Slip Op. 07-57

UNITED STATES COURT OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

________________________________

 :

NATIVE FEDERATION OF THE :

MADRE DE DIOS RIVER AND :

TRIBUTARIES; RACIMOS DE :

UNGURAHUI WORKING GROUP; and :

NATURAL RESOURCES DEFENSE :

COUNCIL, INC., :

 :

Plaintiffs, :

 :

v. : Before: Richard K. Eaton, Judge

 : 

BOZOVICH TIMBER PRODUCTS, : Court No. 06-00181

INC.; TBM HARDWOODS, INC.; :

T. BAIRD MCILVAIN :

INTERNATIONAL CO.; UNITED :

STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE :

INTERIOR; UNITED STATES FISH :

AND WILDLIFE SERVICE; UNITED :

STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL- :

TURE; ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH :

INSPECTION SERVICE; UNITED :

STATES DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND : 

SECURITY; UNITED STATES CUSTOMS :

AND BORDER PROTECTION; :

SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR; :

DIRECTOR OF THE UNITED STATES : 

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE; :

SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE; :

ADMINISTRATOR OF ANIMAL AND :

PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION :

SERVICE; SECRETARY OF HOMELAND : 

SECURITY; and COMMISSIONER OF :

UNITED STATES CUSTOMS AND :

BORDER PROTECTION, :

 :

Defendants. :

________________________________:

OPINION

[Plaintiffs’ amended motion for preliminary injunction is denied;

Defendants’ motions to dismiss are granted.]
Court No. 06-00181 Page 2

Dated: April 16, 2007

Simpson Thacher & Bartlett LLP (Robert A. Bourque, Kyle A.

Lonergan and Scott D. Laton); Natural Resources Defense Council,

Inc. (Mitchell S. Bernard and Thomas Cmar); Schonbrun DeSimone

Seplow Harris & Hoffman LLP (Paul Hoffman), of counsel, for

plaintiffs Native Federation of the Madre de Dios River and

Tributaries; Racimos de Ungurahui Working Group; and the Natural

Resources Defense Council, Inc. 

Peter D. Keisler, Assistant Attorney General, Jeanne E. Davidson,

Director, Commercial Litigation Branch, Civil Division, U.S.

Department of Justice (Stephen C. Tosini), for defendants U.S.

Department of the Interior; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; U.S.

Department of Agriculture; Animal and Plant Health Inspection

Service; U.S. Department of Homeland Security; U.S. Customs and

Border Protection; Secretary of the Interior; Director of the

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Secretary of Agriculture;

Administrator of Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service;

Secretary of Homeland Security; and Commissioner of the U.S.

Customs and Border Protection.

Hogan & Hartson LLP (Patrick D. Traylor and Jonathan T. Stoel),

for defendants Bozovich Timber Products, Inc.; TBM Hardwoods,

Inc.; and T. Baird McIlvain International Company.

Eaton, Judge: Before the court are the amended motion for a

preliminary injunction of plaintiffs Native Federation of the

Madre de Dios River and Tributaries; Racimos de Ungurahui Working

Group; and the Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.

(“plaintiffs”) and the motions to dismiss of the U.S. Department

of the Interior; the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (“FWS”); the

U.S. Department of Agriculture; the Animal and Plant Health

Inspection Service; the U.S. Department of Homeland Security; the

U.S. Customs and Border Protection; the Secretary of the

Interior; the Director of the FWS; the Secretary of Agriculture;

the Administrator of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Court No. 06-00181 Page 3

Service; the Secretary of Homeland Security; and the Commissioner

of U.S. Customs and Border Protection (“Government Defendants”);

and Bozovich Timber Products, Inc.; TBM Hardwoods, Inc.; and T.

Baird McIlvain International Company (“Private Defendants”)

(collectively, “defendants”). 

By their complaint and motion for a preliminary injunction,

plaintiffs allege that defendants have violated, and continue to

violate, Section 9(c) of the Endangered Species Act, 16 U.S.C.

§§ 1531-1544 (2000) (“ESA”), which implements the Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

(“Convention” or “CITES”). CITES, Convention done at Washington,

D.C., Aug. 3, 1973, T.I.A.S. No. 8249, 27 U.S.T. 1087. 

Specifically, plaintiffs complain that the Private Defendants

trade in, and the Government Defendants authorize trade in,

Swietenia macrophylla, a species of mahogany tree (“bigleaf

mahogany”) from Peru without valid export permits. See Am.

Compl. ¶ 3.

Plaintiffs seek declaratory relief and an injunction

directing the Government Defendants to “refrain from permitting

the importation into the United States of bigleaf mahogany from

Peru;” and directing the Private Defendants to “refrain from the

importation into the United States of . . . bigleaf

mahogany . . . from Peru.” Pls.’ Proposed Prelim. Inj. 1-2; see

also Am. Compl. 29 (seeking, inter alia, to “[e]njoin[]
Court No. 06-00181 Page 4

1 According to plaintiffs’ amended complaint, bigleaf

mahogany trees “can grow to more than 150 feet tall and six feet

wide over the course of hundreds of years. Its slow growth rate

creates a dense, hard, high-value wood that has been coveted by

traders for centuries. At more than $1,500 per cubic meter of

imported sawn wood, the timber from a single tree can yield more

(continued...)

Government Defendants from permitting import, trade, and

possession of Peruvian bigleaf mahogany unless and until bigleaf

mahogany specimens from Peru comply with CITES”). In their

respective motions to dismiss, defendants assert a number of

defenses, among them that the court lacks subject matter

jurisdiction to entertain plaintiffs’ claims. 

For the following reasons, the court finds that it does not

have jurisdiction over plaintiffs’ claims under 28 U.S.C.

§ 1581(i)(3) or (4) (2000). The court therefore denies

plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction and grants

defendants’ motions to dismiss.

BACKGROUND

I. Factual Summary

Plaintiffs bring this action on behalf of native communities

and inhabitants of the Madre de Dios region of the Peruvian

Amazon, where bigleaf mahogany is found. Am. Compl. ¶¶ 8-16; see

also 16 U.S.C. § 1540(g)(1) (providing for citizen suits). 

International demand for bigleaf mahogany timber is high, due to

the dense, hard, high-value quality of the wood.1 Am. Compl.
Court No. 06-00181 Page 5

1(...continued)

than $100,000 when fashioned into luxury furniture.” Am. Compl.

¶ 41. 

¶ 1. Plaintiffs allege that to meet demand, illegal logging of

bigleaf mahogany trees takes place in Peru, which threatens the

species with extinction and in turn results in injury to

plaintiffs. Am. Compl. ¶ 16. It is further alleged that Peru’s

Scientific Authority, the National Agrarian University of La

Molina (“La Molina”), and Peru’s Management Authority, the

National Institute of Natural Resources (“INRENA”), are aware of

this illegal activity, and have nonetheless granted permits to

export bigleaf mahogany without determining, as CITES requires,

whether the wood to be exported was obtained in contravention of

Peruvian law and whether the exports would be detrimental to the

survival of bigleaf mahogany. Am. Compl. ¶ 3. 

Private Defendants are importers of Peruvian bigleaf

mahogany into the United States. There is no dispute that their

shipments were accompanied by facially valid export permits. 

Even so, plaintiffs allege that the Private Defendants and the

Government Defendants have violated the Convention and Section 9

of the ESA by, respectively, trading in and allowing trade in,

bigleaf mahogany, because La Molina and INRENA have not made

“legitimate non-detriment and lawful acquisition determinations”

in connection with exports of bigleaf mahogany. Am. Compl. ¶ 3.
Court No. 06-00181 Page 6

II. Legal Framework

A. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

The Convention is an international agreement to which the

United States and Peru are parties. It has as its purpose the

“protection of certain species of wild fauna and flora against

over-exploitation through international trade.” CITES

Proclamation of the Contracting States, 27 U.S.T. at 1090

(recognizing that “international cooperation is essential” to

achieving this goal). 

The species covered by the Convention are listed in three

appendices. Species listed in Appendix I are those “threatened

with extinction which are or may be affected by trade.” CITES,

art. II ¶ 1, 27 U.S.T. at 1092. Trade in Appendix I species

“must be subject to particularly strict regulation in order not

to endanger further their survival and must only be authorized in

exceptional circumstances.” Id., 27 U.S.T. at 1092. 

Appendix II species include

all species which although not necessarily

now threatened with extinction may become so

unless trade in specimens of such species is

subject to strict regulation in order to

avoid utilization incompatible with their

survival . . . .

CITES, art. II ¶ 2(a), 27 U.S.T. at 1092. 

Appendix III species include

all species which any Party identifies as

being subject to regulation within its
Court No. 06-00181 Page 7

2 Amendments to the lists of species in Appendices I and

II are considered and, where appropriate, adopted by the parties

to the Convention at meetings held biennially. See CITES, arts.

XI, XV, 27 U.S.T. at 1104-05, 1110-12; see also http://www.cites.

org/eng/disc/CoP.shtml (last visited Apr. 16, 2007). The CITES

Secretariat maintains the official list of species contained in

each appendix, which is available on the CITES Web site. See

http://www.cites.org/eng/app/index.shtml (last visited Apr. 16,

2007).

3 U.S. regulations echo this distinction between

requirements for trade in Appendix I and Appendix II species. 

See 50 C.F.R. § 23.12(a)(1)(i) (requiring both “a United States

import permit, issued pursuant to § 23.15, and a valid foreign

export permit issued by the country of origin” in order to import

(continued...)

jurisdiction for the purpose of preventing or

restricting exploitation, and as needing the

co-operation of other parties in the control

of trade. 

CITES, art. II ¶ 3, 27 U.S.T. at 1092.2

The Convention sets forth a detailed framework for

regulating trade through permitting processes that are carried

out by government agencies in the exporting and importing

countries. The permit requirements for trade in Appendix I

species and Appendix II species are different. Trade in Appendix

I species requires both an export permit, issued by the exporting

country, and an import permit, issued by the importing country. 

See CITES, art. III ¶ 3, 27 U.S.T. 1093-94. Trade in Appendix II

species, on the other hand, does not require that an import

permit be obtained, but only that the exporting country issue a

permit for the outgoing shipments. Compare CITES, art. III, 27

U.S.T. 1093-94, with art. IV, 27 U.S.T. at 1095-96.3 
Court No. 06-00181 Page 8

3(...continued)

Appendix I species) & § 23.12(a)(2)(i) (2005) (requiring only “a

valid foreign export permit issued by the country of origin” in

order to import Appendix II species). 

4 As previously noted, trade in Appendix I species

requires both an export permit, issued by the exporting country,

and an import permit, issued by the importing country. Thus,

Article III of the Convention contains the same language found in

Article IV subparagraphs (a), (b) and (c), with respect to the

conditions that must be met before an export permit shall be

granted, but also states an additional condition, namely “(d) a

Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that an

import permit has been granted for the [Appendix I] specimen.” 

CITES, art. III ¶ 2(d), 27 U.S.T. at 1093. With respect to the

required import permit, it states:

An import permit shall only be granted when

the following conditions have been met:

(a) a Scientific Authority of the

State of import has advised that

the import will be for purposes

which are not detrimental to the

survival of the species involved;

(b) a Scientific Authority of the

State of import is satisfied that

the proposed recipient of a living

specimen is suitably equipped to

house and care for it; and

(c) a Management Authority of the

State of import is satisfied that

(continued...)

Bigleaf mahogany from Peru is a species of plant listed in

Appendix II. By the Convention’s terms, “[a]ll trade in

specimens of species included in Appendix II shall be in

accordance with the provisions of [Article IV of the

Convention].” CITES, art. IV ¶ 1, 27 U.S.T. at 1095. In

pertinent part, Article IV4 provides:
Court No. 06-00181 Page 9

4(...continued)

the specimen is not to be used for

primarily commercial purposes.

CITES, art. III ¶ 3(a)-(c), 27 U.S.T. at 1093-94.

The export of any specimen of a species

included in Appendix II shall require the

prior grant and presentation of an export

permit. An export permit shall only be

granted when the following conditions have

been met:

(a) a Scientific Authority of the

State of export has advised that

such export will not be detrimental

to the survival of that species;

[and]

(b) a Management Authority of the

State of export is satisfied that

the specimen was not obtained in

contravention of the laws of that

State for the protection of fauna

and flora . . . .

The import of any specimen of a species

included in Appendix II shall require the

prior presentation of . . . an export

permit . . . .

CITES, art. IV ¶¶ 2, 4, 27 U.S.T. at 1095-96. Thus, in order for

Peru to export bigleaf mahogany its Scientific Authority (La

Molina) and Management Authority (INRENA) must be satisfied that

certain enumerated preconditions have been met. The only express

obligation that Article IV places on a country importing bigleaf

mahogany is to “require the prior presentation of” an export

permit. CITES, art. IV ¶ 4, 27 U.S.T. at 1096. 
Court No. 06-00181 Page 10

5 An “endangered species” is one “in danger of extinction

throughout all or a significant portion of its range . . . .” 16

U.S.C. § 1532(6). A “threatened species” is one that is “likely

to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future

throughout all or a significant portion of its range.” Id.

§ 1532(20). 

6 Under Article I of the Convention, “‘[t]rade’ means

export, re-export, import and introduction from the sea.” CITES,

art. I(c), 27 U.S.T. at 1090. The ESA does not define “trade.”

B. The Endangered Species Act

Congress enacted the ESA to conserve endangered and

threatened species5 and the ecosystems on which they depend, and

“to take such steps as may be appropriate to achieve the purposes

of,” inter alia, CITES. 16 U.S.C. § 1531(b). Section 9(c) of

the ESA implements the Convention into U.S. law: 

It is unlawful for any person subject to the

jurisdiction of the United States to engage

in any trade6 in any specimens contrary to

the provisions of the Convention, or to

possess any specimens traded contrary to the

provisions of the Convention, including the

definitions of terms in article I thereof.

16 U.S.C. § 1538(c)(1). Plaintiffs assert their claims under

Section 9(c).

III. Plaintiffs’ Claims

In their complaint, plaintiffs allege that La Molina and

INRENA have acknowledged having insufficient information to make

the non-detriment and lawful acquisition findings required for
Court No. 06-00181 Page 11

7 See, e.g., Appendix to Pls.’ Am. Mot. Prelim. Inj.,

Exs. M (Letter from Ignacio Lombardi Indacochea (La Molina) to

Rosario Acero Villanes (INRENA) of Nov. 12, 2004); N (Letter from

Peter O. Thomas (FWS) to Leoncio Alvarez Vasquez (INRENA) of Dec.

14, 2004); Q (La Molina, Summary of Activities Performed by CITES

Scientific Authority in Regard to Swietenia macrophylla Species

(Feb. 11, 2005)); and R (Letter from Leoncio Alvarez Vasquez

(INRENA) to Peter O. Thomas (FWS) of Feb. 9, 2005). 

export under Article IV of the Convention.7 See Am. Compl.

¶¶ 58-72, 90-104. Plaintiffs further allege that by honoring the

facially valid export permits, the Government Defendants have

violated U.S. law. Am. Compl. ¶¶ 3, 90-109. Thus, plaintiffs

have brought suit to enjoin defendants from importing bigleaf

mahogany into the United States “unless and until bigleaf

mahogany specimens from Peru comply with CITES.” Am. Compl. 29. 

STANDARD OF REVIEW

By their motion for a preliminary injunction, plaintiffs ask

the court “to enjoin the importation of Peruvian bigleaf mahogany

pending the outcome of this lawsuit.” Mem. Supp. Pls.’ Am. Mot.

Prelim. Inj. 44. Plaintiffs bear the burden of establishing a

right to the relief they seek in light of four factors: (1) the

likelihood that plaintiffs will succeed on the merits of their

claims; (2) that plaintiffs will suffer irreparable harm without

the requested injunctive relief; (3) that the balance of

hardships tips in plaintiffs’ favor; and (4) that granting the

requested relief would not be contrary to the public interest. 
Court No. 06-00181 Page 12

See FMC Corp. v. United States, 3 F.3d 424, 427 (Fed. Cir. 1993)

(citing Zenith Radio Corp. v. United States, 710 F.2d 806, 809

(Fed. Cir. 1983)). 

In considering plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary

injunction and defendants’ motions to dismiss, the court accepts

as true the well-pled factual allegations made in plaintiffs’

first amended complaint and construes “all reasonable inferences

in favor of [plaintiffs].” Gould, Inc. v. United States, 935

F.2d 1271, 1274 (Fed. Cir. 1991); see also Scheuer v. Rhodes, 416

U.S. 232, 236 (1974). 

As to defendants’ motions to dismiss for lack of subject

matter jurisdiction, plaintiffs bear the burden of establishing

the Court’s jurisdiction. See United States v. Biehl & Co., 3

CIT 158, 160, 539 F. Supp. 1218, 1220 (1982) (citing, inter alia,

McNutt v. Gen. Motors Acceptance Corp., 298 U.S. 178, 188-89

(1936)). 

DISCUSSION

The Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit has said that,

when ruling on a motion for a preliminary injunction, this Court

must consider whether it has subject matter jurisdiction to hear

the plaintiff’s claims. See U.S. Ass’n of Imps. of Textiles and

Apparel v. United States, 413 F.3d 1344, 1348 (Fed. Cir. 2005)

(“The question of jurisdiction closely affects the [plaintiff’s]
Court No. 06-00181 Page 13

likelihood of success on its motion for a preliminary injunction. 

Failing to consider it [is] legal error.”). Where subject matter

jurisdiction is lacking, denial of a motion for a preliminary

injunction is required. Id. at 1350 (reversing grant of

preliminary injunction on ground that plaintiff could not show

even a “fair chance” of success on the merits because plaintiff’s

claims were not ripe). 

In their complaint, plaintiffs assert that the Court has

subject matter jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1581(i)(3) and (4). 

Am. Compl. ¶ 5. Section 1581(i)(3) provides: 

In addition to the jurisdiction conferred

upon the Court of International Trade by

subsections (a)-(h) of this section . . .,

the Court of International Trade shall have

exclusive jurisdiction of any civil action

commenced against the United States, its

agencies, or its officers, that arises out of

any law of the United States providing

for . . .

(3) embargoes or other quantitative

restrictions on the importation of

merchandise for reasons other than the

protection of the public health or

safety . . . .

28 U.S.C. § 1581(i)(3). Plaintiffs argue that Section

1581(i)(3)’s requirement that the claims they assert “arise[] out

of any law of the United States providing for . . . [an]

embargo[]” is satisfied by Section 9(c) of the ESA. See Pls.’

Mem. Opp’n Defs.’ Mots. Dismiss 8 (“Plaintiffs’ claims arise

under ESA § 9(c), which makes it ‘unlawful . . . to engage in any
Court No. 06-00181 Page 14

8 Section 9(a) is codified at 16 U.S.C. § 1538(a), which

provides in pertinent part:

Except as provided in sections 1535(g)(2) and

1539 of this title, with respect to any

endangered species of plants listed pursuant

to section 1533 of this title, it is unlawful

for any person subject to the jurisdiction of

the United States to–[inter alia,] (A) import

any such species into, or export any such

species from, the United States . . . . 

16 U.S.C. § 1538(a)(2).

trade in any specimens contrary to the provisions of the

Convention.’ Accordingly, because it prohibits all imports in

contravention of CITES, ESA § 9(c) provides for an embargo.”)

(quoting 16 U.S.C. § 1538(c)(1); emphasis in original). 

Therefore, plaintiffs argue that their claims fall within the

Court’s exclusive jurisdiction. 

By their motions to dismiss, defendants dispute plaintiffs’

jurisdictional claim. In doing so, they distinguish Section 9(a)

of the ESA8 from Section 9(c) and argue that Section 9(c) does

not provide for an embargo on trade in species listed in Appendix

II of CITES. According to defendants, by adopting Section 9(a),

Congress expressly banned imports of certain named species that

the Secretary of Commerce or the Secretary of the Interior has

determined are “endangered.” See 16 U.S.C. § 1533(a). Here,

however, because the imported species has not been found by the

Secretary to be endangered, but is rather listed in Appendix II

of the Convention, defendants insist that there is no embargo
Court No. 06-00181 Page 15

9 The version of Section 1526(a) in force at the time

provided:

(a) Importation prohibited

Except as provided in subsection (d) of this

section, it shall be unlawful to import into

the United States any merchandise of foreign

manufacture if such merchandise, or the

label, sign, print, package, wrapper, or

(continued...)

under the ESA. See Gov’t Defs.’ Mot. Dismiss Pls.’ First Am.

Compl. (“Gov’t Defs.’ Mot.”) 9-10. Rather, defendants insist

that “ESA Section 9(c), the provision that addresses the

regulation of CITES listed species, simply requires parties to

follow CITES procedures . . . .” Gov’t Defs.’ Mot. 9. 

Thus, the question for the court is whether CITES and the

ESA provide for an embargo on the importation of bigleaf mahogany

or for the regulation of trade in the species. For the reasons

that follow, the court concludes that Section 9(c) of the ESA

does not provide for an embargo on the importation of Appendix II

species into the United States and that therefore Section

1581(i)(3) does not provide a basis for hearing plaintiffs’

claims. 

To determine what constitutes an embargo, a review of K Mart

Corp. v. Cartier, Inc., 485 U.S. 173 (1988), is necessary. In K

Mart, the United States Supreme Court was presented with the

question of whether Section 526(a) of the Tariff Act of 1930, 19

U.S.C. § 1526(a),9 imposed an embargo within the meaning of 28
Court No. 06-00181 Page 16

9(...continued)

receptacle, bears a trademark owned by a

citizen of, or by a corporation or

association created or organized within, the

United States, and registered in the Patent

and Trademark Office by a person domiciled in

the United States . . . unless written

consent of the owner of such trademark is

produced at the time of making entry.

19 U.S.C. § 1526(a) (emphasis added) (quoted in K Mart Corp., 485

U.S. at 179 n.1).

10 Ultimately, the Court held that § 1526(a) did not

impose an embargo because it “does not set a governmentally

determined quantitative limit on the entry of, or foreign

trafficking in, any particular product . . . .” K Mart Corp.,

485 U.S. at 186 (emphasis added).

11 It is worth noting that the K Mart Court recognized

that the presence of the word “prohibited” in a statute does not

necessarily mean it constitutes an embargo. K Mart Corp., 485

U.S. at 187. 

U.S.C. § 1581(i)(3). The Court found that the word embargo, as

it appears in Section 1581(i)(3), is to be given its ordinary

meaning, i.e., “a governmentally imposed quantitative restriction

- of zero - on the importation of merchandise.” Id. at 185.10

In the course of its analysis, the Court made clear that “not

every governmental importation prohibition is an embargo”:

To hold otherwise would yield applications of

the term “embargo” that are unnatural, to say

the least. For example, the prohibitory

nature of regulations providing that the

“importation into the United States of milk

and cream is prohibited”

11 except by a

permitholder, and that “Customs officers

shall not permit the importation of any milk

or cream that is not tagged in accordance

with [applicable] regulations,” would convert

licensing and tagging requirements into
Court No. 06-00181 Page 17

embargoes on unlicensed or improperly tagged

dairy products. Similarly, a requirement

that certain meat products be inspected prior

to importation would magically become an

embargo of uninspected (but not necessarily

tainted) meat when Congress uses a

formulation like, “meat . . . products shall

not be released from Customs custody prior to

inspection[.]” 

Id. at 187 (citing 19 C.F.R. §§ 12.7(a) & (b), 12.8 (1987))

(emphasis, first alteration and ellipsis in original). Thus, by

choosing the word “embargoes” over the phrase “importation

prohibitions” in Section 1581(i)(3), Congress created a

circumscribed sub-class of importation prohibitions that falls

within the Court’s jurisdiction. Id. at 189; see also Earth

Island Inst. v. Brown, 28 F.3d 76, 77 (9th Cir. 1994) (“[T]he [K

Mart] Court made it clear that the term ‘embargo’ does not, for

purposes of § 1581(i), encompass all importation prohibitions,

but rather names a subclass of importation prohibitions.”). In

so choosing, Congress declined to grant this Court jurisdiction

to review challenges to “conditions of importation” as distinct

from those involving embargoes. K Mart Corp., 485 U.S. at 189.

The court finds that Section 9(c) does not forbid trade in

species protected under the Convention. Rather, it mandates

compliance with the Convention, which “regulates international

trade in wild species . . . through the requirement that certain

forms of documents must accompany shipments of protected

species.” Cayman Turtle Farm, Ltd. v. Andrus, 478 F. Supp. 125,
Court No. 06-00181 Page 18

130 (D.D.C. 1979). “The degree of trade regulation under CITES

depends on the appendix in which a specimen is listed.” United

States v. Norris, 452 F.3d 1275, 1278 (11th Cir. 2006) (emphasis

added). 

That it does not forbid trade in species listed in the

appendices is evident from the language of CITES itself. The

Convention expressly states that the agreement does not infringe

on the ability of the parties to adopt stricter measures than are

provided in the Convention, including “complete prohibition” of

trade in CITES-listed species, or any other species. See CITES,

art. XIV ¶ 1(a), 27 U.S.T. at 1108 (providing that parties may

adopt “stricter domestic measures regarding the conditions for

trade, taking possession or transport of specimens of species

included in Appendices I, II and III, or the complete prohibition

thereof”) and (b) (providing same with respect to non-CITESlisted species). If the Convention were intended to ban trade,

this language would not be necessary.

Next, in implementing the Convention, the United States

elected to track the Convention’s permit requirements in the

regulations promulgated by the FWS and to take “stricter

measures” only insofar as requiring that an export permit must be

“valid.” Compare CITES, art. IV ¶ 4, 27 U.S.T. at 1096

(requiring “an export permit”) with 50 C.F.R. § 23.12(a)(2)(i)

(requiring “a valid foreign export permit issued by the country
Court No. 06-00181 Page 19

12 The regulations do not specify any criteria to

determine whether a foreign export permit is “valid.” See

Castlewood Prods., LLC v. Norton, 365 F.3d 1076, 1083 (D.C. Cir.

2004) (noting 50 C.F.R. § 23.12(a)(3)(i) “does not specify the

conditions that a foreign export permit must meet in order for

U.S. officials to regard the permit as valid, i.e., to conclude

that the exporting Management Authority was ‘satisfied that the

specimen was not obtained in contravention of the laws of that

State’”). In the past, when a Customs inspector or other U.S.

official has found reason to believe the export permit may not be

valid, U.S. officials have “looked behind” the permit to ensure

(continued...)

of origin”). The regulations provide in pertinent part:

(a) Unless the requirements in this part 23

are met, . . . it is unlawful for any person

subject to the jurisdiction of the United

States to commit, attempt to commit, solicit

another to commit, or cause to be committed

any of the acts described in paragraph[]

(b) . . . of this section.

(b) Import. (1) It is unlawful to import into

the United States any . . . plant listed in

appendix I, II or III . . . from any foreign

country.

50 C.F.R. § 23.11(a) & (b) (emphasis added). The “requirements

in this part 23” referenced in § 23.11(a) above are contained in

§ 23.12(a)(2)(i), which provides:

In order to import into the United States any

wildlife or plant listed in appendix II from

any foreign country, a valid foreign export

permit issued by the country of origin . . .

must be obtained prior to such importation.

50 C.F.R. § 23.12(a)(2)(i). The regulations further provide that

“[o]nly export permits . . . issued and signed by a management

authority will be accepted as a valid foreign document from a

country that is a party to the Convention.”12 50 C.F.R.
Court No. 06-00181 Page 20

12(...continued)

the export permit was issued in compliance with CITES. See,

e.g., id. at 1084 (where Brazilian authorities notified the

United States that issuance of export permits with respect to

bigleaf mahogany shipments was not the result of an independent

judgment made by the Management Authority in Brazil, the court

upheld the seizure of such shipments as reasonable); United

States v. 2,507 Live Canary Winged Parakeets, 689 F. Supp. 1106,

1120 (S.D. Fla. 1988) (probable cause to institute forfeiture

action was found to exist where Peruvian authorities informed the

United States that export permits accompanying shipments of

parakeets were invalid and requested that the United States take

appropriate action); United States v. 3,210 Crusted Sides of

Caiman Crocodilus Yacare, 636 F. Supp. 1281, 1285 (S.D. Fla.

1986) (probable cause for instituting forfeiture action was found

to exist where export permits were deemed suspicious in that

shipments contained thousands more crocodile hides than reported

on the permit and the permit was a copy, not an original).

§ 23.14(a). A Customs inspector must validate documentation

accompanying Appendix II species at the time of import by

endorsing the documentation. See 7 C.F.R. § 355.22(a) & (c). 

“Validation” is defined as “[a]n original stamp, signature, and

date of inspection placed upon documentation required by 50

CFR . . . part 23 [pertaining to CITES-listed species] by an

inspector at the port where the terrestrial plants are to be

imported . . . .” Id. § 355.2. Thus, like the Convention

itself, the regulations do not completely ban trade in Appendix

II species but rather regulate it. 

It is clear that Congress anticipated that lines would be

drawn between laws that provide for the regulation of trade and

those that provide for embargoes in order to avoid the

“unnatural” results the Supreme Court cautioned against in K
Court No. 06-00181 Page 21

Mart. See K Mart Corp., 485 U.S. at 187. An examination of the

conditions of importation cited in K Mart as insufficient to

constitute embargoes reveals that the permit requirements in the

Convention and the U.S. regulations do not amount to a ban on

trade. For instance, health-related restrictions on importation,

such as the “prohibition” against the importation of milk and

cream “unless the person by whom such milk or cream is shipped or

transported into the United States holds a valid permit,” 19

C.F.R. § 12.7(a) (1987); or the restriction on release of meat

products without prior inspection, 19 C.F.R. § 12.8 (“Such meat,

meat-food products, horse meat and horse meat-food products shall

not be released from Customs custody prior to inspection by an

inspector . . ., except when authority is given by such inspector

for inspection at the importer’s premises or other place not

under Customs supervision.”) are not embargoes. See K Mart

Corp., 485 U.S. at 187. Similarly, the regulation concerning the

importation of Appendix II species anticipates trade in those

species, on the condition that “the requirements in . . . [50

C.F.R. § 23.12(a)(2)(i)] are met,” i.e., the presentation of a

valid foreign export permit. 50 C.F.R. § 23.11(a). 

Finally, CITES, Section 9(c) of the ESA and the implementing

regulations are qualitatively different from laws that this Court

has found to provide for embargoes. Absent from those laws is a

simple permitting scheme like the one present here. Rather, the
Court No. 06-00181 Page 22

13 Title 19 U.S.C. § 1307 provides:

All goods, wares, articles, and merchandise

mined, produced or manufactured wholly or in

part in any foreign country by convict labor

or/and forced labor or/and indentured labor

under penal sanctions shall not be entitled

to entry at any of the ports of the United

States, and the importation thereof is hereby

prohibited, . . . ; but in no case shall such

provisions be applicable to goods, wares,

articles, or merchandise so mined, produced,

or manufactured which are not mined,

produced, or manufactured in such quantities

in the United States as to meet the

consumptive demands of the United States.

“Forced labor”, as herein used, shall mean

all work or service which is exacted from any

person under the menace of any penalty for

its nonperformance and for which the worker

does not offer himself voluntarily. For

purposes of this section, the term “forced

labor or/and indentured labor” includes

forced or indentured child labor.

19 U.S.C. § 1307. 

laws found to provide for embargoes prohibit trade outright

albeit with limited exceptions. See, e.g., Int’l Labor Rights

Fund v. United States, 29 CIT __, __, 391 F. Supp. 2d 1370, 1371

(2005) (Section 307 of the Tariff Act of 1930, codified as

amended at 19 U.S.C. § 1307 (2002),13 prohibited importation of

merchandise produced by forced labor, except where domestic

consumption is greater than domestic production); Florsheim Shoe

Co. v. United States, 19 CIT 295, 297, 880 F. Supp. 848, 850

(1995) (Presidential proclamation issued under Pelly Amendment to

Fishermen’s Protective Act of 1967, codified as amended at 22
Court No. 06-00181 Page 23

14 Section 1978 provided, in pertinent part:

Upon receipt of any certification made

[Secretary of Commerce or the Secretary of

the Interior] under paragraph [(a)](1) or

(2), the President may direct the Secretary

of the Treasury to prohibit the bringing or

the importation into the United States of any

products from the offending country for any

duration as the President determines

appropriate and to the extent that such

prohibition is sanctioned by the General

Agreement on Tariff and Trade.

22 U.S.C. § 1978(a)(4).

15 In pertinent part, the Driftnet Act provided:

(b) Sanctions

(1) Identifications

(A) Initial identifications 

Not later than January 10, 1993,

the Secretary of Commerce shall-

(i) identify each nation whose

nationals or vessels are conducting

large-scale driftnet fishing beyond

the exclusive economic zone of any

nation; and

(ii) notify the President and that

(continued...)

U.S.C. § 1978 (Supp. V 1993),14 prohibited “the importation of

fish or wildlife . . . and their parts and products, of

Taiwan . . . .”); Humane Soc’y of the United States v. Brown, 19

CIT 1104, 901 F. Supp. 338 (1995) (High Seas Driftnet Fisheries

Enforcement Act, 16 U.S.C. § 1826a (Supp. V 1993) (“Driftnet

Act”)15 prohibited the importation of “fish and fish products and
Court No. 06-00181 Page 24

15(...continued)

nation of the identification under

clause (i). . . 

(3) Prohibition on imports of fish and fish

products and sport fishing equipment

(A) Prohibition 

The President-

(i) upon receipt of notification of

the identification of a nation

under paragraph (1)(A) . . . 

shall direct the Secretary of the

Treasury to prohibit the

importation into the United States

of fish and fish products and sport

fishing equipment . . . from that

nation.

16 U.S.C. § 1826a(b). The stated congressional policy underlying

the Driftnet Act was to implement a United Nations General

Assembly resolution, which called for, among other things, “an

immediate cessation to further expansion of large-scale driftnet

fishing,” “a moratorium on fishing in the Central Bering Sea” and

“a permanent ban on the use of destructive fishing practices, and

in particular large-scale driftnets, by persons or vessels

fishing beyond the exclusive economic zone of any nation.” 16

U.S.C. § 1826a (emphasis added). 

16 The note to Section 1537 of the ESA provided, in

pertinent part:

(continued...)

sport fishing equipment . . . from [a] nation” identified by the

Secretary of Commerce to be “conducting large-scale driftnet

fishing beyond the exclusive economic zone of any

nation . . . .”); Earth Island Inst. v. Christopher, 19 CIT 812,

813-14, 890 F. Supp. 1085, 1087-88 (1995) (Note to 16 U.S.C.

§ 153716 prohibited “[t]he importation of shrimp or products from
Court No. 06-00181 Page 25

16(...continued)

(b)(1) In General.-The importation of shrimp

or products from shrimp which have been

harvested with commercial fishing technology

which may affect adversely such species of

sea turtles shall be prohibited not later

than May 1, 1991, except as provided in

paragraph (2).

(2) Certification Procedure.-The ban on

importation of shrimp or products from shrimp

pursuant to paragraph (1) shall not apply if

the President shall determine and certify to

the Congress not later than May 1, 1991, and

annually thereafter that-

(A) the government of the

harvesting nation has provided

documentary evidence of the

adoption of a regulatory program

governing the incidental taking of

such sea turtles in the course of

such harvesting that is comparable

to that of the United States; and

(B) the average rate of that

incidental taking by the vessels of

the harvesting nation is comparable

to the average rate of incidental

taking of sea turtles by United

States vessels in the course of

such harvesting; or

(C) the particular fishing

environment of the harvesting

nation does not pose a threat of

the incidental taking of such sea

turtles in the course of such

harvesting.

16 U.S.C. § 1537 note. 

shrimp which have been harvested with commercial fishing

technology which may affect adversely [certain] species of sea

turtles,” except where a finding is made under 16 U.S.C.
Court No. 06-00181 Page 26

17 Notably absent from Section 9(c), the regulations and

Article IV of CITES is any requirement that the U.S. Government

make a finding with respect to foreign countries based on an

investigation of those countries’ activities. Compare, e.g.,

Florsheim Shoe Co., 19 CIT at 297, 880 F. Supp. at 849 (noting

that the Secretary of the Interior “certified Taiwan under 22

U.S.C. § 1978 . . . as a country whose activities were

diminishing the effectiveness of international conservation

measures”); Earth Island Inst., 19 CIT at 814, 890 F. Supp. at

1088 (quoting 16 U.S.C. § 1537(b)(2), which provides for

certification to Congress that a “harvesting nation” has a

regulatory program governing the incidental taking of sea turtles

that is comparable to that of the United States); Humane Soc’y of

the United States, 19 CIT at 1109, 901 F. Supp. at 344 (quoting

16 U.S.C. § 1826a(b)(1)(A), which provides that the Secretary of

Commerce “shall identify each nation . . . conducting large-scale

driftnet fishing beyond the exclusive economic zone of any

nation . . . .”).

§ 1537(b)(2)). In contrast to the stringent statutory

requirements that must be satisfied before merchandise subject to

an embargo may enter the country, e.g., the certification

procedure in 16 U.S.C. § 1537(b)(2),17 an importer of an Appendix

II species, such as bigleaf mahogany from Peru, may enter the

merchandise upon presenting a valid export permit obtained from

the Peruvian authorities. See supra Part II A at 9. 

By entering into the Convention, the United States did not

agree to end trade in CITES-listed species, nor did it elect to

do so by enacting Section 9(c) to implement the Convention. On

the contrary, the aim of CITES and the provisions of the ESA that

implement it is to permit trade in certain species in a

controlled, sustainable manner. See CITES Proclamation of the

Contracting States, 27 U.S.T. at 1090 (recognizing that
Court No. 06-00181 Page 27

“international cooperation is essential for the protection of

certain species of wild fauna and flora against over-exploitation

through international trade”) (emphasis added); 16 U.S.C.

§ 1531(a)(4)(F) (stating that “the United States has pledged

itself as a sovereign state in the international community to

conserve to the extent practicable the various species of fish or

wildlife and plants facing extinction, pursuant to . . . [the

Convention]”) (emphasis added). 

In sum, CITES provides for the regulation of trade in

bigleaf mahogany. The regulations that implement Section 9(c),

and in turn, the Convention, while restricting trade, do not

restrict the quantity of imports to zero. K Mart Corp., 485 U.S.

at 185. Thus, plaintiffs’ Section 9(c) claims do not arise under

a U.S. law that provides for an embargo under 28 U.S.C.

§ 1581(i)(3).

Since plaintiffs have failed to establish jurisdiction under

Section 1581(i)(3), Section 1581(i)(4) cannot provide a

jurisdictional basis. The latter provision applies where the law

pursuant to which a claim is brought provides for the

“administration and enforcement with respect to the matters

referred to in [inter alia] paragraph[] . . . (3) of this

subsection . . . .” 28 U.S.C. § 1581(i)(4). Since Section 9(c)

does not provide for an embargo, Section 1581(i)(4) does not

provide an independent basis for jurisdiction. See Retamal v.
Court No. 06-00181 Page 28

United States Customs & Border Prot., 439 F.3d 1372, 1375 (Fed.

Cir. 2006) (“[The plaintiff’s] claims do not relate to the

‘administration and enforcement’ of a matter referred to in

subsections 1581(a)-(h) or in 1581(i)(1)-(3). Therefore, section

1581(i)(4) does not provide an independent ground for

jurisdiction in this case.”).

CONCLUSION

For the forgoing reasons, the court does not have subject

matter jurisdiction over plaintiffs’ claims. Therefore,

plaintiffs have not met their burden of showing a likelihood that

they will succeed on the merits, and their motion for a

preliminary injunction must be denied. See U.S. Ass’n of Imps.,

413 F.3d at 1350. Further, because the Court lacks subject

matter jurisdiction in this case, defendants’ motions to dismiss

are granted. Judgment shall enter accordingly.

/s/ Judge Richard K. Eaton

 Richard K. Eaton

Dated: April 16, 2007

New York, New York
Slip Op. 07-57

UNITED STATES COURT OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

________________________________

 :

NATIVE FEDERATION OF THE :

MADRE DE DIOS RIVER AND :

TRIBUTARIES; RACIMOS DE :

UNGURAHUI WORKING GROUP; and :

NATURAL RESOURCES DEFENSE :

COUNCIL, INC., :

 :

Plaintiffs, :

 :

v. : Before: Richard K. Eaton, Judge

 : 

BOZOVICH TIMBER PRODUCTS, : Court No. 06-00181

INC.; TBM HARDWOODS, INC.; :

T. BAIRD MCILVAIN :

INTERNATIONAL CO.; UNITED :

STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE :

INTERIOR; UNITED STATES FISH :

AND WILDLIFE SERVICE; UNITED :

STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL- :

TURE; ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH :

INSPECTION SERVICE; UNITED :

STATES DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND : 

SECURITY; UNITED STATES CUSTOMS :

AND BORDER PROTECTION; :

SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR; :

DIRECTOR OF THE UNITED STATES : 

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE; :

SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE; :

ADMINISTRATOR OF ANIMAL AND :

PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION :

SERVICE; SECRETARY OF HOMELAND : 

SECURITY; and COMMISSIONER OF :

UNITED STATES CUSTOMS AND :

BORDER PROTECTION, :

 :

Defendants. :

________________________________:

JUDGMENT

This case having been submitted for decision; and the court,

after due deliberation, having issued the decision herein; Now

therefore, in conformity with said decision, it is hereby
Court No. 06-00181 Page 2

ORDERED that plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction

is denied; and it is further

ORDERED that defendants’ motions to dismiss are granted.

/s/ Judge Richard K. Eaton

 Richard K. Eaton

Dated: April 16, 2007

New York, New York