Transit 32

9.1.1 Calves 32

9.1.2 Cull Cows 32

9.1.3 Market Animals 32

9.2 Mortalities 32

9.3 Manure 33

10. Surveillance 33

10.1 People 33

10.2 Vehicle Traffic 33

10.3 Disease Monitoring 34

10.4 Diagnostic Sample Collection 34

10.5 Diagnostic Sample Submission 34

11. Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia (FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 35

12. Disposal (FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 36

13. Cleaning and Disinfection (C&D) (FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 36

14. Appraisal and Compensation 36

15. International Trade 36
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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements 37

Photo and Illustration Credits 39

Acronyms 41

Glossary 43

Appendix: Bovine Routes of Transmission and High Consequence Disease Examples 48

Appendix: Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) 49

Appendix: Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF) 59

Appendix: Prevention Practices for Heartwater 68

Appendix: Bioterrorism and High Consequence Pathogens of Cattle 79

Appendix: Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic Samples 84
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Purpose

This industry manual provides a broad overview of U.S. cow-calf operations and the procedures that may be 

established in the event of a cattle-susceptible, highly contagious foreign animal disease (FAD) outbreak. A highly 

contagious FAD outbreak will severely impact industries with susceptible livestock as well as allied industries and 

service providers. A quick, effective and well-coordinated response can minimize the harm to the cattle industry. 

Wide dissemination of this information is encouraged to establish open communication between regulators, cattle 

growers and other stakeholders with the goal of reducing the probability that cattle or their caretakers become 

infected with a highly contagious FAD or other zoonotic disease.

Intent

Local, state, and national level officials involved in developing policy in preparing 

for and responding to a highly contagious FAD outbreak should read this manual 

to increase awareness of normal business operations associated with the cow-calf 

industry and the inherent risk of disease transmission in order to effectively aid in 

disease containment or eradication. Veterinarians and animal health technicians who 

are members of the USDA-APHIS National Animal Health Emergency Response 

Corps (NAHERC) or their state or county veterinary response teams carrying out 

disease control efforts on cow-calf operations should familiarize themselves with 

the information presented in this manual. Cattle growers, other pertinent stakeholders, and any support personnel interacting with cow-calf operations need to 

be aware of the described procedures that may be implemented during a highly 

contagious FAD event and the biosecurity protocols they may be expected to adopt 

to reduce the risk of disease transmission.

Scope

This manual is divided into two parts plus additional sections for acronym 

descriptions, glossary and appendices. 

•	 Part I provides an overview of U.S. beef cow-calf production, including herd 

management, animal husbandry, facility types, and animal movement. 

•	 Part II describes the response to prevent or mitigate the spread of a highly 

contagious foreign animal disease, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) 

or Rift Valley fever (RVF) including quarantine and movement control categories, and protocols for animal 

vaccination, treatment and care.

•	 An acronyms and glossary section defines and explains commonly used terms in the cow-calf industry and 

emergency response.

•	 Disease specific biosecurity measures are located in the appendices for the following: Foot-and-mouth disease 

(FMD) prevention practices, Rift Valley fever prevention practices, Heartwater prevention practices, bioterrorism 

and high consequence pathogens of cattle.

Learning Objectives

Upon reviewing this manual, readers should be able to:

1. Be aware of the basic animal husbandry requirements of cows, heifers, bulls and calves, as well as the cowcalf to finish concept;

2. Understand the differences between cow-calf operations associated with geographic locations or business 

model structure (e.g., primary source of income, secondary or supplemental source of income, hobby farm); 

3. Illustrate containment categories and explain classifications of cow-calf premises during a response;

4. Implement prescribed biosecurity protocols and surveillance activities on cow-calf operations to prevent highly 

contagious FAD entry or spread;

5. Communicate with supervisory personnel and/or regulatory officials regarding cow-calf farm status 

(animal husbandry needs, biosecurity measures in place, test results, tracebacks/traceouts, product 

movement); and
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6. Be able to differentiate normal cattle behavior and appearance from abnormal behavior or appearance associated 

with a diseased animal.

PART I: UNITED STATES COW-CALF PRODUCTION

1. SCOPE OF THE COW-CALF INDUSTRY

1.1 Cow-Calf Numbers

The United States is the world’s largest producer of beef and has the largest fed-cattle industry which is supplied 

primarily by U.S. cow-calf operations. Although the fed-cattle segment is an important component of beef 

production, this document focuses on the calf-producing aspects of the beef industry. More information on the 

feedlot industry can be found in the FAD PReP Feedlot Industry Manual (2011). The Economic Resource Service 

(ERS) of the USDA lists the sales of cattle and calves as the top agricultural commodity in 2010 with gross 

income from sales of cattle and calves totaling over $51.5 billion. Cattle and cattle products represent the single 

largest contributor to the overall U.S. farm economy, comprising 15% of agriculture’s total economic output. In 

2010, there were 40,000,000 cows that gave birth to 35,684,800 calves. Beef cows accounted for 30.9 million of 

the 40.0 million cows that calved. Those 30.9 million cows are found throughout the country on 742,000 cowcalf operations. These farms vary considerably in the size of their herds. In 2010, there were 588,000 cow-calf 

operations that maintained between one and forty-nine cows. In contrast to the smaller operations, there were fifty 

farms across the country that operated with over five thousand head of beef cows. Moderately-sized farms that 

maintain between 100 and 499 beef cows own the largest portion of the U.S. beef cow herd, as these 66,300 farms 

possess 38% of the U.S. beef cow inventory (Table 1). Within the U.S., the Southeast region has the highest number of individual cow-calf operations at 236,800. However, the Great Plains region has an average of 92.7 cattle 

per operation, the greatest average herd size of all the regions (Table 2).

Source:

•	 Top 5 Agricultural Commodities, 2010. December 2011. USDA Economic Research Service. Accessed January 11, 2012 at: 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/StateFacts/US.htm

Cow-Calf Operation’s 

Beef Cow Inventory

Number of 

Operations 

Percentage of 

Operations

Percentage of Total U.S. 

Beef Cow Inventory

Table 1. Number of Cow-Calf Operations and Percentage of Total 

U.S. Beef Cow Inventory by Cow-Calf Operation Size, 2010

1 - 49

50 - 99

100 - 499

500 - 999

1,000 - 1,999

2,000 - 4,999

5,000 or more

All Cow-Calf Operations

* Not 100 due to rounding

588,000

82,000

66,300

4,280

1,090

280

50

742,000

79.2

11.0

9.0

0.6

0.1

0.04

0.01

99.95* 

28.0

17.4

38.0

8.8

4.5

2.1

1.2

100.0

Source:

•	 Farms, Land in Farms, and Livestock Operations: 2010 Summary. February 2011. USDA National Agricultural Statistics 

Service. Accessed June 24, 2011, at: http://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Todays_Reports/reports/fnlo0211.pdf
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Region

Beef Cow 

Inventory, 2007

(Thousand Head)

Number of 

Cow-Calf 

Operations, 2007

Average Number 

of Beef Cows 

per Operation

Table 2. Beef Cow Distribution throughout the Contiguous United States, 2007

Total

West (CA, ID, NV, OR, UT, WA)

Great Plains (CO, KS, MT, NE, 

ND, SD, WY)

North Central (IL, IN, IA, 

MI, MN, MO, OH, WI)

Southwest (AZ, NM, OK, TX)

2,598

8,964

4,833

7,950

32,686

46,800

96,700

160,900

189,200

769,000

55.5

92.7

30.0

42.0

Southeast (AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, 

LA, MS, NC, SC, TN, VA) 7,774 236,800 32.8

Northeast (CT, DE, ME, MD, 

MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VT, WV) 567 38,600 14.7

42.5

Source:

•	 Farms, Land in Farms, and Livestock Operations: 2007 Summary. February 2008. USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service. 

•	 USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service Cattle report, January 28, 2011. Accessed June 24, 2011 at http://usda.mannlib.

cornell.edu/MannUsda/viewDocumentInfo.do?documentID=1017 

•	 Beef 2007-2008. USDA-APHIS National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS). May 2009. Accessed June 24, 2011 

at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/nahms/beefcowcalf/index.shtml

The U.S. cow inventory has experienced a 

significant decline in recent years. 2007 marked 

the beginning of a nation-wide liquidation of beef 

cattle due to persistent years-long drought in some 

of the most important cattle-producing regions, 

including the North Central and Great Plains 

regions. As the drought took its toll on available 

feedstuffs and water available to cattle, producers 

began to sell their herds; many have never returned 

to the cattle industry. In addition, increasing feed 

grain prices led to lower feeder cattle prices which 

stimulated additional cow sales. In 2008, a spike in

production costs combined with sharply declining

cattle prices in the last half of the year fueled 

continued liquidation. Then, in 2009, the U.S. and 

world economic crisis coupled with the negative 

impacts of the pandemic novel H1N1 influenza 

virus on all livestock and meat prices precipitated 

further decline in beef cow numbers. These and 

other factors are the reason for the differences in 

numbers between Table 2 (2007) and Table 1 (2010). Figure 1 shows a map of the U.S. divided into the discussed 

regions and shows the distribution of cattle throughout the U.S.

Source:

•	 Petry, Tim. North Dakota State University, Extension Service, Livestock Market Advisor: Cattle Herd Decline Supports 

Prices. August 10, 2010. Accessed October 1, 2011 at: http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/news/columns/livestockma/marketadvisor-cattle-herd-decline-supports-prices 

Figure 1. Beef Cow Distribution Throughout the 

Contiguous United States (Thousand Head), 2007.

Adapted from Table 2

SOUTHWEST

7,950

SOUTHEAST

7,774

WEST

2,598

NORTH CENTRAL

4,833

NORTHEAST

567

GREAT PLAINS

8,964
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For further discussion on the cow-calf industry as a whole, refer to section 2.1 Cow-Calf.

1.2 Animal Production

1.2.1 Location and Movement

U.S. cow-calf operations are distributed from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean and from North Dakota to the 

southern tip of Texas. This widespread distribution results in a diverse exposure to various climates and vegetation. These 

varying ecological factors significantly influence the size and management practices of cow-calf operations as well the 

types of cattle used and, ultimately, leads to regionalized trends in cow-calf management. For example, cow-calf operations in the central and western U.S. are more likely to calve in the spring with cattle grazing through the summer and 

calves being weaned in the fall. In contrast, cattle growers in the southeastern U.S. may choose to utilize the continuously 

warm climate and longer growing seasons to manage two calving seasons or possibly even calve year round. Nearly 90% 

of beef cows in the western and central part of the country reportedly calved within the first six months of 2008, according 

to the 2007-08 NAHMS Beef Survey. Only 66% of beef cows in the Southeastern states had calved during the same time 

frame. Regional differences also tend to affect the size of an operation, genetic makeup of cattle, the identification methods 

employed, the animal handling and vaccine protocols implemented, and a variety of other factors.

Source:

•	 USDA. 2010. Beef 2007–08, Part V: Reference of Beef Cow-calf Management Practices in the United States, 2007–08

USDA–APHIS–VS, CEAH. Fort Collins, CO #532.0410

Beef cow-calf production occurs to some degree in all 50 states (see Table 2 

on page 3). The majority of beef cows are in the Southwest and Southeast, 

populated in more numerous, smaller herds. In the North Central, Great Plains, 

and Western regions however, there are vast areas of non-arable lands which 

are ideally suited for ruminants to convert forages into high quality protein 

and, as a result, herds tend to be larger. In the Southwest and Southeast, the 

grazing season tends to be year round. This may reduce costs associated with 

purchased feed or with growing and harvesting additional feedstuffs. This is 

in contrast to the North Central, Great Plains, and Western states where snow 

cover prevents grazing in the winter and feed must be supplemented in some 

form. While feeding in the winter is an extra expense in these regions, it is 

partially offset by the ability to maintain larger herds and sell larger calf crops 

each year. Dry hay, haylage, corn silage, and crop residues can be harvested to provide winter feed for cattle. Supplemental feeding can vary widely by region as well, depending on the grazing season, available nutrition, and weather.

Movement of animals and products onto and off of a cow-calf operation must occur in order to keep the 

business running. These movements increase the risk for the introduction and spread of contagious and infectious 

diseases. Movement of cattle onto an operation can occur for a variety of reasons. Young bulls may be brought 

onto farms to improve the genetics of future offspring and/or to replace mature bulls culled for infertility or 

illness. Along with bulls, replacement females may be added to herds to increase herd size, improve or diversify 

herd genetics, or to replace cows that are culled. Most operations replace culled cows by retaining their own 

heifers. Products moved onto an operation may include equipment, other vehicles, and feedstuffs. Any of 

these can act as a fomite and carry potential pathogens onto an operation and expose the resident animals. To 

prevent or minimize disease introduction onto a cow-calf operation, newly introduced animals should be tested 

for diseases of concern, vaccinated to match the resident herd, and quarantined without animal contact for a 

period of time determined with your herd veterinarian. Likewise, all equipment and vehicles should be properly 

cleaned and disinfected prior to entering the operation and feedstuffs should come from known and trusted 

sources so as to minimize the risk of disease introduction.

Cattle and products are moved off of cow-calf operations as part of their normal business activities. Cows and 

bulls are primarily culled from herds due to reproductive failure, physical condition, disease and/or advanced 

age. Cull cows and bulls are typically marketed through auction markets or directly to harvest facilities. Culling rates among U.S. beef herds are estimated at 15-20% annually. Equipment, vehicles, feedstuffs and other 

products may also be transported off of an operation for repair or maintenance, testing, or for a variety of other 

reasons. Equipment and vehicles should be cleaned and disinfected prior to leaving the operation. 
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 5 of 87

1.2.1.1 Pasture Management

In contrast to dairy and feedlot operations where adult cattle are confined and intensively managed in dry lots or barns, cow-calf operations are typically managed 

primarily on pasture. During the grazing season when cattle are out on pasture, 

herd monitoring by caregivers can be highly variable ranging from daily to perhaps 

once yearly. Most often, cow-calf herds are monitored at least weekly while they 

are out on pasture. Beef cattle tend to be less accustomed to human interaction than 

dairy cattle, which are typically handled at least twice a day during their lactation. 

Less caregiver interaction of beef cattle can lead to handling difficulties; however 

most cattle become familiar and more comfortable with a routine. In the event of 

an FAD outbreak, many cattle will be out on pasture. Knowing how the herd is 

typically handled (people herding on foot, horseback, all-terrain vehicles, familiar farm truck, following a feed wagon) can 

help expedite safe animal movement. A basic knowledge of cattle handling principles is also essential. Cattle handling is 

discussed further in Sections 4.2 Cattle Behavior and 4.3 Methods for Safe Movement and Restraint of Beef Cattle.

Another management practice within the cow-calf industry that may increase the risk of disease exposure and spread 

is grazing on public lands. In contrast to private grazing, which typically involves privately owned land grazed by 

a single herd, public grazing may utilize publicly owned land. Public grazing may involve multiple producers who 

share range or pasture and commingle their cattle. It may also occur in the form of grazing associations who use cooperatively owned or leased range. In addition to an increased risk of exposure to bovines from outside the herd, the 

potential for disease exposure and transmission through contact from wildlife may be increased for public grazing.

Due to the largely unconfined open-air nature of cow-calf operations, animals such as deer, elk, horses, feral pigs, 

dogs, cats, goats, migratory waterfowl and chickens may all have contact with cow-calf herds. Non-domesticated 

ruminants with large roaming areas are of special concern as they may travel among and between cattle herds from 

numerous ranches. In addition to non-domesticated animals, cattle strays from other operations may also account for 

a portion of unintended contact with resident cow-calf herds.

1.2.2 Classification of Cow-Calf Operations

Cow-calf operations differ in many aspects, including the size of 

the operation, the manner in which cattle are managed, and the 

type of breeding program that is used. However, one of the largest

differences may be the cattle marketing method a particular 

operation utilizes. Beef cattle operations typically fall into one 

of two classifications: 1) commercial cattle, or 2) registered or 

seedstock cattle. As stated in the 2007-08 NAHMS Beef Survey, 

a majority of operations (76.3%) had commercial cattle in 2007. 

Commercial cattle herds include those that are focused on 

producing calves that will fit the needs of the feedlot industry 

and will be fed to produce beef. Many of these herds (65% in 

2007) were composed of crossbred animals. Seedstock herds 

focus on the production of specific breed genetics designed to 

introduce genetic improvement when sold to a commercial herd.

Various cattle management protocols also exist, including 

conventiotnal, natural or organic methods. Most cattle are raised 

using conventional methods of production which may include 

using antibiotics to treat sick cattle, growth promoting technology 

such as implants, and application of pesticides to forage and cereal 

grain sources when necessary. Some cow-calf operators choose to 

manage their herds using natural standards or organic standards.

Source

•	 USDA. 2009. Beef 2007-08, Part II: Reference of Beef Cow-calf Management Practices in the United States, 2007-08 

USDA:APHIS:VS, CEAH. Fort Collins, CO #N512.0209 http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/nahms/beefcowcalf/ 

downloads/beef0708/Beef0708_dr_PartII.pdf

Crossbred Cow

Registered or Seedstock Angus Cow
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 6 of 87

1.2.3 Workforce

The workforce on United States cow-calf operations is diverse. Consequently, ethnic and cultural differences may be 

potential barriers to effective communication and implementation of FAD prevention practices that are so critical to 

a successful animal health emergency response. For workers that do not speak English, language may also present a 

barrier to or hinder response efforts. Some workers may be skeptical and resist government intervention. As a regulatory official or someone tasked with visiting an operation, effective communication with all involved parties will 

be necessary to conduct the disease investigation or to carry out eradication efforts. Establishing relationships prior 

to an outbreak will help build trust but this may not always be possible. Awareness of the diversity of the workforce 

in a given community can facilitate this process. It should be a focus of preparedness efforts at the local level. Some 

workers may not be accustomed to communicating with response personnel, so identifying the primary facility 

manager is important. Working with that person to communicate tasks to the other employees will often facilitate 

acceptance and successful coordination of tasks. If language barriers are present, a translator can be very beneficial.

Also, demonstrating concepts or tasks can be helpful. Not all personnel may be literate and having a variety of 

visual-based educational tools can be an effective way of explaining what is needed. 

1.2.4 Business Continuity

 In the event that a highly contagious FAD is diagnosed in the U.S., the use 

of quarantines and movement controls will be necessary to rapidly detect, 

control, and contain the disease. While quarantines and movement controls 

are highly effective at stopping the spread of the FAD, they also are likely 

to cause significant disruptions in typical business operations for the animal 

industries affected. Farms with susceptible animals that are not currently 

under investigation for the FAD need to move animals and supplies in 

order to remain in business. The economic viability and animal well-being 

on uninfected farms could be negatively affected if certain movements are 

restricted. Therefore, in order to mitigate these consequences, it is critical to 

implement science- and risk-based approaches and systems to facilitate continuity of business for non-infected premises.

Continuity of business is the management of non-infected premises, non-infected animals, and non-contaminated 

animal products in an FAD outbreak. This facilitates agriculture and food industries in maintaining business operations 

while mitigating the risk of disease spread. Continuity of business planning helps to mitigate losses, facilitate food 

security, and allow agriculture and food industries to continue operating within regulatory Control Areas.

Continuity of business planning helps to protect: 

•	 Animal health, by preventing the transmission of an FAD from an infected to a naïve animal subpopulation; 

•	 Food security, by ensuring movement of unaffected animals and animal products; and 

•	 Public health, by mitigating zoonotic threats in animal populations and the food supply. 

Many cow-calf operations are quite self-sufficient and do not require much daily movement of products onto or 

off of the premises. However, during an FAD response there may be situations when it would be critical to move 

animals or supplies onto or off of the premises. During a response effort, uninfected farms in a Control Area will 

still need to move raw or processed feed, water resources, supplies, pharmaceuticals, or equipment onto the farm and 

may also need to move weaned calves off of the operation to auction, to backgrounding, or to finishing facilities. 

Allowing business to continue during the control and eradication of an FAD is also essential for the economic 

viability of ancillary industries and associated rural communities.

Cow-calf operators and managers should develop preparedness plans now so that they can ensure that feed and any 

other necessities related to animal care and husbandry will continue to be delivered in an outbreak. Depending on 

location and season, feed supplies such as hay are often accumulated in the summer and stored for winter use, so 

large quantities of feed may already be available on the premises. It is important to consider different transport 

routes and to become familiar with the resources and methods necessary for cleaning and disinfecting large transport 

vehicles; in the event of an outbreak roads may be closed and cleaning and disinfection will be essential to minimize 

disease spread. Establishing preparedness plans with suppliers, cattle buyers, and state officials is essential to ensure 

animal welfare needs are met and movement returns as quickly as possible.

For more information please see the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Continuity of Business (2011).
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 7 of 87

1.3 Disease Traceability

As defined by the World Organization for Animal Health (Office International des Epizooties or OIE), animal 

traceability means “the ability to follow an animal or group of animals during all stages of its life”. During an 

animal disease emergency event, it may be necessary to locate the source of the animal(s) in question, the other 

premises on which the animal(s) resided, other animals that were exposed, and animals at risk of exposure. A 

uniform national system for identifying all U.S. beef cattle does not exist. However, multiple forms of cattle 

identification and farm/ranch based numbering systems are in use (described below) as part of health management 

plans, genetic improvements, marketability, and recording cattle inventory on many cow-calf operations.

A variety of cattle identification methods exist on U.S. cow-calf 

operations.Some, such as brands, are unique to the owner of the 

cattle. Brands are mostly used on cattle residing in states west 

of the Mississippi River. This is an official form of identification 

when the brand is registered with an official state brand inspection 

agency and accompanied by an official brand inspection certificate. 

These brands must be inspected by a brand inspector before the 

cattle can be shipped. Brands are registered to a particular 

location on the animal and may be found on the shoulder, rib, 

or hip. Brands can either be applied with extreme heat, termed 

hot iron branding, or extreme cold, termed freeze branding. In 

some cases, an animal may have multiple brands.

While not unique to the farm or the animal, animals that have 

received a brucellosis vaccine should have a tattoo in their right 

ear as well as an official individual ID. Some purebred cattle will 

have a unique registration number tattooed in their left or right 

ear. Many cow-calf operations identify animals using plastic 

dangle ear tags labeled with numbers that have some meaning to 

the cattle grower. Many owners will incorporate a standard year 

code, which is a predesignated letter corresponding to the year of 

birth, into the animal’s identification number These ear tags can 

be custom printed with the name of the owner on the tag.

Radio frequency identification (RFID) tags (commonly 

referred to as electronic ID, or EID, in the cattle industry) are 

employed in a number of age and source verification systems 

and may be applied to a bovine at any stage of production 

from birth to arrival at the feedlot.

Individual animal identification methods are often used on cattle 

for various record keeping purposes (e.g., treatments, calving 

dates, etc.) and include ear tags, which may be an RFID tag, 

a plastic dangle tag, and/or a metal brucellosis vaccination tag 

in the right ear. Cattle growers in many states and licensed veterinarians can obtain brucellosis or bright (silver) tags from their State Animal Health Official. Plastic dangle tags may be 

marked with handwritten numbers or pre-printed through a commercial source or purchased from a breed association.

For more information about the USDA’s cooperative approach with States and Tribal Nations about animal disease 

traceability, visit the USDA Animal Disease Traceability website: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/traceability/

Source:

•	 OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 2010, Glossary, accessed May 3, 2011 at: http://web.oie.int/eng/normes/mcode/

en_glossaire.htm 

•	 Bullock, D. et al. “Record Keeping” http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/id/id108/11.pdf

Record keeping systems also vary by operation, ranging from no written records to chalk/white boards to hand-written 

paper documents to computerized software programs. In the event of an FAD outbreak, beef cattle disease traceability 

Plastic Dangle Ear Tag

Ocial Brucellosis & Bright Ear Tags

Freeze Brand
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 8 of 87

can play a key role in disease surveillance, control, eradication, and continuity of business. Cow-calf owners and 

managers are encouraged to retain records of animal origin and movement prior to arrival at their farm to expedite 

disease investigations.

National Cattlemen's Beef Association 

(NCBA) Red Book White Board Record Keeping

2. BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION STAGES

The beef cattle industry in the United States has three distinct sectors: cow-calf, backgrounder/stocker, and feedlot. 

The cow-calf phase is from birth to weaning, the backgrounder/stocker phase starts with the weaned calves and 

grows them to a specific size and weight range, and finally they enter the feedlot where they are ‘finished’. The 

intermediate stage, referred to as backgrounders and/or stockers, is utilized to allow newly weaned calves to grow 

and prepare for the feedlot while utilizing lower cost, usually higher roughage, rations. The goal of the cattle 

industry is to produce beef for human consumption. An understanding of the interactions between these sectors 

is important when developing policies for highly contagious FADs and during a response to an animal health 

emergency. Some sectors rely on a supply of cattle from the previous phase; changes in demand or disruptions 

in supply can have serious impacts on individual operations and the entire beef cattle industry.

2.1 Cow-Calf

In the cow-calf stage, farmers/ranchers maintain herds of cows to produce calves. Cow-calf operations tend to be 

more “capital intense” than other production stages due to the need to own or rent enough land on which to pasture 

the cattle. Cows in the existing cow herd represent the accumulation of genetic selection and are typically a 7-10 

year investment. Many operations have two or more generations of animals with descendants of the original 

animals in the herd. Loss of these animals can be more devastating than in other livestock operations because 

of the financial, genetic, and emotional investment that cow-calf operators have in their animals. The business 

model many cow-calf operations use incorporates both profit and quality of life and integrates them instead of 

viewing them as unique dimensions. This, coupled with the longevity of animals in the herd, often leads to 

emotional attachment and a human-animal bond between the caretaker and the cattle.

Each year the calf crop is evaluated at weaning. Once calves have been weaned from dams, there are various 

cattle-raising systems in which animals may be fed to a harvest weight. Some cattle growers feed out their own 

calves. Often, calves are marketed to feedlots for finishing. The heifer calves may be divided into two groups: 

one group is retained as replacement breeding stock for cows leaving the herd as culls, and the other group is 

marketed for feeding. Unless retained as breeding stock, the bull calves are marketed for feeding as well. These 

bull calves are generally castrated and then referred to as ‘steers’.

Operations vary in their management of the cow and calf herd. Calves that are well-managed while on the cow-calf 

operation prior to transportation through marketing channels or directly to the feedlot tend to experience fewer health 

related challenges. This preparation is called preconditioning and involves weaning prior to leaving the operation as well 

as vaccinating, dehorning, implanting and castrating the bull calves. Calves are typically weaned at six to ten months of 

age, weighing 300-800 pounds. The weaning period can range from the day of movement off farm to a few weeks prior 

to movement off-farm. It is recommended that calves be weaned on the farm and retained for 30-45 days post weaning. 

These newly weaned calves may eat pasture grasses or ensiled forages with or without supplemental grain, depending on 

the region of the country, calf weight, time of year, and availability of pasture/forages prior to entering the feedlot. Calves 

are sometimes weaned and removed from the premises on the same day. These calves, frequently termed “high risk 

calves” because of their increased risk of disease, may go to auction barns, backgrounders, or feedyards.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 9 of 87

Feedlots are discussed further in Section 2.3 Feedlots.

Source:

•	 United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, Cattle: Background. Accessed July 8, 2011 at 

	 http://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/cattle/background.htm.

•	 United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, U.S. Beef and Cattle Industry: Background Statistics 

and Information. July 2010. Accessed July 8, 2011 at http://www.ers.usda.gov/news/BSECoverage.htm

2.2 Backgrounders/Stockers

Not all calves will immediately leave the farm or ranch of origin and 

proceed directly to a feedlot to be finished. Younger, lighter calves may 

go through a period of growth and development on a forage-based diet 

designed for light to modest gains at a lower cost. This type of operation 

may be referred to as a “backgrounding” or “stocker” operation. These 

operations play a central role in cattle production as they prepare calves to 

transition to the feedlot and grow the calves, without fattening, using lower 

cost feed ingredients compared to feedlot rations. Some cow-calf operations 

retain ownership of these calves and manage this stage of production and 

cattle development as part of their business plan.

During this phase of production, weaned calves are grown to feeder size, approximately 650-900 pounds. The length 

of time calves stay at a backgrounder or stocker enterprise (60 to 300 days) depends on the goals of the producer, the 

size of the calves when they arrive, and the availability of pasture as a feed source as determined by moisture conditions. For example, many calves are born in the spring in the U.S. and some stocker cattle operators will feed them 

at a lower rate of gain, keeping them longer and producing yearling cattle for feedlots year round.

The goal of backgrounding is to add value to the cattle by producing more uniform groups of calves that are 

acclimated to the conditions in a feedlot including feeding, watering, and effective preventive healthcare to 

reduce risk of infectionwith pathogens from other animals raised in similar conditions. Calves may also be 

conditioned to drink from a water trough if they have not previously had this experience. In most cases, calves 

also receive vaccinations at this stage. Facilities for routine processing and administration of treatments are 

variable between operations. Some may have very adequate facilities resembling what is found at larger feedlots 

(i.e., complete sorting pen, alleyway, and chute systems); others may not have a way to restrain animals other 

than with a gate in a pasture pen. At the backgrounder, calves may be put on pasture for a period of time and then 

moved into small dry lot pens and fed a supplemental diet to aid in growth and development and also to condition 

them to eating from a feedbunk. The ration is similar to feedlots in delivery but usually of a higher roughage and 

lower energy value. At a stocker operation, calves may be raised on forage the entire time, with supplemental feed 

in movable bunks rather than stationary concrete bunks at a post and rail on the edge of a pen.

Backgrounder/stocker operators may have a relationship with a feedlot, or own a feedlot themselves and sell or 

transfer the calves when the calves are the appropriate age. If a relationship to a feedlot does not exist, the calves 

will be resold using auction markets, video sales, or a direct sale to a feedyard (private treaty).

This intermediate step in beef cattle production also presents a real challenge in animal disease tracking and traceability. Marketing small numbers of cattle from individual consigners through auction barns and assembling them 

into saleable lots of stockers and feeders involves extensive commingling and the associated loss of identity and 

traceability to the source. In addition, the stocker industry is concentrated in areas of the country away from where 

there are significant numbers of cows, so the calves must be moved to the stocker operations. This movement may 

increase the risk of disease exposure and spread.

2.3 Feedlots

After the cow-calf and/or backgrounder/stocker stages, calves, both heifers and steers, are sent to feedlots (sometimes 

referred to as feedyards). The majority of feedlots are located in the Great Plains (NE, KS, CO), North Central (IA), 

and Southwest (TX, OK) regions of the United States. Feedlots may vary from small “farmer-feeders” who feed small 

pens of cattle on their farming operations on a seasonal basis in order to utilize their own home-grown grain, to commercial feedyards with capacities of 100,000 or more head.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 10 of 87

A majority (70%) of weaned calves are sent directly (i.e., by-pass backgrounding phase) from the farm or ranch to these feedlots. Ownership of 

these animals at this point in the production cycle can be variable. Some 

feeder cattle are sold on a live basis to another party through the auction 

market system. In other instances, ranchers may market their cattle directly 

to the feedlot or retain ownership throughout the finishing phase of the 

production cycle. Another source of cattle includes steers from the dairy 

industry, particularly Holsteins. These animals may be fed on dairies until 

they reach a certain size or raised at a calf ranch similar to backgrounders.

The purpose of a feedlot is to feed cattle to add muscle and fat to 

tissues, a process often referred to as finishing or fattening. Typically, 

these animals are fed a complete total mixed ration (TMR) that graduates over time from forage based to a 

primarily grain-based ration that is typically divided between two or more feedings each day. This phase of 

the production cycle ends when animals reach a weight of between 1,100-1,500 lbs., typically a timeframe of 

150-180 days on feed.

2.4 Harvest Facilities or Packing Plants

Once cattle have reached their finishing weight (1,100 to 1,500 pounds), they are ready to be moved to a harvest 

facility, also referred to as a packing plant. Cattle that have reached this weight are called “fat cattle” or “fed/finished 

cattle.” Feedlot operators typically put together a “show list” of cattle ready for harvest on a weekly basis. Buyers 

from one or more packing plants visit the operation, select animals from this list, and make an offer. Once agreed 

upon, transfer/sale documents are drawn up. In general, cattle contracts are agreed upon for the next week’s delivery 

schedule. Some feedlots have long-term contracts with packing plants whereby a set number of cattle is purchased 

on a live-weight or carcass-weight basis and within a predetermined weight range. There are also delivery deadlines 

that must be met in order for the feedlot to fulfill its contractual obligation. This schedule must be adhered to or the 

feedlot is financially penalized because the plant loses productivity. Some cattle are marketed on a “grid” of carcass 

characteristics. In some cases, the packer is also the owner of the cattle.

For more information on harvest facilities and the feedlot industry as a whole, please refer to the FAD PReP/

NAHEMS Beef Feedlot Industry Manual (2011).

3. LIFE STAGES & REPRODUCTION

3.1 Breeding Adults: Cows, Heifers, 

and Bulls

3.1.1 Cows and Heifers

Puberty in heifers is influenced by age, weight, genetics 

and breed (Table 3). If cattle growers want their heifers to 

calve as two year olds, the animals must reach puberty by 

13-14 months of age. 

The length of a cow’s estrous cycle varies in length from 

17-24 days, averaging around 21 days. After calving, 

some animals can be rebred as soon as 45 days later. 

However, the typical length of time between calving 

and the next opportunity for breeding is around 60 days. 

These estimates are largely dependent upon the nutritional intake and the body condition of the female at calving, 

and are negatively affected by problems during parturition (i.e., dystocia). A female beef animal is defined as a 

heifer until she gives birth, typically around two years of 

age, and is thereafter defined as a cow. 

Breed Days at Puberty

Angus

Charolais

Gelbvieh

Hereford

Limousin

Red Poll

Simmental

Average

372 ± 12

398 ± 7

341 ± 9

390 ± 13

398 ± 6

352 ± 8

372 ± 6

* Standard Error

368 ± 3 [SE*]

Table 3. Breed Comparisons: 

Heifer Age at Puberty

Source: Heifer Development: Puberty. Steve Boyles, OSU Extension 

Team. TheCattleSite.com. Accessed June 24, 2011 at http://

www.thecattlesite.com/articles/901/heifer-development-puberty
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 11 of 87

Yearling Heifer Mature Cow

Sources:

•	 Corah, L.H. and Hixon, D.L. Replacement Heifer Development. Beef Cattle Handbook. Extension Beef Cattle Resource Committee.

Accessed May 4, 2011 at http://www.iowabeefcenter.org/Beef%20Cattle%20Handbook/Replacement_Heifer.pdf.

•	 Jaeger, J.R., Pirelli, G.J., and Weber, D.W. Beef Cow-Calf Management Guide. Oregon State University Extension Service. 

March 2003.

•	 Heifer and Young Female Management. University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Accessed May 4, 2011 at http://www.

iowabeefcenter.org/IGLCI/HeiferMgtIGLCI810.pdf

3.1.2 Bulls/Breeding Soundness

In addition to the cows, operators may own bulls or utilize 

artificial insemination (AI) to breed the cows. Bulls reach 

puberty around 9-11 months of age, depending on breed, 

weight, environment, and other factors (Table 4). Bulls of 

high genetic merit are used for natural mating and in semen 

collection facilities for use in AI. In most collection facilities, 

semen is collected from bulls 2 or 3 times a week to maximize the volume and sperm concentration obtained from 

each bull. Healthy, reproductively sound bulls are essential to 

the success of a cow-calf operation. Thousands of dollars are 

at risk if a breeding bull does not perform satisfactorily. Bulls 

that are not reproductively sound and do not impregnate 

their share of cows contribute to reproductive inefficiency, which can be just as costly as death loss. The vast majority 

(approximately 95%) of pregnancies in beef cows in the U.S. are a result |of natural mating. Each bull used in natural 

mating must be able to successfully mount a cow and deposit semen in the reproductive tract. In order to determine the 

reproductive ability of a bull, a veterinarian can perform a Breeding Soundness Examination before breeding season.

Breeding Soundness Examinations have several components, including:

•	 A detailed medical history of the bull

•	 A general physical examination

•	 A detailed examination of the reproductive system, including a scrotal circumference measurement

•	 A semen evaluation

•	 Optional tests (serving capacity evaluation, pelvic measurement, testing for tritrichomoniasis, etc.)

Each bull’s detailed medical history should include his identification number, age, breed, and weight. A list of vaccines 

and other products used should also be included, as well as the injection sites of those products, the dates of administration, and any previous health information. This ensures that bulls are healthy, disease free, and reasonably likely to 

be satisfactory breeders. The breeding soundness exam also provides an opportunity to collect diagnostic samples for 

additional testing. Diseases can be passed from bull to cow through natural mating and artificial insemination, so care 

must be taken to screen for potential disease risks.

Sources:

•	 Spire, M.F. Breeding Soundness Evaluations. Beef Cattle Handbook. Extension Beef Cattle Resource Committee. Accessed 

August 2011 at: http://www.iowabeefcenter.org/Beef%20Cattle%20Handbook/Breeding-Evaluations.pdf

Breed Average Age (Days)

Angus

Charolais

Hereford

Red Poll

295

287

326

283

Table 4. Breed Comparisons: 

Bull Age at Puberty

Source: Beef Bull Fertility Factsheet. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, 

Food, and Rural Aairs. Accessed June 24, 2011at http://www.

omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/beef/facts/06-015.htm#puberty
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 12 of 87

•	 Duren, E., Walker, Jack. Identifying the Functional Bull: Bull Soundness and Management. Cattle Producer’s Library. 

Western Beef Resource Committee. 2nd edition; December 2010.

Yearling Bull Mature Bull

3.1.3 Bull Management

Providing proper nutrition for bulls is important. Without adequate nutrition, bulls will not express their full genetic 

potential. Meeting bulls’ nutritional needs also allows them to reach puberty on time, which means the bulls can be 

used for breeding by 15 to 17 months of age. Under- or over-nourishment may cause testicular damage in young bulls 

and decreased sperm production in mature bulls. Specific ration design and ingredients will vary significantly from 

operation to operation, and between geographic regions based on cost, availability, and nutritional value of ingredients. 

Rations should be designed according to National Research Council (NRC) standards for nutrient requirements.

Age is a significant reason for culling bulls. After six years of age, semen quality decreases and mature bulls begin 

to lose their social dominance to younger, more aggressive bulls and thus have fewer breeding opportunities. Other 

reasons for culling include poor vision, lameness, lack of desirable conformation, low semen quality, inadequate 

serving capacity, number of daughters in the herd, and safety concerns because of poor disposition. To prevent slowing 

the genetic progress of the herd, bulls should also be culled if they produce low-performing offspring. When daughters 

are retained as replacements, bulls may be culled after several generations to avoid inbreeding.

Bulls kept for breeding on farm can be dangerous and unpredictable. Pens or pastures with bulls are not often marked. Heightened awareness of surroundings when working with breeding 

bulls is necessary for everyone’s safety.

Source:

•	 Sprott, L.R., Carpenter, B.B., and Thrift, T.A. Bull Management 

for Cow/Calf Producers. AgriLife Extention. Texas A&M 

University System. September 2005.

3.1.4 Female Reproductive Cycle

In order for a beef cattle grower to be successful, the reproductive

cycles of the females must be properly managed to maintain 

stable production. A cow’s reproductive cycle is both constant 

and well-defined. In a broad sense, the cycle starts with 

fertilization of the egg and it ends with the weaning of a calf. Gestation 

is approximately 282 days (with variation due to breed and individuals), 

and the entire reproductive cycle repeats approximately every 12 months. 

The reproductive cycle can be divided into four definite periods and one 

variable period (Table 5).

The first trimester of gestation begins on the day of conception. While 

the duration of each period of the cycle remains relatively constant, the 

actual dates when these periods begin vary based on when each cow 

is actually impregnated. 

Approximate Total 365

Period Duration (Days)

First Trimester

Second Trimester

Third Trimester

Postpartum Period 

(rebreeding)

94

94

94

variable

Table 5. Average Duration of 

Bovine Reproductive Cycle Periods
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 13 of 87

Each of these events in the biological cycle is important to cow-calf producers. If a cow is to conceive and calve 

every calendar year, it must occur within the constraints of the biological cycle. Thus, management practices and 

strategies must complement the periods within the biological cycle, and also determine the chronological cycle by 

selecting the calving season and thus the breeding date. 

Source:

•	 Hixon, D.L., Sanson, D.W. The Biological Cycle of the Beef Cow. Cow-Calf Management Guide: Reproduction Section. Western 

Beef Resource Committee. Second Edition, December 2010.

3.1.5 Natural Mating

Although the dairy industry uses artificial insemination almost 

exclusively, natural mating is still very common in the beef 

cow-calf industry. From a safety standpoint, it is important to be 

aware of how many cows, and therefore how many bulls, are in a 

pasture during the breeding season. Table 6 shows the serving capacity of bulls of a certain age. Factors that should be considered 

when determining bull count needs include bull age and terrain.

Source:

•	 Beef Bull Fertility Factsheet. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, 

Food and Rural Affairs. January 2006. Accessed June 29, 2011 

at http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/beef/

facts/06-015.htm#puberty

Approximately 60 days after calving, cow-calf pairs are moved to breeding pastures so that the females can be 

exposed to bulls to be bred back and begin the next gestation. 

3.1.6 Artificial Insemination and Embryo Transfer

Artificial insemination (AI) is a practice also used on cow-calf operations across the country, especially in purebred herds. The highest-quality bulls are often housed all together in bull studs, where semen is collected from 

each bull two or three times each week, with two or three ejaculations per collection. A bull’s semen is typically 

frozen to be shipped out to the cow-calf operations. One major advantage of using AI is the rapid genetic progress 

that goes along with only using top-performing bulls to sire calves. AI will also decrease the potential for many 

sexually transmitted diseases. Semen is most commonly collected using artificial vaginas or electroejaculation 

and tested for a variety of diseases.

Embryo transfer (ET) is another means of rapid genetic progress in beef herds. It is mostly utilized by purebred 

breeders, as well as some club calf breeders for use in show animals. While AI focuses on the use of superior sires in 

breeding, ET is based on the principle of getting as many progeny from superior cows as possible. 

Due to the movement of animals in the form of recipient cows as well as animal products associated with artificial 

insemination and embryo transfer, the risk of disease exposure exists. Biosecurity practices are essential in controlling 

the spread of diseases when implementing these reproductive technologies.

Source:

•	 Rouge, M. Semen Collection from Bulls. 2 September 2002. Colorado State University. Accessed June 28, 2011 at: 

http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/reprod/semeneval/bull.html

•	 Grimes, J.F. Utilization of Embryo Transfer in Beef Cattle. Fact Sheet: Agriculture and Natural Resources. 2008. 

The Ohio State University. Accessed June 29, 2011 at http://ohioline.osu.edu/anr-fact/pdf/ANR_17_08.pdf

3.2 Gestation

3.2.1 Pregnancy Testing

Pregnancy testing is a useful tool for operations to confirm pregnancy, estimate due dates, and identify non-pregnant, 

or open, cows and heifers. Open females will likely be culled because of the ongoing cost of feeding and housing 

them with no calf to offset those costs. 

Bull Age Number of Cows

Yearling

2 Year Old

3+ Years Old

15 - 20

20 - 30

30 - 40

Table 6. Maximum Number 

of Cows Per Bull

Beef Bull Fertility Factsheet. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, 

Food, and Rural Aairs. Accessed June 29, 2011at 

http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/beef/facts/

06-015.htm#puberty
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 14 of 87

There are two common times during the year when pregnancy testing is performed: once as early as possible 

after the breeding season ends (as early as 35 days by rectal ultrasound exam), and once when calves are weaned 

(approximately 150-200 days by rectal exam). Fall pregnancy testing (in a spring calving herd) and subsequent 

culling of open cows ensures that only pregnant cows are fed during the winter. 

There are several advantages to strategic pregnancy testing. These include:

•	 Early warning of problem breeders (infertile males or chronically open females)

•	 Possibility of rebreeding or selling open females

•	 Grouping pregnant and open females separately

- This enables cattle to be fed, housed, and managed according to pregnancy status

•	 Effective use of facilities year-round and especially during calving time

•	 Ability to guarantee pregnancy in for-sale cows and heifers

Sources:

•	 Stenquist, N.J., Sasser, R.G. Pregnancy Testing. Cattle Producer’s Library: Reproduction Section. Western Beef Resource 

Committee. Second edition, December 2010.

3.3 Calving

3.3.1 Spring vs. Fall Calving

The calving season is a critical time for cow-calf operations because the production of live calves is essential to 

profitability. “Tradition” was the most frequently cited factor reported in NAHMS data for determining timing 

of calving season. It is likely that years of experience have revealed a calving season that is optimally suited to 

local conditions. Thus, though calving usually takes place during either the spring or the fall, variation will often 

exist between regions based on weather and forage availability. In addition, calving seasons may also vary based 

on types of operations and business models. A purebred seedstock enterprise may choose to calve at a different 

time than a commercial or secondary income based operation; though all three could be in the same geographic 

region. There are several factors to consider when deciding whether spring calving or fall calving is best suited to 

an operation. Economically, the timing of a calving season can have an impact on the subsequent value of weaned 

calves. Transitioning from an early spring calving season to a late one can decrease the pounds of live calf for 

sale or pounds produced per exposed cow by up to 100 pounds due to the comparatively younger age of laterborn calves. In contrast, fall calving may fit into the operation’s management schedule better by more effectively 

utilizing grazing in warmer climates and decreasing nutrient requirements and feed costs during the winter. This 

may provide a method for taking advantage of spring markets, which typically offer higher weaned calf prices 

compared to the fall market. However, weaning weight alone is not a good indicator of profitability. Moving the 

calving season to a later date is done to decrease weather stress on the newborn calves, decrease calf morbidity 

and mortality, and decrease feed costs for the calving females. 

Sources:

•	 Stokka, G.L. Spring vs. Late Spring vs. Fall Calving: a Veterinarian’s Perspective. Beef Tips. Kansas State University 

Department of Animal Science. Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension 

Service. February 1998. 

•	 USDA-APHIS Veterinary Services Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health. Calving Management Practices on U.S. 

Beef Cow-calf Operations. February 2009.

3.3.2 Calving Management

The goal for a cow-calf enterprise is to produce healthy, live calves that are wellsuited to the needs of the fed-cattle market while creating replacement females 

appropriate for the ranch environment. Thus, all management factors on a cowcalf operation must be optimized to contribute to this goal as well as to the larger 

goal of the cattle industry—the production of safe and wholesome beef. These 

management factors include a defined calving season, a clean and dry calving 

area, appropriate frequency of calving observation, facilities to enable calving 

assistance, appropriate timing of assistance, when needed, and a system which 

favors maternal bonding and minimizes the exposure of calves to pathogens. 
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 15 of 87

A narrow, defined calving season enables operations to pinpoint management assistance at specific times. Establishing a 

defined breeding season is useful for maintaining a manageable calving season and efficient management of cattle through 

breeding and weaning. Based on data from 2007, about half of U.S. cow-calf operations had calves born over three months 

or less (Figure 2). Approximately 16% of operations had calves born over four months of the year, and 3.4% of operations

had calves born every month of the year. Lack of a defined calving season becomes more common as the herd size 

decreases because time commitment increases with operation size. Consolidating the calving season focuses labor requirements and lessens competition with other seasonal activities such as planting and harvesting forages and grains. 

Figure 2. Percentage of Operations by Number of Months in 

Which One or More Calves were Born Alive in 2007

1

30

Percent

Number of Months

20

10

22.5

15.7

9.8

7.0

4.8

3.5

2.1 1.9 1.4

3.4

7.0

20.9

0

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Source: 

•	 USDA-APHIS-VS Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health. Calving Management Practices on U.S. Beef Cow-calf 

Operations. February 2009.

Despite the wide availability of information regarding selection to increase calving ease Expected progeny differences 

(EPDs), sire selection, pelvic measurements, etc., according to the 2007-08 NAHMS Beef Survey about 17% of 

heifers and 3% of cows will still require calving assistance. However, many veterinarians advocate for early 

intervention during the parturition process. Thus, the calving assistance statistic may reflect an increase in 

education as well as concern for the welfare of dam and calf. Most calves are born with little or no assistance provided, 

and the majority of the provided assistance was described as an “easy pull.” Dystocia, or difficult calving, is the 

primary cause of neonatal death; over half of these losses are preventable through timely, correct intervention. While 

most veterinarians recommend that cows and heifers receive assistance after laboring for two hours, the 2007-08 

NAHMS Beef Survey showed that almost half of all operations allowed cows to labor three or more hours, and 

almost 40% of operations allowed heifers to labor an average of three hours or more before providing assistance.

During calving, producers should observe cows and heifers on a regular basis to identify prolonged or difficult 

births. Almost 90% of operations observed cows during calving, and over 90% regularly observed heifers. Prolonged 

labor can lead to less thrifty calves with weaker immune systems and higher susceptibility to hypothermia. Delayed 

intervention in cases of prolonged labor will result in higher rates of stillbirths, calf losses, failure of passive transfer 

of immunity (dam to calf via colostrum), and hypothermia.

Source: 

•	 USDA:APHIS:VS, CEAH. 2009. Beef 2007-08, Part II: Reference of Beef Cow-calf Management. Practices in the United 

States, 2007-08. Fort Collins, CO. #N512.0209

It is crucial for calves to ingest high-quality colostrum as soon as possible after calving – ideally within thirty minutes, 

and definitely within two hours of calving. This is the foundation of the calves’ immune system and provides resistance 

to disease. Ideally, the umbilicus of newborn calves should also be dipped in an antiseptic solution such as strong iodine 

especially in heavily used calving grounds. It should be noted, however, on many beef operations calves are born 
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 16 of 87

on open range and are not handled until branding or the first vaccination at several months of age, so dipping of the 

umbilicus and observation of colostrum ingestion is not always possible. Producers should be alert and aware of 

the signs of a sick calf, such as lowered head and ears, rapid breathing, diarrhea (scours), abnormal posture and/or 

unusual position in relation to the rest of the herd (isolation). Cows and calves should always be provided with 

shelter or a windbreak in the event of severe weather as cold and/or wet calves will succumb to illness more readily.

Sufficient nutrition and a healthy environment are vital to the health and well-being of newborn calves. Cow-calf 

pairs should be housed separate from pregnant cows, allowing producers to more easily observe calves and decreasing 

the pathogen load in the environment. In many operations, during a calving season, pregnant cows are moved every 

week or two during the calving season. This separates them from those that have already calved in order to give new 

calves the cleanest possible pasture.

Sources:

•	 Dargatz D.A., Dewell G.A., Mortimer R.G. Calving and Calving Management of Beef Cows and Heifers on Cow-Calf 

Operations in the United States. Journal of Theriogenology (61) 997-1007. 2004.

•	 Calving Management Practices on U.S. Beef Cow-calf Operations. APHIS Info Sheet. Veterinary Services: Centers for 

Epidemiology and Animal Health. February 2009.

•	 Calving Season – Calves. Cow-Calf Management Guide. Western Beef Resource Committee. Second edition. January 2002.

3.3.3 Calf Management

There are several management practices that should be done soon after 

birth to ensure calf health and growth. The major causes of calf losses at 

birth and during the first few weeks of life include disease and poor growth 

performance. The young calf has a naive immune system and efforts should 

be made to minimize disease exposure. Ensuring adequate nutrition is also 

essential to meet the needs of the growing calf.

Each calf should ideally be weighed at birth and at weaning, and their body 

weights should be recorded. For convenience, scales can be placed near the 

calving area and calibrated for accuracy. Keeping careful records of calves’ 

weights will provide a direct measure of the success of an operation’s feeding

program, breeding program, and overall management strategy. Also, unthrifty calves that require special attention, 

either due to poor nutrition or disease, can be identified. Observation should take place at least once a day to evaluate 

vigor, behavior, response to environment, and relationship with their dams.

Good recordkeeping is crucial to monitoring herd health and overall operation profitability. Registered herds may 

have more extensive record keeping systems than commercial herds because of registration requirements and 

marketing expectations. A complete recordkeeping system should, at a minimum, include birth date, gender, and 

ear tag/ID numbers for each and every animal, particularly the calves. As soon as possible following birth, each 

calf should be individually identified. Every producer has their own unique system for color coding and numbering 

ear tags; many breed organizations have numbering standards as well. Individual records at least partially provide 

the basis for short- and long-term health, breeding, and feeding management decisions for the herd.

If bull calves are not going to be used for future breeding, castration should occur as early as possible. Many producers 

will castrate their calves around the time of birth as the calves are given their identification number. Younger calves 

generally recover much quicker, and older calves are more difficult to restrain and may bleed more. One common 

method of castration in young calves is by applying rubber bands with an elastrator or Callicrate bander, a method 

commonly called banding. This causes necrosis of the tissue below the band; the scrotum and testicles then slough 

off in 1-3 weeks. Other methods of castration include the Burdizzo (a clamp that cuts off the testes’ blood supply), 

and surgical or “open” castration. If the cow-calf operation is located in a state where branding is done, calves are 

often castrated at the time of branding.

Dehorning is another management practice that is best done when the calves are as young as possible and only have 

small horn buttons. Older calves are likely to undergo greater stress, weight loss, infections, or death in very rare cases. 

There are both chemical methods and physical methods of dehorning, including tube dehorning, hot iron dehorning, 

and Barnes dehorners. Saws, obstetrical wire, and keystone dehorners are methods commonly used in older cattle.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 17 of 87

3.3.3.1 Graft Calves

Rarely, scenarios occur where a producer must ‘graft’ a new calf to a cow in order to maintain the dam’s production 

within the herd. Grafting means to facilitate a bond between a cow and a young calf that was not born to her. 

Reasons for grafting may include: 

•	 A cow losing her own calf

•	 A calf has been orphaned or rejected 

•	 A calf that is part of a set of multiples (i.e., twins, etc.) that was born to a mother that cannot or will not handle 

multiple calves. 

A graft calf can originate from a number of sources including orphaned calves or twin calves from the same operation, 

or calves obtained from feedlots or dairies that are sold at a very young age. Of course, the introduction of calves from 

outside sources provides an opportunity for the introduction of disease to the operation. Caution and proper biosecurity 

measures, such as quarantining the cow and new calf, should be considered to minimize the risk of disease transmission.

Sources:

•	 Hopkins, F.M., Neel, J.B., and Kirkpatrick, F.D. Dehorning Calves. Agriculture Extension Service. University of Tennessee. 

Accessed July 7, 2011, at https://utextension.tennessee.edu/publications/documents/pb1684.pdf.

•	 Jensen, S., Parsons C., England J. Castration of Bulls. Cattle Producer’s Library: Management Section. Western Beef 

Resource Committee. Second edition. January 2002.

•	 Olson, D.P., E.P. Duren, K.A. Bramwell, S.R. Henson, R.R. Panting, T.W. Ritter, and D.W. Sharp. Management of Neonatal Beef 

Calves. Cattle Producer’s Library: Management Section. Western Beef Resource Committee. Second edition. January 2002.

•	 Thomas, H. Grafting Calves. Western Cowman. January 2011. Accessed December 17, 2011 at: http://www.western

cowman.com/january2011/grafting_calves.html

•	 Williams, S., Gunn D. Grafting Calves. Cattle Producer’s Library: Management Section. Western Beef Resource Committee.

3.3.4 Weaned Calves

The main goal of a weaning program is to separate cows and calves as stress-free, simply and efficiently as possible. 

Time of weaning will vary, but should be when the cow’s milk production decreases and the calf’s weight gain 

becomes more dependent on forage intake. Calves must also be old enough to be able to utilize other feed resources. 

The traditional weaning age is approximately five to seven months. Early weaning is at any age before five months.

One method of weaning is to separate the cow-calf pairs by placing each across the fence from each other for a 

couple of weeks. Strong, secure fences are essential to keeping cows and calves separated and avoiding prolonged 

weaning. Fence-line weaning, as described above, has been shown to reduce the stress of weaning for both cows and 

calves. Visual contact between cows and calves is maintained while calves remain in familiar surroundings and are 

aware of feed and water sources. Another low-stress weaning method is to place plastic flaps (blabs) in the nose of 

the calves that prevent nursing before separating the calves from the cows.

Successful weaning programs encourage calves to eat supplemental feed, such as grain, protein supplement, or hay, very soon 

after being separated from their dams. The supplemental feed available will vary based on the time of year and resources on 

the operation. Creep feeding, providing supplemental feed to calves prior to weaning, may help reduce some of the stress of 

weaning by teaching calves to eat on their own sooner and become “bunk broke.” Dehorning, castration, and other stressful management practices should be done soon after birth or well before weaning to avoid additional stress at weaning time. 

Preconditioning is a term that is often used to describe nutrition and management practices done to calves prior to weaning to 

help reduce the overall stress of weaning such as vaccination, deworming, dehorning, castration, and creep feeding.

Sources:

•	 Pirelli, G., and Zollinger, W.A. Weaning Management for Calves. Cattle Producer’s Library. Western Beef Resource 

Committee. Second edition, December 2010.

3.4 Post-Calving Cow

The most important aspect of managing post-calving cows is body condition. Cows that are thin and remain thin after 

calving will have delayed estrus and lower conception rates than those that are fed a diet that maintains their body condition. The nutritional needs of the cow should be assessed when the calves are weaned, while she is in mid-gestation. 

This is the time when her nutritional requirements are at their lowest and the feeding program is easiest to manage.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 18 of 87

The nutritional demands of lactation in post-calving cows present a challenge to maintaining body condition. Nursing 

cows must receive enough nutrients to support their own needs, as well as to produce enough milk to feed their calf 

or calves. If the lactating cow diet is deficient, the available nutrients will be used in milk production and she will lose 

body condition. In addition, younger cows (2-3 years old) are still growing and need to be fed to further develop as well 

as lactate. As a rule of thumb, post lactation cows nutritional requirement is one-third as much as when she is lactating.

Source:

•	 Boyles, S. Beef Cow Nutrition. Ohio State University. Accessed June 29, 2011 at http://beef.osu.edu/library/cownutr.html

4. CATTLE APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOR

4.1 Cattle Appearance

There are two major subspecies of cattle in the U.S., each with many different breeds and types of cattle. Some 

breeds of Bos indicus descent have a fatty skin-covered hump over their shoulders, naturally droopy ears, and a large 

dewlap. These breeds also have less hair than many of the Bos taurus breeds of cattle. Bos indicus cattle usually handle high temperatures much better than the Bos taurus breeds. However, Bos taurus is more comfortable in colder 

weather climates. Within the two subspecies, there can also be large variations in body frame, size, and shape. The 

Oklahoma State University Breeds of Livestock webpage (http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/cattle/) has a complete listing, with pictures, of all the cattle breeds with.

Bos indicus Bos taurus

4.2 Cattle Behavior

Cattle behavior is best understood and explained in the context of cattle as a prey species. Their senses are 

developed to rapidly detect changes in their environment. Cattle seem to have poor detailed vision but they have 

a wide range of vision and are very good at detecting changes in light and movement. They also have excellent 

hearing. In most situations, prey animals will flee situations they find frightening. Cattle will tend to flee if an 

alarming presence is detected within their flight zone – an area in which a threat is determined to be too close 

for comfort (Figure 3). Flight zone size depends on each animal’s temperament and previous experiences. Some 

flight zones are small enough to allow close contact with the animal and some are extremely large.

It is also important to realize that as prey animals, cattle may hide signs of disease or pain until it becomes overwhelming. In the wild, diseased or injured animals are targeted by predators and prey species have adapted to hide 

these signs. This behavior can complicate early disease detection in animals, especially if they are easily excited.

4.3 Methods for Safe Movement and Restraint of Beef Cattle

Handling and restraint of cattle requires substantial training and experience to be carried out effectively. 

Dangerous situations can arise, especially if cattle are excitable. On cow-calf operations in particular, handlers 

must keep in mind that some mother cows have extremely strong protective instincts of their calves. When 

handling cow-calf pairs, be aware of where the calves are in relation to their dams and avoid getting in between 

them if possible. These situations require experienced personnel and good facilities for a satisfactory outcome.

Cattle behaviors can be utilized to handle them safely and effectively. When moving cattle, it is best to utilize their flight 

zone. By entering the flight zone behind the shoulder, cattle can be encouraged to move forward; alternatively, entering 

the flight zone in front of the shoulder will initiate backward movement. The shoulder is referred to as the point of bal-
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 19 of 87

ance. It is best to work at a 45 to 60 degree angle behind the animal’s shoulder (Figure 3). When moving the cattle, avoid 

coming at the animal straight on. Instead work back and forth near their point of balance parallel to the direction in which 

you would like them to move. Cattle have a panoramic field of vision, which means they can see everything around them 

except what is directly behind their hindquarters, known as the blind spot (Figure 3). They cannot be driven from directly 

behind, and they may startle if approached within their blindspot. Cattle’s natural reaction when approached from behind 

is to turn around so they can visualize the possible threat, which is counterproductive to attempts to move them. A demonstration video of proper cattle handling can be found at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rLpIOW0bt4M.

Low-stress stockmanship and handling are practices that employ the principles of flight zone and point of 

balance as well as the cattle’s natural herd instincts. There are many well-known cattle handling experts 

whose principles and systems can be found within a variety of resources. Humans can gain cattle’s trust by 

slowly entering their flight zones and then backing out at the first sign of a reaction. 

In review, several pointers to keep in mind when handling cattle are:

•	 The only way to work cattle quickly is with patience.

•	 Work from the front of the group to draw cattle to you.

•	 Apply pressure (i.e., move towards the cattle) when cattle have somewhere to go.

•	 Pressure from the side, not from directly behind.

•	 Cattle must be comfortable to go by you and walk straight ahead.

•	 When working cattle, move in straight lines.

•	 Moving against the flow of cattle slows them down or stops their movement.

•	 Moving with the flow of cattle initiates or accelerates their movement.

•	 Cattle work best when they are calm.

Following these guidelines will create a safe, stress-free working environment for both humans and animals. Overall, cattle movement done in this manner will be completed in a shorter time span than that done in the traditional 

“whoop and holler” approach.

Sources:

•	 Grandin, T., Lanier, J., and Deesing, M., Low Stress Methods for Moving and Herding Cattle on Pastures, Paddocks, and 

Large Feedlot Pens (April 2008 Update on Loose Bunching). Colorado State University. Accessed July 21, 2011 at 

http://www.grandin.com/B.Williams.html

•	 Gill, R., Pate C., Machem R. Cattle Handling Pointers. AgriLife Extension. Texas A&M System. Accessed July 21, 2011 at 

http://animalscience.tamu.edu/images/pdf/beef/cattle-handling-pointers.pdf

Figure 3. A Cow’s Flight Zone, Point of Balance, and Blind Spot

BLIND SPOT

(Shaded Gray)

POINT OF BALANCE

EDGE OF 

FLIGHT ZONE

60o

45o

90o

HANDLER’S POSITION 

TO STOP MOVEMENT

HANDLER’S 

POSITION TO START 

MOVEMENT

Source: American Veterinary Medical Association, Emergency Response and Preparedness, April 2009, page 207
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 20 of 87

Cattle handling is most successful if all personnel involved remain calm. Cattle tend to react to loud noises and 

sudden movements by balking, fleeing, or fighting the pressure that is being applied. By remaining calm, cattle tend 

to respond well to the movement techniques described in the preceding paragraphs. Electric cattle prods should 

only be used as a last resort, and should never be applied to areas in front of the point of balance or the rectal area. 

Improper handling is very stressful for cattle and can have production and health consequences.

When cattle are being handled in a confined area such as a crowding pen or sorting alley, handle them in smaller 

groups. For example, bring eight or ten cattle into a crowding pen instead of twenty. Overloading the crowding pen is 

a common handling mistake; the animals must be able to move and turn around in the pen. Likewise, cattle need room 

to move along the alley. A stick or whip with plastic streamers or a garbage bag tied on the end is useful for turning 

cattle in the crowd pen. Shake the streamers on the right side of the head to turn left and vice versa. Use the animal’s 

natural following behavior to assist with filling chutes. Wait until the single file alley leading to the squeeze is almost 

empty before refilling. Avoid the overuse of crowd gates; if the cattle are moving, do not use the crowd gate.

An animal left alone in the crowding pen after the other animals have entered the single-file chute may attempt to 

jump the fence to rejoin its herdmates. A lone animal may become agitated and charge the handler. A large portion 

of serious handler injuries occur when an animal, separated from its herdmates, refuses to enter the single-file chute. 

If a lone animal refuses to move, the handler should release it from the crowding pen and bring it back with another 

group of cattle. Proper facilities will help avoid this situation.

Cattle work done in extreme weather conditions warrants extra precautions. During hot conditions, cattle handling 

should occur during the coolest parts of the day. Working cattle in cold weather can also have consequences. If the 

cattle get alarmed and excited, their body temperature will rise. When the animal calms down, body temperature can 

drop to hypothermic levels. 

Sources:

•	 Hubert, D.J., et al., Cattle Handling Safety in Working Facilities. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service. Accessed 

June 15, 2009 at: http://www.nasdonline.org/docs/d001801-d001900/d001810/d001810.pdf.

•	 Grandin, T. Recommended Basic Livestock Handling. Accessed July 8, 2010 at: http://www.grandin.com/behaviour/ 

principles/principles.html 

•	 BQA: The cattle industry’s guide for the care and handling of cattle. Accessed October 10, 2011 at http://www.bqa.org/ 

uDocs/Guidelines%20for%20the%20Care%20and%20Handling%20of%20Cattle.pdf.

Handling facilities vary widely from operation to operation, from a “BudBox” (used with low-stress cattle handling techniques) or a complete tub 

and chute system to nothing but pastures and lariats. Non-hydraulic squeeze 

chutes are among the most common methods of cattle restraint. A properly 

operated chute will capture an animal by narrowing an opening around an 

animal’s neck. The head is too large for the animal to back out of the head 

catch, and the body is too wide for the animal to move forward. In addition 

to the head catch, some chutes have mechanisms to squeeze the animal. This 

promotes a sense of well-being in the restrained animal and prevents dangerous movement in the chute. Some chutes have additional features that allow 

the animal to be tipped onto their side to work on their feet or that will further restrain the head and neck for procedures like ear-tagging or blood collection. Chutes and alleyways should be adjusted to accommodate the size of animals being processed. If the head 

catch is set too wide, animals will slip their heads out of it and pose a safety hazard for both the animals and the 

workers. If the head catch is set too narrow, it can squeeze the animal’s neck tight enough to asphyxiate the animal.

Special consideration needs to be given to horned cattle. Typically, the head catch must be opened wider in order 

to get the animal’s horns through; however, this creates the risk of missing the catch of the animal. Experienced 

horned animals can move through obstacles (such as a chute) very quickly by moving their head rhythmically as 

they go. Some operations, where they breed cattle to have very large and long horns, will have special chutes for 

handling that allow cattle to move through with less stress and without damaging the horns.

In operations without chutes, cattle can be captured and restrained using ropes in a variety of ways. Some specific 
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 21 of 87

tools include rope halters and nose tongs. These tools can be used to restrain an animal’s head for a short period of 

time. These methods require substantial skill and much practice to be utilized effectively. 

Chemical restraint involves the use of tranquilizers or general anesthetic agents and is primarily limited to surgical 

procedures conducted by a licensed veterinarian. Occasionally, chemical methods are utilized in unique situations such 

as to capture very wild cattle or to restrain cattle where there are no handling facilities. In this case, the tranquilizer is 

typically delivered via a specially adapted dart gun. There are various protocols available depending on the depth and 

length of sedation that is required for a given procedure. Chemical restraint can be used effectively in combination 

with physical restraint in many cases. As with use of any drugs, there is a risk of side effects with chemical restraint 

including, but not limited to, hyperthermia and bloat. Chemical restraint also poses a risk to human health and safety if 

improperly handled and therefore should only be done by or under the direct supervision of a licensed veterinarian. In 

addition, food safety is paramount and use of chemical restraint in food producing animals requires the observance of 

all withdrawal times prior to slaughter.

4.3.1 Handling Bulls

Bulls account for only about two percent of the United States cattle population, but they are responsible for over 

half of livestock related fatalities. They are considered the most dangerous of all livestock. Because of their weight, 

strength, and inconsistent, unpredictable temperament, bulls require extra caution and consideration. If feasible, one 

person alone should never handle a bull; at least two people should be available for safe handling. Some facilities 

are set up to handle bulls without ever getting in the pens with them. Housing and confinement areas should be very 

secure, and ideally allow producers to feed and access the animals without coming in direct contact with the bulls. 

While the disposition of bulls varies within breeds and between bulls, no bull should be trusted.

Sources:

•	 Hallman, E. and Demmin D. Animal Handling Safety. Cornell Agricultural Health and Safety Program. National Ag 

Safety Database.

•	 Shooter, M.M. Bull Behavior and Handling Safety. Nov. 9, 2009. North Carolina State University Extension.

•	 Cattle Safety. “Farm Safety – Protect Yourself from Livestock Injuries” series. December 2004. Nova Scotia Department of 

Agriculture. Accessed March 31, 2011 at http://www.gov.ns.ca/agri/farmsafety/livestock/cattle1.pdf

4.3.2 Working Horses and All-Terrain Vehicles

Working horses are critical to the workforce of many cow-calf 

operations. These horses are ridden by operation workers who 

need to ride across land to examine, move, and/or sort cattle. 

The horses are generally housed permanently at the cow-calf 

operation. Working cow horses are generally well maintained 

and are routinely vaccinated according to recommended standards and local disease challenges.

In the event of a disease outbreak affecting cattle and horses 

(e.g., vesicular stomatitis, surra), these horses and their tack 

should be quarantined to the cow-calf operation. In the case of 

vector-borne diseases, like vesicular stomatitis and surra, direct 

contact is not a main route of transmission so interactions with 

cattle in the pastures could still occur unless regulatory officials 

advise otherwise. For other diseases spread via fomite (e.g., 

foot-and-mouth disease), a horse’s tack (e.g., bridle, saddle, 

blanket) or their hooves could become contaminated with 

manure or saliva from infected cattle and may carry disease 

pathogens between pastures and to other areas of the operation.

On some cow-calf operations, especially smaller ones, all-terrain 

vehicles (ATVs) are used instead of horses to move and work 

cattle. ATVs should be considered as potential fomites and 

treated like any other vehicle. They should be cleaned and disinfected prior to leaving the operation, upon entering the 

operation, and between different susceptible populations within the operation in a disease outbreak.

Working Horse

All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV)
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 22 of 87

5. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

5.1 Facilities

Unlike feedlots where cattle are maintained in confinement, cow-calf herds typically utilize grass pastures or 

crop residue that provide cattle the ability to roam and graze freely. Depending on location, available facilities, 

and producer preference, the cows may be brought into dirt or bedded lots or even barns for calving. Facilities 

for routine processing and administration of treatments are extremely variable between operations. Some may 

have very adequate facilities resembling what is found at larger feedlots (i.e., complete holding pen, alleyway and 

chute systems); others may not have a way to restrain animals other than with a rope in a pasture.

Lot Pasture Crop Residue (Corn Stalks)

5.2 Culling Cows and Bulls

Cows may be culled from herds due to disease, temperament, physical condition, reproductive failure, and/or age. 

Older cows may be culled to make room for incoming replacement heifers and to maintain profitability with a quality calf crop. In 2007, a NAHMS study revealed 33% of cows were culled due to reproductive status (i.e., open or 

aborted) and just over 32% were sold because of bad teeth or age.

Bulls may be culled due to poor libido, breeding soundness examination failure, lameness or other 

injury, temperament, and/or age. A bull may also be culled to alter genetics in the herd or to reduce inbreeding 

if his daughters are retained as replacement heifers. Cull cows and bulls are generally marketed through 

auctions or direct sales for slaughter. Bulls that are culled but are still reproductively sound may be sold to 

other producers for use in their herds. Typical culling rates for beef herds in the United States are estimated at 

15-20% annually. 

Source:

•	 USDA:APHIS:VS, CEAH. 2010. Beef 2007–08, Part IV: Reference of Beef Cow-calf Management Practices in the United 

States. Fort Collins, CO #523.0210

5.3 Diets and Feeding

Cow-calf herds are usually kept on pasture as much as 

possible. In the Southern Plains and Southeastern states, 

forage is typically available year round. In the Northern 

Plains and parts of the West, forage availability only 

lasts a few months (late spring to early fall depending 

on weather). Supplemental feed (hay) must be provided 

when grass is dormant and the ground is snow covered. 

Some operations will “bank” standing forage by not 

grazing itduring the summer and then grazing it in the 

winter, along with supplemental feedstuffs. Protein 

supplementation is critical during the winter months, 

especially late in gestation and early lactation. Cows 

can also be fed various forms of silage depending on the 

location of the herd. Cattle raised in farming areas may 

graze on corn or soybean stalks after harvest. Supplementation with grain, protein supplements, minerals and/or salt may also be warranted to provide balanced nutrition 

for the cows during gestation and lactation.

Supplemental Salt and Mineral in Pasture
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 23 of 87

5.3.1 Water Access

Beef cattle can require anywhere from 6-19 gallons of drinking water per day depending on things such as 

reproductive status, nutritional intake, and ambient temperature. Cattle on the farm need to have continuous 

year-around access to fresh water. This can be provided through natural water sources (e.g., streams, dams, ponds, 

etc.) or water tanks filled from another source (an underground well, water hauled in from an outside source, etc.) 

Water sources, especially tanks, should be checked frequently for availability and quality of water. Water tanks 

should be cleaned on a regular basis to remove organic matter buildup.

Pasture Dam Windmill and Watertank

Source:

•	 Lardy, G., and Stoltenow C. “Livestock and Water.” North Dakota State University. AS-954, July 1999. http://www.

ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ansci/livestoc/as954w.htm

5.4 Routine Vaccinations and Parasite Control

Use of vaccinations in a cow-calf herd is an important component of animal health. The 2007-08 NAHMS 

Beef Survey revealed that 68.9% of operations vaccinated cattle and/or calves. Smaller operations were shown 

to be least likely to vaccinate animals. Vaccine protocols will vary depending on the prevalence of disease in the 

region and the specific herd. Vaccinating cows protects not only the cow, but may also contribute to passively 

acquired immunity to the calf after it nurses colostrum. Other considerations in a vaccine protocol selection are the 

efficacy of the vaccine against the disease and the economic loss associated with a particular disease.

Most animals in cow-calf herds receive vaccinations for common respiratory, enteric, and reproductive 

pathogens as well as clostridial diseases. Respiratory pathogens may include bovine herpes virus 1 or infectious 

bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), parainfluenza 3 virus (PI3), bovine viral diarrhea virus types 1 and 2 (BVDV or 

BVD), and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV). Common reproductive pathogens in vaccines include 

Campylobacter fetus subspecies venerealis and multiple Leptospira spp. In some states, females intended 

for breeding may be vaccinated against Brucella abortus between 4 and 10 months of age. Common names 

for clostridial diseases are blackleg, malignant edema, black disease, enterotoxemia, and redwater. They 

are all common diseases in various areas of the country. Cows may be vaccinated in late gestation against 

enteric pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., rotavirus and coronavirus to protect their 

calves against scours (diarrhea).

Veterinarian Vaccinating Cattle in the Field Cattle Vaccine Syringes in a Cooler
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 24 of 87

When administering any type of injection to cattle it is important 

to give the injection in the neck region (Figure 4). This should be 

followed whether the injection is subcutaneous or intramuscular. 

The most valuable cuts of meat are located in the hip and thigh 

region. Giving injections in the neck reduces any damage to 

surrounding tissue and minimizes loss of tenderness or presence 

of injection site blemishes in the meat after harvest. Always 

follow the product labels of injectable products and when possible,

give the injection subcutaneously instead of intramuscularly. Have 

a plan and a set protocol to be used in case of adverse reactions.

It should be considered to have epinephrine available in case 

of anaphylactic reactions to the injections. This will aid in 

administering the treatment when time is of critical importance. 

Anaphylactic reactions usually occur within 10 to 20 minutes of 

administering the vaccine; however a reaction may not occur for 

up to two hours. It is best to treat cattle as soon as the symptoms 

occur. Epinephrine should be administered subcutaneously at a 

dosage of 1cc per 100 pounds when using the 1:1,000 dilution of epinephrine. A second dose can be given fifteen to 

twenty minutes after the initial dose if the animal has not recovered sufficiently.

Source:

•	 Berrier, R.J. Anaphylaxis in Cattle. [Online] Colorado Serum Company, January 2003. Accessed July 31, 2009 at http://

www.colorado-serum.com/vets/vol_3/vol3_1.htm.

•	 USDA. 2010. Beef 2007–08, Part IV: Reference of Beef Cow-calf Management Practices in the United States, 2007–08.

USDA:APHIS:VS, CEAH. Fort Collins, CO #523.0210 http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/nahms/beefcowcalf/ 

downloads/beef0708/Beef0708_dr_PartIV.pdf

Internal and external parasite control is very important on cow-calf 

operations for several reasons. Parasites can serve as both biological and 

mechanical vectors for bovine and zoonotic diseases. External parasites 

(flies, mosquitoes) can lead to increased stress and may lead to cessation 

of normal activities such as eating and resting. Internal parasites compete 

for nutrition and decrease the growth rate, requiring more feed to grow, 

maintain, and finish an animal.

Oral, topical, and injectable anthelmenthics are used routinely to control

these parasites. Some parasiticides work against external and internal parasites. 

Since parasite types and burdens differ depending on geography, parasite 

control programs should be determined by geographic origin of particular 

groups of cattle. Since cattle are destined for human consumption, only products labeled for use in food-producing 

animals should be used. Appropriate withdrawal times, which will be listed on the drug label, must be followed.

Feed additives containing insect growth regulators (IGRs) may help reduce the numbers of adult flies by disrupting 

larval development in manure. Wasps that target fly larvae in fecal material may also reduce the fly burden. Manure 

management and avoiding spilled feed are other components to adequate pest control.

Fly tags in the ears, sprays, dust bags or rubs can also be used to help lessen 

the fly load on cattle.

5.5 Sick Animal Care and Treatment with Drug 

Withdrawal Information 

Withdrawal time consideration is very important when medicating, vaccinating, 

or supplementing cattle on cow-calf operations. Withdrawal time is the time 

that it takes for residues from substances introduced into the animals system to 

fall below acceptable set levels so that the animal products are safe for human 

consumption. Withdrawal times have been published for many common 

Do Not Inject

Subcutaneous (SC)

Intramuscular (IM)

Figure 4. Cattle Injection Sites
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 25 of 87

pharmaceuticals and biologicals in beef cattle production and must be taken into account when emergency harvest is 

considered as a control measure in a highly contagious FAD outbreak. 

To meet withdrawal times, it is important to keep precise records on every animal that is given any drug, implant, 

vaccine, or feed additive. These records, for each animal or group of animals, should include the substance, quantity, 

and duration along with reason for administration. Required withdrawal times should also be noted on the records. 

Drugs and vaccines should be used according to label directions. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 

as of April 1, 2011, the following drugs, 

families of drugs, and substances are prohibited 

for extralabel animal and human drug uses in 

food-producing animals:

1. Chloramphenicol

2. Clenbuterol

3. Diethylstilbestrol (DES)

4. Dimetridazole

5. Ipronidazole

6. Other nitroimdazoles

7. Furazolidone

8. Nitrofurazone

9. Sulfonamide drugs in lactating dairy 

cattle (except approved use of sulfadimethoxine, sulfabromomethazine, 

and sulfathoxypyridazine)

10. Fluoroquinolones

11. Glycopepetides 

12. Phenylbutazone in female dairy cattle 

20 months of age or older.

Source:

•	 Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. Accessed on December 16, 2011 at http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/

cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=530.41

It is very important to read a drug’s label before administering its contents. The label offers the most current 

information about indications for use, contraindications, route(s) of administration, and withdrawal times. 

Information is dynamic and could change based on the product.

Vaccines are regulated by USDA-APHIS Center for Veterinary Biologics and those made with oil adjuvants have 

a 60-day meat withdrawal period; all others have a 21-day withdrawal. Emergency vaccines used in the event of a 

highly contagious FAD outbreak will have specified withdrawal times printed on the label.

5.6 Management of Mortalities

Once a dead cow, calf or bull is identified in a pen or pasture, the carcass should be removed and placed in a 

designated area. The disposal of livestock mortalities (carcasses) is regulated by the state in which the cow-calf 

operation is located. Four primary methods of disposal are typically considered: burial, rendering, open air burning, 

and composting. Environmental and legal regulations should be considered and there may be limitations, restrictions, 

or regulations governing each of these options. When planning disposal of large numbers of carcasses, cooperation 

and communication with applicable State departments (such as Environmental Protection Agency and Natural 

Resources and Conservation Service), industry stakeholders, surrounding property owners, and other appropriate 

groups should occur. Listed below are potential options:

1. On-site carcass burial is a common disposal procedure on some operations, particularly smaller facilities. 

Eventually, buried materials are degraded and broken down into minerals and organic material. Timeliness 

of burying and prompt covering of the carcasses is critical to maintaining a biosecure and aesthetically 

acceptable burial site. Most states regulate separation distances of the burial site from wells, surface water and 

the property line, and limit the number of animals that can be buried in an area. Some states have maps that 

show where animals can be buried safely and lawfully. In some cases, off-site burial is the disposal option of 

RESIDUE WARNINGS (example)

• Following label use as a single 

 treatment, a 13-day pre-slaughter 

 withdrawal period is required

• Following label use as a single 

 treatment, no milk discard period is 

 required for this product

• Use of dosages in excess of 3.0 mg 

 CE/lb (6.6 mg (CE/kg) body weight 

 or administration by unapproved 

 routes (subcutaneous injection in

 the neck or intramuscular injection) 

 may cause violative residues.

• A withdrawal period has not been 

established for this product in pre-

 ruminating calves

• Do not use in calves to be processed 

 for veal.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 26 of 87

choice; some types of commercial or industrial landfills may provide a reasonable option for carcass 

disposal. Landfills being considered for carcass disposal are required to meet specific design and operating 

standards. Depending on environmental risks and available land, burial may be the method of choice for the 

disposal of large numbers of cattle during a disease outbreak.

2. Rendering is an off-site process that uses heat to convert carcasses and associated disposal materials into 

protein-based solids (carcass meal), water, and melted fat/tallow. Rendering of carcasses is a common

disposal method among some operations located in an area where the service is available. Rendering is 

nearly always carried out by a business independent from the farm and often includes a “pickup” service at a 

designated location; preferably at the edge of the farm away from main traffic areas. This can be an expensive 

option which may be offset by the benefit of having a third party take the responsibility for managing the

mortalities in an environmentally sound manner. Policies for animal pickup vary among different rendering

companies and some will not accept carcasses that have been necropsied or have had the brain removed. 

Rendering collection trucks moving between different types of animal related enterprises can present a 

biosecurity risk if not considered ahead of time in an operation’s biosecurity plan. Rendering services are not 

available in all areas. In situations involving mass depopulation, rendering services can be quickly overwhelmed

3. On-site open air burning of carcasses on cow-calf operations could work well for a small number of animals 

but is often regulated. Open air burning and other thermal methods use high-temperature combustion to destroy 

animal carcasses and associated animal materials. Using this method, carcasses can be burned in open fields or 

on combustible heaps called pyres. To enable and promote thermal production, materials such as hay, straw, 

dry timbers, or other kindling is added to the carcasses. In addition, diesel or other fuels are typically used in 

open-air burning. Many states allow for incineration of carcasses on-farm but specifically prohibit burning 

them in the open. It may be possible to obtain a waiver in a declared animal carcass disposal emergency. The 

process of open air burning takes several hours to complete and the odor from burning and pollution caused by 

smoke can be a public concern. Public perception of open-air burning is overwhelmingly negative and, if 

selected as a disposal method, this aversion must be addressed during planning. State regulations should 

always be checked before a decision is made to use open-air burning as a disposal method.

4. The use of composting as an on-site disposal method can provide a nutrient rich product that can be applied to 

land to increase productivity. Composting on farm may be an inexpensive option in some climates/localities. 

However, it requires a large space when incorporated into a sizable operation. Composting protocols and the 

required equipment will vary among states and animal populations. This method requires prolonged management, 

maintenance, and monitoring. Care must be taken to identify a site that will have all-season access by personnel. 

When composting is conducted at a proper site with appropriate cover, the risk of environmental contamination 

is low. Producers using this method must have a plan in place for utilizing the finished compost. Well-described 

techniques are available at http://www3.abe.iastate.edu/cattlecomposting/ and http://tammi.tamu.edu/

largecarcassE-422.pdf. During an animal health emergency involving large numbers of carcasses, off-site 

composting may be used as a disposal option.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 27 of 87

PART II: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE

6. DESIGNATION OF ZONES, AREAS, AND PREMISES 

A critical component for FAD response is the designation of zones, areas, and premises. Epidemiological investigation 

and tracing will be used to classify premises. It is the responsibility of the Incident Management Team to designate 

zones and premises in an FAD outbreak. These zones, areas, and premises designations will be used in quarantine and 

movement control efforts.

Table 7 summarizes the premises designations that would be employed in an FAD outbreak response. Table 8 

summarizes the zone and area designations that would be used in an FAD outbreak response. 

Table 7. Summary of Premises Designations

Premises Category Zone

Infected Premises (IP) Infected Zone

Contact Premises (CP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone

Suspect Premises (SP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone, 

Surveillance Zone, 

Vaccination Zone

At-Risk Premises (ARP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone

Monitored Premises (MP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone

Vaccinated Premises (VP) Containment 

Vaccination Zone, 

Protection 

Vaccination Zone

Free Premises (FP) Surveillance Zone, 

Free Area

Denitions

Premises where a presumptive positive case or 

conrmed positive case exists based on laboratory 

results, compatible clinical signs, case denition, 

and international standards.

Premises with susceptible animals that may have 

been exposed to the FAD agent, either directly or 

indirectly, including but not limited to exposure to 

animals, animal products, fomites, or people from 

Infected Premises.

Premises under investigation due to the presence 

of susceptible animals reported to have clinical 

signs compatible with the FAD. This is intended to 

be a short-term premises designation.

Premises with susceptible animals, but none have 

clinical signs compatible with the FAD. Premises 

objectively demonstrates that it is not an Infected 

Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect Premises. 

At-Risk Premises seek to move susceptible animals 

or products within the Control Area by permit. 

Only At-Risk Premises are eligible to become 

Monitored Premises.

Premises objectively demonstrates that it is not an 

Infected Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect 

Premises. Only At-Risk Premises are eligible to 

become Monitored Premises. Monitored Premises 

meet a set of dened criteria in seeking to move 

susceptible animals or products out of the Control 

Area by permit.

Premises where emergency vaccination

has been performed. This may be a secondary

premises designation. 

Premises outside of a Control Area and not a 

Contact or Suspect Premises.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 28 of 87

Table 8. Summary of Zone and Area Designations

Denition

Infected Zone (IZ) Zone that immediately surrounds an Infected Premises.

Zone

Zone that immediately surrounds an Infected Zone or a 

Contact Premises. Buer Zone (BZ)

Control Area (CA) Consists of an Infected Zone and a Buer Zone.

Emergency Vaccination Zone classied as either a Containment 

Vaccination Zone (typically inside a Control Area) or Protection 

Vaccination Zone (typically outside a Control Area). This may be 

a secondary zone designation.

Vaccination Zone (VZ)

Free Area (FA) Area not included in any Control Area.

Surveillance Zone (SZ) Zone outside and along the border of a Control Area.

Figure 5 illustrates all the zones and premises. Note: Figures are not to scale. The Vaccination Zone can be either a 

Protection Vaccination Zone or Containment Vaccination Zone

Figure 5. Example Zones and Premises

 Zones and Areas Premises

Infected Zone Buffer Zone Vaccination Zone Surveillance Zone

For details on the zones, areas, and premises, please see the APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework: Response 

Strategies. For additional information integrating the zones, areas, and premises designations with specific FAD 

response strategies, please see the disease specific response plans, such as the FMD Response Plan: The Red Book. 

These documents are available on the following sites:

•	 FAD PReP collaboration website at: https://fadprep.lmi.org. 

•	 APHIS FAD PReP website (for APHIS employees) at: http://inside.aphis.usda.gov/vs/em/fadprep.shtml.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 29 of 87

7. DISEASE-SPECIFIC BIOSECURITY MEASURES 

It is important that excellent physical security and biosecurity be maintained on a regular basis to help 

mitigate the risk for accidental or intentional introduction of a highly contagious FAD. Animal biosecurity is 

the product of all actions undertaken by an enterprise to prevent introduction of disease agents on to a premises. Biosecurity on uninfected premises must be enhanced and more strictly enforced to minimize the risk 

of disease introduction. Exposure to disease can occur through five routes of transmission: aerosol, direct 

contact, fomite, oral, and vector-borne. Disease specific biosecurity measures are aimed at preventing exposure 

to highly contagious FADs of cattle. These biosecurity measures can also be applied to other diseases with 

similar exposure routes.

•	 FMD Prevention Practices (spread by aerosol, direct contact, fomite, oral)—Appendix 

•	 Rift Valley Fever Prevention Practices (spread by vector)—Appendix 

•	 Heartwater Prevention Practices (spread by vector)—Appendix 

•	 Bioterrorism and High Consequence Cattle Pathogens—Appendix

Infected Premises will also need biocontainment protocols that focus on preventing spread (release) of the highly 

contagious FAD to other premises. Biocontainment measures will depend on the routes of transmission that apply 

to the particular infectious agent. Biocontainment protocols must be maintained from the initial diagnosis until the 

animal health emergency has been eradicated or controlled with vaccination.

Information on measures for containment of spread of a pathogen from a premises can be found in the FAD PReP/

NAHEMS Guidelines: Biosecurity (2011).

7.1 Zoonotic Diseases of Cattle

Cattle are susceptible to infection with a number of important zoonotic diseases, including anthrax and brucellosis. It is important for people working with cattle to have a basic understanding and awareness of the clinical 

signs, in both their animals and themselves, for each disease and appropriate precautions and actions needed to 

prevent exposure. It is important to recognize that other zoonotic pathogens such as Salmonella spp or Cryptosporidium parvum that infect cattle are not classified as an FAD but can cause serious human illness. Some zoonotic 

pathogens also have the potential to be used in bioterrorist activities. These diseases require that optimal biosecurity 

and personal hygiene be employed to help avoid the risk of contracting these diseases. More information on these 

diseases can be found in the appendix in “Bioterrorism and High Consequence Cattle Pathogens” and also at: 

http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/.

Response to a highly contagious FAD that is zoonotic will require special attention to health and safety of operation 

workers and all responders. Some level of personal protective equipment (PPE) will likely be required, depending on 

the routes of transmission of a particular zoonotic agent. For more information, please see the FAD PReP/NAHEMS 

Guidelines: Health and Safety (2011) and PPE (2011).

8. PROVIDING ANIMAL CARE

During a disease response, producers may experience disruptions in supply deliveries and animal transportation. 

Producers and support industry personnel should develop plans prior to an outbreak to ensure animals continue to 

receive proper care during a highly contagious FAD response.

8.1 Provision of Feed and Water

During a highly contagious FAD response, the on-premises inventory of feed must be promptly ascertained along with 

the rate at which it will be depleted in order to determine when more feed will be needed. Transportation routes may be 

disrupted, so plans for alternate feed sources and delivery routes should be made before the situation arises. Provisions for 

feed delivery and a secure delivery site on the farm should also be identified at this time. Records should be maintained including the origin of the feed delivery, the date, and amount. Ration reformulation may be necessary to conserve stockpiles 

of feed on premises and minimize the need for feed deliveries. All alterations in feeding regimens should occur gradually 

to prevent digestive upsets.

In addition to provision of feed, the availability of water must be determined. All animals must have access to an 

adequate water supply. Animals should not be deprived of water for more than four hours. If adequate water is not 

available on-site, then plans to provide water using alternate water resources should be identified.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 30 of 87

8.2 Vaccinating

8.2.1 Routine

In the cow-calf situation, there is typically a certain amount of routine vaccine product kept on hand for processing 

cattle. In the event routine vaccines are needed during a highly contagious FAD disease response, this stock of vaccines 

would be used first and then the cow-calf producer should contact their normal distributor to ensure the vaccines can 

still be delivered or to make other arrangements. If a disease-specific emergency vaccination is used as part of the 

outbreak response, timing of routine vaccinations may need to be modified to ensure the animals’ immune system is 

not overwhelmed. Consultation with a veterinarian about vaccination schedules and protocols should be done.

Vaccination crews, either operation employees or contract crews, have the potential to introduce or spread disease among 

operations. If this service is used for routine vaccinations during a disease outbreak, biosecurity precautions should be followed and strict records should be kept pertaining to the crew. Recorded information should include, at a minimum, company name (if contract crews), crew member names and contact information, exposure to other livestock in the previous 5 

days, name(s) of products, date(s) administered, and tag numbers of cattle vaccinated. This information may be needed to 

trace where a highly contagious FAD infection came from (trace back) or where it may have been spread to (trace forward).

8.2.2 Specific to Disease Event

Depending on the type of disease outbreak, the response may include vaccinating the animals in an attempt to limit 

disease spread. Optimal vaccination strategies will vary greatly by region of the country and depend on impacts to both 

the domestic economy and foreign trade. Additionally, vaccination protocols and strategies may also be influenced by 

location and extent of outbreak as well as species and population of animals. In the event of a national FAD outbreak, the 

USDA-APHIS Veterinary Services Deputy Administrator (U.S. Chief Veterinary Officer) will make the recommendation 

to vaccinate to the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture, whom then is responsible for authorizing emergency vaccination against 

the FAD in question. Proactive discussions as to the optimal vaccination strategies in a given region based upon livestock 

demographics and foreign trade impacts will better prepare decision makers and industry for real-time decisions of this 

nature. It is prudent to keep in mind that for vaccination-to-live strategies, tracking, and permitting of vaccinated animals 

will likely need to occur and may impact movement of other unvaccinated livestock in that vaccinated region.

If vaccination is implemented, the product will be distributed by regulatory officials. Guidance as to dose, delivery 

method, administration method, animal identification, and record keeping requirements will be provided. In some 

cases, the regulatory officials may require administration by official responders rather than contract or employee 

vaccination crews. Individual situations will be taken into consideration and may vary among operations depending 

on their proximity to the Infected Premises and Control Area.

Whenever vaccines need to be administered, follow the dosage and injection site recommendations provided with 

the vaccine. Ensure the animal is properly restrained and the needle changed as appropriate to maintain cleanliness 

and sharpness. When using needles, ensure they are all accounted for before and after administration. Intramuscular 

(IM) and subcutaneous (SC) injections should be given in the neck region of all ages of cattle. The injection should 

be given as ventrally and caudally as possible while remaining in the muscles of the neck. Injection sites should be 

as clean as possible. Please consult Table 9 for recommended needle lengths and gauges. 

Table 9. Guidelines for Needle Selection for Cattle

<300 300-700 >700 <300 300-700 >700 <300 300-700 >700

18-16 

gauge

16-14 

gauge

18-16 

gauge

18-16 

gauge

16-14 

gauge

20-18 

gauge

18-16 

gauge

18-16 

gauge

Subcutaneous injection

(1/2- to 3/4-inch needle)

(cattle weight, lb)

Injectable 

Viscosity

Thin (e.g., 

virus vaccine)

Thick (e.g., 

oxytetracycline)

Intravenous injection

(1 1/2-inch needle)

(cattle weight, lb)

Intramuscular injection

(1 to 1 1/2-inch needle)

(cattle weight, lb)

18 gauge 18-16 

gauge 16 gauge 16 gauge

16 gauge 16 gauge 16 gauge 18 gauge 16 gauge 16 gauge

Route of Administration
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 31 of 87

Some vaccines are quite viscous; using the recommended larger gauge needle is needed for delivery. Properly dispose 

of all used needles in a puncture-proof container. Additional disposal guidelines may be needed depending on the FAD.

A DIVA (Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals) approach or marker vaccines may be used in the event 

of a highly contagious FAD outbreak. The DIVA approach utilizes a vaccine paired with a diagnostic test that distinguishes vaccinated animals from animals that have been infected by a field strain of the disease. This can be very 

useful in a test and slaughter situation. Foot-and-mouth disease is one of the few highly contagious FADs for which 

a manufactured DIVA vaccine and companion diagnostic test are available for field use.

Animals that receive emergency vaccine will be identified by metal ear clips similar to the ones used with brucellosis 

vaccination. These ear clips will help designate animals that may need to be slaughtered in order to regain OIE diseasefree status from the highly contagious FAD. Ear tattoos or branding may also be used in conjunction with the ear clips.

Great care should be taken in the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak like foot-and-mouth disease to make sure 

that people who vaccinate animals do not mechanically carry the disease from one premises to another. It is recommended

that people in contact with positive animals or suspected positive animals should not have contact with naïve animals for 

at least 48 hours. Good records should be maintained that includes the names of the vaccinating crew, the vaccine name, 

vaccine lot number, dose given to each animal, animals’ numerical identification number, and date administered.

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Vaccination for Contagious Diseases (2011).

9. PRODUCT HANDLING

Cattle are the primary product that is moved into and out of a cow-calf operation. This activity is typically accomplished with pick-up trucks and stock trailers or, in the case of larger herds, semi-trucks and trailers. There are a 

variety of sizes and styles of semi-trailers. Lengths range from 44 to 53 feet. Some are single deck and others are 

pot-bellied, i.e., the bottom of the trailer is lower to the ground than the top of the tires - allowing for a double deck. 

Table 10 lists the types of trailers and number of head based on cattle weight that can be transported. In a highly 

contagious FAD outbreak, movement may be halted. At a minimum, all vehicles entering and exiting an operation 

will need to be externally cleaned and disinfected. It is a good biosecurity practice to internally and externally clean 

and disinfect the livestock trailer between every load of cattle. For information on available truck washes on a stateby-state basis, visit the National Biosecurity Resource Center for Animal Health Emergencies website at: http://

www.biosecuritycenter.org/truckwash.php. Other cattle transporting resources are listed below.

Table 10. Size and Capacity of Livestock Trailers Based on Cattle Weight

Cattle Weight Trailer Length Decks

675 lbs.

1100 lbs.

500 lbs.

1100 lbs.

675 lbs.

Number of Head/Trailer

25 without horns

500 lbs.

1100 lbs.

675 lbs.

500 lbs.

1400 lbs.

675 lbs.

500 lbs.

1400 lbs.

44 feet

44 feet

44 feet

44 feet

44 feet

44 feet

53 feet

53 feet

53 feet

44 feet

44 feet

44 feet

44 feet

Single

Single

Single

Double

Double

Double

Single

Single

Single

Single

Single

Single

Double

40 without horns

25 without horns

55 without horns

40 without horns

65 without horns

88 without horns

30 without horns

48 without horns

66 without horns

18 without horns

37 without horns

50 without horns

28 without horns
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 32 of 87

Cattle Weight Trailer Length Decks

675 lbs.

1100 lbs.

500 lbs.

1100 lbs.

675 lbs.

Number of Head/Trailer

44 feet

44 feet

44 feet

44 feet

44 feet

Single

Single

Single

Double

Double

78 without horns

58 without horns

22 without horns

45 without horns

61 without horns

Source: 

•	 Grandin T. Livestock Management Practices that Reduce Injuries to Livestock During Transport, in Livestock Trucking Guide, 

Revised September 2001. Accessed July 8, 2010 at http://www.njintouch.state.nj.us/agriculture/humanetruckingguide.pdf

•	 Beef Quality Assurance. Stock Trailer Transportation. http://www.bqa.org/bqastocktrailertransportation.aspx

•	 Master Cattle Transporter Guide. http://animalscience.tamu.edu/ansc/mastercattletransporter/index.html

9.1 Animals in Transit

Live animals are often the greatest risk for introducing or spreading disease during an outbreak. Animals 

in transit are problematic whenever a highly contagious FAD outbreak occurs on a premises and movement 

restrictions are enacted. These in-transit animals, whether destined for other cow-calf operations, stocker/

backgrounder operations, auction markets, feedlots or a harvest facility, are a potential source of disease for 

other non-infected, but susceptible species. Consequently, procedures must be in place that will expedite 

removing these animals from transportation routes while accounting for the welfare of the animals and 

minimizing exposure of susceptible species. Records pertaining to animal movement should include date, 

animal identification, and destination.

9.1.1 Calves

Movement of young stock off an uninfected premises may be halted during a highly contagious FAD outbreak 

depending on the proximity to the destination and whether travel through or within a Control Area is required. 

Provisions for their feeding and care on the home operation need to be planned in order to ensure adequate housing, 

protection from the elements, and appropriate feedstuffs are available.

9.1.2 Cull Cows

Cow-calf operations may sell cull cattle through an auction market/sale barn, which will then commingle them with 

animals from multiple operations prior to their transportation to slaughter. Cull cattle can also be purchased on-farm 

by a consolidator who travels a geographic area to acquire a semi-load of cattle for a slaughter facility. Larger producers may also market cull cattle directly to a packer.

Cull cattle movement off uninfected premises may be halted temporarily during a highly contagious FAD event 

depending on the proximity to an auction market or slaughter facility. If there is adequate housing, ambulatory 

animals should remain on-farm until movement controls permit transportation. Non-ambulatory animals should 

be humanely euthanized on the farm and disposed of properly.

9.1.3 Market Animals

Transportation of steers and heifers fed on uninfected premises destined for slaughter may also be halted for similar 

reasons. Contracts with order buyers need to be discussed in the event that cattle cannot be delivered on a specified 

date. Feedstuffs need to be acquired in a timely manner to ensure the cattle’s nutritional needs are met until movement controls permit transportation.

9.2 Mortalities

Most cow-calf operations have determined their method of carcass disposal based on “usual” mortality rates. If a 

highly contagious FAD causes higher than average mortality rates, animals must be disposed of in the manner mandated by the Federal and State (and when applicable, local) governments and in a method that will mitigate the risk 

for disease spread. The method of disposal chosen will depend on the disease, the local conditions and regulations, 

and the number of animals.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 33 of 87

Depending on the type of disease response, operations may be able to compost mortalities. Facilities utilizing on-premises 

compost piles may be able to adjust to accommodate the larger number of cattle. Additional space and compost materials 

will be necessary and the pile needs to be monitored to ensure carcasses are decomposing properly. Burying large 

numbers of animals on a particular site requires special permission and is usually under the jurisdiction of the state’s 

environmental regulatory agency. Incineration may be an option in a disease outbreak if local jurisdictions approve. 

Rendering companies may be quickly overwhelmed by large numbers of cattle and if the disease is contagious, this 

option will not be used because motorized vehicles containing these dead animals will be traversing public highways. 

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012).

9.3 Manure

Waste management is vitally important in controlling pathogens because of the large number of diseases that are 

spread in feces. Most pathogens in fecal matter are destroyed if exposed to heat, desiccation and/or sunlight, but in 

cooler weather they may live in fecal matter for an extended period of time. Mechanical break up of manure patties 

on pastures using a harrow is an effective method of exposing these pathogens to sunlight and the heat and desiccation 

that it prompts. Composting of manure that is routinely removed from dry lots and barns is another management 

procedure that can help curb spread of pathogens.

During and after a disease outbreak, decisions will have to be made on how to decontaminate and dispose of 

manure. If chemicals are used to kill these pathogens, a concern is that subsequent plant growth may be adversely 

affected on crop ground where this treated manure is applied. Manure handling equipment must be considered a 

biosecurity risk and should be properly cleaned and disinfected between operations.

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012), Cleaning and Disinfection (2011).

10. SURVEILLANCE

Within 48 hours of the identification of the index case, a surveillance plan will be implemented to define the extent of 

the highly contagious FAD outbreak. Surveillance is also used to detect unknown but Infected Premises and new cases 

quickly through a combination of observation and laboratory testing. This surveillance plan may include the susceptible 

wildlife population in the area. Information will also be gathered for a surveillance plan to identify disease-free zones 

so that this portion of the plan can be implemented within seven days of the identification of the index case.

Infected, Contact, Suspect and At-Risk Premises will all be involved in some level of surveillance in an effort to control 

and contain disease spread or determine freedom from disease. Initial surveillance of susceptible animals consists of visual 

inspection. As soon as practical, surveillance will include laboratory testing of susceptible animals. During the highly 

contagious FAD event, surveillance could include on-farm observation, and/or testing market animals, and at harvest.

10.1 People

Visitors, veterinarians, response personnel, and employees can introduce or spread disease to susceptible animals if 

steps are not taken to mitigate these risks prior to entry. Sanitation and hygiene practices are important to prevent 

disease agent spread and includes wearing clean clothing, coveralls, footwear, and washing hands before and after 

animal contact or glove removal. If the highly contagious FAD is zoonotic, or there is risk for other zoonotic pathogens 

to be present, additional personal protective equipment should be worn by all those handling animals.

Document the movement of people on and off the premises. It is critical to use a written log to record name, contact 

information, last contact with a susceptible animal species, and reason for being on premises including facilities/pens 

entered and animals contacted. Plans for employees should be clearly outlined and personnel on premises should be 

limited to those essential for day-to-day operation, making it easier to trace and minimize the risk of disease introduction 

and spread. For all employees, records should be kept that includes their name, address, phone numbers, emergency 

contact, and information pertaining to off-site animal contact. In the event of a zoonotic highly contagious FAD, public 

health officials may recommend human surveillance via diagnostic testing. Contacting employees will be critical.

10.2 Vehicle Traffic

Vehicles and equipment can indirectly expose susceptible animals through mechanical disease transmission. Installing

a barrier that requires vehicles to stop before entering the premises provides an additional control point and can facilitate 

monitoring and recording vehicle details. Cleaning and disinfecting tires, wheel wells, and the undercarriage of all 
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 34 of 87

vehicles which enter or leave a premises will likely be required on all Infected or Monitored Premises. It may be prudent 

to establish off-site parking for vehicles that are not required on the farm grounds. Movement of people and vehicles on 

and off an operation during a disease outbreak should be documented. A written or electronic record describing the vehicle, 

driver name and contact information, last farm(s) visited, and reason for visit should be maintained for tracking purposes.

10.3 Disease Monitoring

During an outbreak situation, susceptible animals on all operations must be closely monitored for clinical signs that 

meet the case definition of the highly contagious FAD. Animal caretakers on Contact, Suspect, Monitored, At-Risk, 

and Free Premises should be aware of these clinical signs and know whom to contact [i.e., Area Veterinarian-inCharge (AVIC), State Animal Health Official (SAHO)], or the attending veterinarian that can, in turn, contact the 

AVIC or SAHO if disease is suspected. Routine animal care and monitoring for clinical signs of the FAD should 

continue during and after a disease outbreak. Expect public awareness campaigns, through public service announcements (PSA), to be used to address issues or concerns relating to food safety, public health, and animal welfare to 

animal producers and caretakers and the general public within the Control Area, Surveillance Zone, and Free Area. 

Livestock operations within the Buffer Zone will be routinely monitored utilizing slaughter surveillance, serological 

surveys, and investigation of reports of suspect disease. Slaughter surveillance will also occur in the Surveillance 

Zone. Free Area surveillance will occur through normal surveillance channels. Surveillance results and approved 

biosecurity protocols as a “proof of negative” status may be required for permitted movements of susceptible animals 

within the Control Area.

10.4 Diagnostic Sample Collection

Diagnostic sample collection and testing should be performed within the context and parameters of the written 

surveillance plan (discussed in Surveillance section above). Veterinarians, animal health technicians, and stakeholders

will collect samples to submit to the National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL) or a National Animal Health 

Laboratory Network (NAHLN) facility for testing. It is crucial that correct diagnostic specimen collection and 

handling practices are employed to ensure valid results. In any FAD outbreak, strict adherence to biosecurity and 

infection control procedures is required. Depending on the disease, specific tissues and/or fluids will be obtained 

from animals on-farm and/or those in market channels and harvest facilities after performing a complete antemortem 

or postmortem exam (whenever possible). Guidelines will be provided to veterinary responders and animal health 

technicians regarding the specific type of tissues needed.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) such as coveralls and gloves must be worn by personnel handling the animals, 

tissues, and fluids. If the highly contagious FAD is zoonotic, enhanced PPE may include goggles and an appropriate 

respirator (N-95 or N-99) or a full face shield if aerosolization is not a route of human exposure. All equipment used 

on farm to collect and transport samples and protect the personnel should be properly cleaned and disinfected in the 

designated area prior to leaving the farm. Care should be taken not to contaminate diagnostic samples with disinfectant 

as the highly contagious FAD will be inactivated providing false negative results. See the FAD PReP/NAHEMS 

Guidelines: Personal Protective Equipment (2011), Biosecurity (2011), and Cleaning and Disinfection (2011) as well 

as the associated SOP for more information.

Source:

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework documents, USDA-APHIS-VS National Center for Animal Health Emergency 

Management, 2011

10.5 Diagnostic Sample Submission

Personnel collecting diagnostic samples are required to package and label them in accordance with Federal regulatory 

requirements. The packaging and labeling of biological substances for shipment requires familiarity and training 

with current rules and regulations, which frequently change. Shippers are responsible for proper packaging, marking, 

labeling, documentation, classification, and identification of each shipment. Failure to follow regulations can result 

in substantial financial penalties. 

•	 Title 9 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Parts 121 and 122: These USDA regulations cover the transfer of 

select agents/toxins and the permits needed to ship organisms and vectors.

•	 Title 42 CFR Part 72: These U.S. Department of Health and Human Services regulations define terms such as 

biological products, diagnostic specimens, and etiologic agents, and provide requirements for packaging and 

labeling these materials for transportation in interstate commerce.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 35 of 87

•	 Title 49 CFR Part 173: These U.S. Department of Transportation regulations contain general requirements for 

shipments and packaging. 49 CFR 173.134 defines infectious substances and related terms. 49 CFR 173.217 

has additional requirements for shipments containing solid carbon dioxide (dry ice).

Additional information can be found at the following website: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/lab_info_

services/packaging_labeling.shtml.

Airline shipments also must comply with current International Air Transport Association regulations (www.iata.org) 

for dangerous goods.

More information can be found in the FAD PReP Diagnostics SOP (Sample Collection, Surge Capacity, and Reporting).

Source:

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework documents, USDA-APHIS-VS National Center for Animal Health Emergency 

Management, 2011

For more information on packaging and shipping samples, please see the Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic 

Samples document in the appendix.

11. MASS DEPOPULATION AND EUTHANASIA (FAD PREP/NAHEMS GUIDELINES 

AND SOP)

In the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak such as foot-and-mouth disease, mass depopulation of infected 

animals may be required. This will be performed by qualified personnel according to USDA-APHIS and with input 

from peer-reviewed documents, the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) and the American Association 

of Bovine Practitioners (AABP). If handling animals individually, proper animal handling equipment, including 

alleyways, chutes, and head gates should be used in this process to help prevent injury to the cattle and workers. The 

method and procedures used for depopulation will depend on available resources and the population dynamics of 

susceptible animals on the premises. This requires location-specific planning and preparation.

Euthanasia of cattle will take longer than normal processing of cattle. Texas conducted a table top exercise in 2007 

that explored the different possibilities and resources that would be needed in the event of a FMD outbreak. During 

this exercise, they calculated how many people and what equipment would be needed to euthanize a large number 

of cattle. The Operation Palo Duro Executive Summary document can be found at: http://www.tahc.state.tx.us/

emergency/May2007_OperationPaloDuro.pdf. It is estimated that a crew of 5 people would be able to euthanize 

an animal every 4 minutes or 15 animals per hour. Using these numbers, thousands of people would be needed to 

depopulate some of the largest feedlots.

Larger feedlots typically have species specific animal handling facilities designed to efficiently and humanely handle 

cattle. In addition, a trained crew is on-site that manages cattle on a daily basis. In contrast to feedlots, many cowcalf operations have less than 50 cattle. In addition, the cow herd may not be confined to a smaller space as is typical 

with feedlots. They do not typically have working facilities comparable to a large, modern feedlot or workforce 

personnel devoted solely to cattle care and management. Although the National Veterinary Stockpile (NVS) has 

planned to make some mobile pens/chutes available, it will take increased time to transport, set-up, disinfect and 

breakdown this equipment. Thus, it is likely that depopulation times would be considerably longer for cow-calf 

operations when compared to feedlots.

Strategies to control the spread of a highly contagious FAD might include mass depopulation of infected animals and 

their disposal on farm or in the community. This action could be psychologically stressful to workers and owners that 

have cared for these animals as a part of their daily routine and source of livelihood. Individuals whom must deal 

with severe or prolonged stressful situations may require professional assistance. Thus, community mental health 

facilities and religious institutions may be helpful in providing educational, counseling, and referral services for such 

individuals. Their involvement, at the local level, should be part of preparedness plans.

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia (2011) as well as 

the associated SOP. 
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 36 of 87

12. DISPOSAL (FAD PREP/NAHEMS GUIDELINES AND SOP)

Animal carcasses and associated contaminated materials (feed, bedding) must be disposed of in a way to limit 

disease spread, using State or locally approved methods. Specific personnel will be assigned to an operation to carry 

out these activities once euthanasia is complete. The overall goal of disposal operations is to eliminate in a timely, 

safe, biosecure, aesthetically acceptable, and environmentally responsible manner, all animal carcasses and related 

animal materials that result from an animal health incident. 

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2012).

13. CLEANING AND DISINFECTION (FAD PREP/NAHEMS GUIDELINES AND SOP)

Facilities that housed infected animals and equipment used in their daily care must be cleaned and disinfected 

to prevent the spread of disease to live animals returned to the operation. USDA-APHIS-VS will coordinate 

equipment, supplies, and scheduling, and certify work completed by the producer, contractors, or animal health 

response teams. Items that cannot be adequately cleaned and disinfected should be properly disposed of once their 

value is determined.

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Cleaning and Disinfection (2011).

14. APPRAISAL AND COMPENSATION

If the animal is part of an infected herd then they will likely be depopulated in accordance with government mandates that will be released in the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak. Animals that must be euthanized 

for disease control will be compensated by the U.S. Government under 9 CFR Part 53. The 9 CFR Part 53 can be 

accessed at: http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?sid=acfd62a8f38c5d11f451b33727e616a9&c=ecfr&tpl=/

ecfrbrowse/Title09/9cfrv1_02.tpl. 

Animal health regulatory officials will create an inventory of animals designated for depopulation and appraise their 

fair-market value in order for compensation to be paid. Contaminated materials on farm (feed, bedding) will also be 

appraised as they may need to be disposed of in an effort to control disease spread. Compensation will only be paid 

if the producer follows all Government issued mandates for the disease outbreak.

15. INTERNATIONAL TRADE

In 2010, international exports of beef totaled nearly 2.3 billion pounds valued at over $3.89 billion USD. The top four 

countries receiving U.S. beef exports included Mexico, Canada, Japan, and South Korea. These markets are vital to the 

beef industry. In the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak affecting cattle, international trade of cattle and cattle 

products will be halted. Compartmentalization may potentially play a role in an effort to retain markets during recovery 

from a highly contagious FAD, once zoning efforts have been exhausted or proven inadequate. 

Source: 

•	 USDA Economic Research Service. U.S. Beef and Cattle Industry: Background Statistics and Information. Accessed July 

2011 at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/news/bsecoverage.htm

Regionalization, also known as zoning, separates animal subpopulations to maintain disease-free status in one or 

more zones. Regionalization defines animal subpopulations primarily on a geographical basis. As an FAD response 

tool, regionalization can facilitate international trade, as well as FAD eradication.

For more information on regionalization, please see the FAD PReP SOP: Overview of Regionalization for International 

Trade, as well as 9 CFR 92.2, which lists 11 factors that should be evaluated in establishing a region.

Compartmentalization, which distinguishes between animal subpopulations by “management and husbandry practices related to biosecurity,” has not yet been implemented within the United States with any trading partners (OIE, 

Chapter 4.4). Disease-free compartments must be recognized by trading partners prior to an outbreak for product 

movement. For further information on compartmentalization, please see the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 

(2011), Chapter 4.4, as well as sections on compartmentalization in disease-specific chapters (for example, see 

Chapter 8.5, Article 8.5.6 on foot-and-mouth disease).
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 37 of 87

In addition to the sources listed throughout the manual, portions of this document were obtained from:

•	 Beef Biological Risk Management, March 2005, Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University

•	 FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual, July 2011, Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa 

State University

•	 Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) Response Plan: The Red Book, USDA-APHIS

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework documents

This industry manual for USDA Emergency Management and Diagnostics was prepared by the Center for Food 

Security and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine at Iowa State University. Authors and contributors include:

•	 Megan Smith, DVM

Post-Doctoral Student, Center for Food Security and Public Health

•	 Renée Dewell, DVM, MS

Clinician/Veterinary Specialist, Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine/Center for Food 

Security and Public Health, Iowa State University

•	 Shaine DeVoe, BS

Educational Material Development Intern, Center for Food Security and Public Health

•	 Mike Rahe, BS

Educational Material Development Intern, Center for Food Security and Public Health

•	 Terry J. Engelken, DVM, MS

Associate Professor, Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University

This manual was reviewed by:

•	 Tammy Beckham, DVM, Ph.D.

Director, Foreign Animal and Zoonotic Disease Center

Director, Texas Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory

•	 Danelle Bickett-Weddle, DVM, MPH, PhD, DACVPM

Associate Director, Center for Food Security and Public Health 

Iowa State University

•	 Douglas T. Ensley, DVM MS

Professional Services Veterinarian-Cattle, Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica, Inc.

Member, AABP Biological Risk Management and Preparedness Committee

•	 Tom Field, PhD, PAS

Executive Director Producer Education, National Cattlemen’s Beef Association

•	 Timothy J. Goldsmith, DVM, MPH, DACVPM

Assistant Clinical Professor, University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine

Member, AABP Biological Risk Management and Preparedness Committee

•	 Thomas B Hairgrove, DVM, DABVP

Livestock and Food Animal Systems Coordinator, Texas AgriLife Extension Service

Member, AABP Biological Risk Management and Preparedness Committee

•	 Carla L. Huston, DVM, PhD, ACVPM

Associate Professor, Dept. of Pathobiology and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine,

Mississippi State University

Member, AABP Biological Risk Management and Preparedness Committee

•	 Thomas Kasari, DVM, MVSc, Diplomate ACVIM, Diplomate ACVPM (epidemiology)

Analytical Epidemiologist, National Surveillance Unit

USDA-APHIS-VS Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health

•	 Jason Lombard, DVM, MS 

Dairy Specialist/Veterinary Epidemiologist, National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS), USDAAPHIS-VS Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health 

Member, AABP Biological Risk Management and Preparedness Committee

•	 William W. McBeth, DVM, MS

Member, Academy of Veterinary Consultants

Acknowledgements
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 38 of 87

•	 Christine B. Navarre, DVM, MS, DACVIM

President, American Association of Bovine Practitioners

Extension Veterinarian, Louisiana State University AgCenter

•	 Elizabeth Parker, DVM

Chief Veterinarian, National Cattlemen’s Beef Association

•	 Herbert M. “Tim” Richards III, DVM

AVCs Veterinary Practice Issues and Standards Committee

•	 David R. Smith, DVM, PhD, Diplomate ACVPM

Epidemiology Specialty Professor and Extension Dairy/Beef Veterinarian

University of Nebraska-Lincoln

•	 Kelly Still Brooks, DVM MPH DACVPM 

Member, AABP Biological Risk Management and Preparedness Committee

•	 Brian VanderLey, DVM

Intern, Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa 

State University

•	 Kurt Walters DVM 

Academy of Veterinary Consultants -Veterinary Practice Issues and Standards Committee

•	 Jonathan C. Wooster, BS, 

President, United States Cattlemen’s Association

The content of this manual has been reviewed and approved by USDA-APHIS Legislative and Public Affairs.

Acknowledgements
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 39 of 87

Page ii Photo strip: Left to right: Feedlot cattle; chicks; Red Angus/Simmental cross beef cow with calf; 

Landrace pigs; and Holstein heifers. Photo sources: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University;

 USDA; Beth Carlson, North Dakota; Iowa State University; and Mark Kirkpatrick, Idaho 

Page iii FAD PReP Suite of Documents and Materials Graphic illustration by: USDA

Page 1 The official logos of USDA, APHIS and OIE. Graphic illustration of the USDA, APHIS, and OIE 

 logos by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 2 Table 1. Number of Cow-Calf Operations and Percentage of Total U.S. Beef Cow Inventory by 

Cow-Calf Operation Size, 2010. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 3 (Top) Table 2. Beef Cow Distribution Throughout the Contiguous United States. Graphic 

 illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Figure 1. Beef Cow Distribution Throughout the Contiguous United States (Thousand 

 Head), 2007. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 4 Cow-calf pairs on a pasture. Photo Source: Megan Smith, Iowa State University

Page 5 (Top) Riders moving cattle. Photo source: Alan Bishop, Hermosa, South Dakota

 (Bottom) A crossbred cow (top), and a purebred Black Angus cow (bottom). Photo sources: Beth 

 Carlson (top), and Megan Smith, Iowa State University (bottom)

Page 6 A biosecurity sign on farm premises. Photo source: Megan Smith, Iowa State University

Page 7 Methods of cattle identification. A freeze brand on the hip of a cow (top), and a plastic dangle tag 

 in a cow’s ear (center). The orange brucellosis ear tags, also referred to as calf-hood vaccination

tags, are an official form of identification (bottom left). The metal Bright tags can be used as 

an official identification in cattle of any age. The first two numbers indicate the state where the 

 animals resided when the tags were placed in their ear. Iowa is 42 as pictured (bottom right). 

 Photo sources: Megan Smith, Iowa State University (top and center); Iowa Department of 

 Agriculture and Land Stewardship (bottom left) and Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State University 

 (bottom right)

Page 8 Different forms of record keeping. The NCBA red book (left), and white board record keeping 

 (right). Photo sources: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University (left); and Megan Smith, Iowa State 

 University (right)

Page 9 Weaned calves ready for backgrounding. Photo source: Megan Smith, Iowa State University

Page 10 (Top) Feedlot cattle eating from a feedbunk. Photo source: Renee Dewell, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Table 3. Breed Comparisons: Heifer Age at Puberty. Graphic illustration by: Dani 

 Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 11 (Top) A yearling heifer (left), and a mature cow (right). Photo sources: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, 

 Iowa State University (left); and Megan Smith, Iowa State University (right)

 (Bottom) Table 4. Breed Comparisons: Bull Age at Puberty. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, 

 Iowa State University

Page 12 (Top) A yearling bull (left), and a mature bull (right). Photo source: Megan Smith, Iowa State 

 University (both)

 (Center) Table 5. Average Duration of Bovine Reproductive Cycle Periods. Graphic illustration 

 by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) A cow and calf. Photo source: Megan Smith, Iowa State University

Page 13 Table 6. Maximum Number of Cows Per Bull Under Ideal Conditions. Graphic illustration by: 

 Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 14 A very young calf. Photo source: Renee Dewell, Iowa State University

Page 15 Figure 2. Percentage of Operations by Number of Months in Which One or More Calves were Born 

 Alive in 2007. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 16 A suckling calf. Photo source: Megan Smith, Iowa State University

Page 18 A Bos indicus (left) and a Bos taurus (right). Photo sources: USDA (left), and Renee Dewell, Iowa 

 State University (right)

Page 19 Figure 3. A Cow’s Flight Zone, Point of Balance, and Blind Spot. Content provided by: American

 Veterinary Medical Association, Emergency Response and Preparedness, April 2009; Graphic

 illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 40 of 87

Page 20 A bovine in a headgate. Photo source: Renee Dewell, Iowa State University

Page 21 A prepared working horse (top); and an all-terrain vehicle (bottom). Photo source: Megan Smith, 

 Iowa State University (both)

Page 22 (Top) Three types of cow-calf feeding facilities: a lot (left) a pasture (center), and crop residue 

 (corn stalks) (right). Photo sources: Megan Smith, Iowa State University (left and right); Danelle 

 Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University (center)

 (Bottom) A salt and mineral tub. Photo source: Megan Smith, Iowa State University

Page 23 (Top) Types of water access: a pasture dam (left) and a windmill and water tank (right). Photo 

 source: Megan Smith, Iowa State University (both)

 (Bottom) A bovine in a head catch receiving a vaccination (left), and cattle vaccine syringes in a 

 cooler along with a pen and paper method of record keeping (right). Photo sources: Agricultural 

 Research Services, USDA (left); and Beth Carlson, North Dakota (right)

Page 24 (Top) Figure 4. Cattle Injection Sites. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Center) A pour-on parasite control system for cattle. Photo source: Megan Smith, Iowa 

 State University

 (Bottom) A sick calf. Photo source: Geni Wren, Bovine Veterinarian, Vance Publishing Corporation

Page 25 This is a graphic illustration of directions on a vaccine bottle. It is important to read 

 the drug’s label before administering its contents. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa 

 State University

Page 27 Table 7. Summary of Premises Designations. Content provided by: USDA-APHIS Graphic

 illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 29 (Top) Table 8. Summary of Zone and Area Designations. Content provided by: USDA-APHIS

 Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Figure 5. Control Zones. Graphic illustration by: USDA-APHIS

Page 30 Table 9. Guidelines for Needle Selection for Cattle. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa 

 State University

Page 31 Table 10. Size and Capacity of Livestock Trailers Based on Cattle Weight. Graphic illustration by: 

 Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 32 Table 10. Size and Capacity of Livestock Trailers Based on Cattle Weight (continued). Graphic 

 illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 41 of 87

Acronyms

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, a division of USDA

ARP At-Risk Premises

AVIC Area Veterinarian in Charge

BSE Breeding Soundness Examination

BZ Buffer Zone 

CA Control Area

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CP Contact Premises

CVO Chief Veterinary Officer

CVZ Containment Vaccination Zone 

DIVA Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals

EDI Emerging Disease Incident

FA Free Area 

FAD Foreign Animal Disease

FAD PReP Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan

FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration

FMD Foot-and-mouth disease

FP Free Premises

IM Intramuscular

IP Infected Premises

IZ Infected Zone 

MP Monitored premises

NAHEMS National Animal Health Emergency Management System

NAHERC National Animal Health Emergency Response Corp

NAHMS National Animal Health Monitoring System

OIE Office International des Epizooties’ currently referred to as the World Organization for Animal Health
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 42 of 87

PVZ Protection Vaccination Zone

RFID Radio Frequency Identification

RVF Rift Valley Fever

SAHO State Animal Health Official

SC Subcutaneous

SOP Standard Operating Procedures

SP Suspect Premises

SZ Surveillance Zone

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

VP Vaccinated Premises

VS Veterinary Services, a division of APHIS 

Acronyms
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 43 of 87

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)

Agency within USDA responsible for protecting livestock and plant health.

Animal Husbandry

Basic animal care that is needed to produce a healthy animal.

At-Risk Premises (ARP)

Premises with susceptible animals, but none have clinical signs compatible with the FAD. Premises objectively 

demonstrates that it is not an Infected Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect Premises. At-Risk Premises seek 

to move susceptible animals or products within the Control Area by permit. Only At-Risk Premises are eligible to 

become Monitored Premises.

Auction Market

A facility located near livestock concentrated areas that serves as a point to buy and sell livestock. Also referred to a 

sale barns and livestock markets.

Backgrounder 

A producer that buys weaned calves from cow-calf operations and prepares them to eat, drink, and interact with 

other cattle in a feedlot situation. These cattle are raised to feeder size, approximately 600-900 pounds.

Banding

The application of a specific type of rubber band above the testicles of cattle for castration purposes. This should be 

used in conjunction with a tetanus shot. Banding results in necrosis of the sheath and sloughing of the testicles in 

about two weeks.

Biologicals

Any substance that is used as a vaccine or serum that is derived from animal products or biological sources and 

is used in the treatment or prevention of disease. These are typically regulated by the USDA-APHIS Center for 

Veterinary Biologics.

Biosecurity

A series of management practices designed to prevent the introduction of disease agents onto or prevents the spread 

from an animal production facility to other animals.

Brand

A permanent form of identification for livestock and horses used in most states west of the Mississippi River. Brands 

must be registered with the state where the animals reside. Brands may be applied with extreme heat or cold (freeze 

branding) to the hip, ribs, or shoulder.

Bud Box

A flow-through part of a cattle handling facility that allows the handler to position themselves correctly to facilitate 

cattle flow out of the box into either a crowd alley leading to a chute or to a trailer load out.

Buffer Zone (BZ)

Zone that immediately surrounds an Infected Zone or a Contact Premises.

Bull

Adult male bovine that has not been castrated. 

Bunks/Feed Bunks

A long trough for feeding cattle. Can be made out of cement, steel, wood, or plastic.

Glossary
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 44 of 87

Calf

General term for cattle under 18 months of age. They may be weaned or unweaned from their mothers.

Castration

Complete removal of the testicles.

Cattle

General term for bovids raised for meat or milk. This term encompasses all ages and sexes of animals.

Cattle Buyer/Broker

Professional livestock buyer that purchases and sells large quantities of livestock for different producers, usually 

feedlots and backgrounders.

Chutes 

Large metal apparatuses that are used to safely restrain cattle to administer vaccines and medication. Chutes can 

either be operated manually or by hydraulic power.

Composting

Method of using microbes to breakdown organic material such as manure and carcasses. The end product can be 

used for fertilizer or bedding.

Confirmed Positive Case

An animal from which a highly contagious FAD agent has been isolated and identified in a USDA laboratory or 

other designated laboratory.

Confirmed Positive Premises 

A premises with at least one confirmed positive case (animal); an Infected Premises.

Contact Premises (CP) 

Premises with susceptible animals that may have been exposed to the FAD agent, either directly or indirectly, including 

but not limited to exposure to animals, animal products, fomites, or people from Infected Premises.

Containment Vaccination Zone (CVZ)

Emergency Vaccination Zone within the Control Area. This may be a secondary zone designation.

Control Area (CA) 

Consists of an Infected Zone and a Buffer Zone. 

Cow

A female bovine that has given birth.

Crowding Pen/Crowd Gate

An area that can hold 10-15 cattle in a group with the purpose of getting them lined up to move single file 

through an alley leading to the chute for restraint. The gate is hinged so that it can be wide open to let cattle 

enter and then closed behind them in a manner that funnels them towards the single file alley. The term “tub” 

may be used synonymously.

Cull

To voluntarily remove from the herd and sell to a private individual, harvest facility, or another management facility.

Days on Feed (DOF)

The number of days cattle are fed in a feedlot prior to going to another facility or harvest.

Glossary
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 45 of 87

Ear Tags 

Tags, usually plastic, put in cattle’s ears to identify them. Every producer uses their own numbering system. They 

can easily be removed.

Feeder Cattle

Cattle of either sex that are ready to go to a feedlot (600-900 pounds) or are in a feedlot but have not reached full 

market weight (1,100-1,400 pounds). These cattle have been backgrounded, managed as stockers, or sent directly 

from a cow-calf operation. These may also be referred to as yearlings.

Feedlot 

An area of land where cattle are fattened for harvest. Cattle are kept in groups/pens and fed custom diets that are 

designed to increase their rate of gain.

Finished or Live Cattle

Cattle that have grown to full market weight and are ready for harvest (somewhere between 1,100 pounds and 

1,400 pounds). 

Flight Zone

A variable area that surrounds an animal that, when entered by a person, will cause that animal to move away.

Fomite

An inanimate object or material on which disease-producing agents may be conveyed (e.g., feces, bedding, 

harness, clothes).

Free Area (FA)

Area not included in any Control Area.

Free Premises (FP)

Premises outside of a Control Area and not a Contact or Suspect Premises.

Graft

A method to encourage a cow/heifer to accept an unrelated calf (many times a twin or the calf of a cow with a bad 

udder or poor milk production) as her own calf, especially when her calf died at birth. 

Hay

A high fiber crop (grass or legumes) that is mowed, allowed to dry in the field and made into bales (square or round) 

and moved to the operation to be fed to the cows as a roughage.

Haylage

Green forage such as alfalfa or other grasses that is chopped in the field with a tractor and transported in wagons to 

the operation where it is stored in a pile on the ground, blown into a silo, or blown into long plastic bags and packed 

to remove air so that it undergoes fermentation to prevent spoilage.

Heifer 

A female bovine that has not given birth.

Highly Contagious Foreign Animal Disease (FAD)

A disease that spreads rapidly from animal-to-animal as well as herd-to-herd through direct contact, aerosol, oral, 

fomite or vector-borne transmission. Highly contagious FADs may be recognized by above normal morbidity or 

mortality per unit time, where morbidity could be characterized solely by a decrease in production.

Glossary
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 46 of 87

Horn Buttons

Small horn growths on immature animals.

Incineration 

A process of completely burning carcasses so that all pathogens are destroyed and the animal turned to ashes.

Infected Premises (IP)

Premises where a presumptive or confirmed positive case exists based on laboratory results, compatible clinical 

signs, case definition, and international standards. 

Infected Zone (IZ) 

Zone that immediately surrounds an Infected Premises.

Monitored premises (MP) 

Premises that objectively demonstrates that it is not an Infected Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect Premises. 

Only At-Risk Premises are eligible to become Monitored Premises. Monitored Premises meet a set of defined criteria in seeking to move susceptible animals or products out of the Control Area by permit.

Nose Tongs 

Large metal pincher tool that is placed into each nostril of a bovine and has a rope to grasp and tie to provide head restraint. 

On Feed 

Cattle on a managed feed program designed to increase their rate of gain to the proper finished weight.

Operation

Any place having one or more head of beef cows, excluding cows used to nurse calves, on hand at any time during the year.

Parturition

The action of giving birth to young.

Pharmaceuticals 

Typically man-made preparations or products that are used for the treatment or prevention of disease. These are 

regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Polled 

Animals without horns.

Preconditioning

The practice of weaning calves a few weeks before shipment, vaccinating them for common diseases, as well as introducing them to high concentrate feed. This process conditions the animal for an easier transition to a feedlot setting.

Presumptive Positive Case 

An animal that has compatible clinical signs, fits a case definition or international standards consistent with a highly 

contagious FAD in addition to a positive laboratory result indicative of that disease.

Protection Vaccination Zone (PVZ)

Emergency Vaccination Zone outside the Control Area. This may be a secondary zone designation.

Radio Frequency Identification Device (RFID)

Ear tags in animals that have radio transmitters that can be read with special equipment to indicate the animal’s 

individual number. Usually used in large-scale operations. Tags may include a 15 digit number starting with 840 

which designates the animal as being from the U.S.

Glossary
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 47 of 87

Rate of Gain 

The number of pounds (weight) an animal gains in a day, often averaged over the entire feeding period.

Rendering 

A process of converting animal carcasses into a stable product that can be used for other purposes. By-products of 

cattle rendering include tallow and meat and bone meal.

Serving Capacity

The ability of the bull to complete the act of mating. Serving capacity is affected by age (i.e., younger bulls have a 

lower serving capacity than other bulls) and determines the bull-to-cow ratio that should be utilized. 

Silage 

Green forage such as field corn, alfalfa (referred to as haylage), grasses, oats, wheat, that is chopped in the field with 

a tractor and transported in wagons to the operation where it is stored in a pile on the ground, blown into a silo, or 

blown into long plastic bags and packed to remove air so that it undergoes fermentation to prevent spoilage.

Steer 

A male bovine that has been castrated.

Stockers

Cattle of either sex that have been weaned and are put on pasture until they reach feeder size (about 600-800 

pounds). Very similar, if not synonymous, with backgrounder cattle.

Surveillance Zone (SZ) 

Zone outside and along the border of a Control Area.

Suspect Premises (SP) 

Premises under investigation due to the presence of susceptible animals reported to have clinical signs compatible 

with the FAD. This is intended to be a short-term premises designation. 

Vaccinated Premises (VP) 

Premises where emergency vaccination has been performed. This may be a secondary premises designation.

Zoonotic Diseases

Diseases that are transmissible from animals to humans under natural conditions.

Glossary
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 48 of 87

Aerosol: Exposure occurs when droplets are passed through the air 

from one animal to another. Examples include contagious bovine 

pleuropneumonia (CBPP), foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), malignant 

catarrhal fever (MCF), melioidosis, and vesicular stomatitis (VS). 

Disease causing agents can be spread from animal-to-animal or animal-to-human and vice versa, through 

a variety of transmission routes.

Direct Contact: A susceptible animal becomes exposed when the 

disease agent directly touches open wounds, mucous membranes, or 

the skin through blood, saliva, nose to nose contact, rubbing, or biting. 

Examples include CBPP, FMD, lumpy skin disease, MCF, rinderpest, VS.

Reproductive: A subtype of direct contact that includes diseases 

spread through mating or to the fetus during pregnancy. An 

example would be CBPP. 

Fomite: An inanimate object carrying a disease agent from one 

susceptible animal to another. Examples include FMD, vesicular stomatitis.

Trac: A subtype of fomite transmission in which a vehicle, trailer, 

or human spreads organic material to another location. 

Oral: Consuming disease causing agents in contaminated feed, water 

or licking/chewing on contaminated environmental objects. Examples 

include bovine spongiform encephalopathy and FMD. 

Vector-borne: An insect acquires a disease agent from one animal 

and transmits it to another. Examples include akabane (mosquitoes), 

babesiosis (ticks), heartwater (ticks), lumpy skin disease (mosquitoes, 

ies), Rift Valley fever (mosquitoes), screwworm (y larvae), vesicular 

stomatitis (mosquitoes). 

Zoonotic: Diseases transmitted from animals to humans. Examples 

include VS and Rift Valley fever.

Environmental Contamination must always be taken into consideration. 

Bovine Routes of Transmission and 

High Consequence Disease Examples

This information was developed by staff 

veterinarians at the CFSPH. For more 

information on these diseases, visit: 

www.cfsph.iastate.edu.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 49 of 87

This information was developed by 

staff veterinarians at the CFSPH for use 

as educational materials in the event 

of a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal 

Disease outbreak in the United States.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious 

viral disease of cattle and other cloven-hooved animals 

such as pigs, sheep, and goats. The last known outbreak 

in the United States was in 1929; however, the disease is 

common in other parts of the world and therefore poses 

a risk to U.S. beef cattle.

If a case of FMD is confirmed anywhere in the United 

States, it could spread rapidly across the nation. If any 

animal on your cow-calf operation is confirmed to have 

FMD, all may be euthanized and disposed of to control 

the further spread of the disease. 

This document describes biosecurity practices you can 

take to prevent FMD from entering your cow-calf 

operation. These measures should be put into place 

IMMEDIATELY on your operation if FMD is confirmed anywhere in the U.S. and continued until the 

U.S. is once again declared FMD free. 

Transmission of the Disease 

Understanding how FMD is spread to and between 

cattle can help highlight the importance of biosecurity 

measures needed on your cow-calf operation and help 

you recognize areas that may need additional work to 

prevent disease introduction and spread.

FMD can be spread orally by ingestion of contaminated 

feed. Transmission can also occur through direct contact 

with infected animals. The virus can be found in all body 

fluids of infected cattle, including expired air, nasal secretions, blood, urine, feces, saliva and even semen. The virus can also be spread reproductively. This can occur via 

semen (bull to cow) or during pregnancy (cow to calf).

FMD virus can also survive in the environment, contaminating equipment, pens, buckets, even footwear and 

clothing of people in contact with infected cattle. These 

items (termed “fomites”) can serve as an additional 

source of virus for susceptible cattle. If infected cattle 

are transported in vehicles or trailers, these items can also 

become contaminated and serve as a source of the virus 

on the operation or to other operations, if not properly 

cleaned and disinfected.

Another less common route of transmission includes 

aerosol spread in closed areas. 

General Precautionary Measures

Prevention measures to minimize the introduction 

and spread of FMD on your cow-calf operation fall into 

three general categories.

1. Use strict biosecurity measures for animals, animal 

products, vehicles, people and equipment.

2. Restrict or stop all animal movement to prevent 

entry or spread of the disease.

3. Detect and report any disease or unusual signs to 

your veterinarian as quickly as possible. 

Specific steps to take if FMD is confirmed in the U.S. 

are listed below. Many should already be in place on 

your operation but should be enhanced and more strictly 

enforced if FMD is found in the U.S. These measures 

can help minimize the chance of FMD being introduced 

on your cow-calf operation.

Cow-Calf Operation Entrance

Limit access to your operation.

•	 The entrance to your operation is a major 

control point. 

•	 Gates at entries should be locked when not in use. 

Post signs at the operation entrance (Appendix A).

Signs inform unauthorized visitors to not enter your operation. When entry is necessary, signs give specific rules and 

biosecurity measures to follow while on your operation.

Restrict or limit visitors on your operation.

•	 At all times, limit the number of visitors to 

the operation. 

•	 Visitors who have traveled internationally within 

the past five days should not be allowed to enter 

your operation. 

•	 Post warning signs indicating entry onto the 

operation is not allowed without permission.

Strict biosecurity measures must be followed 

by any visitors to the cow-calf operation.

Some visitors are essential for the continued operation 

of the facility. Establish strict biosecurity procedures for 

these individuals, then inform them of the measures to 

follow while on your operation. 

•	 Check-in with personnel upon arrival (direct 

visitors to “where” they should check in). 

•	 Be accompanied by someone from the operation at 

all times to ensure biosecurity measures are 

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 50 of 87

being followed.

•	 Visitors and vehicles should avoid contact with 

animals, animal feed, or animal areas unless 

absolutely necessary.

•	 If animal contact is necessary, wear clean premisesspecific protective clothing (e.g., coveralls, boots) 

while on the operation. Guide visitors to where 

protective clothing is located. These items should 

remain on-premises when the visitor leaves.

Monitor and record all traffic on or off 

your operation.

Maintain a log sheet (Appendix B) of all visitors and 

vehicles that enter your operation. Accurate record keeping of traffic on your operation will help with disease 

surveillance and tracking if necessary. You should not 

rely on your ability to “recall” visitors and vehicles that 

were on your operation.

Vehicles

Minimize traffic onto your premises to only 

vehicles essential for continued operation.

•	 Vehicles should be parked at the operation

entrance, away from animal areas, or in designated 

parking areas. These areas should preferably be 

concrete or paved areas.

•	 Off-premises vehicles should not be allowed to 

drive onto your operation unless necessary. If 

necessary, vehicles should be cleaned and disinfected 

or restricted to areas where vehicle traffic is allowed.

•	 Have deliveries left at the operation entrance 

whenever possible.

Clean and disinfect vehicles prior to entry and 

upon leaving.

•	 All vehicles entering the operation must spray 

their wheels, wheel wells and under-carriage 

with disinfectant after they have been cleaned.

•	 Facilities for washing and disinfecting vehicles 

should be provided at the perimeter of the operation in a location that accounts for drainage.

Do not share equipment or vehicles between 

operations or sites.

People

Limit employees to only those necessary for 

the continued operation of the operation.

Employees that have contact with swine, cattle, 

sheep or goats at other locations (including their 

own home) should use very strict biosecurity 

measures while on your operation.

Implement strict biosecurity measures for 

employees coming onto the operation.

•	 Clean boots, hats and coveralls must be worn 

while on the premises. These should be provided 

by your operation.

•	 Protective clothing should remain on your 

operation and be washed and/or disinfected before 

being worn again. 

•	 Minimize contact with animals to only tasks 

necessary for the continued operation of the facility 

and health and well-being of the animals.

•	 Staff should be designated to handle incoming/ 

quarantined cattle and not work with other cattle 

on the operation. 

•	 Staff should be designated to handled isolated/ 

hospital pen cattle and not work with other cattle 

on the operation.

•	 Staff working with incoming or isolated cattle 

should wear clean disposable protective footwear 

and change between each pen.

•	 Staff should wash their hands with a disinfectant 

soap and warm water after leaving quarantine or 

isolation pens.

Educate your employees on their role in preventing disease introduction and spread. They 

should:

•	 Understand how FMD can be spread;

•	 Understand the operation’s biosecurity procedures 

and how to prevent the spread of the disease;

•	 Know the signs of illness in cattle with FMD; and

•	 Know who to contact if signs of disease are seen.

Animal Movement

If FMD is confirmed in the U.S., movement restriction may 

be implemented locally, regionally and possibly nationally. 

Restrictions will depend on the scope of the outbreak.

Know the health status and the source of any 

animal(s) brought onto your cow-calf operation.

If animal movement is allowed in your area, thoroughly clean and disinfect the transport vehicle 

and trailer before loading and after unloading.

•	 Pay special attention to the tires and wheel wells.

•	 Avoid mixing cattle, especially young stock, from 

different sources when transporting.

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 51 of 87

Working horses must remain on the premises 

during an FMD outbreak.

•	 A horse's tack (bridle, saddle, blanket) or their 

hooves can become contaminated with manure or 

saliva from infected cattle.

•	 Horses cannot be infected with FMD but can serve 

as mechanical vectors of the virus.

•	 Horses and their tack used in incoming/quarantine 

or isolation/hospital pens should not be used in 

other areas on the operation.

•	 Contaminated tack should be cleaned 

and disinfected.

•	 Hooves should be picked out after working in 

incoming/quarantine or isolation/hospital pens.

Maintain thorough and accurate records of 

animal movement.

•	 Document all animal movements, including the 

dates of introduction, where they came from and 

movements between separate units. 

•	 Each animal location must be treated as a separate 

unit or premises. This information will be essential 

to help trace where the disease came from.

Animals

Farm dogs and other pets can also serve as 

mechanical vectors. Movement should be 

restricted until outbreak has subsided.

Do not allow your animals to have contact

with wildlife.

•	 Feral swine, deer, bison, elk, and antelope are 

also susceptible to FMD and, if infected, could 

potentially spread the virus to domestic cattle. 

Monitor animals closely and frequently for any 

developing illness or signs of disease.

Educate yourself and train your employees 

about FMD and the signs of illness (Appendix C).

•	 Fever

•	 Blistering or ulcers on the mouth, tongue, feet 

or teats

•	 Increased salivation or slobbering

•	 Dullness or weakness

•	 Refusal to eat

•	 Signs of lameness such as shifting leg lameness

•	 Refusal to walk or move

Isolate any animals showing the signs above 

and contact your veterinarian immediately to 

examine them.

Use separate facilities, equipment and staff to 

handle isolated livestock.

•	 If this is not possible, at a minimum, handle or 

visit the isolated animals LAST. 

•	 Clean and disinfect all equipment, clothing, boots, 

etc. that come into contact with isolated animals.

Quarantine incoming cattle for at least 30 days.

•	 New animals can be infected with a disease with

out showing any signs of illness right away. 

•	 Cattle exposed to the FMD virus may take up to 

14 days or more before signs of illness are seen. 

•	 Quarantined animals should not share water, feed, 

facilities or bedding with your other animals. 

•	 Ideally, animals should be quarantined at a 

separate location (premises).

•	 At a minimum, incoming cattle should be kept as 

far away from finished cattle as possible.

Wildlife and Other Animals

Prevent contact with free roaming animals 

(wildlife, cats, dogs).

•	 Free roaming animals can potentially spread the 

FMD virus from infected to susceptible animals.

•	 Keep pets in a kennel or tied securely to avoid 

contact with livestock and feed areas.

•	 Ask your neighbors to do the same.

Control of wildlife will be difficult, but should 

be attempted.

•	 Keep premises access routes, parking areas, yards 

and storage areas clean and tidy to avoid attraction 

of birds or rodents.

•	 Implement rodent and vermin control measures 

to minimize the potential spread of disease by 

these animals (Appendix D).

Cleaning and Disinfection

The virus that causes FMD has shown to be stable in 

the environment. Virus stability increases at lower 

temperatures and with protection from sunlight. FMD 

virus is inactivated at pH below 6.5 or above 11. Effective 

disinfectants include sodium hydroxide (2%), sodium 

carbonate (4%), sodium hypochlorite (6.0%) and 

proprietary products. In addition to selecting an effective 

disinfectant, proper cleaning and disinfecting procedures 

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 52 of 87

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

are essential in order to adequately and effectively control 

the spread of the virus.

Proper Cleaning Procedures

1. Wear personal protective equipment: Gloves, 

coveralls, rubber boots (or disposable boots) and 

possibly a mask if you are cleaning an area that 

will generate dust or aerosols. 

2. Dry clean: Remove all visible material by brush

ing, scraping and/or sweeping. This is the most 

important step as organic matter prevents many 

disinfectants from working effectively. Disposal of 

waste material should be handled in such a way as 

to prevent contamination of other areas such as 

feed, water or other animals.

3. Soak: Soak the area with hot water and a detergent 

or cleaning agent. Be sure to wash and soap down 

all equipment in the area: waterers, feed troughs, 

pails, etc.

4. Wash: Wipe, spray or scrub the area, starting with 

the dirtiest or highest area (ceiling), after it has 

soaked for a period of time. This step can be 

enhanced by the use of pressure washers when 

cleaning wood, cement, or other porous surfaces. 

Use caution when using high pressure washers 

(200-1000 psi) as they can aerosolize disease 

organisms and spread them to other areas.

5. Rinse: Remove all detergent residue by applying a 

low pressure water rinse on all surfaces, starting 

with the highest area and working your way to the 

floor. This is especially important as certain disinfectants are inactivated by detergents and soaps.

6. Dry: Allow the area to dry completely before 

applying a disinfectant so that it can work 

effectively.

Proper Disinfecting Procedures

1. Read the product label: This is important to 

make sure the solution is handled correctly. 

Personal protective equipment (gloves, mask) 

should be used when mixing up solutions. Other 

considerations to review before applying solutions 

to fomites include specific dilutions, water 

temperature, environmental temperature, the need 

for ventilation and the disease organisms killed by 

the disinfectant.

2. Disinfect: Apply the product at the correct dilution 

and let it “sit and work” for the suggested amount 

of time. Contact time of the disinfectant is important for the product to inactivate or kill the microorganism(s) present.

3. Final rinse: Remove all disinfectant by applying a 

low pressure water rinse on all surfaces, starting with 

the highest area and working your way to the floor.

4. Dry: Allow the area to completely dry before 

allowing animals to contact the area or item that 

was just cleaned and disinfected.

Proper Boot Bath Procedures

1. Mix solution to the proper concentration according 

to the label instructions.

2. Clean all dirt, manure and debris off of boots 

BEFORE stepping into the disinfectant solution. 

The presence of organic material (dirt, manure, 

etc.) will prevent most disinfectants from working.

3. Allow the disinfectant solution to have ample contact time with the boot surface. This will vary with 

the disinfectant selected. Consult the product label. 

4. Change solutions at least daily or when visibly dirty.

Proper Storage

If the equipment or area will not be used immediately, 

it is important to avoid contamination between uses. Small

items can be placed into plastic bags and sealed; larger 

items can be placed into closed cabinets. Equipment 

and housing areas are more difficult to protect for long 

periods of time and may need to be rinsed again before 

allowing animal contact.

Barns and Buildings

Clean and disinfect anything that has had contact 

with animals, manure or animal secretions. 

•	 This includes barns and buildings, vehicles, trailers, 

equipment, and supplies.

•	 Tires and wheel wells of vehicles and trailers are 

especially important.

•	 Surfaces should be scraped, cleaned with high 

pressure hot water and detergent, and rinsed.

•	 The disinfectant should then be applied and 

allowed to “sit” for the optimal contact time.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 53 of 87

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

DO NOT

PLEASE,

WITHOUT PERMISSION

ENTER

www.cfsph.iastate.edu

Sample signs to post at the cow-calf operation entrance in the event of a FMD outbreak 

in the U.S. (Available from the CFSPH web site at www.cfsph.iastate.edu)

Signage is also available from private companies such as Gempler’s.

Appendix A - Sample Signs 

www.cfsph.iastate.edu www.cfsph.iastate.edu

• Only enter this farm with permission

• Park at the entrance or in designated 

parking areas

• Check-in with farm personnel upon 

arrival and sign the visitor log

• Follow instructions provided by farm 

personnel at all times

• Leave deliveries in areas designated 

by farm personnel 

• All visitors must be accompanied by 

farm personnel at all times

• Do not handle or contact animals 

unless permission is granted by 

farm personnel

Comply with all 

posted signs, rules, 

and biosecurity regulations 

on this farm.

Your cooperation 

is appreciated for your 

own safety and the 

health of our animals.

www.cfsph.iastate.edu
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 54 of 87

Visit 

Date

Name and 

Phone Number Reason for Visit

Date and 

Location of 

Last Contact 

with Livestock

Time In Time Out

Appendix B - Daily Visitor Log

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 55 of 87

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

Excessive drooling following blistering 

and lesions in the mouth

Source: Pam Hullinger, California Department of 

Food and Agriculture

Ulcers on tongue

Source: Plum Island Animal Disease Center

Ulcer between the toes

Source: Plum Island Animal Disease Center

Ruptured blister on the end of a teat

Source: Plum Island Animal Disease Center

P.I.A.D.C.

P.I.A.D.C.

Appendix C - Signs of Illness in Cattle
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 56 of 87

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

FMD virus may be spread on the fur, feathers, or feet of 

some animals. Birds and rodents may spread FMD for a 

short time and distance during an outbreak and can also 

contaminate feed and water sources. Control programs 

should be implemented to minimize their numbers and 

the risk of disease spread on your cow-calf operation.

Eliminate openings for rodents or birds to 

enter, especially feed storage or processing areas.

•	 Seal any opening greater than 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 inch with a 

durable material such as steel wool packed tightly 

into openings.

•	 Use materials that cannot be easily gnawed or 

pecked through such as concrete, sheet metal, wire 

mesh, aluminum or brick. Plastic sheeting, wood, 

rubber will not be adequate. 

•	 Check openings around augers, pipes and wires. 

Use mortar, masonry or metal collars in these areas.

•	 Doors, windows and screens should fit tightly. The 

distance between the bottom of the door and 

threshold should not exceed 1⁄4 inch.

•	 Drainage pipes or sewage systems may be used by 

rodents as routes to enter buildings. Equip floor 

drains with metal grates (openings less than 1⁄4”).

Remove potential hiding, resting and 

nesting sites.

•	 Equipment (e.g., refrigerators, powerwashers, etc.) 

should be raised and easily movable to allow for 

easy cleaning behind and underneath them.

•	 Bagged feed should be stacked on pallets with 

adequate space around and under them to allow 

easy inspection for signs of rodent activity and 

trap or bait placement.

•	 Rats can burrow and nest under feed bunks placed 

directly on the ground. Use of a concrete base 

around feed bunks can eliminate habitat. 

•	 Maintain the water level in livestock waterers so 

it is deep enough that birds cannot stand in it.

•	 Hanging strips of heavy plastic vertically in doorways of buildings will allow machinery and people 

to pass through but keeps birds out. This will not 

prevent rodent entry.

•	 Cover the undersides of rafters with netting to 

exclude birds from nesting sites.

Eliminate potential food sources.

•	 Store feed in well sealed containers (preferably 

metal with tight fitting lids).

•	 Use covered feeders that exclude birds.

•	 Clean up any spilled feed immediately.

Establish a rodent barrier around buildings.

•	 A 3 foot wide weed-free area with a gravel rock 

perimeter can be used to prevent weed growth and 

discourage rodents from burrowing. 

•	 Gravel (at least 1 inch diameter) should be placed 

in a band at least 3 foot wide and 6 inches deep. 

•	 Grass and weeds surrounding building should be 

kept cut short to discourage rodent habitats. 

Trap rodents to reduce vector transmission.

•	 Proper placement of traps and baits is important. 

Set traps close to walls, behind objects, in dark 

corners, in places where rodent activity is evident.

•	 Use talc or flour patches to track where rodents 

are active.

Bait rodents when trapping is not possible 

or effective. 

•	 When using rodenticide baits, first read the label 

carefully and fully follow the directions. 

•	 Use the amount of bait indicated on the package.

Requirements differ between products.

•	 Protect baits from the weather.

•	 Be sure baits are not accessible to children or 

domestic animals and birds.

•	 Inspect baits regularly. Check often for dead 

rodents and burn or bury those you find.

Contact a wildlife pest control operator in 

your state for further assistance. Other 

control methods are available, but beyond 

the scope of this document.

Check local legislation for allowable bird 

control measures. Many birds are protected 

by state and/or federal law. 

Appendix D - Bird and Rodent Control Measures
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 57 of 87

For More Information

•	 Pierce RA. Bait Stations for Controlling Rats and 

Mice. University of Missouri Extension. 

http://muextension.missouri.edu/explore/agguidees/

wildlife/g09444.htm.

•	 Brittingham MC, Falker ST. Controlling birds 

around farm buildings. Pennsylvania State University Extension. http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/

pdfs/uh126.pdf.

•	 See T. Controlling rodents. North Carolina State 

University Extension. http://www.thepigsite.com/

Featured Article/Default.asp?Display=1015.

•	 Baker RO, Bodman GR, Timm RM. Rodent- proof 

construction and exclusion methods. University of 

Nebraska. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/wild/pdf/

wildilfe/RODENT_PROOF_CONSTRUCT.PDF.

Appendix D - Bird and Rodent Control Measures

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 58 of 87

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

Appendix E - EPA and USDA Approved Disinfectants for FMD 

Product Dilution Mixing Instructions Comments

Sodium carbonate* 

(soda ash)

4% Add 5.33 ounces sodium 

carbonate to 1 gallon of 

hot water (or 1 pound to 3 

gallons). Mix thoroughly.

Recommended contact 

time is 10 minutes. Can be 

deactivated by hard water. 

Mildly caustic (irritate 

skin) and dulls paint/

varnished surfaces.

Sodium hypochlorite 

6.0%* (NaOCl) 

(household bleach)

1000 ppm Add 1/3 cup of chlorine 

bleach to 1 gallon of water. 

Mix thoroughly.

Recommended contact 

time is 10 minutes. Must 

be mixed fresh prior to 

each application; unstable 

in warm, sunny conditions 

(above 59o

F).

*These products may be applied by certied applicators or under the supervision of USDA-Plant Protection 

and Quarantine, USDA Veterinary Medical Ocers, or State ocers that are certied applicators (EPA 

Quarantine Exemption to USDA, 2002).

Proprietary products Follow label directions. As of December 2011, there 

are 5 products registered 

by EPA with a claim to 

inactivate FMD virus.

Note: Before disinfecting, all surfaces must be cleaned. This includes removing any 

visible material such as manure, bedding, and feed.

Sodium hydroxide* 

(lye, NaOH)

2% Add 1/3 cup of NaOH 

pellets (2.7 ounces of lye) 

to 1 gallon of cold water.

Warning: Always add the 

lye to water - NEVER pour 

water over lye.

Recommended contact 

time is 10 minutes. Highly 

caustic (skin burns, 

damages metals). Use 

water-resistant protective 

clothing, gloves, safety 

glasses. 

USDA-APHIS has an exemption in place for sodium hypochlorite (bleach), sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate in the 

event the proprietary products are not available. As with all disinfectants, all label use directions and safety precautions 

must be followed. 

Sources: Personal communication, Jeff Kempter, Senior Advisor Antimicrobials Division, Office of Pesticide Programs, Environmental Protection 

Agency Proprietary products are listed at: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/tools_train.shtml - select “Pesticides to use against 

selected foreign animal diseases”
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 59 of 87

This information was developed by 

staff veterinarians at the CFSPH for use 

as educational materials in the event 

of a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal 

Disease outbreak in the United States.

Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is a fever-causing viral 

disease that severely affects cattle, sheep, goats and 

humans. There is a very high rate of abortion and death 

in infected newborn animals. RVF is spread between 

animals and humans by mosquitoes. A mosquito will 

feed on blood from an animal/person with RVF and 

spread RVF to a new animal when it feeds again. The 

virus is not present in the United States but the mosquito 

capable of carrying it is found here. The virus is found 

in other parts of the world (most of Africa) and therefore 

poses a risk to U.S. beef cattle.

If a case of RVF is confirmed anywhere in the United 

States, mosquitoes could spread it across the nation. 

If any animal on your operation is confirmed to have 

RVF, all may be euthanized and disposed of to control 

the further spread of the disease. 

This document describes biosecurity practices you can take 

to prevent RVF from entering your operation. These measures should be put into place IMMEDIATELY on your 

operation if RVF is confirmed anywhere in the U.S. and 

continued until the U.S. is once again declared RVF free. 

Transmission of the Disease 

Mosquitoes (vectors) are the most important way that 

RVF is spread between animals and to humans. RVF 

virus can be spread during pregnancy (direct contact

from cow to calf). The virus has also been found in 

semen and raw milk.

In humans, exposure to the virus can occur via aerosols

being inhaled while assisting with the birth of infected 

animals, during a necropsy or slaughter. The virus could 

also enter abrasions on the skin (direct contact) during 

one of the above procedures. 

General Precautionary Measures

Prevention measures to minimize the introduction 

and spread of RVF on your operation fall into four 

general categories.

1. Restrict or stop all animal movement to prevent 

entry or spread of the disease.

2. Observe, detect and report any disease or unusual 

signs to your veterinarian as quickly as possible.

3. Mosquitoes are the most important way that RVF is

spread. Control mosquito breeding sites (stock tanks, 

ponds, old tires, etc.) to prevent spread of the disease.

4. Humans can get Rift Valley Fever. Protect yourself 

against mosquito bites and use personal protective 

equipment (respirator, gloves, eye protection, etc.) 

when handling tissues from animals that have aborted 

(placenta, fetus, etc.).

Specific steps to take if RVF is confirmed in the U.S. are

listed below. Many should already be in place on your operation but should be enhanced and more strictly enforced

if RVF is found in the U.S. These measures can help minimize the chance of RVF being introduced on your operation.

Premises Entrance

Limit access to your operation.

•	 The entrance to your operation is a major 

control point. 

•	 Gates at premises entries should be locked when 

not in use. 

Post signs at the operation entrance(s) 

(Appendix A).

Signs inform unauthorized visitors to not enter your operation. When entry is necessary, signs give specific rules and 

biosecurity measures to follow while on your operation.

Restrict or limit visitors on your operation.

•	 At all times, limit the number of visitors to 

the operation. 

•	 People can get RVF. Infected humans may serve as 

a source of the virus for mosquitoes which could 

spread the disease to animals or humans. Visitors 

who have traveled internationally within the past 

five days should not be allowed to enter the cowcalf operation. 

•	 Post warning signs indicating entry onto the 

premises is not allowed without permission.

Strict biosecurity measures must be followed 

by any visitors to the cow-calf operation.

Some visitors are essential for the continued operation 

of the facility. Establish strict biosecurity procedures for 

these individuals, then inform them of the measures to 

follow while on your operation. 

•	 Check-in with personnel upon arrival (direct 

visitors to “where” they should check in). 

•	 Be accompanied by someone from the operation

 at all times to ensure biosecurity measures are 

being followed.

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 60 of 87

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

•	 Visitors and vehicles should avoid contact with 

animals, animal feed or animal areas unless 

absolutely necessary.

•	 If animal contact is necessary, wear clean premisesspecific protective clothing (e.g., coveralls, boots) 

while on the operation. Guide visitors to where 

protective clothing is located. These items should 

remain on-premises when the visitor leaves.

Monitor and record all traffic on or off your 

operation.

Maintain a log sheet (Appendix B) of all visitors and 

vehicles that enter your operation. Accurate record 

keeping of traffic on your operation will help with disease surveillance and tracking if necessary. You should 

not rely on your ability to “recall” visitors and vehicles 

that were on your operation.

People

People can get RVF several ways (see Appendix 

C):

•	 Being bitten by a mosquito.

•	 Handling infected animal tissues or fluids.

•	 Breathing in the virus when handling infected 

animal fluids (blood, birthing tissues, and milk).

Protect yourself against mosquitoes.

•	 When outside, wear long pants and long sleeves to 

cover skin.

•	 Use insect repellants on exposed skin. Repellants 

with N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (commonly 

known as DEET) are the most effective. DEET is

an insect repellant that is safe to use on people but 

not on pets. Make sure to follow all label directions.

•	 Make sure screens on windows and doors are in 

good repair.

Sick animals should not be processed for meat 

or necropsied during a RVF outbreak.

•	 This can release the virus into the air. People who 

necropsy the animals or process meat may become 

sick by breathing in the virus or by handling the 

meat and organs.

Wear personal protective equipment, such as 

gloves, coveralls, boots, protective eyewear 

and a respirator when handling aborted 

fetuses or birthing tissues.

Do not allow ill people on your operation.

•	 People with RVF can have a fever, headache,

muscle and joint pain, nausea and vomiting. 

These people could spread RVF to a mosquito 

that could then bite and infect another person 

or animal.

•	 RVF cannot be passed from person to person; it 

requires a mosquito.

Limit employees to only those necessary for 

the continued operation of the facility.

Livestock

Monitor animals closely and frequently for any 

developing illness or signs of disease.

Educate yourself and train your employees 

about RVF and the signs of illness in cattle:

•	 Abortions at any stage of pregnancy, up to 85% 

of pregnant animals

•	 Adult cattle: Fever, snotty nose, watery eyes, 

runny nose, excessive salivation, refusal to eat, 

bloody or foul-smelling diarrhea

•	 Calves: Fever, depression, bloody or foul-smelling 

diarrhea, sudden death 

Contact your veterinarian immediately to examine sick animals.

Quarantine incoming cattle for at least 7 days.

•	 New animals can be infected with a disease with

out showing signs of illness right away.

•	 Cattle exposed to the RVF virus may take up to 3 

days to show signs of illness.

•	 Ideally, animals should be quarantined at a separate 

location (premises).

Other Animals

Prevent free roaming animals (dogs, cats) from 

coming onto your operation.

•	 Dogs and cats can get RVF, and it can be fatal in 

puppies and kittens.

•	 Infected dogs and cats could serve as a source of 

the RVF virus for mosquitoes to pass the disease to 

your livestock.

•	 There are topical insecticide products for dogs, 

applied monthly, that protect against mosquitoes; 

consult your veterinarian for more details.

•	 Keep pets in a kennel or tied securely.

•	 Ask your neighbors to do the same.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 61 of 87

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Animal Movement

If RVF is confirmed in the U.S., movement restrictions may 

be implemented locally, regionally and possibly nationally. 

Restrictions will depend on the scope of the outbreak.

Know the health status and the source of any 

animal(s) brought onto your operation.

•	 Do not bring animals onto your operation unless 

they are proven to be from RVF-free areas.

Maintain thorough and accurate records of 

animal movement.

•	 Document all animal movements, including the 

dates of introduction, where they came from and 

movements between separate units.

•	 Each animal location must be treated as a separate 

unit or premises.

•	 This information will be essential to help trace 

where the disease came from.

Mosquito Life Cycle and Control

Mosquitoes are the most important way that RVF is 

spread. It is only the female mosquito that feeds on 

blood as she needs the protein to produce eggs. Mosquitoes will lay their eggs on or near the edge of water. 

The mosquito eggs will hatch into larvae (also known 

as “wigglers”) which turn into pupae (also known as 

“tumblers”). The larvae and the pupae need to live 

in water to survive. The pupae will change into adult 

mosquitoes. See Appendix C.

Control of Mosquito Egg Laying Sites (See 

Appendix D)

•	 Egg laying site control is the best way to control 

mosquitoes since they lay eggs in specific areas 

and that can be managed. 

•	 Mosquitoes can lay their eggs any place that can 

hold water. This includes ponds, old tires, tarps, 

tree holes, bird baths and flower pots.

Control of Mosquito Larvae (“wigglers”)

•	 Mosquito larvae need to live in water to survive. 

They can be found in any amount of standing 

water including ponds, old tires, tarps and 

bird baths.

•	 Since mosquito larvae remain in the same water 

where they hatched from eggs, control of this 

stage focuses on continued management of 

mosquito egg laying areas.

•	 The use of pesticides should only be used as a 

supplement to controlling mosquitoes through 

the reduction and management of mosquito egg 

laying sites.

•	 Check with your local extension office or department

of pest management to determine which pesticides 

are approved for use in your area.

Control of Mosquito Adults

•	 Control of adults is the least effective way to control 

mosquitoes. Attempting to control adult mosquitoes 

can be difficult and costly.

•	 Control of adult mosquitoes focuses on the use 

of pesticides.

•	 The use of pesticides should only be supplemental 

to controlling mosquitoes through the reduction 

and management of mosquito egg laying areas.

•	 Check with your local extension office or department 

of pest management to determine which pesticides 

are approved for use in your area.

Cleaning and Disinfection

RVF virus is can survive in dried blood up to three 

months and aerosols at the right temperature (75°F) and 

humidity (50-85%). It is destroyed by strong sunlight/

ultraviolet (UV) radiation and is quickly destroyed by 

acidic conditions, including decomposing carcasses. 

Proper cleaning and disinfecting procedures are essential 

in order to adequately and effectively control the spread 

of the virus. Lipid solvents, detergents and sodium or 

calcium hypochlorite solutions are effective at inactivating the virus. A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA)-registered product must be used; USDA-APHIS 

may have exemptions in place for the use of certain products against specific foreign animal diseases. For proper 

guidance in selecting an effective, approved disinfectant 

against Rift Valley Fever, see the FAD PReP/NAHEMS 

Guidelines: Cleaning and Disinfection (2011). 

Remove any organic material before cleaning 

or disinfection.

•	 Most disinfectants are ineffective when dirt, 

manure and other visible material is present.

Clean and disinfect anything that has come in 

contact with birthing tissues or fetuses before 

it is used for another purpose.

Clean isolation areas and replace bedding 

regularly.

•	 Dispose of bedding and manure from isolation 

areas and store it in a fenced off area so that 

live stock or other animals do not have access to it.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 62 of 87

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

References

•	 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 

Nations (FAO). Manual on Procedures for Disease 

Eradication by Stamping Out, Part: 3 Decontamination procedures. Accessed on January 28, 2010 at 

http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/Y0660E03.htm 

•	 International Office for Epizootics (OIE). Animal 

diseases data: Rift Valley Fever. Accessed on 

October 21, 2010 at http://www.oie.int/eng/

maladies/Technical%20disease%20cards/

RIFT%20VALLEY%20FEVER_FINAL.pdf

•	 Rift Valley Fever fact sheet, Center for Food Security 

and Public Health, Iowa State University, November

8, 2006, available at: http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/

Factsheets/pdfs/rift_valley_fever.pdf 

•	 Zoonoses and Communicable Diseases Common 

to Man and Animals. Rift Valley Fever. Published 

by the Pan American Health Organization. 2003.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 63 of 87

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Appendix A - Sample Signs 

Sample signs to post at the cow-calf operation entrance in the event of a RVF outbreak in 

the U.S. (Available from the CFSPH web site at www.cfsph.iastate.edu)

Signage is also available from private companies such as Gempler’s.

DO NOT

PLEASE,

WITHOUT PERMISSION

ENTER

www.cfsph.iastate.edu www.cfsph.iastate.edu www.cfsph.iastate.edu

• Only enter this farm with permission

• Park at the entrance or in designated 

parking areas

• Check-in with farm personnel upon 

arrival and sign the visitor log

• Follow instructions provided by farm 

personnel at all times

• Leave deliveries in areas designated 

by farm personnel 

• All visitors must be accompanied by 

farm personnel at all times

• Do not handle or contact animals 

unless permission is granted by 

farm personnel

Comply with all 

posted signs, rules, 

and biosecurity regulations 

on this farm.

Your cooperation 

is appreciated for your 

own safety and the 

health of our animals.

www.cfsph.iastate.edu
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 64 of 87

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Appendix B - Daily Visitor Log

Visit 

Date

Name and 

Phone Number Reason for Visit Time In Time Out
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 65 of 87

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Appendix C - Transmission Routes of Rift Valley Fever 

The female 

mosquito lays 

her eggs by the 

water of a floodprone pasture.

Cow with Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

RVF causes abortions

Eggs develop into larvae.

(also called “wigglers”)

Larvae develop into pupae. 

(also called “tumblers”)

Graphic illustration by Clint May and Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

The pupae develop 

into adults and can

now transmit RVF when 

they feed (vector) on 

an animal or person.

People can get RVF 

through direct contact

with birthing tissues 

(placenta, fetus) from cows, 

sheep or goats who have 

aborted due to RVF or from 

breathing it in (aerosol) 

when opening a carcass 

infected with RVF.

Female mosquitoes 

(vector) feed on 

animals and humans 

because they need 

the protein to 

produce eggs. This 

is when they can 

become infected 

with RVF.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 66 of 87

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Rift Valley Fever virus is spread by mosquitoes. 

Control programs should focus on decreasing their 

numbers to minimize the risk of disease spread on your 

cow-calf operation.

Control of Mosquito Egg Laying Sites

•	 Control of mosquito egg laying sites is the best 

control method since they lay eggs in specific 

areas and these areas can be managed. 

•	 Add drainage holes to structures and containers 

that may trap water (barrels, old tires).

•	 Change or circulate the water in stock tanks, pet 

bowls and birdbaths at least once a week.

•	 Drain tarps and covers of collected rainwater after 

a rain (e.g., silage covers). 

•	 Pick up and properly dispose of all trash, especially 

anything that could hold water. 

•	 Thin out weeds and remove old leaves from ponds. 

This will allow natural mosquito-eating fish to easily 

access areas where mosquitoes lay their eggs.

•	 Grade areas where road ruts, potholes and hoofprints exist (around stock tanks, ponds).

•	 Grade newly developed land to prevent standing 

water. These areas create areas for mosquitoes to 

lay eggs.

•	 Fill tree holes with sand, mortar or place drainage 

holes to prevent standing water.

•	 Clean roof gutters to prevent them from becoming 

clogged and holding water.

Control of Mosquito Larvae (“wigglers”)

•	 Check with your local extension office or department of pest management to determine which 

pesticides are approved for use in your area.

•	 The use of pesticides should only be supplemental 

to controlling mosquitoes through the reduction 

and management of mosquito egg laying areas.

•	 Do not apply pesticides to moving water 

(e.g., streams).

•	 Products labeled only for home and garden 

mosquito larval control may be used. Follow all 

label directions.

•	 Non-chemical pesticides can be used.

- Always follow all label directions

- BTI (Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis) 

pronounced ba-SILL-us THUR-in-GEN-sus 

IZ-real-EN-sus.

- BTI granules can be spread over an area of 

pasture that is flood-prone. Use at the beginning of the mosquito season and re-apply in 

the middle of the season. 

- BTI dunks can be used to treat stock tanks. 

One dunk can treat up to 100 square feet of 

water surface and can last up to 30 days. 

- Methoprene products can be used to treat areas 

that collect water. These include bird baths, urns,

old tires, flower pots, abandoned swimming 

pools, etc. 

Control of Mosquito Adults

•	 Control of adult mosquitoes is the least efficient 

control method.

•	 Special equipment is needed to apply pesticides 

to kill adult mosquitoes (adulticides). Small droplets are produced that drift through the air and 

contact adult mosquitoes to kill them.

•	 Check with your local extension office or department of pest management to determine which 

pesticides are approved for use in your area.

•	 The use of pesticides should only be supplemental 

to controlling mosquitoes through the reduction 

and management of mosquito egg laying sites.

•	 Individuals may use hand-held Ultra Low Volume 

foggers, portable or fogging attachments for tractors 

or lawn mowers.

•	 Pyrethrin or 5% malathion can be fogged outdoors. 

Follow all label directions.

•	 Contact your local extension agent for assistance 

in developing a mosquito management plan.

Personal Protection

•	 People can get Rift Valley fever by being bitten by 

an infected mosquito.

•	 Protect yourself against mosquitoes.

•	 When outside, wear long pants and long sleeves to 

cover skin.

•	 Use insect repellants on exposed skin. Repellants 

with DEET (N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide) are the 

most effective.

•	 DEET is an insect repellant that is safe to use on 

people but not on pets.

•	 Make sure screens on windows and doors are in 

good repair.

Appendix D - Mosquito Control Measures
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 67 of 87

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

It is a violation of state and federal law to use a 

pesticide in any manner that differs from the product 

label. Use only according to label directions to avoid 

meat or milk residue hazards, environmental damage, 

and animal or human injury.

Mosquito References:

•	 Lawler SP, Lanzaro GC. Managing Mosquitoes on

the Farm. Department of Entomology, University 

of California, Davis. http://axp.ipm.ucdavis.edu/

PDF/MOSQ/mosquitoesonfarm.pdf

•	 Potter MF, Townsend L, Knapp FW. Mosquitoes: 

Practical Advice for Homeowners. University of 

Kentucky Department of Entomology. 

http://www.uky.edu/Agriculture/Entomology/

entfacts/misc/ef005.htm

•	 Stringham M, Watson W. Managing Waste 

Lagoons to Control Mosquito Breeding. North 

Carolina State University Department of 

Entomology. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/

notes/MedVet/wnv-manage.htm

•	 Larvicides for Mosquito Control. United States 

Environmental Protection Agency. 

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/mosquitoes/

larvicides4mosquitoes.htm

Appendix D - Mosquito Control Measures
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 68 of 87

This information was developed by 

staff veterinarians at the CFSPH for use 

as educational materials in the event 

of a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal 

Disease outbreak in the United States.

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Heartwater is a rickettsial disease spread by the 

Gulf Coast tick to cattle and other livestock such as 

sheep and goats. The agent that causes disease is not 

present in the United States but the ticks capable of 

carrying it are found here. Heartwater is endemic in 

much of Africa and the Caribbean and poses a risk to 

U.S. beef cattle.

If a case of heartwater is confirmed in the United 

States, it could spread to other parts of the nation 

through infected ticks. If any animal on your cow-calf 

operation is confirmed to have heartwater, all animals 

on the operation that could get sick may be removed and 

isolated or euthanized and disposed of to control the 

further spread of disease. 

This document describes biosecurity practices you 

can take to prevent heartwater from entering your 

operation. These measures should be put into place 

IMMEDIATELY on your operation if heartwater is 

confirmed anywhere in the U.S. and continued until 

the U.S. is once again declared heartwater free.

General Precautionary Measures

Prevention measures to minimize the introduction and 

spread of heartwater onto your operation fall into three 

general categories.

1. Restrict or stop all animal movement to prevent 

entry or spread of the disease.

2. Examine cattle for the Gulf Coast tick, the tick that 

spreads heartwater disease.

3. Observe, detect, and report any disease or unusual 

signs to your veterinarian as quickly as possible.

Specific steps to take if heartwater is confirmed in the 

U.S. are listed below. Many should already be in place 

on your operation but should be enhanced and more 

strictly enforced in the event heartwater is found in the 

U.S. These measures can help minimize the chance of 

heartwater being introduced on your operation.

Gulf Coast Tick Distribution

The Gulf Coast tick (Amblyomma maculatum) is a 

tick species that could spread heartwater disease 

to cattle, sheep, goats, and white-tailed deer. 

It is NOT found in all parts of the U.S. 

•	 It has been reported in Kansas south to Texas, east 

across the Gulf Coast States to the Atlantic sea 

board, approximately 100 miles in from the coast. 

(See Appendix A)

Gulf Coast ticks do not feed on people but 

could travel on them or other animal species 

to other areas.

•	 These ticks will also feed on wildlife, horses 

and dogs. Horses and dogs will not develop 

heartwater disease.

•	 White-tailed deer are VERY sensitive to heartwater 

disease and die if infected.

The African tortoise tick (Amblyomma 

marmoreum) has established itself in Florida. 

It prefers to feed on tortoises but is a known spreader 

of heartwater disease.

There are other Amblyomma ticks that are not 

present in the U.S. (as of January 2012) that 

also spread heartwater disease.

•	 The tropical bont tick (Amblyomma variegatum) 

lives in the Caribbean and could travel to Florida 

and beyond on cattle egrets, a wild bird.

•	 The bont tick (Amblyomma hebraeum) from Africa 

could survive in Florida and Texas and easily spread 

heartwater disease if it were introduced into the U.S.

Premises Entrance

Limit access to your operation.

•	 The entrance to your operation is a major 

control point.

•	 Gates at premises entries should be locked when 

not in use.

Post signs at the operation entrance (Appendix B).

Signs inform unauthorized visitors to not enter your operation. When entry is necessary, signs give specific rules and 

biosecurity measures to follow while on your operation.

Restrict or limit visitors on your operation.

•	 At all times, limit the number of visitors to 

the operation.

•	 Post warning signs indicating entry onto the 

premises is not allowed without permission.

Strict biosecurity measures must be followed 

by any visitor to the cow-calf operation.

Some visitors are essential for the continued operation 
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 69 of 87

of the facilty. Establish strict biosecurity procedures for 

these individuals, then inform them of the measures to 

follow while on your operation.

•	 Check-in with personnel upon arrival. (Direct 

visitor to “where” they should check-in).

•	 Be accompanied by someone from the operation 

at all times to ensure biosecurity measures are 

being followed.

•	 Visitors and vehicles should avoid contact with 

animals or animal areas unless absolutely necessary.

•	 If animal contact is necessary, wear clean premises-specific protective clothing (e.g., coveralls, 

boots) while on the operation. Guide visitors to 

where protective clothing is located. These items 

should remain on-premises when the visitor leaves.

Monitor and record all traffic on or off 

your operation.

Maintain a log sheet (Appendix C) of all visitors and 

vehicles that enter your operation. Accurate record keeping of traffic on your operation will help with disease 

surveillance and tracking if necessary. You should not 

rely on your ability to “recall” visitors and vehicles that 

were on your operation.

Animals

Monitor animals closely and frequently for 

any presence of ticks or developing illness 

(see Appendix D for examples of the Gulf 

Coast tick).

•	 Nymph stage ticks can be found around the 

withers, along the top of the back, near the tail 

head and on the soft tissue between the hooves.

•	 Adult ticks can be found near the udder, inside the 

legs, around the testes or prepuce, and above and 

under the tail.

•	 Contact your veterinarian immediately if ticks 

are noticed.

•	 Following exposure to the tick, an animal usually 

shows illness in 2 to 4 weeks.

Record the location of any ticks found on 

animals - head, ears, back, legs, etc. 

•	 Indicate if the ticks were blood filled (engorged) or 

newly attached (unengorged).

Educate yourself and train your employees 

about heartwater and the signs of illness (photos found in Appendix E).

The name heartwater is due to the fluid that forms 

around the heart during the disease and is seen on post 

mortem exams. Signs result from injury to the blood 

vessel walls which causes “leaking”.

There are different forms of heartwater disease, the most 

common form can cause: 

•	 Sudden death

•	 Sudden high fever (up to 107°F)

•	 Death in less than one week after onset of fever 

•	 Loss of appetite 

•	 Depression, recumbency leading to death

•	 Rapid, difficult breathing 

•	 Fluid in lungs, chest cavity

•	 Neurologic signs in some cases: chewing, eyelid 

twitching, tongue sticking out, walking in circles 

with a high stepping gait, convulsions 

Isolate any animals showing the signs above 

and contact your veterinarian immediately to 

examine them.

•	 If these animals are carrying heartwater disease, 

they should be euthanized and destroyed as they 

will serve as a source of disease on the operation 

for other ticks to spread.

•	 Treat the herd with tetracyclines and dip them in 

an acaricide to prevent ticks. 

•	 Tetracycline antibiotics are only effective if given 

EARLY in the course of the disease, by day 2 or 3 

after fever appears and before nervous signs appear.

Use separate facilities, equipment and staff to 

handle isolated livestock.

•	 If this is not possible, handle or visit the isolated 

animals LAST.

•	 Since heartwater is carried in the blood of animals, 

NEVER share needles or syringes between animals.

Quarantine incoming cattle for at least 30 days.

•	 New animals can be infected with heartwater

without showing signs of illness right away.

•	 Cattle exposed to heartwater can take 2-4 weeks 

before signs of illness are seen.

•	 Ideally animals should be quarantined at a separate 

location (premises).

Animal Movement

If heartwater is confirmed in the U.S., movement 

restrictions may be implemented locally, regionally 

and possibly nationally. Restrictions will depend on the 

scope of the outbreak.

Prevention Practices for Heartwater
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 70 of 87

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Maintain thorough and accurate records of 

animal movement.

•	 Document all animal movements, including the 

dates of introduction into the herd and where they 

came from and movements between separate units.

•	 Each animal location must be treated as a separate 

unit or premise. 

•	 This information will be essential to help trace 

where the disease came from. 

Know the health status and source of any 

animal(s) brought onto your operation.

•	 Do not bring animals onto your operation unless 

they have been proven to be from heartwater-free 

areas, especially if they are imported from the 

Caribbean or Africa.

Wildlife and Other Animals

Limit exposure to free roaming animals (wildlife, birds, small mammals).

•	 Wildlife, birds and small mammals can carry the 

ticks that spread heartwater. 

•	 White-tailed deer are very sensitive to heartwater 

disease and die if infected; alert your veterinarian 

immediately if you notice multiple dead deer in 

your area.

•	 Dogs should be restricted to the premises (tied up, 

kenneled) and examined daily for ticks as they 

could introduce infected ticks to the cattle.

•	 There are topical products available for dogs, 

applied monthly, that protect against certain 

species of tick infestation; consult your 

veterinarian for more details.

Control of wildlife will be difficult, but should 

be attempted.

Keep operation access routes, parking areas, yards, and 

storage areas clean and tidy to avoid attraction of birds 

or small mammals.

Tick Life Cycle

Gulf Coast ticks are considered 3 host ticks, 

meaning they attach to a different animal to 

blood feed for each of their life stages (see Appendix D).

•	 The first stage is the egg; the second is a larva with 

6 legs; the third is a nymph with 8 legs and the 

fourth stage is adult. 

Each life stage, besides the egg, attaches itself 

to an animal, feeds on blood, and then drops 

off to change (molt) to the next stage.

•	 The tick will carry heartwater disease through its 

entire life, spreading it each time they feed.

Ticks molt on the ground in grass or areas with 

lots of vegetation.

•	 Nymphs, larvae and adult ticks “quest” or seek out 

animals by climbing to the top of a blade of grass 

and latching on to animals legs as they pass by.

Adult Gulf Coast ticks can be found on animals 

at various times of the year.

•	 Oklahoma, Kansas, and Midwestern states:

- Adults- winter active

- Larvae, nymphs - late spring, summer active

•	 Texas and Gulf Coast states:

- Adults- August through October active

- Larvae, nymphs- winter active

Tick control strategies must be applied accordingly.

Acaricides

Acaricides are products aimed at killing ticks 

and should be applied to cattle every 2-4 

weeks (see Appendix F) in affected areas.

•	 These are available as direct applications to animals as pour-ons, sprays or impregnated ear tags.

Employees and Visitors

Employees or visitors that have contact with 

livestock at other locations (including their own 

home), should check themselves for ticks and 

remove them before entering your operation. 

•	 All visitors should be accompanied by someone 

from the operation at all times.

•	 Visitors should avoid livestock areas, pens, and 

barns unless absolutely necessary.

Neighbors

Discuss the threat of heartwater with 

your neighbors.

Determine steps you can take together to protect 

your area and operation from becoming infected.

•	 Keep vegetation mowed short to eliminate 

tick habitats.

•	 Prevent free roaming dogs.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 71 of 87

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

References 

•	 Auburn University Highlights of Ag Research, 

Volume 47, Number 3, 2000. Alabamians 

vulnerable target for ticks accessed November 4, 

2005 at http://www.aaes.auburn.edu/comm/pubs/

highlightsonline/fall00/tick.html

•	 Kansas Insect Newsletter, Department of 

Entomology, Kansas State University, Gulf Coast 

ticks make their presence felt in Kansas accessed 

November 4, 2005 at http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/

dp_entm/extension/KIN/KIN_2005/kin8/05ksnew8.htm 

•	 Sumner, J. W., Durden, L. A., Goddard, J., 

Stromdahl, E. Y., Clark, K. L., Reeves, W. K., 

Paddock, C. D. 2007. Gulf Coast ticks 

(Amblyomma maculatum) and Rickettsia parkeri, 

United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13: 751-753.

•	 Texas A&M Discover Entomology website. 

‘Honey, I’m Ready’: Signals of Gulf Coast Tick 

accessed November 4, 2005 at http://insects. 

tamu.edu/feature/tick/ 

•	 Trout, R.T., Steelman, C.D., Szalanski, A.L., 

Loftin, K. 2010. Establishment of Amblyomma 

maculatum (Gulf Coast Tick) in Arkansas, U.S.A. 

Florida Entomologist .93:120-122.

•	 USDA APHIS VS Heartwater Fact sheet July 2002 

accessed November 4, 2005 at http://www.aphis.usda.

•	 USDA APHIS. 2008. Assessment of change in risk 

for release of Ehrlichia ruminantium (Heartwater) 

into the continental United States following 

discontinuation of the Tropical Bont Tick 

(Amblyomma variegatum) eradiation program on 

St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health. Ft. Collins CO.

•	 Williams HR, Teel PD, Strey OF, Wright RE, Mock 

DE. Zoogeography of the Gulf Coast tick, Amblyomma maculatum Koch accessed July 7, 2005 at 

http://ticsys.tamu.edu?HEATHERSPROJ.htm
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 72 of 87

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix A - Distribution of Gulf Coast Ticks

Approximate Distribution of the Gulf Coast Tick

(Amblyomma maculatum Koch)

Definitive boundaries uncertain

Gulf Coast Ticks have been identified in the environment and on animals 

in specific areas in the shaded region (as of January 2012).
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 73 of 87

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix B - Sample Signs 

Sample signs to post at the premises entrance in the event of a Heartwater outbreak in the 

U.S. (Available from the CFSPH web site at www.cfsph.iastate.edu)

Signage is also available from private companies such as Gempler’s.

DO NOT

PLEASE,

WITHOUT PERMISSION

ENTER

www.cfsph.iastate.edu www.cfsph.iastate.edu

• Only enter this farm with permission

• Park at the entrance or in designated 

parking areas

• Check-in with farm personnel upon 

arrival and sign the visitor log

• Follow instructions provided by farm 

personnel at all times

• Leave deliveries in areas designated 

by farm personnel 

• All visitors must be accompanied by 

farm personnel at all times

• Do not handle or contact animals 

unless permission is granted by 

farm personnel

Comply with all 

posted signs, rules, 

and biosecurity regulations 

on this farm.

Your cooperation 

is appreciated for your 

own safety and the 

health of our animals.

www.cfsph.iastate.edu

www.cfsph.iastate.edu
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 74 of 87

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix C - Daily Visitor Log

Visit 

Date

Name and 

Phone Number Reason for Visit Time In Time Out

Date and 

Location of 

Last Contact 

with Livestock
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 75 of 87

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix D - Life Cycle of the Amblyomma Tick - 3-Host Tick 

a) Eggs: 15,000-18,000 

laid on the ground

b) Larvae with 6 legs hatch from the eggs 

on the ground. 

To feed, a larva climbs to the top of a grass 

blade and holds onto it with three legs and 

“quests” by waving the other three legs to attach 

to small rodents or ground dwelling birds (quail, 

cattle egrets, meadowlarks) as they pass by. 

After feeding on their blood, the larva falls to 

the ground to molt to the next stage.

c) Nymphs with 8 

legs molt from larvae 

on the ground. 

To feed, a nymph 

quests again and attaches 

to animals or birds similar 

to those fed upon by 

larvae, but also dogs or 

larger mammals. 

After feeding on their 

blood, the nymph drops 

to the ground to molt to 

the next stage.

d) Adults with 8 legs molt from nymphs 

on the ground. 

To feed, an adult quests to attach to dogs, 

bobcats, coyotes, rabbits, rodents, deer or 

humans but prefer livestock such as cattle, 

horses, pigs, and goats. 

After feeding and mating, the female adult 

will drop to the ground and lay her eggs.

(a) Eggs

(b) Larvae

6 legs

(c) Nymph

8 legs

(d) Adult

8 legs
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 76 of 87

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix E - Signs of Illness in Cattle

all photos courtesy of Dr. Suman Mahan, University of Florida

Blood-engorged ticks can also be found 

inside the front legs and on the underbelly 

region - hard to groom areas

Blood-	lled ticks can be found under

the tail

Fluid in chest cavity

Heart with uid in the sac around it
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 77 of 87

Acaricides: Products that Kill Ticks

Many products are available; check with 

your veterinarian or local extension office for 

approved products in your area.

Directly applied animal products

•	 Pour-ons or sprays with amitraz, coumaphos, or 

permethrins should prevent the Gulf Coast tick on 

cattle for 2-3 weeks depending on environmental 

conditions (rain, level of tick infestation).

•	 Read all label directions and apply accordingly 

including the use of proper personal protective 

wear, like gloves (if indicated).

•	 Since Gulf Coast ticks attach to areas that are hard 

to groom (ears, tail area, inside of legs, top of back), 

spray acaricide to get adequate coverage (hair coat 

must be thoroughly soaked to make sure the skin is 

wet with product). Dipping is also effective. 

•	 It is a violation of state and federal law to use a 

pesticide in any manner that differs from the 

product label. Use only according to label 

directions to avoid meat or milk residue 

hazards, environmental damage, and animal 

or human injury.

Insecticide cattle ear tags

•	 Ear tags should contain an organophosphate (OP), 

a pyrethroid or combination OP-pyrethroid to be 

effective against the Gulf Coast tick.

•	 There is a new class of insecticide tags that contain 

abamectin (macrocyclic lactone) and piperonyl 

butoxide labeled to control the Gulf Coast Tick for 

up to 4 months when 2 tags are applied per head. 

•	 Read all labels and apply accordingly. One 

tag in each ear is recommended for Gulf Coast 

tick prevention.

•	 Examples of OP containing tags include ethion 36%,

diazinon 20 or 40%, coumaphos 20% with diazinon 

20%, or chlopyriphos 10% with diazinon 30%. 

•	 Examples of pyrethroid ear tags include betacyfluthrin 8%, fenvalerate 8.6%, permethrin 10%, 

and zeta-cypermethrin 10%. 

•	 Examples of combination ear tag products include 

cypermethrin 7% with clorphyriphos 5%.

•	 Work with your herd veterinarian to select the best 

impregnated ear tags for your cattle.

Animals, Pastures

Cattle in affected areas should be examined 

daily, especially parts of the body difficult to 

groom, for the presence of the Gulf Coast tick.

Dogs and other small mammals can transport 

the Gulf Coast tick and should also be examined daily.

•	 There are topical products available for dogs, 

applied monthly, that protect against certain 

species of tick infestation; consult your veterinarian 

for more details.

Pastures should be inspected weekly for the 

presence of the Gulf Coast tick. 

•	 Walk through pastures wearing light colored 

clothing (long pants tucked into socks) and watch 

for the dark little ticks to attach. See below for 

removal and identification information. 

Keep pastures short by grazing or mowing to 

minimize vegetation where ticks could live.

Tick Removal and Identification

To remove a tick attached to an animal, apply 

slow steady pressure near its mouthparts with 

a narrow-tip tweezers.

•	 Never squeeze an attached tick as it will inject 

its body fluids into the animal and it could be 

carrying heartwater disease.

•	 Humans cannot get heartwater disease, but if you 

find a tick attached to a person, use the same 

removal technique. Leaving part of the tick 

embedded in the skin can cause an infection.

Place the tick in a sealed container with a small 

piece of a damp paper towel. 

•	 Place the container in a sealed bag and give it to your 

local veterinarian or extension office for identification. 

•	 To make identification easier, only place the ticks 

from the same species (cattle separate from dogs 

or humans) into the same container.

•	 Identification of the actual Gulf Coast tick is important because they are small and many can look alike. 

Other tick species do not spread heart water disease.

Appendix F - Tick Control Measures 

Prevention Practices for Heartwater
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 78 of 87

For More Information

•	 University of Nebraska-Lincoln Neb Guide on 

Controlling Ticks published electronically August 

1995 and accessed November 7, 2005 at 

http://ianrpubs.unl.edu/insects/g1220.htm. 

•	 D.P. Furman and E.C. Loomis. 1984. The Ticks of

California. University of California Publications, 

Bulletin of the California Insect Survey, Vol. 25. 

University of California Press, California.

•	 Kansas Insect Newsletter, Department of 

Entomology, Kansas State University, Gulf Coast 

ticks make their presence felt in Kansas accessed 

November 4, 2005 at http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/

dp_entm/extension/KIN/KIN_2005/kin8/05ksnew8.htm

Appendix F - Tick Control Measures

Prevention Practices for Heartwater
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 79 of 87

Bioterrorism and High Consequence 

Pathogens of Cattle 

Disease or 

Agent

Route of 

Transmission

Incubation Period

Humans Cattle Humans Cattle

Clinical Signs

Anthrax

Bacillus anthracis

Infected animal; 

inhalation; 

contaminated food

Flu-like signs; 

pustules; scabs; 

respiratory distress; 

wide mediastinum 

on x-ray; bloody 

vomit and diarrhea; 

abdominal distress; 

sepsis; shock; death

Sudden death from 

septicemia with lack 

of rigor mortis and 

blood fails to clot; 

excitement followed 

by depression or 

stupor; blood from 

mouth, nose, anus; 

edema, especially 

neck, shoulders, 

and throat

1-7 days 3-7 days

Botulism

Clostridium 

botulinum toxin

Contaminated food; 

inhalation

Weakness; dizziness; 

dry mouth; nausea; 

vomiting; cranial 

nerve decits; 

double vision; 

drooping eyes; 

slurred speech; 

symmetrical 

paralysis; respiratory 

paralysis; death

Muscle paralysis: 

progressive 

symmetrical to 

accid; apparent 

disturbed vision; 

unable to swallow 

or chew; death from 

respiratory or 

cardiac paralysis

1-5 days 24-72 

hours

Brucellosis

Brucella melitensis,

B. abortus

Contact with 

infected animal 

tissue; inhalation; 

contaminated food

Flu-like signs; 

cyclic fever; 

arthritis; orchitis; 

epididymitis; 

hepatomegaly

Chronic: 

neurological; 

endocarditis

Abortions; stillborn 

or weak newborns; 

retained placentas; 

placentitis; orchitis; 

epididymitis; 

arthritis; lameness

1-21 days Variable

Melioidosis

Burkholderia 

pseudomallei

Inhalation; infected 

body uids; wound 

contamination

Flu-like signs; 

pustules; prostatic 

abscesses; chest 

pain; pneumonia; 

bronchitis; acute 

sepsis; death

Signs vary with 

site of lesion; 

suppurative or 

caseous lesion in 

lymph nodes, lungs, 

and viscera; 

pneumonia-signs; 

possibly nasal 

discharge, arthritis 

or lameness

2 days to 

years

Variable;

latency
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 80 of 87

Bioterrorism and High Consequence 

Pathogens of Cattle 

Disease or 

Agent

Route of 

Transmission

Incubation Period

Humans Cattle Humans Cattle

Clinical Signs

Q fever

Coxiella burnetii

Tick; inhalation; 

infected animal 

body uids 

(urine, milk, blood, 

birthing uids)

Flu-like signs; severe 

sweats; weakness; 

retrobulbar 

headache; 

pneumonitis but no 

cough or chest pain; 

granulomatous 

hepatitis; osteomyelitis; arteritis; 

endocarditis; 

neurological signs; 

thrombocytopenia; 

in-utero death; 

placentitis

Typically 

asymptomatic. 

Infertility; 

sporadic abortion

10-40 

days

1-3 weeks

Toxins

Ricinus communis,

Clostridium 

perfringens, 

Staph. aureus

Contaminated food; 

inhalation

Flu-like signs; 

vomiting; bloody 

diarrhea; abdominal 

cramps; kidney 

failure; shock; death

Ricin: violent 

vomiting or 

regurgitation; 

bloody diarrhea; 

salivation; trembling;

incoordination; 

Clostridium:

necrotic enteritis; 

bloody diarrhea; 

septicemia; acute 

death, esp. in 

young; Staph: 

diarrhea, vomiting; 

pulmonary edema

<1 day 12-72 

hours

West Nile Fever

West Nile Virus

Mosquito Flu-like signs; 

vomiting; 

lymphadenopathy; 

periocular pain; 

conjunctivitis; 

encephalitis; death

Fever; encephalitis; 

ataxia; weakness 

of limbs; partial 

paralysis; death

3-12 days 3-14 days

Rift Valley Fever

virus

Mosquito; infected 

animal tissue

Flu-like signs; 

petechiae; 

hemorrhagic fever; 

retinopathy; 

encephalitis; death

Fever; encephalitis; 

ataxia; weakness 

of limbs; partial 

paralysis; death

3-12 days 12-36 

hours in 

young
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 81 of 87

Bioterrorism and High Consequence 

Pathogens of Cattle 

Disease or 

Agent

Route of 

Transmission

Incubation Period

Humans Cattle Humans Cattle

Clinical Signs

Akabane Virus Unknown; thought 

to be various species 

of mosquitoes

No symptoms Adults:

asymptomatic; 

abortions; stillbirths; 

dystocia

Young: 

congenital 

abnormalities 

(arthrogryposis, 

ankylosis, 

hydranencephaly); 

nystagmus; 

blindness; death

Does not 

infect 

humans

1-6 days

Bluetongue virus 

(exotic)

Culicoides midges; 

ticks, sheep keds; 

fomites

No symptoms Erosions and 

ulcers of mucous 

membranes 

cyanotic tongue; 

salivation; dyspnea; 

fever; petechiae; 

edema of head; 

lameness; 

hyperemic coronary 

bands; abortion

Does not 

infect 

humans

5-10 days

Bovine spongiform 

encephalopathy 

agent

Ingestion of infected 

cattle products 

(meat, bone-meal, 

nervous tissue)

Depression, 

schizophrenia-like 

psychosis; 

unsteadiness, 

ataxia; dementia

Neurological 

and behavioral 

changes; nose 

licking; sneezing; 

teeth grinding; 

exaggerated 

menace and 

corneal reex; 

ataxia; hypermetria; 

paresis; coma; death

10 years 4-5 years

Coccidioidomycosis

Coccidioides immitis

Inhalation Usually 

asymptomatic; 

u-like; fever, cough, 

muscle and head 

ache, fever

Inapparent; chronic 

respiratory disease; 

focal lesions in the 

lungs and thoracic 

lymph nodes

1-3 weeks 1-4 weeks
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 82 of 87

Bioterrorism and High Consequence 

Pathogens of Cattle 

Disease or 

Agent

Route of 

Transmission

Incubation Period

Humans Cattle Humans Cattle

Clinical Signs

Contagious bovine 

pleuropneumonia

Mycoplasma 

mycoides mycoides

Close contact with 

respiratory droplets 

and other body 

uids

No symptoms Dyspnea; tachypnea; cough; fever; 

calves may have 

polyarthritis with or 

without pneumonia. 

Post mortem lesion:

brinous, thickened, 

hyperemic 

"marbled" lung 

tissue; thickened 

interlobular septa

Does not 

infect 

humans

20-123 

days

Foot-and-mouth 

disease virus

Aerosol; direct 

contact; ingestion; 

fomites

Rare Fever; vesicles and 

erosions in mouth 

and nares, muzzle, 

and feet (interdigital, 

coronary band) or 

teats; depression; 

anorexia; salivation; 

nasal discharge; 

sloughing of hoof; 

abortion

Rare 1-5 days

Heartwater

Ehrlichia (Cowdria) 

ruminantium

Tick No symptoms Fever; respiratory 

distress; lacrimation; 

neurologic signs 

(tongue protrusion, 

circling, high 

stepping gait); 

convulsions; death; 

Post mortem lesions; 

hydropericardium; 

ascites; hydrothorax; 

petechiae

Does not 

infect 

humans

7-16 days

Lumpy skin disease 

virus

Mosquito; ies; 

body uids

No symptoms Inapparent; fever; 

painful, deep, 

skin nodules (1-5 

cm diameter) with 

inverted conical 

necrosis, scabs 

and crusts; 

lymphadenopathy

Does not 

infect 

humans

2-5 weeks
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 83 of 87

Bioterrorism and High Consequence 

Pathogens of Cattle 

Disease or 

Agent

Route of 

Transmission

Incubation Period

Humans Cattle Humans Cattle

Clinical Signs

Malignant catarrhal 

fever virus (exotic)

Aerosol; close 

contact

No symptoms Sudden death; 

depression; diarrhea;

dysentery; disseminated intravascular 

coagulopathy; 

dyspnea; bilateral 

corneal opacity; 

oculonasal discharge; hyperemic 

oral mucosa; ulcerated, scabbed skin

Does not 

infect 

humans

9-77 days

Rinderpest virus Direct or close 

contact with 

body uids

No symptoms High fever; 

tachypnea; 

tachycardia; 

oculonasal 

discharge; 

respiratory distress; 

bronchopneumonia; 

necrotic stomatitis; 

diarrhea; death

Does not 

infect 

humans

3-15 days

Screwworm myiasis

Cochliomyia 

hominivorax

Eggs laid in wounds Larvae visible 

in wound; 

bloody discharge; 

foul-smelling odor; 

general discomfort

Variable diameter 

openings containing 

migrating larvae; 

death can occur 

from toxicity or 

secondary infection

3 days 5-7 days

Vesicular stomatitis 

virus (exotic)

Sand ies; black ies; 

direct contact; 

fomites; aerosol

Flu-like signs; fever; 

retrobulbar pain; 

malaise; nausea; 

limb and back pain; 

oral vesicles

Fever; vesicles in 

oral cavity, on 

coronary band or 

interdigital cleft; 

salivation; lameness

1-6 days 1-21 days

Source: Dvorak, Glenda. Bioterrorism and High Consequence Pathogens wall chart, Center for Food Security and 

Public Health, Iowa State University, 2008.
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 84 of 87

Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic Samples

Definitions

•	 Infectious substances, Category A means an infectious substance which is transported in a form that is capable 

of causing permanent disability, life-threatening, or a fatal disease when exposure occurs. Practitioners may never 

deal with samples that fit this classification. If you think you are dealing with specimens that fit Category A, contact 

your state veterinarian and/or your USDA-APHIS Area Veterinarian-In-Charge before shipping the samples. 

•	 Biological Substances, Category B means any human or animal material being shipped for diagnostic purposes.

- These specimens must have both a “Biological Substance” label and a UN3373 diamond logo on the 

shipping container

•	 Primary or inner package refers to a container holding the material to be shipped. For example, a vial 

or plastic bag.

•	 Secondary package refers to a package enclosing the primary package. A secondary package may be a second 

plastic container, but it cannot be a plastic bag.

•	 Outer package refers to a container holding and protecting the inner and secondary packages (usually a 

cardboard box).

•	 Hazardous Material (or Dangerous Good) Any article or substance designated by the U.S. DOT as being 

capable of posing unreasonable risk to health, safety, and property during transit. 

Regulatory Agencies

•	 US Department of Transportation (DOT) regulates ground and air transportation of diagnostic specimens, 

infectious substances, medical waste, and chemical and radioactive materials. www.hazmat.com

- Samples shipped by ground (courier, bus, postal service, etc.) follow the U.S. DOT Code of Federal 

Regulations (49CFR)

•	 International Air Transport Asso. (IATA), while not an agency, does write the requirements for all air transportation

Non Compliance

•	 Packages can be refused by the carrier

•	 Specimens could be damaged or destroyed

•	 Citations may be issued to the sender

Common Carriers and Package Suppliers

Carriers

•	 Federal Express fedex.com 800-463-3339

•	 U.S. Postal Service usps.com 800-275-8777

•	 UPS ups.com 800-742-5877

Package Suppliers:

•	 Lab Safety Supply labsafety.com 800-356-0783

•	 ULine uline.com 800-958-5463

•	 Saf-T-Pak Inc. saftpak.com 800-814-7484

Shipping Good Management Practices

•	 Place coolant packs in zip lock bags in case of coolant leakage or rupture

•	 Avoid overfilling liquid containers 

•	 Avoid exceeding 1⁄3 of the container capacity

•	 Tape zip lock bags & rubber stoppered tubes

•	 Double check for potential leakage of all containers

•	 Avoid breakable specimen containers... if they must be used, adequately pad them to minimize breakage

•	 Put paperwork in water proof bag

•	 If shipment questions, contact carrier and/or lab

Authors are Karen Shuck and Dee Griffin, 

University of Nebraska, Great Plains Veterinary Educational Center
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 85 of 87

Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic Samples

“Exempt Animal Specimens”

•	 For patient specimens for which there is minimal likelihood that pathogens are present, 

- e.g. nutritional, biopsies, serology, swabs, etc.

•	 Shipped in a box marked with the words: “Exempt Animal Specimens”

•	 Must follow standard DOT packaging requirements 

- ... three leak proof layers (primary, secondary containing absorbent and a third sturdy container)

•	 Less than 1 liter total liquid or < 4 kg total solid with limits for primary individual containers of < 1⁄2 liter or 

< 1⁄2 kg solids.

•	 Air transportation follows IATA (International Air Transport Asso.) requirements. These typically the same as 

DOT regulations for Exempt Animal Specimens. 

Packaging Diagnostic Specimens (Biological Substances, Category B)

•	 Diagnostic specimens must be Triple packed as follows:

- Primary container, for example screw cap tubes, taped red top blood tubes, Whirl-Paks –wrapped and tie

ends twisted together. Zip lock bags are not suitable for liquid primary containers.

- Secondary container must be watertight and have sufficient absorbent, such as paper towels, should 

primary container leak or rupture. An itemized list (submission form) in a plastic bag is then placed on top 

of this container.

- Outer package (third layer of the specimen shipment container) should be at least as durable as sturdy 

card board. While Styrofoam is an excellent container, it should never be used as a shipping container 

without residing in a sturdy card board box. Styrofoam coolers are not acceptable as the exclusive outer 

container due to the potential for rupture if dropped or impacted in a transportation accident. 

- USPS limits < 1 L liquid / primary container with total of < 4 liters or < 4 kg solid per shipment. USPS 

requires Biohazard logo. Some carriers limit shipment to < 1⁄2 liter or < 1⁄2 kg solids.

- Shipper contact info should be on the label. Including the shipper’s phone number is always appropriate.

BOTTOM LINE: Diagnostic specimens must be packaged in Triple packaging consisting of;

1. Primary container, for example screw caps, plastic bags

2. Secondary container must be watertight

3. An itemized list specimens (submission form), sealed in a plastic proof bag between 2o & outer container

4. Outer package, usually sturdy card board (Do Not Use Styrofoam coolers as the outer container)

Shipping Formalin Fixed Tissues (10% formalin, with or without buffer = 3.7% formaldehyde) 

Formalin-fixed tissues are not generally considered “diagnostic specimens” because they have been biologically inactivated. Thus, the possibility for these materials to pose an infectious disease risk is extremely low. Even so, these 

materials should be packaged in a manner that will prevent any possibility for release of liquids while in transit. This 

can be achieved through the following actions:

•	 Limit the amount of 10% formalin to not more than one liter per shipping container if sent by ground or air trans

portation. Tissue samples of ~1/8 inch thick are adequate. Label container with a four inch diamond UN3334 

content logo.

•	 Use non-breakable primary containers with a leak-proof seal and reinforce the seal with Parafilm or sealing tape. 

•	 Package primary containers and enough absorbent material to absorb all liquids (in the event of a leak) in a 

secondary container (e.g., larger plastic container or sturdy sealed plastic bags, etc.).

•	 Use a sturdy outside container such as a heavy duty card board box as the final structure holding the specimens.

•	 Other required labeling; include “Preserved Biological Samples” or something similar to the outer package.

Additional Notes

•	 If specimens are being shipped to a different state, it is best to assume some part of the trip will be by air and 

therefore requiring packaging to meet IATA (International Air Transport Association) shipping requirements ... 

eg: one liter of 10% formalin per properly packaged sample container, or 30 ML per sample container if it 

includes formaldehyde of > 10% concentration. Multiple 30 ML samples may be included in the secondary 
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 86 of 87

Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic Samples

sealed container. ALL samples in primary containers must be double bagged (secondary container) and 

adequate absorbent placed in the secondary container. 

•	 All personnel involved in packaging shipping biological samples should be trained & tested/evaluated every 

three years.

•	 Training & testing of the regulations, safety, and specimen security can be done in your work place. 

•	 Trainee’s name, date trained, a copy of the training materials, trainer, and testing records for verification 

(certification)

•	 Shippers (your clinic) must retain shipping records for at least two years.

- Records must include items shipped and transport media (Copies of Dx lab submission forms 

satisfy requirement )

Shipping Samples by Ground Transport 

Postal Service regulations require that all clinical 

specimens sent by U.S. Mail be shipped:

•	 With a minimum of First Class postage

•	 With a label indicating Biological Substance, 

Category B, UN3373 (if samples packaged 

in formalin)

•	 Packages containing diagnostic specimens 

must be marked with a diamond marking as 

shown below. When shipping liquid diagnostic specimens, orientation arrows must be 

applied to two sides of the package.

Shipping with Dry Ice

•	 Only relevant markings are allowed on the 

outer package. All other markings must 

be obliterated. 

•	 The package must be marked with the 

following information:

- Proper shipping name: Carbon Dioxide, 

Solid or Dry Ice.

- UN Identification number: UN1845

- The full name and address of the 

shipper and consignee.

- The net weight in kilograms, of the 

Carbon Dioxide must be marked on the 

outside of the package. 

- For Carbon Dioxide, Solid, a Class 9 

label is required.

References:

•	 Title 42 CFR Part 72 

•	 Title 49 CFR Part 173

•	 International Air Transport Association (IATA) regulations
FAD PReP Cow-Calf Industry Manual • Page 87 of 87

Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic Samples

 LABEL TEMPLATES (print, cut and tape or glue onto specimen outer packaging)