THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 55

BN-28128

FiGuRE 53.—Although reconditioned and painted, these tractors from Europe were contaminated with golden
nematode. Cysts were found on small particles of soil under the paint.

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF THE GOLDEN NEMATODE

Algeria

In March 1953, symptoms of golden nema-
tode damage became apparent near Algiers. A
survey was made of all potato- and tomato-
growing areas in the vicinity of Algiers. This
was a plant-root survey with some soil samples
taken. Eight communes in the vicinity of
Algiers were found infested. This is a coastal
zone where often two and sometimes three
successive potato crops are grown in one year
on the same field. Accordingly, several periods
of cyst formations are observed from March
to December.

About 1,900 hectares (4,750 acres) of win-
ter potatoes (harvested March to May) and
930 hectares (2,325 acres) of summer potatoes
(harvested November and December) are pro-
duced in this area. The country produces ap-
proximately 10,700 hectares (26,750 acres) of

* Information contained in this chapter was prepared
on the basis of reports of foreign governments, reports
of U.S. agricultural attaches, EPPO reports, results of
office research, correspondence, and related information.

winter potatoes and 18,500 hectares (33,750
acres) of summer potatoes.

In certain communes where infestations are
heavy, potato production has been reported to
be reduced 50 percent, from 130 to 150 quintals
per hectare to 50 quintals per hectare (from
28,660 to 33,069 Ib. to 11,023 Ib. per acre).

Regulations are in effect for the movement
of commodities capable of carrying the pest.
There has been some decrease in the intensity
of the infestation. This decrease is attributed
to the general application of soil treatment,
mainly with D-D but also with products of the
Vapam type, which were officially approved in
Algeria in 1960. A decree of September 6, 1954,
stipulated that all soils used for nurseries must
first be examined by the Plant Protection Serv-
ice. The decree has since been amended limit-
ing this requirement to horticultural nurseries
growing vegetables.

A decree of February 17, 1961, regulates
the importation of plants and plant products
that might carry the pest.

The National Institute of Agronomical Re-
search is conducting studies of the nematode.


16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

a

SWEDEN
1948 - 63

FINLAND

* Moscow

POLAND

e@ KIYEV Ss.
\

ROMANIA

FiGuRE 67.—Infested areas in the U.S.S.R.


72 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

cials from OIRSA report that surveys will be
conducted in other Central American countries.

Peru

The golden nematode was discovered in Peru
in 1952 following United States Plant Quaran-
tine interception of the pest at ports of entry
in 1951. (See “History and Origin of the
Golden Nematode.”)

Potato culture in Peru, represented by many
native varieties, including Solanum tuberosum
and andigena subspecies and improved hybrids,
constitutes the main agricultural occupation
along the mountain range from the border of
the Republic of Ecuador to Bolivia and Chile.
It is a vast zone in which approximately 200,-
000 hectares (500,000 acres) are cultivated,
excluding the regions near the ocean in the
Central Coast Departments.

The economic value of the potato crop is
surpassed only by sugarcane and cotton pro-
duction. These crops are planted in areas near
the ocean and within a few inter-Andean val-
leys. In the mountain zones the potato crop is
largely affected by the endemic plague repre-
sented by Heterodera rostochiensis.

The species Solanum X curtilobum and
Solanum X juzepezukti (sour potato type) are
immune to golden nematode. These are culti-
vated at altitudes of 4,000 meters.

Ing. Alberto Martin Ravines, of the Agrarian
Experimental Station of La Molina, has been
making a study of the golden nematode situa-
tion in Peru under United States funds pro-
vided by Public Law 480. Ing. Martin reports
that most of the cultivated area in the Andean
region between 2,300 and 4,000 meters above
sea level is affected. The greatest infestation
has been found at altitudes from 3,000 to 4,000
meters.

Poland

The golden nematode was first identified in
Poland (1967 boundaries) in 1946, although it
was known to have existed in the eastern part
of prewar Germany (now Poland’s western
Provinces).

Poland is the second largest potato-producing
country in the world. Potato fields occupy about
17 percent of the total land in cultivated crops.

The golden nematode can be found in all
parts of Poland, but it is more concentrated in
the northern, central, western, and southwest-
ern Provinces. A survey carried out by Profes-
sor Henryk Sandner in 1961-62 resulted in an
estimate of golden nematode incidence of 2.8
percent throughout Poland. It is also estimated

that this nematode appears in about 2 percent
of Poland’s potato fields.

External quarantine regulations control the
international movement of potatoes from in-
fected plants, and internal quarantine regula-
tions limit the domestic movement of potatoes
from infested areas. Potatoes may be taken
out of such areas only for direct use in process-
ing, and the vehicles used for transport must
be disinfected.

Resistant potato varieties have not been de-
veloped, but two East German potato varieties,
Sagitta and Specula, may be suitable for Polish
potato growers. There are no known resistance-
breaking biotypes in the country. Experiments
in the use of nematocides for the control of
the nematode have been conducted by the Re-
gional Plant Protection Stations of the Minis-
try of Agriculture, but the results are described
as “rather erratic.”

Government regulations forbid the growing
of potatoes and tomatoes for 5 years on land
known to be infested with the golden nematode.
The Regional Plant Protection Stations of the
Ministry of Agriculture conduct systematic
surveys annually.

Portugal

The golden nematode attacks potatoes and
sometimes tomatoes in Portugal. Although its
presence in Portugal was already suspected,
it was identified for the first time in 1956 in
Serra de Nogueira, near Braganca (northeast
Portugal) by M. Neves. A more detailed study,
by Macara (26), was published in “Broteria”
in 1963. In 1958, Entrudo Junior made a study
of this pest in the region south of Lisbon.

The golden nematode is found mainly in the
areas of Beira Alta, Tras-os-Montes, and Estre-
madura; the latter is near Lisbon and potatoes
are grown intensively, sometimes in successive
years on the same plot (fig. 66). Information
relating to the golden nematode on tomato
plants in Portugal is scanty, but it seems that
there is danger of a buildup in the nematode
population in certain irrigated areas where
tomatoes for the canned paste industry are
being intensively cultivated, with very short
crop rotations or with no rotation at all.

The average annual area growing potatoes
and tomatoes is about 100,000 hectares (250,-
000 acres), but the golden nematode consti-
tutes a problem in only about 10 percent of
this area, especially on sandy soils,

There are no specific official regulations in
Portugal concerning the golden nematode; the
general plant protection regulations are, of
course, applicable to this pest. An educational
campaign giving advice to the farmers on the


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 81

APPENDIX III—SOIL SAMPLING FOR POTATO ROOT EELWORM

To sample soil efficiently for potato root eel-
worm, you need an accurate sampling tech-
nique. It is essential to take representative
samples, to process the samples so that the
cysts therein can be found, to avoid mixing
up the samples, and to have sufficient staff
available to handle a satisfactory number of
samples.

The accuracy of the method depends on a
number of factors, including the number of
eelworms present in the field, their distribu-
tion, the number of points sampled in the
field, and the subsequent laboratory handling
of the composite field sample. Rather different
methods of soil sampling are used in the
Netherlands and the United Kingdom, but they
appear to result in similar accuracy. In both
countries field sampling is carried to a stage
where a marked increase in accuracy could
not be achieved even by a very large increase
in the intensity of sampling.

The most accurate methods are needed in
connection with export and certain certifica-
tion schemes. Less intensive methods are fre-
quently suitable for purely advisory purposes.

The United Kingdom Method

The United Kingdom method consists in
making a number of soil borings 6 to 8 inches
(15 to 20 em.) deep with an auger 1.5 in.
(37 mm.) in diameter, or other similar tool,
at random over the area being sampled. For
plants for export purposes 25 such borings
are taken from areas up to 1% acre (1/5 ha.),
50 from areas of from 1% to 2 acres (1/5 to 4/5
ha.) and 5 extra borings for each additional
acre (2/; ha.). Additional samples are taken
from places where plants to be exported are
growing, from glasshouses, loam heaps, and
any ground under suspicion. The borings are
bulked and taken to the laboratory where the

soil is air dried and thoroughly mixed. Two
subsamples of 250 g. are taken and their cyst
content estimated by a flotation technique.

The Dutch Method

In the Dutch method, a special tool is used
for routine sampling. The tool is designed so
that 50 prods with it will extract approxi-
mately 250 ce. of moist soil, which will make
about 200 cc. of dried soil. The usual rate of
sampling is 50 prods per hectare, but for spe-
cial purposes this is increased to 50 prods per
¥ hectare (about 0.8 acre). The whole sample
is air dried and examined in the laboratory
by flotation. Special attention is given to the
entrances to fields and clamp sites.

Comparison of the Two Methods

The methods differ in the much larger
quantity of soil taken from each field in the
United Kingdom, in the depth sampled, and in
the amount of handling required in the labora-
tory. As they appear to be comparable in
accuracy, there is no technical reason for pre-
ferring one to the other, and the Dutch method
is simpler.

It is therefore recommended that for survey
work a sample should represent not more than
one hectare; that it should consist of at least
50 borings or prods; and that at least 200 cc.
of air-dried soil should be examined. Under
certain circumstances, it is desirable to de-
crease the maximum acreage covered by the
sample. For example, exporting nurseries and
areas under suspicion should be sampled 3 to
10 times as intensively as other areas.

Details of equipment and technique should
be left to the country concerned, provided that
the results are comparable with those obtained
with the techniques mentioned above.

te U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1968—297-095


THE GOLDFN NEMATODE HANDBOOK

49

BN-32356

Ficure 46.—Wauseon, a new variety resistant to the golden nematode, was released November 1967, Wauseon
is also similar to the Katahdin.

USDA plant breeders, in cooperation with
Cornell scientists, released in 1967 a second
variety resistant to the golden nematode. The
new variety named Wauseon is a selection from
a cross between B4159-8 and Katahdin. It is
resistant to common scab, moderately resistant
to Verticillium wilt, highly resistant to the

THE INTERNATIONAL

The golden nematode is a pest of global con-
cern (figs. 47-51). It is frequently the subject
of both domestic and international regulations.
The international spread of the golden nema-
tode is a target of import regulations of many
countries.

The long-distance shipment of nursery stock,
plants, plant parts, corms, and tubers is in-
creasing. The use of air transport to move
these products has multiplied the risk of long-
distance spread of not only the golden nema-
tode but other insects and plant diseases.

Effective nematocides, such as dips for nur-
sery stock, bulbs, corms, and tubers are ur-
gently needed. The hazards of spreading
nematodes are not restricted to plant material
alone, as will be seen later in this chapter.

Most countries that have regulations against
the golden nematode require that imported
agricultural products be free of soil. Most

common races of late blight, resistant to latent
mosaic and mild mosaic, and to the golden
nematode. Its tubers are resistant to net
necrosis following leafroll infection. The tubers
of Wauseon have smooth skin, are round to
oblong, and have shallow eyes and creamy-
white flesh (fig. 46).

PROBLEM OF CONTROL

countries have very strict regulations about
the importation of potatoes from countries
where the nematode is known to occur. Many
countries require a phytosanitary certificate
showing that the potatoes originated in fields
that have been soil sampled with negative re-
sults or from a portion of the country where
all survey data indicate that the nematode
does not exist. In some instances, potatoes are
embargoed from countries where the golden
nematode occurs. The movement of bulbs,
corms, and nursery stock is usually subject to
rigid requirements. .

The need for uniform measures concerning
the control of the golden nematode has been
recognized by the European Economic Com-
munity (EEC). On October 14, 1966, the EEC
Commission submitted proposals to the EEC
Council for consideration and adoption.

These proposed regulations were the mini-


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 59

Canada

The golden nematode was first discovered in
Canada in the Province of Newfoundland in
October 1962, in the community of Manuels on
Conception Bay some 14 miles west of the city
of St. Johns. The discovery of the pest was not
entirely unexpected because no import restric-
tions were maintained by the colony until 1949,
when Newfoundland became a Province of
Canada. Potatoes and other vegetables were
imported from Great Britain when the neces-
sity arose, and it is possible that the nematode
was introduced many years ago.

The importation of potatoes into Canada
from Newfoundland has been prohibited since
1910 because of potato wart. Following the
confederation with Canada, the regulations
under the Destructive Insect Pest Act were
amended to continue the prohibition of the
movement of potatoes, soil, plants with soil,
used bags, and other items, and to prohibit
their export to other countries.

The Canada Department of Agriculture’s
Plant Protection Division, under the authority
of the Destructive Insect and Pest Act and the
Destructive Insect and Pest Regulations, has
broad power to prohibit or restrict the importa-
tion of plants with soils or packing materials,
containers, machinery, implements, vehicles,
and other carriers containing soil or to which
soil may adhere. This applies to all countries
except the continental United States unless
plants with soils have been thoroughly washed
or otherwise treated immediately before move-
ment into Canada and unless the importation
is accompanied by an affidavit or declaration
to that effect.

Canada has been particularly alert for the
presence of the golden nematode in the country
because of the importance of seed-potato ex-
ports. Canada produces annually about 70,000
acres of seed potatoes on nearly 10,000 fields in
nine Provinces. A random survey, started in
1959, has been conducted throughout the seed-
producing areas.

On June 16, 1965, a votato farmer on Van-
couver Island, Saanich Peninsula, near the city
of Victoria, British Columbia, brought to the
Saanich Peninsula Agricultural Experiment
Station a potato plant with soil for examina-
tion by the pathologist. The plant and soil were
examined by W. R. Orchard and N. Waseem
and found to contain a large number of golden
nematodes in various stages of development.
Specimens were sent to Ottawa for confirma-
tion, which came on June 21.

The infested property belonged to a farmer

who had formerly grown bulbs. He had im-
ported bulbs from Europe and had grown the
last crop of bulbs on the infested property in
1938. Between 1938 and 1950 he grew various
crops and since 1950 he had continuously
grown potatoes on the field (fig. 56).

The Canada Department of Agriculture’s
Plant Protection Division took immediate steps
to regulate the movement of crop plants and
commodities that might carry the nematode
out of the area. In consultation with the author
of this handbook, a program to combat the
nematode was developed. A laboratory was es-
tablished, surveys instituted, and quarantine
regulations established.

By 1966, surveys conducted throughout the
Province of British Columbia showed that the
golden nematode was confined to a small area
on the Saanich Peninsula. Cysts of the golden
nematode have been found on approximately
150 acres.

All infested lands are removed from produc-
tion and fumigated with dichloroprovene-
dichloropropane at the rate of 50 imperial gal-
lons per acre. At least two applications are
given each field. In addition, some 300 acres
exposed to infestation have been removed from
potato production and fumigated. The Cana-
dian Government comvensates growers for
their losses.

Canary Islands

According to a report by R. Chamberlain,
University of Belfast, and Iuan Valladares
Barbuxano, they discovered the golden nema-
tode in La Victoria de Acentejo and in other
districts in Tenerife, Canary Islands, on De-
cember 27, 1960 (6). According to Chamber-
lain, the discovery was made at latitude 28° 25’
north. This appears to be the most southern
occurrence as yet recorded of H. rostochiensis
in the Old World. (See Spain.)

Chile

In October 1966, the Minister of Agricul-
ture, Santiago, Chile, telephoned me and ad-
vised that a shipment of 3,500 metric tons of
Irish potatoes from Europe were in port and
had been found to be contaminated with the
golden nematode. Safeguards were discussed
and aereed uvon for the safe disposition of the
potatoes. All the potatoes, except a few bags,
were washed and sold for consumption in
metropolitan areas. The unwashed potatoes
were later moved to a farm. In December 1967,
I was advised that representatives of the De-


q@)

(2

(3)

4

(5)

(6)

(7

(8)

(9)

(10)

(1)

(12)

(18)

(14)

THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK

17

LITERATURE CITED

Bett, F. H., and ALANDIA, SEGUNDO, B.
1955. GOLDEN NEMATODE AND OTHER POTATO
DISEASES IN BOLIVIA. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Plant Dis. Rptr. 39(5) :407-408.
BENACHI PHYTOPATHOLOGICAL INSTITUTE.

1964, ANNALS OF THE BENACHI PHYTOPATHO-
LOGICAL INSTITUTE. 7(1) :50-59.
Greece.
Bricuer, E.
1960-61. (FIRST DISCOVERY OF HETERODERA

ROSTOCHIENSIS WOLL. ON WILD PO-
TATOES (SOLANUM SECT. TUBERAR-
IUM) IN THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE AS A PLAGUE
OF THE CULTIVATED spP.). U. Nac.
de Cuyo Facul. de Cien Agr. Rev.
8(1):7-18, illus. (In Spanish.)
CANNON, O. S.
1941, HETERODERA SCHACTIT FOUND IN A LONG
ISLAND POTATO FIELD. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Plant Dis. Rptr. 25(15) :408.

1941. POTATO NEMATODE DISEASE.
Farm and Home
27(8) :3.

CHAMBERLAIN, R., and BARBUXANO, I. V.

1961. POTATO ROOT EELWORM_IN THE CANARY
ISLANDS. Nature (London) 189(3):

CurTwoop, B. G.

Nassau_Co.
Bureau News

1951. THE GOLDEN NEMATODE OF POTATOES.
U.S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 875, 48 pp., illus.

and Buurer, E. M.
1945. SUMMARY OF SOIL FUMIGANT TESTS MADE

AGAINST THE GOLDEN NEMATODE OF

POTATOES (HETERODERA ROSTOCHIENSIS,

WOLLENWEBER), 1942-44, Helminthol.

Soc. Wash. Proc. 12(2): 40-42, illus.
and Bunrer, E, M.

FURTHER STUDIES ON THE LIFE HISTORY
OF THE GOLDEN NEMATODE OF POTATOES
(HETERODERA ROSTOCHIENSIS WOLLEN-
WEBER), SEASON 1945. Helminthol.
Soe. Wash. Proc. 13(2) :54-56, illus.

and Bunrer, E. M.

THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE GOLDEN NEM-
ATODE OF POTATOES, HETERODERA
ROSTOCHIENSIS WOLLENWEBER, UNDER
LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK, CONDITIONS.
Phytopathology 36(3): 180-189, illus.

CLEMENT, R. L. and Gorpon, F. M.

NEMATODE DISEASES OF POTATOES. Nas-
sau Co. Farm and Home Bur. News
28 (10) :2-3.

CLEMENT, R. L, and Gorpon, F. M.

PROGRESS REPORT OF THE STATUS OF THE
GOLDEN NEMATODE OF POTATOES IN
NASSAU COUNTY, NEW YORK. Nassau
Co. Farm and Home Bur. News
30(2) :1, 3.

———CLEMENT, R. L., Morcan, R., and TANK, R.

1942, HETERODERA ROSTOCHIENSIS, GOLDEN NEM-
ATODE OF POTATOES IN NEW YORK
STATE. U.S. Dept. Agr. Plant Dis.
Rptr. 26(18) :390-391,

and FELDMESSER, J.

1946,

1946.

1942.

1944,

1948.
Helminthol. Soc. Wash. Proc. 15(2):
43-55, illus.

GOLDEN NEMATODE POPULATION STUDIES.

(15)

(16)

qq)

(18)

(19)

(20)

(21)

(22)

(23)

(24)

(25)

(26)

(27)

Curistie, J. R.
1959. PLANT NEMATODES—THEIR BIONOMICS
AND CONTROL. 256 pp., illus. Univ.
Fla., Gainesville.
Coss, G. S., and Tayzor, A. L.

1953. HETERODERA LEPTONEPIA, N. SP., A CYST-
FORMING NEMATODE FOUND IN SOIL
WITH STORED POTATOES. Helminthol.
Soc. Wash. Proc. 20(1) :13-15.

EUROPEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN PLANT PROTEC-
TION ORGANIZATION.

1955. REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFER-
ENCE ON POTATO ROOT EELWORI
EPPO Rpt. (1955), 19 pp., illus.

Fenwick, D. W. and FRANKLIN, M. T.

1951. FURTHER STUDIES ON THE IDENTIFICATION
OF HETERODERA SPECIES BY LARVAL
LENGTH. ESTIMATION OF THE LENGTH
PARAMETERS FOR EIGHT SPECIES AND
VARIETIES. Jour. Helminthol. 25 (1-2):
57-76.

GRAINGER, J.

1964. FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONTROL OF EEL-
WORM DISEASES. Nematologica 10
(1964) :5-20. Netherlands.

Horton, C. S., Fiscuer, G. W., Futron, R. W.,

and others, eds.

1959. PLANT PATHOLOGY PROBLEMS AND PROG-
RESS, 1908-1958. 588 pp., illus. Univ.
Wis., Madison.

IcutnoHE, M.

1952. ON THE SOYBEAM NEMATODE, HETERODERA
GLYCINES N. SP., FROM JAPAN. OYO-
DOBUTSUGAKU-ZASSHI —_(Maga-
zine of Applied Zoology) 17(1-2:
1-4,

Jones, F. G. W.

1950. A NEW SPECIES OF ROOT EELWORM ATTACK-
ING CARROTS, RE. HETERODERA CAROTAE
N. Sp. (MORPHOLOGY). Nature 165
(4185): 81.

Kirsanova, E. S.

1954, SUMMARIES AND PERSPECTIVES IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF PHYTONEMATOLOGY
IN ussr, Akad. Nauk SSSR. Zool.
Inst. Trudy prob. i. Tematicheskikh
Soveshchanii 3: 9-47.

Linpuarpt, K.

1959. KARTOFFELAL. Statens Plantetilysyn. 52

pp., illus. Kobenhavn.
Lownseery, B. F., and Lownspery, J. W.

1954, HETERODERA TABACUM, NEW SPECIES, A
PARASITE OF SOLANACEOUS PLANTS IN
CONNECTICUT. Helminthol. Soc. Wash.
Proc. 21(1): 42-47.

Macara, A. M.

1963. CONTRIBUCIAO PARA 0 ESTUDO MORFOLO-
GICO E BIOLOGICO DOS NEMATODOS-
HETERODERA GOTTINGIANA LIEBSCHER,
1892 EB H. ROSTOCHIENSIS WOLLEN-
WEBER, 1923—ENCONTRADOS EM PORTU-
GAL. Broteria. Serie Trimestral
Cicencias Naturais 32: 25-119.

Mat, W. F., and Harrison, M. B.

1959. THE GOLDEN NEMATODE. N.Y. State Col.
Agr. (Cornell) Ext. Bul. 870, 31 pp.,
illus.
(28) ——— and Spears, J. F.
1954. THE GOLDEN NEMATODE IN THE UNITED

states. Amer. Potato Jour. 31(12):
387-396, illus.


40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

1N+88206

Ficure 37.—Tractor applicator, showing shanks and ground wheel that operates variable displacement piston
pumps. The wheel compensates for irregular speed of tractor and results in even discharge of chemical.

ping in application, the tractor operator should
use a row marker as a guide. The row marker
is attached to the toolbar.

Calibration of Fumigant Metering
Systems

Gravity-flow system.—The gravity-flow sys-
tem can be calibrated by using the following

tabulation to determine the milliliters of fumi-
gant per shank for the desired application:

Fumigant required’

Speed MI. per min,
2.0 miles per hour 573
2:5 miles per hour TT
3.0 miles per hour 860
3.5 miles per hour 1,003
4.0 miles per hour 1147

*Milliliters required per shank per minute for 45
gallons of fumigant per acre—10-inch shank spacing.
Example: For a 45-gallon-per-acre application
with shanks spaced 10 inches apart and the
tractor traveling at 3 miles per hour, a flow of
860 milliliters of fumigant is required per
shank per minute.

Fill the tank on the applicator approxi-
mately half full of fumigant. Make certain the
filler cap is screwed on tight so that air can-
not enter the tank. Open the control valve and
permit the system to run until air can be heard
gurgling through the liquid in the tank.

Quickly place a suitable container under one
of the shanks for 1 minute, then quickly re-
move it. Using a graduated cylinder divided
into milliliters, measure the amount of fumi-
gant collected. If the amount is less than that
specified on the chart, lower the coil flow boom
assembly. If the flow'is too great, raise the as-
sembly. Continue taking 1-minute samples of
the flow until the proper flow rate has been
obtained. If the application rate is greater or
less than required, the tractor speed may be
changed to provide the proper dosage. If this
is not practical, another set of flow regulating
coils may be installed. Longer coils will reduce
the flow rate and shorter coils will increase it.

Variable piston pump system.—The variable
displacement pump is calibrated by changing
its piston stroke. The piston stroke adjustment


70 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

where resumption of potato growing has been
permitted or where any of the other require-
ments have been released.

Glasshouses in which infestations are found
are permitted to resume normal culture of
tomatoes or other glasshouse plants provided
such establishment can be freed of infestation
to the satisfaction of the Ministry of Agricul-
ture. Under such situations, steam sterilization

SWEDEN

of soil and other cleanup measures are satis-
factory to eradicate infestations.

Field infestations of commercial potatoes are
for the most part confined to five districts, each
of which is designated by the Ministry of
Agriculture as a “scheduled area.” These areas
embrace the infested property and a wide
peripheral zone. Within these areas the pro-
visions of the potato root eelworm order apply.

FINLAND

Ficure 64.—Infested areas in Norway.


56 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Argentina

The following summary of the golden nema-
tode situation in Argentina (fig. 54) is based
on a translation of a report by Dr. Enrique
Briicher (3):

“In our discussions with North American
and European colleagues on the biological re-
lationship between Heterodera rostochiensis
and the South American Solanaceae, we have
always been of the opinion that the center of
origin or natural habitat of the parasite should
not be far from regions of a wide genetic and
physiological diversification of the generic
group Tuberarium (the tuber-bearing species
of the genus Solanum) and from places where
we have collected carriers of genes of natural
resistance against this nematode.

“As we have explained in a previous pre-
liminary publication (Briicher 1960), it must
be supposed that the true origin of this nema-
tode would be South America and, more pre-
cisely, the high valleys of the boundary zone
between Argentina and Bolivia. All our
searches for years in the northern Provinces
for the purpose of finding in the soil of the
wild tuberous species of Solanum, cyst of the
golden nematode, were in vain until for the
first time, in February 1955, in the high valley
of Purmamarca (Province of Jujuy) we ob-
served protuberances on roots of a wild species
of Solanum which appeared to be caused by
the golden nematode.

“We passed years in doubt, until on the oc-
casion of the ‘International Expedition of
Genocentros, 1958,’ we had the opportunity to
confirm definitely the findings. We found thus
in the soil of Tascal at 3,600 m. alt., in the
mountainous part in the north of the Chani
Mountains, cysts typical of Heterodera rosto-
chiensis on a wild species of Solanum (Tuber-
arium). Some weeks later we discovered other
foci of infection in the eastern part of the
Department of Tilcara in a valley leading from
Abra Remate (4,000 m. high) to Durazno, and
another in a valley in the north of the Cerro
Sisiler (4.700 m.).

“In both cases the cysts of Heterodera rost-
chiensis were found in humus where Solanum
acaule, S. gourlayi, and S. alticolum were nu-
merous. In the finding at the Valley Durazno
there were small patches with S. vernei in
abundance, also, S. infundibuliforme, S. acaule,
S. alticolum, and an undetermined species in
the environs and, besides, abandoned plantings
of native potatoes. The finding at the Valley
Durazno was sent for definite confirmation to
the Istituut de Nematologia de Holland, our
determination being affirmed by the Director,

Dr. Oostenbrink, in a letter dated January 24,
1959. We are convinced that with adequate
survey and personnel training, many more
natural foci in wild species of Solanum (Tuber-
arium) could be discovered in the Provinces
of Salta and Jujuy.

“But the proof of the existence of these
minute cysts on roots in the soil is a task
difficult enough when one is not adequately
prepared. Therefore, one must suppose that the
distribution of the golden nematode must be
much greater in northern Argentina than our
casual findings indicate.

“There is not the least doubt that the great
potato: -growing region of Argentina (south of
the province of Buenos Aires) is equally
threatened by this enemy of the potato.”

Austria

The golden nematode was first found in
Austria in 1940 and is known to occur in six
of nine Provinces; namely, Vorarlberg, Salz-
burg, Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Carin-
thia, and Styria. The extent of distribution of
the potato root eelworm is not exactly known
because regular soil examinations are carried
out only in the seed-potato-producing areas
(fig. 55).

Existing provincial plant quarantine legisla-
tion provides sufficient legal authority for the
adoption of measures to control the golden
nematode. To contain the spread of the nema-
tode in Austria, the Federal Institute for Plant
Protection has worked out recommendations
for growers to follow.

If soil surveys reveal an infestation level No.
III (see Appendix II), a minimum of 5 years
should elapse and the field should again be soil
sampled before potatoes are planted. At level
No. IV there is an added requirement that the
entire potato crop of the affected farm be ex-
amined each year until the outbreak is wiped
out. At level No. V the farmer should be made
to discontinue potato production until the out-
break has been greatly reduced. In home
gardens and on small plots or in mountain lo-
cations where rotation or chemical control is
impracticable, resistant potato varieties are
recommended. In areas devoted to seed produc-
tion with infestation levels No. III and IV
and where the level is No. V, the use of suitable
nematocides, preferably in combination with
the single-time use of nematode-resistant po-
tato varieties, is recommended.

The resistant potato variety Antinema and
the varieties Apis, Amelio, and Amaryl are
being grown in Austria.


62 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BN-80081

Ficure 58.—Test plots showing the effects of golden nematode on tomatoes at Imperial College field station,
Sunninghill, Ascot Burkes, England.

BN-30076
Ficure 59.—A potato field in England, showing heavy damage caused by golden nematode. [British Crown
Copyright; reproduced by permission. ]


58 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

YUGOSLAVIA

Ficure 55.—Infested provinces in Austria.

Belgium

The golden nematode was first found in
Belgium in 1949. Belgium prohibits growing
potatoes and tomatoes on the same land more
often than once every 3 years. On infested
properties the law prohibits the growing of po-
tato, tomato, and other vegetable plants for
transplanting for a period of 5 years. This
period can, however, be lengthened or short-
ened depending on circumstances, such as
viable cyst count. The law requires that early
potatoes be harvested no later than June 20.

On the Belgium coast where commercial po-
tatoes are grown, the Government has a soil
treatment program using D-D at the rate of
approximately 63.4 gallons per acre. The Plant
Protection Service has a systematic soil sam-
pling survey throughout the country. All sam-
ples are processed at Ghent. Studies are
underway to determine whether resistance-
breaking races occur.

Bolivia

The following description of the golden
nematode situation in Bolivia was summarized
from a report by Frank H. Bell and B. Alandia
Segundo (1).

During the period 1952-54, observations were
made on the diseases of potatoes in Bolivia
that should be of interest to pathologists else-
where, especially since the area may be one of
the ancestral homes of the potato.

One of the more interesting organisms noted
for the first time in Bolivia was the golden
nematode, Heterodera rostochiensis. It was
found to be widespread in the Lake Titicaca
region of northwestern Bolivia, at an altitude
of 12,600 to 18,000 feet (fig. 54). One of the
sites where it was noted was on the famous
“Island of the Sun” of the prehistoric Incas.
It was also found in the Tunari range (altitude
11,000 feet) near Cochabamba. This latter site
is 200 miles southwest of Lake Titicaca in
mountains that are separated from the main
Bolivian Altiplano. The widespread occurrence
of this nematode in long cultivated, heavily
populated regions of Bolivia substantiates the
theory of Ing. de Segura of Peru, where the
nematode was noted in 1952 for the first time,
that this nematode is indigenous to the Andes
and was probably carried from there to Europe
and then to the United States. The root-knot
nematode, Meloidogyne sp., has been found on
potatoes in the sandy soils of the Island of the
Sun, and in the highlands east of the Cocha-
bamba Valley.


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK val

CANAL ZONE

t,
4,

%
\
ionr
es
COLOMBIA

—

FicureE 65.—Infested areas in Panama.

In addition, special cropping restrictions re-
quire that potatoes shall not be planted on any
noninfested land in the scheduled area more
often than twice in any 8 years.

Norway

The golden nematode was first found in
Norway in 1956. The infested farms are lo-
cated in the coastal counties of Aust-Agder,
Vest-Agder, and Rogaland (fig. 64).

The Norwegian Plant Protection Institute,
Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture, has issued
regulations concerning the control of golden
nematode. Regulations include the following:
Tractors that might have infested soil must be
thoroughly cleaned and washed; the sale of
seed potatoes and other plant material from
infested areas is prohibited; and the growing
of potatoes in infested areas is also prohibited.
Exceptions may be made, however, to the last
regulation under certain conditions and then
only for the growing of potatoes every fourth
year. The Norwegian Government’s regula-
tions concerning this pest are based on recom-
mendations of EPPO, of which Norway is a
member.

The Norwegian Plant Protection Institute,
Norwegian Agricultural College, Vollebekk,
has developed two resistant potato varieties.

Nationwide surveys for the nematode are
being conducted. So far, the southwest, south-
ern, and eastern parts have been covered by
this survey.

One resistance-breaking biotype B has been
found on one farm. Investigations on resist-
ance-breaking biotypes are continuing.

As a protective measure, the Government
strongly recommends to growers that they ro-
tate potatoes on land not known to be infested.

Panama

The golden nematode was discovered in
Panama in August 1967 following damage to
a potato crop. The infestation is located in
Cerro Punta, Chiriqui (fig. 65), according to
Dr. Rodrigo Tarte, University of Panama.

The main varieties of potatoes grown in the
country are Alpha, Red Pontiac, and Urgenta.
Farmers have customarily obtained their seed
potatoes from European sources.

Dr. Tarte has organized a survey which is
being conducted throughout the potato-
growing regions of the country. On October 26,
1967, Mr. Jack E. Lipes, FAO Agricultural
Officer, El Salvador, notified the Plant Quaran-
tine Division, ARS, USDA, of the occurrences
of the infestation and indicated that OIRSA
(Organismo Internacional Regional De Sanidad
Agropecuria) was considering placing a quar-
antine on Panama because of the nematode.
Mr. Lipes reported that swollen females were
found on the roots of potatoes, and he sent a
vial of specimens to the USDA. Dr. A. Morgan
Golden confirmed that the specimens were H.
rostochiensis.

This is the first infestation of the golden
nematode recorded from Central America. Offi-


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK

Figure 51.—Golden nematode infestations in the Far East and Oceania.

mended that stricter or supplementary regu-
lations be enacted to control or prevent the
spread of the golden nematode where local
conditions warrant.

The EEC Commission will publish before
November of each year a list of resistant potato
varieties and the biotype of nematode against
which the resistance applies.

The European and Mediterranean Plant Pro-
tection Organization, Paris, France, generally
referred to as EPPO, has been the leader in
Europe in establishing guidelines to be fol-
lowed in preventing international spread of the

nematode (34, p. 29). The golden nematode
was the subject of a special conference
sponsored by the EPPO in the Netherlands in
1955. At that time the member countries rec-
ommended requirements for export certifica-
tion of potatoes. The conferences also recom-
mended the use of a standard soil sampling
technique based on the Dutch and United
Kingdom methods, which are widely used in
European countries (17). (See Appendixes II
and III.)

To avoid possible importation of the golden
nematode into the United States, the Nursery


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 45

N-98183

FicurE 42.—All equipment used on infested land must be thoroughly steamed clean or fumigated before it is
moved to another location.

clothing, including gloves or shoes, remove the
garments without delay; do not wear them
again until they are washed, cleaned, or at
least thoroughly aired for a day or two. Never
risk getting the material in your mouth. If it
is splashed in your eyes, wash it out with large
quantities of water and consult a physician.

Keep children and pets away from fumigated
soil. Potting and rooting soil that has been
treated with nematocides should not be used
until all traces of fumigant odor have disap-
peared.

Careful disposal of empty pesticide contain-
ers and surplus pesticides is an important part
of safe pesticide use. Large metal drums can
be disposed of more safely and easily by re-

turning to the supplier or selling them to a
cooperage firm equipped to handle toxic ma-
terials. Small metal drums should be rendered
unusable by chopping holes in them or crush-
ing them and then burying them at public
dumps.

Resistant Potato Varieties

The potato is one of about 2,000 species in
the family Solanaceae. This family includes
such plants as tobacco, tomato, eggplant, pep-
per, horse-nettle, bittersweet, ground cherry,
and petunia. Botanically, the potato cultivated
in North America, Europe, and other lands is
Solanum tuberosum L. (fig. 43). There are
nearly 160 wild species and 20 cultivated
species of the tuber-bearing Solanums. All


68 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

powers the Minister of Agriculture and Fish-
eries to issue various orders. One of these is
the Potato Root Eelworm Order of 1951.

Potato varieties resistant to the golden
nematode are available in Ireland only for re-
search purposes. No such varieties are availa-
ble commercially.

Chemical fumigants are not used against the
golden nematode on outdoor crops grown in
Treland. However, Dazomet (methyl-iso-thiocy-
anate) is used to control the golden nematode
in tomatoes grown under glass.

Farmland found to be infested with golden
nematode must be sown with grass immediately
in accordance with the Potato Root Eelworm
Order. The Department of Agriculture and
Fisheries does not consider it practical to ex-
tend this requirement to urban garden plots
because of the frequent changes in occupiers.
But when the golden nematode is found in ur-
ban gardens, the owner is advised to sow the
garden with grass, and he is given a copy of
the Department’s leaflet “Potato Root Eel-
worm.”

Surveys to date indicate mostly biotype A
occurs in Ireland. Only one population of bio-
type B has been found. No other biotypes have
been found.

Treland has no legislation controlling the
rotation of crops. Rotation of seed potatoes
is controlled, however, under the Government’s
Certified Seed Potato Scheme, and several
Trish companies using potatoes for industrial
purposes include rotation clauses in their con-
tracts with growers. The Irish Sugar Company
uses potatoes in its potato flake factory, and
Ceimici Teoranta (Chemicals Limited) uses
potatoes for making glucose. Both of these
Government-sponsored companies have rota-
tion clauses in their contracts with growers.

Israel

The golden nematode was first detected in
Israel in 1957. A minor infestation was found
in the Raanana region, Petach-Tikva subdis-
trict (15 miles north of Tel Aviv) all within
a radius of 3 miles.

The Plant Protection Service of the Ministry
of Agriculture conducts systematic surveys of
all potato fields in the Raanana region. So far,
it has been unnecessary to apply Government
regulation. The Extension Service of the Min-
istry of Agriculture recommends one potato
crop in 3 years in the region affected by the
nematode. As a rule, farmers comply with the
advice given by the Extension Service officer
in an effort to control pests of this nature.

There are no resistant potato varieties avail-
able and no resistance-breaking biotypes are
known. Some experimental work has been done
with soil fumigants using ethylene dibromide
at the rate of 60 liters to the acre (15.85
gallons).

Italy

The occurrence of the golden nematode in
Italy was first reported in 1962. According to
the Ministry of Agriculture, infestations are
found mainly in the Naples area where early
potatoes are grown. Some scientists think that
the infested area is much more widespread.

The Naples area has maintained fairly good
yields. This may be related to the use of cow
manure as a fertilizer, which is thought to
inhibit the development of the nematode.

At a potato conference in 1964, Government
control measures were petitioned without suc-
cess. Imported seed potatoes, however, must
come from areas free of the nematode. The
Government does offer advice on control meas-
ures recommending crop rotation.

Fields in the infested area are numerous and
small. The potato crop in this area is of great
economic importance.

Research is underway on resistant potato
varieties and chemical fumigants.

Jersey

The golden nematode was first discovered on
the island of Jersey in 1938 where it was
causing serious damage to early potatoes (37).
Later that same year, the nematode was found
in a field of tomatoes.

The seriousness of the nematode has been
demonstrated in a few cases where potatoes
have yielded less than the weight of seed
planted. Tomato growers are also concerned
about the seriousness of the problem. Cases
have been reported where yields of tomatoes
have been reduced from 15 tons an acre to less
than 2 tons. Soil samples are examined for
growers on an advisory basis. In general, more
than 50 percent of the samples examined have
measurable contamination.

Soil fumigation using D-D, methyl bromide,
and Vapam is in use. Under a law that came
into force in 1962, approved materials for po-
tato root eelworm control were subsidized. The
subsidies being granted were for soil sampling
or crop examination, or both, which show
whether the pest populations have reached the
level sufficient to cause crop damage.


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 65

determine when infestations exceed an_ac-
ceptable level, whereupon the growing of host
plants is prohibited for 5 years. Rotation of
potatoes and tomatoes is compulsory. Through
these measures, intensity of attack is kept at
low levels.

Rules governing marketing are contained in
a decree published June 29, 1963, in the
Gesetzblatt IT.

Germany (West)

It is from Germany that we first learned
about the potato nematode problem. (See His-
tory and Origin of the Golden Nematode.)

There are no official figures on the extent of
distribution within the German Federal Re-
public, although it is known that the potato
nematode occurs in all States. After a consid-
erable postwar increase in nematode incidence,
the infestation intensity decreased especially
in recent years mainly because an increase in
the standard of living (and associated decline
in demand) had caused a decrease in potato
cultivation.

The basic legislation on potato nematode
control in the Federal Republic is (a) the
Ordinance of July 20, 1956, Prevention of
Occurrence and Control of Potato Nematodes,
and (b) Ordinance Amending the Ordinance
on Prevention of Occurrence and Control of
Potato Nematodes of July 26, 1961.

According to these ordinances, the produc-
tion of potatoes and tomatoes as well as the
construction of dirt storage pits is, on princi-
ple, forbidden in infested areas until the Plant
Protection Service has declared the areas to be
free of infestation (fig. 62). On the basis of
these ordinances, the States have established
implementing ordinances, which consider any
special local conditions in their areas.

The breeding of nematode-resistant varieties
of potatoes is being pursued with great vigor.
The Federal Variety Agency (Bundessorten-
amt) has acknowledged that three varieties
are resistant against nematodes: Antinema,
Apis, Cobra.

In several localities of the Federal Republic
there occurs the resistance-immune biotype B
of the potato nematode. It is expected that
further resistance-immune biotypes will be dis-
covered.

As a matter of principle, the Government
does not interfere with crop rotation on nonin-
fested areas. Farmers are advised, however, to
plant potatoes and other nematode host plants
only every third year. If an area is considered
to be endangered with infestation, the authori-

AUSKUNFT: PFLANZEN SCHUTZAMT.

Ficure 62.—Poster used by West German extension
service to alert farmers to the golden nematode
problem.

ties may order that potatoes can be planted
only every third year.

The growing of potatoes on infested land is
basically forbidden. Upon application, the Gov-
ernment may grant exemptions—for example,
for the growing of resistant varieties; for
noninfested parts of fields, provided these
parts or neighboring fields are not endangered ;
for scientific and breeding purposes, provided
this does not endanger nematode control.

The Plant Protection Offices inspect their
areas for the occurrence of potato nematodes
and other pests. All enterprises producing for
export (horticultural enterprises, tree nurs-
eries) are officially inspected periodically for
noninfestation; for example, in North Rhine-
Westphalia the total area is inspected every 4
years and the ground storage places every 2
years. Similar regulations exist in the other
States.

Before seed potatoes can be grown, an offi-
cial inspector must declare the area free from


42 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353,

is conveniently located on the side of the
pump

Calibration of the piston pump system is
simplified by using the John Blue Company LF
Pump Setting Chart,* Blue Part No. LF-416—
B. Use the front side of the computer only, as
the information on the back does not apply to
this installation. For this treating machine, the
loaded radius of the wheel is 18.5 inches and
the sprocket ratio 3 to 1. With the nine shanks
installed, 10 inches on centers, the swath is
90 inches. These three values will always re-
main the same for this machine, unless a dif-
ferent size of tire is used, a shank removed, or
the spacing of the shanks changed.

Using the LF Pump Setting Chart, set the
loaded radius 13.5 inches opposite the sprocket
ratio, 8 to 1. Set 90 inches on the swath width
scale, and under the arrow read the pump set-
ting opposite gallons per acre.

Since loaded radius, sprocket ratio, and
swath will remain the same, the pump setting
for any application can be read without chang-
ing the computer.

It is possible that tires mav slip. Therefore,
it may be desirable to check the calibration by
moving the machine a known distance and
measuring the output.

To check the calibration under actual travel
conditions after the preliminary pump settings
have been made, use the calibration table for LF
piston pump applicator in table 4.

TABLE 4.—Rates of flow for specified applica-
tions of fumigant

Gallons per Flow requirements for 90-inch swath
acre for distance of 100 feet
Gallons Ounces Milliliters
1 0.0172 2.201 65.1
5. 10860 11.005 325.5
10 1720 22.01 651.0
a 3440 44.02 1,302.0
‘5160 66.03 1/953.0
"6880 88.04 2;604.0
"7740 99.04 2/929.5
50 13600 110.05 3,555.0
60... 1,032 132.06 3,906.0

For other application rates and other dis-
tances of travel, compute as follows: Length
in feet x rate in gallons ver acre X 0.651 =
volume of output in milliliters.

Each applicator is equipped with a calibra-
tion tank and gage. The gage is graduated in
ounces. Refer to table 4 to determine the ounces
of fumigant required for a particular applica-
tion rate. Fill the calibration tank to the zero

1,chazt available from John Blue Company, Hunts-
ville, Ala.

U.S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

mark on the gage and close the valve to supply
tanks. Place the applicator in the ground to
normal working depth and drive it a measured
distance of 100 feet. Read the gage to deter-
mine the amount of fumigant that was released.
If 45 gallons per acre is the desired application
rate, the gage should indicate that 99.04
ounces were used in 100 feet. Change the pump
setting, if necessary, to release this amount of
fumigant in 100 feet of travel.

Field Operations for Shank Injection
Equipment

When shank injection equipment is used to
apply the nematocides, four separate and dis-
tinct field operations are necessary:

1. Preparation of the soil for first applica-

tion.

2. First application of the fumigant.

83. Preparation of the soil for the second

application.

4. Second application of the chemical.

Preparing soil for first application—Each
field to be treated must be inspected to deter-
mine the type and amount of preparation that
will be necessary before applying the chemical.
If coarse stubble or stalks from a previous
crop or weeds are present; they must be thor-
oughly chopped or disposed of either by decay
or by other means. Normally, it requires about
6 months for stalks and stubble to decay to a
degree that will not interfere with the applica-
tion. If the field is disked thoroughly and
turned in the fall, it should be suitable for
treatment the following spring or summer—
with an additional disking and plowing just be-
fore treatment.

The type of soil, depth of top-soil, and the
normal depth of previous cultivations must be
considered when plowing the field. Normally,
a depth of approximately 8 inches is sufficient
for preparing the soil for treatment. If the soil
has been plowed previously to a depth greater
than 8 inches, then the soil must be plowed to
that depth in preparation for treatment.

Preparation of the soil for the first applica-
tion of the chemical will usually require the
following operations to condition the soil for
reception of the chemical:

1. Disked one or more times, depending on
trash present.

2. Turned with a moldboard plow to a depth
equal to maximum penetration in past
cultural operations. Do not plow when
soil is too wet or too dry.

8. Disked lightly to smooth ridges and clods.

The soil is ready for treatment when it has


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK AL

N-59118
Ficure 38.—The chemical passes through the flow divider, which distributes material equally through each shank.

‘N-59111
Ficure 39.—Tractor applicators working in tandem. Scotch harrow pulled by each tractor seals the furrows
opened by the shanks.


54

Stock, Plant and Seed Quarantine No. 87 re-
quires that plant propagative material be free
from sand, soil, or earth, except shipments
from those areas in Canada known to be free
from this pest. Otherwise, such importations
may be refused entry into the United States.
As an additional safeguard, such restricted
plant material from those countries with offi-
cial systems of inspection shall be accompanied
by a certificate issued by a duly authorized
foreign official attesting that such material
was grown on land in which no golden nema-
tode is known to occur. In countries where the
golden nematode is reported, the certificate
shall state the date of the most recent inspec-
tion of the land in which the restricted plant
material was grown. The Federal Plant Pest
Act also prohibits the importation of soil that
might be associated with any material, such
as farm machinery and used bags, and the
Federal potato regulations prohibit the im-
portation of potatoes from most foreign areas.

nated equipment must be steamed clean

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

The enforcement of various Federal plant
quarantine regulations results in the intercep-
tion of the golden nematode each year on a
wide variety of products and materials. During
1965, the golden nematode was intercepted
more than a hundred times: In soil mailed
from Ireland; in soil with automotive equip-
ment: (fig. 52); in bagging, conex box, and
tractors (fig. 53) in cargo from England, Ger-
many, and Italy; in soil with horseradish in
air mail and in ships’ stores from England and
an unknown origin; in soil with potatoes in
air baggage, cargo, and ships’ stores from
England, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands,
Peru, Scotland, Sweden, and unknown origin;
in soil with propagative material in air bag-
gage, air mail, air quarters, baggage, and
cargo from England, Finland, France, Ger-
many, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Scot-
land, Sweden, and an unknown origin; in soil
with shamrock in air baggage, air cargo, and
mail from Ireland; and in soil in ships’ stores
from England and Germany.

BN-22749
Ficure 52.—USDA Plant Quarantine inspectors check a returning tourist’s car for golden nematode. Contami-

before entry into the United States.


44 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

N-88175
Ficure 40.—A 6-inch band of lime is placed on the surface of soil to check efficiency of plowing operation.

‘N-38178
Figure 41—Inspection of the plowed ground determines whether the lime has been covered to the required
minimum depth of 3 inches.


AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

60

‘oBewep Jo eouapids pemoys play aarjua ay} ‘GgGI ‘EZ auNL UO LoYNE ayy Aq
apeut sem ydeadojoyd siya Uy “POST UE SUNT OFRIod poyuNys pajou ySay xouLLES dy, ‘dong wos paqrodut sqinq
umoid Aysnojacad pey Aylodoad oy, “eiquiNjog YSIyLAg ‘pue[s] TeanooueA Uo Play paysesul [eUIIA0 9YI—g9¢ aINDT



36 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Chemical Control

The golden nematode is one of the most dif-
ficult of all crop pests to kill by fumigation,
since the unhatched nematode is protected by
both the shell of the egg and the tough, leath-
ery cyst wall of the female.

Many chemicals have been tested by ARS
(8, 12) and Cornell University for control
or eradication of the golden nematode (27).
The nematocide dichloropropene-dichloropro-
pane has consistently given the most promising
results (42).

The first large-scale attempt at chemical
control or eradication of the golden nematode
was in 1946, when the soil fumigant D-D was
applied to 1,500 acres of infested land in Nas-
sau County, N.Y. The chemical was applied
at the rate of 45 gallons per acre in a single
application. Although this application reduced
viable nematode populations to a very low
level, complete control was not achieved. The
concentration of fumigant in the upper inch
or two of the soil was not sufficient to kill
the organism at this level (39).

Scientists generally agree that the dispersal
rate of soil fumigant vapors on reaching the
soil surface increases because of lack of re-
straining pressure, and the organisms on or
near the surface are not exposed to toxic gases
long enough for all of them to be killed.

This factor was taken into account when
field tests were resumed by the author in 1955
(42). (See table 8.). The same soil fumigant,
D-D, was applied, but this time at the rate of
90 gallons per acre in two applications of 45
gallons each, 10 days apart; the soil was turned
between applications. These tests, conducted

TABLE 3.—Number of infested fields and net
acreage treated with nematocides and treated
acreage released for use, Long Island, 1955—
67

Treated with nematocides
Gross acreage
Year Number Net released
of fields acreage for use
1955 8 35.05 0
1956 3 47.78 10.00
1957 1 7.00 0
1958 1 18.50 10.61
1959 4 62:88 67:32
1960 | a8 574.93 656.81
1961 17 1,168.53 1,275.68
1962 23 788.42 788.11
1963 15 489.20 511.50
1964 15 498.96 360.04
1965 15 381.31 240.87
1966 21 764.52 429.14
1967 6 267.72 44.20
Total 137 5,089.75 4,388.73

over a period of 5 years, demonstrated that
the golden nematode could be controlled, and
served as the basis for the treatment program
ieusureted on Long Island in 1960 (41) (fig.

A group of farmers and businessmen repre-
senting the potato industry on eastern Long
Island inaugurated a treatment program in
1960 on potato fields exposed to infestation.
This organization, known as the Suffolk County
Agricultural Commission, was created through
the assistance of the county executive and the
Suffolk County Board of Supervisors.

The purpose of this organization is to apply
nematocides, as a preventive measure, to po-

N-88173

Ficure 83.—Applying nematocide to infested field on Long Island.


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK AT

these relatives of the potato are of New World
origin. Probably the closest wild relative is
S. andigenum Juz. & Buk., which produces ac-
ceptable yields under the short-day conditions
of the Andes Mountains. Some botanists
consider S. andigenum to be a subspecies of
S. tuberosum.

A potato breeding program to find resistance
to the golden nematode has been carried out
extensively in Great Britain, Holland, and
Germany, since 1945 when Ellenby, a British
scientist, screened many Solanum spp. and dis-
covered that S. vernei and S. tuberosum spp.
andigena were resistant to the golden nematode
(50, p. 252). In the United States, Cornell
University scientists confirmed Ellenby’s find-
ings and, in addition, found that S..sucrense
also had resistant characteristics. However,
andigena seem to offer the best basis for a
potato breeding program because the re-
sistance of andigena potatoes is due to a single
dominant gene (38, p. 265). A breeding pro-
gram for resistance involves backcrossing,
which is not too involved in this case because
no sterility barriers exist between andigena
and S. tuberosum. Furthermore, since potato
varieties are reproduced vegetatively there are
few problems in fixing the resistance in vari-
eties once it has been transferred from the
resistant parent (38, p. 265).

Resistant varieties, like susceptible ones,
produce a substance that has a high hatching
quality. The roots are invaded by the larvae
of the nematode in a manner similar to that
of larvae invading susceptible varieties. Some
males are produced, but few females complete
their development to form cysts. Thus, the
growing of resistant potatoes on infested land
results in a decrease of nematode populations
in the soil (38, p. 265).

Until the 1950’s it was assumed that there
was no particular physiological variation in
the golden nematode’s ability to attack the
resistant host (20, p. 414). However, in breed-
ing varieties for resistance to the golden nema-
tode, it has been shown that within the
nematode species there exist populations with
ability to break the resistance and complete
their life cycle on the resistant variety. These
populations are referred to as_ resistance
breakers or resistance-breaking biotypes (20,
p. 414). Scientists investigating resistant
potatoes in Europe found that the golden
nematode from Peru was capable of breaking
resistance in 82 Dutch tuber lines bred from
C.P.C. 1678 (20, p. 414). The names of bio-
types are not yet established; however,
European workers report that they have ob-

tained evidence of at least six biotypes (38,
p. 265),

The widespread occurrence of biotypes in
several European countries presents serious
problems for maintaining potato varieties that
are resistant to the golden nematode. S. vernei
is resistant to all known biotypes; however,
plant breeders have found this species difficult
to use in a breeding program. The resistance
of S. vernei is thought to be due to many
genes, some of which may be lost in back-
crosses of cultivated varieties (38, p. 265).

In the United States, both the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Cornell University
have programs seeking to develop nematode
resistant potatoes. Since the work started
(about 1950), these agencies have tested
thousands of new potato lines. In February
1966, a new commercial potato variety resist-
ant to the golden nematode was announced.
The new variety, named Peconic (fig. 44), is a
product of the work of Cornell plant breeders
and plant pathologists.

Peconic compares favorably with the
popular Long Island variety Katahdin (fig. 45).
Peconic is free of defects such as hollow heart
and misshapened or oversized tubers. Peconic
has been tested and found to be resistant
against the race of golden nematode occurring
in Newfoundland, Canada (32).

Peconic derives its resistance to the golden
nematode from the subspecies andigena.
Resistance-breaking biotypes that are capable
of breaking resistance of this type occur in
Europe. There is no evidence to date, however,
that more than one form of nematode exists
on Long Island. The andigena resistance is
effective against the golden nematode on Long
Island (32).

In expectation that resistance-breaking bio-
types might be developed, plant breeders are
conducting research with other species of
Solanum to find other sources of nema-
tode resistance. In the meantime, the growing
of Peconic as a commercial variety will be
restricted to infested potato fields that have
been fumigated and released to growers for
potato production. Peconic may also be used on
land exvosed to infestation but on which the
nematode population has not developed to a
level that can be detected by the usual survey
procedures.

Thus, the future control program of the
golden nematode on Long Island will be soil
fumigation of all known infested fields fol-
lowed by the use of resistant potato varieties.

Peconic is expected to be ready for limited
use on Long Island in 1968.



46 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

wm Re Adventitious roots

\ Scale leaf on ¢
Developing tub Fees eaf on tuber stolon
Eyebrow

Eye
Old ‘seed’ piece

Fil

True roots 4

Ficure 43.—Diagram of the parts of a potato plant. Note that the stolons and tubers arise from stem tissue,
and the true roots arise at the base of the stem.


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK

APPENDIX I—WORLD POTATO PRODUCTION

TABLE 5.—Acreage and production of potatoes in specified countries,
average 1960-64 or latest available data

Continent and country ] Acreage Production
North America: 1,000 acres Million ewt.

Canada . 295
Cuba _- _ wee - 20 2.5
Mexico woe 121 11
United States - 1,382 265.8

Total... ao - 1,818 332.0

Europe:

Austria _.___. wee _— a 415 76.5
Belgium- Luxembourg 182 41.2
Denmark - - 171 31.6
Finland __ - a - 190 25.5
France _-__-_- - 2,086 312.4
Germany, West | 2351 518.4
Greece __ = - - 110 115
Iceland _.... - 3 2
Ireland .--.. . - 209 42.9
Isle of Man - 3 3
Italy woe 927 86.1
Jersey a - - 5 14
Malta __- -
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland

United Kingdom .
Total Western Europe _

Czechoslovakia -

Germany, East

Poland - -

Yugoslavia.

Bulgaria, Rumania, and Hungary
Total Europe - -

US.S.R.
Asia:
Burma - 40 11
China: Taiwan woes - -- 5 4
Cyprus cee - 23 2.9
India _ . - 1,013 56.3
Israel -- -- - - 13 2.4
Japan - -- 527 81.3
Jordan - - - 5 2
Korea, North oe 363 14.3
Korea Republic 118 94
Lebanon - - 20 18
Mongolia 5 5
Pakistan a - - 175 10.1
Philippines _ - wo 5 A
Syria oe 13 11
Turkey - 363 87.5
Total . 2,688 219.7



THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 67

*
NEW DELHI

INDIA

MADRAS

4
%
%

FiGuRE 63.—Infested areas in India.

hibited except in small quantities for research
or scientific purposes.

Treland

Distribution of the golden nematode in Ire-
land appears to be limited although the nema-
tode has been known to be present since 1922.
Infestation occurs mainly in pockets of land
in districts that were once congested (bogland

and hillsides), where a rotation of crops was
not feasible under the land tenure system of
the 19th century. Most of this land is no longer
cultivated. Golden nematode also is frequently
found in urban and suburban gardens follow-
ing poor rotational practices.

The Destructive Insects and Pests (Consoli-
dation) Act of 1958 sets forth regulations
concerning the golden nematode. This act em-


66 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

infestation. In addition, random sample in-
spections for nematodes are carried out in
areas considered to be in danger of infestation.

Greece

The golden nematode was found in Greece
for the first time in 1951 in the mountainous
area of Parnon Arkadia (2).

The golden nematode was found in 11 loca-
tions administratively belonging to the prefec-
tures of Arkadia, Messinia, Boeotia, Serres,
Larisa, Chalkidiki, and the Cyclades islands
(Paros, Naxos) after research was carried out
by the Benachi Phytopathological Institute.
The Ministry of Agriculture has since reported
six locations belonging to the prefectures of
Elis, Lakonia, Imathia, Lasythion, and the
island of Aegina.

The above areas are not entirely infested by
the nematode but are limited to spots of up to
500 square meters. Infested areas where pota-
toes are grown are estimated to be about
30,000 to 50,000 stremmas (7,410 to 12,350
acres). Total area of potato production is about
480,000 stremmas (118,560 acres).

The Ministry of Agriculture recommends to
the growers the use of nematocides, which
lately are being used on a growing scale. Fur-
thermore, where an infestation has been ob-
served in seed-potato-producing centers, the
Ministry of Agriculture requires compulsory
washing of seed potatoes with special equip-
ment.

Generally, to control the spread of the nema-
tode and protect the potato crop, a rotation is
recommended. Relevant instructions have been
issued by the appropriate service of the Minis-
try of Agriculture.

Nematocides recommended for the control
of the golden nematode in Greece are D-D soil
fumigant at the rate of 100 to 200 kilograms
(220 to 441 pounds) per acre and ethylene
dibromide at the rate of 40 to 100 kilograms
(88 to 220 pounds) per acre.

There are no resistant potato varieties.

The cultivation of potatoes in infested areas
is not legally prohibited, but the Ministry
strongly recommends that such fields not be
used for potatoes.

Seed-potato-producing centers are immedi-
ately abolished upon the finding of the nema-
ode.

Guernsey

The golden nematode was first reported in
Guernsey in 1952
Infestations are now fairly widespread

throughout the island of Guernsey. Any ap-
parently new infestations usually indicate a
sudden local increase in the pest population as
a result of cropping potatoes 2 or more years
in succession. Some control measures using
D-D are proving highly successful.

Iceland

The golden nematode was first detected in
Iceland in 1953. Its presence is limited to a
small area in the Westman Islands, and in two
small villages on the southwest coast of Ice-
land—Eyrarbakki and Stokkseyri.

During August and September, roots of po-
tato plants are examined to determine the
extent of the infestations. Technical agricul-
tural experts are available in each of the coun-
ties, and they endeavor to keep informed on
agricultural developments. Resistant potato
varieties are not considered suitable for Ice-
landic soil conditions, and chemical fumigants
are not used because they are too expensive.
Resistance-breaking biotypes are not known to
be present.

Although the Government has no special
regulations concerning the rotation of potatoes
on land not known to be infested, it advises
producers of the desirability of rotating crops.
Growers are also advised by the Government
officials not to plant on infested fields.

India

The golden nematode was first identified in
India in 1961 and is thought to be restricted
to certain areas in Nilgiri Hills of Madras
State (fig. 63). Intensive field surveys to deter-
mine the distribution of the golden nematode
in Madras State have been in progress since
1963. The first round of surveys was expected
to be completed by June 1967. A total of 946
acres out of 24,000 acres of potato-growing
area has been found to be infested.

Research on the problem is in progress under
the direction of the Indian Council of Agricul-
tural Research at Ootacamund (Nilgiri Hills,
Madras) in collaboration with the Central Po-
tato Research Institute. Research includes
search for biotypes, experiments with resistant.
potato varieties, testing of soil fumigants, and
a study of the effect of 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-year
rotation of nonhost crops.

The question of imposing a domestic quaran-
tine against the golden nematode in the in-
fested area is under consideration. The growing
of potatoes on infested land is not recom-
mended. Under the Destructive Insect and Pest
Act, 1914, the importation of potatoes is pro-


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 43

been properly plowed and is relatively loose to
permit maximum diffusion of the chemical,
when it is free of ridges, clods, and debris,
and when it contains sufficient moisture to be
tillable.

First application of fumigant.—The fumi-
gant should be applied immediately after the
soil conditioning operation has been completed,
if the correct soil moisture and soil tempera-
ture conditions prevail.

The entire area must be covered with fumi-
gant; skips mav result in failure. When all the
field has been fumigated, make one or more
round trips at each end to insure treatment of
as much of the headlands, turnaround and
other border areas as possible.

Make sure that the fumigant is flowing con-
tinuously to each shank. If clogging occurs,
stop immediately and make adjustments. When
the trouble has been corrected, turn the tractor
around and re-treat all the area that may not
have received proper treatment. When lower-
ing the shanks into the soil, keep the tractor
moving to prevent clogging the flow line out-
let with soil.

Preparing soil for second application —At
least 10 days should elapse after the first appli-
cation before preparing the soil for the second
application. As a result of the first application,
the texture of the soil is usually in a more
suitable condition for treatment. The soil is
turned with a moldboard plow at a depth of
1 to 2 inches deeper than the first plowing. The
moldboard plow must be equipped with a suit-
able coulter-jointer for this operation. The
coulter-jointer is adjusted so that the top 3-
inch layer of soil is cut and turned into the
bottom of the furrow and covered with the
lower layers of soil. This is most important
since the fumigant dissipates rapidly near the
soil surface, and cysts occurring there during
the first treatment may not be exposed to a
lethal dose.

A frequent check should be made in the
second plowing operation to determine if the
top 3 inches of soil are properly turned and
covered. This can be accomplished by spread-
ing a 6-inch band of lime on the surface of the
soil in advance of and at right angles to the
plow (fig. 40). After the plow has passed, dig
into the turned limed area to determine
whether the lime has been covered to the re-
quired minimum depth of 8 inches (fig. 41).

The soil surface should be comparatively
smooth after this operation. If it is not smooth,
a harrow, drag, or roller should be employed.
In any event, the soil should not be disturbed
below a depth of 3 inches.

Second application of fumigant.—The sec-
ond application of fumigant is made 10 to 14
days after the first. The same procedure and
technique is used as in the first application.
It might be desirable to make the second appli-
cation at right angles to the first. This will re-
sult in a checkerboard treatment of 10-inch
squares. The topography of the field will deter-
mine which direction to make the second appli-
cation.

Treatment of border areas.—Any golden
nematode cysts remaining along the border of
treated fields serve as a potential source of
reinfestation. Accordingly, on Long Island the
chemical sodium N-methyldithiocarbamate,
sold commercially as Vapam, is applied to
headlands, roadsides, farmyards, and farm
roads adjacent to fields that have been fumi-
gated. The object is to kill the nematodes on
the soi] surface. The Vapam is mixed with
water and applied as a drench at the rate of
50 gallons of Vapam in approximately 3,000
gallons of water per acre. Since Vapam is most
effective when the soil surface is moist, it is
generally applied after a rain. Any apparatus
affording high gallonage and low pressure can
be used. A boom-type nozzle has been found
most practical.

Decontamination of Equipment

All equipment used in the preparation or
treatment of an infested field, must be thor-
oughly disinfected before it is moved from the
field to another location. The equipment should
be subjected to the prescribed cleaning proce-
dures using steam or methyl bromide fumiga-
tion (fig. 42).

Precautions

If pesticides are handled or applied improp-
erly, or if unused parts are disposed of im-
properly, they may be injurious to humans,
domestic animals, desirable plants, and pollinat-
ing insects, fish, or other wildlife, and may
contaminate water supplies. Use pesticides only
when needed and handle them with care.

When using nematocides, follow the manu-
facturer’s directions exactly. Variations in soils
and climate may affect the action of the
nematocides.

Handle nematocides with extreme care. Avoid
prolonged breathing of the fumes. Do not al-
low the liquid to come into contact with the
skin. If the liquid is accidentally splashed on


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK

PACIFIC OCEAN

BRAZIL

OF THE SUN
Titicaca)

BOLIVIA

ARGENTINA

URU.

Ficure 54.-—Infested areas in Argentina and Bolivia.

57


74 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

growing area, but there is no organized sys-
tematic survey in those areas. Field soil
surveys in commercial districts are conducted
on a request basis.

Scotland’s Plant Protection Service is pri-
marily concerned with protecting the seed-
producing areas. Scotland produces most of the
seed for England and several other European
countries. Careful surveys are conducted in
seed-growing districts. For “virus-tested,”
“foundation,” and “stock seed” certificates, a
6-year rotation is required, together with a
precrop soil inspection and a crop inspection
during the growing season. Soil tests and crop
inspections are required for all seed exported.
If an infestation is found, the field cannot be
used for growing seed potatoes for at least
12 years.

Seed for use within the country is grown
on a 6-year rotation basis, together with a
growing-crop inspection. If the rotational re-
quirement cannot be met, a soil inspection is
necessary. “Washed seed” certificates are avail-
able to growers producing seed for domestic
purposes, if their crop is found to be infested
during the crop inspection. Such potatoes must
be washed in an approved washing plant to the
satisfaction of an inspector of the Department
of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food.

Spain

The golden nematode was first detected in
Spain in 1958 at La Maresma, Province of
Barcelona. Presumably, it originated in the
imports of foreign seed potatoes. Five Prov-
inces bordering on the Mediterranean coast-
line, the inland Province of Logrofio, and the
Canary Island Province of Tenerife are af-
fected by this pest in varying degrees. The

geographical points, areas, or districts in-
volved are the following (fig. 66):
Province Point, Area, or District
Alicante Novelda
Barcelona La Maresma and lower
Llobregat area
Gerona S.E. tip of Province
Logrofio Santo Domingo de la Calzada
Tarragona Cambrils

Tenerife (Canary
Islands, 1960)
Valencia

La Orotava
Las Siete Villas

No estimate of the overall acreage affected
is available. Barcelona is by far the most
heavily infested Province. The infestation cov-
ers a strip of land in the vicinity of and
running parallel to the seaboard; the strip ex-
tends along more than one-third of the sea-
board of Barcelona Province.

The Spanish Government has issued regula-

tions against the golden nematode. The official
action taken includes the creation of a Nema-
tological Section to study and implement plans
for the control of potato cultures and import
restrictions. The growing of potatoes where
the presence of the golden nematode has been
verified must be rotated; they cannot be grown
more than once every 3 years or more. No host
plants of the golden nematode may be culti-
vated during the intervening period. The cul-
tivation of seed potatoes and certain other
plantings on infested land is forbidden.

No resistance-breaking biotypes of the
golden nematode have been discovered. Surveys
for the golden nematode are being carried out
annually.

Sweden

The first discovery of golden nematode in
Sweden was made at Hégsjébruk in the west-
ern part of Sédermanland county (central
Sweden) in 1922. In 1928-32 the nematode
was found to be relatively widespread in the
northwestern part of Skane (southern Swe-
jen).

The nematode is frequently found in the
factory-potato-growing area of southeastern
Skane and Blekinge counties, but it is also
found sporadically throughout Sweden. The
nematode is uniformly of biotype A.

The first legislation against this pest was
passed in 1932. Growing of potatoes on_ soil
declared as infested was prohibited, and re-
moval of contaminated soil was required in
certain instances. When it was found that the
parasite had been widely spread and could not
be stopped, the legislation was adjusted in 1939
and again in 1962. The law is used primarily
to prevent the spread of the parasite to certain
areas growing potatoes for special purposes
(seed potatoes) and to stop the spread of
resistance-breaking biotypes.

Resistant potato varieties, principally of
Dutch origin, are available, but their use is
generally restricted to factory potatoes, A new
Swedish table variety has been developed at
the Svaléf Plant Breeding Institute.

The Government has authority under the
law to prohibit growing potatoes on land de-
clared as infested. This authority is applied
principally to land on which seed potatoes are
grown. Seed-potato fields are sampled before
the growing and cultivating period. Strict reg-
ulations are maintained to see that seed-potato
fields are not infested through machinery,
tools, bags, and so forth.

The Plant Protection Agency makes continu-
ous surveys and also samples soil from potatoes


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK v6)

delivered to starch factories. On infested prop-
erties, growers are requested to apply a rota-
tion to potatoes; they are not to grow potatoes
more often than every 3 years in southern
Sweden and every 4 years in northern parts of
the country. Available nematode-resistant va-
rieties of potatoes are recommended for use.

Switzerland

The golden nematode was found in Switzer-
land in 1958. Areas reported to be infested
in Switzerland are located in the Orbe Plain
and near Murten. Other locations include the
mountainous cantons of Graubunden, Ticino,
and Valais. Although 132 hectares (830 acres)
in 8 cantons are known to be infested, the
infested lands are small plots in high altitude
valleys where potatoes for domestic consump-
tion have been grown continuously. The degree
oe infestation is rated as EPPO code III and

The golden nematode is considered a par-
ticularly dangerous pest in Switzerland. Gov-
ernment legislation, dated March 5, 1962,
concerning plant protection, set forth regula-
tions for the control of the pest.

Comprehensive surveys in all fields in the
seed-potato-growing areas are made. All po-
tentially affected areas are surveyed every 4
years. The surveys are organized by the Plant
Protection Department and the Seed Breeding
Society. Survey results are evaluated at the
national level by the Swiss Seed Breeding
Society.

The growing of host crops, seedlings of any
kind, and nursery stock is strongly forbidden
on infested land for 4, and in some places 8,
years. No soil or refuse can be removed from
areas under restrictions. In protective zones,
host plants must not be grown more often than
every 4 years. There is a special prohibition
for exporting host crops and root crops that
have been grown in a protective zone.

Switzerland is not breeding resistant varie-
ties but obtains resistant potatoes from other
foreign sources. Quantities available, however,
are not sufficient to meet needs. Resistance-
breaking biotypes have been found. Experi-
ments are being conducted for the control of
the nematode with nematocides. Through the
agricultural extension service, particular em-
phasis is placed on advising growers to carry
out sound crop-rotation practices.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

The potato nematode in the U.S.S.R. was
first discovered in 1948 in the Lithuanian Re-

public. The nematode was discovered in Latvia
in 1949 and Estonia in 1953 (fig. 67).

Separate and isolated centers of infection of
the potato nematode have been discovered in
other western regions of the Russian Feder-
ated Soviet Socialist Republic, mainly on the
personal plots of collective farmers and market
gardens of workers. The potato nematode has
been discovered in rare instances in the fields
of collective farms, state farms, and other
government enterprises,

Aggressive biotypes of the potato nematode
have not been found in the U.S.S.R.

A quarantine system of the areas infected
with the potato nematode was implemented,
and the contamination has remained insignifi-
cant. In 1965, the contaminated area consisted
of 0.04 percent of the total potato area in all
categories of farming, and the economic loss
from the potato nematode was of no practical
significance.

In the U.S.S.R. a broad investigation of
potato areas is annually carried out with the
purpose of discovering new centers of potato
nematode contamination.

The main means of combating potato nema-
tode are quarantine arrangements; namely,
control and restriction of transportation of po-
tatoes, fodder roots, onions, and other bulbous
plants from areas under quarantine for the
potato nematode; strict observance of rota-
tions, prohibition of the raising of potatoes in
contaminated sections, and utilization of such
sections for the cultivation of crops not dam-
aged by the potato nematode; chemical disin-
fection of soils in separate and isolated centers
of contamination.

Agricultural institutions have carried out
scientific research in an effort to find resistant
types of potatoes.

United States
(See pp. 8 and 14.)

Yugoslavia

The presence of the pest was recorded in
1964 for the first time in Yugoslavia. The pest
was found in two localities near Kranj in
Slovania, where 12 fields were infested, and
near Fojnica in Bosnia and Hercegovina, where
3 hectares (7144 acres) were found infested.
It is supposed that the attacks in Bosnia-
Hercegovina were caused by the seed potatoes
used. Six laboratories have been set up for the
analysis of soi] samples to determine the pres-
ence of the pest in different stages. Legislation
on the control of eelworms is in preparation.


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 63

66) have been carried out to see if resistance-
breaking biotypes can be found. None have
been found to date.

The use of soil fumigants is primarily on the
Amager island southeast of Copenhagen where
there is a heavy concentration of vegetable
farming. The nematocide D-D is used at the
rates of 45 to 60 cubic centimeters per square
meter for fumigating soil in greenhouses. In
cultivated fields 400 to 500 liters per hectare
(about 214 acres) of D-D is used. The cost of
fumigating one hectare in 1966 was about 1,500
kroner ($210).

The Government’s Agriculture Advisory
Service strongly recommends to farmers that
do not have infested land a sound rotation
program of at least 2 to 3 years for potatoes.

England and Wales

The golden nematode in England and Wales
was confined to Yorkshire in 1917, but it had
probably been present for 10 to 15 years before
that time. It is also reported that the nematode
was causing damage to tomatoes (fig. 58) in
Yorkshire as early as 1928.

According to Southey (38 pp. 171, 178, 174),

ENGLAND @

LONDON
*

Ficure 60.—Distribution of the golden nematode on
commercial potatoes in England and Wales.

the nematode is well-distributed in the ware-
potato districts of the country. Because of the
demand for potatoes during World Wars I and
II, the problem was compounded. Southey re-
ports that following World War II the potato
acreage rose nearly to the one million mark,
and complete or partial crop failures were fre-
quent. In 1949, a conservative estimate was
made by the Ministry of Agriculture that losses
caused by the golden nematode were about 2
million pounds sterling, or equivalent to about
$10 annually on each acre of potatoes (fig. 59).

Despite the situation, England has been
fortunate in that the golden nematode is rare
in the main seed-producing areas (fig. 60).
Surveys are conducted by the Ministry of Agri-
culture as an advisory service to growers. The
Ministry of Agriculture, through the Exten-
sion Service, has advised growers on the im-
portance of long rotations, especially in areas
where the nematode populations are light.
After commercial damage appears in a field,
the Ministry of Agriculture advises the farmer
to leave it out of production for 6 years or
longer to be sure that no economic damage to
crops will occur. The Ministry of Agriculture
then recommends potato producing on a 1 year
out of 5 rotation.

Faeroe Islands

The first report of the golden nematode in
the Faeroe Islands was in 1951 when K. Lind-
hardt (24) examined 15 soil samples and
found they were all infested. In 1964, another
survey was made of the Islands, and 19 of 93
samples collected were found to contain cysts.

The golden nematode may have existed in
the Islands before 1940, but it is more likely
that this pest was introduced from Great
Britain during World War II on supplies for
troops. Several infested soil samples from the
Islands were found to contain an aggressive
biotype that attacks varieties of potatoes con-
taining resistance of Solanwm tuberosum sub-
species andigena. Aggressive biotypes are not
uncommon in Scotland and some parts of
England, but they have not been detected in
Denmark.

Although the Ministry of Agriculture of
Denmark issues regulatory orders to control
the golden nematode, plant diseases, and insect
pests, the orders do not apply to the Faeroe
Islands.

Potatoes are produced on about 150 hectares
(375 acres). Since soil suitable for growing
potatoes is limited, some fields have been in
potato production for more than 100 years.


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 39

FIGURE 35,—Individual drums of chemical may be moved with a boom mounted on pickup truck.

N-59104
FiGuRE 36.—The soil fumigant is rapidly transferred
from barrels to tractor by use of an air-cooled
gasoline engine.

brake fitting on the assembly will indicate a
clogged shank outlet. An instrument panel can
be constructed and placed in view of the trac-
tor operator; the panel will indicate imme-
diately a clogged flow line.

N-88198

(4) The variable displacement piston
pump is driven by a trailing ground wheel, or
by a sprocket attached to the axle of the trac-
tor (fig. 37). The trailing wheel has wider
utilization and is preferred. The liquid is
pumped through a flow divider, which distri-
butes the material equally to all discharge
lines (fig. 38). Irregular speeds of the tractor
do not cause improper discharge; the trailing
wheel operating the pump compensates for
irregular rates of speed.

(5) It is necessary to seal the furrows
made by the shanks and to smooth the soil
surface to prevent uneven diffusion of the soil
fumigant. The selection and use of a sealer will
depend on the types of soil being treated. A
Scotch harrow or a suitable drag is attached to
the tractor or toolbar and towed behind the
unit to smooth and seal the furrows opened
by the shanks (fig. 39).

In sandy loam soils on Long Island, a full-
length Scotch harrow is used to effect a satis-
factory seal.

In fine-textured soils, it may be necessary to
use a spike-tooth harrow to obtain the desired
seal.

(6) To avoid skips or excessive overlap-


80

I

I

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 5.—Acreage and production of potatoes in specified countries,
average 1960-64 or latest available data—Continued

Continent and country Acreage Production
1,000 acres Million ewt.
South America:
Argentina -.--...- - 453 35.5
Bolivia - 283 15.9
Brazil - - woe 496 25.4
Chile _- wee - 212 16.7
Colombia aoe 328 19.5
Ecuador ween 93 7. 2
araguay .-.----2--2 0 E
Peru _-.--.------ - 575 27.2
Uruguay eee a 63 2.2
Venezuela - 36 2.5
Total oan ne enn n ee 2,544 152.3
Africa:
Algeria _ ors 5.4
Congo ............----.-- _— 8 2
Ethiopia 70 3.0
Kenya ___ ee a 133 43
Libya co a 5 4
Madagascar - - 40 1.5
Mauritius -...--..____. _ 3 a
Morocco --._-- _- 63 5.0
Mozambique - - - 5 2
Ruanda-Urundi ___- 43 2.2
South Africa ___ 128 9.0
Tunisia - eo = 13 LT
United Arab Republic _- . 58 8.3
Total 644 ALB
Oceania:
Australia ._- wae eee 103 12.6
New Zealand .---.-..---_- 30 5.5
Total .____ -
Grand total - ae

APPENDIX II—INTENSITY OF INFESTATION

The code numbers for various levels of in-
festation intensity, as laid down at the EPPO
International Conference on Potato Root Eel-
worm at Wageningen, Netherlands, 1955, are
as follows:

CODE No.

No observation. (This means that no in-
vestigation has been made.)

Free from infestation, as ascertained by—

a. Standard sampling and laboratory
analysis ;

b. Root examination;

ce. Appearance of crop. (In this case, how-
ever, the report has little value, for

seat

IV

soil may be infested for several years
before disease symptoms appear in the
crop, and other factors, even other
nematodes, may cause the same symp-
toms above ground.)

Slight infestation, that is, 1-2 cysts per
200 ce. of soil in sampling, but no weak
spots or other field symptoms.

Moderate infestation, that is, several
(more than 2 but less than 50) cysts per
200 cc., serious loss of crop, or both.

Heavy infestation, that is, many (more

than 50) cysts per 200 cc., serious loss of
crop, or both.


AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

UNITED STATES

Ficure 47.—Golden nematode infestations in the Western Hemisphere.



52

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

EASTERN EUROPE
AND THE U.S.S.R.

INFESTATION @

Ficure 50.—Golden nematode infestations in Eastern Europe and the U.S.S.R.



38 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

displacement piston pump to move and meter
the fumigant to the shank outlet, and (5) a
furrow sealer (figs. 34, 35, and 36).

(1) The tractor used for applying the
fumigant should have sufficient power to op-
erate without difficulty at a minimum of 3
m.p.h. The tractor should be equipped with a
standard three-point hitch, dual rear wheels,
and two 50-gallon spray tanks mounted for-
ward of the rear wheels.

(2) The shank-type applicator presently
used in the golden nematode program was orig-
inally designed for application of liquid fer-
tilizers. It is composed of a toolbar on which
nine spring standards are mounted. Forward-

N-88184
Ficure 34,—Additional equipment, such as platform lift for moving drums of chemical, is useful.

swept shanks and rearward-swept shanks are
available; they are interchangeable on_ the
spring standards. The standards should be
spaced so that the shanks are 10 inches on
centers. A No. 1 integral tool carrier, clamped
to the toolbar, permits attaching the applica-
tor assembly to any tractor equipped with a
three-point hitch and hydraulic lift control.
(8) The gravity-flow system of moving
and metering the liquid fumigant to the shank
outlet utilizes a specially vented tank and flow-
control coils. This unit eliminates the need for
small restricting orifices and pressure pump,
and because of the open system, it is less apt
to clog. An overflow of the liquid at the vacuum


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 3

e
BRAGANCA
TRAS OS MONTES

MADRID
BEIRA ALTA *

PORTUGAL

LISBON >
ESTREMADURA

CANARY ISLANDS
(Spain)

ENERIFE

oS

ALICANTE

FicureE 66.—Infested areas in Portugal and Spain.

best way to avoid damages to the crops by the
golden nematode has, however, been imple-
mented through the agricultural extension
service.

The Plant Protection Service has tried some
resistant varieties of potatoes, but they were
not found to be satisfactory. Although the
Dutch potato variety Amaryl showed some
promise, its resistance was later shown to be
effective against only one biotype of the several
biotypes known to exist in Portugal.

Saarland

The golden nematode was first recorded in
Saarland in 1952.

All fields and produce considered to be in-
fested are supervised by the Saarland Plant
Protection Service. If one field is found to be
infested, the rules apply to all the land of the

holding. Use of potatoes from such holdings
for seed purposes is prohibited, and these po-
tatoes must be boiled or steamed before being
used for the table or for fodder. On fields con-
sidered to be infested, potatoes and tomatoes
must be grown only once in 8 years. Of plots
under 1,000 meters (or parts thereof if used
by different owners) not more than one-third
can be planted to potatoes or tomatoes, to allow
for proper rotation. On land that the Plant
Protection Service considers to be heavily in-
fested, the growing of potatoes or tomatoes is
prohibited for at least 3 years. If this rule is
not obeyed, the crops are destroyed.

Scotland

The golden nematode has been common in
Scotland since about 1913. The nematode exists
in several locations in the commercial potato-


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 61

partment of Defensa Agricola had inspected a
farm in an isolated valley in Aconcagua Prov-
ince, where the potatoes had been used for
seed, and had confirmed the presence of the
golden nematode.

Czechoslovakia

The golden nematode was first recorded in
Czechoslovakia in 1954.

Infestation in Czechoslovakia consists mainly
of isolated pockets in private gardens where
crop rotation is not properly observed. The
intensity of attacks is low. Infestations occur
in Bohemia and northern Moravia. The Gov-
ernment regulates growing of potatoes and
other host crops on infested land. This regula-
tion prohibits growing of other host crops on
infested land for 5 to 7 years, requires crop ro-
tation, and severely restricts the utilization of
potatoes grown in infested communes. Imported
potatoes are carefully inspected. The Quaran-
tine and Plant Protection Service enforces De-
cree No. 1, 1959. Research is being conducted to
detect biotypes of the nematode.

Denmark

The golden nematode has been known to
exist in Denmark since 1928. The State Plant
Pathology Institute examines soil samples for
cysts of the golden nematode in connection
with the certification of seed potatoes and
other plant products for export. Sampling in
potato fields and examination of soil samples
for cysts comply with the approved interna-
tional rules.

Only a few attacks of the nematode are
found annually in cultivated agricultural land.
Most of the infestations observed from 1964 to
1966 were in the northern part of Jutland
(fig. 57).

In certain contaminated areas, mostly gar-
dens, series of samples have been investigated
to determine the degree of infestation and stop
the spread of the nematode to adjoining seed-
potato fields. Growing of potatoes on infested
land is prohibited for a number of years under
regulations of the State Plant Protection Serv-
ice.

Potato growing has been prohibited for
many years in nurseries. Most nurseries have
been found free of the nematode. Areas where
the nematode has been found are under fre-
quent observation and production is controlled.
Analysis of samples from these areas are the
basis for deciding whether potatoes and nurs-
ery plants may be grown there.

Altogether, the Government’s Plant Protec-

tion Service has recorded infestations in 25
counties, as follows:

No. of infestations

Private gardens A 106
Commercial cultivated agricultural
UE <cstGatipcnniieorn ermpmacunsod 160

Commercial horticulture and gardening __ 37

Under systematic investigations 64 agricul-
tural holdings, where the Government’s Plant
Protection Service had recorded potato root
nematode from 1956 to 1964, were investigated
to determine if the pest had spread to other
fields. The purpose of this investigation was to
test the Protection Service’s usual practice of
recording only the affected areas on individual
holdings. The investigation showed that 61 per-
cent of the holdings where the nematode had
been recorded in one part had newly infested
parts.

In Denmark the work of producing varieties
resistant to the golden nematode has been very
intense, and it is expected that commercial
varieties will be available for growers on a
limited scale by 1969. These investigations are
conducted at the Potato Improvement Research
Station in Vandel. The testing is done at the
State Plant Pathology Institute at Lyngby.

Investigations over the past 3 years (1964—

1959-63

DENMARK

COPENHAGEN

Ficure 57.—Occurrence of the golden nematode on
potato farms in Denmark.


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 37

tato fields exposed to infestation but in which
no infestation can be detected.

Many growers have multiple farming opera-
tions. Upon the discovery that one of these
fields is infested, all the other fields farmed
with the same machinery are classified as ex-
posed to infestation, Certain potato fields in
close proximity to known infested fields may
also be classified as exposed.

The nematocide Vidden D applied in a single
treatment at 45 gallons to the acre is used.
The treatment program is supervised by a rep-
resentative of the New York State Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Markets and the
Agriculture Department of the Suffolk County
Extension Service. The program is -financed
from funds available through county and local
sources. A total of 2,226 acres of exposed land
was treated from 1960 through 1966.

Research by Cornell University nematolo-
gists has shown that the chemical 1,3-dichloro-
propene, 1,2-dichloropropane, and related hy-
drocarbons (80 pct.), and methyl isothiocya-
nate (20 pct.), marketed under the trade name
Vorlex, is effective against the golden nematode.
When applied in a split application of 10 gal-
Jons each for a total of 20 gallons per acre,
Vorlex results in nematode control equal to D-D
and Vidden D applied in a split application of
45 gallons each for a total of 90 gallons per
acre.

Vorlex, like D-D and Vidden D, is a corro-
sive material, and natural or synthetic rubber
tubing and gasket on applicators must be re-
placed with chemical-resistant materials. The
volatility of Vorlex is similar to D-D and Vid-
den D. Unlike D-D and Vidden D, Vorlex has
the advantage of effective nematocidal action
at temperatures as low as 40° F. However,
when the fumigant is applied at lower temper-
atures, 2 or 3 weeks must be allowed for the
fumigation period. At temperatures of 60° F.
or above a fumigation period of only 7 days
is needed.

The chemical is injected into the soil at a
6-inch depth with chisel spacing on the appli-
cator set for 8 inches. Mechanical adjustments
to the applicators are needed for this low-
volume rate.

Field tests are being conducted with Vorlex
during 1968.

Chemicals To Be Used

A chlorinated propane-propylene mixture—
consisting of chlorinated C; hydrocarbons
(100 pet.), 1,8-dichloropropene, 1,2-dichloro-
propane, and related compounds—is available
commercially as D-D and Vidden D.

This chemical is toxic to living plants. Do

not apply it within 18 inches of planted crops.
The fumigant is toxic to humans and animals
if they are exposed directly to it. However,
there is no hazard to animals or human health
and no residue will result on crops when the
chemical is applied as directed on the label.

The fumigant is highly corrosive to metals,
particularly aluminum, magnesium, or their
alloys. Rubber or rubber-based hoses cannot
be used with this fumigant. Only chemical-
resistant plastic tubes should be used. Appli-
eators should be thoroughly cleaned of all
fumigant before storage. The system should be
flushed with equal parts of lubricating oil and
kerosene.

Dosage.—Ninety gallons (900 lb.) of ap-
proved fumigant per acre (1 gal. weighs 10 lb.)
should be applied in two equal treatments of
45 gallons (450 lb.) each, 10 days apart.

Seasonal limitations —Fields are normally
fumigated in the summer and fall and are not
available for potato planting until the follow-
ing spring. This permits the chemicals to
dissipate so that toxic amounts will not injure
plants or impart off-flavor to tubers and other
root crops.

At least 2 months should elapse after the
90-gallon treatment before any crop is planted.
A longer period may be necessary if there is
much rain following treatment or if the soil
temperature drops.

The soil should be fairly moist but dry
enough to be tillable. If a ball of soil barely
holds its shape when compressed in the hand,
its moisture content is acceptable for treat-
ment. Do not apply the chemical when the soil
is too wet or too dry.

The temperature of the soil at the time of
treatment must be at least 60° F. Best results
are obtained at temperatures of 70° and above.
Since the air and soil temperatures seldom
coincide, temperature readings should be made
several inches below the soil surface (48).

Equipment Needed

The following equipment is needed to pre-
pare a field for treatment: General farm-type
tractor, disk cultivator, moldboard plow
equipped with coulter and jointer, and spike-
tooth harrow or pulverizer.

The disk cultivator is used to chop stubble
and stalks before plowing or to break up clods
after plowing. The harrow and pulverizer fol-
low the plow and prepare the seedbed. ;

To apply the fumigant, the following equip-
ment is needed: (1) A tractor with dual rear
wheels, (2) a shank-type applicator with either
(3) a gravity-flow system or (4) a variable


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 69

Luxembourg

The golden nematode was found in Luxem-
bourg in 1955. Potato-producing areas are sur-
veyed for the presence of the nematode.
However, only 20 hectares (50 acres) are
known to be infested.

The soil fumigants Vapam and Nemacur
have been tested as control measures for the
nematode. Growers, if they choose to do so,
may import resistant varieties of potatoes.

Although there are no specific Government
regulations against the golden nematode at this
time, the Government wi!l implement regula-
tions developed by the European Economic
Council.

Netherlands

The golden nematode was first reported in
Holland in 1941. Regulatory action was taken
shortly after that to restrict and control the
pest. These regulations were amended in 1947
and again in 1949. A law was passed to pro-
hibit the growing of potatoes and transplants
in infested land and to set up special precau-
tions for the distribution of infested material.
Growing potatoes on noninfested land more
often than once every 8 years is also prohibited.
This regulation alone has had a direct effect
on the farming practices of the country.

These regulations have prevented the
buildup of the nematode and protected the
country’s export of many agricultural com-
modities.

Protective crop rotation is strictly enforced
and has the support of farm organizations.
Potatoes grown against regulations are de-
stroyed. Bulbs and perennials cannot be grown
on land where there is any danger of spreading
the golden nematode. Potatoes are prohibited
from being grown in the bulb-growing districts
of Holland. The towns, communities, and boun-
daries of areas where growing potatoes is
prohibited are specifically outlined in Govern-
ment regulations.

The growing of resistant varieties of pota-
toes is a specific part of the Government
regulations to combat the golden nematode.
Each year the Government designates those
parts of infested districts or properties that
may be planted to varieties resistant to the
golden nematode. In 1966, a total of 3,800
hectares (9,500 acres) was planted to resistant
potato varieties. Holland’s best varieties for
industrial potato are Saturna and Prevalent.
The best tablestock potato is Amaryl.

Early potatoes must be harvested before
June 26, except in north Holland where the

harvesting date is designated as July 6. Har-
vesting dates may vary from year to year, de-
pending on growing conditions. Potato growers
who plant early varieties are permitted under
the law to grow potatoes on the same land
every other year,

Potatoes and tomatoes are prohibited from
being grown in the nursery stock growing area
of Boskoop.

The resistant potato varieties that are now
available to growers have a resistance to the
more common biotype A of the pest only. Grow-
ing these varieties is not permitted in fields
that are infested with other biotypes. Good
progress has been made with the development
of varieties with resistance to biotypes other
than A, These varieties are also expected to
be available commercially within a few years.

Holland has an extensive research program
at Wageningen to investigate many aspects of
the nematode control problem including bio-
logical and chemical control, potato breeding
studies for the develonment of resistant varie-
ties, resistance-breaking biotypes, and other
research.

Northern Ireland

The golden nematode was found for the first
time in Northern Ireland in 1983 on a potato
crop in a garden near Belfast.

Regulations relating to the golden nematode
were first introduced in 1945, and the various
modifying enactments that followed have been
consolidated into a single measure, the Potato
Root Eelworm Order, Northern Ireland, 1960.
Under the terms of this order, the golden
nematode is a “notifiable” pest, and wide regu-
latory powers are vested in the Ministry of
Agriculture for the enforcement of the order
by such means as necessary.

A systematic survey has been in operation
in Northern Ireland for 20 years. Upon dis-
covery of the golden nematode on any land,
certain prohibitions are enforced, such as (a)
the removal for planting purposes of any po-
tatoes, tomato plants, or other propagating
material; the disposal of such vlant or plant
products from infested land will be in accord-
ance with directions from the Ministry of
Agriculture; (b) the removal of infested soil
from any premises whether loose or adhering
to the roots of plants, implements, or other
articles; (c) the planting of infested property
to potatoes, tomatoes, or plant propagating
material. These restrictions remain in force
until withdrawn by the Ministry of Agricul-
ture. Since the first notices of infestation were
issued in 1945, there have been no instances


78

(29)

(30)

(31)

(32)

(33)

(34)

(35)

(36)

(37)

(38)

(39)

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Mute, L. L, Harrison, M. B., and ScHINDLER,
F.

1962. HORSENETTLE AND OSBORNE’S CYST NEM-
ATODES—TWO UNDESCRIBED NEMATODES
OCCURRING IN VIRGINIA. Phytopath-
ology 52(8) :743. (Abstr.)

OosTENBRINK, M.

1950. HET AARDAPPELAALTJE (HETERODERA ROS-
TOCHIENSIS WOLLENWEBER) EEN GE-
VAARLIJKE PARASIET VOOR DE EENZIJ-
DIGE AARDAPPEL-CULTUUR. Versl. en
Med. Plant. Dienst (Netherlands)
115, 230 pp.

1951. HET ERWTENCYSTENAALTJE, HETERODERA
GOTTINGIANA LIEBSCHER, IN NEDER-
LAND. Tijdschr. Plantenziekten 57:
52-64,

PETERSON, L. C., and Pratstep, R. I.
1966. PECONIC, A NEW POTATO VARIETY RESIST-
ANT TO THE GOLDEN NEMATODE. Amer.
Potato Jour, 43(12): 450-452,
Popuam, W. L.
1949. THE GOLDEN NEMATODE INVADES NEW
yoRK. Smithsonian Institution Rpt.
for 1948 No. 3969: 349-354, illus.

Sasser, J. N., and JENKINS, W. R., eds.

1960. NEMATOLOGY. 480 pp., illus. Chapel
Hill, N.C.
Scumipr, A.
1871. UBER DEN RUBENNEMATODEN. Zietschr.

Ver. f. Riibenzucker-Industrie im
Zollverein 21: 1-19.
Srcura, C. BAZAN DE.
1952. THE GOLDEN NEMATODE IN PERU. U.S.
Dept. Agr. Plant Dis. Rptr. 36(6):
253.

SMALL, T., Dunn, E., and Tuomas, G. E.
1950. POTATO ROOT EELWORM IN JERSEY. Agri-
culture 52(5): 212-215, illus. London.
Sourney, J. F., ed.

1965. PLANT NEMATOLOGY. (Gr. Brit.) Min.
of Agr. Fisheries and Food. Tech.
Bul. 7, Ed. 2, 280 pp., illus. London.

Spears, J. F.
1958. CHEMICAL CONTROL OF GOLDEN NEMATODE.

Agr. Chem, 8(12): 52-54, 111-113,
illus.

(40)

(41)

(42)

(43)

(44)

(45)

(46)

(47)

(48)

(49)

(50)

(51)

1954, THE GOLDEN NEMATODE OF POTATOES AND
TOMATOES, HOW TO PREVENT ITS SPREAD.

U.S. Dept. Agr. Leaflet 361, 4 pp., illus.

1962, FUMIGATION MEASURES ARE UNDERWAY TO
RID LONG ISLAND OF GOLDEN NEMATODE.

Agr. Chem. 17(8): 12-14, 74, illus.

1964, NEMATODE CONTROL AND REGULATORY
PROGRAMS OF THE UNITED STATES DE-
PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Nemato-
logica 10(1964) : 66-67. Leiden.

Spears, J. F., and Sawyer, M. J., JR.

1953. THE GOLDEN NEMATODE CONTROL BY SOIL
FUMIGATION. U.S. Dept. Agr. EC-28,
10 pp., illus.

STEINER, G., TAYLor, A. L., and Coss, G. S.

1951. CYST-FORMING PLANT PARASITIC NEMA-
TODES AND THEIR SPREAD IN COM-
MERCE. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. Proc.
18(1): 14-18.

TayLor, A. L.

1952. INFECTION OF TOMATO BY HETERODERA
FROM TOBACCO SOIL. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Plant Dis. Rptr. 36(2): 54.

THoRNE, G,

1928, HETERODERA PUNCTATA N. SP. A NEMA-
TODE PARASITE ON WHEAT ROOTS FROM
SASKATCHEWAN. Sci, Agr. 8(11): 707—

1932. ALFALFA-STEM NEMATODE CAUSING SE-
‘VERE DAMAGE IN SOME WESTERN AREAS.
U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1932:

99-101.

1961. PRINCIPLES OF NEMATOLOGY.
illus, New York.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

535 pp.,

1964, COMMERCIAL POTATO PRODUCTION. U.S.
Dept. Agr., Agr. Handb. 267, 59 pp.,
illus.

Watrace, H. R.

1964, THE BIOLOGY OF PLANT PARASITIC NEMA-

TODES. 280 pp., illus, New York.
WoLLeNWweseER, H. W.
1923. KRANKHEITEN UND. _BESCHADIGUNGEN

DER KARTOFFEL. Arb. d. Forschung-
sinst, f. Kartoffelbau Heft 7, 56 pp.
Berlin.


64 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Finland

The golden nematode was first reported in
Finland in 1946. Nematode surveys are sys-
tematically conducted in the country by Tuho-
elaintutkimuslaitos, Tikkurila. Infestations are
confined to the southern part of the country
and do not extend beyond the region of Tam-
pere (61°40 N.) (fig. 61).

Finnish Government regulations prohibit
the growing of potatoes on infested land from
3 to 5 years. Resistant varieties are available.
The most common variety in use is “Antinema.”
Approximately 2,500 kilograms (5,511 pounds)

FINLAND

TAMPERE
e e

Ficure 61.—Infested areas in Finland.

of this variety have been distributed to farm-
ers.

Research is being conducted on the golden
nematode problem. Biotypes A, B, C, and D
have been discovered.

France

The golden nematode was first reported in
France in 1947.

A Ministerial Order, dated November 15,
1963, and published in the Official Gazette of
November 27, 1963, page 10597, sets forth the
requirements for control of the potato root
eelworm throughout the country. The main
provisions are restrictive measures, including
systematic soil sampling of areas surrounding
fields in which the pest has been recorded by
the Plant Protection Service; prohibition of
the growing of seed potatoes on infested soil
for 5 years; if infestation exceeds a prescribed
level, prohibition also of growing ware pota-
toes, tomatoes, and all crops for transplanting ;
prolongation of prohibition for further 3-year
periods until samples confirm absence of pest;
and directives for the use of underground parts
of all crops growing or ready for harvesting in
the zones in which restrictions apply.

The intensity of the attack of the nematode
varies greatly in different regions. Severe at-
tacks have not occurred in recent years because
soil examination is made of fields and when
infestations are found to exceed an acceptable
level the growing of host plants is prohibited
for 5 years. Resistant varieties of host plants
are also being tried. In fields where infestation
is particularly heavy, total prohibition of host
plants is necessary. A race of golden nematode
that broke the resistance of the potato variety
Antinema has been found in Saint Malo.

Germany (East)

The golden nematode is widely distributed
in East Germany. The infestations are most
numerous on sandy soil, and for economic
reasons potatoes have been grown too fre-
quently. Most communes of the country are
infested. In some areas between 2 and 3 per-
cent of the total agricultural area is infested.
However, in the northern area (Mecklenburg
and Brandenburg) the averages occasionally
are as high as 8 percent of the agricultural
area.

East Germany also uses resistant potato
varieties. Regulations are enforced on crop
rotation and the movement of infested com-
modities. Soil examination of fields is made to


48 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 353, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BN-80080

FIGuRE 44,—Peconic, a new variety resistant to the golden nematode, was released February 1966. Peconic has
many of the same characteristics as the Katahdin.

BN~80077
Ficure 45.—Tubers of the Katahdin variety. This variety is widely grown on Long Island and the Atlantic coast.


THE GOLDEN NEMATODE HANDBOOK 51

Ficure 48.—Golden nematode infestations in Africa and West Asia.

mum requirements for the control of the
golden nematode and prevention of its spread
in member countries. The council recommended
that seed potatoes be produced only in areas
that have been carefully surveyed and officially
declared free of the golden nematode. Upon
discovery of an infestation, member countries
will conduct such surveys as necessary to find
the limits of the infestation. Member countries

will prohibit the growing or storage of potatoes
or plants for transplanting on infested
premises. Member countries will prescribe that
potatoes recognized as being contaminated
with the golden nematode shall not be used for
seed purposes.

These regulations should remain in effect
until a determination is made that the nema-
tode no longer exists. The council also recom-