1

Please note: These procedures may be revised as circumstances change.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF THE METHOD

Composting is a biological heating process that results in the natural degradation of 

organic resources (such as animal carcasses) by microorganisms. Composting 

mortalities, including sheep, goats, deer, pigs, cattle and horses, has been successfully 

used throughout the United States for nearly two decades to control animal disease 

outbreaks and to respond to natural disasters.

Microbial activity within a well-constructed compost pile can generate and maintain 

temperatures sufficient to inactivate most livestock pathogens. The effectiveness of this 

pathogen inactivation process can be assessed by evaluating compost temperatures, 

i.e., the shape of the time and temperature curve, visually observing carcass 

decomposition, and evaluating the homogeneity of the compost mix. 

Successful mortality composting requires the following:

1. A qualified composting expert to guide windrow construction.

2. Trained equipment operators.

3. Sufficient carbon, water, and space.

If any of these components are lacking, composting is NOT recommended.

Prepared by members of the USDA Composting Technical Committee: Lori P. Miller, Amy 

Buckendahl, Gary A. Flory, Robert W. Peer, Mark L. Hutchinson, Mark A. King, Josh B. Payne, 

Edward Malek, Jean Bonhotal, Ken Powell, Dean Ross and Thao Le. 

Composting Livestock 2017

Livestock Mortality Composting 

Protocol

August 15, 2017

Compost Pile Monitoring (photo by Gary Flory)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Key Elements for Successful Composting....................................................................... 3

Labor, Equipment, Supplies and Materials...................................................................... 3

Protocol........................................................................................................................... 4

Prior to Windrow Construction ..................................................................................... 4

Typical Windrow Construction Protocol ....................................................................... 6

Layering Method.......................................................................................................... 9

Validation of Windrow Design...................................................................................... 9

Temperature Monitoring ............................................................................................ 10

Turning the Windrows................................................................................................ 10

Release of the Compost ............................................................................................ 11

Manure and Waste Feed ........................................................................................... 11

Troubleshooting ............................................................................................................ 12

Appendix A Carbon Sources for Windrow Construction............................................... 13

Appendix B Choosing an Outdoor Composting Site for Disposal of Livestock Carcasses

...................................................................................................................................... 14

Appendix C Composting within a Farm Structure......................................................... 17

Appendix D Methods of Estimating Carbon (Bulking Agent) Needs............................. 19

Appendix E Temperature Monitoring Procedure ........................................................... 20

Appendix F Temperature Monitoring Log Sheet............................................................ 22

Appendix G In-Building Composting Ammonia Safety .................................................. 23

Appendix H Compost Evaluation Checklists ................................................................. 24

Appendix I Windrow Turning Equipment and Methods................................................. 29

Appendix J Characteristics of Raw Material.................................................................. 31
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

3

KEY ELEMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL COMPOSTING

Successful mortality composting requires the following:

1. A qualified composting expert to guide windrow construction.

2. Required equipment, supplies, and trained equipment 

operators.

3. Sufficient carbon, water, and space.

If any of these components is lacking, composting is NOT 

recommended.

The role of the qualified mortality composting Subject Matter 

Expert (SME) is to ensure that these key elements are 

followed in the construction of compost windrows:

1. Windrows (typically 6 to 8 feet high and 12 to 16 feet wide)

are constructed on an adequate and uniform base layer (18 to 24 inches thick) of a 

sufficiently porous and absorbent carbon material. Carbon material in the context 

of this document is defined as a dry bulking agent that generally consists of woody, 

organic material with a high carbon to nitrogen ratio as detailed in Appendix A.

2. The base layer and windrow are not compacted or driven on with equipment.

3. Carcasses are vented/ lanced appropriately to prevent bloating and rapid, 

pressurized release of gases.

4. To prevent disease transmission: CARCASSES ARE NOT

GROUND/CRUSHED/MACERATED THE DURING CONSTRUCTION.

5. Windrows are constructed to ensure adequate distribution of moisture throughout

and are capped with sufficient carbon materials (18 to 24 inches thick) to cover 

exposed carcasses and minimize odors and incoming pests. 

6. Windrow dimensions, including the base and cap, may be reduced for smaller 

carcasses, but overall windrow should have a height of at least 4.5 feet.

LABOR, EQUIPMENT, SUPPLIES AND MATERIALS

 Skilled equipment operators and general laborers;

 Skid loaders, pay loaders, excavators with thumb, dump trucks, rakes, and 

other similar equipment;

 Proper personal protective equipment (PPE) in response to specific event, i.e.,

natural disaster or disease outbreak (shown in Photo 1);

 Compost thermometers (36 or 48 inches stem length);

Photo 1. Proper PPE for deployment 

during a disease outbreak (photo by 

Josh Payne)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

4

 Woodchips, wood shavings, corn stover, active compost, sawdust, bedded

pack manure, rice, seed and nut hulls, or other carbon material (see Appendix 

A). 

PROTOCOL

Prior to Windrow Construction

 Consult with Disposal Team Leader or other appropriate official on the nature of 

the event and determine what control parameters will affect the construction of 

composting processes, including biosecurity requirements, appropriateness of 

outdoor or in-building windrow construction, and any other pertinent requirements 

or restrictions.

 Evaluate and determine the required scale and type(s) of composting possible for 

this farm operation. Determine what, if any, feedstocks are needed for composting 

in addition to mortalities, e.g., solid manure, bedding, affected feed, water, and/ or 

other infected organics. 

 Verify that any state or local environmental approvals and/ or site preparation 

permits are in place before beginning construction.

 To assess outdoor sites, see Appendix B. 

- Site considerations; 

 Is the property large enough to accommodate the required 

composting system and associated support areas?

 What control structures may be needed to contain or collect runoff or 

leachate?

 Will working space be safe and efficient for movement of equipment 

on the site?

 Where will the storage and mixing areas for the bulking material be 

located?

 Where in-building composting is desirable or possible:

- Evaluate building size and configuration to determine what space is 

available for windrow construction.

- Other considerations:

 Are the livestock carcasses in the building or do they need to be 

transported?

 Is the building large enough to accommodate necessary equipment 

movement during windrow construction?

 Will bedding and/or manure be composted with the carcasses, 

composted separately, or disposed by another method?
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

5

- Evaluate the ventilation within the proposed facility. In-building composting 

requires proper ventilation to reduce the risk of disease transmission while 

balancing safe air quality levels for workers (ammonia safety shown in 

Appendix G).

 For all composting windrow construction:

- Minimize the number of movements and mixing of ingredients/feedstocks to 

reduce disease spread.

- Evaluate type and quantity of materials to be composted on the farm site:

 Carcasses: Species, weight, number and condition (i.e., fresh, 

desiccated, degraded)

 Manure solids/bedding: volume, moisture content, density

 Feed: Types, quantity (by volume), moisture content

 Clean bedding, feed or other organic materials which can be used in 

constructing windrows.

 Milk and liquid manure composting and disposal are not addressed in 

this SOP.

- Remove exposed/ contaminated feed from feed storage for use in the core

of the windrows. This material can be distributed evenly through a precompost mix of bulking materials and added to the windrows with the 

carcasses. 

 Calculate the amount of carbon needed for composting:

- See Appendix D for calculations.

- For every animal unit, defined as 1,000 lbs of carcass, add 3- to 6-cubic 

yards of carbon bulking agent. 

- The characteristics of various carbon materials are listed in Appendix J.

 Evaluate the need for and availability of supplemental water:

- Source

- Application method available.

 Evaluate on-farm equipment and determine supplemental equipment needs.
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

6

Typical Windrow Construction Protocol

Once all labor, equipment, supplies, and materials are on the premises, composting can 

begin.

Three critical elements of windrow construction are: 1) a base layer that provides 

absorbency, structure and airflow (porous carbon material), 2) a windrow core 

containing a mixture of carcasses, manure, and feed, and 3) an adequate cap (shown in 

Figure 1). These steps may be done concurrently or as separate steps.

Figure 1. Cross section of compost windrow (Illustration by Gary Flory)

Windrow Base Construction

 For outdoor composting, an adequate site 

must be identified (See Appendix B).

 For in-building composting, clear carcasses 

and bedding from the proposed windrow 

location(s) to have room for the windrow

base(s) and alley ways. Distribute the

material from either side of the pathway.

(See Appendix C for in-building variations.)

 Use a loader to begin building the windrow

base. 

 The windrow base should be 12 to 16 feet 

wide with a depth of 18 to 24 inches. (Note: 

base will compress over time and with the 

weight of animals)

 To maintain the base’s porosity and to avoid compaction, do not drive equipment 

on the base.

Photo 2. Cattle placed on adequate base 

(photo by Josh Payne)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

7

Carbon material for the base should be porous yet absorbent to allow adequate air 

flow into and through the windrow while absorbing any liquid or leachate that may be 

generated from carcasses. Coarse woody material >2 inches in size should be 

avoided to ensure that the finished compost can be land applied as a soil amendment. 

For a full description of desirable physical properties and suitable carbon material see 

Appendix A.

Construction of the Core

The windrow core may consist of a mixture 

of carcasses, manure, feed, or other carbon 

material. Apply a bucket of manure to the 

carbon bed and then lay a carcass on top of 

the manure, followed by another bucket of

carbon material placed on top of the 

carcass. This process is then repeated until 

all of the carcasses and carbon are layered 

in the windrow. Alternately, premises may 

choose to place the carcass on the carbon 

bed first, followed by several buckets of 

carbon. In either case, it is important that all 

of the infected materials are incorporated 

into the windrow core. If the manure is too 

wet, it should be mixed with carbon 

separately, and composted in a separate 

windrow. Often, additional absorbent 

carbon material may be needed to help 

bulk up the wet manure (for viable options, see Appendix A). Be sure to move infected 

material as little as possible. 

Figure 2. Dimensions of carcass in windrow (Illustration by Josh Payne)

Figure 3. Placing carcass back-to-back in core 

(Illustration by Jean Bonhotal)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

8

Construction of windrow core:

 Place the carcasses, manure, and other infected material on the center of the 

windrow base. 

 Possible carcass placements are back-to-back, back-to-leg, or nose to tail (shown 

in Figure 3, 4, and 5).

 Avoid compacting the base with the tires or tracks of equipment.

 The windrow core should be constructed such that it is domed-shaped and no 

carcasses are over the edge of the base (shown in Figure 2). 

 To avoid expansion, it is important to vent/ lance ruminant animals before

composting.

Continue building the core until all of the carcass, manure, and waste feed have been 

placed on the base.

Capping the Windrow 

 Prior to capping the windrow, ensure no carcasses are over the edge of the base 

(Shown in Figure 2 and Photo 3).

 Cap the windrow with 18- to 24-inches of a suitable carbon material.

 Ensure that the entire core is uniformly covered with cap material with no 

carcasses exposed. 

 Avoid compacting the windrow. Do not operate the loader’s tires or tracks onto the 

sides of the windrow while capping.

 Add water if the carbon used to cap the carcasses is too dry (See Appendix A)

Figure 4. Placing carcass back-tofeet (Illustration by Josh Payne)

Figure 5. Placing carcass back-to-feet (Photo by Mark 

Hutchinson)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

9

 Ensure the completed windrow is

approximately 6- to 8-feet high.

 Number each windrow and draw a 

sketch showing the numbers.

 Place a minimum of 10 flags spaced 

equidistantly the length of each windrow, 

to designate the temperature monitoring 

locations.

 Number the flags and note the numbers 

on the sketch.

Layering Method

As an alternative to the core construction method described previously, the windrow 

core can be constructed by layering carcasses and carbon material. Base and cap 

construction is the same as in the standard protocol. Following base construction, 

proceed in the following manner:

 Add a 15- to 18-inch layer of manure and 

carcasses (shown in Figure 6).

 Cover the layer of carcasses with 12- to 

18-inch layer of wood chips or other 

carbon material. 

 Add another layer of manure and 

carcasses, then cover with 12- to 18-inch

of carbon material, until the windrow is to 

the recommended height and as long as 

needed.

 Assure no carcasses are over the edge 

of the base. 

 Cap the windrow with 18- to 24-inches of 

wood chips or other carbon material. The finished pile should be 6- to 8-feet high.

The SME may choose to use either or both of these construction techniques 

depending on site conditions and size of carcasses. 

Validation of Windrow Design

The SME or other designated official should evaluate the windrows to ensure that they 

have been constructed consistently with this protocol, and document observations on 

the Compost Windrow Construction Evaluation Checklist in Appendix H. 

Photo 3. Tractor capping windrow (photo by Jean 

Bonhotal)

Figure 6. Cross section of layering livestock in a 

windrow pile. (Illustration by Langston University 

Research & Extension)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

10

Temperature Monitoring

Daily temperature monitoring is performed in accordance with the temperature 

monitoring SOP found in Appendix E. Temperature data is collected on the temperature 

log found in Appendix F or in a comparable electronic format. Ammonia safety 

procedures to prevent occupational hazards when conducting temperature monitoring,

especially for in-building composting, is found in Appendix G.

When the Initial Windrow Construction 

Evaluation Checklist is signed (see Appendix 

H), temperatures are monitored daily for the 

first 14-days of Phase 1 (at both 18- and 36-

inches). If the SME or other designated 

official determines that thermophilic 

temperatures have been met and maintained 

through the end of this monitoring period, 

then the SME may recommend the 

frequency of temperature monitoring be 

reduced for the remainder of Phase 1, which 

is between 6 to 12 weeks depending on the 

size of the affected carcasses. Once Phase 

1 is completed, the compost windrow piles 

may be turned and observations

documented on the Phase 1 Windrow Evaluation Checklist (see Appendix H). 

If the standard of ≥131° F for 72 consecutive hours has not been reached, an SME will 

determine if any corrective action is required for the windrow(s). The corrective action 

will be documented, implemented and verified using the windrow construction approval 

checklist, and the initial 14-day period will restart. 

For Phase 2, the frequency of temperature monitoring remains the same as the end of 

Phase 1, but the duration will be established by the APHIS National Incident 

Coordination Group, in consultation with the Composting Technical Team. This phase 

should be at least 2 weeks, depending on each incident based on the type of livestock 

affected, the pathogen of concern, the extent of decomposition of carcasses after the 

turn, and other incident-specific circumstances. Upon the completion of Phase 2, the 

composting process is completed and observations are documented on the Phase 2

Windrow Evaluation Checklist (see Appendix H). This checklist verifies that the compost 

windrow process is completed and may be moved without restriction on the premises or 

may leave the premises with appropriate permit. 

Turning the Windrows

Turning decisions will be made on a case-by-case basis by the onsite SME and will 

depend on a number of factors including: initial size and physical condition of the 

carcasses being composted, temperature profiles achieved during the initial compost 

process and overall windrow performance. In most cases, turning will occur between 6

Photo 4. Temperature probe in windrow 

(photo by Ken Powell)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

11

to 12 weeks of composting activity, depending upon the size of the carcasses. However, 

all turning decisions will be made based on the recommendations of the assigned SME 

following an onsite evaluation of pile/windrow performance data and physical 

examination of windrows. When turning the windrow contents, care should be taken to 

ensure thorough mixing of the core, base, and cap materials, while maintaining 

adequate porosity and structure post turning. If soft tissue is observed on the windrow 

surface or excessive odors continue after turning, a 4- to 6-inch carbon material cap will 

be applied. See Appendix I for turning equipment and methods. 

Release of the Compost 

If the designated animal health official accepts the SME’s recommendation to release 

windrows from quarantine, the compost may be moved without restriction around the 

premises or may leave the premises with any appropriate permits. 

Manure and Waste Feed

During a livestock emergency, there may be a need to compost the solid manure and 

waste feed. This may occur when the producer has chosen to dispose of their livestock

mortalities by a method other than composting—such as on site burial, incineration, or 

landfilling—or because there was more manure and waste feed on the farm than could 

be practically composted with the carcasses. Fortunately, the compost process used for 

these materials is identical to the windrow construction process described above.

However, because of the density of the manure and feed, it is imperative that the 

material be thoroughly blended with carbonaceous materials to help ensure proper 

porosity within the windrows. In other words, manure can be composted with a 1:1 mix 

of manure and carbonaceous material. Manure may have a high moisture content or be

extremely dry depending on manure management, consequently the moisture content 

of the windrows may need to be adjusted. This mixture then forms the core, and is 

placed on the base material, and covered with cap material, as described previously.

Photo 5. Bones and remains after second compost cycle 

(photo by Josh Payne)

Photo 6. Steam from pile when thermophilic temperatures are 

achieved (photo by Josh Payne)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

12

TROUBLESHOOTING

The table below describes some of the most common composting problems 

encountered during composting of large animals and possible solutions. The SME will 

perform the troubleshooting evaluation and document it on the appropriate form.

Problem Issue Solution

Excessive flies or odor Exposed carcasses Add additional cap material.

Leachate from windrow Mixture too wet Add additional carbon material

around the edge to soak up 

leachate. Otherwise early in 

process pile may have to be 

taken apart and rebuilt. After all 

flesh is gone, aerate or mix pile.

Temperature does not reach 131 oF Mixture too dry (< 

40% moisture)

Add water to pile, through a 

soaker hose or other slow 

watering method.

Temperature does not reach 131 oF Mixture too wet (> 60 

% moisture)

Early in process pile, maybe 

have to be taken apart and 

rebuilt.

After all flesh is gone, aerate or 

mix pile.

Temperature does not reach 131 oF Not enough oxygen Early in process pile, may have 

to be taken apart and rebuilt

After all flesh is gone, aerate or 

mix pile.
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

13

APPENDIX A

CARBON SOURCES FOR WINDROW CONSTRUCTION

Note: These procedures may be revised as the situation develops; this is a list of generally 

acceptable materials that may be used as carbon sources for windrow composting of livestock 

related mortalities. The carbon source resource needs for the premises, i.e., quantity and type, 

should be determined by a compost Subject Matter Expert and will depend on site-specific 

conditions and circumstances.

Suitable Materials:

 Wood chips about 2” or less in size

 Wood shavings 

 Yard/brush trimmings 2” or less in size 

 Partially composted leaf and yard 

waste (still hot)/active compost

 Sawdust (not used alone) 

 Chopped hay/straw 

 Chopped corn stover 

 Oat/sunflower hulls 

 Small grain hulls

 Straw

 Dry mammalian bedding or manure 

 Ground pallets (2” or less) if fasteners 

have been removed 

 Class A biosolids, in accordance with 

local and state requirements for land 

application

 Other material listed in APHIS 

Composting Protocol or as 

recommended by APHIS-recognized 

Subject Matter Expert and approved for 

use on agricultural land by the state 

Not Suitable Materials:

 Rocks 

 Glass

 Plastic 

 Large logs/branches 

 Grass clippings >5% 

 Ground construction and demolition 

debris (CDD) 

 Regulated pests (emerald ash borer, 

etc.) 

 Rubber 

 Metal/baling wire 

 Chemicals 

 Concrete 

 Painted/pressure treated wood 

 Soil/sand carbon source with free liquid 

or excessive leachate 
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

14

APPENDIX B

CHOOSING AN OUTDOOR COMPOSTING SITE FOR DISPOSAL OF 

LIVESTOCK CARCASSES

Selection and siting of environmentally suitable and appropriate locations for 

composting of livestock carcasses is an important consideration for livestock mortality

emergency response. Livestock mortalities, beyond those created through typical daily 

farm operations, might be the result of any number of causes. For example, mortalities

may be a byproduct of a natural disaster affecting farm operations, be caused by 

welfare culling associated with local or regional emergency animal movement 

restrictions, be associated with a highly contagious or foreign animal disease, or result 

from an on-farm emergency such as a structural collapse or barn fire. Additionally, due 

to the relative putrescibility of the carcasses and any associated bedding it is critical to 

choose sites that will not be adversely impacted by potential releases of nutrient-laden 

leachate nor will result in nuisance complaints in the event that odors, flies, or 

scavengers begin to appear on-site.

Photo 7. Completed windrows (photo by Ken Powell)

In situations where highly contagious or foreign animal disease causes mass 

mortalities, stringent biosecurity rules may impact entry to and exit from the site, may

impact how carcasses will be handled and may affect some aspects of the composting 

process. 

Access point(s) for the site must be structurally capable of supporting heavy vehicle and 

equipment traffic and allow for biosecurity control stations at the points designated on 

the sites perimeter by the controlling authority. Some areas on the site may require 

structural reinforcement.
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

15

In general, emergency mortality composting sites should be large enough to 

accommodate all of the generated carcasses, manure, waste feed, and potentially other 

organically based contaminated or waste materials that are compostable. The site must 

also have the capacity to store any additional amendment materials that may be needed 

for composting and provide adequate room for vehicles to maneuver and turn. Also, 

determine what, if any, state or local regulations may impact site selection, such as 

grading permits, sediment and erosion controls, and/or environmental approvals.

Outdoor Mortality Composting Sites

In many instances, outdoor mortality composting will be the primary choice, because 

most livestock in the U.S. either are managed in facilities not compatible with compost 

construction or will already have been moved from their housing before composting has 

begun. There may be exceptions to this situation and indoor composting may become 

the preferable practice. It is also desirable to locate the composting site as close as 

practicable to the animal housing to reduce the risk of biological contamination on the 

site. 

If outdoor composting is chosen, a review of the proposed site should be completed. 

The following guidelines should be considered in determining the suitability of the 

suitability of the site. The ideal site should:

 Be located such that the prevailing wind directions do not travel to nearby 

residences and uninfected farms and communities (whenever possible);

 Be located at the top of the slope of the field, on moderately-well to well drained soils 

(usually land that is used for crop production);

 Have a gentle 2% to 4% slope to encourage on-site drainage;

 Contain on-site soil depths or be modified, such as create a thicker base layer, to 

achieve at least 24-inches to seasonal high-water tables;

 Contain on-site soil depths in excess of 36-inches to bedrock;

 Not be located on a flood plain;

 Have (or construct) diversion ditches, terraces, or berms to direct surface water 

flows and storm water away from active compost piles. (Note that if piles are located 

between production houses, then roof and surface drainage should be directed away 

from the compost area); and

 Meet state-specific setback requirements, which should be no less than (Shown in 

Figure 7):

- 200-feet from a water supply well used for drinking;

- 200-feet from water bodies, including: ponds, lakes, streams, rivers;

- 200-feet from a nearby residence (not owned by the premises);

- 50-feet from a drainage swale that leads to a water body (see above); and

- 25-feet from a drainage swale that does not lead to a water body.
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

16

 Determine if any or all of the site is tile drained and if tile mapping is available. Due 

to the risk of leachate reaching the tile and causing a nutrient release, composting 

windrows should not be laid perpendicular to and over the tile lines. If information 

concerning the location of tile lines at the site is available, windrows can be laid 

parallel to the tile lines in the space between them.

Figure 7. Distances from bodies of water (Illustration by Cornell Waste Management Institute)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

17

APPENDIX C

COMPOSTING WITHIN A FARM STRUCTURE

Benefits of Composting within a Structure

For large livestock mortality events composting activities will often occur outside of 

livestock confinement structures. However, in-building composting offers several 

benefits. First, it offers more protection from inclement weather. For example, during 

heavy rain storms, water can flow under the windrows, saturating the base and 

inhibiting the flow of oxygen into the windrows. During extremely cold weather, buildings 

help maintain core temperatures. Second, composting within a structure will minimize 

disease transmission risks and the runoff of leachate from the windrows into surface 

water or groundwater 

Regardless of where the windrows are constructed, the three critical elements are a 

porous and absorbent base layer, a windrow core containing a mixture of carcasses, 

manure and feed and an adequate cap.

Indoor Mortality Composting Sites

Where animals are group housed within truss roofed buildings or where other large 

open floored structures are available, construction of the compost system can take 

place within the structures. 

Some issues to consider when determining whether to compost indoors or outdoors.

 Is there a specific reason, such as a biosecurity concern, for choosing in-building 

composting? Example: The carcasses in question result from a foreign animal 

disease (FAD) response. Does indoor composting enhance disease management 

activities or reduce the risk for spreading the pathogen?

 Can all the mortalities be encapsulated within an optimally functioning composting 

system and still fit within the building? If not, is there any advantage or 

disadvantage to splitting composting between indoors and outdoors?

 Will the management of the bedding and manure already present in the building 

interfere or negatively impact the composting process or the cleaning and 

disinfection stage of the response?

 Will there be adequate floor space and ceiling height within the building for the 

needed equipment to move around and still construct the required windrows?

Variations Based on Building Design

Pole Supported Structures

 Although the support poles may limit the maneuverability of the loaders, the 

windrow construction protocol remains the same. 
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

18

 Avoid constructing windrows against wooden support poles.

 Additional time will be required to construct windrows in this type of structure due 

to space and structural constraints. 

 Due to structural constraints and limited maneuverability, experienced and skilled 

loader operators are required to minimize damage to the building and equipment.

Free Span Structures

 Free span structures offer more room to maneuver equipment however attention 

must be given to ceiling height and low-hanging equipment like fans, heaters and 

lights.

 More than one windrow can often be constructed within a free span structure. 

 To maximize the number of carcasses that can be composted within a structure, 

windrows can be constructed toe to toe. Care should be taken to build distinctive 

windrows so that the flow of oxygen into the windrow is not blocked (Shown in 

Photo 8 and 9). 

Photo 8. Compost windrows 

constructed toe to toe within a closed 

structure (photo by Gary Flory)

Photo 9. Compost windrows 

constructed within a closed structure 

(photo by Josh Payne)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

19

APPENDIX D

METHODS OF ESTIMATING CARBON (BULKING AGENT) NEEDS

Methodology

Whether dealing with routine mortalities or catastrophic losses resulting from natural 

disasters and/or foreign animal disease outbreaks, it is important to accurately 

determine the amount of carbon material (bulking agent) to properly compost all 

mortalities and their associated manure and feed. The most common method for 

calculating the total required volume of bulking agent is through the estimated weight of 

livestock mortalities in pounds. Below are two methods that help calculate carbon 

needed for livestock mortality composting based on overall weight of mortalities.

Method 1. Weight Based Estimate

Another good general rule of thumb is to add 3- to 6-cubic yards of carbon bulking agent 

for every 1,000 pounds of carcass to ensure proper covering of all carcasses with a 

thick blanket of carbon material1,2,3. 

Method 2. Computerized Estimator

a. First, use the Spartan Emergency Animal Tissue Composting Planner v1.03 to 

estimate the total amount of carbon material needed.

b. Then use the Spartan Compost Recipe Optimizer v1.04 to estimate the proportions 

of various types of carbon material available (poultry manure, poultry litter, sawdust, 

bark, etc.).

c. The computerized estimator can be found at: 

http://msue.anr.msu.edu/program/info/managing_animal_mortalities and then select 

“Composting Tools.”

Manure Management

Often manure may need to be added to the compost pile due to disease issues or to 

add extra nitrogen, moisture and/ or additional biological activity. Because manure is 

generally considered a high nitrogen source, extra carbon may be necessary to balance

the C:N ratio, while additionally absorbing excess moisture to reduce odors. 

 

1 Auvermann, Brent W., Saqib Mukhtar, and Kevin Heflin. “Composting large animal carcasses.” Texas FARMER 

Collection (2006).

2 Morse, Debra E. “Composting animal mortalities.” St. Paul, MN: Agricultural Development Division, Minnesota Dept. 

of Agriculture (2001). Updated in 2009.

3 Seekins, Bill. Maine Department of Agriculture. Best Management Practices for Animal Carcass Composting (2011).
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

20

APPENDIX E

TEMPERATURE MONITORING PROCEDURE

The windrow temperatures are monitored at a minimum 

of 10 locations flagged by the SME. The 10 locations 

should be spaced equidistantly the length of each 

windrow. Take two temperature readings at each 

flagged location within a foot of the flag; one reading at a 

depth of 18-inches and another reading in the core of 

the windrow, which is approximately a depth of 36-

inches. To ensure consistent temperature monitoring to 

the same depth, mark the thermometer probe at 18-

and 36-inches (core of the windrow). Place the 

temperature probe 3⁄4 of the way up the windrow at a 

45-degree angle. Ideally, temperatures should be monitored by a single individual for 

consistency. Temperature probes should be calibrated before use. 

Instructions

 Place the stem of the thermometer 

approximately 18-inches and then 36-inches

(core of the windrow) into the compost pile 3⁄4 

of the way up the pile at a 45-degree angle. 

o Note: When taking the core 

temperature (~36 inches) the 

thermometer may strike the carcass. 

Adjust the probes so it is just below the 

carcass.

 Leave the thermometer at each depth and 

point for at least 60 seconds.

 Log the reading from the thermometer from each 

flag and at both depths.

 Compare readings to previous day’s readings.

 Calculate the average temperature for each pile by 

averaging both depths and note it on the 

Composting Temperature Log.

 Windrows should reach an average temperature of 

131°F for a minimum of 72 hours at both the 18- and 

36-inch (core of the windrow), depths or be

assessed by a SME for possible corrective 

measures.

 Disinfect the thermometer and return it to its 

protective case.

Example temperature monitoring 

locations
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

21

 Each thermometer will be kept at the respective premises being monitored. Do not 

take a thermometer from one premise to another.

 If 3 days after initial windrow construction, compost temperature averages are 

consistently (more than 3 days) below 100°F or greater than 160°F, a SME should 

be consulted immediately.

 Additional precautions should be considered if composting inside a closed building.

o Open doors, curtains and turn on ventilation fans to properly ventilate the 

facility. Compost and dead carcasses can create excessive buildup of 

ammonia. 

o Use the buddy system: entering a structure with active compost or dead 

carcasses requires a two-person team. 
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

22

APPENDIX F

TEMPERATURE MONITORING LOG SHEET

COMPOSTING TEMPERATURE LOG

 County: Site Number:

Street address, city, state:

 Farm Name:

 House/Windrow Number: Date Started: Date Finished: Date Turned:

Use the cells below to record the temperatures each day at 18 inches and at 36 inches.

Date Depth Flag #1 Flag #2 Flag #3 Flag #4 Flag #5 Flag #6 Flag #7 Flag #8 Flag #9 Flag#10 Avg

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”

18”

36”
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

23

APPENDIX G

IN-BUILDING COMPOSTING AMMONIA SAFETY

Background 

Ammonia is produced naturally from decomposition of organic matter, including plants, 

animals and animal wastes and can become concentrated in enclosed structures. This 

guidance is for ammonia produced from these natural sources, NOT from compressed 

gas cylinders or other sources which may produce very high air concentrations. 

Signs of Exposure to Ammonia 

Strong odor provides adequate early warning of its presence, but prolonged exposure 

can be hard to detect due to olfactory fatigue and adaptation. High concentrations can 

cause airway destruction resulting in respiratory distress or failure. Signs of exposure 

include the following:

 burning of the nose, throat and respiratory tract;

 coughing; and

 skin and eye irritation.

How to Reduce Ammonia Exposure 

 Increase ventilation when possible.

 Reduce the amount of time spent in areas where levels of ammonia are high.

 Wear proper PPE (personal protective equipment) gloves, half face with goggles or 

a full-face respirator with at least a particulate/ammonia cartridge (green) or a 

multi-gas cartridge, and cloth coveralls or disposable coveralls (Tyvek).

 If possible, measure levels of ammonia in work area with an air gas meter before 

entering, or know recommended exposure times based on the ammonia levels in 

work area.

Exposure Guidelines (NIOSH)

Long term exposure (8 hours) 25 ppm

Short term exposure (15 minutes) 35 ppm

Short term exposure (5 minutes) 50 ppm

If exposed: 

 Seek fresh air.

 Flush irritated skin or eyes with water.

 If needed, seek immediate medical attention.

 Contact your supervisor or the Safety Officer if irritation of skin, nose, throat, or 

respiratory tract is persistent.
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

24

APPENDIX H

COMPOST EVALUATION CHECKLISTS

INITIAL COMPOST WINDROW CONSTRUCTION CHECKLIST

Farm Name: County: 

Farm Address:

Farm Contact: Contact Phone:

Date Windrows 

Started:

Date Windrows 

Completed:

Windrow #: Premises 

County & #:

Who constructed 

windrow? Contact Info:

Yes No N/A Comments/Description

WINDROW DESIGN

1 Height between 6 and 8 feet.

2 Width between 12 and 16 feet

3 Base between 18 and 24 inches

3 Dome shaped without significant irregularities 

4 No soft tissue visible on the surface of the windrow

5 A minimum of 18 inches of carbon cover material

6 Photos taken

7 Sketch of flag locations with dimensions attached

Recommendations:

I have observed the windrows at this site and in my professional judgment they have been 

constructed consistent with the criteria outlined in the Mortality Composting Protocol for 

Livestock.

I have observed the windrows at this site and in my professional judgment they have NOT 

been constructed consistent with the criteria outlined in the Mortality Composting Protocol for 

Livestock. The following corrective actions are recommended:

Signature of Composting SME: ________________________________ Date: ______________

Print name of Composting SME: __________________________________________________

The corrective actions recommended above were completed on : ________________________

Signature of Composting SME: ________________________________ Date: ______________
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

25

PHASE 1 WINDROW EVALUATION CHECKLIST

Applicability: This checklist is to be used 6 to 12 weeks after windrow construction to verify that 

they have been constructed in accordance with the protocol and have reached temperatures 

necessary for virus inactivation. Upon completion, turning the windrow will occur.

Farm Name: County: 

Farm Address:

Farm Contact: Contact Phone:

Date Windrows 

Started:

Date Windrows 

Completed:

Windrow #: Premises 

County & #:

Who constructed 

windrow? Contact Info:

Yes No N/A Comments/Description

PHASE 1 WINDROW EVALUATION

1 Height between 6 and 8 feet

2 Width between 12 and 16 feet

3 Dome shaped without significant irregularities 

4 No soft tissue visible on the surface of the windrow

5 A minimum of 18 inches of carbon cover material

6 Moisture adequate

7 Leachate present

8 Excessive flies

9 Vector activity observed

10 Odor observed: VOA, putrid

11 Temperature measured at 18 inches and 36 inches

12 Temperatures reached 131° F for 3 consecutive days

13 Photos taken

Phase 1 Recommendations of State Animal Health, APHIS or IMT Official: 

I have observed the windrows at this site and in my professional judgment they have been 

constructed consistent with the criteria outlined in the Mortality Composting Protocol for 

Livestock. Additionally, windrow temperatures have reached the average temperature of 131°F 

for a minimum of 72 hours. The compost windrow pile is ready for turning.

I have observed the windrows at this site and in my professional judgment, they have NOT

been constructed consistent with the criteria outlined in the Mortality Composting Protocol for 

Livestock. The windrows should be evaluated by a composting Subject Matter Expert to 

recommend corrective actions if necessary. 
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

26

Windrow temperatures have NOT reached the average temperature of 131°F for a 

minimum of 72 hours. The windrows should be evaluated by a composting Subject Matter 

Expert to recommend corrective actions if necessary.

Signature of State Animal Health

Official, APHIS Official or IMT Official: __________________________ Date: _____________

Print name of signing official: ____________________________________________________

Phase 1 Recommendations of Subject Matter Expert: 

I have observed the windrows at this site and based on their construction and my review of 

the temperature logs, the windrows have performed in a manner demonstrated to inactive the

livestock pathogen. The compost windrow pile is ready for turning.

I have observed the windrows at this site and based on their construction and my review of 

the temperature logs, the windrows have NOT performed in a manner demonstrated to inactive 

the livestock pathogen. The following corrective actions are recommended:

Date of windrow evaluation: _____________________________________________________

Signature of Composting SME: ________________________________ Date: ______________

Print name of Composting SME: __________________________________________________

The corrective actions recommended above were completed on: ________________________

Phase 1 was complete on: ______________________________________________________

Signature of Composting SME: ________________________________ Date: _____________
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

27

PHASE 2 WINDROW EVALUATION CHECKLIST

Applicability: This checklist is to be used after Phase 1 was completed to verify that the

composting process is completed and may be moved without restriction on the premises or may 

leave the premises with appropriate permit.

Farm Name: County: 

Farm Address:

Farm Contact: Contact Phone:

Date Windrows 

Started:

Date Windrows 

Completed:

Windrow #: Premises 

County & #:

Who constructed 

windrow? Contact Info:

Yes No N/A Comments/Description

PHASE 2 WINDROW EVALUATION

1 Height between 6 and 8 feet

2 Width between 12 and 16 feet

3 Dome shaped without significant irregularities 

4 No soft tissue visible on the surface of the windrow

5 A minimum of 18 inches of carbon cover material

6 Moisture adequate

7 Leachate present

8 Excessive flies

9 Vector activity observed

10 Odor observed: VOA, putrid

11 Temperature measured at 18 inches and 36 inches

12 Temperatures reached 131° F for 3 consecutive days

13 Photos taken

Phase 2 Recommendations of State Animal Health, APHIS or IMT Official: 

I have observed the windrows at this site and in my professional judgment, they have been 

constructed consistent with the criteria outlined in the Mortality Composting Protocol for 

Livestock. Additionally, windrow temperatures have reached the average temperature of 131°F 

for a minimum of 72 hours during the second composting phase. The windrows may be moved 

without restriction on the premises or may leave the premises with appropriate permits.
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

28

I have observed the windrows at this site and in my professional judgment they have NOT

been constructed consistent with the criteria outlined in the Mortality Composting Protocol for 

Livestock. The windrows should be evaluated by a composting Subject Matter Expert to 

recommend corrective actions if necessary. 

Windrow temperatures have NOT reached the average temperature of 131°F for a 

minimum of 72 hours during the second composting phase. The windrows should be evaluated 

by a composting Subject Matter Expert to recommend corrective actions if necessary.

Signature of State Animal Health

Official, APHIS Official or IMT Official: _______________________ Date: _________________

Print name of signing official: ____________________________________________________

Phase 2 Recommendations of Subject Matter Expert: 

I have observed the windrows at this site and based on their construction and my review of 

the temperature logs, the windrows have performed in a manner demonstrated to inactive the 

livestock pathogen. The windrows may be moved without restriction on the premises or may 

leave the premises with appropriate permits.

I have observed the windrows at this site and based on their construction and my review of 

the temperature logs, the windrows have NOT performed in a manner demonstrated to inactive 

the livestock pathogen. The following corrective actions are recommended:

Date of windrow evaluation: _____________________________________________________

Signature of Composting SME: ________________________________ Date: ______________

Print name of Composting SME: __________________________________________________

The corrective actions recommended above were completed on: ________________________

Phase 2 was complete on: ______________________________________________________

Signature of Composting SME: ________________________________ Date: _____________
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

29

APPENDIX I

WINDROW TURNING EQUIPMENT AND METHODS

Windrow turning should occur at the intervals described in the above protocol to prevent 

the possibility of aerosolizing the disease pathogen from insufficient pathogen 

inactivation or carcass decomposition. There are several types of equipment that can be 

used to turn compost windrows. Common examples include skid loaders, telehandlers, 

articulated loaders, dozers, and mechanical compost turners. A skilled operator is 

required to increase efficiency and avoid damaging buildings and equipment.

The purpose of turning the windrow is to homogenize of the core, base and cap 

materials while exposing the microorganisms to additional oxygen through pile aeration. 

This process results in increased microbial activity, a rise in pile temperature, and 

accelerated carcass degradation. When turning the windrow, physically mix and aerate 

the material as much as possible with the equipment available (such as cascading the 

material from a loader bucket). If soft tissue is observed on the windrow surface, 

additional carbon material should be applied as a cap.

Photo 10. Skid loader turning compost pile (photo by Gary Flory)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

30

Photo 13. Brown Bear compost turner (photo by 

Gary Flory)

Photo 12. Tractor-pulled compost turner 

(photo by Mark King)

Photo 11. Self-propelled compost turner 

(photo by Gary Flory)
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

31

APPENDIX J

CHARACTERISTICS OF RAW MATERIAL

Material Type of 

value

% N 

(dry 

weight)

C:N ratio 

(weight 

to weight)

Moisture 

content % 

(wet 

weight)

Bulk 

density 

(pounds per 

cubic yard)

Crop residues and fruit/vegetable-processing waste

Apple filter cake Typical 1.2 13 60 1,197

Apple pomace Typical 1.1 48 88 1,559

Apple-processing sludge Typical 2.8 7 59 1,411

Cocoa shells Typical 2.3 22 8 798

Coffee grounds Typical — 20 — —

Corn cobs Range 0.4–0.8 56–123 9–18 —

Average 0.6 98 15 557

Corn stalks Typical 0.6–0.8 60–73a 12 32

Cottonseed meal Typical 7.7 7 — —

Cranberry filter cake Typical 2.8 31 50 1,021

(with rice hulls) Typical 1.2 42 71 1,298

Cranberry plant (stems, 

leaves)

Typical 0.9 61 61 —

Cull potatoes Typical — 18 78 1,540

Fruit wastes Range 0.9–2.6 20–49 62–88 —

Average 1.4 40 80 —

Olive husks Typical 1.2–1.5 30–35 8–10 —

Potato-processing sludge Typical — 28 75 1,570

Potato tops Typical 1.5 25 — —

Rice hulls Range 0–0.4 113–1120 7–12 185–219

Average 0.3 121 14 202

Soybean meal Typical 7.2–7.6 4–6 — —

Tomato-processing waste Typical 4.5 11a 62 —

Vegetable produce Typical 2.7 19 87 1,585

Vegetable wastes Typical 2.5–4 11–13 — —

Fish and meat processing

Blood wastes 

(slaughterhouse waste 

and dried blood)

Typical 13–14 3–3.5 10–78 —

Crab and lobster wastes Range 4.6–8.2 4.0–5.4 35–61 —

Average 6.1 4.9 47 240

Fish-breading crumbs Typical 2.0 28 10 —

Fish-processing sludge Typical 6.8 5.2 94 —

Fish wastes (gurry, racks, 

and so on)

Range 6.5–14.2 2.6–5.0 50–81 —

Average 10.6 3.6 76 —
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

32

Material Type of 

value

% N 

(dry 

weight)

C:N ratio 

(weight 

to weight)

Moisture 

content % 

(wet 

weight)

Bulk 

density 

(pounds per 

cubic yard)

Mixed slaughterhouse 

waste

Typical 7–10 2–4 — —

Mussel wastes Typical 3.6 2.2 63 —

Poultry carcasses Typical 2.4b 5 65 —

Paunch manure Typical 1.8 20–30 80–85 1,460

Shrimp wastes Typical 9.5 3.4 78 —

Manures

Broiler litter Range 1.6–3.9 12–15a 22–46 756–1,026

Average 2.7 14 a 37 864

Cattle Range 1.5–4.2 11–30 67–87 1,323–1,674

Average 2.4 19 81 1,458

Dairy tie stall Typical 2.7 18 79 —

Dairy free stall Typical 3.7 13 83 —

Horse-general Range 1.4–2.3 22–50 59–79 1,215–1,620

Average 1.6 30 72 1,379

Horse-race track Range 0.8–1.7 29–56 52–67 —

Average 1.2 41 63 —

Laying hens Range 4–10 3–10 62–75 1,377–1,620

Average 8.0 6 69 1,479

Sheep Range 1.3–3.9 13–20 60–75 —

Average 2.7 16 69 —

Swine Range 1.9–4.3 9–19 65–91 —

Average 3.1 14 80 —

Turkey litter Average 2.6 16 a 26 783

Municipal wastes

Garbage (food waste) Typical 1.9–2.9 14–16 69 —

Night soil Typical 5.5–6.5 6–10 — —

Paper from domestic 

refuse

Typical 0.2–0.25 127–178 18–20 —

Pharmaceutical wastes Typical 2.6 19 — —
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

33

Material Type of 

value

% N 

(dry 

weight)

C:N ratio 

(weight 

to weight)

Moisture 

content % 

(wet 

weight)

Bulk 

density 

(pounds per 

cubic yard)

Refuse (mixed food, 

paper,

Typical 0.6–1.3 34–80 — —

and so on)

Sewage sludge Range 2–6.9 5–16 72–84 1,075–1,750

Activated sludge Typical 5.6 6 — —

Digested sludge Typical 1.9 16 — —

Straw, hay, silage

Corn silage Typical 1.2–1.4 38–43a 65–68 —

Hay-general Range 0.7–3.6 15–32 8–10 —

Average 2.10 — — —

Hay-legume Range 1.8–3.6 15–19 — —

Average 2.5 16 — —

Hay-non-legume Range 0.7–2.5 — — —

Average 1.3 32 — —

Straw-general Range 0.3–1.1 48–150 4–27 58–378

Average 0.7 80 12 227

Straw-oat Range 0.6–1.1 48–98 — —

Average 0.9 60 — —

Straw-wheat Range 0.3–0.5 100–150 — —

Average 0.4 127 — —

Wood and paper

Bark-hardwoods Range 0.10–0.41 116–436 — —

Average 0.241 223 — —

Bark-softwoods Range 0.04–0.39 131–1,285 — —

Average 0.14 496 — —

Corrugated cardboard Typical 0.10 563 8 259

Lumbermill waste Typical 0.13 170 — —

Newsprint Typical 0.06–0.14 398–852 3–8 195–242

Paper fiber sludge Typical — 250 66 1140

Paper mill sludge Typical 0.56 54 81 —

Paper pulp Typical 0.59 90 82 1403

Sawdust Range 0.06–0.8 200–750 19–65 350–450
Livestock Mortality Composting Protocol

34

Material Type of 

value

% N 

(dry 

weight)

C:N ratio 

(weight 

to weight)

Moisture 

content % 

(wet 

weight)

Bulk 

density 

(pounds per 

cubic yard)

Average 0.24 442 39 410

Telephone books Typical 0.7 772 6 250

Wood chips Typical — — — 445–620

Wood-hardwoods Range 0.06–0.11 451–819 — —

(chips, shavings, and so 

on)

Average 0.09 560 — —

Wood-softwoods Range 0.04–0.23 212–1,313 — —

(chips, shavings, and so 

on)

Average 0.09 641 — —

Yard wastes and other vegetation

Grass clippings Range 2.0–6.0 9–25 — —

Average 3.4 17 82 —

Loose Typical — — — 300–400

Compacted Typical — — — 500–800

Leaves Range 0.5–1.3 40–80 — —

Average 0.9 54 38 —

Loose and dry Typical — — — 100–300

Compacted and moist Typical — — — 400–500

Seaweed Range 1.2–3.0 5–27 — —

Average 1.9 17 53 —

Shrub trimmings Typical 1.0 53 15 429

Tree trimmings Typical 3.1 16 70 1,296

Water hyacinth-fresh Typical — 20–30 93 405

a Estimated from ash or volatile solids data.

b Mostly organic nitrogen.