BEEF FEEDLOT 

INDUSTRY MANUAL

National Animal Health 

Emergency Management System 

Foreign Animal Disease 

Preparedness & Response Plan

FAD PReP

United States Department of Agriculture • Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service • Veterinary Services

JULY 2011
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FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page i

The Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan (FAD PReP)/National Animal Health Emergency 

Management System (NAHEMS) Guidelines provide a framework for use in dealing with an animal health 

emergency in the United States. 

This FAD PReP Industry Manual was produced by the Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State 

University of Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, in collaboration with the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service through a cooperative agreement.

This FAD PReP Industry Manual is under ongoing review. This document was last updated July 2011. Please send 

questions or comments to:

Center for Food Security and Public Health

2160 Veterinary Medicine

Iowa State University of Science and Technology

Ames, IA 50011

Telephone: 515-294-1492

Fax: 515-294-8259

Email: cfsph@iastate.edu - 

subject line FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual

While best efforts have been used in developing and preparing the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines, the US Government,

US Department of Agriculture and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service and other parties, such as employees 

and contractors contributing to this document, neither warrant nor assume any legal liability or responsibility for the 

accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information or procedure disclosed. The primary purpose of these FAD 

PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines is to provide guidance to those government officials responding to a foreign animal 

disease outbreak. It is only posted for public access as a reference. 

The FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines may refer to links to various other Federal and State agencies and private organizations. These links are maintained solely for the user’s information and convenience. If you link to such site, please be aware 

that you are then subject to the policies of that site. In addition, please note that USDA does not control and cannot guarantee 

the relevance, timeliness, or accuracy of these outside materials. Further, the inclusion of links or pointers to particular items 

in hypertext is not intended to reflect their importance, nor is it intended to constitute approval or endorsement of any views 

expressed, or products or services offered, on these outside websites, or the organizations sponsoring the websites. Trade 

names are used solely for the purpose of providing specific information. Mention of a trade name does not constitute a 

guarantee or warranty of the product by USDA or an endorsement over other products not mentioned.

USDA prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, 

religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases 

apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program 

information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 

(voice and telecommunications device for the deaf [TDD]).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326 W, Whitten Building, 

1400 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an 

equal opportunity provider and employer.

Iowa State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, age, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, 

sex, marital status, gender identity, disability or status as a U.S. Veteran. Any persons having inquiries concerning this may 

contact the Director of Equal Opportunity and Diversity, 3280 Beardshear Hall, ISU, Ames, IA 50011 (515) 294-7612. 

National Center for Animal Health 

Emergency Management

US Department of Agriculture (USDA)

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

U.S. Department of Agriculture

4700 River Road, Unit 41

Riverdale, Maryland 20732-1231

Telephone: (301) 734-8073 / (301) 851-3595 

Fax: (301) 734-7817

E-mail: FAD.PReP.Comments@aphis.usda.gov 
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FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page ii

THE IMPERATIVE FOR FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE PREPAREDNESS 

AND RESPONSE 

WHY FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASES MATTER

Preparing for and responding to foreign animal diseases (FADs), like highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and footand-mouth disease (FMD), are critical measures to safeguard our nation’s animal health, public health, and food supply.

There are significant potential consequences of an FAD outbreak in the United States. In addition to the economic 

impact, the social and psychological impact on both producers and consumers could be severe. The FMD outbreak 

in the United Kingdom had an estimated impact of between $12–18 billion. Studies have estimated a likely national 

welfare loss between $2.3–69 billion1 for an FMD outbreak in California, depending on delay in diagnosing the disease2.

CHALLENGES OF RESPONDING TO AN FAD EVENT

An FAD outbreak will be challenging for all stakeholders. For example, there will be disruptions to interstate 

commerce and international trade. Response activities are complex, and significant planning and preparation must 

be conducted before an outbreak. Outbreaks can become large and widespread. Large, geographically dispersed and 

diverse teams will need to be assembled rapidly and must react quickly. The response effort must have the capability 

to be rapidly scaled up, involving many times more resources, personnel, and countermeasures. As such, responding 

to an FAD—large or small—may be a very complex and difficult effort. 

LESSONS LEARNED FROM PAST FAD OUTBREAKS

Past outbreaks both in the United States and in other countries offer important lessons that can be applied to 

preparedness and response efforts. To achieve successful outcomes in future FAD response, it is vital to identify, 

understand, and apply these lessons learned:

•	 Provide a unified State-Federal-Tribal-industry planning process that respects local knowledge.

•	 Ensure the unified command sets clearly defined and obtainable goals.

•	 Have a unified command that acts with speed and certainty to achieve united goals.

•	 Employ science-based and risk-management approaches that protect public health and animal health, stabilize 

animal agriculture, the food supply, and the economy.

•	 Ensure guidelines, strategies, and procedures are communicated and understood by responders and stakeholders.

•	 Acknowledge that high expectations for timely and successful outcomes require the:

- Rapid scale-up of resources and trained personnel for veterinary activities and countermeasures, and

- Capability to quickly address competing interests before or during an outbreak.

•	 Rapid detection and FAD tracing is essential for the efficient and timely control of FAD outbreaks.

1. Carpenter TE, O’Brien JM, Hagerman AD, & McCarl BA. 2011. “Epidemic and economic impacts of delayed detection of foot-and-mouth 

disease: a case study of a simulated outbreak in California.” J Vet Diagn Invest. 23:26-33.

2. Estimates based on models may vary: Ekboir (1999) estimated a loss of between $8.5 and $13.5 billion for an FMD outbreak in California. 

Ekboir JM. 1999. “Potential Impact of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in California: the Role and Contribution of Animal Health Surveillance 

and Monitoring Services.” Agricultural Issues Center. University of California, Davis.
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FAD PREP MISSION AND GOALS

The significant threat and potential consequences of FADs and the challenges of and lessons learned of effective and 

rapid FAD response have led to the development of the Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan, 

also known as “FAD PReP.” The mission of FAD PReP is to raise awareness, expectations, and develop capabilities

 surrounding FAD preparedness and response. The goal of FAD PReP is to integrate, synchronize, and deconflict 

preparedness and response capabilities as much as possible before an outbreak, by providing goals, guidelines, 

strategies, and procedures that are clear, comprehensive, easily readable, easily updated, and that comply with the 

National Incident Management System.

In the event of an FAD outbreak, the three key response goals are to: (1) detect, control, and contain the FAD in 

animals as quickly as possible; (2) eradicate the FAD using strategies that seek to stabilize animal agriculture, 

the food supply, the economy, and protect public health; and (3) provide science- and risk-based approaches 

and systems to facilitate continuity of business for non-infected animals and non-contaminated animal products. 

Achieving these three goals will allow individual livestock facilities, States, Tribes, regions, and industries to 

resume normal production as quickly as possible. They will also allow the United States to regain FAD-free status 

without the response effort causing more disruption and damage than the disease outbreak itself. 

FAD PReP DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS

FAD PReP is not just one, standalone FAD plan. Instead, it is a comprehensive US preparedness and response strategy 

for FAD threats. This strategy is provided and explained in a series of different types of integrated documents, as 

illustrated and described below. 

FAD PReP Suite of Documents and Materials

Note: APHIS=Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, NAHEMS = National Animal Health Emergency 

Management System, SOP = standard operating procedures.

Strategic Plans—Concept of Operations 

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework: Roles and Coordination: This document provides an overall 

concept of operations for FAD preparedness and response for APHIS, explaining the framework of existing 

approaches, systems, and relationships.

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework: Response Strategies and Activities: This document provides 

significant detail on response strategies and activities that will be conducted in an FAD outbreak.

•	 National Center for Animal Health Emergency Management (NCAHEM) Stakeholder Coordination and 

Collaboration Resource Guide: This guide describes key stakeholders with whom NCAHEM collaborates.
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•	 NCAHEM Incident Coordination Group Plan: This document explains how APHIS headquarters will organize 

in the event of an animal health emergency. 

NAHEMS Guidelines 

•	 These documents describe many of the critical preparedness and response activities, and can be considered 

as a competent veterinary authority for responders, planners, and policy-makers.

Industry Manuals

•	 These manuals describe the complexity of industry to emergency planners and responders and provide industry 

a window into emergency response. 

Disease Response Plans

•	 Response plans are intended to provide disease-specific information about response strategies. These documents 

offer guidance to all stakeholders on capabilities and critical activities that would be required to respond to an 

FAD outbreak.

Critical Activity Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

•	 For planners and responders, these SOPs provide details for conducting 23 critical activities such as disposal, 

depopulation, cleaning and disinfection, and biosecurity that are essential to effective preparedness and 

response to an FAD outbreak. These SOPs provide operational details that are not discussed in depth in 

strategy documents or disease-specific response plans.

Continuity of Business (commodity specific plans developed by public-privateacademic partnerships)

•	 Secure Egg Supply (SES) Plan: The SES Plan uses proactive risk assessments, surveillance, biosecurity, and other 

requirements to facilitate the market continuity and movement of eggs and egg products during an HPAI outbreak.

•	 Secure Milk Supply (SMS) Plan: Currently under development, the SMS Plan will help facilitate market continuity 

for milk and milk products during an FMD outbreak. This Plan also will employ proactive risk assessments.

•	 Secure Pork Supply (SPS) Plan: Currently under development, the SPS Plan will help facilitate market 

continuity for pork and pork products during an FMD, classical swine fever, swine vesicular disease, or African 

swine fever outbreak.

•	 Secure Turkey Supply (STS) Plan: Currently under development, the STS Plan will help facilitate market 

continuity for the turkey sector during an HPAI outbreak. 

Outbreak Response Tools

•	 Case definitions, appraisal and compensation guidelines and formulas, and specific surveillance guidance are 

examples of important outbreak response tools.

State/Tribal Planning

•	 State and Tribal planning is essential for an effective FAD response. These plans are tailored to the particular 

requirements and environments of the State or Tribal area, taking into account animal populations, industry, 

and population needs.

Industry, Academic, and Extension Planning

•	 Industry, academia, and extension stakeholder planning is critical and essential: emergency management is not 

just a Federal or State activity.

APHIS Emergency Management

•	 APHIS directives and Veterinary Services (VS) Memorandums provide critical emergency management policy. 

APHIS Emergency Management documents provide guidance on topics ranging from emergency mobilization, 

to the steps in investigating a potential FAD, to protecting personnel from HPAI.
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The information provided here is meant to be used as a preparedness resource rather than a comprehensive 

document. Several key APHIS documents complement this “FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual” and provide 

further details when necessary. This document references the following APHIS documents:

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework documents 

•	 FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: 

- Biosecurity (2011) 

- Cleaning and Disinfection (2011)

- Disposal (2012)

- Surveillance, Epidemiology, and Tracing (2011)

- Personal Protective Equipment (2011)

- Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia (2011)

- Vaccination for Contagious Diseases (2011) with Appendix A: FMD Considerations and Strategies (2011)

- Wildlife Management and Vector Control (2011)

•	 FAD PReP Standard Operating Procedures (SOP):

- Biosecurity

- Cleaning and Disinfection

- Disposal

- Surveillance, Epidemiology, and Tracing

- Personal Protective Equipment

- Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia

- Vaccination for Contagious Diseases

- Wildlife Management and Vector Control

•	 FMD Response Plan: The Red Book, USDA-APHIS 

•	 VS Memo 580.4 Procedures for Investigating a Foreign Animal Disease/Emerging Disease Incident 

(FAD/EDI) August 2010

These documents are available on the FAD PReP collaboration website: https://fadprep.lmi.org. For those with 

access to the APHIS intranet, they are available on the internal APHIS FAD PReP website: http://inside.aphis.usda.

gov/vs/em/fadprep.shtml
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Table of Contents

Purpose 1

Intent 1

Scope 1

Learning Objectives 1

PART I: UNITED STATES BEEF CATTLE FEEDLOT PRODUCTION 2 

 

1. Scope of the Beef Cattle Feedlot Industry 2

1.1 Cattle Numbers 2

1.2 Feedlot Production Systems 3

1.2.1 Location and Movement 3

1.3 Types of Cattle Feeding Operations 4

1.4 Sources of Feedlot Cattle 5

1.5 Diverse Workforce 6

1.6 Business Continuity 6

1.7 Disease Traceability in Beef Cattle 7

2. Beef Cattle Production Stages 8

2.1 Cow-Calf 8

2.2 Backgrounders/Stockers 8

2.3 Feedlots 9

2.4 Harvest Facilities or Packing Plants 9

2.5 Working Horses 10

3. Beef Cattle Feedlot Facilities 10

3.1 Feedlot Design 10

3.1.1 Loading/Unloading 11

3.1.2 Processing and Treatment Facilities 11

3.1.3 Pens 12

3.1.3.1 Hospital Pens 12

3.1.4 Shelter 12

4. Beef Cattle Apperance and Behavior 13

4.1 Cattle Appearance 13

4.2 Cattle Behavior 13

4.3 Sick Animals 14

4.4 Methods for Safe Movement of Beef Cattle 14

4.5 Methods for Safe Restraint of Beef Cattle 16

5. Animal Husbandry Needs 16

5.1 Nutrition and Feeding 16

5.1.1 Feed Storage 17

5.1.2 Feed Delivery to Animals 17

5.1.3 Feedbunk Management 18

5.1.4 Water Access 18

5.2 Routine Vaccinations 18

5.3 Parasite Control 19
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Table of Contents

5.4 Implants 19

5.5 Withdrawal Times for Pharmaceuticals and Biologics 19

5.6 Record Keeping 20

6. People and Product Movement 20

6.1 Manure 21 

6.2 Mortalities 21

PART II: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE 23

7. Designation of Zones, Areas, and Premises 23

8. Biosecurity Measures for Foreign Animal Disease Outbreak 25

8.1 Zoonotic Disease of Cattle 25

9. Providing Animal Care 25

9.1 Feeding 25

9.2 Vaccinating 25

9.2.1 Routine 25

9.2.2 Specific to Disease Event 26

10. Product Handling 27

10.1 Market Weight Animals 27

10.2 Animals in Transit 28

10.3 Unfinished Cattle 28

10.4 Mortalities 28

10.5 Manure 28

11. Surveillance 29

11.1 People 29

11.2 Vehicle Traffic 30

11.3 Disease Monitoring 30

11.4 Diagnostic Sample Collection 30

11.5 Diagnostic Sample Submission 30

12. Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia (FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 31

13. Disposal (FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 31

14. Cleaning and Disinfection (FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP) 32

15. Appraisal and Compensation 32

16. International Trade 32

Acknowledgements 33
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Table of Contents

Photo and Illustration Credits 35

Acronyms 37

Glossary 39

Appendix: Select Feedlot Industry Terminology 44

Appendix: Bovine Routes of Transmission 45

Appendix: Foot and Mouth Disease Prevention Practices 46

Appendix: Rift Valley Fever Prevention Practices 56

Appendix: Heartwater Prevention Practices 65

Appendix: Bioterrorism and High Consequence Pathogens of Cattle 76

Appendix: Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic Samples 81
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Purpose

This industry manual provides a broad overview of U.S. beef feedlot production methods and the procedures that 

may be established in the event of a cattle-susceptible, highly contagious foreign animal disease (FAD) outbreak. 

A highly contagious FAD outbreak will severely impact industries with susceptible livestock as well as allied industries and service providers. A quick, effective and well-coordinated response can minimize the impact to the cattle 

industry. Wide dissemination of this information is encouraged to establish open communication between regulators 

and producers with the goal of reducing the probability that cattle or their caretakers become infected with a highly 

contagious FAD.

Intent

Local, state, and national level officials involved in developing policy and/or 

managing a highly contagious FAD outbreak should read this manual to understand 

the normal business operations of the feedlot industry and the inherent high risk 

disease transmission behaviors in order to effectively aid in disease containment or 

eradication. Veterinarians and animal health technicians who are members of the 

USDA-APHIS National Animal Health Emergency Response Corps (NAHERC) or 

their state or county veterinary response teams carrying out disease control efforts 

on feedlots should familiarize themselves with this manual in order to understand 

the the risks and consequences of a disease outbreak and to more effectively 

communicate with all stakeholders involved. Livestock producers and any support 

personnel interacting with feedlots need to be aware of the procedures as described 

here that may be implemented in a highly contagious FAD event and the biosecurity 

procedures they would be expected to follow to minimize losses and reduce the 

chance of becoming infected.

Scope

•	 Part I provides an overview of U.S. beef cattle feedlot production, including 

feedlot management, animal husbandry, facility types, and animal movement. 

•	 Part II describes the response to prevent or mitigate the spread of a highly 

contagious foreign animal disease, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) or 

Rift Valley fever (RVF) including designated zones and areas and providing 

animal care.

•	 Acronyms and glossary explain the terms used in the feedlot industry and emergency response.

•	 The appendices contain disease prevention practices and biosecurity measures for FMD, RVF and heartwater 

disease as well as bioterrorism and high consequence pathogens of cattle.

Learning Objectives

Upon reviewing this manual, readers will be able to:

1. Explain feedlot animal care needs and the most humane methods to safely move and restrain cattle within the 

feedlot environment;

2. Recognize the management and operations of beef feedlots of various sizes including the personnel, supplies, 

and traffic arriving at and leaving a typical feedlot;

3. Differentiate normal cattle behavior and appearance from the abnormal behavior of a diseased animal;

4. Illustrate FAD response zones and areas used in quarantine and movement control efforts and explain 

classifications of premises in a response;

5. Implement biosecurity measures and surveillance activities on a cattle feedlot to prevent highly contagious 

FAD entry and monitor its presence/absence; and

6. Communicate with supervisory personnel and/or the regulatory officials regarding cattle feedlot status (animal 

needs, biosecurity measures in place, test results, tracebacks/traceouts).
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PART I: UNITED STATES BEEF CATTLE FEEDLOT PRODUCTION

1. SCOPE OF BEEF CATTLE FEEDLOT INDUSTRY

1.1 Cattle Numbers 

The United States is the world’s leading producer of beef and has the largest fed-cattle industry. As of December 2010, 

the total U.S. inventory of all cattle on feed was 14.0 million head on over 75,000 feedlots. The majority of U.S. feedlots 

have less than 1,000 head capacity, but feedlots with 32,000 head or more marketed 41.3% of fed cattle in 2010 (Table 

1). The top five cattle states based on inventory on feed are listed in Table 2, which includes the Great Plains and Corn 

Belt States. Fed-cattle are also raised in the Southwest and Pacific Northwest. 

Feedlots feed cattle to add muscle and fat to tissues. Intramuscular fat in meat is 

referred to as marbling which gives consumers the taste and texture they desire 

from beef. Beef is given a quality grade based on the amount of intramuscular 

fat. The grading scale, from least amount of marbling to most amount of marbling, is utility, standard, select, choice, and prime. The most common grades 

found in stores are select and choice. Prime cuts generally bring higher prices 

and are primarily marketed to export markets or to the hotel and restaurant 

trade. In 2009, 33.3 million head of fed cattle were commercially harvested; 

26.5 million steers and heifers and 6.2 million cull beef and dairy cows. The 

majority of U.S. beef produced is consumed domestically: 26.9 billion pounds 

in 2009 alone. Beef exports are an important component of the fed cattle industry as well. In 2009, the U.S. exported 

1.87 billion pounds of commercial carcass weight, which amounted to 7.2% of production worth $2.828 billion dollars. 

The gross income from sales of cattle and calves totaled over $51.5 billion in 2010. A highly contagious FAD affecting 

cattle or allied industries could have a devastating economic effect on feedlot owners, processing plants, and consumers.

Sources: 

•	 United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, Cattle: Background. Accessed May 9, 2011 at 

http://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/cattle/background.htm 

•	 United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, U.S. Beef and Cattle Industry: Background Statistics 

and Information. July 2010. Accessed May 9, 2011 at http://www.ers.usda.gov/news/BSECoverage.htm 

Table 1. Cattle on Feed: Number of Feedlot Operations, Inventory,

and Marketed by Feedlot Capacity, U.S., 2010

Source: National Agricultural Statistics Service, Agriculture Statistics Board, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cattle on Feed, February 2011, 

Accessed May 9, 2011 at http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/CattOnFe//2010s/2011/CattOnFe-02-18-2011.pdf

Feedlot

Capacity

< 1,000 head

1,000 - 1,999

2,000 - 3,999

4,000 - 7,999

8,000 - 15,999

16,000 - 23,999

24,000 - 31,999

32,000 - 49,999

50,000 and Over

All Feedlots

 Inventory

(x 1,000 head)

454

2,509

800

1,030

1,250

1,130

1,050

2,050

3,750

14,023

Percent of 

Total Inventory

3.2%

17.9%

5.7%

7.3%

8.9%

8.1%

7.5%

14.6%

26.7%

100.0%

4,032

778

1,400

1,760

2,470

2,040

2,050

4,110

7,470

26,110

Cattle Marketed

(x 1,000 Head)

Number 

of Lots

790

75,000

560

335

180

85

55

71

64

77,140
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Table 2. Top 5 States for One-Time Beef Cattle Inventory on Feed, 2011 

State

Nebraska

Texas

Kansas

Iowa

Colorado

State Rank

2

1

3

4

5

Inventory

2,550 thousand head

2,850 thousand head

2,400 thousand head

1,380 thousand head

1,100 thousand head

Source: United States Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service, Cattle January 2011; 10. 

Accessed May 9, 2011 at: http://usda01.library.cornell.edu/usda/nass/CattOnFe//2010s/2011/CattOnFe-01-21-2011.pdf

1.2 Feedlot Production Systems

1.2.1 Location and Movement

Cattle in feedlots consist primarily of steers and heifers that originate from a 

wide variety of locations, and a small percentage of cull cows and bulls. Most 

cattle in feedlots are born in the U.S., but approximately 5% originate in Mexico 

and Canada. In 2010, the U.S. imported 1.06 million head of cattle from Canada 

and 1.22 million head from Mexico. The beef industry’s supply chain is intricate 

with heavy reliance upon transportation of cattle and feed. Most beef feedlot 

cattle are not born on the same premises where they are fed out, generating the 

need for shipment of animals, mostly interstate. Calves can be sold right off the 

ranch to a feedlot within or out of state, be sold to order buyers, or at a livestock 

auction. Order buyers or livestock auctions function to accumulate enough 

calves from a number of producers to fill a semi-truck to sell to a feedlot. In 

2010, there were over 21 million head of cattle moved interstate with Nebraska, Texas, Kansas, Colorado and Iowa 

receiving over 68% of the total inshipments. Figure 1 illustrates the inshipments in the U.S. for 2009. 

Figure 1. Cattle Inshipments Across the U.S., 2009

AK, AL, CT, DE, GA, HI, KY, LA, ME, MD, MA, MI, MS, MO, NV, 

NH, NJ, NY, NC, OH, OR, RI, SC, TN, UT, VT, VA, WV, WI 

AR, FL, ID, IL, IN, MN, MT, ND, PA, WA, WY

AZ, CA, CO, IA, NM, OK, SD, KS

More than 2 NE, TX

0.50 - 2.00

0.10 - 0.49

Code Inshipments (million head) States

Less than 0.10

Source: USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service, Meat Animals Production, Disposition, and Income 2010 Summary, April 2011 

accessed at: http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/current/MeatAnimPr/MeatAnimPr-04-28-2011.pdf
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 4 of 84

Cattle deliveries to feedlots are common. Cattle arrive from a variety of sources on livestock trailers or semi-trucks. 

These trucks deliver multiple loads of cattle to various destinations with inconsistent cleaning and disinfection 

procedures between deliveries, potentially transmitting pathogens between operations. Finished cattle are 

transported from the feedlots primarily using semi-trucks. The trucks used for the delivery and transport of 

finished cattle access the operation via the loading/unloading facilities which may be located on the edge of the 

premises or within the feedlot. 

Sources:

•	 United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, Livestock and Meat Trade Data, Meat and livestock 

annual cumulative year-to-date U.S. trade. May 9, 2011 at http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/MeatTrade/LivestockMeatYearly.htm 

•	 United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, Meat Animals Production, Disposition, and Income, 

2010 Summary. April 2011. Accessed May 9, 2011 at: http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/MeatAnimPr//2010s/2011/ 

MeatAnimPr-04-28-2011.pdf

Cattle being moved long distances or in large groups are usually transported using semi-tractors pulling 

specialized trailers, sometimes referred to as ‘pot loads’. These trailers have upper and lower decks and hold 

varying numbers of cattle depending on the size of the cattle, number of axles, and the weight classification of 

the trailer. Cattle being moved short distances or in small groups are usually transported using light trucks pulling 

stock trailers that hold fewer animals. Finished cattle are either transported directly to harvest facilities or resold 

at auction markets to buyers from harvest facilities. More information is provided in section 4.4, Methods for 

Safe Movement of Beef Cattle.

1.3 Types of Cattle Feeding Operations

Cattle feeding operations can be classified into three general categories: 1) Large-scale feeding operations, 

2) backgrounders/stockers, and 3) farmer-feeders.

Large-scale feeding operations feed large numbers of cattle, 5,000 head or more; some exceed 100,000 head capacity. 

These feedlots are typically located in regions that are environmentally conducive to cattle production with less 

extreme climates and low levels of annual precipitation. This allows for continuous operation year round and turning 

over the population of cattle twice to 2.5 times per year. Moderate climates are less stressful for cattle and promote 

efficient feed use. Large-scale feeding operations can be located distant from cattle and feed sources, leading to 

reliance on long distance transportation to provide many necessary inputs for operation. Many operations in this 

category are present in the states listed in Table 1 above, especially Texas, Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado. 

Backgrounder/stocker feeding operations utilize a combination of pasturebased (grass, winter wheat), crop residues (corn stalks, wheat stubble), and 

dry lots to prepare weaned calves to be raised in a feedlot. Backgrounders/

stockers take newly weaned calves and adjust them to eating feed from a bunk 

until they reach feeder weight (650-900 pounds). This may involve the calves 

spending some or all of their time on pasture. Both systems prepare calves to 

drink from man-made water sources. These operations vary tremendously in 

size, location, and intensity of management. Numbers of cattle on feed can 

vary from a few head to several thousand. These operations are generally 

located in between sources of cattle and feedlots where forage is plentiful. 

Backgrounder/stocker operations consequently can be found near almost any 

significant source of calves. In many cases, backgrounders have working 

relationships with the feedlots that will eventually finish the cattle from their backgrounder operations. 

Farmer-feeders are generally smaller feedlots that are located near sources of feed, either their own or readily

available to purchase. These operations often take advantage of their own source of cattle and locally grown 

feedstuffs to gain an economic advantage over large-scale feedlots that must transport feed. Farmer-feeders tend to 

be seasonal operations when there is less time competition with other activities like crop management. They either 

raise their own cattle or purchase weaned calves in the fall. These operations are more common in Midwestern and 

Plains states such as Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. Since these 

feedlots operate primarily in the fall and winter months, climatic conditions require management tools to deal with 

adverse conditions such as extreme temperatures and high levels of precipitation.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 5 of 84

1.4 Sources of Feedlot Cattle

Cattle in feedlots are sourced in a variety of ways. The most direct sourcing option is the sale of calves (heifers, 

bulls or steers) from a ranch or farm to a feedlot. In this situation, private sales are arranged that allow cattle to 

be picked up directly from ranches or farms and transported to a feedlot with no intervening marketing steps. 

This method generally has positive health implications for cattle as it avoids commingling and stress that are 

commonly associated with auction market situations. Direct sales are facilitated by video auction services, cattle 

buyers/brokers, and established relationships between calf producers and feedlots.

A 2000 USDA National Animal Health Monitoring 

System (NAHMS) study reported that 31% of 

operations with 8,000 head or more and 47% of 

operations with 1,000 to 7,999 head, or 34% of all 

operations, purchased through livestock auctions. 

Auction markets facilitate transfer of ownership from 

calf producers to feedlots on a local or regional level. 

Animals can be sold singly, by the dozen, or by the 

hundreds at auctions. Most auction markets conduct 

sales once a week; larger cattle auction markets may 

operate daily. Cattle are delivered to the auction 

market and sold to the highest bidder. Cattle are 

often extensively commingled during this process, 

especially if they originate from smaller herds that 

cannot produce enough calves to fill a single trailer 

load. Some calves may need to be transported long 

distances from the point of purchase to reach the 

feedlot. Overall, cattle sourced from auction markets 

have increased risk of disease exposure compared to cattle sourced from direct sales.

Source:

•	 Changes in the U.S. Feedlot Industry: 1994-1999. United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health 

Inpsection Service, Veterinary Services, Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, National Animal Health Monitoring 

System (NAHMS). August 2000. Accessed October 20, 2010 at: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/nahms/feedlot/ 

downloads/feedlot99/Feedlot99_dr_Changes.pdf

Cattle buyers/brokers use both direct sale and auction markets to source cattle for feedlots. Buyers/brokers are 

individuals who accumulate cattle for feedlots as private contractors. They attend cattle auctions or negotiate private 

treaty sales with individual ranchers to arrange direct sales to feedlots. Some buyers/brokers have temporary holding 

facilities where they organize groups of cattle for shipment to feedlots. The use of buyers/brokers to purchase small 

numbers of animals can result in commingling and added stress in cattle with the potential to cause more challenges 

with disease upon arrival at a feedlot.

Large feedlots and backgrounders/stockers are likely to use all of the sourcing options listed above. Farmer-feeders 

also utilize these sourcing methods, but they rely more on auction markets and their own herds to provide animals 

for their feeding operations.

Cattle ownership in feedlots takes several forms. The most basic ownership arrangement is that of a farmer-feeder 

feeding out his/her own animals. Some feedlots are operated on a custom-feeding basis where ranchers/farmers 

or cattle buyers retain ownership of cattle throughout the feeding period, but do not actively participate in the 

day-to-day feeding operation. Many feedlots directly buy and subsequently own some or all of the cattle. There 

are many degrees of ownership present between feedlot owners and calf producers in cattle feeding at all levels. 

A large proportion of cattle on feed are fed as an investment, with as much as two-thirds of the money borrowed 

from a financial institution. In a highly contagious FAD outbreak, the financial aspect of cattle ownership could 

influence people’s behavior as it relates to adhering to quarantine protocols or depopulation decisions. Appraisal and 

compensation for depopulated animals are covered in another FAD PReP/NAHEMS document, but indemnification 

on feedlots may be quite involved given the nature of their business structure.

Percentage of Feedlot Operations that 

Purchase Cattle Through Auction Markets

1000 - 

7999 Head

50

40

30

20

10

0

8000 

Head

All 

Operations
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 6 of 84

1.5 Diverse Workforce

The workforce on United States feedlot operations can be very diverse. Farm workers who speak English as a second (or 

third) language are employed on feedlots throughout the United States. Cultural and language differences may present 

a barrier and hinder response efforts in the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak. Some workers may be skeptical 

and resist government intervention which could complicate containment efforts if they leave the operation or area. 

As a regulatory official or someone tasked with visiting an operation, effective communication with all involved 

will be necessary to conduct the disease investigation or to carry out eradication efforts. Awareness of the workforce 

in a given community and establishing relationships prior to an outbreak can help build trust. This should be a focus 

of preparedness efforts at the local level. Understanding some general concepts about the primary workforce, which 

in large feedlots in the U.S. often consists primarily of people of Hispanic descent, can help establish a successful 

working relationship. 

Some employees may not be comfortable communicating with officials, so identifying the primary facility manager 

is important. Working with that person to communicate tasks to the other employees will help with acceptance and 

coordination of the work. A translator can be very beneficial to overcome language and cultural barriers. Also, demonstrating concepts or tasks can be helpful. Not all personnel may be literate and having a variety of visual-based 

educational tools can be an effective way of explaining what is needed. Likewise, some terminology used in the 

feedlot industry is unique so a list of “Select Feedlot Industry Terminology” can be found in the Appendix.

Depending on the highly contagious FAD, strategies to control its spread could include mass depopulation of infected 

animals and subsequent disposal on the operation or in the community. Farm workers, owners, and outside labor may 

be directly involved in this process. Workers and owners may not be prepared to deal with the loss of animals that have 

been a part of their daily routine and source of livelihood. Returning to an empty feedyard in subsequent days/weeks 

may also be another psychologically upsetting situation. Providing a support network for owners and their workers, 

again in an ethically and culturally acceptable format, needs to be part of preparedness plans at the local level. 

1.6 Business Continuity

In the event that a highly contagious FAD is diagnosed in the U.S., the use 

of quarantines and movement controls will be necessary to rapidly detect, 

control, and contain the disease. While quarantines and movement controls 

are highly effective at stopping the spread of the FAD, they also are likely 

to cause significant disruptions in typical business operations for the animal 

industries affected. Feedlots with susceptible animals that are not currently 

under investigation for the FAD need to move animals and supplies in order 

to remain in business. The economic viability and animal well-being on 

uninfected facilities could be negatively affected if certain movements are 

restricted. Therefore, in order to mitigate these consequences, it is critical 

to implement science- and risk-based approaches and systems to facilitate 

continuity of business for non-infected premises.

Continuity of business is the management of non-infected premises, non-infected animals, and non-contaminated 

animal products in an FAD outbreak. This facilitates agriculture and food industries in maintaining business operations while mitigating the risk of disease spread. Continuity of business planning helps to mitigate losses, facilitate 

food security, and allow agriculture and food industries to continue operating within regulatory Control Areas.

Continuity of business planning helps to protect: 

•	 Animal health, by preventing the transmission of an FAD from an infected to a naïve animal subpopulation; 

•	 Food security, by ensuring movement of unaffected animals and animal products; and 

•	 Public health, by mitigating zoonotic threats in animal populations and the food supply. 

Most beef cattle feedlots, and subsequently harvest facilities, would not be able to function for extended periods of 

time without movement of animals and supplies onto and off of the property. During a response effort, uninfected 

feedlots in a Control Area will still need to move raw or processed feed, water resources, supplies, pharmaceuticals, or equipment onto the farm and may also need to move animals to harvesting facilities. Allowing business 

to continue during the control and eradication of an FAD is also essential for the economic viability of ancillary 

industries and associated rural communities. 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 7 of 84

Feedlot owners and managers should have action plans developed in advance 

so they can ensure that feed and any other necessities related to animal care 

and husbandry will continue to be delivered in an outbreak. . It is important to 

consider different transport routes and to become familiar with the resources 

and methods necessary for cleaning and disinfecting large transport vehicles; 

in the event of an outbreak roads may be closed and cleaning and disinfection 

will be essential to minimize disease spread. Integrated preparedness plans 

with suppliers, cattle buyers, and state officials are essential to ensure animal 

welfare needs are met and movement returns as quickly as possible

For more information please see the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: 

Continuity of Business (2011).

1.7 Disease Traceability in Beef Cattle 

Beef cattle traceability is fundamental to health management plans (medical treatments and vaccinations), genetic 

improvements, marketability, and recording cattle inventory in many feedlots. Multiple forms of cattle identification 

and farm/ranch based numbering systems are in use (described below) for U.S. beef cattle. Some cattle may have 

no identification of any kind upon arrival at the feedyard, especially in smaller operations. Record keeping systems 

vary by operation too, from nothing to chalk/white boards to hand written paper documents to computerized software 

programs. In the event of a disease outbreak, beef cattle disease traceability can play a key role in disease surveillance, 

control, eradication, and continuity of business.

As defined by the World Organization for Animal Health (Office International des Epizooties or OIE), animal 

traceability means “the ability to follow an animal or group of animals during all stages of its life”. During an animal 

disease emergency event, it is often necessary to locate the source of the animal(s) in question, other premises on which 

the animal(s) resided, other animals that were exposed, and animals at risk of exposure. However, some U.S. feedlots 

may not have this information readily available, slowing response time. Feedlot owners and managers are encouraged 

to retain records of animal origin and movement prior to arrival at the feedlot to expedite disease investigations. 

A variety of cattle identification methods exist on U.S. feedlots. Some are unique to the owner of the cattle, like 

brands. These are most often found on cattle originating in states west of the Mississippi River. Brand identification, 

used primarily for proof of ownership, is registered with an official state brand inspection agency and accompanied 

by an official brand inspection certificate. These cattle must be inspected by a brand inspector before the cattle can 

be shipped. Depending upon the state brand laws, brands can be located on either side of the animal and may be 

found on the shoulder, rib, or hip. They can sometimes be accompanied by unique ear notching when registered as 

part of the brand marking. Brands can either be applied with extreme heat, termed hot iron branding, or extreme 

cold, termed freeze branding. In some cases, an animal may have multiple brands.

While not unique to the farm or the animal, animals that have received a brucellosis vaccine should have an official 

brucellosis tattoo in their right ear. Some purebred cattle will have a unique registration number tattooed in their left ear. 

Most feedlots identify groups or pens of animals, which may involve a series of plastic dangle tags ‘coded’ for the pen. 

Dangle Tags Brucellosis & Bright Ear Tags Radio Frequency ID (RFID) Tag

Individual animal identification methods are used for cattle receiving treatment and include ear tags, which may be a 

plastic dangle tag, a USDA metal brucellosis vaccination tag, a metal bright ear tag, or radio frequency identification 

(RFID) tags (commonly referred to as electronic ID, or EID, in the cattle industry). Producers in many states and 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 8 of 84

licensed veterinarians can obtain brucellosis or bright tags from their State. The first two numbers indicate the state 

code where the animals resided when the tags were placed in their ear. The plastic dangle tags may be marked with 

handwritten numbers, pre-printed through a commercial source, or purchased from a registered breed association 

(not considered USDA official unless the U.S. shield is stamped on the tag).

As of July 2011, cattle less than twenty-four months-of-age moving interstate directly to slaughter are not 

required to be USDA officially identified. To review all official forms of identification, see the Code of Federal 

Regulations, Title 9, Chapter I, Part 71.18 Individual identification of certain cattle 2 years of age or over for 

movement in interstate commerce. It is advised to contact the destination state or harvest plant to determine what 

official identification requirements exist. 

For more information about the USDA’s cooperative approach with States and Tribal Nations about animal disease 

traceability, visit the USDA Animal Disease Traceability website: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/traceability/

 Source:

•	 OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code 2010, Glossary, accessed May 3, 2011 at: http://web.oie.int/eng/normes/mcode/ 

en_glossaire.htm 

2. BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION STAGES

The beef cattle industry in the United States has three distinct sectors: cow-calf, backgrounder/stocker, and feedlot. 

The cow-calf phase is from birth to weaning, the backgrounder/stocker phase starts with the weaned calves and 

grows them out, and finally they enter the feedlot where they are ‘finished’. Cattle in the feedlot industry are derived 

from the U.S. and other North American countries and are the focus of this manual. The intermediate stage, referred 

to as backgrounders and stockers, is utilized to allow newly weaned calves to grow and prepare for life in a feedlot. 

The goal of feedlots is to produce wholesome beef for human consumption, which is harvested at a packing plant. 

An understanding of the interactions between these sectors is important when developing policies for highly contagious 

FAD(s) and during a response to an animal health emergency. Each sector relies on a supply of cattle from the 

previous phase; changes in demand or disruptions in supply can have serious impacts on individual operations 

and the entire beef cattle industry.

2.1 Cow-Calf

In the cow-calf stage, farmers/ranchers maintain herds of cows to produce 

calves. They may own bulls or utilize artificial insemination to breed the 

cows. Yearly, the heifer calves may be divided into two groups: one group 

is retained as replacements for cows leaving the herd and the other group 

is marketed for feeding. Unless retained as breeding stock, the bull calves 

are marketed for feeding as well. Operations vary in their management of 

the cow and calf herd. The calves destined for feeding may or may not be 

vaccinated, dehorned, implanted, castrated, and/or weaned prior to leaving the 

cow-calf operation. Calves that are properly prepared while on the cow-calf 

operation prior to transportation through marketing channels or directly to 

the feedlot tend to experience fewer health related challenges. Calves are typically weaned at six to ten months of 

age, weighing 300-600 pounds. The weaning period can range from a few days to a few weeks prior to movement 

off-farm. Once weaned, calves eat pasture grasses, ensiled forages with or without supplemental grain, depending 

on the region of the country, calf weight, time of year, and availability of pasture/forages. Calves from intensively 

managed cow-calf herds (those that wean, vaccinate, dehorn, and castrate with time to adjust on the operation 

prior to moving) may go directly to feedlots or be sent to backgrounders/stockers for a period of time prior to 

entering the feedlot.

2.2 Backgrounders/Stockers

Backgrounders and stockers provide an intermediate stage that grows the frame size of weaned calves without 

fattening and prepares them for the feedlot. Weaned calves are raised to feeder size, approximately 650-900 

pounds which can take 60 to 300 days. The length of time calves stay at a backgrounder or stocker depends on the 

backgrounder/stocker goals, the size of the calves when they arrive, and the availability of pasture for stockers 

as determined by moisture conditions. Most cattle are born in the spring in the U.S. and some stockers will feed 

them at a lower rate of gain, keeping them longer and produce yearling cattle to feedlots year round. 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 9 of 84

At the stocker operation, calves may be raised on pasture the entire time, with supplemental feed in movable bunks rather 

than stationary concrete bunks at a post and rail on the edge of a pen. At the backgrounder, calves may be put on pasture 

for a period of time and then moved into small dry lot pens and fed a supplemental diet to aid in growth and development 

and also to condition them to eating from a feedbunk. The ration is similar to 

feedlots in delivery but usually of a higher roughage and lower energy value. 

The goal of backgrounders is to acclimate calves to the conditions in a feedlot 

including feeding, watering, and exposure to pathogens from other animals 

raised in similar conditions. Calves may also be conditioned to drink from a 

water trough if they have not previously had this experience. In most cases, 

calves also receive vaccinations at this stage. Facilities for routine processing 

and administration of treatments are variable between operations. Some may 

have very adequate facilities resembling what is found at larger feedlots; others 

may not have a way to restrain animals other than with a gate in a pasture pen. 

Backgrounders/stockers may have a relationship with a feedlot who will feed them out when ready, or own a feedlot 

themselves and sell or transfer the calves when they are ready. If a relationship with a feedlot does not exist, the 

calves will likely return to the auction market to be sold again. 

2.3 Feedlots

After the cow-calf and/or backgrounder/stocker stages, cattle are sent to 

feedlots (sometimes referred to as “feedyards”) to grow to market weight 

(1,100 to 1,500 pounds), a process often referred to as finishing or fattening. 

Another source of feedlot cattle includes steers from the dairy industry, 

particularly Holsteins. These may be fed on dairies until they reach a certain 

size or raised at a calf ranch similar to backgrounders. 

Feedlots feed highly palatable high energy rations for growth, muscle 

development, and fat deposition. One management term used in feedlots is 

average daily gain (ADG) – how much weight an animal gains per day while 

on the high energy ration. The goal is for cattle to gain 3.2 to 3.5 pounds per 

day. Another term is feed efficiency, the amount of feed consumed to produce a pound of gain. Typical rates of feed 

efficiency may be less than 6 pounds of dry-matter per pound of gain. This is accomplished by gradually decreasing

 the amount of forage in the diet and replacing the forage with concentrate feeds composed primarily of grain or 

by-product feeds, especially from the ethanol industry. Cattle typically remain in feedlots for 150 to 180 days but 

feeding up to a year may occur with Holstein calves and other very light-weight animals (~350 pounds upon arrival). 

This length of time is referred to in the industry as days on feed (DOF). Finished cattle will vary in size depending 

on breed and body frame size. The cost per pound of gain is something modern feedyards monitor closely.

2.4 Harvest Facilities or Packing Plants

Once cattle have reached their finishing weight (1,100 to 1,500 pounds), they are ready to be moved to a harvest 

facility, also referred to as a packing plant. Cattle that have reached this weight are called “Fat Cattle” or “Finished 

Cattle.” Feedlot operators typically put together a “show list” of cattle ready for harvest on a weekly basis. Buyers 

from one or more packing plants visit the operation, select animals from this list, and make an offer. Once agreed 

upon, transfer/sale documents are drawn up. In general, cattle contracts are agreed upon for the next week’s delivery 

schedule. Some feedlots have long-term contracts with packing plants whereby a set number of cattle is purchased on 

a live-weight or carcass-weight basis and within a predetermined weight range. There are also delivery deadlines that 

must be met in order for the feedlot to fulfill its contractual obligation. This schedule must be adhered to or the feedlot 

is financially penalized because the plant loses productivity. Some cattle are marketed on a “grid” of carcass characteristics. In some cases, the packer is also the owner of the cattle.

Fat cattle need to be considered a perishable commodity in terms of disease outbreak response planning. Transportation 

may be disrupted and the destination of the packing plants may be outside the permitted travel area, thus affecting when 

and where cattle are moved to harvest. If cattle cannot be moved to market on time, they could reach heavier than normal 

weights, thus impacting the quality of the carcass and the number of animals that can be loaded onto a single semi-trailer. 

Some packing plants may have upper size limits for processing cattle due to the equipment used to handle them. Likewise, 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 10 of 84

the processing and marketing of fed cattle below market weight is another consideration for livestock owners and packing 

plants. Anytime carcass quality is affected (too heavy or too light), the price paid to the owners can significantly decrease. 

If cattle are held after the optimal slaughter period, the cost per pound of gain increases significantly. 

Given the plants expectations of a certain number and size of cattle on set deadlines, redirecting market cattle from packing 

plant A to plant B is not an easy task. Feedlot management will need reassurance that plant A will allow them to void their 

contractual obligations without severe financial penalties. Likewise, plant B must be willing and able to process the cattle 

and compensate owners for them. Re-routing market weight cattle requires consideration of the economic concerns of the 

packing plants, feedlot operators, and regulatory officials so as not to cause undue financial hardship to any one sector.

2.5 Working Horses

Working horses are critical to the workforce of many beef operations, both 

cow-calf and feedlot. These horses are ridden by workers (cowboys) through 

pastures and pens to examine, move, and/or sort cattle. The horses may be 

housed permanently on the operation or return home with their owners. Some 

cowboys may transport and ride these horses in events (e.g., cattle roping 

competitions, rodeos, etc.) and/or train horses for other people, so working 

horses may have contact with horses on other premises. Documenting horse 

movement on and off the cattle premises will be necessary in a disease 

outbreak. Working horses are generally well maintained and are routinely 

vaccinated according to recommended standards and local disease challenges.

In the event of a disease outbreak affecting cattle and horses (e.g., vesicular stomatitis, surra), these horses should be 

quarantined to the operation on which they reside. In the case of vector-borne diseases, like vesicular stomatitis and 

surra, direct contact is not a main route of transmission so interactions with cattle in the pasture could still occur unless 

regulatory officials advise otherwise. For other diseases spread via fomite (e.g., foot-and-mouth disease), a horse’s tack 

(bridle, saddle, blanket) or their hooves could become contaminated with manure or saliva from infected cattle and may 

carry disease pathogens between groups of animals in different pastures and other areas of the operation.

3. BEEF CATTLE FEEDLOT FACILITIES

Beef feedlots can range in size from a few to many thousand 

head. Individual feedlots of all sizes may be owned by a single 

person; larger feedlots (several thousand head) may involve a 

group of investors (corporation). A group of large feedlots may 

be owned by the same parent company (corporation) and share 

executive personnel who travel from feedlot to feedlot. The level 

of workforce cooperation and knowledge may vary significantly 

from one feedlot to another. 

3.1 Feedlot Design

The methods used for care of the cattle and types of facilities 

may differ greatly from one feedlot to another. The key to good 

cattle care depends more on the feedlot manager’s ability to manage the pens and feed than on the specific feedlot facility utilized.

There are six general feedlot facility types (Figure 2): 

1. Earthen lot with or without mounds,

2. Earthen lot with a windbreak or shed, 

3. Earthen lot without a windbreak or shed, 

4. Concrete lot with a shed, 

5. Complete confinement building with solid floor (concrete 

or earthen), or 

6. Complete confinement building with slotted floor. 

Across all types of feedlots, there are common areas for loading, processing, and housing cattle as well as storing 

feed and manure. The layout and structures associated with these areas will vary, but the functions are similar. For 

Earthen Lot with Mound

Hoop Connement Building
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 11 of 84

more information and diagrams on the different types of feedlot facilities, please refer to Beef Feedlot Systems 

Manual, available at: http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1867.pdf.

Source: Iowa Beef Center

Settling Basin

Open Lot

Detention Basin

Windbreak Fence

North

Earthen Lot with Windbreak

Settling Basin

Detention Basin

Earthen Lot with Shed

Open Lot

North

Figure 2. Feedlot Facility Designs

Concrete Lot with Shed

Detention Basin

North

Paved Lot

Settling Basin

Complete Connement Building with Solid Floor

Ventilation 

Curtain Concrete Floor

Feed Bunk

Open 

Side

North

Complete Connement Building with 

Slatted Floor

North

Fenceline Bunk

Drive-Through 

Feed Alley

Manure Storage

Slatted Floors

3.1.1 Loading/Unloading

Cattle arriving or leaving a feedlot typically do so using a dedicated area on 

the operation with sorting or holding pens called slants and loading ramps 

or chutes. These can be as sophisticated as concrete and metal structures 

under cover to simple metal ramps and earthen pens with fences. The transportation process can be long for some cattle depending on their origin. After unloading, cattle are generally placed in receiving pens in this area and 

allowed to rest before moving to a feeding pen or processing. Cattle should 

have access to fresh water and, depending upon how long they have been 

in transit or will remain in the receiving pen, offered fresh feed (typically a 

palatable hay). Cattle are often weighed shortly after arrival.

3.1.2 Processing and Treatment Facilities

Most feedlots have some type of facility available to restrain cattle for routine 

processing (vaccination, deworming, applying identification, implanting, etc.) 

and for treatment of sick animals. After resting, new cattle arrivals may be weighed, vaccinated, identified with one or 

more ear tags, treated for parasites, and sometimes implanted with hormones to aid in growth. 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 12 of 84

Processing facilities vary widely based on the size of the operation. Very small feedlots may have no facilities. In 

contrast, very large feedlots may have facilities for routine processing and others for treatment. Generally, a working 

facility will contain a chute and a system of alleys that bring the cattle to and from their pens to the holding pen 

and chute. Chutes are designed to restrain one animal at a time. Some larger operations may have multiple chutes 

for processing several animals at a time; others will only be able to process one at a time through a single chute. The 

chute area may be located in a building or with a shade structure; others may be out in the open. 

Sorting Tub Alleyways Chute

As more feedlots incorporate software tracking of animals, treatments, vaccinations, and other ancillary procedures, 

having a computer system in the processing and/or treatment facility is becoming more common. Feedlots administering medications to cattle should have some form of a record keeping system that includes the animal’s identification number, date of treatment, reason for treating, name of product(s) administered, route of administration, and recommended slaughter withdrawal time based on the product label. Some feedlots will record much more information. 

3.1.3 Pens

Large feedlots are usually divided up into dry lot feeding pens that share a 

fence line and may also share a watering source with a neighboring pen. Within 

the pens, mounds of dirt are formed that are steep enough to provide water 

drainage, while sloped enough to allow the cattle to lie down along its sides 

and top. Mounds aid in minimizing soil erosion in the pens and increase the 

available dry surface area for cattle to lie down. Large continuous feedbunks 

for holding the ration are usually present along one side of the pens. Pens will 

have a gate that opens into large alleyways. This system of alleyways, often 

referred to as a drover’s alley or lane, is used to move animals between pens, 

to and from processing facilities, and to and from truck loading/unloading 

facilities. In drier climates, the drover’s alley is often at the bottom of the pen 

because water drainage is less of an issue. In wetter climates, cattle may be moved along the feed alley or lane which is 

often located at the higher end of the pen.

Small feedlots may consist of one or more pens with or without shelter. Feeding can mirror larger operations or can be 

much simpler. Some small feedlots may use self-feeding systems in which enough feed for many days is loaded into a 

delivery device and cattle are allowed to eat as much or as little as they desire. The alleys to move cattle vary in their 

interconnectivity depending on the size of the feedlot and available labor to move cattle to processing and load/unloading.

3.1.3.1 Hospital Pens

Some feedlots have dedicated hospital pens for sick or lame cattle. In some cases, these pens are physically separated 

from pens housing healthy animals, but not always. These hospital pens are usually smaller in size than home pens so 

that sick cattle are closer to feed and water sources. They may have shelter and usually a forage based diet is offered. 

Some feedlots have no or very limited hospital facilities. Regardless of the availability of hospital pens, some feedlots 

routinely send sick animals back to their home pens after treatment. This may pose the risk of disease exposure to pen 

mates but that may be outweighed by decreasing the stress on treated animals by allowing them to stay in a known 

social structure. Depending on how cattle are marketed, it may also be necessary to keep one customer’s animals all 

together as opposed to moving them to another pen.

3.1.4 Shelter 

Shelter on feedlots will range from nothing (open dry lots) to windbreaks (natural or man-made) to sheds with open 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 13 of 84

fronts to full confinement buildings. This varies by region of the country and the climate and environmental challenges. 

Unless animals are in confinement, certain extreme weather conditions will be challenging such as sub-zero temperatures 

or a blizzard, extreme heat and humidity, or excessive rain which creates mud in the pens. These conditions can put stress 

on the animals and caretakers. Efforts are taken during these extreme weather events to ensure adequate access to feed 

and water, and supplemental cooling in the form of pen sprinklers can be utilized in extreme heat. Hot weather with high 

humidity is more stressful for fed-cattle than cold temperatures. Cattle handling should occur during the early morning 

hours to avoid additional stress on the animals during the hottest parts of the day.

Shade with Curtain at Bunk Shade with Curtain in Pen Hoop Shed

4. BEEF CATTLE APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOR

4.1 Cattle Appearance 

There are many different breeds and types of cattle in the U.S. Some breeds of Bos indicus descent have humps on 

their necks and naturally droopy ears. These breeds also have less hair than many of the Bos taurus breeds of cattle. 

Bos indicus cattle usually handle high temperatures much better than the Bos taurus breeds. However, Bos taurus is 

more comfortable in the colder weather climates. Within the two species, there can also be large variations in body 

frame, size, and shape. The Oklahoma State University Breeds of Livestock webpage (http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/

breeds/cattle/) has a complete listing of all the cattle breeds with pictures.

Bos indicus Bos taurus

4.2 Cattle Behavior

Cattle behavior is best understood and explained in the context of cattle as a prey species. Their senses are developed 

to rapidly detect changes in their environment. Cattle seem to have poor detailed vision but are very good at detecting 

changes in light and movement. They also have excellent hearing. In most situations, prey animals will flee situations they 

find alarming. Cattle will tend to escape if an alarming presence is detected within their flight zone – an area in which a 

threat is determined to be too close for comfort. Flight zone size depends on each animal’s temperament and previous 

experiences. Some flight zones are small enough to allow close contact with the animal and some are extremely large.

It is also important to realize that as prey animals, cattle may hide signs of disease or pain until it becomes overwhelming. In the wild, diseased or injured animals are targeted by predators and prey species have adapted to hide 

these signs. This behavior can complicate early disease detection in animals, especially if they are easily excited.

Cattle will usually cluster together in groups even on very warm days if they are being bothered by flies and other 

insects. Good pest management can help to alleviate this and also help to prevent cattle from becoming too warm 

while clustered together on hot days.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 14 of 84

4.3 Sick Animals 

Specific feedlot personnel, either on location or on contract, are trained to 

identify sick animals and most spend time daily walking or driving past the 

feedbunks at feeding time or walking/riding the pens on horses or all terrain 

vehicles. These personnel are often referred to as “pen riders”. New cattle 

arrivals are often checked twice a day for the first few weeks. Sick animals 

are typically identified by their reluctance to come to the bunk to eat, standing 

at the bunk but not eating, separating themselves from the group, appearing 

lethargic, having an increased respiratory rate, nasal discharge, sunken eyes, 

or lameness. Feedlots vary in their handling of sick animals. As discussed 

under 3.1.3.1 Hospital Pens, some are moved out, treated, and separated into a 

dedicated pen for a period of time. Some will be sent back to their home pen immediately after treatment. 

At the treatment facility, cattle are examined and treated with appropriate medications or other ancillary treatments 

if necessary. These animals are typically marked externally to indicate they have been treated. This could include 

a mark with livestock chalk on their forehead or body, the application of an additional different colored ear tag, or 

some unique identification to alert those monitoring the pens in subsequent days to pay extra attention to this animal. 

Animal identification and treatment information is recorded to ensure that proper withdrawal times for animal health 

products are observed.

Most feedlot managers work with their consulting veterinarians to develop treatment protocols and train feedlot staff 

to determine which animals get treated and how treatment is administered. These protocols may include criteria for 

initiating treatment, cessation of treatment, culling, and euthanasia. An important point to make about sick animal 

care is that chronic cases that are no longer eligible for treatment are often sold after clearing withdrawal times for 

any treatments. These animals, often referred to as railers or realizers, may be potential carriers of disease agents.

4.4 Methods for Safe Movement of Beef Cattle

Cattle behaviors can be utilized to handle them safely and effectively. When moving cattle, it is best to utilize their 

flight zone, or their personal space. By entering the flight zone behind the shoulder, cattle can be encouraged to move 

forward, whereas entering the flight zone in front of the shoulder will initiate backward movement. The shoulder is 

referred to as the point of balance. It is best to work at a 45 to 60 degree angle behind the animal’s shoulder (Figure 

3). When moving the cattle, avoid coming at the animal straight on. Instead work near their point of balance and 

work back and forth parallel to the direction that you would like to move them in. Demonstration videos can be 

found at http://www.youtube.com/user/TempleGrandin.

Figure 3. A Cow’s Flight Zone, Point of Balance, and Blind Spot

BLIND SPOT

(Shaded Gray)

POINT OF BALANCE

EDGE OF 

FLIGHT ZONE

60o

45o

90o

HANDLER’S POSITION 

TO STOP MOVEMENT

HANDLER’S 

POSITION TO START 

MOVEMENT

Source: American Veterinary Medical Association, Emergency Response and Preparedness, April 2009, page 207
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 15 of 84

Cattle handling is most successful if all personnel involved remain calm. Cattle tend to react to loud noises and 

sudden movements by balking, fleeing, or fighting the pressure that is being applied. By remaining calm, cattle tend 

to respond well to the cattle movement technique described in the preceding paragraph. Electric cattle prods should 

only be used as a last resort, and should never be applied to areas in front of the point of balance or the rectal area. 

Improper handling is very stressful for cattle and has production and health consequences. 

When cattle are being handled in a confined area such as a crowding pen or sorting alley, handle small groups. Bring 

eight or ten cattle into a crowding pen (also referred to as a tub) instead of twenty. Overloading the crowding pen is 

a common handling mistake; cattle need room to move along the alley. A stick or whip with plastic streamers, a flag, 

or a garbage bag tied on the end is useful for turning cattle in the crowd pen. Shake the streamers on the right side 

of the head to turn left and vice versa. Use the animal’s natural following behavior to assist with filling chutes. Wait 

until the single file alley leading to the squeeze is almost empty before refilling. Avoid the overuse of crowd gates; if 

cattle are moving, do not use the crowd gate.

An animal left alone in the crowding pen after the other animals have entered the single-file chute may attempt to jump 

the fence to rejoin its herdmates. A lone animal may become agitated and charge the handler. A large portion of the serious 

handler injuries occur when an animal, separated from its herdmates, refuses to enter the single-file chute. When a lone 

animal refuses to move, the handler should release it from the crowding pen and bring it back with another group of cattle.

Cattle work done in extreme weather conditions warrants extra precautions. If the cattle get alarmed and excited, their 

body temperature will rise. Cattle can easily become hyperthermic; they are more sensitive to heat than humans. During 

hot conditions, cattle will retain heat for six to eight hours following peak temperatures. Therefore, cattle handling 

should occur during the coolest parts of the day. Working cattle in extremely cold weather can also induce stress on the 

animals. Ice/snow buildups in travel lanes require careful handling to avoid slips and falls of both cattle and people. 

Sources:

•	 Hubert, Daniel J., et al., Cattle Handling Safety in Working Facilities. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service. 

Accessed June 15, 2009 at: http://www.nasdonline.org/docs/d001801-d001900/d001810/d001810.pdf.

•	 Grandin, Temple. Recommended Basic Livestock Handling. Accessed July 8, 2010 at: http://www.grandin.com/behaviour/ 

principles/principles.html

Cattle are in very close contact during the shipping process to decrease the amount of movement of the group for 

their own safety. It is better to have closer contact in the winter to increase body heat for the cattle and less contact 

in the summer when it is warmer. Recommendations for the number of cattle that can be loaded onto a semi-trailer 

will vary depending on the cattle’s weight, the size of the trailer compartment, the maximum legal load limit for the 

roads traveled, and the outside temperature, humidity, and wind. Table 3 below provides guidelines only.

Table 3. Guidelines for Cattle Weight on Semi-Trailers for Over-the-Road Transport

Source: Loading Suggestions in Master Cattle Transporter Guide, National Beef Quality Assurance Guide for Cattle Transporters, 2007.

Compartment 

Weight (lbs.)

1,500

4,000

4,500

6,000

8,000

9,000

20,000

21,000

10

3

400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,400 1,500

Average Weight of Cattle (lbs.)

1,300

11

15

20

22

50

52

8

3

9

12

16

18

40

42

6

2

7

10

13

15

33

35

5

2

6

8

11

12

28

30

5

1

5

7

10

11

25

26

4

1

4

6

8

10

22

23

4

1

4

6

8

9

20

21

3

1

3

5

7

8

18

19

3

1

3

5

6

7

16

17

3

1

3

4

6

6

15

16

2

1

2

4

5

6

14

15

2

1

2

4

5

6

13

14
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 16 of 84

4.5 Methods for Safe Restraint of Beef Cattle

Squeeze chutes are the most common method of cattle restraint. A properly 

operated chute will capture an animal by narrowing an opening around an 

animal’s neck. The head is too large for the animal to back out of the head 

catch, and the body is too wide for the animal to move forward. In addition to 

the head catch, most chutes have mechanisms to gently squeeze the animal. 

This promotes a sense of well-being in the restrained animal and prevents 

dangerous movement in the chute. Some chutes have additional features that 

allow the animal to be tipped onto their side to allow access to the animal’s 

feet, if needed, or that will further restrain the head and neck for procedures 

like tagging or blood collection. Chutes should be adjusted to accommodate 

the size of animals being processed. If the head catch is set too wide, animals 

will slip their heads out of it and pose a safety hazard for both the animals and the workers. If the head catch is set 

too small, it can squeeze the animal’s neck tight enough to asphyxiate the animal. 

In operations without chutes, cattle can be captured and restrained using ropes in a variety of ways. Some specific 

tools include rope halters and nose tongs. These tools can be used to restrain an animal’s head for a short period of 

time. These methods require substantial skill and much practice to be utilized effectively. 

Chemical restraint is an excellent tool to keep cattle quiet for many procedures. There are many protocols available 

depending on the depth and length of sedation that is required for a given procedure. Chemical restraint can be used 

effectively in combination with physical restraint in many cases. 

Records must be kept for any chemical restraint administered 

and meat withdrawal times followed.

Handling and restraint of cattle requires substantial training 

and experience to be carried out effectively. Many dangerous 

situations commonly arise, especially if cattle are excitable. 

These situations require experienced personnel and good 

facilities for a satisfactory outcome. 

5. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY NEEDS

5.1 Nutrition and Feeding

Feedlot cattle are on special diets as compared to the grazing 

cattle because of the need to grow muscle mass for meat 

production. Fiber, energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals are 

important components of a balanced diet. Feedlot diets tend to 

be high in energy and low in fiber for adequate muscling and 

marbling. Corn, in many different forms, is the most common 

energy source for feedlot cattle, but other cereal grains are also 

used. Dietary fiber in feedlot rations comes from a variety of 

forage sources including dry hay, alfalfa, and ensiled hay or 

corn. Protein is provided mainly by soybean meal, cottonseed 

meal, and corn processing co-product feeds (distillers grains, 

gluten feed). Many rations deliver macro and microminerals 

along with vitamins through commercially produced products. 

An increasingly common feed ingredient is ethanol co-product 

feed. These co-products vary in composition, but are typically 

high in protein and digestible fiber. These feeds also tend to 

concentrate non-starch nutrients and any toxins that may be 

present, such as mycotoxins, and sulfur can reach high levels 

in some co-product feeds. Toxins can cause a variety of clinical 

conditions that may need to be distinguished from a highly 

contagious FAD.

Flaked Corn Feed

Ethanol Co-Product Feed

Hay
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 17 of 84

Various feed additives are commonly used in feedlots. These additives may include antibiotics, partitioning agents, 

ionophores, and melengestrol acetate (MGA) for heifers. In some cases, antibiotics are fed at sub-therapeutic levels 

to prevent disease and subsequently maximize feed efficiency. Partitioning agents may also be used to optimize 

feed conversion to muscle mass, particularly later in the feeding period. Ionophores prevent diet related disease 

conditions such as bloat and acidosis; they also maximize feed efficiency and control coccidiosis. Ionophores can 

generate profound clinical disease or death when excessively high concentrations (accidental overfeeding) are fed 

to cattle; accidental ingestion of small doses by horses can result in death. The primary clinical sign of ionophore 

toxicity in cattle is heart failure which may mimic the foreign animal disease – heartwater. Melengestrol acetate 

(MGA) is commonly added to the rations of heifers to aid in the prevention of estrus. This leads to increased feed 

efficiency and rate of gain while improving animal health performance. MGA works in a mechanism similar to 

progesterone, a hormone naturally produced by animals.

Source:

•	 Parish, Jane A. and Justin D. Rhinehart. Mississippi State University Extension. Feed Additives for Beef Cattle Diets. 

2008. Accessed October 21, 2010 at: http://msucares.com/pubs/publications/p2518.pdf

5.1.1 Feed Storage

Depending on where the feedlot is located in the U.S., some are able to produce enough feed without purchasing 

feed. This is not the case for large feedlots. A portion of the feed may be raised on nearby farms but the balance is 

purchased, with large amounts delivered frequently. This delivered feed can be stored in a variety of ways and is 

typically limited to a few days’ supply. Large upright bulk bins (plastic, metal or cement) may be used to store corn 

and other flowable feedstuffs (protein, minerals, other additives). There can be semi-loads of feed delivered at a 

given time to be stored in these bins; some feedlots also receive deliveries by rail.

Dry hay stored in bales or ground piles may be outside, uncovered or under a tarp or shade/rain structure. Some 

feedlots have a commodity shed consisting of a three-sided building with an open front and one to multiple bays 

separated by walls to store feed. Bagged feed is often stored in commodity sheds. Built large enough, a bay can hold 

a semi-load of feed. Wet co-product feeds may be stored in commodity sheds or piled on the ground uncovered.

Silage and haylage can be stored in piles above ground, in bunkers above 

ground, in earthen bunkers, in silos, or in long plastic bags (e.g., ag bags). 

Some producers will store their silage in large pits, allowing feed equipment 

to drive in and scoop out what is needed. Care must be taken when removing 

feed from large piles/bunkers. The face of the pile can become unstable and 

if piled high, the top portion could fall, crushing a human being or filling an 

open tractor cab. As feed is used, silage piles covered with plastic tarps and 

tires (whole or half) require tire removal and plastic cutting. While working 

to remove plastic tires, personnel should remain 6 feet (2 meters) back from 

the edge of the silage face. Whole tires in the winter can be filled with snow/

ice; exercise caution in removing them. Whole tires in the summer hold water; a perfect environment for mosquito-egg-laying; a risk if Rift Valley Fever 

was introduced into the U.S.

Many large feedlots have on site feed mills. These mills utilize basic feed 

ingredients stored on the operation and process them to produce cattle rations. 

Feed mills process grain and mix vitamin and minerals to form balanced 

supplements. Some on site feed mills may process corn (steam-flake) or other 

feed ingredients for off-site feedlots. Smaller feedlots are more likely to

purchase commercially available supplements or to use local feed mills that 

deliver pre-mixed feed to many producers in the area. Truck traffic to and 

from the commercial, cooperative, or feedlot owned mill must be considered 

in the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak.

5.1.2 Feed Delivery to Animals 

The type of ration fed is dependent on available feedstuffs, stage of production, and equipment. The mixing and feeding 

of feedlot rations can involve multiple movements of feed ingredients, feed equipment, delivery trucks, and personnel 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 18 of 84

on and off the operation. The feed stuffs are typically mixed on-site to form 

balanced rations. In all feedlots, equipment used to mix or deliver feed should 

be clean and free of organic matter (feces, urine, saliva) as these can harbor 

disease agents, spreading it from one location to another. 

Feed is offered once to three times a day to cattle in some form of a long bunk. 

These bunks vary in construction and can be made of wood, plastic, steel, or 

concrete. Most large feedlots have concrete bunks running along the edge of 

the pen at ground level. Feed is delivered to the feed bunks by a truck or a 

tractor-drawn wagon that drives down an alleyway running next to the bunk 

and augers the feed into the bunk. These feed delivery trucks do not enter the 

cattle pens. Some smaller feedlots and backgrounder operations may feed in bunks made of the other materials, either 

stationary at the pens edge as described above, or moveable bunks within the pen. These delivery vehicles can transport 

manure between pens if they do not clean their equipment after exiting the pen.

5.1.3 Feedbunk Management

Feedbunk management is a key component of feedlot management. Feed is the second most expensive input on the 

operation and most operations monitor or “read” the bunks closely for consumption. Barring weather extremes, cattle tend 

to follow a regular eating pattern. Monitoring intakes daily allows recording of how much is fed per pen for inventory and 

billing purposes, especially for feedlots that do not own the cattle. These records can be simple paper recordings to 

sophisticated software programs. Monitoring daily intakes also allows for early identification of illness in the cattle. 

This is especially important during a highly contagious FAD outbreak, especially if foot-and-mouth disease is 

involved. Due to the lesions caused on the feet and in the mouth from this virus, cattle intakes could decrease, 

triggering an alert and the need for closer investigation. Feedyard managers and pen riders are very knowledgeable 

about the normal eating patterns for their cattle and could be a great resource during surveillance for FADs. 

5.1.4 Water Access

Cattle need to have access to fresh water all day every day. This is provided 

through fenceline waterers or large receptacles in each pen. Waterers are 

checked daily like feedbunks to ensure they are functioning and clean. 

Shared fenceline waterers are found in some feedlots and can serve as a 

source for orally spread diseases between pens of cattle. Waterers should be 

cleaned on a regular basis to remove organic matter buildup. 

5.2 Routine Vaccinations

Use of vaccinations in a feedlot is an important component of animal health. 

Vaccine protocols will vary depending on the prevalence of disease both in 

the feedlot area and in the origin of the cattle. These protocols are typically referred to as receiving or processing 

programs. Other considerations in a vaccine protocol selection are the efficacy of the vaccine against the disease 

and the economic loss associated with a particular disease. Most cattle in feedlots receive vaccinations for common

respiratory pathogens and for clostridial diseases. These 

pathogens include bovine herpes virus 1, parainfluenza 3 virus, 

bovine viral diarrhea virus types 1 and 2, and bovine respiratory 

syncytial virus. Clostridial diseases cause blackleg, malignant 

edema, black’s disease, enterotoxemia, and redwater; all 

common diseases in various areas of the country.

When administering any type of injection to cattle, it is important 

to administer the injection in the neck region (Figure 4). This 

should be followed whether the injection is subcutaneous or 

intramuscular. The most valuable cuts of meat are located in 

the hip, thigh, and loin (between the ribs and hip) region; by 

giving injections in the neck, any damage to surrounding tissue 

minimizes loss of meat at harvest. Always follow the product 

labels of all injectables and when possible, give the injection 

subcutaneously instead of intramuscularly. 

Do Not Inject

Subcutaneous (SC)

Intramuscular (IM)

Figure 4. Cattle Injection Sites
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 19 of 84

When vaccinating, it is important to have epinephrine readily available in case of anaphylactic reactions to the 

injections. Have a plan and a set protocol to be used in case of anaphylaxis. This will aid in administering the 

treatment when time is of critical importance. Anaphylactic reactions usually occur within 10 to 20 minutes of 

administering the vaccine or medication; however a reaction may not occur for up to two hours. It is best to treat 

cattle as soon as the symptoms occur. Epinephrine should be administered subcutaneously at a dosage of 1cc per 

100 pounds when using the 1:1,000 dilution of epinephrine. A second dose can be given 15 to 20 minutes after the 

initial dose if the animal has not recovered sufficiently.

Source:

•	 Berrier, Randall J. Anaphylaxis in Cattle. [Online] Colorado Serum Company, January 2003. Accessed July 31, 2009 at 

http://www.colorado-serum.com/vets/vol_3/vol3_1.htm. 

5.3 Parasite Control

Internal and external parasite control is very important on feedlots for several reasons. Parasites can serve as both 

biological and mechanical vectors for bovine and zoonotic diseases. External parasites (flies, mosquitoes) can lead to 

increased stress and may lead to cessation of normal activities such as eating and resting. Internal parasites compete 

for nutrition and decrease the growth rate, requiring more feed to finish an animal. Parasites have also been shown to 

have a detrimental effect on immune function in calves.

Antiparasitics are used routinely to control these parasites. Some antiparasitics work against external and internal 

parasites. Since parasite types and burdens differ depending on geographic origin, parasite control programs should be 

determined by geographic origin of particular groups of cattle. Since cattle are destined for human consumption, only 

products labeled for use in food-producing animals should be used. Appropriate withdrawal times must be followed. 

Feed additives and/or parasitic wasps can be released into the environment to help reduce the numbers of adult 

flies by disrupting larval development in manure. Manure management, avoiding spilled feed, and keeping areas of 

vegetation surrounding pens mowed are other components in adequate pest control. 

5.4 Implants 

Implanting is a widely practiced management tool for cow/calf operations, backgrounder/stocker and feedlot 

enterprises. Implants are small pellets that contain growth promoting hormones that are slowly released over a 

period of time. They supplement the hormones already present in the animal’s system to increase both growth 

and feed efficiency. Implants are placed in the middle third of the back side of the ear of cattle, just under the 

skin. Implants come in many different combinations that are specially formulated for use in heifers and steers or 

at different ages. Implants have no withdrawal times before animals can go to harvest.

5.5 Withdrawal Times for Pharmaceuticals and Biologics

Withdrawal time consideration is very important when medicating, 

vaccinating, or supplementing feedlot cattle. Withdrawal time is the time 

that it takes for residues from substances introduced into the animals’ 

system to fall below acceptable levels so that the meat from the animal can 

be safely consumed by humans. These withdrawal times are determined 

as part of the drug and vaccine approval process and are published on the 

product label. Withdrawal times must be observed when emergency harvest 

is considered as a control measure in a highly contagious FAD outbreak. 

Because of withdrawal times, feedyards keep precise records on every animal

that is given any drug, vaccine, or feed additive. Records for each animal should include the substance, quantity, and 

duration of withdrawal along with reason for administration. Drugs and vaccines should be used according to label 

directions except under the direction of a licensed veterinarian within the bounds of a valid veterinarian-client-patient 

relationship. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, as of April 1, 2011, the following drugs, families of 

drugs, and substances are prohibited for extralabel animal and human drug uses in food-producing animals:

1. Chloramphenicol

2. Clenbuterol

3. Diethylstilbestrol (DES)

4. Dimetridazole
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 20 of 84

5. Ipronidazole

6. Other nitroimdazoles

7. Furazolidone

8. Nitrofurazone

9. Sulfonamide drugs in lactating dairy cattle (except approved use of sulfadimethoxine, sulfabromomethazine, 

and sulfathoxypyridazine)

10. Fluoroquinolones

11. Glycopepetides

12. Phenylbutazone in female dairy cattle 20 months of age or older. 

Gentian violet is an example of a substance that is prohibited from use in animal food or feed (21CFR589).

Source:

•	 Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=530.41

It is very important to read the drug’s label before administering its contents. The label offers the most current 

information about indications for use, contraindications, route(s) of administration, and withdrawal times. Information is dynamic and could change based on the product. 

Vaccines are regulated by USDA-APHIS Center for Veterinary Biologics and those made with oil adjuvants have 

a 60 day meat withdrawal period; all others have a 21 day withdrawal. Emergency vaccines used in the event of a 

highly contagious FAD outbreak will have specified withdrawal times printed on the label. 

5.6 Record Keeping

Good record keeping when administering vaccines, parasite control, 

implants, and antibiotics, either prophylactically or therapeutically is very 

important on both an individual and herd basis. Records should be kept in 

a uniform manner in a location that is readily accessible to the owner and 

manager of the herd. They should be updated anytime an animal or the 

herd is treated. A good source for record keeping forms for both individuals 

and herds is from North Dakota’s Beef Quality Assurance Program. This 

information can be found at: http://www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/bqa/manual/

appendix/app1.htm. Also popular with some producers is the IRM Redbook 

(pictured at right) which is a pocket-sized record book that allows for easy 

organization of important management data.

Although good records are considered essential to successful cattle feeding, not all operations will maintain adequate 

records. Record systems vary from simple notebook records to complex computer based systems, which may require 

the knowledge of the operator for proper interpretation.

6. PEOPLE AND PRODUCT MOVEMENT 

Many large feedlots have employees that assist in the operations ranging from feeding to maintenance to animal 

health. These employees routinely travel through all parts of the feedlot and have access to many cattle. Some 

feedlots also use contract crews that work for multiple feedlots doing seasonal or sporadic work like vaccinating, 

administering antibiotic treatments, or implants. In large feedlots, these processing crews consist of specially 

trained lay workers; in smaller feedlots, veterinarians may provide these services. There are also pen riders that 

can be hired on a contract basis to work on a number of feedlots. Documenting people movement on a daily basis 

is not routinely done on most feedlots, but some will record products entering the operation (load scales are set up 

at the entrance for feed deliveries), processing crews, cattle transports, and vendors. At a minimum, records with 

the names and contact information for all employees should be kept. During an outbreak, recording all people and 

product movement is essential.

A significant proportion of the routine traffic to a feedlot is related to deliveries. Feedlots depend on transportation 

modalities for the delivery of cattle, feed, equipment, and animal health supplies. Some feedlots acquire nearly all 

feedstuffs from outside sources while others require only protein or micronutrient supplements. Delivery vehicles 

are potential fomites for disease agents due to their route and stops at multiple destinations with variable to nonexistent cleanup between sites. 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 21 of 84

6.1 Manure 

Manure is an inevitable by-product of feedlots. Regular removal has 

the potential to reduce health issues (decreasing the infectious burden 

of animal disease pathogens), odor, and fly breeding ground. However, 

manure removal can also contribute to the spread of disease because 

pathogens can survive in the right environmental temperatures. Manure 

is periodically removed from pens depending on accumulation and 

weather conditions. Pen cleaning and manure hauling can be done by 

contract companies who supply the heavy equipment. Ideally, pens 

should be cleaned after each group of cattle, before introducing new 

animals. This strategy can aid in breaking the disease cycles from 

pathogens spread via the fecal-oral route. Manure that is removed from 

pens may be stockpiled for a period of time. Stockpiled manure is 

either spread on neighboring pasture or cropland or composted. Composted manure is either sold or spread in the 

same manner as raw manure. 

When it rains, surface runoff containing trace amounts of manure from the animal pens enters ditches and ends up 

in lagoons or ponds. A runoff management plan is very important for pens and the manure storage area. The plan 

should include preventing runoff to flow across other feedlot pens or into waterways. All runoff water, both waste 

and storm, must be collected and stored. See Figure 2. Diagrams of Different Feedlot Designs for illustrations 

of manure settling and detention basins. Solids should be removed from runoff to reduce odors and prevent the 

collecting area from filling up with solid mass. This water can later be evaporated or treated and applied to cropland 

for irrigation and fertilizer. Runoff management is extremely important because of the concern for runoff 

contaminating water supplies. Feedlots obtain permits from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and/or 

states that govern runoff from feedlots and handling of manure.

Source:

•	 Davis, J.G., et al. Feedlot Manure Management. Management Livestock Series. 2002. Accessed May 26, 2009 at: 

www.ext.colostate.edu.

6.2 Mortalities

Most feedlots have less than 2% death loss and have procedures in place to handle dead cattle. Once identified 

in a pen, the carcass should be removed from the pen and placed in a designated area. The disposal of livestock 

mortalities (carcasses) is regulated by the state in which the feedlot is located. Four primary methods of disposal 

are typically considered: burial, rendering, open air burning, and composting. There may be limitations, restrictions, 

or environmental and legal regulations governing each of these options. When planning for the disposal of large 

numbers of carcasses, cooperation and communication with applicable State departments (such as Environmental 

Protection Agency and Natural Resources and Conservation Service), industry stakeholders, surrounding property 

owners, and other appropriate groups should occur. Listed below are potential options: 

1. On-site carcass burial is a common disposal procedure on some feedlots, particularly smaller facilities. 

Eventually, buried materials are degraded and broken down into minerals and organic material. Timeliness 

of burying and prompt covering of the carcasses is critical to maintaining a biosecure and aesthetically 

acceptable burial site. Most states regulate separation distances of the burial site from wells, surface water and 

the property line, and limit the number of animals that can be buried in an area. Some states have maps that 

show where animals can be buried safely and lawfully. Depending on environmental risks and available land, 

burial may be the method of choice for the disposal of large numbers of cattle during a disease outbreak. In 

some cases, off-site burial is the disposal option of choice. Some types of commercial or industrial landfill may 

provide a reasonable option for carcass disposal if they meet specific design and operating standards. Prior 

arrangements should be made during planning with the landfill operator to accept non-contagious carcasses. 

2. Rendering is an off-site process that uses heat to convert carcasses and associated disposal materials into 

protein-based solids (carcass meal), water, and melted fat/tallow. Rendering of carcasses is a common disposal 

method among some feedlots located in an area where the service is available. Rendering is nearly always 

carried out by a business independent of the feedlot and often includes a “pickup” service at a designated location; 

preferably at the edge of the facility away from main traffic area. Rendering can be an expensive option; this 

may be offset by the benefit of having a third party take the responsibility for managing the mortalities in an 

environmentally sound manner. Policies for animal pickup vary among different rendering companies and 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 22 of 84

some will not accept necropsied carcasses or those with the brain removed. Rendering collection trucks moving 

between different types of animal related enterprises can present a biosecurity risk if not considered in a feedlot’s 

biosecurity plan. In situations involving mass depopulation, rendering services can be quickly overwhelmed. If 

a highly contagious FAD was involved, this will likely not be an option.

3. On-site open air burning and other thermal methods use high-temperature combustion to destroy animal 

carcasses and associated animal materials. Using this method, small numbers of carcasses can be burned in 

open fields or on combustible heaps called pyres. To enable and promote thermal production, materials such 

as hay, straw, dry timbers, or other kindling is added to the carcasses. In addition, diesel or other fuels are 

typically used in open-air burning. Many states allow for incineration of carcasses on-farm but specifically 

prohibit burning them in the open. It may be possible to obtain a waiver in a declared animal carcass disposal 

emergency. The process of open air burning takes several hours to complete and the odor from burning and 

pollution caused by smoke can be a public concern. Public perception of open-air burning is overwhelmingly 

negative and, if selected as a disposal method, this aversion should be addressed during planning. State regulations 

should always be checked before a decision is made to use open-air burning as a disposal method.

4. Composting on-site allows for decomposition of the carcass resulting in a nutrient rich product that can be 

applied to land as a fertilizer. Composting on farm may be an inexpensive option in some climates/localities. 

However, it requires a large space when incorporated into a sizable operation. Equipment needed and 

composting protocols will vary among states and animal populations. This method requires prolonged 

management, maintenance, and monitoring. Care should be taken to identify a site that will have all-season 

access by personnel. When composting is conducted at a proper site with appropriate cover, the risk of 

environmental contamination is low. Producers using this method should have a plan in place for utilizing 

the finished compost. Well-described techniques are available at http://www3.abe.iastate.edu/cattlecomposting/ 

and http://tammi.tamu.edu/largecarcassE-422.pdf. During an animal health emergency involving large 

numbers of carcasses, off-site composting may be used as a disposal option.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 23 of 84

PART II: RESPONSE TO A HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE

7. DESIGNATION OF ZONES, AREAS, AND PREMISES 

A critical component for FAD response is the designation of zones, areas, and premises. Epidemiological investigation 

and tracing will be used to classify premises. It is the responsibility of the Incident Management Team to designate 

zones and premises in an FAD outbreak. These zones, areas, and premises designations will be used in quarantine and 

movement control efforts.

Table 4 summarizes the premises designations that would be employed in an FAD outbreak response. Table 5 

summarizes the zone and area designations that would be used in an FAD outbreak response. 

Table 4. Summary of Premises Designations

Premises Category Zone

Infected Premises (IP) Infected Zone

Contact Premises (CP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone

Suspect Premises (SP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone, 

Surveillance Zone, 

Vaccination Zone

At-Risk Premises (ARP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone

Monitored Premises (MP) Infected Zone, 

Buer Zone

Vaccinated Premises (VP) Containment 

Vaccination Zone, 

Protection 

Vaccination Zone

Free Premises (FP) Surveillance Zone, 

Free Area

Denitions

Premises where a presumptive positive case or 

conrmed positive case exists based on laboratory 

results, compatible clinical signs, case denition, 

and international standards.

Premises with susceptible animals that may have 

been exposed to the FAD agent, either directly or 

indirectly, including but not limited to exposure to 

animals, animal products, fomites, or people from 

Infected Premises.

Premises under investigation due to the presence 

of susceptible animals reported to have clinical 

signs compatible with the FAD. This is intended to 

be a short-term premises designation.

Premises with susceptible animals, but none have 

clinical signs compatible with the FAD. Premises 

objectively demonstrates that it is not an Infected 

Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect Premises. 

At-Risk Premises seek to move susceptible animals 

or products within the Control Area by permit. 

Only At-Risk Premises are eligible to become 

Monitored Premises.

Premises objectively demonstrates that it is not an 

Infected Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect 

Premises. Only At-Risk Premises are eligible to 

become Monitored Premises. Monitored Premises 

meet a set of dened criteria in seeking to move 

susceptible animals or products out of the Control 

Area by permit.

Premises where emergency vaccination

has been performed. This may be a secondary

premises designation. 

Premises outside of a Control Area and not a 

Contact or Suspect Premises.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 24 of 84

Table 5. Summary of Zone and Area Designations

Denition

Infected Zone (IZ) Zone that immediately surrounds an Infected Premises.

Zone

Zone that immediately surrounds an Infected Zone or a 

Contact Premises. Buer Zone (BZ)

Control Area (CA) Consists of an Infected Zone and a Buer Zone.

Emergency Vaccination Zone classied as either a Containment 

Vaccination Zone (typically inside a Control Area) or Protection 

Vaccination Zone (typically outside a Control Area). This may be 

a secondary zone designation.

Vaccination Zone (VZ)

Free Area (FA) Area not included in any Control Area.

Surveillance Zone (SZ) Zone outside and along the border of a Control Area.

Figure 5 illustrates all the zones and premises. Note: Figures are not to scale. The Vaccination Zone can be either a 

Protection Vaccination Zone or Containment Vaccination Zone.

Figure 5. Example Zones and Premises

 Zones and Areas Premises

Infected Zone Buffer Zone Vaccination Zone Surveillance Zone

For details on the zones, areas, and premises, please see the APHIS Framework for Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness

and Response. For additional information integrating the zones, areas, and premises designations with specific FAD 

response strategies, please see the disease specific response plans, such as the FMD Response Plan: The Red Book. 

These documents are available on the following sites:

•	 FAD PReP collaboration website at: https://fadprep.lmi.org. 

•	 APHIS FAD PReP website (for APHIS employees) at: http://inside.aphis.usda.gov/vs/em/fadprep.shtml.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 25 of 84

8. BIOSECURITY MEASURES FOR A FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASE OUTBREAK

Due to the open nature of most feedlots, and the way cattle are acquired from a variety of sources over weeks to months, 

disease introduction and spread is an inherent challenge. It is important that excellent physical security and biosecurity be 

maintained on a regular basis to help mitigate the risk for accidental or intentional introduction of a highly contagious FAD. 

Animal biosecurity is the product of all actions undertaken by an enterprise to prevent introduction of disease agents on to 

a premises. Biosecurity on uninfected premises during an FAD outbreak must be enhanced and more strictly enforced to 

minimize the risk of disease introduction. Exposure to disease can occur through five routes of transmission: aerosol, direct 

contact, fomite, oral, and vector-borne. Disease specific biosecurity measures are aimed at preventing exposure to highly 

contagious FADs of cattle. These biosecurity measures can also be applied to other diseases with similar exposure routes.

•	 FMD (spread by aerosol, direct contact, fomite, oral)—Appendix 

•	 Rift Valley Fever (spread by vector) —Appendix 

•	 Heartwater (spread by vector) —Appendix 

•	 Bioterrorism and High Consequence Cattle Pathogens – Appendix 

Infected Premises will also need biocontainment protocols that focus on preventing spread (release) of the highly 

contagious FAD to other premises. Biocontainment measures will depend on the routes of transmission that apply 

to the particular infectious agent. Biocontainment protocols must be maintained from the initial diagnosis until the 

animal health emergency has been eradicated or controlled with vaccination.

Information on biosecurity measures for containment of spread of a pathogen from a premises can be found in the 

FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Biosecurity (2011).

8.1 Zoonotic Diseases of Cattle

Cattle may be a source of several diseases for humans (zoonotic). It is important for people working with cattle to 

have a basic understanding and awareness of the clinical signs and appropriate precautions and actions needed for 

each disease. Some of these diseases also have the potential to be used in bioterrorist activities. These diseases 

require good biosecurity and personal hygiene be employed to help avoid the risk of contracting these diseases. 

More information on specific diseases can be found at: http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/.

Response to a highly contagious FAD that is zoonotic will require special attention to health and safety of feedlot 

workers and all responders. Some level of personal protective equipment (PPE) will likely be required, depending on 

the routes of transmission of a particular zoonotic agent. For more information, please see the FAD PReP/NAHEMS 

Guidelines: Health and Safety (2011) and PPE (2011).

9. PROVIDING ANIMAL CARE

During a disease response, producers may experience disruptions in supply deliveries and animal transportation. 

Producers and support industry personnel should develop plans prior to an outbreak to ensure animals continue to 

receive proper care during a highly contagious FAD response.

9.1 Feeding

During a highly contagious FAD response, the on-farm inventory of feed must be promptly ascertained along with 

the rate at which it will be depleted in order to determine when more feed will be needed. Transportation routes 

may be disrupted, so plans for alternate feed sources and delivery routes should be made before the situation arises. 

Records should be maintained including the origin of the feed delivery, the date, and amount. Ration reformulation 

may be necessary to conserve stockpiles of feed on a premises but feed deliveries will be essential to provide nutrition for the cattle. All alterations in feeding regimens should occur gradually to prevent cattle from going off feed.

9.2 Vaccinating

9.2.1 Routine

In the feedlot situation, there is usually a certain amount of routine vaccine product kept on hand for processing 

incoming cattle. In the event routine vaccines are needed during a highly contagious FAD response, this stock of 

vaccines would be used first and then the feedlot should contact its normal distributor to ensure the vaccines can 

still be delivered or to make other arrangements. If a disease-specific emergency vaccination is used as part of the 

outbreak response, timing of routine vaccinations may need to be modified to ensure the animals’ immune 

system is not overwhelmed. Consult with a veterinarian about vaccination schedules and protocols.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 26 of 84

Vaccination crews, either feedlot employees or contract crews, have the potential to introduce or spread disease 

among operations. If this service is used for routine vaccinations during a disease outbreak, biosecurity precautions should be followed and strict records should be kept pertaining to the crew. Details such as company name 

(if contract crews), crew member names and contact information, exposure to other livestock in the previous 

five* days, name(s) of products, date(s) administered, and tag numbers of cattle vaccinated. This information may 

be needed to trace where a highly contagious FAD infection came from (trace back) or where it may have been 

spread to (trace forward).

*For highly contagious FADs affecting cattle, five days would be the maximum time span that should be accounted 

for regarding potential exposure. This is based on the length of time humans can carry foot-and-mouth disease virus 

in their nasal passages in a high exposure, research setting. Field conditions will vary, but five days is the common 

recommended time frame.

Source:

•	 United States Animal Health Association. Foreign Animal Diseases. pp261-275 http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/ 

pdfs/foot_and_mouth_disease.pdf

9.2.2 Specific to Disease Event

Depending on the type of disease outbreak, the response may include vaccinating the animals in an attempt to 

limit spread. Optimal vaccination strategies will vary greatly by region of the country and depend on impacts to 

both the domestic economy and foreign trade. This decision will be made by the Chief Veterinary Officer (CVO) 

at the federal level. Proactive discussions as to the optimal vaccination strategies in a given region based upon 

livestock demographics and foreign trade impacts will better prepare decision makers and industry for real-time 

decisions of this nature. It is prudent to keep in mind that for vaccination-to-live strategies, tracking and permitting 

 of vaccinated animals will likely need to occur for the life of the animal and may impact movement of other 

unvaccinated livestock in that vaccinated region. It may also affect the ability to export (vaccinated) animals.

If vaccination is implemented, the product will be made available by regulatory officials. Guidance as to dose, 

delivery method, how to store and administer the product, animal identification, and record keeping requirements 

will be provided. In the event of an FAD outbreak in concentrated areas of livestock production, it is unlikely that 

a sufficient number of official responders will be available to complete this task in a timely manner to maximize 

vaccination efficacy. Feedlot employees will likely be utilized to assist with vaccination.

Whenever vaccines need to be administered, follow the dosage and injection site recommendations provided 

with the vaccine. Ensure the animal is properly restrained and the needle changed as appropriate to maintain 

cleanliness and sharpness. When using needles, ensure they are all accounted for before and after administration. 

Intramuscular and subcutaneous injections should all be given in the neck region of all ages of cattle. The injection 

should be given as ventrally and as caudally as possible while staying in the muscles of the neck. Injection sites 

should be as clean as possible. Please consult Table 6 for needle lengths and gauges. Some vaccines are quite 

viscous; using the recommended larger gauge needle is needed for delivery. Properly dispose of all used needles 

in a puncture proof container. 

Table 6. Guidelines for Needle Selection for Feedlot Cattle

<300 300-700 >700 <300 300-700 >700 <300 300-700 >700

18-16 

gauge

16-14 

gauge

16-14 

gauge

18-16 

gauge

18-16 

gauge

18-16 

gauge

Subcutaneous injection

(1/2- to 3/4-inch needle)

(cattle weight, lb)

Injectable 

Viscosity

Thin (e.g., 

virus vaccine)

Thick (e.g., 

oxytetracycline)

Intravenous injection

(1 1/2-inch needle)

(cattle weight, lb)

Intramuscular injection

(1 to 1 1/2-inch needle)

(cattle weight, lb)

16 gauge 18-16 

gauge 16 gauge 16 gauge

16 gauge 16 gauge 16 gauge 16 gauge 16 gauge 16 gauge 16 gauge 16 gauge

Route of Administration
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 27 of 84

A differentiating infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA) approach (marker vaccines) may be used in the event of 

a highly contagious FAD outbreak. The DIVA approach utilizes a paired vaccine and diagnostic test that allows for 

vaccinated animals to be distinguished from animals that have been infected by a field strain of the disease. This can 

be very useful in a test and slaughter situation. Foot-and-mouth disease is one of the few highly contagious FADs 

that currently has DIVA vaccines and companion diagnostic tests.

Animals that receive emergency vaccine will be identified by metal ear clips similar to the ones used with brucellosis 

vaccination. These ear clips will help designate animals that may need to be slaughtered in order to regain OIE free 

status from the highly contagious FAD. It will also identify vaccinated-to-live animals, if that approach is chosen. 

Ear tattoos or branding may also be used in conjunction with the ear clips.

Great care should be taken in the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak like foot-and-mouth disease to 

make sure that people who vaccinate animals do not transmit the disease from one premises to another. People 

in contact with positive animals or suspected positive animals will be prohibited from having contact with naïve 

animals for a period of time specified by the responsible authorities. Good records need to be maintained and 

should include: the names of the vaccinating crew, the vaccine name, vaccine lot number, dose given to each 

animal, animals numerical identification number, and date administered.

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Vaccination for Contagious Diseases (2011) and the 

Appendix A: Foot-and-Mouth Disease (2011). 

10. PRODUCT HANDLING

The primary product that needs to be moved off feedlots is finished cattle. This is typically accomplished with 

semi-trucks and trailers. There are a variety of sizes and styles of semi-trailers. Length ranges from 44 to 53 

feet. Some are single deck and others are pot-bellied, meaning the bottom of the trailer is lower to the ground 

allowing for a double deck. Table 7 lists the types of trailers and number of head based on cattle weight that 

can be transported in ideal conditions. Additional considerations will need to be made for horned animals. In 

a highly contagious FAD outbreak, movement may be controlled. At a minimum, all vehicles entering and 

exiting an operation will need to be externally cleaned and disinfected. It is a good biosecurity practice to 

internally and externally clean and disinfect the livestock trailer between every load of cattle. For information 

on available truck washes on a state-by-state basis, visit the National Biosecurity Resource Center for Animal 

Health Emergencies website at: http://www.biosecuritycenter.org/truckwash.php. 

Table 7. Size and Capacity of Livestock Trailers Based on Market Weight Cattle

Source: Grandin T. Livestock Management Practices that Reduce Injuries to Livestock During Transport, Livestock Trucking Guide, 

Revised September 2001. Accessed July 8, 2010 at http://www.njintouch.state.nj.us/agriculture/humanetruckingguide.pdf

Cattle Weight

1100 lbs.

1100 lbs.

1100 lbs.

1400 lbs.

1400 lbs.

1400 lbs.

Decks

Double

Single

Single

Single

Double

Single

Number of Head/Trailer

40 without horns

30 without horns

18 without horns

28 without horns

22 without horns

Trailer Length

44 feet

44 feet

53 feet

44 feet

44 feet

53 feet

25 without horns

10.1 Market Weight Animals

Live animals are the greatest risk for introducing or spreading disease during an outbreak. Movement of uninfected 

finished cattle off farm may be halted during a highly contagious FAD outbreak depending on the proximity to the 

harvest facility and whether travel through or within a Control Area is required. In order for permits to be issued for 

movement, visual inspections will likely be required, as well as diagnostic testing, if available. Requirements for 

use of the closest harvest facility may be implemented if the facility is capable of processing the cattle (based on 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 28 of 84

weight and size). If contracts exist between the feedlot and a harvest facility, and the transportation required to reach 

the destination crosses Control Areas, modifications may be required. Communication with the harvest facility and 

regulatory authorities will be key throughout this process.

10.2 Animals in Transit

Animals in transit present a difficult issue in the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak. When a highly contagious 

FAD is first discovered in the U.S., state or federal animal health officials may issue an immediate restricted and/or 

stop movement order. This will require communicating with drivers on the road with cattle and the destination, either 

the feedlot or harvest facility, to determine the route that minimizes the chance of exposure while accounting for the 

welfare of the animals. Federal and state mandates will be issued and must be followed in order for the cattle owners to 

be considered for compensation of losses of infected cattle. 

10.3 Unfinished Cattle

Cattle still on feed and not ready for market are referred to as unfinished. 

These animals on uninfected feedlots in a Control Area during a highly 

contagious FAD outbreak could remain on feed and be finished to normal 

market weight. Alternatively, depending on their proximity to Infected 

Premises and risk of exposure, regulatory officials may decide to send 

them to harvest early to help control disease spread. Withdrawal times for 

all products used on the animals will need to be taken into consideration. 

Depending on the highly contagious FAD, these animals may be vaccinated 

against the disease, finished, and then sent to harvest. Withdrawal times for 

the vaccine will need to be followed if the animals are harvested for human 

consumption. It is required that at least 60 days elapse between the time of 

vaccination and that of harvest, unless otherwise specified by vaccine manufacturer. 

10.4 Mortalities

Most feedlots have determined their method of carcass disposal based on “usual” mortality rates. If a highly 

contagious FAD causes higher than average mortality rates, animals must be disposed of in the manner mandated 

by the Federal and State governments and in a method that will mitigate the risk for disease spread. The method 

of disposal depends on the disease, the local conditions and regulations, and the number of animals. In 2007, 

“Operation Palo Duro” was conducted as a tabletop exercise looking at multiple issues in an FMD outbreak in the 

Texas Panhandle. Two large feedlots (55,000 and 70,000 head) were ‘infected’ and cattle had to be depopulated 

and disposed of. This posed challenges to timely depopulation and finding enough land mass to bury them. Contingency plans must be considered in areas with large cattle operations.

Source: 

•	 Giovachino M.,et. al. Operation Palo Duro: Policy and Decision-making in Response to an FMD Outbreak. The CAN 

Corporation. May 2007

Operations utilizing on-farm compost piles may be able to adjust to accommodate the larger number of cattle. 

Additional space and compost materials will be necessary and the pile monitored to ensure carcasses are decomposing. Burying large numbers of animals on a particular site requires special permission and is usually under the 

jurisdiction of the state’s environmental regulatory agency. Incineration may be an option in a disease outbreak if 

local jurisdictions approve. Rendering companies may be quickly overwhelmed by large numbers of cattle and if 

the disease is contagious, this option will not be used. 

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2011).

10.5 Manure

Waste management is vitally important in controlling pathogens because of the large number of diseases 

that are spread in feces. Most pathogens in fecal matter are susceptible to heat, desiccation and sunlight if 

exposed. Organisms protected by fecal matter may live for an extended period of time, especially in cold 

weather. Dragging the pens to break up the manure and regular manure removal is extremely important to curb 

disease spread.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 29 of 84

Runo Ditch Detention Basin

During and after a disease outbreak, decisions will have to be made on how to decontaminate and dispose of 

manure. The future application of this manure on crop ground must be considered as disinfectants and chemicals 

that change manure pH may affect subsequent plant growth. Returning decontaminated manure to a stable pH 

prior to application has associated costs but may be the best option in certain situations. The application of 

untreated manure has the potential to spread disease to other livestock (e.g., cattle grazing) and possibly wildlife. 

Manure handling equipment must be considered a biosecurity risk and should be properly cleaned and disinfected 

between operations.

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Disposal (2011), Cleaning and Disinfection (2011).

11. SURVEILLANCE

Within 48 hours of the identification of the index case, a surveillance plan will be implemented to define the extent of the 

highly contagious FAD outbreak and to detect unknown but Infected Premises and new cases quickly through a combination of observation and laboratory testing. This surveillance plan may include the susceptible wildlife population in 

the area. Information will also be gathered for a surveillance plan to identify disease-free zones so that this portion of 

the plan can be implemented within seven days of the identification of the index case. Once established as a disease-free 

zone, movement restrictions and disease monitoring requirements lessen, easing the response effort in this area.

Infected, Contact, Suspect and At-Risk Premises will all be involved in some level of surveillance in an effort to 

control and contain disease spread or determine freedom from disease. Initial surveillance of susceptible animals 

will be visual inspection. As soon as practical, surveillance will include laboratory testing of susceptible animals. 

Contact and Suspect Premises should be inspected at least three times per maximum incubation period for the disease 

under investigation. During the highly contagious FAD event, surveillance could include on-farm observation, 

and/or testing market animals, and at harvest. Please refer to the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines and SOP: 

Surveillance, Epidemiology, and Tracing (2011) for additional details.

11.1 People

Visitors and employees can introduce or spread disease to susceptible animals if steps are not taken to mitigate these 

risks prior to entry. Some feedlot workers may have livestock at home that could become infected with disease 

organisms carried home on clothing and vice versa – introducing disease to the feedlot cattle. Sanitation and hygiene 

practices are important to prevent disease agent spread and include wearing clean clothing, coveralls, footwear, and 

washing hands before and after animal contact or changing gloves. If the highly contagious FAD is zoonotic, additional 

personal protective equipment must be worn by all those handling animals.

The movement of people on and off the farm during a disease event must be documented. Using a written log 

to record name, contact information, last contact with a susceptible animal species, and reason for being on 

the farm including facilities/pens entered/animals contacted is crucial. Personnel on farm should be limited to 

those essential for day-to-day operation, making it easier to trace and minimize the risk of disease introduction 

and spread. For all employees, records should be kept that includes their name, address, phone numbers, emergency 

contact, and information pertaining to off-site animal contact. In the event of a zoonotic highly contagious 

FAD, public health officials may recommend human surveillance via diagnostic testing. Contacting employees 

will be critical.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 30 of 84

11.2 Vehicle Traffic

Vehicles and equipment can indirectly expose susceptible animals through 

mechanical disease transmission. Installing a barrier that requires vehicles to stop 

before entering the premises provides an additional control point and can facilitate 

monitoring and recording vehicle details. Cleaning and disinfecting tires, wheel 

wells, and the undercarriage of all vehicles which enter or leave a farm will likely 

be required on all Infected or Monitored Premises. It may be prudent to park 

vehicles that are not required on farm off-site. People and vehicle traffic on and 

off an operation during a disease outbreak should be documented. A written or 

electronic record describing the vehicle, driver name and contact information, last 

farm(s) visited, and reason for visit should be maintained for tracking purposes.

11.3 Disease Monitoring

During an outbreak situation, susceptible animals on all operations must be closely monitored for clinical signs 

of the highly contagious FAD that meet the case definition. Animal caretakers, especially on Contact, Suspect, or 

At-Risk Premises should be aware of the clinical signs and who to contact if disease is suspected. Accurate and rapid 

public awareness campaigns will be used to disseminate disease recognition and reporting information to animal 

producers and caretakers within the Control Area and Surveillance Zone.

Livestock operations within the Buffer Zone will be routinely monitored utilizing slaughter surveillance, serological surveys, 

and investigation of reports of suspect disease. Slaughter surveillance will also occur in the Surveillance Zone. Free Area 

surveillance will occur through normal surveillance channels. Surveillance results and approved biosecurity protocols as a 

“proof of negative” disease status may be required for permitted movements of susceptible animals within the Control Area.

11.4 Diagnostic Sample Collection

Diagnostic sample collection and testing should be performed within the context and parameters of the written surveillance plan (discussed in Surveillance section above). Veterinarians, animal health technicians, and stakeholders 

will collect samples to submit to an National Veterinary Services Laboratory (NVSL) facility or an National Animal 

Health Laboratory Network (NAHLN) facility for testing and study. It is crucial that correct diagnostic specimen 

collection and handling practices are employed to ensure valid results. In any FAD outbreak, strict adherence to 

biosecurity and infection control procedures is required. Depending on the disease, specific tissues and/or fluids will 

be obtained from animals on-farm and/or those in market channels and harvest facilities after performing a complete 

antemortem or postmortem exam (whenever possible). Guidelines will be provided to veterinary responders and 

animal health technicians regarding the specific type of tissues needed.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) such as coveralls and gloves must be worn by personnel handling the 

animals, tissues, and fluids. If the highly contagious FAD is zoonotic, enhanced PPE may include goggles and 

an appropriate respirator (N-95 or N-99) or a full face shield if aerosolization is not a route of human exposure. 

All equipment used on farm to collect and transport samples and protect the personnel should be properly 

cleaned and disinfected in the designated area prior to leaving the farm. Care should be taken not to contaminate 

diagnostic samples with disinfectant as the highly contagious FAD may be inactivated providing false negative 

results. See the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Personal Protective Equipment (2011), Biosecurity (2011), and 

Cleaning and Disinfection (2011) and associated SOP for more information.

Source:

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework documents, USDA-APHIS-VS National 

Center for Animal Health Emergency Management, July 2010

11.5 Diagnostic Sample Submission

Personnel collecting diagnostic samples are required to package and label them 

in accordance with Federal regulatory requirements. The packaging and labeling 

of biological substances for shipment requires familiarity and training with 

current rules and regulations, which frequently change. Shippers are responsible

for proper packaging, marking, labeling, documentation, classification, and 

identification of each shipment. Failure to follow regulations can result in 

substantial financial penalties.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 31 of 84

•	 Title 9 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Parts 121 and 122: These USDA regulations cover the transfer of 

select agents/toxins and the permits needed to ship organisms and vectors

•	 Title 42 CFR Part 72: These HHS regulations define terms such as biological products, diagnostic specimens, 

and etiologic agents, and provide requirements for packaging and labeling these materials for transportation in 

interstate commerce 

•	 Title 49 CFR Part 173: These Department of Transportation regulations contain general requirements for 

shipments and packaging. 49 CFR 173.134 defines infectious substances and related terms. 49 CFR 173.217 

has additional requirements for shipments containing solid carbon dioxide (dry ice).

Additional Information can be found at the following website: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/lab_info_

services/packaging_labeling.shtml.

Airline shipments also must comply with current International Air Transport Association regulations (www.iata.org) 

for dangerous goods.

More information can be found in the FAD PReP Diagnostics SOP (2011).

Source:

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework documents, USDA-APHIS-VS National Center for Animal Health Emergency 

Management, July 2010 

For more information on packaging and shipping samples, please see the Appendix for Packaging and Shipping 

Diagnostic Samples.

12. MASS DEPOPULATION AND EUTHANASIA (FAD PREP/NAHEMS GUIDELINES 

AND SOP)

In the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak such as foot-and-mouth disease, mass depopulation of infected 

animals may be required. This will be performed by qualified personnel according to USDA-APHIS and AVMA 

guidelines. Proper animal handling equipment, including alleyways, chutes, and head gates should be used in this 

process to help prevent injury to the cattle and workers. The method and procedures used for depopulation will 

depend on available resources and the population dynamics of susceptible animals on the premises. This requires 

location-specific planning and preparation. 

Depopulation of cattle will take much longer than when normally processing cattle. Texas conducted tabletop 

exercises in 2003 and 2007 that explored the different possibilities and resources that would be needed in the event 

of an FMD outbreak. They calculated how many people and what equipment would be needed to depopulate tens 

of thousands of cattle. Depopulation and disposal of 55,000 and 70,000 head of cattle on two ‘infected feedlots’ 

and subsequent disposal was deemed logistically impossible within the time constraints to stay ahead of FMD virus 

spread. Adequate personnel and resources for depopulation and disposal will be essential for areas of high concentration of large feedlots if this option is selected for disease control and eradication. 

Sources: 

•	 Burnham S., et al. After Action Report on The Panhandle Exercise, April 2003, sponsored by Texas Animal Health 

Commission, USDA APHIS VS, and Texas Cattle Feeders Association. Accessed July 15, 2009 at: http://www.tahc.state. 

tx.us/emergency/exercises/Panhandle_Exercise_Report.pdf

•	 Giovachino M.,et al. Operation Palo Duro: Policy and Decision-making in Response to an FMD Outbreak. The CAN 

Corporation. May 2007

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Mass Depopulation and Euthanasia (2011). 

13. DISPOSAL (FAD PREP/NAHEMS GUIDELINES AND SOP)

Animal carcasses and associated contaminated materials (feed, bedding) must be disposed of in a way to limit 

disease spread, using State or locally approved methods. Specific personnel will be assigned to an operation to carry 

out these activities once depopulation is complete. 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 32 of 84

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Carcass Disposal (2011).

14. CLEANING AND DISINFECTION (FAD PREP/

NAHEMS GUIDELINES AND SOP)

Facilities that housed infected animals and equipment used in their daily care 

must be cleaned and disinfected to prevent the spread of disease to live animals 

returned to the operation. Coordination of equipment, supplies, scheduling, 

and certifying work completed by the producer, contractors, or animal health 

response teams will be carried out by USDA-APHIS-VS. Items that cannot 

be adequately cleaned and disinfected should be properly disposed of once 

their value is determined.

For additional details, see FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: Cleaning and 

Disinfection (2011).

15. APPRAISAL AND COMPENSATION 

If the animal is part of a positive herd then they will probably need to be destroyed in accordance with government 

mandates that will be released in the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak. Animals that must be euthanized 

for disease control will be compensated for by the U.S. Government under 9 CFR Part 53. The 9 CFR Part 53 can be 

accessed at: http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?sid=acfd62a8f38c5d11f451b33727e616a9&c=ecfr&tpl=/

ecfrbrowse/Title09/9cfrv1_02.tpl. 

Animal health regulatory officials will create an inventory of animals designated for depopulation and appraise their 

fair-market value in order for compensation to be paid. Contaminated materials on farm (feed, bedding, manure cleaned 

from pens) will also be appraised as they may need to be disposed of in an effort to control disease spread. Compensation 

will only be paid if the producer follows all Government mandates issued for the specific disease outbreak.

16. INTERNATIONAL TRADE

In 2010, international exports of beef totaled nearly 2.3 billion pounds valued at over $3.8939 billion USD. The 

top four countries receiving U.S. beef exports included Mexico, Canada, Japan, and South Korea. These markets 

are vital to the beef industry. In the event of a highly contagious FAD outbreak affecting cattle, international 

trade of cattle and cattle products will be halted. In an effort to retain markets during recovery from a highly 

contagious FAD, once zoning efforts have been exhausted or proven inadequate, compartmentalization may 

potentially play a role. 

Source: 

•	 USDA Economic Research Service. U.S. Beef and Cattle Industry: Background Statistics and Information. Accessed 

July 2011 at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/news/bsecoverage.htm

Regionalization, also known as zoning, separates animal subpopulations to maintain disease-free status in one or 

more zones. Regionalization defines animal subpopulations primarily on a geographical basis. As an FAD response 

tool, regionalization can facilitate international trade, as well as FAD eradication. 

For more information on regionalization, please see the FAD PReP SOP: Overview of Regionalization for 

International Trade, as well as 9 CFR 92.2, which lists 11 factors that should be evaluated in establishing a region. 

Compartmentalization, which distinguishes between animal subpopulations by “management and husbandry 

practices related to biosecurity,” has not yet been implemented within the United States with any trading partners 

(OIE, Chapter 4.4). Disease-free compartments must be recognized by trading partners prior to an outbreak for 

product movement. For further information on compartmentalization, please see the OIE Terrestrial Animal 

Health Code (2010), Chapter 4.4, as well as sections on compartmentalization in disease-specific chapters (for 

example, see Chapter 8.5, Article 8.5.6 on foot-and-mouth disease).
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 33 of 84

In addition to the sources listed throughout the manual, portions of this document were obtained from

•	 Feedlot Facility Manual (draft 2005 by Dr. Scott MacGregor with support of USDA-APHIS-VS NAHEMS 

and CEAH staff)

•	 Beef Biological Risk Management, March 2005, Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University

•	 Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) Response Plan: The Red Book, USDA-APHIS

•	 APHIS Foreign Animal Disease Framework documents 

This industry manual for USDA Emergency Management and Diagnostics was prepared by the Center for Food Security and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine at Iowa State University. Authors and contributors include

•	 Heather Sanchez, MS 

Third year veterinary student intern

•	 Danelle Bickett–Weddle, DVM, MPH, PhD, DACVPM 

Associate Director, Center for Food Security and Public Health

•	 Brian VanderLey, DVM

Food Animal Intern, Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine

•	 James Roth, DVM, PhD, DACVM

Director, Center for Food Security and Public Health

•	 Megan Smith, DVM

Post-doctoral student, Center for Food Security and Public Health

This manual was reviewed by

•	 Robert E. DeOtte, Jr., PhD, PE, PG

Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Texas A&M University; Panhandle Agrosecurity 

Working Group Coordinator

•	 Grant Dewell, DVM, MS, PhD 

Beef Extension Veterinarian, Iowa State University 

Academy of Veterinary Consultants, member 

American Association of Bovine Practitioners, member

•	 Renée Dewell, DVM, MS 

Clinician, Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University 

Academy of Veterinary Consultants, member 

American Association of Bovine Practitioners, member

•	 Terry Engelken, DVM, MS 

Associate Professor, Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University 

Academy of Veterinary Consultants, member 

American Association of Bovine Practitioners, member

•	 Doug Ensley, DVM, MS 

Professional Services Veterinarian, Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica, Inc. 

Academy of Veterinary Consultants, member 

American Association of Bovine Practitioners, member

•	 Virginia Fajt, DVM, PhD, DACVCP (specifically Withdrawal Times)

Clinical Assistant Professor, Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University

Academy of Veterinary Consultants, member 

American Association of Bovine Practitioners, member

•	 Ron Gill, PhD (specifically Cattle Handling)

Associate Department Head for Extension Animal Science, Texas AgriLife Extension Service, Texas 

A&M University

•	 Tim Goldsmith, DVM, MPH, DACVPM 

Assistant Clinical Professor, Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, University of Minnesota 

American Association of Bovine Practitioners, member

Acknowledgements
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 34 of 84

•	 Dee Griffin, DVM, MS

Beef Production Medicine and Management, University of Nebraska, Great Plains Veterinary Educational Center

Academy of Veterinary Consultants, member 

American Association of Bovine Practitioners, member

•	 John C. Mayer, DVM

Academy of Veterinary Consultants, President 2006 

American Association of Bovine Practitioners, member

•	 Saqib Mukhtar, PhD, PE (specifically Mortalities)

Associate Professor and Texas AgriLife Extension Agricultural Engineer, Texas A&M University

•	 F.T. McCullom III, PhD, PAS, DACAN (specifically Feed and Nutrition)

Beef Cattle Specialist, Texas AgriLife Extension Service, Texas A&M University

•	 Elizabeth Parker, DVM 

Chief Veterinarian, National Cattlemen’s Beef Association

•	 Jeff Sarchet, DVM, DABVP

Veterinarian, Hugoton Veterinary Clinic 

Academy of Veterinary Consultants, member 

American Association of Bovine Practitioners, member

•	 Gary Snowder, MS, PhD 

Associate Director, National Center for Foreign Animal and Zoonotic Disease Defense, Texas A&M University

•	 Shaun H. Sweiger, DVM, MS 

Lecturer, Beef Production Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University

Academy of Veterinary Consultants, member 

American Association of Bovine Practitioners, member

•	 Brad Williams, DVM

Region One Director, Texas Animal Health Commission; Panhandle Agrosecurity Working Group Advisory 

Board Member

•	 Ross Wilson

Chief Executive Officer, Texas Cattle Feeders Association

Acknowledgements
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 35 of 84

Page ii Photo strip: Left to right: Feedlot cattle; chicks; Red Angus/Simmental cross beef cow with calf; 

 Landrace pigs; and Holstein heifers. Photo sources: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University;

 USDA; Beth Carlson, North Dakota; Iowa State University; and Mark Kirkpatrick, Idaho 

Page iii FAD PReP Suite of Documents and Materials Graphic illustration by: USDA

Page 1 The official logos of USDA, APHIS and OIE. Graphic illustration of the USDA, APHIS, and OIE 

 logos by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 2 (Top) Cattle in a feedlot. Photo source: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Table 1. Cattle on Feed: Number of Feedlot Operations, Inventory, and Marketed by 

 Feedlot Capacity, U.S., 2010. Content provided by: National Agricultural Statistics Board, U.S. 

 Department of Agriculture, Cattle on Feed, February 2011; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, 

 Iowa State University

Page 3 (Top) Table 2. Top 5 States for One-Time Beef Cattle Inventory on Feed, 2011. Content provided 

 by: United States Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service, Cattle, 

 January 2011; Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Center) This photo depicts a cattle liner. Photo source: Heather Sanchez, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Figure 1. Cattle Inshipments Across the U.S., 2009. Content provided by: USDA; 

 Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 4 Backgrounder calves on crop residue (rye grass). Photo source: Terry Engelken, Iowa State University

Page 5 Percentage of Feedlot Operations that Purchase Cattle Through Auction Markets. Graphic illustration 

 by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 6 Gated entrance to a feedlot allows for visitor tracking and restricted entry – an important 

 part of biosecurity. Photo source: Jeff Sarchet, DVM, Hugoton, Kansas

Page 7 (Top) A livestock trailer is backed up to a chute. Photo source: Renee Dewell, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Identification tags in use. Dangle tags on a steer (left), orange brucellosis tags (second 

 from left) and bright ear tags (third from left) and a wand is being used to read the radio frequency 

 identification device (RFID) in a steer’s ear (right). Photo source: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa 

 State University (left); Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship (second from left); 

 Andrew Kingsbury, Iowa State Univeristy (third from left); and USDA (right)

Page 8 A cow and calf. Photo source: Agricultural Research Services, USDA 

Page 9 (Top) This photo depicts cattle in a pen at an auction market. Photo source: Renee Dewell, 

 Iowa State University

 (Bottom) This photo is of cattle in a feedlot. Photo source: Agricultural Research Services, USDA 

Page 10 (Top) A man rides a horse through a feedlot pen. Photo source: Heather Sanchez, Iowa 

 State University

 (Bottom) These photos depict different feedlot designs: an earthen lot with a mound (top), and a 

 hoop confinement building (bottom). Photo sources: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University 

 (top), and Terry Engelken, Iowa State University (bottom).

Page 11 (Top) Figure 2. Feedlot Facility Designs including illustrations of an earthen lot with windbreak, 

 an earthen lot with shed, a concrete lot with shed, a complete confinement building with slatted floor, 

 and a complete confinement building with solid floor. Illustrations provided by: Iowa Beef Center; 

 Adapted by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Cattle being loaded onto a trailer. Photo source: Renee Dewell, Iowa State University

Page 12 (Top) These photos all depict different feedlot processing and treatment facilities: a sorting tub 

 (left), alleyways (center), and a chute (bottom). Photo sources: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa 

 State University (all)

 (Bottom) This photo depicts the drover’s alley in the foreground with cattle pens in the back 

 ground. Photo source: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University

Page 13 (Top) These photos all depict different shelters on feedlots: a shade with curtain at the bunk 

 and in a pen (left and center), and a hoop shed (right). Photo sources: Dee Griffin, University of 

 Nebraska, Lincoln Great Plains Veterinary Education Center (left and center); Terry Engelken, 

 Iowa State University (right) 

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 36 of 84

 (Bottom) A Bos indicus (left) and a Bos taurus (right). Photo sources: USDA (left), and Renee 

 Dewell, Iowa State University (right)

Page 14 (Top) A sick calf. Photo source: Geni Wren, Bovine Veterinarian, Vance Publishing Corporation

 (Bottom) Figure 3. A Cow’s Flight Zone, Point of Balance, and Blind Spot. Content provided by: 

 American Veterinary Medical Association, Emergency Response and Preparedness, April 2009; 

 Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 15 Table 3. Guidelines for Cattle Weight on Semi-Trailers for Over-the-Road Transport. Content provided 

 by: Loading Suggestions in Master Cattle Transporter Guide National Beef Quality Assurance Guide 

 for Cattle Transporters, 2007. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 16 (Top) A bovine in a head catch. Photo source: Agricultural Research Services, USDA

 (Bottom) Types of cattle feed: hay (top); flaked corn feed (center); and ethanol co-product feed 

 (bottom). Photo sources: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University (top), Center for Food 

 Security and Public Health, Iowa State University (center); and Terry Engelken, Iowa State 

 University (bottom)

Page 17 (Top) A silage pile stored in a bunker. Photo source: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) On-site feed mill at a large feedlot operation. Photo source: Center for Food Security 

 and Public Health, Iowa State University 

Page 18 (Top) Feed truck delivering feed to the bunk. Photo source: Center for Food Security and 

 Public Health, Iowa State University

 (Center) Cattle around an automatic waterer. Photo source: Center for Food Security and Public 

 Health, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Figure 4. Cattle Injection Sites. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 19 Antibiotics, like those pictured here, and other medications used in cattle generally have withdrawal

 times that must be adhered to prior to harvest. Photo source: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 20 Record keeping forms from National Cattlemen’s Beef Association. Photo source: Dani Ausen, 

 Iowa State University

Page 21 This photo depicts a compost pile. Photo source: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa State University

Page 23 Table 4. Summary of Premises Designations. Content provided by: USDA-APHIS Graphic 

 illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 24 (Top) Table 5. Summary of Zone and Area Designations. Content provided by: USDA-APHIS 

 Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

 (Bottom) Figure 5. Control Zones. Graphic illustration by: USDA-APHIS

Page 26 Table 6. Guidelines for Needle Selection For Feedlot Cattle. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, 

 Iowa State University

Page 27 Table 7. Size and Capacity of Livestrock Trailers Based on Market Weight Cattle Content provided 

 by: Grandin T. Livestock Management Practices that Reduce Injuries to Livestock During 

 Transport, in Livestock Trucking Guide, Revised September 2001. Graphic illustration by: Dani 

 Ausen, Iowa State University

Page 28 This photo depicts lightweight calves on feed. Photo source: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa 

 State University

Page 29 A feedlot runoff ditch (left), and detention basin in the background of the feedlot pens (right). 

 Photo sources: Agricultural Research Services, USDA (left); and Danelle Bickett-Weddle, Iowa 

 State University (left)

Page 30 (Top) A foaming disinfectant being applied to the undercarriage and truck tires before entering a 

 farm. Photo source: Buddy Gaither, North Carolina

 (Bottom) Samples packed for shipping in separate bags. Photo source: Danelle Bickett-Weddle, 

 Iowa State University

Page 32 Cleaning and disinfection measures on equipment. Photo source: Carla Huston, Mississippi 

 State University

Photo and Illustration Credits
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 37 of 84

Acronyms

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, a division of USDA

ARP At-Risk Premises

BZ Buffer Zone

CA Control Area

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CP Contact Premises

CVO Chief Veterinary Officer

CVZ Containment Vaccination Zone 

DIVA Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals 

EDI Emerging Disease Incident

FA Free Area

FAD Foreign Animal Disease

FADD Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostician

FAD PReP Foreign Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Plan

FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration

FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act

FMD Foot-and-Mouth Disease

FP Free Premises

IM Intramuscular

IP Infected Premises

IZ Infected Zone 

MGA Melengestrol Acetate

MP Monitored premises

NAHEMS National Animal Health Emergency Management System

NAHERC National Animal Health Emergency Response Corps

OIE Office International des Epizooties’ currently referred to as the World Organization for Animal Health
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 38 of 84

PVZ Protection Vaccination Zone

RFID Radio Frequency Identification Device

RVF Rift Valley Fever

SC Subcutaneous

SOP Standard Operating Procedures

SP Suspect Premises

SZ Surveillance Zone

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

VP Vaccinated Premises

VS Veterinary Services, a division of APHIS 

Acronyms
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 39 of 84

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)

Agency within USDA responsible for protecting livestock and plant health.

Animal Husbandry

Basic animal care that is needed to produce a healthy animal.

At-Risk Premises (ARP)

Premises with susceptible animals, but none have clinical signs compatible with the FAD. Premises objectively 

demonstrates that it is not an Infected Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect Premises. At-Risk Premises seek 

to move susceptible animals or products within the Control Area by permit. Only At-Risk Premises are eligible to 

become Monitored Premises. 

Auction Market

A facility located near livestock concentrated areas that serves as a point to buy and sell livestock. Also referred to a 

sale barns and livestock markets.

Backgrounder 

A producer that buys weaned calves from cow-calf or stocker operations and prepares them to eat, drink, and interact 

with other cattle in a feedlot situation. These cattle are raised to feeder size, approximately 600-800 pounds.

Biologicals

Any substance that is used as a vaccine or serum that is derived from animal products or biological sources and is 

used in the treatment or prevention of disease. These are typically regulated by the United States Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Center for Veterinary Biologics.

Biosecurity

A series of management practices designed to prevent the introduction of disease agents onto or prevents the spread 

from an animal production facility.

Brands

A permanent form of identification for livestock and horses required by much of the western United States. Brands 

must be registered with the state where the animals reside. Brands may be applied with extreme heat or cold (freeze 

branding) to the hip, ribs, or shoulder.

Buffer Zone (BZ)

Zone that immediately surrounds an Infected Zone or a Contact Premises. 

Bull

Adult male bovine that has not been castrated. A “bull calf” is a young bull that has not been weaned from its mother.

Bunks/Feed Bunks

A long trough for feeding cattle. Can be made out of cement, steel, wood, or plastic.

Calf

General term for cattle that have not been weaned from their mother.

Cattle

General term for bovids raised for meat or milk. This term encompasses all ages and sexes of animals.

Castration

Complete removal of the testicles.

Glossary
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 40 of 84

Cattle Buyer/Broker/Order Buyer

Professional livestock buyer that buys and sells large quantities of livestock for different producers, usually feedlots 

and backgrounders.

Chutes 

Large metal apparatuses that are used to safely restrain cattle to administer vaccines and medication. Chutes can 

either be operated manually or by hydraulic power. 

Compartmentalization

The practice of defining subpopulations of animals, by management and husbandry practices related to biosecurity, 

for the purpose of disease control.

Composting

Method of using microbes to breakdown organic material such as manure and carcasses. The end product can be 

used for fertilizer or bedding.

Contact Premises (CP) 

Premises with susceptible animals that may have been exposed to the Foreign Animal Disease (FAD) agent, either 

directly or indi-rectly, including but not limited to exposure to animals, animal products, fomites, or people from 

Infected Premises. 

Containment Vaccination Zone (CVZ)

Emergency Vaccination Zone within the Control Area.

Control Area (CA) 

The area consisting of an Infected Zone and a Buffer Zone; established to ensure the rapid and effective containment 

of disease. 

Cow

An adult female bovid, especially one that has given birth, usually over two years of age.

Crowding Pen/Crowd Gate/Tub

An area that can hold 10-15 cattle in a group with the purpose of getting them lined up to move single file through 

an alley leading to the chute for restraint. The gate is hinged so that it can be wide open to let cattle enter and then 

closed behind them in a manner that funnels them towards the single file alley.

Cull

To voluntarily remove from the herd and sell to a private individual, harvest facility, or another management facility. 

Days on Feed (DOF)

The number of days cattle are fed in a feedlot prior to going to another facility or harvest.

Ear Tags 

Tags, usually plastic dangle, put in cattle’s ears to identify them. Every producer uses their own numbering system. 

They can easily be removed. These differ from official ID tags such as brucellosis and bright tags.

Feeder Cattle

Cattle of either sex that are ready to go to a feedlot (600-800 pounds) or are in a feedlot but have not reached full 

market weight (1,100-1,500 pounds). These cattle have been backgrounded, managed as stockers, or sent directly 

from a cow/calf operation. These may also be referred to as yearlings.

Glossary
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 41 of 84

Feedlot 

An area of land where cattle are fattened for harvest. Cattle are kept in groups/pens and fed custom diets that are 

designed to increase their rate of gain.

Flight Zone

A variable area that surrounds an animal that when entered by a person will cause that animal to move away.

Fomite

An inanimate object or material on which disease-producing agents may be conveyed (e.g., feces, bedding, 

harness, clothes).

Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostician (FADD) 

A veterinarian who has taken the APHIS foreign animal disease training course at Plum Island and who receives 

continuing education in FADs and animal health emergency management.

Foreign Animal Disease/Emerging Disease Incident (FAD/EDI) Investigation 

On-site assessment conducted by a foreign animal disease diagnostician, as part of the national surveillance program 

for exotic or emerging animals diseases.

Free Area (FA) 

Area not included in any Control Area. 

Free Premises (FP) 

Premises outside of a Control Area and not a Contact or Suspect Premises. 

Hay

A high fiber crop (grass or legumes) that is mowed, allowed to dry in the field and made into bales (square or round) 

and moved to the operation to be fed to the cows as a roughage.

Haylage

Green forage such as alfalfa or other grasses that is chopped in the field and stored such that it undergoes fermentation 

to prevent spoilage.

Heifer 

A female bovine that has not given birth.

Highly Contagious Foreign Animal Disease (FAD)

A disease that spreads rapidly from animal-to-animal as well as herd-to-herd through direct contact, aerosol, oral, 

fomite or vector-borne transmission. Highly contagious FADs may be recognized by above normal morbidity or 

mortality per unit time, where morbidity could be characterized solely by a decrease in production.

Incineration 

A process of completely burning carcasses so that all pathogens are destroyed and the animal turned to ashes.

Infected Premises (IP)

Premises where a presumptive or confirmed positive case exists based on laboratory results, compatible clinical 

signs, case definition, and international standards. 

Infected Zone (IZ) 

Zone that immediately surrounds an Infected Premises. 

Glossary
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 42 of 84

Inshipments 

Total number of animals moved into a state for feeding or breeding purposes, excluding animals brought in for immediate slaughter. Also known as received shipments.

Maximum Incubation Period 

The longest period which elapses between the introduction of the pathogen into a susceptible animal and the occurrence of the first clinical signs (or other epidemiological evidence) compatible with the FAD agent. 

Melengestrol Acetate (MGA) 

Progesterone-like feed additive that is used to prevent estrus (coming into heat) in heifers.

Monitored premises (MP) 

Premises objectively demonstrates that it is not an Infected Premises, Contact Premises, or Suspect Premises. Only 

At-Risk Premises are eligible to become Monitored Premises. Monitored Premises meet a set of defined criteria in 

seeking to move susceptible animals or products out of the Control Area by permit. 

Nose Tongs 

Large metal pincher tool that is placed into each nostril of a bovine and has a rope to grasp and tie to provide 

head restraint. 

On Feed 

Cattle on a managed feed program designed to increase their rate of gain to the proper finished weight.

Pharmaceuticals 

Typically man-made preparations or products that are used for the treatment or prevention of disease. These are 

regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Protection Vaccination Zone (PVZ)

Emergency Vaccination Zone typically outside the Control Area; this may be a secondary zone designation.

Radio Frequency Identification Device (RFID)

Ear tags in animals that have radio transmitters that can be read with special equipment to indicate the animal’s individual number. Usually used in large-scale operations. Tags may include a 15 digit number starting with 840 which 

designates the animal as being from the U.S.

Rate of Gain 

The number of pounds (weight) an animal gains in a day or over the entire feeding period.

Rendering 

A process of converting animal carcasses into a stable product that can be used for other purposes. By-products of 

cattle rendering include tallow and meat and bone meal. 

Silage 

Green forage such as field corn, alfalfa (referred to as haylage), grasses, oats, wheat, that is chopped in the field with 

a tractor and transported in wagons to the operation where it is stored in a pile on the ground, blown into a silo, or 

blown into long plastic bags and packed to remove air so that it undergoes fermentation to prevent spoilage.

Steer 

A male bovine that has been castrated.

Surveillance Zone (SZ) 

Zone outside and along the border of a Control Area. 

Glossary
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 43 of 84

Suspect Premises (SP) 

Premises under investigation due to the presence of susceptible animals reported to have clinical signs compatible 

with the FAD. This is intended to be a short-term premises designation. 

Unfinished Cattle

Cattle still on feed and not ready for harvest.

Vaccinated Premises (VP) 

Premises where emergency vaccination has been performed. This may be a secondary premises designation. 

Zoonotic Diseases

Diseases that are transmissible from animals to humans under natural conditions.

Glossary
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 44 of 84

Banding

The application of a specific type of rubber band above the testicles of cattle for castration purposes. This should be 

used in conjunction with a tetanus shot. Banding results in necrosis of the scrotum and sloughing of the testicles in 

about two weeks.

Cattle Liners/Pots

Large trailers usually pulled by semi-trucks that are specially designed for the transport of cattle.

Chronic

An animal that has failed to recover satisfactorily from a disease. These animals usually become realizers/railers.

Horn Buttons

Small horn growths on immature animals.

Finished or Live Cattle

Cattle that have grown to full market weight and are ready for harvest (somewhere between 1,100 pounds and 

1,500 pounds). 

In the Beef

Finished cattle that were marketed to a packing plant based on carcass weight.

Pen Rider

Feedlot employee or contract laborer who walks or rides through a pen of cattle monitoring them for signs 

of illness.

Polled 

Animals that possess the ‘polled’ gene which prevents cattle from growing horns.

Preconditioning 

The practice of weaning calves a few weeks before shipment, vaccinating them for common diseases, as well as introducing them to high concentrate feed. This process conditions the animal for an easier transition to a feedlot setting.

Pull

Term used to describe an animal identified as sick and removed from its home pen and taken to treatment area by a 

pen rider.

Realizers/Railers

Undesirable cattle that are sold and processed for purposes other than human consumption.

Stockers

Cattle of either sex that have been weaned and are put on pasture until they reach feeder size (about 600-800 

pounds). Very similar if not synonymous with backgrounder cattle.

Select Feedlot Industry Terminology
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 45 of 84

Bovine Routes of Transmission and 

High Consequence Disease Examples

Aerosol: Exposure occurs when droplets are passed through the air 

from one animal to another. Examples include contagious bovine 

pleuropneumonia (CBPP), foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), malignant 

catarrhal fever (MCF), melioidosis, and vesicular stomatitis (VS). 

Disease causing agents can be spread from animal-to-animal or animal-to-human and vice versa, through 

a variety of transmission routes.

Direct Contact: A susceptible animal becomes exposed when the 

disease agent directly touches open wounds, mucous membranes, 

or the skin through blood, saliva, nose to nose contact, rubbing, 

or biting. Examples include CBPP, FMD, lumpy skin disease, MCF, 

rinderpest, VS.

Reproductive: A subtype of direct contact that includes diseases 

spread through mating or to the fetus during pregnancy. An 

example would be CBPP. 

Fomite: An inanimate object carrying a disease agent from one 

susceptible animal to another. Examples include FMD, VS.

Trac: A subtype of fomite transmission in which a vehicle, trailer, 

or human spreads organic material to another location. 

Oral: Consuming disease causing agents in contaminated feed, water or 

licking/chewing on contaminated environmental objects. Examples 

include bovine spongiform encephalopathy and FMD. 

Vector-borne: An insect acquires a disease agent from one animal 

and transmits it to another. Examples include akabane (mosquitoes), 

babesiosis (ticks), heartwater (ticks), lumpy skin disease (mosquitoes, 

ies), Rift Valley fever (mosquitoes), screwworm (y larvae), vesicular 

stomatitis (mosquitoes). 

Zoonotic: Diseases transmitted from animals to humans. Examples include 

VS and Rift Valley fever.

Environmental Contamination must always be taken into consideration. 

This information was developed by staff 

veterinarians at the CFSPH. For more 

information on these diseases, visit: 

www.cfsph.iastate.edu.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 46 of 84

This information was developed by 

staff veterinarians at the CFSPH for use 

as educational materials in the event 

of a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal 

Disease outbreak in the United States.

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious 

viral disease of cattle and other cloven-hooved animals 

such as pigs, sheep, and goats. The last known outbreak 

in the United States was in 1929; however, the disease is 

common in other parts of the world and therefore poses 

a risk to U.S. beef cattle.

If a case of FMD is confirmed anywhere in the United 

States, it could spread rapidly across the nation. If any 

animal on your feedlot is confirmed to have FMD, all 

may be euthanized and disposed of to control the further 

spread of the disease. 

This document describes biosecurity practices you can 

take to prevent FMD from entering your feedlot. These 

measures should be put into place IMMEDIATELY on 

your feedlot if FMD is confirmed anywhere in the U.S. and 

continued until the U.S. is once again declared FMD free. 

Transmission of the Disease 

Understanding how FMD is spread to and between 

cattle can help highlight the importance of biosecurity 

measures needed on your feedlot and help you recognize 

areas that may need additional work to prevent disease 

introduction and spread.

FMD can be spread orally by ingestion of contaminated 

feed. Transmission can also occur through direct contact 

with infected animals. The virus can be found in all body 

fluids of infected cattle, including expired air, nasal 

secretions, blood, urine, feces, saliva and even semen. The 

virus can also be spread reproductively. This can occur 

via semen (bull to cow) or during pregnancy (cow to calf).

FMD virus can also survive in the environment, contaminating equipment, pens, buckets, even footwear and clothing of people in contact with infected cattle. These items 

(termed “fomites”) can serve as an additional source of 

virus for susceptible cattle. If infected cattle are transported 

in vehicles or trailers, these items can also become contaminated and serve as a source of the virus on the feedlot or 

to other feedlots, if not properly cleaned and disinfected.

Another less common route of transmission includes 

aerosol spread in closed areas. 

General Precautionary Measures

Prevention measures to minimize the introduction 

and spread of FMD on your feedlot fall into three 

general categories. 

1. Use strict biosecurity measures for animals, animal 

 products, vehicles, people and equipment.

2. Restrict or stop all animal movement to prevent 

 entry or spread of the disease.

3. Detect and report any disease or unusual signs to 

 your veterinarian as quickly as possible. 

Specific steps to take if FMD is confirmed in the U.S. are 

listed below. Many should already be in place on your 

feedlot but should be enhanced and more strictly enforced 

if FMD is found in the U.S. These measures can help minimize the chance of FMD being introduced on your feedlot.

Feedlot Entrance

Limit access to your feedlot.

•	 The entrance to your feedlot is a major control point. 

•	 Gates at feedlot entries should be locked when not 

 in use. 

Post signs at the feedlot entrance (Appendix A).

Signs inform unauthorized visitors to not enter your feedlot. When entry is necessary, signs give specific rules and 

biosecurity measures to follow while on your feedlot.

Restrict or limit visitors on your feedlot.

•	 At all times, limit the number of visitors to the feedlot. 

•	 Visitors who have traveled internationally within 

 the past five days should not be allowed to enter 

 the feedlot. 

•	 Post warning signs indicating entry onto the 

 feedlot is not allowed without permission.

Strict biosecurity measures must be followed 

by any visitors to the feedlot.

Some visitors are essential for the continued operation 

of the feedlot. Establish strict biosecurity procedures for 

these individuals, then inform them of the measures to 

follow while on your feedlot. 

•	 Check-in with feedlot personnel upon arrival 

 (direct visitors to “where” they should check in). 

•	 Be accompanied by someone from the feedlot at 

 all times to ensure biosecurity measures are 

 being followed. 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 47 of 84

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

•	 Visitors and vehicles should avoid contact 

with animals, animal feed, or animal areas unless 

absolutely necessary.

•	 If animal contact is necessary, wear clean feedlotspecific protective clothing (e.g., coveralls, boots) 

while on the feedlot. Guide visitors to where 

protective clothing is located. These items should 

remain on-feedlot when the visitor leaves.

Monitor and record all traffic on or off 

your feedlot.

Maintain a log sheet (Appendix B) of all visitors and vehicles that enter your feedlot. Accurate record keeping of traffic on your feedlot will help with disease surveillance and 

tracking if necessary. You should not rely on your ability to 

“recall” visitors and vehicles that were on your feedlot.

Vehicles

Minimize traffic onto your feedlot to only 

vehicles essential for continued operation.

•	 Vehicles should be parked at the feedlot entrance, 

away from animal areas, or in designated parking 

areas. These areas should preferably be concrete 

or paved areas.

•	 Non-feedlot specific vehicles should not be 

allowed to drive onto your feedlot unless necessary. If necessary, vehicles should be cleaned and 

disinfected or restricted to areas where vehicle 

traffic is allowed.

•	 Have deliveries left at the feedlot entrance 

whenever possible.

Clean and disinfect vehicles prior to entry and 

upon leaving.

•	 All vehicles entering the feedlot must spray 

their wheels, wheel wells and under-carriage 

with disinfectant after they have been cleaned.

•	 Facilities for washing and disinfecting vehicles 

should be provided at the perimeter of the feedlot 

in a location that accounts for drainage.

Do not share equipment or vehicles between 

feedlots or sites.

People

Limit employees to only those necessary for 

the continued operation of the feedlot.

Employees that have contact with swine, cattle, 

sheep or goats at other locations (including their 

own home) should use very strict biosecurity 

measures while on your feedlot.

Implement strict biosecurity measures for 

employees coming onto the feedlot.

•	 Clean boots, hats and coveralls must be worn 

 while on the feedlot. These should be provided 

 by your feedlot.

•	 Protective clothing should remain on your feedlot and 

be washed and/or disinfected before being worn again. 

•	 Minimize contact with animals to only tasks 

necessary for the continued operation of the feedlot 

 and health and well-being of the animals.

•	 Staff should be designated to handle incoming/ 

 quarantined cattle and not work with other cattle 

 on the operation. 

•	 Staff should be designated to handled isolated/ 

 hospital pen cattle and not work with other cattle 

 on the operation.

•	 Staff working with incoming or isolated cattle 

 should wear clean disposable protective footwear 

 and change between each pen.

•	 Staff should wash their hands with a disinfectant 

 soap and warm water after leaving quarantine or 

 isolation pens. 

Educate your employees on their role in preventing disease introduction and spread. They 

should:

•	 Understand how FMD can be spread;

•	 Understand the feedlot’s biosecurity procedures 

 and how to prevent the spread of the disease;

•	 Know the signs of illness in cattle with FMD; and

•	 Know who to contact if signs of disease are seen.

Animal Movement

If FMD is confirmed in the U.S., movement restriction may 

be implemented locally, regionally and possibly nationally. 

Restrictions will depend on the scope of the outbreak.

Know the health status and the source of any 

animal(s) brought onto your feedlot.

If animal movement is allowed in your area, 

thoroughly clean and disinfect the transport 

vehicle and trailer before loading and after 

unloading.

•	 Pay special attention to the tires and wheel wells. 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 48 of 84

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

•	 Avoid mixing cattle, especially young stock, from 

different sources when transporting.

Working horses must remain on the feedlot 

during an FMD outbreak.

•	 A horse's tack (bridle, saddle, blanket) or their 

hooves can become contaminated with manure or 

saliva from infected cattle.

•	 Horses cannot be infected with FMD but can serve 

as mechanical vectors of the virus.

•	 Horses and their tack used in incoming/quarantine 

or isolation/hospital pens should not be used in 

other pens on the feedlot.

•	 Contaminated tack should be cleaned 

and disinfected.

•	 Hooves should be picked out after working in 

incoming/quarantine or isolation/hospital pens.

Maintain thorough and accurate records of 

animal movement.

•	 Document all animal movements, including the 

dates of introduction, where they came from and 

movements between separate units. 

•	 Each feedlot location must be treated as a separate 

unit or premises. This information will be essential 

to help trace where the disease came from.

Animals

Farm dogs and other pets can also serve as 

mechanical vectors. Movement should be 

restricted until outbreak has subsided

Do not allow your animals to have contact 

with wildlife.

•	 Feral swine, deer, bison, elk, and antelope are also 

susceptible to FMD and, if infected, could 

potentially spread the virus to domestic cattle. 

Monitor animals closely and frequently for any 

developing illness or signs of disease.

Educate yourself and train your employees 

about FMD and the signs of illness (Appendix C).

•	 Fever 

•	 Blistering or ulcers on the mouth, tongue, feet or teats

•	 Increased salivation or slobbering

•	 Dullness or weakness

•	 Refusal to eat

•	 Signs of lameness, such as shifting leg lameness

•	 Refusal to walk or move

Isolate any animals showing the signs above 

and contact your veterinarian immediately to 

examine them.

Use separate facilities, equipment and staff to 

handle isolated livestock.

•	 If this is not possible, at a minimum, handle or 

 visit the isolated animals LAST. 

•	 Clean and disinfect all equipment, clothing, boots, 

 etc. that come into contact with isolated animals. 

Quarantine incoming cattle for at least 30 days.

•	 New animals can be infected with a disease with 

 out showing any signs of illness right away. 

•	 Cattle exposed to the FMD virus may take up to 

 14 days or more before signs of illness are seen. 

•	 Quarantined animals should not share water, feed, 

 facilities or bedding with your other animals. 

•	 Ideally, animals should be quarantined at a 

 separate location (premises).

•	 At a minimum, incoming cattle should be kept as 

 far away from finished cattle as possible.

Wildlife and Other Animals

Prevent contact with free roaming animals 

(wildlife, cats, dogs).

•	 Free roaming animals can potentially spread the 

 FMD virus from infected to susceptible animals.

•	 Keep pets in a kennel or tied securely to avoid 

 contact with livestock and feed areas.

•	 Ask your neighbors to do the same.

Control of wildlife will be difficult, but should 

be attempted.

•	 Keep feedlot access routes, parking areas, yards 

 and storage areas clean and tidy to avoid attraction 

 of birds or rodents.

•	 Implement rodent and vermin control measures 

 to minimize the potential spread of disease by 

 these animals (Appendix D).

Cleaning and Disinfection

The virus that causes FMD has shown to be stable in 

the environment. Virus stability increases at lower 

temperatures and with protection from sunlight. FMD 

virus is inactivated at pH below 6.5 or above 11. Effective 

disinfectants include sodium hydroxide (2%), sodium 

carbonate (4%), sodium hypochlorite (6.0%) and 

proprietary products. In addition to selecting an effective 

disinfectant, proper cleaning and disinfecting procedures 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 49 of 84

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

are essential in order to adequately and effectively control 

the spread of the virus.

Proper Cleaning Procedures

1. Wear personal protective equipment: Gloves, 

coveralls, rubber boots (or disposable boots) and 

possibly a mask if you are cleaning an area that 

will generate dust or aerosols. 

2. Dry clean: Remove all visible material by brush 

ing, scraping and/or sweeping. This is the most 

important step as organic matter prevents many 

disinfectants from working effectively. Disposal of 

waste material should be handled in such a way as 

to prevent contamination of other areas such as 

feed, water or other animals.

3. Soak: Soak the area with hot water and a detergent 

or cleaning agent. Be sure to wash and soap down 

all equipment in the area: waterers, feed troughs, 

pails, etc.

4. Wash: Wipe, spray or scrub the area, starting with 

the dirtiest or highest area (ceiling), after it has 

soaked for a period of time. This step can be 

enhanced by the use of pressure washers when 

cleaning wood, cement, or other porous surfaces. 

Use caution when using high pressure washers 

(200-1000 psi) as they can aerosolize disease 

organisms and spread them to other areas.

5. Rinse: Remove all detergent residue by applying a 

low pressure water rinse on all surfaces, starting 

with the highest area and working your way to the 

floor. This is especially important as certain disinfectants are inactivated by detergents and soaps.

6. Dry: Allow the area to dry completely before 

applying a disinfectant so that it can work effectively.

Proper Disinfecting Procedures

1. Read the product label: This is important to make 

sure the solution is handled correctly. Personal 

protective equipment (gloves, mask) should be used 

when mixing up solutions. Other considerations to 

review before applying solutions to fomites include 

specific dilutions, water temperature, environmental 

temperature, the need for ventilation and the disease 

organisms killed by the disinfectant.

2. Disinfect: Apply the product at the correct dilution 

and let it “sit and work” for the suggested amount 

of time. Contact time of the disinfectant is important for the product to inactivate or kill the microorganism present. 

3. Final rinse: Remove all disinfectant by applying a 

low pressure water rinse on all surfaces, starting with 

 the highest area and working your way to the floor.

4. Dry: Allow the area to completely dry before 

allowing animals to contact the area or item that 

was just cleaned and disinfected.

Proper Boot Bath Procedures

1. Mix solution to the proper concentration according 

 to the label instructions.

2. Clean all dirt, manure and debris off of boots 

 BEFORE stepping into the disinfectant solution. 

 The presence of organic material (dirt, manure, 

 etc.) will prevent most disinfectants from working.

3. Allow the disinfectant solution to have ample contact time with the boot surface. This will vary with 

 the disinfectant selected. Consult the product label. 

4. Change solutions at least daily or when visibly dirty.

Proper Storage

If the equipment or area will not be used immediately, 

it is important to avoid contamination between uses. Small

items can be placed into plastic bags and sealed; larger 

items can be placed into closed cabinets. Equipment 

and housing areas are more difficult to protect for long 

periods of time and may need to be rinsed again before 

allowing animal contact.

Barns and Buildings

Clean and disinfect anything that has had contact 

with animals, manure or animal secretions. 

•	 This includes barns and buildings, vehicles, trailers, 

 equipment, and supplies.

•	 Tires and wheel wells of vehicles and trailers are 

 especially important.

•	 Surfaces should be scraped, cleaned with high 

 pressure hot water and detergent, and rinsed.

•	 The disinfectant should then be applied and 

 allowed to “sit” for the optimal contact time.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 50 of 84

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

Appendix A - Sample Signs 

DO NOT

PLEASE,

WITHOUT PERMISSION

ENTER

www.cfsph.iastate.edu

Sample signs to post at the feedlot entrance in the event of a FMD outbreak in the U.S. 

(Available from the CFSPH web site at www.cfsph.iastate.edu)

Signage is also available from private companies such as Gempler’s.

www.cfsph.iastate.edu www.cfsph.iastate.edu

• Only enter this farm with permission

• Park at the entrance or in designated 

parking areas

• Check-in with farm personnel upon 

arrival and sign the visitor log

• Follow instructions provided by farm 

personnel at all times

• Leave deliveries in areas designated 

by farm personnel 

• All visitors must be accompanied by 

farm personnel at all times

• Do not handle or contact animals 

unless permission is granted by 

farm personnel

Comply with all 

posted signs, rules, 

and biosecurity regulations 

on this farm.

Your cooperation 

is appreciated for your 

own safety and the 

health of our animals.

www.cfsph.iastate.edu
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 51 of 84

Appendix B - Daily Visitor Log

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

Visit 

Date

Name and 

Phone Number Reason for Visit

Date and 

Location of 

Last Contact 

with Livestock

Time In Time Out
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 52 of 84

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

Appendix C - Signs of Illness in Cattle

Excessive drooling following blistering 

and lesions in the mouth

Source: Pam Hullinger, California Department of 

Food and Agriculture

Ulcers on tongue

Source: Plum Island Animal Disease Center

Ulcer between the toes

Source: Plum Island Animal Disease Center

Ruptured blister on the end of a teat

Source: Plum Island Animal Disease Center

P.I.A.D.C.

P.I.A.D.C.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 53 of 84

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

Appendix D - Bird and Rodent Control Measures

FMD virus may be spread on the fur, feathers, or feet of 

some animals. Birds and rodents may spread FMD for a 

short time and distance during an outbreak and can also 

contaminate feed and water sources. Control programs 

should be implemented to minimize their numbers and 

the risk of disease spread on your feedlot.

Eliminate openings for rodents or birds to 

enter, especially feed storage or processing areas.

•	 Seal any opening greater than 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 inch with a 

durable material such as steel wool packed tightly 

into openings.

•	 Use materials that cannot be easily gnawed or 

pecked through such as concrete, sheet metal, wire 

mesh, aluminum or brick. Plastic sheeting, wood, 

rubber will not be adequate. 

•	 Check openings around augers, pipes and wires. 

Use mortar, masonry or metal collars in these areas.

•	 Doors, windows and screens should fit tightly. The 

distance between the bottom of the door and 

threshold should not exceed 1⁄4 inch.

•	 Drainage pipes or sewage systems may be used by 

rodents as routes to enter buildings. Equip floor 

drains with metal grates (openings less than 1⁄4”).

Remove potential hiding, resting and 

nesting sites.

•	 Equipment (e.g., refrigerators, powerwashers, etc.) 

should be raised and easily movable to allow for 

easy cleaning behind and underneath them.

•	 Bagged feed should be stacked on pallets with 

adequate space around and under them to allow 

easy inspection for signs of rodent activity and 

trap or bait placement.

•	 Rats can burrow and nest under feed bunks placed 

directly on the ground. Use of a concrete base 

around feed bunks can eliminate habitat. 

•	 Maintain the water level in livestock waterers so 

it is deep enough that birds cannot stand in it.

•	 Hanging strips of heavy plastic vertically in doorways of buildings will allow machinery and people 

to pass through but keeps birds out. This will not 

prevent rodent entry.

•	 Cover the undersides of rafters with netting to 

exclude birds from nesting sites.

Eliminate potential food sources.

•	 Store feed in well sealed containers (preferably 

 metal with tight fitting lids).

•	 Use covered feeders that exclude birds.

•	 Clean up any spilled feed immediately.

Establish a rodent barrier around buildings.

•	 A 3 foot wide weed-free area with a gravel rock 

 perimeter can be used to prevent weed growth and 

 discourage rodents from burrowing. 

•	 Gravel (at least 1 inch diameter) should be placed 

 in a band at least 3 foot wide and 6 inches deep. 

 Grass and weeds surrounding building should be 

 kept cut short to discourage rodent habitats. 

Trap rodents to reduce vector transmission.

•	 Proper placement of traps and baits is important. 

Set traps close to walls, behind objects, in dark 

 corners, in places where rodent activity is evident.

•	 Use talc or flour patches to track where rodents 

 are active.

Bait rodents when trapping is not possible 

or effective. 

•	 When using rodenticide baits, first read the label 

 carefully and fully follow the directions. 

•	 Use the amount of bait indicated on the package. 

 Requirements differ between products.

•	 Protect baits from the weather.

•	 Be sure baits are not accessible to children, feedlot 

 or domestic animals and birds.

•	 Inspect baits regularly. Check often for dead 

 rodents and burn or bury those you find.

Contact a wildlife pest control operator in 

your state for further assistance. Other 

control methods are available, but beyond 

the scope of this document.

Check local legislation for allowable bird 

control measures. Many birds are protected 

by state and/or federal law. 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 54 of 84

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

Appendix D - Bird and Rodent Control Measures

For More Information

•	 Pierce RA. Bait Stations for Controlling Rats and 

Mice. University of Missouri Extension. 

http://muextension.missouri.edu/explore/agguidees/

wildlife/g09444.htm.

•	 Brittingham MC, Falker ST. Controlling birds 

around farm buildings. Pennsylvania State University Extension. http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/ 

pdfs/uh126.pdf.

•	 See T. Controlling rodents. North Carolina State 

University Extension. http://www.thepigsite.com/ 

FeaturedArticle/Default.asp?Display=1015.

•	 Baker RO, Bodman GR, Timm RM. Rodent- proof 

construction and exclusion methods. University of 

Nebraska. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/wild/pdf/ 

wildlife/RODENT_PROOF_CONSTRUCT.PDF.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 55 of 84

Prevention Practices for Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease (FMD)

Appendix E - EPA and USDA Approved Disinfectants for FMD 

Product Dilution Mixing Instructions Comments

Sodium carbonate* 

(soda ash)

4% Add 5.33 ounces sodium 

carbonate to 1 gallon of 

hot water (or 1 pound to 3 

gallons). Mix thoroughly.

Recommended contact 

time is 10 minutes. Can be 

deactivated by hard water. 

Mildly caustic (irritate 

skin) and dulls paint/

varnished surfaces.

Sodium hypochlorite 

6.0%* (NaOCl) 

(household bleach)

1000 ppm Add 1/3 cup of chlorine 

bleach to 1 gallon of water. 

Mix thoroughly.

Recommended contact 

time is 10 minutes. Must 

be mixed fresh prior to 

each application; unstable 

in warm, sunny conditions 

(above 59o

F).

*These products may be applied by certied applicators or under the supervision of USDA-Plant Protection 

and Quarantine, USDA Veterinary Medical Ocers, or State ocers that are certied applicators (EPA 

Quarantine Exemption to USDA, 2002).

Proprietary products Follow label directions. As of December 2011, there 

were 5 products registered 

by EPA with a claim to 

inactivate FMD virus.

Note: Before disinfecting, all surfaces must be cleaned. This includes removing any 

visible material such as manure, bedding, and feed.

Sodium hydroxide* 

(lye, NaOH)

2% Add 1/3 cup of NaOH 

pellets (2.7 ounces of lye) 

to 1 gallon of cold water.

Warning: Always add the 

lye to water - NEVER pour 

water over lye.

Recommended contact 

time is 10 minutes. Highly 

caustic (skin burns, 

damages metals). Use 

water-resistant protective 

clothing, gloves, safety 

glasses. 

USDA-APHIS has an exemption in place for sodium hypochlorite (bleach), sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate in the 

event the proprietary products are not available. As with all disinfectants, all label use directions and safety precautions 

must be followed. 

Sources: Personal communication, Jeff Kempter, Senior Advisor Antimicrobials Division, Office of Pesticide Programs, Environmental Protection 

Agency Proprietary products are listed at: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/tools_train.shtml - select “Pesticides to use against 

selected foreign animal diseases”
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 56 of 84

This information was developed by 

staff veterinarians at the CFSPH for use 

as educational materials in the event 

of a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal 

Disease outbreak in the United States.

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is a fever-causing viral disease 

that severely affects cattle, sheep, goats and humans. There 

is a very high rate of abortion and death in infected newborn animals. RVF is spread between animals and humans 

by mosquitoes. A mosquito will feed on blood from an 

animal/person with RVF and spread RVF to a new animal 

when it feeds again. The virus is not present in the United 

States but the mosquito capable of carrying it is found 

here. The virus is found in other parts of the world (most 

of Africa) and therefore poses a risk to U.S. beef cattle.

If a case of RVF is confirmed anywhere in the United 

States, mosquitoes could spread it across the nation. 

If any animal on your feedlot that could get sick (cattle, 

sheep and goats) is confirmed to have RVF, all may be 

euthanized and disposed of to control the further spread 

of the disease. 

This document describes biosecurity practices you can 

take to prevent RVF from entering your feedlot. These 

measures should be put into place IMMEDIATELY on 

your feedlot if RVF is confirmed anywhere in the U.S. and 

continued until the U.S. is once again declared RVF free. 

Transmission of the Disease 

Mosquitoes (vectors) are the most important way that RVF 

is spread between animals and to humans. RVF virus can 

be spread during pregnancy (direct contact from cow to 

calf). The virus has also been found in semen and raw milk.

In humans, exposure to the virus can occur via aerosols

being inhaled while assisting with the birth of infected 

animals, during a necropsy or slaughter. The virus could 

also enter abrasions on the skin (direct contact) during 

one of the above procedures.

General Precautionary Measures

Prevention measures to minimize the introduction 

and spread of RVF on your feedlot fall into four 

general categories.

1. Restrict or stop all animal movement to prevent 

entry or spread of the disease.

2. Observe, detect and report any disease or unusual 

signs to your veterinarian as quickly as possible.

3. Mosquitoes are the most important way that RVF 

is spread. Control mosquito breeding sites 

(stock tanks, ponds, old tires, etc.) to prevent 

spread of the disease.

4. Humans can get Rift Valley Fever. Protect yourself 

against mosquito bites and use personal protective 

equipment (respirator, gloves, eye protection, etc.) 

when handling tissues from animals that have aborted 

(placenta, fetus, etc.).

Specific steps to take if RVF is confirmed in the U.S. 

are listed below. Many should already be in place on 

your feedlot but should be enhanced and more strictly 

enforced if RVF is found in the U.S. These measures 

can help minimize the chance of RVF being introduced 

on your feedlot.

Feedlot Entrance

Limit access to your feedlot.

•	 The entrance to your feedlot is a major control point. 

•	 Gates at feedlot entries should be locked when not 

 in use. 

Post signs at the feedlot entrance (Appendix A).

Signs inform unauthorized visitors to not enter your feedlot. When entry is necessary, signs give specific rules and 

biosecurity measures to follow while on your feedlot.

Restrict or limit visitors on your feedlot.

•	 At all times, limit the number of visitors to the feedlot. 

•	 People can get RVF. Infected humans may serve as 

 a source of the virus for mosquitoes which could 

 spread the disease to animals or humans. Visitors 

 who have traveled internationally within the past 

five days should not be allowed to enter the feedlot. 

•	 Post warning signs indicating entry onto the 

 feedlot is not allowed without permission.

Strict biosecurity measures must be followed 

by any visitors to the feedlot.

Some visitors are essential for the continued operation 

of the feedlot. Establish strict biosecurity procedures for 

these individuals, then inform them of the measures to 

follow while on your feedlot. 

•	 Check-in with feedlot personnel upon arrival 

 (direct visitors to “where” they should check in). 

•	 Be accompanied by someone from the feedlot at 

 all times to ensure biosecurity measures are 

 being followed.

•	 Visitors and vehicles should avoid contact 

with animals, animal feed, or animal areas unless 

absolutely necessary.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 57 of 84

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

•	 If animal contact is necessary, wear clean feedlotspecific protective clothing (e.g., coveralls, boots) 

while on the feedlot. Guide visitors to where 

protective clothing is located. These items should 

remain on-feedlot when the visitor leaves. 

Monitor and record all traffic on or off 

your feedlot.

Maintain a log sheet (Appendix B) of all visitors and vehicles that enter your feedlot. Accurate record keeping of traffic on your feedlot will help with disease surveillance and 

tracking if necessary. You should not rely on your ability to 

“recall” visitors and vehicles that were on your feedlot.

People

People can get RVF several ways (see Appendix C):

•	 Being bitten by a mosquito.

•	 Handling infected animal tissues or fluids.

•	 Breathing in the virus when handling infected 

animal fluids (blood, birthing tissues, and milk).

Protect yourself against mosquitoes.

•	 When outside, wear long pants and long sleeves to 

cover skin.

•	 Use insect repellants on exposed skin. Repellants 

with N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (commonly 

known as DEET) are the most effective. DEET is 

an insect repellant that is safe to use on people but 

not on pets. Make sure to follow all label directions.

•	 Make sure screens on windows and doors are in 

good repair.

Sick animals should not be processed for meat 

or necropsied during a RVF outbreak.

•	 This can release the virus into the air. People who 

necropsy the animals or process meat may become 

sick by breathing in the virus or by handling the 

meat and organs.

Wear personal protective equipment, such as 

gloves, coveralls, boots, protective eyewear 

and a respirator when handling aborted 

fetuses or birthing tissues.

Do not allow ill people on your feedlot.

•	 People with RVF can have a fever, headache,

muscle and joint pain, nausea and vomiting. 

These people could spread RVF to a mosquito 

that could then bite and infect another person 

or animal.

•	 RVF cannot be passed from person to person; it 

 requires a mosquito. 

Limit employees to only those necessary for 

the continued operation of the feedlot.

Livestock

Monitor animals closely and frequently for any 

developing illness or signs of disease.

Educate yourself and train your employees 

about RVF and the signs of illness in cattle:

•	 Abortions at any stage of pregnancy, up to 85% 

 of pregnant animals

•	 Adult cattle: Fever, snotty nose, watery eyes, 

runny nose, excessive salivation, refusal to eat, 

bloody or foul-smelling diarrhea

•	 Calves: Fever, depression, bloody or foul-smelling 

 diarrhea, sudden death 

Contact your veterinarian immediately to 

examine sick animals.

Quarantine incoming cattle for at least 7 days.

•	 New animals can be infected with a disease with 

 out showing signs of illness right away.

•	 Cattle exposed to the RVF virus may take up to 3 

 days to show signs of illness.

•	 Ideally, animals should be quarantined at a separate 

 location (premises).

Other Animals

Prevent free roaming animals (dogs, cats) from 

coming onto your feedlot.

•	 Dogs and cats can get RVF, and it can be fatal in 

puppies and kittens.

•	 Infected dogs and cats could serve as a source of 

the RVF virus for mosquitoes to pass the disease to 

your livestock.

•	 There are topical insecticide products for dogs, 

applied monthly, that protect against mosquitoes; 

consult your veterinarian for more details.

•	 Keep pets in a kennel or tied securely.

•	 Ask your neighbors to do the same.

Animal Movement

If RVF is confirmed in the U.S., movement restrictions may 

be implemented locally, regionally and possibly nationally. 

Restrictions will depend on the scope of the outbreak.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 58 of 84

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Know the health status and the source of any 

animal(s) brought onto your feedlot.

•	 Do not bring animals onto your feedlot unless they 

are proven to be from RVF-free areas.

Maintain thorough and accurate records of 

animal movement.

•	 Document all animal movements, including the 

dates of introduction, where they came from and 

movements between separate units.

•	 Each feedlot location must be treated as a separate 

unit or premises.

•	 This information will be essential to help trace 

where the disease came from.

Mosquito Life Cycle and Control

Mosquitoes are the most important way that RVF is 

spread. It is only the female mosquito that feeds on 

blood as she needs the protein to produce eggs. Mosquitoes will lay their eggs on or near the edge of water. 

The mosquito eggs will hatch into larvae (also known as 

“wigglers”) which turn into pupae (also known as “tumblers”). The larvae and the pupae need to live in water 

to survive. The pupae will change into adult mosquitoes. 

See Appendix C.

Control of Mosquito Egg Laying Sites (See 

Appendix D)

•	 Egg laying site control is the best way to control 

mosquitoes since they lay eggs in specific areas 

and that can be managed. 

•	 Mosquitoes can lay their eggs any place that can 

hold water. This includes ponds, old tires, tarps, 

tree holes, bird baths and flower pots.

Control of Mosquito Larvae (“wigglers”)

•	 Mosquito larvae need to live in water to survive. 

They can be found in any amount of standing 

water including ponds, old tires, tarps and 

bird baths.

•	 Since mosquito larvae remain in the same water 

where they hatched from eggs, control of this 

stage focuses on continued management of 

mosquito egg laying areas.

•	 The use of pesticides should only be used as a 

supplement to controlling mosquitoes through 

the reduction and management of mosquito egg 

laying sites.

•	 Check with your local extension office or department

of pest management to determine which pesticides 

are approved for use in your area.

Control of Mosquito Adults

•	 Control of adults is the least effective way to control 

mosquitoes. Attempting to control adult mosquitoes 

 can be difficult and costly.

•	 Control of adult mosquitoes focuses on the use 

 of pesticides.

•	 The use of pesticides should only be supplemental 

 to controlling mosquitoes through the reduction 

 and management of mosquito egg laying areas.

•	 Check with your local extension office or department 

 of pest management to determine which pesticides 

 are approved for use in your area.

Cleaning and Disinfection

RVF virus can survive in dried blood up to three 

months and aerosols at the right temperature (75°F) 

and humidity (50-85%). It is destroyed by strong 

sunlight/ultraviolet (UV) radiation and is quickly 

destroyed by acidic conditions, including decomposing 

carcasses. Proper cleaning and disinfecting procedures 

are essential in order to adequately and effectively 

control the spread of the virus. Lipid solvents, detergents and sodium or calcium hypochlorite solutions are 

effective at inactivating the virus. A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-registered product must 

be used; USDA-APHIS may have exemptions in place 

for the use of certain products against specific foreign 

animal diseases. For proper guidance in selecting an 

effective, approved disinfectant against Rift Valley 

Fever, see the FAD PReP/NAHEMS Guidelines: 

Cleaning and Disinfection (2011). 

Remove any organic material before cleaning 

or disinfection.

•	 Most disinfectants are ineffective when dirt, 

manure and other visible material is present.

Clean and disinfect anything that has come in 

contact with birthing tissues or fetuses before 

it is used for another purpose.

Clean isolation areas and replace bedding 

regularly.

•	 Dispose of bedding and manure from isolation 

areas and store it in a fenced off area so that 

livestock or other animals do not have access 

to it.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 59 of 84

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

References

•	 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 

Nations (FAO). Manual on Procedures for Disease 

Eradication by Stamping Out, Part: 3 Decontamination procedures. Accessed on January 28, 2010 at 

http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/Y0660E03.htm 

•	 International Office for Epizootics (OIE). Animal 

diseases data: Rift Valley Fever. Accessed on 

October 21, 2010 at http://www.oie.int/eng/ 

maladies/Technical%20disease%20cards/ 

RIFT%20VALLEY%20FEVER_FINAL.pdf 

•	 Rift Valley Fever fact sheet, Center for Food Security 

and Public Health, Iowa State University, November

 8, 2006, available at: http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/ 

Factsheets/pdfs/rift_valley_fever.pdf 

•	 Zoonoses and Communicable Diseases Common 

to Man and Animals. Rift Valley Fever. Published 

by the Pan American Health Organization. 2003.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 60 of 84

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Appendix A - Sample Signs 

Sample signs to post at the feedlot entrance in the event of a RVF outbreak in the U.S. 

(Available from the CFSPH web site at www.cfsph.iastate.edu)

Signage is also available from private companies such as Gempler’s.

DO NOT

PLEASE,

WITHOUT PERMISSION

ENTER

www.cfsph.iastate.edu www.cfsph.iastate.edu www.cfsph.iastate.edu

• Only enter this farm with permission

• Park at the entrance or in designated 

parking areas

• Check-in with farm personnel upon 

arrival and sign the visitor log

• Follow instructions provided by farm 

personnel at all times

• Leave deliveries in areas designated 

by farm personnel 

• All visitors must be accompanied by 

farm personnel at all times

• Do not handle or contact animals 

unless permission is granted by 

farm personnel

Comply with all 

posted signs, rules, 

and biosecurity regulations 

on this farm.

Your cooperation 

is appreciated for your 

own safety and the 

health of our animals.

www.cfsph.iastate.edu
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 61 of 84

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Appendix B - Daily Visitor Log

Visit 

Date

Name and 

Phone Number Reason for Visit Time In Time Out

Date and 

Location of 

Last Contact 

with Livestock
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 62 of 84

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Appendix C - Transmission Routes of Rift Valley Fever 

The female 

mosquito lays 

her eggs by the 

water of a floodprone pasture.

Cow with Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

RVF causes abortions

Eggs develop into larvae.

(also called “wigglers”)

Larvae develop into pupae. 

(also called “tumblers”)

Graphic Created by Clint May, CFSPH

The pupae develop 

into adults and can

now transmit RVF when 

they feed (vector) on 

an animal or person.

People can get RVF 

through direct contact

with birthing tissues 

(placenta, fetus) from cows, 

sheep or goats who have 

aborted due to RVF or from 

breathing it in (aerosol) 

when opening a carcass 

infected with RVF.

Female mosquitoes 

(vector) feed on 

animals and humans 

because they need 

the protein to 

produce eggs. This 

is when they can 

become infected 

with RVF.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 63 of 84

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Appendix D - Mosquito Control Measures

Rift Valley Fever virus is spread by mosquitoes. Control 

programs should focus on decreasing their numbers to 

minimize the risk of disease spread on your feedlot.

Control of Mosquito Egg Laying Sites

•	 Control of mosquito egg laying sites is the best 

control method since they lay eggs in specific 

areas and these areas can be managed. 

•	 Add drainage holes to structures and containers 

that may trap water (barrels, old tires).

•	 Change or circulate the water in stock tanks, pet 

bowls and birdbaths at least once a week.

•	 Drain tarps and covers of collected rainwater after 

a rain (e.g., silage covers). 

•	 Pick up and properly dispose of all trash, especially 

anything that could hold water. 

•	 Thin out weeds and remove old leaves from ponds. 

This will allow natural mosquito-eating fish to easily 

access areas where mosquitoes lay their eggs.

•	 Grade areas where road ruts, potholes and hoofprints exist (around stock tanks, ponds).

•	 Grade newly developed land to prevent standing 

water. These areas create areas for mosquitoes to 

lay eggs.

•	 Fill tree holes with sand, mortar or place drainage 

holes to prevent standing water.

•	 Clean roof gutters to prevent them from becoming 

clogged and holding water.

Control of Mosquito Larvae (“wigglers”)

•	 Check with your local extension office or department of pest management to determine which 

pesticides are approved for use in your area.

•	 The use of pesticides should only be supplemental 

to controlling mosquitoes through the reduction 

and management of mosquito egg laying areas.

•	 Do not apply pesticides to moving water 

(e.g., streams).

•	 Products labeled only for home and garden 

mosquito larval control may be used. Follow all 

label directions.

•	 Non-chemical pesticides can be used.

- Always follow all label directions

- BTI (Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis) 

 pronounced ba-SILL-us THUR-in-GEN-sus 

 IZ-real-EN-sus.

- BTI granules can be spread over an area of 

 pasture that is flood-prone. Use at the begin-

 ning of the mosquito season and re-apply in 

 the middle of the season. 

- BTI dunks can be used to treat stock tanks. 

 One dunk can treat up to 100 square feet of 

 water surface and can last up to 30 days. 

- Methoprene products can be used to treat areas 

that collect water. These include bird baths, urns, 

 old tires, flower pots, abandoned swimming 

 pools, etc. 

Control of Mosquito Adults

•	 Control of adult mosquitoes is the least efficient 

 control method.

•	 Special equipment is needed to apply pesticides 

 to kill adult mosquitoes (adulticides). Small drop- 

 lets are produced that drift through the air and 

 contact adult mosquitoes to kill them.

•	 Check with your local extension office or depart-

 ment of pest management to determine which 

 pesticides are approved for use in your area.

•	 The use of pesticides should only be supplemental 

 to controlling mosquitoes through the reduction 

 and management of mosquito egg laying sites.

•	 Individuals may use hand-held Ultra Low Volume 

foggers, portable or fogging attachments for tractors 

 or lawn mowers.

•	 Pyrethrin or 5% malathion can be fogged outdoors. 

 Follow all label directions.

•	 Contact your local extension agent for assistance 

 in developing a mosquito management plan.

Personal Protection

•	 People can get Rift Valley fever by being bitten by 

 an infected mosquito.

•	 Protect yourself against mosquitoes.

•	 When outside, wear long pants and long sleeves to 

 cover skin.

•	 Use insect repellants on exposed skin. Repellants 

 with DEET (N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide) are the 

 most effective.

•	 DEET is an insect repellant that is safe to use on 

 people but not on pets.

•	 Make sure screens on windows and doors are in 

 good repair.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 64 of 84

Prevention Practices for Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Appendix D - Mosquito Control Measures

It is a violation of state and federal law to use a 

pesticide in any manner that differs from the product 

label. Use only according to label directions to avoid 

meat or milk residue hazards, environmental damage, 

and animal or human injury.

Mosquito References:

•	 Lawler SP, Lanzaro GC. Managing Mosquitoes on

 the Farm. Department of Entomology, University 

of California, Davis. http://axp.ipm.ucdavis.edu/ 

PDF/MOSQ/mosquitoesonfarm.pdf

•	 Potter MF, Townsend L, Knapp FW. Mosquitoes: 

Practical Advice for Homeowners. University of 

Kentucky Department of Entomology. 

http://www.uky.edu/Agriculture/Entomology/ 

entfacts/misc/ef005.htm 

•	 Stringham M, Watson W. Managing Waste 

Lagoons to Control Mosquito Breeding. North 

Carolina State University Department of 

Entomology. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/ 

notes/MedVet/wnv-manage.htm 

•	 Larvicides for Mosquito Control. United States 

Environmental Protection Agency. 

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/mosquitoes/ 

larvicides4mosquitoes.htm
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 65 of 84

This information was developed by 

staff veterinarians at the CFSPH for use 

as educational materials in the event 

of a Highly Contagious Foreign Animal 

Disease outbreak in the United States.

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Heartwater is a rickettsial disease spread by the 

Gulf Coast tick to cattle and other livestock such as 

sheep and goats. The agent that causes disease is not 

present in the United States but the ticks capable of 

carrying it are found here. Heartwater is endemic in 

much of Africa and the Caribbean and poses a risk to 

U.S. beef cattle.

If a case of heartwater is confirmed in the United 

States, it could spread to other parts of the nation 

through infected ticks. If any animal on your feedlot 

is confirmed to have heartwater, all animals on the 

feedlot that could get sick may be removed and isolated 

or euthanized and disposed of to control the further 

spread of disease. 

This document describes biosecurity practices you 

can take to prevent heartwater from entering your 

feedlot. These measures should be put into place 

IMMEDIATELY on your feedlot if heartwater is 

confirmed anywhere in the U.S. and continued until 

the U.S. is once again declared heartwater free.

General Precautionary Measures

Prevention measures to minimize the introduction and 

spread of heartwater onto your feedlot fall into three 

general categories.

1. Restrict or stop all animal movement to prevent 

entry or spread of the disease.

2. Examine cattle for the Gulf Coast tick, the tick that 

spreads heartwater disease.

3. Observe, detect, and report any disease or unusual 

signs to your veterinarian as quickly as possible.

Specific steps to take if heartwater is confirmed in 

the U.S. are listed below. Many should already be in 

place on your feedlot but should be enhanced and more 

strictly enforced in the event heartwater is found in the 

U.S. These measures can help minimize the chance of 

heartwater being introduced on your feedlot.

Gulf Coast Tick Distribution

The Gulf Coast tick (Amblyomma maculatum) is a 

tick species that could spread heartwater disease 

to cattle, sheep, goats, and white-tailed deer. 

It is NOT found in all parts of the U.S. 

•	 It has been reported in Kansas south to Texas, east 

across the Gulf Coast States to the Atlantic sea 

board, approximately 100 miles in from the coast. 

(See Appendix A)

Gulf Coast ticks do not feed on people but 

could travel on them or other animal species 

to other areas.

•	 These ticks will also feed on wildlife, horses 

 and dogs. Horses and dogs will not develop 

 heartwater disease.

•	 White-tailed deer are VERY sensitive to heartwater 

disease and die if infected.

The African tortoise tick (Amblyomma 

marmoreum) has established itself in Florida. 

It prefers to feed on tortoises but is a known spreader 

of heartwater disease.

There are other Amblyomma ticks that are not 

present in the U.S. (as of July 2011) that also 

spread heartwater disease.

•	 The tropical bont tick (Amblyomma variegatum) 

lives in the Caribbean and could travel to Florida 

and beyond on cattle egrets, a wild bird.

•	 The bont tick (Amblyomma hebraeum) from Africa 

could survive in Florida and Texas and easily spread 

heartwater disease if it were introduced into the U.S.

Feedlot Entrance

Limit access to your feedlot.

•	 The entrance to your feedlot is a major control point.

•	 Gates at feedlot entries should be locked when not 

 in use.

Post signs at the feedlot entrance (Appendix B).

Signs inform unauthorized visitors to not enter your feedlot. When entry is necessary, signs give specific rules and 

biosecurity measures to follow while on your feedlot.

Restrict or limit visitors on your feedlot.

•	 At all times, limit the number of visitors to 

 the feedlot.

•	 Post warning signs indicating entry onto the 

 feedlot is not allowed without permission.

Strict biosecurity measures must be followed 

by any visitor to the feedlot.

Some visitors are essential for the continued operation 

of the feedlot. Establish strict biosecurity procedures for 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 66 of 84

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

these individuals, then inform them of the measures to 

follow while on your feedlot.

•	 Check-in with feedlot personnel upon arrival. 

(Direct visitor to “where” they should check-in).

•	 Be accompanied by someone from the feedlot 

at all times to ensure biosecurity measures are 

being followed.

•	 Visitors and vehicles should avoid contact with 

animals or animal areas unless absolutely necessary.

•	 If animal contact is necessary, wear clean 

feedlot-specific protective clothing (e.g., coveralls, boots) while on the feedlot. Guide visitors 

to where protective clothing is located. These 

items should remain on-feedlot when the 

visitor leaves.

Monitor and record all traffic on or off 

your feedlot.

Maintain a log sheet (Appendix C) of all visitors and 

vehicles that enter your feedlot. Accurate record keeping 

of traffic on your feedlot will help with disease surveillance and tracking if necessary. You should not rely on 

your ability to “recall” visitors and vehicles that were 

on your feedlot.

Animals

Monitor animals closely and frequently for 

any presence of ticks or developing illness 

(see Appendix D for examples of the Gulf 

Coast tick).

•	 Nymph stage ticks can be found around the 

withers, along the top of the back, near the tail 

head and on the soft tissue between the hooves.

•	 Adult ticks can be found near the udder, inside the 

legs, around the testes or prepuce, and above and 

under the tail.

•	 Contact your veterinarian immediately if ticks 

are noticed.

•	 Following exposure to the tick, an animal usually 

shows illness in 2 to 4 weeks.

Record the location of any ticks found on 

animals - head, ears, back, legs, etc. 

•	 Indicate if the ticks were blood filled (engorged) 

or newly attached (unengorged).

Educate yourself and train your employees 

about heartwater and the signs of illness 

(photos found in Appendix E).

The name heartwater is due to the fluid that forms 

around the heart during the disease and is seen on post 

mortem exams. Signs result from injury to the blood 

vessel walls which causes “leaking”.

There are different forms of heartwater disease, the most 

common form can cause: 

•	 Sudden death

•	 Sudden high fever (up to 107°F)

•	 Death in less than one week after onset of fever 

•	 Loss of appetite 

•	 Depression, recumbency leading to death

•	 Rapid, difficult breathing 

•	 Fluid in lungs, chest cavity

•	 Neurologic signs in some cases: chewing, eyelid 

 twitching, tongue sticking out, walking in circles 

 with a high stepping gait, convulsions 

Isolate any animals showing the signs above 

and contact your veterinarian immediately to 

examine them.

•	 If these animals are carrying heartwater disease, 

 they should be euthanized and destroyed as they 

 will serve as a source of disease on the feedlot for 

 other ticks to spread.

•	 Treat the herd with tetracyclines and dip them in 

 an acaricide to prevent ticks. 

•	 Tetracycline antibiotics are only effective if 

given EARLY in the course of the disease, by day 

2 or 3 after fever appears and before nervous 

signs appear.

Use separate facilities, equipment and staff to 

handle isolated livestock.

•	 If this is not possible, handle or visit the isolated 

 animals LAST.

•	 Since heartwater is carried in the blood of animals, 

NEVER share needles or syringes between animals.

Quarantine incoming cattle for at least 30 days.

•	 New animals can be infected with heartwater 

 without showing signs of illness right away.

•	 Cattle exposed to heartwater can take 2-4 weeks 

 before signs of illness are seen.

•	 Ideally animals should be quarantined at a separate 

 location (premises).

Animal Movement

If heartwater is confirmed in the U.S., movement 

restrictions may be implemented locally, regionally 

and possibly nationally. Restrictions will depend on the 

scope of the outbreak.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 67 of 84

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Maintain thorough and accurate records of 

animal movement.

•	 Document all animal movements, including the 

dates of introduction into the herd and where they 

came from and movements between separate units.

•	 Each feedlot location must be treated as a separate 

unit or premise. 

•	 This information will be essential to help trace 

where the disease came from. 

Know the health status and source of any 

animal(s) brought onto your feedlot.

•	 Do not bring animals onto your feedlot unless 

they have been proven to be from heartwater-free 

areas, especially if they are imported from the 

Caribbean or Africa.

Wildlife and Other Animals

Limit exposure to free roaming animals (wildlife, birds, small mammals).

•	 Wildlife, birds and small mammals can carry the 

ticks that spread heartwater. 

•	 White-tailed deer are very sensitive to heartwater 

disease and die if infected; alert your veterinarian 

immediately if you notice multiple dead deer in 

your area.

•	 Dogs should be restricted to the feedlot (tied up, 

kenneled) and examined daily for ticks as they 

could introduce infected ticks to the cattle.

•	 There are topical products available for dogs, 

applied monthly, that protect against certain 

species of tick infestation; consult your 

veterinarian for more details.

Control of wildlife will be difficult, but should 

be attempted.

Keep feedlot access routes, parking areas, yards, and 

storage areas clean and tidy to avoid attraction of birds 

or small mammals.

Tick Life Cycle

Gulf Coast ticks are considered 3 host ticks, 

meaning they attach to a different animal to 

blood feed for each of their life stages (see 

Appendix D).

•	 The first stage is the egg; the second is a larva with 

6 legs; the third is a nymph with 8 legs and the 

fourth stage is adult. 

Each life stage, besides the egg, attaches itself 

to an animal, feeds on blood, and then drops 

off to change (molt) to the next stage.

•	 The tick will carry heartwater disease through its 

 entire life, spreading it each time they feed. 

Ticks molt on the ground in grass or areas with 

lots of vegetation.

•	 Nymphs, larvae and adult ticks “quest” or seek out 

 animals by climbing to the top of a blade of grass 

 and latching on to animals legs as they pass by.

Adult Gulf Coast ticks can be found on animals 

at various times of the year.

•	 Oklahoma, Kansas, and Midwestern states, :

- Adults- winter active

- Larvae, nymphs - late spring, summer active

•	 Texas and Gulf Coast states:

- Adults- August through October active

- Larvae, nymphs- winter active

Tick control strategies must be applied accordingly.

Acaricides

Acaricides are products aimed at killing ticks 

and should be applied to cattle every 2-4 

weeks (see Appendix F) in affected areas.

•	 These are available as direct applications to ani- 

 mals as pour-ons, sprays or impregnated ear tags.

Employees and Visitors

Employees or visitors that have contact with 

livestock at other locations (including their own 

home), should check themselves for ticks and 

remove them before entering your feedlot. 

•	 All visitors should be accompanied by someone 

 from the feedlot at all times.

•	 Visitors should avoid livestock areas, pens, and 

 barns unless absolutely necessary.

Neighbors

Discuss the threat of heartwater with 

your neighbors.

Determine steps you can take together to protect 

your area and feedlots from becoming infected.

•	 Keep vegetation mowed short to eliminate 

 tick habitats.

•	 Prevent free roaming dogs.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 68 of 84

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

References 

•	 Auburn University Highlights of Ag Research, 

Volume 47, Number 3, 2000. Alabamians 

vulnerable target for ticks accessed November 4, 

2005 at http://www.aaes.auburn.edu/comm/pubs/ 

highlightsonline/fall00/tick.html

•	 Kansas Insect Newsletter, Department of 

Entomology, Kansas State University, Gulf Coast 

ticks make their presence felt in Kansas accessed 

November 4, 2005 at http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/ 

dp_entm/extension/KIN/KIN_2005/kin8/ 

05ksnew8.htm 

•	 Sumner, J. W., Durden, L. A., Goddard, J., 

Stromdahl, E. Y., Clark, K. L., Reeves, W. K., 

Paddock, C. D. 2007. Gulf Coast ticks 

(Amblyomma maculatum) and Rickettsia parkeri, 

United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13: 751-753.

•	 Texas A&M Discover Entomology website. 

‘Honey, I’m Ready’: Signals of Gulf Coast Tick 

accessed November 4, 2005 at http://insects. 

tamu.edu/feature/tick/ 

•	 Trout, R.T., Steelman, C.D., Szalanski, A.L., 

Loftin, K. 2010. Establishment of Amblyomma 

maculatum (Gulf Coast Tick) in Arkansas, U.S.A. 

Florida Entomologist .93:120-122.

•	 USDA APHIS VS Heartwater Fact sheet July 2002 

accessed November 4, 2005 at http://www.aphis.usda.

•	 USDA APHIS. 2008. Assessment of change in risk 

for release of Ehrlichia ruminantium (Heartwater) 

into the continental United States following 

discontinuation of the Tropical Bont Tick 

(Amblyomma variegatum) eradiation program on 

St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Centers for Epide - 

miology and Animal Health. Ft. Collins CO.

•	 Williams HR, Teel PD, Strey OF, Wright RE, Mock 

DE. Zoogeography of the Gulf Coast tick, Amblyomma maculatum Koch accessed July 7, 2005 at 

http://ticsys.tamu.edu?HEATHERSPROJ.htm
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 69 of 84

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix A - Distribution of Gulf Cost Ticks

Approximate Distribution of the Gulf Coast Tick 

(Amblyomma maculatum Koch)

Definitive boundaries uncertain

Gulf Coast Ticks have been identified in the environment and on animals 

in specific areas in the shaded region (as of July 2011).
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 70 of 84

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Sample signs to post at the feedlot entrance in the event of a Heartwater outbreak in the 

U.S. (Available from the CFSPH web site at www.cfsph.iastate.edu)

Signage is also available from private companies such as Gempler’s.

DO NOT

PLEASE,

WITHOUT PERMISSION

ENTER

www.cfsph.iastate.edu www.cfsph.iastate.edu

• Only enter this farm with permission

• Park at the entrance or in designated 

parking areas

• Check-in with farm personnel upon 

arrival and sign the visitor log

• Follow instructions provided by farm 

personnel at all times

• Leave deliveries in areas designated 

by farm personnel 

• All visitors must be accompanied by 

farm personnel at all times

• Do not handle or contact animals 

unless permission is granted by 

farm personnel

Comply with all 

posted signs, rules, 

and biosecurity regulations 

on this farm.

Your cooperation 

is appreciated for your 

own safety and the 

health of our animals.

www.cfsph.iastate.edu

Appendix B - Sample Signs 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 71 of 84

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix C - Daily Visitor Log

Visit 

Date

Name and 

Phone Number Reason for Visit Time In Time Out

Date and 

Location of 

Last Contact 

with Livestock
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 72 of 84

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix D - Life Cycle of the Amblyomma Tick - 3-Host Tick 

a) Eggs: 15,000-18,000 

laid on the ground

b) Larvae with 6 legs hatch from the eggs 

on the ground. 

To feed, a larva climbs to the top of a grass 

blade and holds onto it with three legs and 

“quests” by waving the other three legs to attach 

to small rodents or ground dwelling birds (quail, 

cattle egrets, meadowlarks) as they pass by. 

After feeding on their blood, the larva falls to 

the ground to molt to the next stage.

c) Nymphs with 8 

legs molt from larvae 

on the ground. 

To feed, a nymph 

quests again and attaches 

to animals or birds similar 

to those fed upon by 

larvae, but also dogs or 

larger mammals. 

After feeding on their 

blood, the nymph drops 

to the ground to molt to 

the next stage.

d) Adults with 8 legs molt from nymphs 

on the ground. 

To feed, an adult quests to attach to dogs, 

bobcats, coyotes, rabbits, rodents, deer or 

humans but prefer livestock such as cattle, 

horses, pigs, and goats. 

After feeding and mating, the female adult 

will drop to the ground and lay her eggs.

(a) Eggs

(b) Larvae

6 legs

(c) Nymph

8 legs

(d) Adult

8 legs
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 73 of 84

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix E - Signs of Illness in Cattle

all photos courtesy of Dr. Suman Mahan, University of Florida

Blood-engorged ticks can also be found 

inside the front legs and on the underbelly 

region - hard to groom areas

Blood-	lled ticks can be found under

the tail

Fluid in chest cavity

Heart with uid in the sac around it
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 74 of 84

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix F - Tick Control Measures 

Acaricides: Products that Kill Ticks

Many products are available; check with 

your veterinarian or local extension office for 

approved products in your area.

Directly applied animal products

•	 Pour-ons or sprays with amitraz, coumaphos, or 

permethrins should prevent the Gulf Coast tick on 

cattle for 2-3 weeks depending on environmental 

conditions (rain, level of tick infestation).

•	 Read all label directions and apply accordingly 

including the use of proper personal protective 

wear, like gloves (if indicated).

•	 Since Gulf Coast ticks attach to areas that are hard 

to groom (ears, tail area, inside of legs, top of back), 

spray acaricide to get adequate coverage (hair coat 

must be thoroughly soaked to make sure the skin is 

wet with product). Dipping is also effective. 

•	 It is a violation of state and federal law to use a 

pesticide in any manner that differs from the 

product label. Use only according to label 

directions to avoid meat or milk residue 

hazards, environmental damage, and animal 

or human injury.

Insecticide cattle ear tags

•	 Ear tags should contain an organophosphate (OP), 

a pyrethroid or combination OP-pyrethroid to be 

effective against the Gulf Coast tick.

•	 There is a new class of insecticide tags that contain 

abamectin (macrocyclic lactone) and piperonyl 

butoxide labeled to control the Gulf Coast Tick for 

up to 4 months when 2 tags are applied per head. 

•	 Read all labels and apply accordingly. One 

tag in each ear is recommended for Gulf Coast 

tick prevention.

•	 Examples of OP containing tags include ethion 36%,

diazinon 20 or 40%, coumaphos 20% with diazinon 

20%, or chlopyrifos 10% with diazinon 30%. 

•	 Examples of pyrethroid ear tags include beta- 

	 cyfluthrin	8%,	fenvalerate	8.6%,	permethrin	10%,		

and zeta-cypermethrin 10%. 

•	 Examples of combination ear tag products include 

cypermethrin 7% with chlopyrifos 5%.

•	 Work with your herd veterinarian to select the best 

impregnated ear tags for your cattle.

Animals, Pastures

Cattle in affected areas should be examined 

daily, especially parts of the body difficult to 

groom, for the presence of the Gulf Coast tick.

Dogs and other small mammals can transport 

the Gulf Coast tick and should also be examined daily.

•	 There are topical products available for dogs, 

 applied monthly, that protect against certain 

species of tick infestation; consult your veterinarian 

 for more details.

Pastures should be inspected weekly for the 

presence of the Gulf Coast tick. 

•	 Walk through pastures wearing light colored 

 clothing (long pants tucked into socks) and watch 

 for the dark little ticks to attach. See below for 

	 removal	and	identification	information.	

Keep pastures short by grazing or mowing to 

minimize vegetation where ticks could live.

Tick Removal and Identification

To remove a tick attached to an animal, apply 

slow steady pressure near its mouthparts with 

a narrow-tip tweezers.

•	 Never squeeze an attached tick as it will inject 

	 its	body	fluids	into	the	animal	and	it	could	be	

 carrying heartwater disease.

•	 Humans cannot get heartwater disease, but if you 

	 find	a	tick	attached	to	a	person,	use	the	same	

 removal technique. Leaving part of the tick 

 embedded in the skin can cause an infection.

Place the tick in a sealed container with a small 

piece of a damp paper towel. 

•	 Place the container in a sealed bag and give it to your 

	 local veterinarian or extension office for identification.

•	 To	make	identification	easier,	only	place	the	ticks		

 from the same species (cattle separate from dogs 

 or humans) into the same container.

•	 Identification of the actual Gulf Coast tick is important because they are small and many can look alike. 

Other tick species do not spread heart water disease.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 75 of 84

Prevention Practices for Heartwater

Appendix F - Tick Control Measures

For More Information

•	 University of Nebraska-Lincoln Neb Guide on 

Controlling Ticks published electronically August 

1995 and accessed November 7, 2005 

at http://ianrpubs.unl.edu/insects/g1220.htm. 

•	 D.P. Furman and E.C. Loomis. 1984. The Ticks of

California. University of California Publications, 

Bulletin of the California Insect Survey, Vol. 25. 

University of California Press, California.

•	 Kansas Insect Newsletter, Department of 

Entomology, Kansas State University, Gulf Coast 

ticks make their presence felt in Kansas accessed 

November 4, 2005 at http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/ 

dp_entm/extension/KIN/KIN_2005/kin8/05ksnew8.htm
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 76 of 84

Bioterrorism and High Consequence 

Pathogens of Cattle 

Disease or 

Agent

Route of 

Transmission

Incubation Period

Humans Cattle Humans Cattle

Clinical Signs

Anthrax

Bacillus anthracis

Infected animal; 

inhalation; 

contaminated food

Flu-like signs; 

pustules; scabs; 

respiratory distress; 

wide mediastinum 

on x-ray; bloody 

vomit and diarrhea; 

abdominal distress; 

sepsis; shock; death

Sudden death from 

septicemia with lack 

of rigor mortis and 

blood fails to clot; 

excitement followed 

by depression or 

stupor; blood from 

mouth, nose, anus; 

edema, especially 

neck, shoulders, 

and throat

1-7 days 3-7 days

Botulism

Clostridium 

botulinum toxin

Contaminated food; 

inhalation

Weakness; dizziness; 

dry mouth; nausea; 

vomiting; cranial 

nerve decits; 

double vision; 

drooping eyes; 

slurred speech; 

symmetrical 

paralysis; respiratory 

paralysis; death

Muscle paralysis: 

progressive 

symmetrical to 

accid; apparent

disturbed vision; 

unable to swallow 

or chew; death from 

respiratory or 

cardiac paralysis

1-5 days 24-72 

hours

Brucellosis

Brucella melitensis,

B. abortus

Contact with 

infected animal 

tissue; inhalation; 

contaminated food

Flu-like signs; 

cyclic fever; 

arthritis; orchitis; 

epididymitis; 

hepatomegaly

Chronic infection: 

neurological; 

endocarditis

Abortions; stillborn 

or weak newborns; 

retained placentas; 

placentitis; orchitis; 

epididymitis; 

arthritis; lameness

1-21 days Variable

Melioidosis

Burkholderia 

pseudomallei

Inhalation; infected 

body uids; wound 

contamination

Flu-like signs; 

pustules; prostatic 

abscesses; chest 

pain; pneumonia; 

bronchitis; acute 

sepsis; death

Signs vary with 

site of lesion; 

suppurative or 

caseous lesion in 

lymph nodes, lungs, 

and viscera; 

pneumonia-signs; 

possibly nasal 

discharge, arthritis 

or lameness

2 days to 

years

Variable;

latency
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 77 of 84

Bioterrorism and High Consequence 

Pathogens of Cattle 

Disease or 

Agent

Route of 

Transmission

Incubation Period

Humans Cattle Humans Cattle

Clinical Signs

Q fever

Coxiella burnetii

Tick; inhalation; 

infected animal 

body uids 

(urine, milk, blood, 

birthing uids)

Flu-like signs; severe 

sweats; weakness; 

retrobulbar 

headache; 

pneumonitis but no 

cough or chest pain; 

granulomatous 

hepatitis; osteomyelitis; arteritis; 

endocarditis; 

neurological signs; 

thrombocytopenia; 

in-utero death; 

placentitis

Typically 

asymptomatic. 

Infertility; 

sporadic abortion

10-40 

days

1-3 weeks

Toxins

Ricinus communis,

Clostridium 

perfringens, 

Staph. aureus

Contaminated food; 

inhalation

Flu-like signs; 

vomiting; bloody 

diarrhea; abdominal 

cramps; kidney 

failure; shock; death

Ricin: violent 

vomiting or 

regurgitation; 

bloody diarrhea; 

salivation; trembling;

incoordination; 

Clostridium:

necrotic enteritis; 

bloody diarrhea; 

septicemia; acute 

death, esp. in 

young; Staph: 

diarrhea, vomiting; 

pulmonary edema

<1 day 12-72 

hours

West Nile Fever

West Nile Virus

Mosquito Flu-like signs; 

vomiting; 

lymphadenopathy; 

periocular pain; 

conjunctivitis; 

encephalitis; death

Fever; encephalitis; 

ataxia; weakness 

of limbs; partial 

paralysis; death

3-12 days 3-14 days

Rift Valley Fever

virus

Mosquito; infected 

animal tissue

Flu-like signs; 

petechiae; 

hemorrhagic fever; 

retinopathy; 

encephalitis; death

Fever; encephalitis; 

ataxia; weakness 

of limbs; partial 

paralysis; death

3-12 days 12-36 

hours in 

young
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 78 of 84

Bioterrorism and High Consequence 

Pathogens of Cattle 

Disease or 

Agent

Route of 

Transmission

Incubation Period

Humans Cattle Humans Cattle

Clinical Signs

Akabane Virus Unknown; thought 

to be various species 

of mosquitoes

No symptoms Adults:

asymptomatic; 

abortions; stillbirths; 

dystocia

Young: 

congenital 

abnormalities 

(arthrogryposis, 

ankylosis, 

hydranencephaly); 

nystagmus; 

blindness; death

Does not 

infect 

humans

1-6 days

Bluetongue virus 

(exotic)

Culicoides midges; 

ticks; sheep keds; 

fomites

No symptoms Erosions and 

ulcers of mucous 

membranes 

cyanotic tongue; 

salivation; dyspnea; 

fever; petechiae; 

edema of head; 

lameness; 

hyperemic coronary 

bands; abortion

Does not 

infect 

humans

5-10 days

Bovine spongiform 

encephalopathy 

agent

Ingestion of infected 

cattle products 

(meat, bone-meal, 

nervous tissue)

Depression, 

schizophrenia-like 

psychosis; 

unsteadiness, 

ataxia; dementia

Neurological 

and behavioral 

changes; nose 

licking; sneezing; 

teeth grinding; 

exaggerated 

menace and 

corneal reex; 

ataxia; hypermetria; 

paresis; coma; death

10 years 4-5 years

Coccidioidomycosis

Coccidioides immitis

Inhalation Usually 

asymptomatic; 

u-like; fever, cough, 

muscle and head 

ache, fever

Inapparent chronic 

respiratory disease; 

focal lesions in the 

lungs and thoracic 

lymph nodes

1-3 weeks 1-4 weeks
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 79 of 84

Bioterrorism and High Consequence 

Pathogens of Cattle 

Disease or 

Agent

Route of 

Transmission

Incubation Period

Humans Cattle Humans Cattle

Clinical Signs

Contagious bovine 

pleuropneumonia

Mycoplasma 

mycoides mycoides

Close contact with 

respiratory droplets 

and other body 

uids

No symptoms Dyspnea; tachypnea; cough; fever; 

calves may have 

polyarthritis with or 

without pneumonia. 

Post mortem 

lesions: brinous, 

thickened, hyperemic

"marbled" lung 

tissue; thickened 

interlobular septa

Does not 

infect 

humans

20-123 

days

Foot-and-mouth 

disease virus

Aerosol; direct 

contact; ingestion; 

fomites

Rare Fever; vesicles and 

erosions in mouth 

and nares, muzzle, 

and feet (interdigital, 

coronary band) or 

teats; depression; 

anorexia; salivation; 

nasal discharge; 

sloughing of hoof; 

abortion

Rare 1-5 days

Heartwater

Ehrlichia (Cowdria) 

ruminantium

Tick No symptoms Fever; respiratory 

distress; lacrimation; 

neurologic signs 

(tongue protrusion, 

circling, high stepping gait); convulsions; death; Post 

mortem lesions:

hydropericardium; 

ascites; hydrothorax; 

petechiae

Does not 

infect 

humans

7-16 days

Lumpy skin disease 

virus

Mosquito; ies; 

body uids

No symptoms Inapparent; fever; 

painful, deep, 

skin nodules (1-5 

cm diameter) with 

inverted conical 

necrosis, scabs 

and crusts; 

lymphadenopathy

Does not 

infect 

humans

2-5 weeks
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 80 of 84

Bioterrorism and High Consequence 

Pathogens of Cattle 

Disease or 

Agent

Route of 

Transmission

Incubation Period

Humans Cattle Humans Cattle

Clinical Signs

Malignant catarrhal 

fever virus (exotic)

Aerosol; close 

contact

No symptoms Sudden death; 

depression; diarrhea;

dysentery; disseminated intravascular 

coagulopathy; 

dyspnea; bilateral 

corneal opacity; 

oculonasal discharge; hyperemic 

oral mucosa; ulcerated, scabbed skin

Does not 

infect 

humans

9-77 days

Rinderpest virus Direct or close 

contact with 

body uids

No symptoms High fever; 

tachypnea; 

tachycardia; 

oculonasal 

discharge; 

respiratory distress; 

bronchopneumonia; 

necrotic stomatitis; 

diarrhea; death

Does not 

infect 

humans

3-15 days

Screwworm myiasis

Cochliomyia 

hominivorax

Eggs laid in wounds Larvae visible 

in wound; 

bloody discharge; 

foul-smelling odor; 

general discomfort

Variable diameter 

openings containing 

migrating larvae; 

death can occur 

from toxicity or 

secondary infection

3 days 5-7 days

Vesicular stomatitis 

virus (exotic)

Sand ies; black ies; 

direct contact; 

fomites; aerosol

Flu-like signs; fever; 

retrobulbar pain; 

malaise; nausea; 

limb and back pain; 

oral vesicles

Fever; vesicles in 

oral cavity, on 

coronary band or 

interdigital cleft; 

salivation; lameness

1-6 days 1-21 days

Source: Dvorak, Glenda. Bioterrorism and High Consequence Pathogens wall chart, Center for Food Security and 

Public Health, Iowa State University, 2008.
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 81 of 84

Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic Samples

Definitions

•	 Infectious substances, Category A means an infectious substance which is transported in a form that is capable 

of causing permanent disability, life-threatening, or a fatal disease when exposure occurs. Practitioners may never 

deal with samples that fit this classification.	If you think you are dealing with specimens that fit Category A, contact

your state veterinarian and/or your USDA-APHIS Area Veterinarian-In-Charge before shipping the samples. 

•	 Biological Substances, Category B means any human or animal material being shipped for diagnostic purposes.

- These specimens must have both a “Biological Substance” label and a UN3373 diamond logo on the 

 shipping container

•	 Primary or inner package refers to a container holding the material to be shipped. For example, a vial 

or plastic bag.

•	 Secondary package refers to a package enclosing the primary package. A secondary package may be a second 

plastic container, but it cannot be a plastic bag.

•	 Outer package refers to a container holding and protecting the inner and secondary packages (usually a 

cardboard box).

•	 Hazardous Material (or Dangerous Good) Any article or substance designated by the U.S. DOT as being 

capable of posing unreasonable risk to health, safety, and property during transit.

Regulatory Agencies

•	 US Department of Transportation (DOT) regulates ground and air transportation of diagnostic specimens, 

infectious substances, medical waste, and chemical and radioactive materials. www.hazmat.com

- Samples shipped by ground (courier, bus, postal service, etc.) follow the U.S. DOT Code of Federal 

 Regulations (49CFR)

•	 International Air Transport Asso. (IATA), while not an agency, does write the requirements for all air transportation

Non Compliance

•	 Packages can be refused by the carrier

•	 Specimens could be damaged or destroyed

•	 Citations may be issued to the sender

Common Carriers and Package Suppliers

Carriers

•	 Federal Express fedex.com		 	 800-463-3339	 	

•	 U.S. Postal Service usps.com		 	 800-275-8777

•	 UPS requires Hazmat Account

Package Suppliers:

•	 Lab Safety Supply labsafety.com	 	 800-356-0783

•	 ULine uline.com	 	 800-958-5463

•	 Saf-T-Pak Inc. saftpak.com	 	 800-814-7484

Shipping Good Management Practices

•	 Place coolant packs in zip lock bags in case of coolant leakage or rupture

•	 Avoid	overfilling	liquid	containers	

•	 Avoid	exceeding	1⁄3	of	the	container	capacity

•	 Tape zip lock bags & rubber stoppered tubes

•	 Double check for potential leakage of all containers

•	 Avoid breakable specimen containers ... if they must be used, adequately pad them to minimize breakage

•	 Put paperwork in water proof bag

•	 If shipment questions, contact carrier &/or lab 

•	 Sender	could	be	fined	from	$250-$500,000

•	 Sender could face up to 5 years in prison

Authors are Karen Shuck and Dee Griffin, 

University of Nebraska, Great Plains Veterinary Educational Center
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 82 of 84

Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic Samples

“Exempt Animal Specimens”

•	 For patient specimens for which there is minimal likelihood that pathogens are present, 

- e.g. nutritional, biopsies, serology, swabs, etc.

•	 Shipped in a box marked with the words: “Exempt Animal Specimens”

•	 Must follow standard DOT packaging requirements 

- ... three leak proof layers (primary, secondary containing absorbent and a third sturdy container)

•	 Less than 1 liter total liquid or < 4 kg total solid with limits for primary individual containers of < 1⁄2 liter or 

< 1⁄2 kg solids.

•	 Air transportation follows IATA (International Air Transport Asso.) requirements. These typically the same as 

DOT regulations for Exempt Animal Specimens.

Packaging Diagnostic Specimens (Biological Substances, Category B)

•	 Diagnostic specimens must be Triple packed as follows:

- Primary container, for example screw cap tubes, taped red top blood tubes, Whirl-Paks –wrapped and tie 

 ends twisted together. Zip lock bags are not suitable for liquid primary containers.

- Secondary container must be watertight and have sufficient absorbent, such as paper towels, should

primary container leak or rupture. An itemized list (submission form) in a plastic bag is then placed on top 

of this container.

- Outer package (third layer of the specimen shipment container) should be at least as durable as sturdy 

 card board. While Styrofoam is an excellent container, it should never be used as a shipping container 

 without residing in a sturdy card board box. Styrofoam coolers are not acceptable as the exclusive outer 

 container due to the potential for rupture if dropped or impacted in a transportation accident. 

- USPS limits < 1 L liquid / primary container with total of < 4 liters or < 4 kg solid per shipment. USPS 

 requires Biohazard logo. Some carriers limit shipment to < 1⁄2 liter or < 1⁄2 kg solids.

- Shipper contact info should be on the label. Including the shipper’s phone number is always appropriate.

BOTTOM LINE: Diagnostic specimens must be packaged in Triple packaging consisting of;

1. Primary container, for example screw caps, plastic bags

2. Secondary container must be watertight

3. An itemized list specimens (submission form), sealed in a plastic proof bag between 2o & outer container

4. Outer package, usually sturdy card board (Do Not Use Styrofoam coolers as the outer container)

Shipping Formalin Fixed Tissues (10% formalin, with or without buffer = 3.7% formaldehyde) 

Formalin-fixed	tissues	are	not	generally	considered	“diagnostic	specimens”	because	they	have	been	biologically	

inactivated. Thus, the possibility for these materials to pose an infectious disease risk is extremely low. Even so, 

these materials should be packaged in a manner that will prevent any possibility for release of liquids while in 

transit. This can be achieved through the following actions:

•	 Limit the amount of 10% formalin to not more than one liter per shipping container if sent by ground or air trans

	 portation. Tissue samples of ~1/8 inch thick are adequate. Label container with	a	four inch diamond UN3334

content logo.

•	 Use non-breakable primary containers with	a	leak-proof seal and reinforce the seal with Parafilm or sealing tape.

•	 Package primary containers and enough absorbent material to absorb all liquids (in the event of a leak) in a 

secondary container (e.g., larger plastic container or sturdy sealed plastic bags, etc.).

•	 Use	a	sturdy outside container such as	a	heavy duty card board box as the final structure holding the specimens.

•	 Other required labeling; include “Preserved Biological Samples” or something similar to the outer package.

Additional Notes

•	 If specimens are being shipped to a different state, it is best to assume some part of the trip will be by air and 

therefore requiring packaging to meet IATA (International Air Transport Association) shipping requirements ... 

eg: one liter of 10% formalin per properly packaged sample container, or 30 ML per sample container if it 

includes formaldehyde of > 10% concentration. Multiple 30 ML samples may be included in the secondary 
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 83 of 84

Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic Samples

sealed container. ALL samples in primary containers must be double bagged (secondary container) and 

adequate absorbent placed in the secondary container. 

•	 All personnel involved in packaging shipping biological samples should be trained & tested/evaluated every 

three years.

•	 Training & testing of the regulations, safety, and specimen security can be done in your work place. 

•	 Trainee’s name, date trained,	a	copy of the training materials, trainer, and testing records for verification

	 (certification)

•	 Shippers (your clinic) must retain shipping records for at least two years.

- Records must include items shipped and transport media (Copies of Dx lab submission forms 

 satisfy requirement) 

Shipping Samples by Ground Transport 

Postal Service regulations require that all clinical 

specimens sent by U.S. Mail be shipped:

•	 With a minimum of First Class postage

•	 With a label indicating Biological Substance, 

Category B, UN3373 (if samples packaged 

in formalin)

•	 Packages containing diagnostic specimens 

must be marked with a diamond marking as 

shown below. When shipping liquid diagnostic specimens, orientation arrows must be 

applied to two sides of the package.

Shipping with Dry Ice

•	 Only relevant markings are allowed on the 

outer package. All other markings must 

be obliterated. 

•	 The package must be marked with the 

following information:

- Proper shipping name: Carbon Dioxide, 

 Solid or Dry Ice.

- UN	Identification	number:	UN1845

- The full name and address of the 

 shipper and consignee.

- The net weight in kilograms, of the 

 Carbon Dioxide must be marked on the 

 outside of the package. 

- For Carbon Dioxide, Solid, a Class 9 

 label is required.

References:

•	 Title 42 CFR Part 72 

•	 Title 49 CFR Part 173

•	 International Air Transport Association (IATA) regulations
FAD PReP Beef Feedlot Industry Manual • Page 84 of 84

Packaging and Shipping Diagnostic Samples

 LABEL TEMPLATES (print, cut and tape or glue onto specimen outer packaging)