1 

Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessment 

for the Use of Wildlife Damage Management Methods

by APHIS-Wildlife Services 

Chapter XXI

THE USE OF EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS IN 

WILDLIFE DAMAGE MANAGEMENT

August 2022 

Peer Reviewed Final

May 2023
i 

THE USE OF EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS IN WILDLIFE DAMAGE MANAGEMENT

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services (WS) Program uses explosive materials, including 

multicomponent (binary and trinary) explosives, pyrotechnics, ammunition for firearms, 

propellants for rocket and cannon nets, and incidental explosive materials used to detonate

explosives such as detonation cord, fuses, and primers. Most of the explosives WS uses are

multicomponent explosives for removing beaver dams to reduce flooding and pyrotechnics for

hazing wildlife from airports to avoid aircraft strikes and to keep them away from other resources

such as agricultural crops. Other uses of explosives include ammunition, cannon and rocket net

charges, and gas cartridges for fumigation. WS risk assessments have covered these methods, 

except for the use of smokeless powder for ammunition, propellants for nets, and fuses for gas 

cartridges. Finally, other incidental explosive materials are used to initiate explosives, such as 

detonation cord for multicomponent explosives, fuses for all types of explosives, electric matches 

for rocket and cannon nets, and primers for pyrotechnics and ammunition rounds. 

Between FY16 and FY20, WS used 3,084 pounds of multicomponent explosives to remove 1,379 

beaver dams, 357,184 pyrotechnics and firearm blanks to haze 22,115,160 wildlife from damage 

situations annually. In addition, WS used 15,042 gas cartridge fuses, 309 cannon and rocket net 

activations using 142 rocket and cannon net charges and 1,084 blanks to capture 1,527 wildlife, 

and an estimated 1,079,473 shots with firearms to take wildlife during wildlife damage 

management activities. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service evaluated the potential 

human health and environmental risks from WS proposed use of explosive materials and 

determined that the risks are negligible. WS personnel and the public are at risk of being injured 

or killed by the explosives analyzed. The greatest risks with explosives use is to WS personnel 

that use the devices, but the numbers of accidents and incidents have been minimal. To reduce 

those that occur, WS trains personnel properly to handle explosive materials to minimize the 

identified risks. WS and public exposure to potentially toxic gases and solids produced from 

explosives are negligible due to the minimal use by individual employees, use throughout the 

United States with relatively small numbers of devices, and use almost exclusively outdoors. 

Thus, exposure is limited and gases disperse quickly.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 WDM Methods that Use Explosive Materials .................................................................. 2

1.1.1 Multicomponent Explosives........................................................................................ 2

1.1.2 Pyrotechnics .............................................................................................................. 4

1.1.3 Ammunition for Firearms............................................................................................ 5

1.1.4 Rocket Nets and Cannon Nets................................................................................... 7

1.1.5 Incidental Explosive Materials .................................................................................... 8

1.2 Laws, Regulations, Policies, and Safe Use of Explosives..............................................12

1.2.1 Multicomponent Explosives.......................................................................................12

1.2.2 Pyrotechnics .............................................................................................................17

1.2.3 Ammunition...............................................................................................................19

1.2.4 Rocket and Cannon Nets ..........................................................................................19

1.2.5 Incidental Explosive Materials ...................................................................................22

1.2.6 Transportation and Storage.......................................................................................25

1.2.7 Magazine Inspections ...............................................................................................26

1.2.8 Theft and Security.....................................................................................................26

1.3 Use Pattern ...................................................................................................................26

2 HAZARDS..............................................................................................................................30

2.1 Human Health and Safety Hazards ...............................................................................31

2.1.1 Multicomponent Explosives.......................................................................................31

2.1.2 Pyrotechnics .............................................................................................................32

2.1.3 Net Propellants and Burning Gunpowder in Ammunition...........................................32

2.1.4 Incidental Explosive Materials ...................................................................................33

2.1.5 Gases and Solids Produced from Explosives Problem Formulation ..........................33

2.2 Ecological Hazards........................................................................................................34

2.2.1 Multicomponent Explosives.......................................................................................35

2.2.2 Pyrotechnics .............................................................................................................35

2.2.3 Net Propellants and Ammunition...............................................................................36

2.2.4 Incidental Explosive Materials ...................................................................................36

2.2.5 Gases and Solids Produced from Explosives Problem Formulation ..........................36

3 RISKS....................................................................................................................................37

3.1 Human Health and Safety Risks....................................................................................37

3.2 Ecological Risks ............................................................................................................38

4 UNCERTAINTIES AND CUMULATIVE IMPACTS .................................................................39

5 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................39

6 LITERATURE CITED.............................................................................................................40

7 PREPARERS.........................................................................................................................42
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7.1 APHIS-WS Methods Risk Assessment Committee........................................................42

7.2 Internal Reviewers.........................................................................................................43

7.3 Peer Review..................................................................................................................43

7.3.1 Peer Reviewers Selected by the Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies ..............43

7.3.2 Comments.................................................................................................................44

Appendix 1. “Other Species” Included in Table 2. .....................................................................45

Appendix 2. Tables A-1 and A-2 for FY11-FY15 for Comparison ..............................................46

Appendix 3. Pyrotechnic Chemical Guide .................................................................................49
1 

1 INTRODUCTION

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Health Plant Inspection Service (APHIS), 

Wildlife Services (WS) Program uses explosive materials for various wildlife damage 

management (WDM) activities, such as multicomponent explosives for beaver dam removal and

pyrotechnics to haze wildlife such as European starlings1 and gulls (Table 2 gives all wildlife 

hazed) that damage property, agriculture, or natural resources, or are a public safety threat. WS 

uses items classified as explosive materials by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and 

Explosives2 (ATF) (see 27 CFR 555.23). As defined by ATF:

Explosive materials are any chemical compound, mixture, or device, the primary or 

common purpose of which is to function by explosion. The term includes but is not limited 

to, dynamite and other high explosives, black powder, pellet powder, initiating explosives, 

detonators, safety fuses, squibs, detonating cord, igniter cord, and igniters.

WS uses materials classified as explosives by ATF, including multi-component explosives, 

pyrotechnics, rocket and cannon net charges, components of firearm ammunition, and incidental 

explosive materials such as fuses and primers that are integral to the other devices. WS uses

multicomponent (i.e., binary, trinary) explosives for removing beaver dams where the water 

impounded by the dams is causing damage, such as flooding a crop field, road, or residence. WS 

uses pyrotechnics to haze wildlife, primarily birds, from damaging situations at airports (some of 

the risks were covered in the Use of Firearms in Wildlife Damage Management Risk Assessment). 

WS uses ammunition in firearms to take or haze wildlife from damaging situations. Take and risks 

with firearms are covered in The Use of Firearms in Wildlife Damage Management Risk 

Assessment. The use of lead in ammunition is covered in The Use of Lead in Wildlife Damage 

Management Risk Assessment, but the burning gunpowder was not and will be covered here. 

WS uses rocket and cannon net charges to deploy nets from their stands to capture wildlife, 

primarily birds. Other than risks associated with burning gunpowder and propellant, take and risks 

with rocket and cannon nets are covered in the Use of Nets in Wildlife Damage Management Risk 

Assessment). The explosion and potential for injury or death are the primary risks of using 

explosive materials. Though not as common today, fire from the use of explosives can occur.

Another risk is the gases produced by an explosion or fire.

Federal, state, and local regulations may apply to the storage, transportation, and use of 

explosives materials. State and federal agencies and tribes may require permits or authorizations 

before using explosive materials to haze, capture, take, or remove wildlife, including beaver dams.

For example, according to the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, a United States Fish and 

Wildlife Service (USFWS) permit is required before using pyrotechnics to haze eagles from an 

airport. Under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, using cannon nets to capture Canada geese would 

require a USFWS permit. Using a rocket net to capture wild turkeys may require a permit from a 

state wildlife agency. If the water impounded by a long-standing beaver dam creates an 

established wetland as defined by Section 404 of the Clean Water Act, a permit from the United 

States Army Corps of Engineers would be required to remove the beaver dam. Permits are 

typically not needed to haze most wildlife or control invasive species, but state and local 

1 Scientific names for species are given in the text only for species not discussed in the Wildlife Damage Management Methods Risk 

Assessment Introduction.

2

A bureau of the U.S. Department of Justice having responsibility for the promulgation and enforcement of regulations related to the 

unsafe or insecure storage of explosives materials and the unlawful use of explosive materials under 18 U.S.C. Chapter 40, Section 

847. Codes of Federal Regulations (CFRs), and rules and regulations that ATF guides the public can be found @ 

https://www.atf.gov/rules-and-regulations/rules-and-regulations-library. Accessed 6/29/2022. These will not be cited in the risk 

assessment but can be found on their website.
2 

regulations may still apply. WS personnel abides by 

federal, state, and local laws and WS Directives for 

using these methods. 

1.1 WDM Methods that Use Explosive Materials 

WS uses several methods that contain explosive 

materials when conducting WDM activities

including multicomponent explosives, black powder 

(pyrotechnics and rocket nets), smokeless powder 

(cannon nets and ammunition), and incidental 

material needed to do this work (e.g., detonating 

cord, fuses, primers, and electric matches). 

1.1.1 Multicomponent Explosives 

Multicomponent explosives consist of two or more 

components that, individually packaged, do not 

meet the classification for explosive materials but

the individual components when mixed create a 

high explosive. Depending on the manufacturer, 

these high explosives consist of either two (binary – 

Figures 1) or three (trinary – Figures 2)

components. The binary explosives that WS uses 

consist of either ammonium nitrate (solid 

component) and nitromethane (liquid component),

or aluminum powder (activator) and nitromethane 

(liquid component) packaged separately. WS also 

recently started using trinary systems consisting of 

ammonium nitrate (solid component), nitromethane 

(liquid component), and aluminum powder 

(activator), which are also packaged separately.

When mixed, two and three-component systems 

are classified as Division 1.1 explosives. Division 

1.1 explosives are explosive materials defined by 

the United Nations (UN) and the United States 

Department of Transportation (USDOT) as a mass 

explosion hazard. 

WS personnel only use multi-component explosives 

to breach beaver dams, and generally, only those 

beaver dams that are too large to remove or breach 

using hand tools or where the deployment of heavy 

equipment is impractical (Figures 3a, b). WS 

personnel are prohibited from transporting mixed 

components and can only mix the explosive 

components at the blasting site. WS Directive 2.435 

provides procedures and accountability for WS use 

of explosives to breach beaver dams and the 

Figure 1a. Mixing ammonium nitrate with nitromethane, a binary 

explosive.

Figure 1c. Placing an explosive charge attached to detonating cord.

Figure 1b. Attaching a detonator to detonating cord that leads to 

explosive charges.
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Figure 3b. Beaver dams can cause many different damage 

types such as flooding residences and crops. Restoring 

normal flow of the creek minimizes such occurrences.

Figure 2a. Trinary 

explosives consist of 

ammonium nitrate powder, 

nitromethane liquid, and 

aluminum powder.

Figure 2b. Mixing liquid 

nitromethane into 

ammonium nitrate 

powder. 

Figure 2c. Mixing 

aluminum powder into 

the mixture of first two 

and shook.

Figure 2d. Attaching a detonating cord 

to the mixed explosive. A knot is added 

to the detonating cord to ensure that it 

is not pulled free from the canister. 

Figure 2e. An explosive ready to be placed. The container is 

pointed to allow it easily to be pushed into place in a dam, made 

of plastic to eliminate the possibility of creating a spark, and the 

top fits easily into a specially made placement rod that allows it 

to be pushed without the detonating cord getting sheered. 

Figure 2f. A hole in the dam is created with a ramrod and 

then the explosive is seated in the hole created. 

Figure 3a. Blowing up a beaver dam with explosives. Blasts are 

intentionally directed to minimize potential damage to nearby 

structures.
4 

training requirements for WS personnel to use explosives. In addition, WS has established an 

Explosives Safety Subcommittee responsible for developing safety and security procedures for 

WS, conducting training, and certifying WS personnel in the use of multicomponent explosives. 

WS has also developed an explosives safety manual that establishes procedures and 

accountability for the safe and secure storage, transportation, procurement, and use of 

multicomponent explosives. The manual also ensures WS use of multicomponent explosives 

conforms to applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations.

1.1.2 Pyrotechnics

WS uses several commercially available 

pyrotechnics that produce a loud noise 

after being fired to haze wildlife. Most 

pyrotechnics used by WS are defined by 

ATF as Explosive Pest Control Devices 

(EPCDs) and are shot from a pistol 

launcher or shotgun. Some pyrotechnic 

rockets that are like fireworks, make 

noise while traveling, followed by a 

report. People may refer to some of 

these common EPCD pyrotechnics as 

“screamers,” “bangers,” “shell crackers,” 

“CAPA3 cartridges” (Figure 4), and 

“screamer banger rockets.” Pyrotechnic

bangers use black powder, which is 

made with 75% potassium nitrate or 

saltpeter (KNO3), 15% carbon (C), and 

10% sulfur (S). KNO3 chemically 

provides oxygen for the reaction; C is the 

fuel, and S is the fuel that lowers the ignition temperature of the mixture to increase the rate of 

combustion. The three components are mixed and coated with graphite to prevent static electric 

discharge. Additionally, graphite may be added in various quantities to 1% and is essentially 

carbon. Flash powder for screamers and whistlers is a pyrotechnic mixture of oxidizer and metallic 

fuel, which burns quickly and, if confined, produces a loud noise. The oxidizer for screamers is 

potassium perchlorate (KClO4) and likely an aluminum powder as the metal as this is the most 

common flash powder mixture. 

The pyrotechnic industry, which includes EPCDs, consumer, and display fireworks, is one of the 

last primary users of black powder. The most common pyrotechnics are those that people fire 

from a pyrotechnic launcher or shotgun, which travel approximately 50 to 1,000 feet downrange.

Some types of pyrotechnics emit a loud whistle as they travel, while some travel downrange and 

then explode with a bang. Pyrotechnics that whistle as they travel and those that explode with a 

bang after traveling downrange generally emit a 100-decibel to 150-decibel report that can startle 

target animals. A long-range pyrotechnic commercially available rocket can travel approximately 

1,000 feet downrange and produce a 150-decibel report (CAPA cartridges and rockets).

Pyrotechnics are a primary method that WS personnel use to haze and disperse wildlife. WS 

Directive 2.627 establishes procedures and accountability for the safe and secure handling and 

use of pyrotechnics for WS employees. The UN and USDOT classify EPCDs and most consumer 

3 CAPA = cartouche anti peril aviaire (French meaning anti-avian scare cartridge) manufactured by the Etienne LaCroix Company of 

France

Figure 4. CAPA cartridge pistol launcher and cartridges.
5 

pyrotechnics as Division 1.4 explosives. Division 1.4 explosives are explosive materials with a 

minor explosion hazard, primarily confined to the shipping container (no mass detonation hazard). 

1.1.3 Ammunition for Firearms 

Firearms with various ammunition, which almost exclusively use smokeless gunpowder and are 

regulated by ATF, are used by WS personnel in WDM. However, ATF exempts most ammunition 

manufactured for personal use from regulations for explosives. Gunpowder comes in many 

different brands, and the brand dictates the weight of gunpowder used in a cartridge or shell to 

get the desired ballistics. Smokeless powders consist of propellants (the energetic compound that 

propels the bullet), deterrents (plasticizers that slow the burn rate down), stabilizers (the propellant 

nitrocellulose deteriorates over time and produces acidic byproducts, which increases the rate of 

deterioration; this process releases heat and can cause self-ignition, thus additives include 

chemicals to stabilize the nitrocellulose), flash reducers (to minimize the flash from the end of the 

gun), and other minor additives (Gore et al. 2016). The mixture of chemicals in gunpowder varies 

by brand, and different chemicals are used to get the desired mix. One brand of smokeless 

powder could use half the amount needed to get the same ballistics from another powder.

Therefore, it is very difficult to assess the amount of actual chemicals and smokeless powder 

used by WS with accuracy, but it can be assumed. 

The .22 caliber bullet was propelled initially using 5 grains (0.065 g) of black powder. When .22 

ammunition was converted to smokeless gunpowder, about 2.5 grains were typically used, 

depending on brand and bullet grains (usually about 40 grains of lead). A 150-grain bullet uses a 

max of 7.5 grains of smokeless powder in a .40 pistol depending on the brand of gunpowder used.

Shotgun shells use a maximum of 20 grains of powder. Rifle cartridges tend to carry the most 

powder, often as much as 60 grains. Using these parameters, along with parameters outlined in 

The Use of Lead in Wildlife Damage Management Risk Assessment for the number of shots fired 

per animal taken, the gunpowder used nationally by WS can be estimated. 

Several types of smokeless powders are available and contain several ingredients, including 

propellants, deterrents, stabilizers, decoppering chemicals, flash and wear reducers, and other 

additives (Gore et al. 2016). The most important factors related to ballistic performance are the

shape, density, and burn rate of the powder. Pistol powder is flake powder that burns fast; rifle 

powder is a ball powder, and sometimes stick powder, which burns slower. Shotgun powder 

usually consists of flattened ball powder, which burns slowly, usually slower for heavier loads. 

Smokeless powders are single-, double-, and triple-based, meaning they have one, two, or three 

propellants as the primary ingredients. Nitrocellulose is the primary propellant, nitroglycerine in 

double- and triple-based powders, and nitroguanidine in triple-based smokeless powder (Table 

1). Other propellants could include diethylene glycol dinitrate (sometimes used in single-based 

powder – Table 1), diethanolamine dinitrate (C4H8N4O8), fivonite 2,2,5,5-tetramethylolcyclopentanone tetranitrate (C9H12N4O13), and acetyl cellulose ([C6H7O2(OH)3]n + 3n(CH3CO)2O). 

Deterrents typically include centralites, dibutyl phthalate, and polyester adipate (Table 1) and 

have also included Arkadite II (C14H14N2O) and ortho-tolyl-urethane. Stabilizers include

diphenylamine, calcium carbonate, and N-nitrosodiphenylamine (Table 1) and have included 

petroleum jelly, magnesium oxide (MgO), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), and beta-naphthyl 

methyl ether (2-methoxynaphthalene – C11H10O). Flash reducers include potassium nitrate and 

potassium sulfate and have included potassium chloride (KCl) (Table 1). Decoppering additives, 

which hinder the buildup of copper in the barrel, are tin oxide and bismuth trioxide (Table 1), and 

wear reducers typically include wax, talc, and titanium dioxide. Finally, some additives are related 

to the shape, size, and adhesiveness of the powder and include ethyl acetate (used in 
6 

manufacturing to make spherical shaped pellets), rosin (a surfactant to hold flake shape), and 

graphite (a lubricant to keep flakes separate and dissipate static so the flakes do not ignite) (Table 

1). 

Under explosives regulations, ATF does not regulate smokeless gunpowder used as the 

propellant in small arms ammunition. Black powder is associated with some firearms commonly 

known as muzzleloaders, but WS does not use these in the field. Smokeless powders designed 

for use in small arms ammunition are exempt from regulation under 18 U.S.C. Chapter 40 and 

the regulations in 27 CFR Part 555. Packaging that readily identifies the smokeless powder as 

being designed for use in small arms ammunition may help determine whether it is entitled to the 

exemption. Smokeless powder designed for use other than in small arms ammunition, and 

explosive products such as squibs, fireworks, theatrical special effects, or other articles that may 

contain smokeless powders, are regulated and must be stored pursuant to the regulations at 27 

CFR 555, Subpart K – Storage. It should be noted that people engaged in the business of 

importing or manufacturing smokeless powder designed for any use must have a Federal 

Explosives license. Further, importers of smokeless powder designed for use in small arms 

ammunition must also possess an ATF firearms importers license (Type 08 or 11) and must 

register with ATF under the provisions of the Arms Export Control Act. They must submit (to ATF) 

and receive an approved ATF Form 6 – part I (5330.3A), Application and Permit for Importation 

of Firearms Ammunition and Implements of War. 

Table 1. Smokeless powder components, specific ingredients, their basic chemical formula, and percentage 

of generic ingredients in single-based, double-based, and triple based formulations (every brand of 

gunpowder contains different elements and amounts). 

COMPONENT INGREDIENT CHEMICAL 

FORMULA

PRODUCT % (-based)

Single Double Triple

PROPELLANTS -

Energetic 

Compounds

Nitrocellulose 3HNO3+ C6H10O5 50-90% 50-85% 26-30%

Nitroglycerine C3H5(NO3)3 none 8-42% 20-24%

Nitroguanidine CH4N4O2 none none 46-48%

Diethylene Glycol Dinitrate C4H8N2O7 0-1.5% none

DETERRENTS –

Plasticizers, Slow 

Burn Rate

Ethyl Centralite C17H20N2O 0-10% none 1-3%

Dibutyl Phthalate C16H22O4 0-10% 0-8% none

Polyester Adipate (C6H10O4.C2H6O2)x 0-10% none none

STABILIZERS -

Slow SelfDecomposition

Diphenylamine C12H11N 0-1.5% 0.7-1.7% none

Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 0-1% 0-1% none

N-Nitrosodiphenylamine C12H10N2O 0-1% none none

Potassium Nitrate - Saltpeter KNO3 0-3% 0-1.5% none

Potassium Sulfate K2SO4 0-3% none none

DECOPPERING -

Hinder CU Buildup

Tin Oxide O2Sn 0-1.5% none none

Bismuth Trioxide (Cryolite) Bi2O3 none none 0.3%

OTHER ADDITIVES 

– For Consistency 

and Safety

Ethyl Acetate – spherical C4H8O2 0-2% none none

Rosin - surfactant C15H20O6 0-5% none none

Graphite – lubricant C 0-1% none 1-3%

In addition to gunpowder, ammunition cartridges use primers to ignite the gunpowder. In firearms, 

the primer is the chemical or device responsible for initiating the propellant combustion to push 

the projectiles out of the gun barrel. Center-fire cartridges (rifle and shotgun ammunition, and 

larger calibers of pistols) use a cap, which can be pulled to reload and rim-fire cartridges, used in 

small caliber rounds such as .17 and .22 caliber ammunition, are struck on the rim, which is like 

a centerfire cap or primer. Because of the dent, rim-fire rounds cannot be reloaded. WS can 

estimate the primers used annually.
7 

1.1.4 Rocket Nets and Cannon Nets

Explosive-activated projectiles carry rocket and 

cannon nets over targeted species that are 

attracted to a specific area, usually a baited or 

natural feeding site (Dill and Thornsberry 1950, 

Schemnitz et al. 2009). These can be rather large 

areas, covering 15 ft. x 30 ft. to 30 ft. x 60 ft. or 

larger. Rocket and cannon nets are accordion 

folded nets pulled rapidly by explosive-driven 

projectiles to cover a predetermined area to 

capture target animals present before they can 

escape (Figures 5 and 6). The net can be placed 

directly on the ground in a line or folded and 

placed in a specially designed box (Grubb 1988). 

The projectiles are attached to the net, usually 

with small cords. The two netting systems differ in 

basic hardware and speed, which equates to the 

capacity to pull larger nets and the height of 

deployment.

Most cannon nets utilized by WS are smoothly 

bored-out heavy projectiles placed on launch rods, 

usually directed at about a 20-degree angle over 

the target area (Figure 5a). A charge of smokeless 

powder or black powder is placed inside the 

projectile atop the launch rod. The powder is 

ignited with an electric match with leg wires that 

run from the end of the launch rods, along grooves 

in the launch rod, or through holes (Figure 5b, 5c) 

and is connected to a small gauge wire firing line. 

The wire firing line is usually spooled out to an area 

where WS personnel wait hidden from the target 

animal(s).

Rocket nets use heavy pipe projectiles, typically 

three or more, on “L-shaped“ or “Pi-shaped” 

(Figure 6a) stands. Rockets have a twist-off cap on 

the bottom where an explosive is inserted with

holes for gas created by the blast to escape, 

propelling the rocket in the opposite direction

(Figure 6b). The explosive is usually a bag 

containing M6 howitzer propellant (mostly 

compressed nitrocellulose, otherwise known as 

guncotton, and this ingredient makes it a true 

explosive) and black powder with an electric

match. The electric match is attached to a leg wire 

run out of the projectile and then attached to a 

small gauge wire firing-line, which is used to 

initiate the rockets from a remote location. These 

Figure 5a. A cannon stand and smooth-bore projectile.

Figure 5b. Cannon net projectile attached to net being 

placed on launch rod which has a groove for the match 

leg wires.

Figure 5c. Taping the electric match leg wires to the 

launch rod to keep it in place. 
8 

are often used with heavier netting for larger birds 

or mammals, especially those that can quickly get 

out of the way, and for nets of larger dimensions 

(Figure 6c). Rocket nets typically require the use of 

three or more projectiles.

Projectiles are reusable but require frequent 

cleaning as black powder and, to a lesser extent, 

smokeless gunpowder cause fouling. In addition to 

the rocket net, other specialty equipment is 

necessary for safely firing and storing rocket nets 

and their charges. A blasting galvanometer, 

capacitor-discharge machine, and electrical firing 

line are recommended for the safe use of this 

equipment. 

Until recently, the UN and USDOT classified rocket 

net charges (mixture of black powder and M6 

howitzer propellant) as Division 1.3 explosives, 

which are a fire or projection hazard but do not pose 

a mass explosion hazard. Following a packaging 

redesign and other related modifications made by 

the manufacturer, the rocket net charges used by 

WS have been reclassified as Division 1.4 

explosives. WS Directive 2.625 provides 

procedures and accountability for the secure 

handling and safe use of net propellants. The WS 

Explosives Safety Subcommittee is responsible for 

developing safety and security procedures for WS, 

conducting training, and certifying WS personnel in 

the use of rocket and cannon nets. The WS 

Explosives Safety Subcommittee has developed a 

rocket and cannon net safety manual that 

establishes procedures and accountability for the 

safe and secure storage, transportation, 

procurement, and use of rocket and cannon nets, 

including net propellants. The manual also ensures 

WS's use of net propellants conforms to applicable 

federal, state, and local laws and regulations.

1.1.5 Incidental Explosive Materials 

Several explosive components are associated with 

the use of multicomponent explosives, net 

propellants, pyrotechnics, and ammunition to 

enable their use. Examples may include 

nonelectric, electric, and fuse detonators, 

detonating cord, nonelectric shock tube, safety 

fuse, pull-wire fuse lighters, electric matches, and 

primers. Pyrotechnics and ammunition are mostly 

actuated by primers (some pyrotechnics are 

Figure 6c. A rocket net deployed to capture about 40 tundra 

swans for a banding project. 

Figure 6b. One of 6 rockets used for project with electric 

match leg wire coming from an opening where black powder 

and M-6 propellant are stored. 

Figure 6a. Preparing rockets and net for a tundra swan 

banding project. 
9 

actuated by a lit fuse, though they are used rarely compared to other pyrotechnics). Both rocket 

and cannon nets use electric matches to ignite smokeless gunpowder or black powder, 

respectively, which launches projectiles attached to a net with cords. 

 Detonators

Detonators frequently referred to as blasting caps, are small explosive devices generally used 

to detonate a larger, more powerful secondary explosive. Detonators can initiate secondary 

explosives chemically, mechanically, or electrically, with mechanical and electrical initiation 

being the most common. The primary explosive compound found in detonators is a 

combination of lead azide (Pb(N3)2), lead styphnate (C6HN3O8Pb), and aluminum (Al), which 

is commonly referred to as the compound ASA. The ASA compound is pressed against the 

base charge within the detonator, which usually consists of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN 

or pentrite) (C5H8N4O12). Some detonators designated as lead-free use diazodinitrophenol 

(C6H2N4O5) instead of lead azide and lead styphnate to reduce the amount of lead emitted 

into the atmosphere.

WS may use electric detonators, nonelectric shock tube detonators, and fuse detonators. A

small electric current activates an electric detonator. A nonelectric shock tube detonator does 

not require an electric current or safety fuse to function but initiates by a spark or flash from a 

shock tube initiation device. A shock tube consists of a small diameter laminated plastic tube 

coated with a very thin layer of energetic material known as HMX (C4H8N8O8) that ignites at 

approximately 6,500 feet per second. A detonation wave transmitted through the shock tube 

initiates the detonator. A fuse detonator is initiated by a safety fuse, consisting of a flexible 

cord containing an internal black powder burning medium whereby a fire or flame is conveyed 

at a continuous and uniform rate from the point of ignition to the point of the fuse detonator.

 Detonating Cord

Detonating cord is a flexible plastic cord with a center core of high explosives (PETN) used to 

initiate other explosives. PETN detonates at approximately 23,000 feet per second or 4 miles 

per second. The detonation rate of detonating cord allows users to synchronize multiple 

charges to detonate almost simultaneously, even if the explosive charges are different 

distances from the initiation point. The PETN is enclosed in multiple polypropylene yarn, overextruded with a polyethylene jacket and high-strength textile yarns. The covering ensures that 

the cord is water and abrasion-resistant, has high tensile strength, and is not sensitive to 

extraneous current. Several colors are available to ensure easy identification of different types 

like white, pink, bright green, yellow, and red (e.g., Figures 1b and 2e).

 Fuses

In an explosive or pyrotechnic device, a fuse is the part of the device that initiates the function 

of another product. Fuses are typically colored dark green, black (military), or fluorescent 

orange (commercial) to distinguish them from detonating cords, which are brightly colored or 

transparent. There are several types of fuses that WS could use, including safety fuse, Visco 

fuse, quick match, black match, and slow match, which are described below. 

 Safety Fuses, made with potassium nitrate (saltpeter, KNO3), charcoal (carbon, C), and 

sulfur (S), are the agent through which the burning reaction is conveyed at a relatively 

uniform rate to the ignition area of the blasting cap. It burns at its core, not at its surface; 

thus, the exterior signs of burning follow behind the interior burning. Safety fuses consist 
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of a black powder core in a textile tube, covered with a waterproofing agent such as 

asphalt (asphaltum), plastics, or nitrocellulose lacquer, and having an outer wrapper of 

tough textile or plastic. They are made in a standard diameter designed to be crimped into 

blasting caps. Safety fuses are typically green, black, or orange, but not bright to 

distinguish them from detonating cord. Once ignited, safety fuses have no external flame, 

so they will not ignite any flammable material or gases in their path and can burn 

underwater. Safety fuses are manufactured with specified burn times per foot (30 cm), 

e.g., 40 seconds, which means that a foot-long fuse will take 40 seconds to burn. Air 

pressure determines the burn rate. The greater the confinement or pressure is on the fuse, 

the faster the fuse’s burn rate (low elevation - faster vs. high elevation –slower).

Manufacturers warn that although every effort is made to ensure uniform burn times, 

safety fuses are subject to variation depending on conditions and should be used with 

adequate safety measures in place. The core can be affected by water absorbed through 

cracks or at the end of the fuse.

 Visco Fuses are like a safety fuse with a core of black powder with one or more textile 

overwraps but differ in that a flame is visible. The outer layers may be coated with wax or 

nitrocellulose lacquer for water resistance. These fuses are widely used in modern 

pyrotechnics because they burn at a uniform rate with an easily visible external flame.

Depending on their outer treatment, Visco fuses are water-resistant and can burn reliably 

underwater once lit because the black powder core provides both its own fuel and oxidant.

In rodent and predator damage management, gas cartridges use Visco fuses to ignite the 

gas cartridge. The Use of Carbon Monoxide from Gas Cartridges and Forced Gas 

Fumigation Systems in Wildlife Damage Management considered the carbon monoxide 

and take associated with gas cartridges, but not fuses. 

 Quick Matches or piped matches are a type of black powder fuse that burns very quickly, 

some hundreds of feet per second. They are a black match covered with a loose paper 

wrap (pipe). When lit, the flame propagates quickly down the paper pipe from the hot 

gases produced by the burning powder. Quick matches are used in professional fireworks 

displays to pass fire nearly instantly between devices that must be physically separated 

while firing simultaneously, such as a finale rack. Devices that should fire in sequence can 

be branched from a single master fuse, consisting of quick match spliced onto a Visco 

fuse of various lengths for time delays.

 Black Matches are a type of fuse consisting of cotton string coated with a dried slurry of 

black powder and glue. This fuse acted as a simple pass fire and was used to fire ancient 

cannons. They are used today in fireworks construction. An igniter safety fuse electric 

(ISFE), a black match or quick matches, lights a main fuse or device when activated by 

an electric current. Black matches burn many feet per second. 

 Slow Matches are very slow-burning fuses consisting of a hemp or cotton rope saturated 

with an oxidizer such as KNO3 (most widely used). Slow matches were used as a source 

of fire for manually lighting other devices such as pyrotechnics (M-80 firecrackers). These 

were frequently used prior to 2000 (Neff and Mitchell 1955). Other pyrotechnic devices 

have replaced these, including propane cannons and electronic sounds. WS will not likely 

use these again. 
11

 Electric Matches

Electric matches typically consist of a pair of wires leading to a thin resistance wire that heats 

when an electrical current is applied. The resistance wire is covered by a bit of pyrotechnic 

composition that ignites from the wire heating, providing enough fire to reliably ignite the main 

fuse via a mechanical connection or the device directly. Cannon and rocket net explosives

are lit by a type of electric match. 

 Primers 

Primers, including percussion and blasting caps, are made with a detonator mixture of lead

styphnate (lead 2,4,6-trinitroresorcinate, C6HN3O8Pb) and lead azide (Pb(N3)2). Lead azide is 

a less sensitive primary explosive for initiating other explosives such as ammunition, blanks, 

pyrotechnics, and blasting caps than other compounds that have been used, such as mercury 

fulminate (Lundgaard et al. 2019). Lead styphnate is the most widely used initiating 

compound; but possibly could be replaced due to the toxicity of lead (Fronabarger 2011, 

Csernica et al. 2016, Klapotke et al. 2016). A new initiating compound for primers would have 

to pass stringent requirements for use in military applications. Requirements would include 

reliability, shelf-life, stability, and commercial application safety since primers are used in 

ammunition for many activities, such as shooting sports and law enforcement. Lead styphnate 

has a 5.2 km/second detonation velocity and an explosion temperature of 265-280° C after 

five seconds. Lead styphnate is a primary explosive with gunpowder but will not ignite upon a 

simple impact but rather a heavy impact such as that from a firing pin. 

Lead styphnate is used in primers and produces a minimal amount of gas when fired, which 

in large doses would be toxic owing to the heavy metal poisoning, as with other leadcontaining compounds. Lead styphnate, whose name is derived from styphnic acid, is only 

slightly soluble in water and methanol but can be neutralized with sodium carbonate. It is 

particularly sensitive to fire. There are two forms of lead styphnate crystals, six-sided 

monohydrate crystals, and small rectangular crystals. When dry, longer and narrower lead 

styphnate crystals are more susceptible to static electricity and can readily detonate by static 

discharges from the human body. Lead styphnate does not react with metals and is less 

sensitive to shock and friction than mercury fulminate or lead azide. It is stable in storage, 

even at elevated temperatures. Lead styphnate is only slightly soluble in water and methyl 

alcohol and may be neutralized by a sodium carbonate solution. 

Primers are highly reliable and rarely misfire, maybe 3 in a million (Guns and Ammo 2018). 

The most common cause of misfires is an "insufficient indent," meaning the primer was not 

struck with sufficient force to initiate an explosion. It should be noted that primers are set at a 

very precise orientation of component parts, and its sensitivity decreases if it is indented but 

does not go off; the primer chemical mix, called a pellet, may be cracked with an insufficient 

indent and moved out of the way from between the cup and the anvil, which will not detonate 

with further strikes. Causes of insufficient indent are numerous, including a damaged firing pin 

(e.g., one that has either a bent or chipped tip), a firing-pin spring that has weakened, 

excessive headspace making the cartridge further from the firing pin, and a firing-pin spring 

that may be dragging on the interior of the bolt body or impeded by grease in the bolt, 

especially under cold conditions. Improper loading techniques can cause perfectly good 

primers to perform poorly. For best sensitivity, the primer should be seated firmly to the bottom 

of the primer pocket but not unduly crushed into place. Contamination of the primer by 

moisture or oil can also desensitize the primer, resulting in a misfire. These causes are not 
12

typically seen in factory-loaded ammunition due to quality-control procedures (Guns and 

Ammo 2018). Still, they can be seen in primers used for pyrotechnic launchers and handloading ammunition, which are loose or may be exposed to the elements prior to use. Another 

common cause for misfires from a perfectly functioning rifle and good ammunition is the failure 

of the operator to close the bolt completely before firing. While all U.S. primers are made to 

an industry specification, the specification is a range. Thus, an identical performance may not 

be obtained from every primer, though differences may not be noticeable. Some brands of 

primers are more sensitive than others, not due to quality differences but rather to their design.

Primer sensitivity is a concern for problems such as “slam fires” when closing the bolt, causing 

a premature detonation, which could result in gases escaping from the breech area next to a 

shooter's face. 

1.2 Laws, Regulations, Policies, and Safe Use of Explosives

WS follows all applicable laws, regulations, policies, and directives for the safe use of explosives.

WS personnel must report all accidents and incidents to their supervisors and others as required. 

Explosive use involves inherent risks, which are minimized by following training and safety 

guidelines. Safe use of explosives also requires appropriate storage, inspections, and security, 

and these guidelines inherently reduce risks to WS personnel and the public. Some rules and 

regulations overlap among the various types of explosives, especially storage requirements.

1.2.1 Multicomponent Explosives

WS personnel that handle and use explosives to breach beaver dams abide by the policies in WS 

Directive 2.435, the WS Explosive Safety Manual, ATF Federal Explosives Laws and Regulations 

(ATF P 5400.7), Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations, state 

regulations, the Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME) safety recommendations (IME 2021), and 

product manufacturer instructions. WS only uses multicomponent explosives to breach beaver 

dams to release water impounded behind the dam. WS personnel transport and store the 

explosive components unmixed. WS safety guidelines and directives prohibit the transport or 

storage of mixed components by WS personnel. WS personnel mix the components of explosives 

at the dam site and then attach a detonating cord lead line to the plastic container containing the 

mixed components. WS personnel place the mixed components into the dam with the lead line 

extending out of the dam. When placing explosives inside a beaver dam, WS personnel use a 

pole made of wood or other non-sparking material to create a channel to insert the container 

containing the mixed components. WS personnel run a detonating cord trunk line across the top 

of the beaver dam and then attach the lead line(s) from the explosive container(s) at right angles 

to the trunk line. During blasting activities, detonators and initiation devices must remain in the 

possession of the WS Explosives Specialist-In-Charge. 

From the WS Explosive Safety Manual, the following rules apply to the use and handling of 

multicomponent explosives by WS employees: 

Rule - Specific instructions for the safe handling and use of all explosives, including multicomponent 

explosives, will be adhered to by all WS personnel certified to use explosives.

Rule - Mixing of multicomponent explosives will occur only at the blasting site. The blasting site is 

defined as the area where explosive material is handled during loading and 50 feet in all directions from 

loaded holes or holes to be loaded (i.e., the individual beaver dam to be removed and the surrounding 

50-foot area). Any unused, mixed explosives will be deactivated at the blasting site in a timely manner, 

following the manufacturer’s recommended procedures.
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Rule - Warning signs must be placed at conspicuous entrances to the blasting area as appropriate.

Other safety measures to prevent unwanted access to the blast area should be taken as appropriate.

Rule - Night blasting or blasting under conditions requiring an artificial light source or under adverse 

weather conditions is prohibited.

Rule - Safety hats (hard hats) will be worn during blasting activities. The WS Explosives Specialist-inCharge is responsible for ensuring that all persons present at the blasting site are wearing safety hats.

Rule - Smoking, open flame producing devices (matches and cigarette lighters), and firearms use are 

prohibited around explosive materials.

Rule - Before blasting operations are conducted in the vicinity of gas, electric, water, sewage, fire alarm, 

telephone, or other utilities, the Explosives Specialist-in-Charge will contact the Dig Safe One-Call 

Center # 811 or go to the website call811.com to obtain local utility locations and utility contact 

information. Operators of utilities will be notified at least 24 hours in advance of blasting and asked to 

provide exact locations of any utility close enough to the blast site to be of concern. The Explosives 

Specialist-in-Charge will ensure blasting activities are conducted a safe distance from utilities and other 

property to avoid damage.

Rule - Conducting blasting operations within 300 feet of a structure or utility is not permitted without 

authorization from the WS State Director.

Rule - Mobile radio transmitters and cell phones will be turned off during blasting operations involving 

electric detonators.

Rule - No explosive materials will be abandoned.

Rule - Tamping will be done only with poles made of wood or other non-sparking material.

Rule - At the discretion of the Explosives Specialist-in-Charge, noncertified individuals may provide 

assistance with moving explosives from the transport vehicle to the blasting site and preparing the 

blasting site. Only the Explosives Specialist-in-Charge is authorized to carry, handle, and prepare 

detonators. Noncertified assistants must be a safe distance from the blasting site when the detonator 

is being prepared and attached to the detonating cord. The Explosives Specialist-in-Charge is 

responsible for ensuring that all assisting persons are in a safe location (250 foot minimum) before the 

blast is initiated.

Rule - It is the responsibility of the Explosives Specialist-in-Charge to adhere to all state regulations 

pertaining to the handling and use of explosives.

Rule - During blasting operations, unattended explosives and binary components must be appropriately 

secured and locked in or on the vehicle (e.g., in locked IME-22 (IME 2007), toolbox, or camper shell or 

topper).

Rule - During blasting operations, the initiation device (capacitor discharge machine, shock tube 

ignition device, or pull-wire lighter) will always remain in the possession of the Explosives-SpecialistIn-Charge. 

Rule - Before preparing a shot, the Explosives Specialist-in-Charge will ensure that a back-up device 

or initiation system is available for use if the primary system malfunctions. If using fuse detonators as 

the primary system, an additional electric or nonelectric shock-tube system must be carried as a backup system.

Rule - Multiple detonator shots will only be made by Advanced Explosives Specialists except that 

double capping is mandatory for all fuse detonator-initiated shots. An Advanced Explosives Specialist 
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is a Certified Explosives Specialist who has successfully completed the WS advanced explosives 

training course on multiple and delay detonator techniques. 

Rule - All misfires will be reported on WS Form 23, Site Blasting Record, and within 72 hours, to the 

Explosives Safety Subcommittee Chair. 

Occasionally, misfires may occur during the use of multicomponent systems (i.e., when mixed 

explosive components fail to detonate). The WS Explosives Safety Manual provides step-by-step 

procedures WS personnel must follow when misfires occur. The step-by-step procedures for 

misfires vary depending on the type of detonator WS personnel used. When using fuse detonators 

and a misfire occurs, WS personnel must wait at least 60 minutes before returning to the blasting 

site and must keep the area clear of people. After at least 60 minutes, WS personnel must 

approach the dam cautiously and look for smoke. If WS personnel detect smoke, WS personnel 

must retreat immediately. Before approaching the dam, WS personnel must prepare two 

detonators and fuse assemblies following the checklist procedures for the use of fuse detonators 

and tape the detonators to a minimum three-foot length of detonating cord. If possible, WS 

personnel should approach the dam on the opposite side from where the original detonators were 

attached to the trunk line and must not disturb the misfired detonators. WS personnel would then 

tie the detonating cord with two new detonators and fuse assemblies to the trunk line running 

across the dam. WS personnel would check and clear the blasting area and repeat the appropriate 

warning signal before igniting the fuses. Once personnel light the fuses, they would retreat to the 

preselected area of safety. If the explosive system fails a second time, WS personnel must use 

an alternative initiation system to detonate the explosives using the appropriate checklist. 

When using shock tube detonators or electric detonators and a misfire occurs, WS personnel 

must examine the initiation device to determine a potential problem. If the cause of the misfire 

was a faulty initiation device or connection, then WS personnel must correct the problem and reinitiate the detonation. For example, when using electric detonators and a misfire occurs, WS

personnel would check the wires at the blasting machine to determine if a short occurred. If the 

wires are shorted, WS personnel would correct the problem, ensure the blasting area is clear of 

people, and then initiate detonation again. In another example, when using nonelectric shock tube 

detonators and a misfire occurs, WS personnel would check the shock tube initiation device for 

moisture, mud, or other debris that may have prevented the shock tube from firing. If the cause 

of the misfire was not associated with the initiation device WS personnel must wait at least 30 

minutes before returning to the blast site and must keep the blasting area clear of people. WS

personnel then inspect lines and connections leading to and at the blasting site and make any 

necessary corrections to re-initiating the detonation, If the problem cannot be corrected, WS

personnel must use a backup initiation device or prepare a second detonator and detonating cord 

assembly as described above or use an alternative initiation system to detonate the components 

of the mixed explosive. 

WS personnel must also adhere to storage requirements of explosives below and in Section 1.2.6. 

When storing multicomponent explosives, WS personnel must store the liquid and solid 

components in separate locked buildings or store the liquid and solid components locked up 

separately in the same building. In addition, WS personnel must store nitromethane (liquid 

component) a minimum of 50 feet away from explosive materials. The solid components may be 

stored in the same building as explosives that are properly stored in indoor magazines. WS

personnel must follow several rules when storing incidental explosives and multicomponent 

explosives overnight: 

Rule - Never store explosives in a residence.
15

Rule - All explosive materials must be stored in accordance with ATF and OSHA regulations (ATF: Law 

and Regulations, ATF P 5400.7 and 29 CFR, Part 1910.109) as well as meet state and local 

requirements.

Rule - Type 1 and Type 2 outdoor explosives magazines must comply with the distance requirements 

of the American Table of Distances for Storage of Explosives (ATF: Explosives Law and Regulations, 

ATF P 5400.7, Subpart K, 555.218 and 29 CFR, Part 1910.109(c)(vii)). Indoor magazines must also 

comply with 555.218, as possible, and always comply with the Table of Distances for Storage of Low 

Explosives (555.219).

Rule - Overnight storage of explosive materials will be in a magazine which meets one of the following:

a. An outdoor magazine can be used if it meets ATF Type 1 or 2 and OSHA standards (ATF: 

Explosives Law and Regulations, ATF P 5400.7, Subpart K, 555.207 and 29 CFR, Part 

1910.109(c)(3)(i) If a Type 2 outdoor magazine is used, it must have a metal floor, placed on a welldrained site, and be substantially anchored, preferably to a concrete slab.

b. Indoor magazine must meet ATF Type 2 Indoor and OSHA Class II magazine standards. The 

IME-22 container constructed with 1/2" plywood inside liner and 1/8" low carbon steel surface 

laminates with a lid that has a 1-inch overhang meets these standards and can be used as an 

indoor storage magazine (IME 2007). Storage of explosives in any other magazine type, container, 

or in a different manner is not authorized.

Rule - Indoor magazines are limited to a 50-pound maximum gross weight of explosive material per 

magazine, or 50 pounds per building when more than one indoor magazine is stored in the same 

building.

Rule - Indoor magazines must be placed in a secure, locked building for overnight storage and located 

within 10 feet of an exterior, ground level doorway. When two or more indoor magazines are in the 

same building, 10 feet should be maintained between magazines, as possible. The door on indoor 

explosives storage magazines must be equipped with two ATF approved hooded locks, except indoor 

magazines need only be secured with one steel padlock having at least five tumblers and a casehardened shackle of at least 3/8 inch diameter, without a hood, if they are located in rooms or buildings 

for which the doorway(s) is secured by the same locking system required for a magazine; that is, two 

hooded padlocks, two mortise locks, a combination of a hooded padlock and a mortise lock, a mortise 

lock that requires two keys to open, or a three point lock. For ATF approved lock specifications, see 

ATF: Explosives Law and Regulations, ATF P 5400.7, Subpart K, 555.208(b)(4) for indoor magazines 

and 555.207(a)(9) for outdoor magazines.

Rule – Each indoor magazine must be provided with substantial wheels or casters with the 

recommendation of an unattached, flat, 4-wheel furniture-type dolly. As a result, all sides of indoor 

magazines, the front, top, and all sides must be painted red and have in 3" high white lettering reading: 

EXPLOSIVES - KEEP FIRE AWAY

Rule - Packages of explosives must not be unpacked or repacked in any type of magazine or near any 

other explosives.

Rule - Magazine stock and binary components must be rotated so that the oldest material is always 

used first. The inventory needs should be planned to avoid storing explosive materials for extended 

periods of time.

Rule - Each magazine storage facility will have an assigned WS Explosives-Specialist- In-Charge who 

is responsible for the enforcement of safety precautions, security, weekly and biannual inspections, 

physical inventories, records and reporting requirements, and maintenance.
16

Rule - Grounds around outdoor magazines and buildings housing indoor magazines must be kept clear 

at a 25-foot minimum distance of brush, vegetation, and other combustible materials which could pose 

a fire hazard.

Rule - Smoking, matches, open flames, and spark or flame-producing devices are not permitted inside 

of or within 50 feet of a magazine. Persons approaching magazines must be warned verbally or by 

warning signs posted at appropriate locations. Firearms, ammunition, and spark-producing metal tools 

are prohibited in or near explosive magazines.

Rule - No flammable liquids or other flammable materials will be stored within 50 feet of explosive 

materials or magazines.

Rule - Signs reading “Explosives - Keep Off” are optional on property upon which outdoor magazines 

are located and on buildings housing indoor magazines. Signs should not be posted at magazine 

locations where security risk is a concern. If signs are not posted, persons approaching magazines 

must be warned verbally not to approach within 50 feet of magazines with firearms, ammunition, and 

spark or flame-producing devices.

Rule - Explosives Specialists will notify (or ensure that their supervisors notify) local law enforcement 

agencies and the local and/or State Fire Marshall in writing with the location(s) of explosives storage 

magazines and the types and general amounts of explosive materials stored in the magazine(s).

Rule - Explosives Specialists will restrict access to explosive materials by unauthorized persons by 

keeping their magazines locked when not adding or removing explosives and by providing proper 

security to magazine keys.

Rule - The storage of Division 1.1 explosive materials is prohibited.

WS personnel must also transport multicomponent and incidental explosives to and from a beaver 

dam. An IME-22 container is necessary for the safe transportation of explosive material, and an 

explosives magazine is required for long-term storage (IME 2007). USDOT regulates 

transportation of explosives, OSHA (Part 1910.109), and other state and local agencies. and IME 

Safety Library Publication (SLP) Numbers 1 (IME 2017), 3 (IME 2021), 4 (IME 2016), 12 (IME 

2018), 14 (IME 2019), and 22 (IME 2007). WS vehicles that transport explosives materials, 

including multicomponent explosives, detonating cord, detonators, safety fuse, safety fuse 

lighters, and nonelectric lead lines, are exempt from USDOT placarding requirements (49 CFR 

172.504) and commercial driver’s license requirements (49 CFR 383) when the aggregate gross 

weight of the explosive materials is less than 1,001 pounds. In addition, the following rules apply 

when WS personnel are transporting explosives materials

Rule - Each vehicle used to transport explosives must be inspected daily before loading explosives.

The inspection must be recorded on a daily vehicle inspection log and carried onboard the vehicle (see 

explosives safety manual). 

Rule - The quantity of each explosive material type and binary components being transported must be 

recorded on an inventory list and carried onboard the vehicle (see explosives safety manual).

Rule - IME-22 containers must be locked and permanently or temporarily secured to the vehicle at all 

times when explosives are not being loaded or unloaded.

Rule - No persons are allowed to smoke or carry matches or any other flame-producing device while 

in or near a vehicle transporting explosives. Smoking within 50 feet of explosives is prohibited.

Rule - Metal objects and tools carried in the bed of a vehicle transporting explosives must be carried in 

wood containers or otherwise secured to prevent them from producing sparks.
17

Rule - Each vehicle used to transport explosives must be equipped with two (2) fire extinguishers each 

having a rating of at least 3-A:40-B:C. 

Rule - A tarpaulin (heavy-duty waterproof cloth) or other waterproof covering must be used to keep 

IME-22 containers and other components dry during inclement weather.

1.2.2 Pyrotechnics

Many EPCD pyrotechnics are fired from pyrotechnic pistols, which are typically called launchers.

Some pyrotechnics are fired from a shotgun, while others have a fuse that is lit. When using 

pyrotechnic pistols, the pyrotechnic is inserted part way into a receiver at the end of the pistol 

barrel and fired from the pistol using a blank ignition primer. When the firing hammer strikes the 

ignition primer, the spark produced from the primer ignites the pyrotechnic, which propels itself 

out of the pistol's barrel. CAPA cartridges go the furthest distance at up to 1,000 feet.

EPCD pyrotechnics fired from a shotgun, cracker shells, or shell crackers look and function 

similarly to shotgun ammunition. The pyrotechnic is contained inside a plastic shell, which also 

contains an ignition primer. When the shotgun's firing pin strikes the primer, the primer creates a 

spark that ignites the pyrotechnic. Although newer cracker shells are consistent, the barrel needs 

to be checked after each use to ensure that the wad, which helps project the pyrotechnic in the 

shell, has cleared the barrel. If the wad is stuck in the barrel, the next pyrotechnic could blow up 

inside the barrel. 

Though rarely used today, some EPCD rockets and other pyrotechnics were activated with fuses. 

Rockets tended to travel far distances but were somewhat cumbersome. Thus, few are used by 

WS field personnel. Most rockets are fired from launchers because of ease of use.

WS requirements for overnight storage:

Rule - Never store pyrotechnics or any other explosive material in a residence.

Rule - All pyrotechnics will be stored in accordance with the next Rule to comply with ATF regulations 

(Federal Explosives Law and Regulations, ATF P 5400.7) and OSHA regulations (29 CFR 1910.109)

or in accordance with the temporary overnight vehicle storage variance cited below.

Rule - Magazines approved for overnight storage of pyrotechnics will meet one of the following 

descriptions:

a. An outdoor magazine meeting ATF Type 1 magazine standards (Federal Explosives Law and 

Regulations, ATF 5400.7, Subpart K, 55.207) or ATF Type 2 outdoor magazine standards (ATF 

5400.7, Subpart K, 55.208(a) (http://www.atf.gov/pub/fireexplo_pub/explo_law_reg.htm) and

OSHA standards (29 CFR, Part 1910.109(c)(3)(i)). Type 2 outdoor magazines will be of substantial 

size and construction to discourage theft, have metal floors, and be securely anchored to a concrete 

slab or to substantial ground anchors. 

b. An indoor magazine that meets ATF Type 2 or ATF Type 4 indoor magazine standards and

OSHA standards (29 CFR, Part 1910.109(c)(3)(i)). See ATF 5400.7, Subpart K, 55.208(b) and

55.210 for construction and lock requirements (http://www.atf.gov/pub/fireexplo_pub/explo_law_reg.htm). The IME-22 container (IME SLP No. 22, Part 2, paragraph B and 

Appendix 3; http://www.ime.org/imestore/default.asp) exceeds these standards and can be used 

as an indoor storage magazine for Division 1.4 pyrotechnics. Indoor magazines must be locked 

and kept in a locked building in accordance with ATF 5400.7, Subpart K

(http://www.atf.gov/pub/fire-explo_pub/explo_law_reg.htm). Indoor magazines must be painted red 
18

and have in 3” high white lettering “EXPLOSIVES – KEEP FIRE AWAY” on the front, top, and all 

sides. Each indoor magazine must be provided with substantial wheels or casters (unattached, flat 

4-wheel furniture-type dollies are recommended).

Rule - Pyrotechnics will be stored in a magazine containing no other commodities or materials except 

for gas cartridge fuses and/or boxed small arms ammunition. Pyrotechnics will not be stored in the 

same magazine with rocket net charges or explosives used for removing beaver dams (detonators, 

binary explosives, detonating cord, safety fuse, and pull wire igniters). Pyrotechnics will be maintained 

in the manufacturer’s small cardboard boxes when not in use rather than stored loose or in plastic bags.

Rule - The quantity of any explosive materials stored in an indoor magazine must not exceed 50 lbs. 

per magazine or 50 lbs. per building when explosive materials are stored in more than one indoor 

magazine in the same building. For example, the average weight of the total pyrotechnic composition 

in 15mm bird banger and screamer siren cartridges is 4 grams per cartridge. Therefore, the maximum 

number of 15 mm bird banger or screamer siren cartridges that can be stored in a single indoor 

magazine or building is 5,600 cartridges if no other explosive materials are present. The average

explosives weight for cracker shells is 2 grams per cartridge; therefore, 11,000 cracker shells equal 50 

pounds of explosive material. Since CAPA long-range cartridges (18.2mm) contain an average total 

explosives weight of 5.73 grams, a total of 3,900 CAPA cartridges contain 50 pounds of explosive 

material. Any combination of pyrotechnic devices containing a total of not more than 50 pounds of 

explosive material can be stored together in a single magazine, or when multiple magazines are used, 

in a single building. The storage of up to 300,000 pounds of explosive material is permitted in ATF Type 

1 or Type 2 outdoor magazines. The American Table of Distances for Storage of Explosives (ATF

5400.7, Subpart K, 55.218) applies to explosive materials stored in outdoor magazines. This table 

provides mandatory separation distances between explosives magazines and inhabited buildings,

public highways, and railways.

Rule - Smoking, matches, open flame, or spark producing devices are not permitted within 50 feet of 

explosives magazines. Persons approaching magazines must be warned verbally or by warning signs 

posted at appropriate locations. Combustible materials and flammable liquids will not be stored within 

50 feet of magazines. The land surrounding a magazine will be kept clear of all combustible materials 

for a distance of at least 25 feet. 

Rule - The appropriate Safety Data Sheet(s) (SDS) will be kept with the magazine.

Rule - Each magazine, their contents, and required inventory records will be in the charge of a 

designated employee who oversees enforcing safety precautions, security, inspections, and inventory 

records and reporting requirements.

Rule - Access to explosive materials by unauthorized persons will be restricted by keeping magazines 

locked when not adding or withdrawing explosive materials from them and by providing proper security 

to magazine keys.

When necessary, EPCD pyrotechnics and their launch components may be stored overnight in a 

locked vehicle under the following conditions:

Rule - Overnight storage of pyrotechnics in a vehicle is authorized only when they are “in use” on an 

assigned project, and it is not practical to return them to magazine storage as described above in 

section A. Overnight Storage. “In use” on an assigned project is defined as the period between the date 

a field project is initiated until its completion date not to exceed 14 consecutive days and nights. State 

Directors and NWRC Field Station Leaders are authorized to extend overnight vehicle storage beyond 

14 days on a case-by-case basis when necessary to meet program objectives. Permanent overnight

storage of pyrotechnics in a vehicle is prohibited.
19

Rule - No more pyrotechnic cartridges than necessary to complete an assigned project may be stored 

overnight per vehicle, and in no case will more than 2,000 cartridges per vehicle be stored in the manner 

prescribed in this section.

Rule - Pyrotechnics temporarily stored in this manner will be locked inside an unmarked (for security 

reasons) IME-22 or other secure container containing no metal objects, explosive detonators, 

pesticides, I&E drugs or other chemicals. At a minimum, this container will consist of a metal exterior 

and an interior surface of non-sparking material. No screw heads or other metal surfaces will be 

exposed in the interior. The container lid must overlap the sides by at least 1 inch. For overnight vehicle 

storage, pyrotechnics must be: 1) stored in a locked container as described above under this rule which 

is placed out of sight inside a locked vehicle, affixed camper shell, or truck box, or 2) in a locked, 

unmarked IME 22 container securely affixed to the bed of a truck.

WS rules associated with the transportation of EPCD pyrotechnics: 

Rule - During transportation over public roadways, pyrotechnics will be locked in a secure container as 

described above. Transportation of bulk quantities of pyrotechnics in IME-22 containers (e.g., from a 

central magazine to smaller outlying magazines) is permitted (IME 2007). IME-22 containers will be 

permanently or temporarily secured to the vehicle during transit to prevent theft or a safety hazard in

the event of an accident and be covered by a tarpaulin or other waterproof covering during inclement 

weather.

Rule - Metal objects, explosive detonators, pesticides, I&E drugs, and other chemicals will not be 

carried in the same container with pyrotechnics.

Rule - Each vehicle used to transport pyrotechnics or rocket net charges will be equipped with a fire 

extinguisher having a rating of at least 3-A:40-B:C. Vehicles transporting bulk shipments (5,000 or more 

cartridges) of pyrotechnics will carry two such fire extinguishers.

1.2.3 Ammunition

Most of the ammunition used by WS in WDM activities is exempt from regulations regarding 

purchase, storage, and transportation. Smokeless powders designed for use in small arms 

ammunition, .50 caliber or smaller rifle or handgun ammunition, and most shotgun ammunition,

are exempt from regulation under 18 U.S.C. Chapter 40 and the regulations in 27 CFR Part 555, 

particularly Subpart K – Storage requirements because smokeless powder is considered a 

propellant rather than an explosive. Ammunition or projectiles with more than 1⁄4 oz. (110 grains) 

of explosive or incendiary charge would be subject to the National Firearms Act as “missiles,” 26 

U.S.C. 5845(f)(1)(D). Standard rifle cartridges and shotgun shells use an eighth of an ounce (55 

grains) or less of smokeless powder. In general, shotgun shells use 25 grains of powder, rifle 

cartridges, which vary widely depending on the caliber of rifle, bullet weight, and powder type and 

manufacturer, use about 35 grains of powder, and .22 caliber rim-fire 40-grain bullet cartridges 

use 3 grains of powder. Packaging that readily identifies the smokeless powder as being designed 

for use in small arms ammunition may help determine whether it is entitled to the exemption.

1.2.4 Rocket and Cannon Nets

Rocket net charges consist of propellant, a black powder charge, and an electric match, which 

are available pre-packaged by the manufacturer and inserted into the projectile with holes on one 

end, like a rocket. Rocket nets use M6 howitzer propellant, like smokeless powder in composition

(87% nitrocellulose – an explosive, 10% dinitrotoluene – plasticizer, 3% dibutylphthalate – 

plasticizer, controls burn and flash, <1% dipheylamine - stabilizer, and <1% potassium sulfate – 

flash reducer), which functions by propelling a rocket assemblage attached to a net (i.e., rocket 

net), an explosive component regulated by ATF. When using cannon nets, WS would place the 
20

commercially available smokeless powder into a rubber or paper pouch and insert one end of an 

electric match into the pouch. WS would then use tape to seal the pouch containing the smokeless

powder and one end of the electric match. WS would then attach the electric match to the 

electrical firing line wire. WS would then un-reel the electric firing line to a safe area off to the side 

of the net. At the appropriate time (i.e., when target animals are present within the capture area 

of the net), WS personnel attach the electric firing line to an electrical blasting machine that, when 

connected, sends an electric current through the electric firing line to the electric matches. The 

electric matches produce an external spark, which ignites the black or smokeless powder. WS 

use rocket nets and cannon nets to capture a variety of wildlife. WS personnel follow the WS 

checklist for rocket net and cannon net setup outlined in the Rocket and Cannon Net Safety 

Manual when using rocket or cannon nets. The risk assessment addressing WS's use of nets 

further discusses WS's use of rocket nets and cannon nets.

Rocket net charges are classified as Division 1.4 explosives by USDOT. The only rocket net 

charges approved for use by WS personnel are W115 rocket net charges manufactured by Winn 

Star. Each W115 rocket net charge consists of 10 grams of black powder and an electric match 

enclosed in a small plastic bag and 125 grams of M6 howitzer propellant. Those three components 

are enclosed in a larger plastic bag with shunted leg wires extending out of the bag. Only S200 

rockets manufactured by Winn Star are approved for use with the rocket net system.

Cannon net systems consist of various forms of cannons; however, the standard WS cannon net 

projectile is a heavy metal barrel projectile that is fired from a launch-rod attached to a metal plate.

WS personnel may use smokeless gunpowder or black powder ignited by an electric match; 

however, the WS standard cannon propellant is smokeless powder. Electric matches (used to 

initiate cannon net charges) may be stored in the same magazine with rocket net charges. Rocket 

net charges and electric matches must be stored with their leg wires shunted (exposed wire ends 

twisted together or held together with the manufacturer's shunt device).

WS personnel adhere to all ATF and OSHA regulations, WS policy procedures and directives, 

state regulations, IME (2015, 2016) safety recommendations, and product manufacturers’ 

instructions pertaining to the handling and use of explosives. The following rules apply to WS use 

and handling of rocket and cannon net propellants. 

Rule - Rocket net charges and electric matches used for cannon nets will not be distributed outside of 

WS. WS employees are not authorized to use, handle, or dispose of rocket net charges and electric 

matches used for cannon nets belonging to other agencies. Obtaining rocket net charges or electric 

matches from any source other than a licensed distributor or manufacturer is prohibited.

Rule - Specific instructions for the safe handling and use of all explosive components as prepared by 

the manufacturer will be adhered to by all WS personnel certified to use rocket and cannon nets.

Rule - Smoking, open flame producing devices (matches and cigarette lighters), and firearms use are 

prohibited around explosive materials.

Rule - Only approved rocket or cannon net components will be used.

Rule - During netting operations, the capacitor discharge machine is to always remain in possession 

of the Net Operator-in-Charge. 

Rule - Turn off all cell phones, radios, or any other electronic devices capable of sending a signal while 

setting-up the system.

Rule - Never work in front of or directly behind armed rockets or cannons.
21

Rule - Net Operator-in-Charge will not leave loaded rockets or cannons unattended at any time.

 

Rule - It is the responsibility of the Net Operator-in-Charge to adhere to all state regulations pertaining 

to the handling and use of explosives. 

Rule - During netting operations, unattended explosives must be appropriately secured and locked in 

or on the vehicle (e.g., in locked IME-22, toolbox, or camper shell/topper).

 

Rule - Before firing a shot, the Net Operator-in-Charge must ensure that the area is clear of people or 

sensitive nontarget species both downrange and behind the net area.

During the overnight storage of net propellants, WS personnel must follow the following rules. 

Rule - Never store rocket or cannon net explosives components or any other explosive material in a 

residence.

Rule - All rocket net charges and cannon net explosives components will be stored in accordance with 

Section II (A), Rule 3 to comply with ATF regulations (Federal Explosives Law and Regulations, ATF P 

5400.7) and OSHA regulations (29 CFR 1910.109) or in accordance with the temporary overnight 

vehicle storage variance cited below.

Rule - Magazines approved for overnight storage of rocket net charges/ cannon net explosive 

components will meet one of the following descriptions:

a. An outdoor magazine meeting ATF Type 1 magazine standards (Federal Explosives Law and 

Regulations, ATF 5400.7, Subpart K, 55.207) or ATF Type 2 outdoor magazine standards (ATF 

5400.7, Subpart K, 55.208(a)) and OSHA standards (29 CFR, Part 1910.109(c)(3)(i)). Type 2 

outdoor magazines will be of substantial size and construction to discourage theft, have metal 

floors, and be securely anchored to a concrete slab or to substantial ground anchors.

b. An indoor magazine that meets ATF Type 2 or ATF Type 4 indoor magazine standards and 

OSHA standards (29 CFR, Part 1910.109(c)(3)(i)) (see ATF 5400.7, Subpart K, 55.208(b) and 

55.210 for construction and lock requirements). Indoor magazines must be locked and kept in a 

locked building in accordance with ATF 5400.7, Subpart K. Indoor magazines must be painted red 

and have in 3” high white lettering “EXPLOSIVES – KEEP FIRE AWAY” on the front, top, and all 

sides. Each indoor magazine must be provided with substantial wheels or casters so that 

magazines can be easily moved in the event of an emergency. (Unattached, flat 4-wheel furnituretype dollies are recommended).

c. The IME-22 container (IME SLP No. 22, Part 2, paragraph B and Appendix 3) that meets ATF 

Type 2 indoor magazine standard may be used.

Rule - The quantity of any explosive materials stored in an indoor magazine must not exceed 50 pounds 

per magazine or 50 pounds per building when explosive materials are stored in more than one indoor 

magazine in the same building. The storage of up to 300,000 pounds of explosive material is permitted 

in ATF Type 1 or Type 2 outdoor magazines. The American Table of Distances for Storage of 

Explosives (ATF 5400.7, Subpart K, 55.218) applies to explosive materials stored in outdoor 

magazines. This table provides mandatory separation distances between explosives magazines and 

inhabited buildings, public highways, and railways.

Rule - Smoking, matches, open flame, or spark producing devices are not permitted within 50 feet of 

explosives magazines. Persons approaching magazines must be warned verbally or by warning signs 

posted at appropriate locations. Combustible materials and flammable liquids will not be stored within 

50 feet of magazines. The land surrounding a magazine will be kept clear of all combustible materials 

for a distance of at least 25 feet.
22

Rule - The appropriate Safety Data Sheet(s) will be kept with the magazine.

Rule - Each magazine, their contents, and required inventory records will be designated to an employee 

who is responsible for maintaining safety precautions, security, inspections, and inventory records and 

reporting requirements.

Rule - Access to explosive materials by unauthorized persons will be restricted by keeping magazines 

locked when not adding or removing explosive materials and by providing proper security to magazine 

keys.

When necessary, WS personnel may store net charges and electric matches, overnight in a 

locked vehicle pursuant to the following rules.

Rule - Overnight storage of rocket net charges and electric matches in a vehicle is authorized only 

when they are “in use” on an assigned project, and it is not practical to return them to magazine storage 

as described for overnight storage. State Directors and NWRC Field Station Leaders are authorized to 

extend overnight vehicle storage beyond 14 days on a case-by-case basis when necessary to meet 

program objectives. Permanent overnight storage of rocket net charges, electric matches, and 

incidental explosives materials in a vehicle is prohibited.

Rule - Only the number of rocket net charges and electric matches needed to complete an assigned 

project may be temporarily stored overnight per vehicle.

Rule - Rocket net charges and electric matches temporarily stored in a vehicle must be: 1) stored in a 

locked container, which is placed out of sight inside a locked vehicle, affixed camper shell, or truck box; 

or 2) in a locked IME-22 container that is securely affixed to the bed of a truck. At a minimum, this 

container will consist of a metal exterior and an interior surface of non- sparking material. No screw 

heads or other metal surfaces will be exposed in the interior. The container lid must overlap the sides 

by at least one inch. The IME-22 or other secure container may not contain detonators.

During transportation of net charges and electric matches WS personnel must adhere to the 

following rules.

Rule - During transportation over public roadways, rocket net charges and electric matches will be 

locked in a secure container as described in the rules for temporary overnight vehicle storage.

Rule - Transportation of bulk quantities of rocket net charges and electric matches in IME-22 containers 

(e.g., from a central magazine to smaller outlying magazines) is permitted. IME-22 containers will be 

permanently or temporarily secured to the vehicle during transit to prevent theft or a safety hazard in 

the event of an accident and be covered by a tarpaulin or other waterproof covering during inclement 

weather.

Rule - Explosive detonators will not be carried in the same container with rocket net charges, electric 

matches, and incidental explosives materials.

Rule - Each vehicle used to transport rocket net charges and electric matches will be equipped with a 

fire extinguisher having a rating of at least 3-A:40-B:C.

1.2.5 Incidental Explosive Materials

Examples of incidental explosive materials that WS uses include detonators, detonating cord, 

nonelectric shock tube, safety fuse, pull-wire fuse lighters, electric matches, fuses for gas 

cartridges, and primers. Detonators are devices containing an initiating explosive and a base 

charge used to initiate a detonation in an explosive. WS could use fuse detonators, nonelectric 
23

detonators, and electric detonators during the use of multicomponent explosives. Fuse detonators 

are detonators that are initiated by a safety fuse. Nonelectric detonators are detonators that do 

not require the use of electric current or safety fuse to function with initiation occurring by a spark 

or flash from a shock tube initiation device. A detonation wave transmitted through the shock tube 

initiates the detonator. The detonation wave travels through the shock tube at a velocity of 

approximately 6,500 feet per second. Electric detonators are detonators that active by a small 

electric current. Primers are used for ammunition and pyrotechnic launchers and are responsible 

for initiating propellant combustion that pushes projectiles out of a gun barrel or pyrotechnic 

launcher.

From the WS Explosives Safety Manual, WS personnel must follow several rules related to the 

use, storage, and transportation of detonators and other incidental explosives: 

Rule - Detonators must always be stored by themselves packaged as Division 1.4 in a magazine 

containing no other type of explosive material. 

Rule - Detonating cord, safety fuse, pull-wire lighters, and shock tube may be stored together in the 

same magazine but they must be stored in an approved magazine separate from detonators.

Rule - Detonating cord (gross weight of 99 lbs. or less and with an explosive core load not exceeding 

100 grains per foot) must be transported in an IME-22 container not containing any detonators.

Rule - Safety fuse must be transported in an IME-22 container. Safety fuse may be transported with 

detonating cord and pull-wire lighters in the same IME-22.

Rule - Pull-wire lighters must be transported in an IME-22 container. Pull-wire lighters may be 

transported with detonating cord and safety fuse in the same IME-22.

Rule - Shock tube must be transported in an IME-22 container. Shock tube may be transported with 

detonating cord, safety fuse, and pull-wire lighters in the same IME-22.

Rule - Fuse detonators, electric detonators, and nonelectric shock tube detonators received packaged 

as Division 1.1 explosives must be repacked as Division 1.4 explosives before being transported and 

stored by WS.

Rule - Detonators must always be stored by themselves in a magazine containing no other type of 

explosive material. 

Rule - Electric detonators, nonelectric shock tube detonators, and fuse detonators must be carried in 

a locked IME-22 container containing no other explosive materials (i.e., detonating cord, safety fuse, 

pull-wire lighters, and shock tube (IME 2007)). Detonators may either be transported in their original 

Division 1.4 container or in an approved wood repack box, which then must be placed in an IME-22 

container for transportation.

When using fuse detonators, WS personnel cut a minimum three-foot length of safety fuse and 

attach a fuse detonator to one end of the safety fuse by gently pushing the safety fuse into the 

detonator. Using a cap-crimping tool (non-sparking), WS personnel crimp the detonators to the 

safety fuse. WS personnel then attach pull-wire lighters to the safety fuse before attaching the 

fuse detonators to the detonating cord trunk line. Personnel tape detonators to the detonating 

cord trunk line with the detonators pointed toward the direction of detonation. Detonators are

attached at least six inches from the end of the trunk line. The safety fuse is secured to an elevated 

object. WS personnel check and clear the blasting area and yell a loud verbal warning of “Fire in 

the Hole” before igniting the fuses with pull-wire lighters. WS personnel then retreat to a 

preselected area of safety (minimum distance of 250 feet) and take appropriate cover, preferably 
24

in a preselected area where the blast site can be observed. After the fumes have cleared from 

the detonation area, WS personnel return, secure the blast area and give a verbal “All Clear” 

signal. 

WS personnel follow similar safety procedures when using fuse detonators, nonelectric shock 

tube detonators and electric detonators. When using explosives, WS personnel are prohibited 

from conducting blasting activities if thunderstorm activity is occurring in the vicinity. WS safety 

guidelines not only prohibit the use of electric detonators with thunderstorms, but also do not allow 

their use around electrical transmission lines, wind turbines, transformers, power stations, radiofrequency transmitters, or where other stray currents could be present, and in dust storms, 

snowstorms, or other areas where static electricity may be present. When using electric 

detonators and the associated firing line, the free ends of wiring remain shunted until permitted 

by the checklist for the use of electric detonators. Shunting is the shorting together of the free 

ends of electric detonator leg wires, the wire ends of an electric blasting circuit or the name of an 

electrical shorting device applied to the free end of electric detonators by the manufacturer. 

WS safety guidelines impose use restrictions for using fuse detonators by WS explosives 

specialists. From the WS Explosive Safety Manual, the following use restrictions apply to the use 

and handling of fuse detonators by WS employees: 

Rule - Fuse detonators will only be used when an electric or shock tube initiation system is impractical.

Rule - Use of fuse detonators by WS Explosives Specialists will conform to all applicable laws, 

regulations, and WS policy procedures. Explosives Specialists must ensure that the use of fuse 

detonators is legal for use within their State.

Rule - Explosives Specialists will observe the requirements set forth in WS Explosives Safety Bulletins 

as prescribed by the WS Explosives Safety Subcommittee. 

Rule -Every Explosives Specialist must have access to an electric or shock tube initiation system.

Rule - Fuse detonators can only be used at blasting sites located farther than 500 feet from any public 

road, railroad track, frequently traveled trail or back road, or building or other structure where people 

are likely to be present.

Rule - Fuse detonators will not be used in areas where low-flying aircraft are likely to be present.

Rule - Two persons must be present during blasting operations involving fuse detonators.

Rule - The use of two fuse detonators (“double-capping”) to initiate each shot is mandatory. The use 

of commercially manufactured fuse detonator assemblies is permitted.

Rule - Use of appropriate warning signals is mandatory for all fuse detonator-initiated shots (i.e., “Firein-the-Hole”). Air horn warnings may be required by some State regulations.

Rule - All misfires must be recorded on WS Form 23, Site Blasting Record, and reported to the 

Explosives Committee Chair.

A shock tube is a small diameter laminated plastic tube coated with a very thin layer of reactive 

material that ignites at approximately 6,500 feet per second. Detonating cord is a flexible cord 

containing a center core of high explosive (PETN) used to initiate other explosives. PETN 

detonates at approximately 23,000 feet per second (4 miles per second). Safety fuse is a flexible 

cord containing an internal burning medium by which fire or flame is conveyed at a continuous 

and uniform rate from the point of ignition to the point of use, usually a fuse detonator. Safety fuse 
25

burns at a standard rate of 40 seconds per foot. Because many factors can affect the burn speed 

of a safety fuse, WS personnel can check the burn rate of the safety cord by timing the burning 

speed of a one-foot section of the safety fuse roll. When using safety fuse, WS personnel must 

use a minimum length of three feet of safety fuse. 

Pull-wire fuse lighters are safety devices designed for lighting a safety fuse without an open flame.

Electric matches are firing devices that burn with an external flash initiation using an electric 

current and are used for igniting black powder, smokeless powder, or pellet powder when using 

cannon nets. Gas cartridge fuses are the ignition method for activating gas cartridges. The fuse 

is inserted into the gas cartridge before placing the gas cartridge into the burrow or den of a target 

animal. When lit, the fuse slowly burns to the gas cartridge and ignites the contents of the 

cartridge. 

A discussion on the use, storage, and transportation of electric matches by WS personnel can be 

found in the section discussing net propellants. Gas cartridge fuses can be stored and transported 

with gas cartridges in containers approved for hazardous chemicals described in WS Directive 

2.401. When stored separately from the gas cartridges, fuses must be kept in a locked metal 

container with a non-sparking lining (e.g., wood, foam rubber, latex paint). During storage and 

transportation, gas cartridge fuses must remain sealed in a plastic bag. Gas cartridges cannot be 

stored in an explosives magazine.

1.2.6 Transportation and Storage 

WS personnel must follow several rules related to the transportation and storage of explosives 

material discussed above. The transportation of explosives requires specific placards on vehicles 

and boxes, which many rules have been included above. The USDOT classifies explosives 

according to Class, Division, and Compatibility Group. These provide the placard rating for 

transporting explosives, and the significance of these groups are: 

Class: A hazardous material is assigned a class number to indicate that it meets defining criteria 

relative to its transport hazard. Explosive substances and articles are in Class 1.

Division: Class 1 materials are subdivided into divisions and given a division number to define and 

describe in greater detail the hazardous characteristics and properties of the substances or article. 

Class 1 is divided into six divisions based on the primary hazard; 1.1 mass explosion, 1.2 projections, 

1.3 fire, 1.4 minor hazard, 1.5 mass explosion but very insensitive and 1.6 very insensitive articles.

Compatibility Group Letter: Further, an explosive is assigned a compatibility group letter to indicate 

its compatibility with other explosives. Generally, only explosives with the same compatibility group 

letter can be transported together. Detonators 1.4B or 1.4S and certain detonators 1.1B may be shipped 

with certain other Division 1.1D materials in accordance with SLP-22 specifications.

Compatible (Compatibility): Class 1 materials are compatible if they can be safely transported 

together without significantly increasing either the probability of an accident or, for a given quantity, the 

magnitude of the effect of such an accident.

Storage and transportation of explosives materials were given above for the explosive type. WS 

vehicles that transport explosives materials, including multicomponent explosives, pyrotechnics, 

detonating cord, detonators, safety fuses, safety fuse lighters, and nonelectric lead lines, follow

placarding requirements of USDOT (49 CFR 172.504) and commercial driver’s license 

requirements (49 CFR 383), but do not have to have placards or a commercial driver’s license

when the aggregate gross weight of the explosive materials transported is less than 1,001 

pounds.
26

1.2.7 Magazine Inspections

Inspections ensure that stored explosives are safe and secure and that people or animals have 

not created problems. 

Rule - Each magazine site where explosive materials are stored will be inspected at least every 7 days. 

This weekly inspection need not be an inventory but must be sufficient to determine whether 

unauthorized entry or theft of explosive materials has occurred. 

Rule – Safety inspections of explosives magazine sites will be conducted and documented a minimum 

of twice annually on APHIS Form 256-5, APHIS Safety Inspection Checklist for explosive materials 

stored in magazines located at government-owned and leased facilities, and on WS Form 39, WS SelfInspection Checklist - Residential Storage Sites for Pesticides, Pyrotechnics, Rocket Net Charges, 

and/or Incidental Explosive Materials, for magazines stored at an employee’s place of residence. Upon 

completion, inspection forms will be forwarded to the State program or NWRC Field Station designated 

official.

1.2.8 Theft and Security

Theft or loss is a primary concern for WS and the public, as many of these explosives could be 

used for nefarious purposes. Several rules apply, including laws regarding storage. 

Rule – Any WS employee with knowledge of the theft or loss of explosive material will immediately 

notify their supervisor. As soon as possible, and within 24 hours of discovery, the theft or loss must be

reported to ATF. ATF Form 5400.5 will be immediately completed and mailed or faxed to the nearest 

ATF office along with any invoices and additional information (ATF: Explosives Law and Regulations, 

ATF P 5400.7, Subpart C, 55.30).

Rule – Any suspicious or unusual activity, theft or attempted theft of explosive materials as well as 

break-ins or attempted break-ins to buildings where explosive materials are stored will be reported in a 

timely manner to State and local law enforcement and the appropriate WS authorities.

1.3 Use Pattern 

Pyrotechnics and ammunition for firearms are the most widely used “explosives” that WS 

employs, being used in all states and three territories4

. The primary use is at airports and airbases 

where WS personnel haze wildlife from runways and the air operating area. Additional uses are 

to protect agriculture, property, and natural resources from wildlife and protect human safety in 

other areas outside of airports. From FY16-FY20, WS used an annual average of 356,824 

pyrotechnics of all types, including rockets and 360 firearm blanks, to disperse 34 species of 

mammals, 329 species of birds, and 3 species of reptiles totaling 22,115,160 wildlife hazed from 

areas (Table 2). This equates to an average of 62 animals hazed per pyrotechnic used. Similarly, 

from FY11 to FY15, WS used an annual average of 457,981 pyrotechnics of all types, including 

rockets and 104 firearm blanks, to haze 15,634,354 wildlife (348 species), including 31 

mammalian species, 311 avian species, and 6 reptilian species (Appendix 2). This equates to an 

average of 34 animals hazed per pyrotechnic used; it should be noted that several species of 

flocking birds, such as blackbirds, can number in thousands during hazing.

4 MIS - Computer-based Management Information System used for nationally tracking APHIS-WS WDM devices used and activities. 

Not all devices or activities are tracked such as ammunition or primers used, thus some usage will need to be estimated as a result.
27

Table 2. The annual average number of target animals hazed with all pyrotechnics and blanks by WS in 

WDM activities from FY16 to FY20 throughout the United States and its territories. Nontarget animals 

incidentally hazed included an annual average of 600 mallards. During the 5 years, one target American 

white pelican was accidentally killed with a pyrotechnic at an aquaculture facility.

ANNUAL AVERAGE SPECIES HAZED WITH PYROTECHNICS AND BLANKS FY16-FY20

Species1 Disperse Species1 Disperse Species1 Disperse

Mammals Eastern Meadowlark 7,153 Bufflehead 10,741

Northwestern Gray Wolf T&E 1 Western Meadowlark 4,524 Common Goldeneye 3,001

Steller Sea LionT&E 3,827 Other Grass Passer. (20 2,484 Barrow's Goldeneye 1,373

California Sea Lion 1,184 American Robin 14,921 Hooded Merganser 2,926

Other Predator (14 sp.+1 308 House Finch 1,072 Common Merganser 3,752

Caribou 1,685 Pine Siskin 1,626 Red-breasted Merganser 37,863

Other Hoofed Mammals (8 381 Other Forest Passerine (22 1,570 Ruddy Duck 7,420

Other Mammal (8 sp.) 45 Common Myna 7,093 - Mixed Ducks 1,526

Total Mammal (34 sp.) 7,431 Scaly-breasted Mannikin 5,240 Other Waterfowl (20 sp.) 4,314

Birds Associated with Land House Sparrow 2,360 Newell’s ShearwaterT&E 2

European Starling* 13,631,10 Other Invasive Passer. (7 547 Western & Clark’s Grebe 27,894

Yellow-headed Blackbird 1,779 Land Bird Total (155 sp.) 15,769,871 American White Pelican 17,118

Tricolored Blackbird 3,728 Birds Associated with Water Brown Pelican 2,068

Red-winged Blackbird 860,605 Red-legged Kittiwake 4,512 Pelagic Cormorant 2,365

Brown-headed Cowbird 61,030 Bonaparte's Gull 4,955 Double-crested Cormorant 173,502

Brewer’s Blackbird 8,838 Laughing Gull 264,393 Other Open Waterb. (18 1,165

Rusty Blackbird 60 Franklin's Gull 109,448 Wood StorkSome T&E 427

Common Grackle 19,965 Short-billed (Mew) Gull 2,554 American White Ibis 17,525

Boat-tailed Grackle 2,307 Ring-billed Gull 2,919,563 Glossy Ibis 1,113

Great-tailed Grackle 3,495 California Gull 254,918 White-faced Ibis 1,502

- Mixed Blackbirds 66,862 Great Black-backed Gull 66,506 Western Cattle Egret^ 38,672

Rock Pigeon* 15,011 Glaucous-winged Gull 72,697 Great Blue Heron 4,683

Eurasian Collared-Dove 1,890 Western Gull 1,854 Great Egret 9,830

Mourning Dove^ 48,759 American Herring Gull 1,151,025 Snowy Egret 2,484

White-winged Dove 34,773 Caspian Tern 17,952 American Coot 10,456

Other Dove (7 sp.) 1,207 Roseate TernT&E 10 Sandhill Crane 73,643

American Crow 660,521 Common Tern 1,492 Whooping CraneT&E 7

Fish Crow 8,711 Least Tern 12,258 Other Wading Birds (11 1,538

Common Raven 34,889 Black Tern 1,312 Black-necked Stilt 461

Other Corvid (4 sp.) 183 Other Larid (18 sp.) 2,887 - Hawaiian StiltT&E 254

Turkey Vulture 59,686 Greater White-fronted 19,043 Pacific Golden-Plover 24,027

Black Vulture 30,437 Snow Goose 242,887 Gray (Black-bellied) 7,148

Western Osprey 1,916 Brant 2,292 Semipalmated Plover 4,725

Bald Eagle 36,967 Cackling Goose 309,836 Killdeer 8,759

Hawaiian HawkT&E 1 Canada Goose 182,913 Whimbrel 1,652

Red-tailed Hawk 4,189 Hawaiian GooseT&E 860 Long-billed Curlew 7,065

American Kestrel 1,672 Gadwall 8,016 Willet 3,113

Other Raptor (29 sp.) 3,699 American Wigeon 8,528 Black Turnstone 1,172

Gallinaceous Birds (12 sp.) 982 Mallard (incl. 44 feral*, 600 44,558 Sanderling 3,642

Bank Swallow 13,483 Hawaiian DuckT&E 243 Dunlin 9,775

Tree Swallow 30,139 Blue-winged Teal 5,903 Red KnotT&E 5

Barn Swallow 32,168 Northern Shoveler 18,149 Least Sandpiper 2,789

American Cliff Swallow 13,507 Northern Pintail 8,820 Western Sandpiper 4,898

Cave Swallow 1,364 Green-winged Teal 5,062 Long-billed Dowitcher 1,310

Other Aerialists (6 sp.) 1,910 Canvasback 2,100 Other Shorebirds (29 sp.) 6,565

Nonpasserine Forest Birds (7 310 Redhead 4,750 Water Bird Total (172 6,337,790

Horned Lark 14,398 Ring-necked Duck 4,420 Unidentified Bird 64

American Pipit 4,800 Greater Scaup 7,347 Total Bird (327 sp.) 22,107,72

Snow Bunting 1,731 Lesser Scaup 27,407 Reptile (2 sp + Unid 4

Savannah Sparrow 2,205 Spectacled EiderT&E 50 GRAND TOTAL (363 22,115,16

* Introduced Species ^ Some populations introduced 1 Accounts of species are given only for those mammals and reptiles that had an annual average of 100 or more hazed, birds with 

1,000 or more hazed, and all sensitive species with one or more; “Other” species are listed in Appendix 1.
28

The European starling (62%)5, ring-billed gull (13%), American herring gull (5%), red-winged 

blackbird (4%), and American crow (3%) were the most frequently hazed species; the groups of 

species that accounted for the most use of pyrotechnics included 10 species of starlings and 

blackbirds (66%), 34 species of larids (22%), 47 species of waterfowl (4%), and 7 species of 

corvids (3%) (Table 2). The most common pyrotechnics used are from launchers, including the 

use of reports, screamers, and CAPA cartridges and cracker shells, with an annual average of 

355,887 used from FY16 to FY120, hazing 22,115,160 animals. Rockets, an annual average of 

937 used from FY16 to FY20, hazed 31,430 animals. Firearm ammunition blanks were used 360 

times to haze 40,642 animals. Additionally, 1,084 blanks were used to fire Coda Enterprises, Inc 

271 nets that captured 247 and hazed 134 animals (Table 3).

Some pyrotechnics, rockets, and colored flares are fired from the ground or platform. These have 

different risks associated with them because they must be lit with a flame and may travel further 

distances. Due to the recording of data in the MIS, a code “Pyrotechnics (All)” could be used that 

does not differentiate among the different types; thus, it is unknown just how many rockets are 

used, but a minimum of 937 annually from FY16 to FY20 (Table 3).

Table 3. The annual average number of beaver dams removed and multicomponent explosives used, 

pyrotechnics and blanks used and animals dispersed, gas cartridge fuses used, and target and nontarget 

animals captured or taken with nets and firearms by WS in WDM activities from FY16 to FY20 throughout 

the United States. 

T – Target NT – Nontarget (# T and NT species in group, # sp. is all species in group including T and NT) 1 See Table 2 for the breakdown of species 2 See “The Use of Carbon Monoxide from Gas Cartridges and Forced Gas Fumigation Systems in Wildlife Damage Management” for 

further information and species taken

3 See “The Use of Nets in Wildlife Damage Management” for further information and species taken – does not include use of Coda

net launchers (271 uses-1,084 blanks (.308 cart)) 4See “The Use of Firearms in Wildlife Damage Management” for further information and species taken including the estimated number 

of target and nontarget animals captured with other WDM methods such as foothold traps and euthanized with a shot to the brain 

5 This actually could be higher as starlings are included in the MIS code “Mixed Blackbirds” and 67,000 were hazed in this category.

ANNUAL AVERAGE SPECIES TAKEN WITH METHODS INVOLVING EXPLOSIVE PER ATF FOR FY16-FY20

ACTIVITY ( # SPECIES INVOLVED) # STATES USED TARGET # USED

MULTICOMPONENT EXPLOSIVE USAGE Dams Removed Binary Explosives

Beaver Dams Removed (1 T sp.) 20 States 1,379 3,084 lb. (2.2 lbs./dam)

PYROTECHNIC & BLANK USAGE1 Target Dispersed # Pyrotechnics Used

15 mm Report/Screamer Cartr. (318 T sp.) 16 States,1 15,733,372 166,674

Pyrotechnic Rockets (25 T sp.) 7 States 31,431 937

Cracker shells – 12 Ga. Shotgun (226 sp.) 14 States 990,831 26,339

CAPA Cartridges (66 T sp.) 11 States 45,613 370

Pyrotechnics (All) (268 T sp, 2 NT) 0.2 Killed 41 States, 2 5,273,271 162,504

Blank Usage (82 T sp.) 10 States 40,642 ~360

Pyrotechnic/Blank Take (369T, 2 NT – 369 sp.) 50 States, 22,115,160 357,184

GAS CARTRIDGE FUSES USED2 Est. Rodents/Predators Taken Fuses Used

Gas Cartridge Fuses (16T, 1 NT sp.) 33 States, DC 10,458 15,042

TAKE WITH NETGUN, ROCKET AND CANNON NETS3 Killed Release Disperse Shots Charges

Rocket/Cannon Net Take (16T, 1NT – 16 sp.) 18 States 862 418 28 38 142

Coda Netguns and Cannon Nets (15T) 14 States 87 160 134 271 1084

Total Netgun Take (24T, 1NT - 24 sp.) 27 States 949 578 162 309 1,226

FIREARM USAGE4 Killed Disperse NT Shots Lbs. GP

Shotgun (346 T, 6 NT - 348 sp.) 293,295 2,911,25 2 844,343 3,015

Small Caliber Rifle/Pistol (.22) (104T, 37NT - 109 sp.) 82,007 460 990 121,953 53

Large Caliber Rifle/Pistol (35T, 7NT - 36 sp.) 74,070 891 235 113,177 566

Total Firearm Take (438T, 54NT - 442 sp.) 50 States, 3 449,372 2,912,61 1,227 1,079,473 3,634
29

WS used multicomponent explosives to remove beaver dams in 20 states. Beaver dams cause 

damage, such as the flooding of roads, crops, and property, including residential homes. An 

annual average of 1,379 dams were removed from FY16 to FY20 using an average of 3,084

pounds of explosives, which equates to 2.2 pounds per beaver dam (Table 3). All WS users are 

certified and follow all applicable regulations. 

WS uses cannon and rocket nets, and new models that launch nets with.308 cartridge blanks or 

compressed air, which are being used more due to their ease and added safety, were included in

Table 3. Take from rocket and cannon nets and nets propelled by.308 cartridges are given in The 

Use of Nets in Wildlife Damage Management risk assessment, but explosive use was reserved 

for this risk assessment. Even so, WS personnel captured animals in an annual average of 309

activations (no animals were captured in some activations that were either demonstrations or the 

target animal was missed. Thus, about 309 activations were conducted per year, capturing 1,527

target birds (Table 3). Additionally, though not the intended use of cannon nets, 162 birds were 

dispersed from the use site (Table 3), which is a typical reaction from those not captured, usually 

not within the area covered by the net. If we assume that 4 cannons/rockets (3 are often used, so 

likely an overestimate) were used per net firing, and all uses with no captures fired a 

cannons/rocket net (WS personnel may put down the use of a rocket and cannon net even if they 

do not fire the rocket and cannon net), then an average of 1,236 individual cannons/rockets would 

have been fired. 

WS fired an estimated annual average of 1,079,473 rounds of ammunition for FY16-FY20 based 

on The Use of Lead in Wildlife Damage Management Risk Assessment6

, 844,343 shotgun shells 

(2.75” shell with 25 grains powder), 113,177 rifle cartridges (130 grain bullet with 35 grains 

powder), and 121,953 .22 cartridges (40 grain bullet with 3 grains powder) (Table 3). This would 

equate to the use of about 3,604 pounds of powder used annually (this is likely overestimated to 

be conservative). Similarly, in FY11-FY15, WS fired an estimated annual average 1,076,933 

ammunition loads, 876,751 shotgun shells (2.75” shell with 25 grains powder), 73,938 rifle 

cartridges (130 grain bullet with 35 grains powder), and 126,244 .22 cartridges (40 grain bullet 

with 3 grains powder) (Table 3). This would equate to the use of about 3,555 pounds of powder 

used annually (this is likely overestimated to be conservative). 

The use of incidental explosive materials is not tracked but can be estimated from the use of the 

other equipment in WDM. WS used an estimated annual average of 1,379 detonation cords (an 

average of 50-100 ft. of leads per dam or 137,900 ft. annually by WS) and associated devices 

(e.g., safety fuse) for beaver dams and 142 electric matches for rocket and cannon nets (4 

cannons/rockets per net). Primers are fired in ammunition and pyrotechnics to initiate an 

explosion. WS fired an annual estimated average of 356,247 pyrotechnics, which excludes known 

pyrotechnic rockets, and 1,079,473 rounds of ammunition from FY16 to FY20 that used primers, 

or 1,079,473 primers used. Finally, WS used 15,042 gas cartridges7 annually from FY16 to FY20. 

Thus, 15,042 fuses were also used to actuate these, and 937 fuses were used for pyrotechnic 

rockets. Fuses are usually about 6 inches long, though pyrotechnic fuses can sometimes be a 

little longer or shorter. However, estimating 6 inches for safety fuses would amount to 7,990 feet 

used annually. The incidental explosives are important for the proper function of WDM devices

but add another risk. 

6 The Use of Lead in Wildlife Damage Management provided assumptions on how we estimated ammunition use, overestimating to 

be conservative, and was used to estimate ammunition use.

7 The Use of Carbon Monoxide from Gas Cartridges and Forced Gas Fumigation Systems in Wildlife Damage Management 

considered the carbon monoxide and take associated with gas cartridges.
30

2 HAZARDS 

Many industries, from road departments and mining to movie production and law enforcement 

agencies, use explosives. WS uses several explosives in WDM. Explosive devices inherently can 

be hazardous to people and the environment and, as a result, require safe and reasonable use. 

The use of explosives has two components of risks, the physical hazards such as injuries and 

burns and the chemical hazards from the gas emissions from explosives and solids produced. 

Since the primary hazards are physical, this risk assessment is formatted more like a mechanical 

risk assessment than a chemical risk assessment. Standard hazards associated with the physical 

aspects will be discussed, followed by the chemical aspects for human health and environmental 

health.

Because multicomponent explosives, net propellants, pyrotechnics, and incidental explosive 

materials are all explosive materials, WS adheres to all OSHA regulations and WS policy 

procedures. Policies outlined in WS safety manuals, state regulations, IME safety 

recommendations, and product manufacturer’s instructions pertaining to the handling and use of 

explosive materials reduce risks to human safety. WS employees must complete training and a 

certification process established by WS before handling and using explosives for official WS WDM 

activities. WS employees must complete a 24-hour basic explosive training course administered 

by WS before using multicomponent explosives. To use net propellants for rocket and cannon 

nets, WS personnel must complete a 16-hour basic training course administered by WS. The WS 

Explosives Safety Subcommittee will determine training requirements, conduct training, and 

recommend candidates eligible for certification. Recertification training is required every three 

years for WS employees to retain certification in the use of multicomponent explosives and net 

propellants. Recertification requires a minimum of eight hours of approved refresher training. WS 

explosive specialists are authorized to use only those explosive materials and components listed 

in the WS Explosive Safety Manual and the WS Rocket and Cannon Net Safety Manual. Obtaining 

explosive materials from any source other than licensed distributors or manufacturers is 

prohibited. Additional trainings and certifications are required for other methods, such as Firearms 

and pyrotechnics; this was discussed in The Use of Firearms in Wildlife Damage Management” 

risk assessment. 

Explosive magazines, their contents, and required inventory records will be designated to an 

employee responsible for maintaining safety precautions, security, inspections, and inventory 

records and reporting requirements. The responsible employee must inspect their facility and 

magazines at least every seven days and must document the inspection (ATF: Explosives Law 

and Regulations, ATF P 5400.7, Subpart K, 555.204). The inspection by the responsible 

employee must be sufficient to determine whether there has been unauthorized entry, attempted 

entry, or unauthorized removal of the contents of the magazines. The inspections should also 

identify magazine and building maintenance needs. WS must conduct and document detailed 

safety inspections of all explosive storage work sites at least biannually. 

Any WS employee who knows of the theft or loss of any explosive materials must report the theft 

or loss to ATF by telephoning 1-888-283-2662 as soon as possible and within 24 hours of 

discovery. In addition, the employee must immediately complete ATF Form 5400.5. The employee 

must then mail or fax ATF Form 5400.5 along with any invoices and additional information to the 

nearest ATF office (ATF: Explosives Law and Regulations, ATF P 5400.7, Subpart C, 555.30). 

The employee must report the theft or loss of any explosive materials to the Regional Director 

and local authorities through appropriate channels in a timely manner. In addition, WS employees 

must report to state and local law enforcement authorities and the Committee Chair of the WS 
31

Explosives Safety Subcommittee any suspicious or unusual activity or attempted theft of explosive 

materials as well as break-ins or attempted break-ins to buildings where explosives are stored.

WS State Directors are responsible for ensuring that explosives magazine inspection, record 

keeping, and inventory requirements are met in accordance with WS safety manuals, guidelines, 

and directives, which include the biannual magazine site safety inspections and physical 

inventories of all explosives on hand and recorded on WS Form 22. The physical inventory 

records are reviewed and signed by the State Director or their designee to certify accuracy. All 

WS use, storage, and transportation of explosive materials would comply with applicable federal, 

state, and local laws and regulations (unless exempted), procedures outlined in the WS safety 

manuals, and requirements set forth in the OSHA standard for explosives found in the Code of 

Federal Regulations, Title 29, part 1910.109, Explosives and Blasting Agents.

WS State Directors are the authorizing officials for designating nominees for explosives training 

and for approving the purchase, handling, and use of explosives by specialists on projects 

approved by the State Director. WS Explosives Specialists must notify local emergency response 

agencies and officials (fire department / Fire Marshall) of explosives storage location(s). The WS 

explosives certification process requires that State Directors nominate qualified candidates under 

their supervision for explosives training. Those candidates must complete the basic training 

required by WS, including explosives handling procedures, security, and legal compliance. 

Candidates must demonstrate safe and proficient use of explosive components and procedures 

approved for WS field operations and must successfully complete all WS explosives certification 

requirements. Candidates who satisfy all WS explosives training requirements will undergo a 

review by the WS Explosives Safety Subcommittee to determine their eligibility for certification. 

The Explosives Safety Subcommittee Chair will review the Committee’s recommendations and, 

as the certifying official, will certify eligible candidates and deny certification to those that are

deemed ineligible.

2.1 Human Health and Safety Hazards

Occasional accidents that result in burns and other injuries and deaths can occur from the use of 

pyrotechnics, multicomponent explosives, ammunition, gas cartridge fuses, or cannon and rocket 

nets. Hearing damage could occur from the noise associated with blasts. Burns could occur when 

igniting or mishandling fuses or accidentally igniting gunpowder when reloading ammunition.

Safety training and certification is required by most agencies and organizations, including WS.

Explosives can be a hazard to people if not appropriately used and rarely due to manufacturing 

defects. While working in the field, WS personnel could also be injured from falls or slips due to

the typical terrain around areas where they are setting explosive charges, such as beaver dams.

Finally, gases and byproducts of explosions are considered due to their potential to be harmful to 

humans and the environment (Section 2.1.5 and 2.2.5). 

2.1.1 Multicomponent Explosives

Multicomponent explosives are not classified as explosives until the components are mixed; the 

mixture becomes a mass explosion hazard once mixed. WS only uses multicomponent explosives 

to breach beaver dams. Therefore, injuries would primarily be associated with a mass explosion 

event if accidental detonation occurred. If people were too close to the blast area, human health 

and safety hazards would primarily be associated with the explosion's concussive blast. If the 

explosives were already placed inside the beaver dam, the flying debris caused as the explosion 

pushes mud, sticks, rocks, and other debris away from the beaver dam would also cause a 

hazard. Therefore, injuries to WS personnel or the public from the concussive blast and debris 
32

could include internal injuries, loss of limbs, extremities, and eyesight, broken bones, bruises, 

scratches, puncture wounds, and death. 

Injuries could also occur as WS personnel place explosives in beaver dams or set rocket/cannon

nets, such as scrapes, bruises, strains, and broken bones. Beaver dams and the aquatic habitat 

associated with beaver dams require WS personnel to traverse uneven ground, through mud or 

water, or across tree logs, tree branches, rocks, and other debris that beavers use to build dams.

Accidental drowning is also a risk. As described in Section 1.5, WS personnel will place explosives 

inside a beaver dam by creating channels inside the mud and debris of the dam using a pole 

made with non-sparking material. Creating a channel by pushing the pole into the mud and other 

debris of a beaver dam could also cause scrapes, bruises, blisters, and muscle strains.

Additionally, some concern arises from the potential for disruption to public utilities (e.g., electric, 

water, gas), if the public could be endangered by an explosion that damaged those utilities or 

structures, or if traffic patterns had to change where roads or bridges were damaged in a blast.

These concerns are mitigated by following WS procedures and rules for beaver dam removal 

projects involving explosives. 

2.1.2 Pyrotechnics

Human health and safety hazards from the use of pyrotechnics include hearing damage from 

sustained noise exposure without proper hearing protection, eye damage from fired pyrotechnic 

debris, and burns if the pyrotechnic malfunctions or misfires. An explosion from a defective 

pyrotechnic or improper use of a pyrotechnic in a firearm (cracker shells) or firearm-like device 

could cause lacerations, punctures, loss of extremities, eye damage, and possibly death due to 

shrapnel. When using a firearm, shrapnel and similar injuries could also occur if a barrel ruptured 

due to an obstruction, such as a previously fired pyrotechnic lodging in the barrel or a barrel being 

plugged with mud or other debris from personnel falling or setting the barrel down improperly.

Similar shrapnel and injuries could also occur if personnel improperly clean a launcher or firearm 

or use inappropriate cleaning materials, which could cause a buildup of fouling material or 

flammable material in the firearm or firearm-like device. Misfiring pyrotechnics, contact with a lit

cartridge, or accidentally starting a field fire with pyrotechnics could cause burn injuries.

Most pyrotechnics use primers, which are discussed under incidental explosive materials. Many 

pyrotechnic rockets use fuses that could result in burns. Gases are produced by pyrotechnics and 

are discussed below.

2.1.3 Net Propellants and Burning Gunpowder in Ammunition

Cannon and rocket net charges propel projectiles attached to a net for capturing wildlife. 

Smokeless (cannon) or black powder and M6 propellant (rocket) are used as the primary 

propellants. Hazards to human health and safety associated with the use of rocket net charges is

like those discussed for multicomponent explosives. If rocket net charges unintentionally 

detonate, injuries to WS personnel or the public could include internal injuries, loss of limbs, loss 

of extremities, broken bones, loss of eyesight, bruises, scratches, puncture wounds, and death.

In addition, similar injuries could occur if the projectiles accidentally struck people. If the rocket or 

cannon came unhooked from the net, it could be a projectile that could injure someone further 

away. Hearing loss could also occur from the noise produced when firing rocket nets. An 

additional concern would be that the firing of net propellants could ignite grass or other flammable 

material. 
33

Hazards associated with the use of firearms and ammunition were reviewed in the “The Use of 

Firearms in Wildlife Damage Management” risk assessment. However, this document considers 

the burning of gunpowder used in firearms. The ammunition used by WS burns gunpowder, 

almost exclusively smokeless powder. Smokeless gunpowder, especially for hand-loaders with a 

canister of powder, could cause burns and other accidents like the above for cannon and rocket 

nets, primarily if ammunition is loaded too hot (more powder than necessary). Hearing loss could 

occur, especially with repeated use of ammunition while not wearing hearing protection. Gases 

are also produced from burning gunpowder and are discussed below.

2.1.4 Incidental Explosive Materials

Given the explosion hazard of incidental explosive materials and because the risks associated 

with the use of these materials would be accidental ignition or detonation, hazards to the user 

would be like other explosive materials. Those hazards to the user and non-users would be burns, 

lacerations, punctures, loss of extremities, eye damage, and possibly death. Of greatest concern

are detonators and detonating cord. Similar to other explosive materials, those materials that burn 

or produce a spark would produce gaseous materials. 

2.1.5 Gases and Solids Produced from Explosives Problem Formulation

Gases, vapors, and solids are produced when using various explosives, including the firing of 

multicomponent explosives, burning gunpowder and fuses, or when a primer is fired. Still, these 

are minor risks compared to the physical harm of risks associated with explosives due to the low 

volume of gas and solids produced. Smoke is particulate matter consisting of very fine solid 

particles and condensed vapor, which constitutes most of the visible part of the products of 

combustion observed at a fire. Gas is a product of combustion that remains a gas even when 

cooled to normal building temperatures, and vapor is a product of combustion that is gas when 

produced but reverts to solid or liquid at normal temperatures (Sumi and Tsuchiya 1971). The 

quantities of toxic gases and vapors produced by combustion depend on the material involved, 

and the environmental condition but are equal to the explosive's weight (e.g., the number of 

grains). Some are already known, while others can often be predicted from knowledge of the 

organic compounds' chemical composition and molecular structure. A basis for prediction is 

important for research work identifying combustion products and designers. 

The gases produced by detonation of multicomponent explosives and gunpowder are mostly 

nontoxic carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2), steam (H2O), and hydrogen (H), and small amounts 

of toxic carbon monoxide (CO1

8

) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which WS personnel or the public 

could inhale. Black powder also makes small amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and methane 

(CH4). Solids produced, primarily from black powder, include potassium carbonate (K2CO3), 

potassium sulfate (K2SO4), potassium sulfide (K2S), S, KNO3, potassium thiocyanate (KSCN), C, 

and ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3). Primers emit small quantities of C6HN3O8Pb and Pb(N3)2. 

Gases dissipate into the air rapidly and would have little opportunity to affect WS personnel and 

the public because they are not allowed near the explosives, and reentry takes enough time for 

the gases to disperse. Additionally, some of the gases produced are also produced by the human 

body. The body and the environment produce H2S and CO1 in small quantities and can effectively 

absorb and detoxify this amount of these gases. CH4 is nontoxic but highly flammable and can be 

an asphyxiant if oxygen levels fall below 16% (Kumar and Gupta 2021). It should be noted that 

with the advent of smokeless gunpowder, sulfur, for the most part, was removed as sulfur was 

highly corrosive and an irritant. 

8 CO1 is used for carbon monoxide, where necessary, to differentiate from the abbreviation for Colorado.
34

Nitrogen Oxides 

There are three common oxides of nitrogen: nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO), and the two 

forms of nitrogen dioxide (NO2 and N2O4). Very toxic nitrogen dioxide can be produced from the 

combustion of cellulose nitrate. Nitric oxide does not exist in atmospheric air because it is 

converted into dioxide in the presence of oxygen. These compounds are strong irritants, 

particularly to mucous membranes, and thus when inhaled, will damage tissues in the respiratory 

tract by reacting with moisture to produce nitrous and nitric acids.

Nitrogen dioxide can be dangerous and even fatal to humans and is the most toxic nitrogen oxide. 

The physiological responses of people to various nitrogen dioxide concentrations are given in 

Table 4. 

Table 4. Human physiological response to various concentrations of nitrogen dioxide

Physiological Response NO2 in Air

Threshold Limit 5 ppm

Least Amount Causing Immediate Throat Irritation 62 ppm

Dangerous for Short Exposure 117-154 ppm

Rapidly Fatal for Short Exposure. 240-775 ppm

Carbon Monoxide

CO1 is produced by incomplete combustion of materials containing carbon and is present in large 

quantities at most fires. CO1 causes asphyxiation if inhaled, but relatively little is produced in 

explosions considered in the risk assessment. CO1 is produced in large quantities with other WDM 

methods and was considered at much higher levels in “The Use of Carbon Monoxide from Gas 

Cartridges and Forced Gas Fumigation Systems in Wildlife Damage Management.” This risk 

assessment considered the effects of CO1 on humans at much higher levels and found minimal 

concern. Thus, we will not consider CO1 further except to note when, where, and how much is 

produced by the different explosives considered in this document.

Lead Styphnate 

Lead styphnate (C6HN3O8Pb) is used as a primer in detonators and ammunition. After 

combustion, lead styphnate is released as airborne lead particles. Lead styphnate or lead 

particles may be inhaled. Hazards of lead exposure were considered in “Use of Lead in Wildlife 

Damage Management Risk Assessment.” This risk assessment considered the effects of lead 

on humans related to lead shot, bullets, or pellets, and fishing sinkers. Although the route of 

exposure is different (e.g., inhalation vs. ingestion), the toxic effects due to lead are similar and 

will not be covered in this document except to note when, where, and how much is produced by 

the different explosives considered in this document.

2.2 Ecological Hazards

The use of multicomponent explosives, pyrotechnics, ammunition, gas cartridge fuses, or cannon 

and rocket nets have the potential to have ecological effects. Explosives can be a hazard to the 

environment if not used properly, but WS personnel are extensively trained in procedures to 

minimize these effects. 
35

2.2.1 Multicomponent Explosives

Multicomponent explosives are used to remove beaver dams by WS. The detonation of mixed 

multicomponent explosive components produces large explosions that have the potential to alter 

waterways. A spill of chemical components has the potential to contaminate soils and waters.

Beaver dams can have varying effects on the environment. Beaver dam removal is generally 

conducted to maintain existing stream channels and drainage patterns and reduce flood waters 

that have affected agriculture (ranching and farming activities), roads, bridges, and residential 

and commercial property or drainage structures such as culverts. Beaver dams are made from 

natural debris such as logs, sticks, vegetation, and mud that beavers take from the immediate 

area. This portion is dislodged during a beaver dam removal operation with multicomponent 

explosives. The removal of dams is most often associated with recent beaver activity. It has not 

been in place long enough to take on the qualities of a true wetland (i.e., hydric soils, hydrophytic 

vegetation, and preexisting function). Unwanted beaver dams can be removed by hand with a 

rake, power tools (e.g., a winch), heavy equipment, or explosives. Beaver dam removal does not 

affect the substrate or the stream's natural course and returns the area to its preexisting condition 

with similar flows and circulations. Because beaver dams involve waters of the United States, 

removal is regulated under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. WS projects involving beaver 

dam removal are discussed with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers or are specifically exempted 

under Section 404.

Multicomponent explosives are mixed at the site and placed within the beaver dam to create a 

vortex of energy to cause the dam material to go up and out (the path of least resistance). When 

the charges detonate, the dam’s material is lifted up to 100 feet in the air. The energy associated 

with the explosion is directed away from the water to maximize the impact. The intent of removal

or breaching with explosives is to loosen the dam material at the center portion of the dam and 

allow the force of impounded water to wash away the remaining debris closest to the stream 

banks. 

The primary adverse effect of using explosives to remove dams is the quick release of water 

above the dam. Rapid water runoff from breached beaver dams could impact some wildlife, 

primarily fish and invertebrates. Sometimes fish, especially small ones, can be stranded in small, 

isolated pools or on land when the water is released from removing a dam. WS personnel pick up 

these fish and return them to the flowing stream or ditch. The release of debris and mud can affect 

some species downstream, like high water events from spring runoff and heavy rains. On the 

other hand, extensive beaver activity often eliminates essential habitats such as gravel or sandy 

bottoms for many species of mollusks and fish, especially where beaver activity has increased 

past historical norms. WS removes dams to restore streams to their original state, allowing natural 

water flow and alleviating flooding. Without taking the proper precautions, removing beaver dams 

by any method has the potential to result in flood damage to roadways, public or private property, 

or downstream ecosystems. 

2.2.2 Pyrotechnics

When fired, pyrotechnics produce a loud whistle or blast intended to frighten target animals from 

an area. The adverse noise produced by pyrotechnics is also likely to frighten nontarget animals 

from the area. Pyrotechnics use black powder as a propellant and produce a frightening noise 

(e.g., whistle, blast). As discussed for net propellants, firing pyrotechnics would also produce 

small amounts of solid and gaseous components. Those solid and gaseous components 

produced and the environmental hazards associated with those components as the pyrotechnic 
36

burns, would be like the components and environmental hazards discussed for net propellants. 

In addition, firing pyrotechnics could ignite grass or other flammable material.

WS accidentally hazed an annual average of 120 mallards from FY16 to FY20 and killed an 

annual average of 0.2 wildlife (one American white pelican over the five years); no other wildlife 

was injured. Very rarely is wildlife killed or injured accidentally during hazing activities. WS 

pyrotechnic use resulted in an average of 0.2 fires from FY16 to FY20. Historically, fires were 

more common due to quality control, with cracker shells being less stringent; many would go out 

75 yards or so and not explode midair as designed. The “duds” would land on the ground 75-100 

yards away, and the smoldering pyrotechnic, basically an M-80 firecracker, would start a ground 

fire; this was a rare occurrence. All fires resulting from pyrotechnic use were extinguished quickly, 

resulting in no property damage or injury to humans or wildlife. 

2.2.3 Net Propellants and Ammunition

Ecological hazards for rocket and cannon nets and ammunition are discussed in other Risk 

Assessments as has been discussed. Gunpowder could start fires, but not as likely as 

pyrotechnics. Thus, fires will be discussed in that section. Gases and solids produced from these 

are discussed under gases and solids produced below.

2.2.4 Incidental Explosive Materials

Given the explosion hazard of incidental explosive materials and because the risks associated 

with using these materials would be accidental ignition or detonation, hazards to the environment 

would be like using other explosive materials. Those environmental hazards would primarily be 

related to fires accidentally ignited by their use. The gases and solids produced using incidental 

explosives will be discussed in Section 2.2.5. 

2.2.5 Gases and Solids Produced from Explosives Problem Formulation

The gases produced by detonating multicomponent explosives and gunpowder are mostly 

nontoxic CO2, N2, H2O, and H, and smaller amounts of toxic CO1 and NOx, which wildlife could 

inhale. Black powder also makes small amounts of H2S and CH4. Solids produced, primarily from 

black powder, include potassium carbonate K2CO3, K2SO4, K2S, S, KNO3, KSCN, C, and 

(NH4)2CO3. Primers emit small quantities of C6HN3O8Pb and Pb(N3)2. Gases dissipate into the air 

rapidly and would have little opportunity to affect the environment. Additionally, the biggest portion 

of the gases produced is in the environment. The environment produces H2S and CO1 in small 

quantities and can effectively absorb and detoxify small quantities. CH4, is basically nontoxic, but 

extremely flammable and can be an asphyxiant if oxygen levels fall below 16% (Kumar and Gupta 

2021). It should be noted that with the advent of smokeless gunpowder, sulfur, for the most part, 

was removed as sulfur was highly corrosive and an irritant. USEPA (1995) provided emissions 

from standard explosives at the time and Table 5 provides emissions for NOx, CO1, and lead 

from the use of firearms and pyrotechnics used by WS. When considered that gunpowder for 

pyrotechnics and firearms are used throughout the year, outdoors, and in all 50 states and 3 

territories, emissions are minimal. Shotgun usage creates the highest amounts of emissions but

would not be minimal when spread across the landscape. Further discussion for each is given. 

Nitrogen Oxides

Nitrogen oxides are produced from multicomponent explosives, but only limited data are available 

on these emissions (United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 1995). Nitrogen 
37

oxides produced from ammunition and pyrotechnic use are listed in Table 5. Quantities of nitrogen 

oxides produced from ammunition and pyrotechnic use are low (USEPA 1995).

Table 5. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and lead emissions produced from WS average annual use of 

explosives during FY16-FY20 calculated from USEPA (1995) Compilation of air pollutant emission factors.

Explosive Number used Lbs. produced

CO1 NOx Pb

Pyrotechnic (Cracker Shell) 26,339 39.5 1.1 0.5

Pyrotechnic (15 mm report/ screamer) 166,674 46.7 3.3 0.2

Pyrotechnic (Blank) 360 0.1 0.007 0.0003

Shotgun 844,343 1266.5 35.5 16.9

Small Caliber Rifle/Pistol (.22) 121,953 8.8 0.4 0.2

Large Caliber Rifle/Pistol 113,177 339.5 1.5 2.0

Carbon Monoxide

Charges of multicomponent explosives detonate at 2,000° F, consuming the binary components, 

resulting in no release of known toxic residues into the water. Although CO1 is a common byproduct of fuel combustion, it is highly unlikely that gas will enter the water, except in minute 

quantities, due to its volatile nature, resulting in very little concern about reduced water quality.

CO1 produced from ammunition and pyrotechnic use is listed in Table 5. These quantities 

represent the annual average emission for all ammunition and pyrotechnic use. Because these 

are for outdoor use, no emission controls are needed for use (USEPA 1995). 

Lead Styphnate 

Lead styphnate is a component of primers for ammunition, pyrotechnics, and detonators. A 

conservative estimate of lead styphnate per ammunition round is 30% of a 45 mg primer. Using 

the annual average ammunition used by WS, approximately 32 pounds of lead may be released 

into the environment annually. However, firearms are used by WS in all 50 states and 3 territories 

and used periodically throughout the year. Thus, there is no concentration of lead exposure in a 

single location or area due to firearms use. The amount of lead styphnate in electric matches and 

detonators is minimal. WS use of cannon/rocket nets and detonators for explosives is spread 

across multiple states such that the minimal use would not cause a hazard of lead contamination.

Additional estimates of lead emissions are provided in Table 5.

3 RISKS

3.1 Human Health and Safety Risks

The combustion of explosive materials is likely to produce small amounts of solid and gaseous 

components. WS use of explosive materials would occur outdoors in open-air situations and 

would not occur in confined spaces. Those gaseous components produced would quickly 

dissipate into the air and any solid components would settle onto the ground. The primary risks 

would occur to WS employees that use explosive materials. When using multicomponent 

explosives, WS personnel would retreat to a safe area at least 250 feet from the beaver dam and 

would allow the smoke and fumes to clear before returning to the blast site. A similar scenario 

would occur during the use of rocket and cannon nets. When using pyrotechnics and incidental 

explosive materials, WS personnel may be exposed to gaseous and solid components 

immediately upon firing or igniting those materials. However, those materials would immediately 

move away from the employee upon firing. For example, when fired, a pyrotechnic exits the 

launcher and travels downrange; therefore, primary exposure would occur as the pyrotechnic 
38

exits the launchers. Although explosive materials could produce noxious fumes, WS does not 

anticipate exposure to occur at a level that would result in adverse effects to human safety. 

WS operational field personnel averaged 0.6 injuries/burns from explosives accidents per year

from FY16-FY20. These injuries were directly related to pyrotechnic misfires/misloads, firearm 

misfires, or lighting of gas cartridge fuses. In addition, there were 2 incidents per year from FY16-

FY20 that did not result in injury. For example, a cracker shell with an improper load caused 

damage to a shot gun barrel. In reference to binary explosives, OWCP had no claims or reports 

of injuries or other maladies related to detonating explosives for beaver dam removal from FY16 

to FY20. 

Four personnel (0.8 annually) were injured between FY11 through FY15 in all WDM firearm 

activities, including aerial shooting. One injury was to the leg from a .22 caliber pistol, one to a 

foot from an air rifle, and two to hands and face from defective ammunition. Six additional 

personnel were injured in accidents from FY04 to FY10. Two additional injuries were to the leg 

(one a pellet from an air rifle and one from a high-powered rifle), three injuries were to hands, 

face, and eardrums from rounds going off in the barrel, and one, an accident involving a 

pyrotechnic launcher, was an injury that resulted in the loss of the pinky finger and part of the ring 

finger of a WS employee9

. 

WS requires stringent training of employees for firearm and explosive use, which has likely 

resulted in fewer accidents (data is unavailable for comparison). However, considering the 

number of firearms used by WS and the number of rounds fired (in the hundreds of thousands 

annually), few accidents and incidents occurred and the risk of injury is low. In summary for FY16 

to FY20, WS personnel had an annual average of 2.6 accidents (of these 0.6 resulted in injury). 

However, some accidents and most incidents involving mechanical failure of the firearm or 

ammunition would not likely be avoided. It should be noted that many potential accidents are 

avoided by inspecting the ammunition and firearm prior to use (when something abnormal is 

found, it is marked as an incident).

Exposure to the gases and solids produced by detonating multicomponent explosives and 

gunpowder is minimal due to the activities being spread out over time (e.g., few explosives, 

firearms discharged at a time) and space (e.g., throughout the U.S. and its territories and among 

~1,900 WS employees). Gases produced due to explosives dissipate into the air rapidly and 

would have little opportunity to affect WS personnel and the public because they are not allowed 

near the explosives. In addition, reentry into the area takes enough time for the gases to disperse.

One of the most significant exposure risks to humans is indoor firing ranges. Studies have shown 

that law enforcement personnel are exposed to mean air lead levels above 2,000 ug/m3

, more 

than 40 times the OSHA standard of 50 ug/m3, when training at indoor ranges (Valway et al. 1989).

WS personnel conduct all firearm and explosive operations outdoors and at various locations, 

where exposure to gases and solids is minimal.

3.2 Ecological Risks

WS would reduce environmental risks by adhering to all OSHA regulations, WS policy 

procedures, the WS Explosive Safety Manual, state regulations, IME safety recommendations, 

and product manufacturers’ instructions on handling and using explosive materials. The primary 

environmental risk from using explosive materials would be fires caused when using pyrotechnics, 

net propellants, and incidental explosive materials. As indicated in WS safety manuals, each 

9 A firearm accident is defined by policy as an event that results in an injury or property damage whereas in an incident neither 

occurs. 
39

vehicle used to transport explosive materials must be equipped with one to two fire extinguishers 

depending on the explosive material being transported. In addition, WS personnel would fire 

pyrotechnics away from buildings, vehicles, and dry vegetation.

Although using explosive materials could produce gaseous and solid components, the quantities 

produced are minor and would not occur in such a limited area to cause adverse effects. The 

gaseous and solid components produced would occur in a localized area. The gaseous 

components would dissipate into the air. The solid components would likely settle onto the ground 

but would be in extremely limited quantities.

Nontarget animals are usually not affected by the noise produced by pyrotechnics or explosions, 

except for the occasional startling due to those methods. In those cases, animals may temporarily 

leave the immediate vicinity but would most likely settle in a new area like the space they left or 

return after the conclusion of the action.

The likelihood of cannon or rocket assemblies striking a target or nontarget animal is extremely 

low. For nontarget animals, the risk is likely extremely low because a nontarget animal would 

have to be present when WS personnel activated the net, and the nontarget animal would have 

to be in a position where the assemblies strike the animal. WS personnel position nets so the net 

envelops target animals upon deployment, which would minimize the risk of assemblies striking 

both target and nontarget animals. When using nets, WS personnel often use bait to attract target 

species and to concentrate target species in a specific area to ensure the net completely 

envelopes target animals. Therefore, WS personnel refrain from firing the net at a time when 

target or nontarget animals are in areas where strikes could occur.

4 UNCERTAINTIES AND CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Uncertainties about the use of explosives are negligible as WS has many years of experience 

using explosives in WDM. The knowledge gained from this experience has helped reduce risks 

associated with explosives, especially regarding human health and safety with all forms of 

explosives and to captured animals from the standpoint of injuries to nontargets. 

The Introduction to WS Methods Risk Assessments, Chapter 1, gives all species taken by WS 

from FY11 to FY15 and shows no significant cumulative impacts from a population standpoint

due to all methods used in WDM, and explosive use was considered in those. Additionally, 

cumulative impacts are addressed in National Environmental Policy Act documents and found not 

to be significant to any native species population. From a human health perspective, the use of 

explosives in WDM does not have any known cumulative impacts or involve unknown risks. 

Certification and training in the use of explosives reduce the risk of injury and nontarget hazards.

5 SUMMARY

WS uses explosives to manage wildlife, causing damage to agriculture, natural resources, or 

property or threatening public safety. WS explosive methods include multicomponent explosives 

for removing beaver dams to reduce flooding and pyrotechnics used to haze wildlife from airports 

to avoid aircraft strikes and keep them away from other resources. Other uses include 

ammunition, cannon and rocket net charges, and gas cartridges for fumigation, which have been 

discussed in other risk assessments, except for the use of smokeless powder for ammunition, 

propellants for nets, and fuses for gas cartridges. Finally, other incidental explosive materials are 

used to initiate some types of explosives, including detonation cord for multicomponent 

explosives, fuses for all types of explosives, electric matches for rocket and cannon nets, and 
40

primers for pyrotechnics and ammunition rounds. Environmental risks to nontarget animals are 

insignificant as animals are usually not affected by the noise produced by pyrotechnics or 

explosions, except for the occasional startling due to those methods. WS personnel are at risk of 

being injured or killed by explosives; however, WS trains personnel properly to handle explosive 

materials to minimize this risk. The annual average accidents in the last ten years were three or 

fewer, with less than one accident resulting in human injury annually. WS and public exposure to 

potentially toxic gases and solids produced from explosives are negligible due to the minimal use 

by individual employees and in multiple areas. Thus, exposure is limited, and gases disperse 

quickly. 

6 LITERATURE CITED

Csernica, C. M., K. D. Oyler, J. J. Sabatini, and N. Mehta. 2016. Non-toxic primer mix. U.S. Patent US

9,409,830 B1. Aug. 9. 7 pp.

Dill, H. H. and W. H. Thornsberry. 1950. A cannon-projected net trap for capturing waterfowl. Journal of 

Wildlife Management 14: 132-137.

Fronabarger, J. W., M. D. Williams, W. B. Sanborn, D. A. Parrish and M. Bichay. 2011. KDNP - A lead free 

replacement for lead styphnate. Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 36:459.

Gore, S. D., K. Bharadwajan, and S. Vathsal. 2016. Smokeless solid propellants performance in various 

grain configurations for a missile application. International Journal of Research in Engineering and 

Applied Sciences 6: 116-122.

Grubb, T. G. 1988. A portable rocket-net system for capturing wildlife. USDA Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO. Research note RM-484. Accessed 

6/8/2022 @ http://hdl.handle.net/2027/umn.31951d02996011v

Guns and Ammo. 2018. The truth about primer misfires. Learn :Shoot 101. G&A Staff. Nov. 29. Accessed 

6/28/2022 @ https://www.gunsandammo.com/editorial/the-truth-about-primer-misfires/247980

Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME). 2007. Recommendations for the safe transportation of detonators 

in a vehicle with certain other explosive materials. IME, Safety Library Publication (SLP) 22, Wash., 

DC. Feb. 12 pp.

_____ IME. 2016. Warnings and instructions for consumers in transporting, storing, handling and using 

explosive materials. IME, SLP 4, Wash., DC. Oct. 36 pp.

_____ IME. 2017. Construction guide for storage magazines. IME, SLP 1, Wash., DC. Oct. 24 pp.

_____ IME. 2018. Glossary of commercial explosives industry terms. IME, SLP 12, Wash., DC. March. 51 

pp.

_____ IME. 2019. Handbook for the transportation and distribution of explosive materials. IME, SLP 14, 

Wash., DC. March. 74 pp.

_____ IME. 2021. Suggested code of regulations for the manufacture, transportation, storage, sale, 

possession and use of explosive materials. IME, SLP 3, Wash., DC. Oct. 42 pp.

Klapotke, T.M., D.G. Piercey, JU.W. Fronabarger, M. D. Williams. 2016. Method for preparation of a lead 

free primary explosive. U.S. Patent US 9,278,984 B2. March 8. 7 pp.

Kumar, N. and H. Gupta. 2021. Chapter 18 – Methane: Risk assessment, environmental, and health hazard. 

Pp. 225-238. In Hazardous Gases. J. Singh, R.D. Kaushik, and M. Chawla eds. 
41

Lundgaard, S., S. H. Ng, D. Cahill, J. Dahlberg, D. Ruan, N. Cole, P. R. Stoddart, and S. Juodkazis. 2019.

Towards safer primers: A review. Technologies 7(4): 75. 

Neff, J. A., and R. T. Mitchell. 1955. The rope firecracker: A device to protect crops from bird damage. 

USFWS Wildlife Leaflet No. 365 .

Schemnitz, S. D., G. R. Batcheller, M J. Lovallo, H. B. White, and M. W. Fall. 2009. Capturing and handling 

wild animals. USDA National Wildlife Research Center Staff Publication Accessed 6/8/2022 @ 

http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_usdanwrc/1191

Sumi, K. and Y. Tsuchiya. 1971. Toxic Combustion Products of Wood and Polystyrene. National Research 

Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, BRN 76, Sept. 1971.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 1995. Compilation of air pollutant emission 

factors, AP-42, 5th edition. Accessed 6/16/2022 @ https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-factors-andquantification/ap-42-compilation-air-emissions-factors 

Valway, S. E., J. W. Martyny, J. R. Miller, M. Cook, and E. J. Mangione. 1989. Lead absorption in indoor 

firing range users. American Journal of Public Health 79: 1029-1032.
42

7 PREPARERS

7.1 APHIS-WS Methods Risk Assessment Committee

Writers for “The Use of Explosive Materials in Wildlife Damage Management”

Primary Writer: Thomas C. Hall

Position: USDA-APHIS-WS, Operational Support Staff, Staff Wildlife Biologist, Fort Collins, CO

Education: BS Biology/BA Psychology – Fort Lewis College; MS Wildlife Ecology – Oklahoma State 

University

Experience: Special expertise in wildlife biology, identification, ecology, and damage management. Thirtyseven years of service in APHIS Wildlife Services including operations and research conducting a wide 

variety of programs including bird damage research and management, livestock protection (predators 

and birds), invasive species management, wildlife hazard management at airports, property and natural 

resource protection including waterfowl, brown tree snake, feral swine, rodent, and beaver damage 

management. Have used or supervised the use of all explosive materials.

Primary Writer: Ryan Wimberly 

Position: USDA-APHIS-WS, Operational Support Staff, Staff Wildlife Biologist, Madison, TN

Education: BS Wildlife Management and Ecology – Northwest Missouri State University

Experience: Special expertise in wildlife biology, ecology, and damage management. Eighteen years of 

service with APHIS Wildlife Services, including operations and research, conducting a wide variety of 

programs, including bird damage research and management, livestock protection, invasive species 

management, wildlife hazard management at airports, property, and natural resource protection. Expert 

in preparing environmental documents for WS programs to comply with the National Environmental 

Policy Act and the Endangered Species Act.

Writer: Shelagh DeLiberto 

Position: USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services (WS), National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC), Wildlife 

Biologist, Fort Collins, CO

Education: BA Biology and Environmental Science – Ithaca College; MS Wildlife Biology – Colorado 

State University 

Experience: Sixteen years of service in APHIS conducting wildlife research. Two years of experience in 

preparing categorical exclusions and environmental analyses in compliance with the National 

Environmental Policy Act. 

Editors for “The Use of Explosive Materials in Wildlife Damage Management”

Editor: Michael Green 

Position: USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services (WS), Environmental Coordinator, Fredrick, MD

Education: BS Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, University of Tennessee

Experience: Special expertise in wildlife biology, ecology, and damage management. Eleven years of work 

experience with WS in MD and VA. Experienced in a wide range of program activities including nutria 

eradication, airport wildlife management, and wildlife damage management to protect livestock, 

aquaculture, public safety, and natural resources. Served as staff biologist in WS Headquarters for two 

years.

Editor: Andrea Lemay

Position: USDA-APHIS-Policy and Program Development (PPD), Environmental and Risk Analysis 

Services (ERAS), Biological Scientist, Raleigh, NC

Education: BS Plant and Soil Science (Biotechnology) - University of Massachusetts; MS Plant Pathology 

-North Carolina State University 

Experience: Fourteen years of service in APHIS conducting risk analysis. Four years of experience in 

preparing environmental analyses in compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act. 
43

Editor/Contributor: Emily Ruell 

Position: USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC, Registration Specialist, Fort Collins, CO

Education: B.S. Zoology and Biological Aspects of Conservation – University of Wisconsin - Madison; M.S. 

Ecology – Colorado State University (CSU); M.A. Political Science – CSU

Experience: Three years of experience with WS NWRC preparing and reviewing vertebrate pesticide 

registration data submissions and other registration materials, and providing pesticide regulatory 

guidance to WS, WS NWRC, and collaborators. Prior experience before joining APHIS includes seven 

years of conducting field and laboratory wildlife research at CSU, and environmental policy research 

for the U.S. Geological Survey.

Editor: Jim Warren

Position: USDA-APHIS-Policy and Program Development (PPD), Environmental and Risk Analysis 

Services (ERAS), Environmental Toxicologist, Little Rock, AR 

Education: B.S. Forest Ecology and M.S. Entomology – University of Missouri; Ph.D. Environmental 

Toxicology – Clemson University

Experience: Nine years of experience working for APHIS preparing ecological risk assessments and 

providing assistance on environmental compliance. Prior experience before joining APHIS includes 

other government and private sector work regarding ecological risk assessments related to various 

environmental regulations.

7.2 Internal Reviewers

USDA APHIS Wildlife Services

Editor: Scott Alls

Position: State Director, USDA APHIS Wildlife Services, Oklahoma City, OK

Education: BS Fisheries and Wildlife Management, Arkansas Tech University 1991

Experience: 25 years experience with USDA APHIS WS, 22 years experience as a certified blaster with 

WS and 3 years experience as an explosives instructor with the USDA APHIS WS Explosives Safety 

Subcommittee

Editor: Bruce Leland

Position: USDA APHIS WS, State Director, San Antonio, TX 

Education: BS Wildlife Science, BS Range Management – Texas Tech University

Experience: Forty-one years wildlife damage management experience. Thirty-three years WS Explosives 

Specialist/Explosives Safety Instructor

Editor: Steve Smith

Position: USDA APHIS WS, Assistant State Director, Raleigh, NC 

Education: BS Wildlife and Fisheries Resourcces West Virginia University

Experience: Twenty-four years wildlife damage management experience. Certified blaster 22 years and 

5 years explosives instructor with the USDA APHIS WS Explosives Safety Subcommittee.

7.3 Peer Review

The Office of Management and Budget requires agencies to have peer review guidelines for 

scientific documents. The APHIS guidelines were followed to have "Use of Exclusion in Wildlife 

Damage Management" peer reviewed. WS worked with the Association of Fish and Wildlife 

Agencies to have experts review the documents.

7.3.1 Peer Reviewers Selected by the Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies

South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks

Missouri Department of Conservation
44

7.3.2 Comments

Comments not requiring a response

1. After a thorough review of the document on Explosives, I have no comments except to 

say that the document looks good. Thank you for the opportunity to review this 

document.

2. Staff with experience in using explosives for rocket netting waterfowl, deer, and turkey 

do not have any comments or concerns.
45

Appendix 1. “Other Species” Included in Table 2.

Other predator = Virginia opossum, feral cat*, lynx (AK), coyote^, feral dog*, red fox^, arctic fox^, common 

gray fox, black bear, brown bear, northern sea otter, river otter, mink, raccoon, and striped skunk 

Other hoofed mammal = feral swine*, collared peccary, moose, elk, white-tailed deer, mule deer, axis 

deer*, and American pronghorn 

Other mammal = Hoary marmot, woodchuck, round-tailed ground squirrel, common muskrat, American 

beaver, eastern cottontail^, white-tailed jackrabbit, and nine-banded armadillo

Other dove = island collared-dove*, spotted dove*, zebra (barred ground) dove*, common ground-dove, 

zenaida dove, scaly-naped pigeon, and white-crowned pigeon

Other corvid = Canada (gray) jay, blue jay, black-billed magpie, and yellow-billed magpie

Other raptor = white-tailed kite, swallow-tailed kite, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper’s hawk, northern 

goshawk, northern harrier, Mississippi kite, Harris’s hawk, red-shouldered hawk, broad-winged hawk, 

Swainson’s hawk, rough-legged hawk, white-tailed hawk, ferruginous hawk, golden eagle, barn owl, 

snowy owl, great-horned owl, barred owl, great gray owl, northern hawk owl, northern pygmy-owl, 

burrowing owl, short-eared owl, crested caracara, merlin, gyrfalcon, prairie falcon, and peregrine falcon

Gallinaceous bird = Gambel’s quail, California quail^, northern bobwhite, wild turkey, sharp-tailed grouse, 

willow ptarmigan, rock ptarmigan, gray partridge*, black francolin*, gray francolin*, ring-necked 

pheasant*, and common peafowl* 

Other aerialist = Common nighthawk, Chuck-Will’s-widow, chimney swift, violet-green swallow, northern 

rough-winged swallow, and purple martin

Nonpasserine forest bird = greater roadrunner, mangrove cuckoo, smooth-billed ani, belted kingfisher, 

red-breasted sapsucker, northern flicker, and monk parakeet*

Other grassland passerine = black phoebe, Say’s phoebe, western kingbird, scissor-tailed flycatcher, 

eastern kingbird, gray kingbird, loggerhead shrike, great gray (northern) shrike, Lapland longspur, 

chipping sparrow, field sparrow, lark sparrow, lark bunting, American tree sparrow, fox sparrow, song 

sparrow, white-crowned sparrow, dark-eyed junco, dickcissel, and bobolink

Other forest passerine =Black-capped chickadee, Bohemian waxwing, cedar waxwing, gray catbird, 

northern mockingbird, pearly-eyed thrasher, eastern bluebird, mountain bluebird, Swainson’s thrush, 

hermit thrush, varied thrush, common redpoll, red crossbill, white-winged crossbill, American goldfinch, 

lesser goldfinch, Wilson’s warbler, American yellow warbler, orange-crowned warbler, Townsend’s 

warbler, pine warbler, and yellow-rumped warbler

Other invasive passerine = Eurasian skylark*, red-vented bulbul*, black drongo*, saffron finch*, redcrested cardinal*, chestnut munia*, and northern red bishop*

Other larid = black skimmer, black-legged kittiwake, Sabine’s gull, Heermann’s gull, glaucous gull, Iceland 

gull, lesser black-backed gull, gull-billed tern, sandwich tern, royal tern, elegant tern, arctic tern, 

Forster’s tern, bridled tern, whiskered tern, pomarine jaeger, parasitic jaeger, and long-tailed jaeger 

Other waterfowl = black-bellied whistling duck, domestic goose*, Egyptian goose*, Ross’s goose, mute 

swan*, trumpeter swan, tundra swan, wood duck, mottled duck, American black duck, cinnamon teal, 

Eurasian wigeon, white-cheeked pintail, king eider, common eider, harlequin duck, white-winged 

scoter, surf scoter, black scoter, and long-tailed duck

Other open-waterbird = red-throated loon, Pacific loon, common loon, Laysan albatross, pied-billed grebe, 

red-necked grebe, horned grebe, eared grebe, magnificent frigatebird, great frigatebird, northern 

gannet, brown booby, Brandt’s cormorant, anhinga, common murre, marbled murrelet (AK), tufted 

puffin, and parakeet auklet

Other wading bird= American flamingo, roseate spoonbill, American bittern, yellow bittern, black-crowned 

night-heron, yellow-crowned night-heron, green heron, little blue heron, reddish egret, tricolored heron, 

and common gallinule

Other shorebird = black oystercatcher, American oystercatcher, American avocet, American goldenplover, Wilson’s plover, mountain plover, Western snowy ploverT&E (0.2), upland sandpiper, bristlethighed curlew, Hudsonian godwit, marbled godwit, ruddy turnstone, surfbird, stilt sandpiper, whiterumped sandpiper, buff-breasted sandpiper, semipalmated sandpiper, pectoral sandpiper, sharp-tailed 

sandpiper, short-billed dowitcher, American woodcock, Wilson’s snipe, Wilson’s phalarope, red-necked 

phalarope, spotted sandpiper, solitary sandpiper, wood sandpiper, lesser yellowlegs, and greater 

yellowlegs, 

Reptile = American alligator, green iguana*, and 3.2 unidentified FL snake (46 sp.)
46

Appendix 2. Tables A-1 and A-2 for FY11-FY15 for Comparison

Table A-1: The annual average number of target and nontarget (28) animals hazed with all pyrotechnics 

and blanks by WS in WDM activities from FY11 to FY15 throughout the United States. 

ANNUAL AVERAGE SPECIES HAZED WITH PYROTECHNICS AND FIREARM BLANKS FY11-FY15

Species1 Hazed Species1 Hazed Species1 Hazed

Mammals Lapland Longspur 1,232 Surf Scoter 1,045

Grizzly Bear (0.2 T&E) 3 Snow Bunting (20NT) 1,097 Long-tailed Duck 1,374

Steller Sea LionT&E 1,171 Savannah Sparrow 2,633 Bufflehead 11,346

California Sea Lion 812 Eastern Meadowlark 3,508 Common Goldeneye 2,995

Other Predator (13 sp.) 188 Western Meadowlark 8,046 Barrow's Goldeneye 1,290

Axis Deer* 330 Other Grassl Passerine (17 sp.) 1490 Hooded Merganser 1,728

White-tailed Deer 145 Cedar Waxwing 1,486 Common Merganser 2,157

Caribou 550 American Robin 10,595 Red-breasted Merganser 82,338

Other Hoofed Mammals (5 sp.) 63 American Goldfinch 1,430 Other Waterfowl (19T sp.) 3,973

Other Mammal (7 sp.) 16 Other Forest Passerine (15 sp.) 1,962 Hawaiian PetrelT&E 0.4

Total Mammal (31 sp.) 3,278 Common Myna 4,822 Western & Clark’s Grebe 7,708

Birds Associated with Land Chestnut Mannikin 1,091 American White Pelican 5,715

European Starling* 6,185,995 Nutmeg Mannikin 1,390 Brown Pelican 1,567

Yellow-headed Blackbird 911 House Sparrow 2,127 Pelagic Cormorant 1,332

Tricolored Blackbird 2,469 Other Invasive Passerine (6 sp.) 207 Double-crested Cormorant 88,193

Red-winged Blackbird 486,846 Land Bird Total (138 sp.) 9,705,249 Other Waterbirds (16 sp.) 1,543

Brown-headed Cowbird 59,595 Birds Associated with Water Wood StorkT&E 103

Brewer’s Blackbird 17,379 Red-legged Kittiwake 10,204 American White Ibis 26,471

Common Grackle 40,192 Bonaparte's Gull 6,146 White-faced Ibis 2,774

Boat-tailed Grackle 64,119 Laughing Gull 678,337 Western Cattle Egret^ 60,105

Great-tailed Grackle 18,328 Franklin's Gull 10,591 Great Blue Heron 5,446

- Mixed Blackbirds 1,427,774 Mew Gull 3,547 Great Egret 6,779

Rock Pigeon* 13,698 Ring-billed Gull 2,347,574 Little Blue Heron 1,323

Spotted Dove* 1,018 California Gull 165,248 Snowy Egret 3,056

Zebra (Barred Ground-) Dove* 1,276 Great Black-backed Gull 84,192 Hawaiian CootT&E 0.2

Mourning Dove^ 64,661 Glaucous-winged Gull 105,157 American Coot 11,162

White-winged Dove 40,435 Western Gull 1,390 Sandhill Crane 139,519

Other Dove (4 sp.) 581 American Herring Gull 1,298,802 Whooping CraneT&E 0.6

American Crow 862,864 Caspian Tern 13,426 Other Wading Birds (12 sp.) 1,756

Northwestern Crow 14,711 Royal Tern 1,541 Black-necked Stilt 1,327

Fish Crow 3,745 Least Tern 9,169 - Hawaiian Black-necked StiltT&E 276

Common Raven 25,835 - California Least TernT&E 14 American Avocet 7,894

Other Corvid (3T sp.) 115 Other Larid (17 sp.) 2,743 Pacific Golden-Plover 82,213

Turkey Vulture 61,885 Greater White-fronted Goose 32,642 Gray (Black-bellied) Plover 2,825

Black Vulture 32,196 Snow Goose 109,152 Semipalmated Plover 6,661

Western Osprey 1,041 Cackling Goose 83,863 Wilson's Plover 2,560

Bald Eagle 34,285 Canada Goose 178,751 Killdeer 7,802

Hawaiian HawkT&E 10 Hawaiian GooseT&E 499 Short-billed Dowitcher 1,036

Red-tailed Hawk 2,912 Gadwall 1,489 Marbled Godwit 1,619

Golden Eagle 28 American Wigeon 6,913 Whimbrel 2,405

American Kestrel 1,407 American Black Duck 1,892 Long-billed Curlew 8,432

Other Raptor (28 sp.) 2,608 Mallard (incl. 112 feral mallard*) 46,253 Willet 1,119

Gallinaceous Birds (10 sp.) 874 Hawaiian DuckT&E 284 Ruddy Turnstone 4,237

Bank Swallow 16,913 Blue-winged Teal 3,337 Sanderling 4,232

Tree Swallow 20,103 Northern Shoveler 23,795 Semipalmated Sandpiper 2,206

Violet-green Swallow 1,006 Northern Pintail 13,680 Western Sandpiper 8,890

Purple Martin 4,496 Green-winged Teal 7,307 Least Sandpiper 2,342

Barn Swallow 74,660 Canvasback 1,428 Dunlin 3,899

American Cliff Swallow 57,045 Redhead 4,798 Other Shorebirds (30 sp.) 3,634

Other Aerialists (5 T sp.) 1,445 Ring-necked Duck 1,367 Water Bird Total (173 sp.) 5,918,439

Nonpasserine Forest Bird (4 sp.) 349 Greater Scaup 9,045 Unidentified Bird 8,883

Horned Lark (8NT.) 11,459 Lesser Scaup 25,426 Reptile (6T sp.) 3

American Pipit 4,864 Spectacled EiderT&E 29 GRAND TOTAL HAZED (348 sp.) 15,635,852

Blanks GRAND TOTAL Blanks (31 sp.) 1,557

* Introduced Species T – Target NT – Nontarget (the # NT species in ( ) and included in T take) 1 Accounts of species are given only for those mammals and reptiles that had an annual average of 100 or more hazed, birds with 

1,000 or more hazed, and sensitive species.
47

“Other Species” (FY11-15). “Other Species” Included in Appendix 2. Table A-1.

Other predator = Virginia opossum^, feral cat*, bobcat, coyote^, feral dog*, red fox^, arctic fox^, common 

gray fox, black bear, river otter, mink, raccoon, and striped skunk 

Other hoofed mammal = feral swine*, collared peccary, moose, mule deer, and muskox 

Other mammal = American beaver, woodchuck, eastern fox squirrel, North American porcupine, eastern 

cottontail^, black-tailed jackrabbit, and nine-banded armadillo

Other dove = island collared-dove*, Eurasian collared-dove, common ground-dove, and white-crowned 

pigeon

Other corvid = Canada (gray) jay, black-billed magpie, and yellow-billed magpie

Other raptor = white-tailed kite, swallow-tailed kite, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper’s hawk, northern 

goshawk, northern harrier, Mississippi kite, common black hawk, Harris’s hawk, red-shouldered hawk, 

broad-winged hawk, Swainson’s hawk, zone-tailed hawk, rough-legged hawk, ferruginous hawk, barn owl, 

snowy owl, great-horned owl, barred owl, great gray owl, northern hawk owl, burrowing owl, short-eared 

owl, crested caracara, merlin, gyrfalcon, prairie falcon, and peregrine falcon (not counted in species is 

escaped hybrid falcon*)

Gallinaceous bird = Gambel’s quail, northern bobwhite, wild turkey, sharp-tailed grouse, willow ptarmigan, 

black francolin*, gray francolin*, Erckel’s francolin*, ring-necked pheasant*, and common peafowl* 

Other aerialist = common nighthawk, chimney swift, white-throated swift, northern rough-winged swallow, 

and cave swallow

Nonpasserine forest bird = belted kingfisher, northern flicker, monk parakeet, and rose-ringed parakeet

Other grassland passerine = black phoebe, Say’s phoebe, western kingbird, scissor-tailed flycatcher, 

eastern kingbird, gray kingbird, loggerhead shrike, great gray (northern) shrike, chipping sparrow, field 

sparrow, lark sparrow, fox sparrow, song sparrow, Lincoln’s sparrow, white-crowned sparrow, dark-eyed 

junco, and bobolink

Other forest passerine =Bohemian waxwing, northern mockingbird, eastern bluebird, western bluebird, 

mountain bluebird, Swainson’s thrush, house finch, common redpoll, lesser goldfinch, pine siskin, American 

yellow warbler, pine warbler, yellow-rumped warbler, northern cardinal, and indigo bunting

Other invasive passerine = Eurasian skylark*, red-vented bulbul*, common waxbill*, red avadavat*, 

warbling silverbill*, and red-crested cardinal*

Other larid = white tern, black skimmer, black-legged kittiwake, Heermann’s gull, glaucous gull, Iceland 

(Thayer’s) gull, lesser black-backed gull, gull-billed tern, sandwich tern, arctic tern, common tern, Forster’s 

tern, whiskered tern, black tern, pomarine jaeger, parasitic jaeger, and long-tailed jaeger 

Other waterfowl = black-bellied whistling duck, domestic goose, Ross’s goose, brant, mute swan, 

trumpeter swan, tundra swan, domestic Muscovy duck, wood duck, mottled duck, cinnamon teal, Eurasian 

wigeon, Eurasian teal, king eider, common eider, harlequin duck, white-winged scoter, black scoter, and 

ruddy duck

Other waterbird = red-throated loon, Pacific loon, common loon, Laysan albatross, wedge-tailed 

shearwater, pied-billed grebe, red-necked grebe, horned grebe, eared grebe, magnificent frigatebird, great 

frigatebird, Brandt’s cormorant, anhinga, common murre, pigeon guillemot, and marbled murrelet (AK)

Other wading bird= American flamingo, glossy ibis, roseate spoonbill, American bittern, least bittern, 

yellow bittern*, black-crowned night-heron, yellow-crowned night-heron, green heron, reddish egret, 

tricolored heron, and common gallinule

Other shorebird = black oystercatcher, American oystercatcher, American golden-plover, lesser sand 

plover, snowy plover, mountain plover, American woodcock, Wilson’s snipe, long-billed dowitcher, 

Hudsonian godwit, bar-tailed godwit, bristle-thighed curlew, upland sandpiper, greater yellowlegs, lesser 

yellowlegs, solitary sandpiper, wandering tattler, common sandpiper, spotted sandpiper, black turnstone, 

surfbird, white-rumped sandpiper, Baird’s sandpiper, pectoral sandpiper, rock sandpiper, stilt sandpiper, 

buff-breasted sandpiper, Wilson’s phalarope, red-necked phalarope, and red phalarope

Reptile = American alligator, spectacled caiman*, African rainbow lizard*, green iguana*, coachwhip, and 

one unidentified FL snake (43 sp.) 
48

Table A-2. The annual average number of beaver dams removed and multicomponent explosives used, 

pyrotechnics and blanks used and animals dispersed, gas cartridge fuses used, and target and nontarget 

animals captured or taken with nets and firearms by WS in WDM activities from FY11 to FY15 throughout 

the United States. 

T – Target NT – Nontarget (# T and NT species in group, # sp. is all species in group including T and NT) 1 See Table 2 for breakdown of species

2 See “The Use of Carbon Monoxide from Gas Cartridges and Forced Gas Fumigation Systems in Wildlife Damage Management” for 

further information and species taken

3 See “The Use of Nets in Wildlife Damage Management” for further information and species taken 4See “The Use of Firearms in Wildlife Damage Management” for further information and species taken including the estimated number 

of target and nontarget animals captured with other WDM methods such as foothold traps and euthanized with a shot to the brain 

ANNUAL AVERAGE SPECIES TAKEN WITH METHODS INVOLVING EXPLOSIVE PER ATF FOR FY11-FY15

ACTIVITY ( # SPECIES INVOLVED) # STATES USED TARGET # USED

MULTICOMPONENT EXPLOSIVE USAGE Dams Removed Binary Explosives

Beaver Dams Removed (1T - 1 sp.) 20 States 1,314 5,008 lb. (3.8 lbs./dam)

PYROTECHNIC & BLANK USAGE1 Target Dispersed # Pyrotechnics Used

Launcher Cartr./Crackershells (347T, 2NT – 347 sp.) 49 States, 3 15,634,324 (28 NT) 452,103

Pyrotechnic Rockets (44T – 44 sp.) 7 States 77,223 5,878

Blank Usage (35 T – 35 sp.) 3 States 1,557 104

Pyrotechnic/Blank Take (348T, 2 NT – 348 sp.) 49 States, 3 15,713,104 458,085

GAS CARTRIDGE FUSES USED2 Est. Rodents/Predators Taken Fuses Used

Gas Cartridge Fuses (15T – 15 sp.) 34 States, DC 11,211 6,080

TAKE WITH ROCKET AND CANNON NETS3 Killed Released Dispersed Killed Released

Rocket/Cannon Net Take (22T, 2NT – 22 sp.) 30 States – 177 uses 3,167 234 8,592 0.2 2

FIREARM USAGE4 Killed Nests Dispersed NT Killed Shots

Shotgun (310 T, 6 NT - 310 sp.) 359,050 50 4,33,8,717 3 876,751

Small Caliber Rifle/Pistol (0.22) (140T, 77NT - 187 sp.) 89,344 - 8329 1,186 126,244

Large Caliber Rifle/Pistol (39T, 12NT - 41 sp.) 44,275 - 1,490 127 73,938

Total Firearm Take (401T, 101NT - 429 sp.) 49 States, 4 492,669 50 4,348,536 1,316 1,076,933
49

Appendix 3. Pyrotechnic Chemical Guide [Accessed 6/16/2022 @: 

https://cannonfuse.com/pyrocomp-chapter-9-glossary.html]

Pyrotechnics may use a wide variety of additional ingredients that create different affects. Generally, these 

chemicals are very minor in the product and would cause minimal human health and ecological risks 

because they are used in minor quantities.

Acetone (2-Propanone) [C3H6O] Flammable liquid used as a solvent in pyrotechnics (i.e., in mixtures that 

can't contain water). Nitrocellulose can be dissolved in it to create nitrocellulose lacquer, which can be 

used as an adhesive or a waterproof coating. Acetone is hard to work with because it evaporates so 

quickly, thus making the composition cold and causing water to condense.

Aluminum [Al] Most widely used fuel in modern pyrotechnics; produces a brilliant, bright flame. The 

particles come in several of different shapes, such as flakes and grains.

Ammonium Chloride [NH3 HCl] Used in white smoke compositions. When burned, it decomposes into HCl 

and NH3, then quickly re-combines in the air to form a fine smoke of ammonium chloride particles.

Ammonium Nitrate [NH4NO3] Oxidizer used in high explosives (such as ANFO), but not commonly used 

in fireworks due to its hygroscopicity.

Ammonium Perchlorate [NH4ClO4] Slow burning, widely used oxidizer. Though many rich colors can be 

made with it, the burn rate is too slow for use in star compositions. However, it is ideal for use in lances 

and torches, where slow burning is an advantage. Since all the decomposition products are gases, it is 

also used in rocket propellants (such as the Solid Rocket Boosters on the Space Shuttle).

Antimony Trisulfide (Antimony Sulfide, realgar) [Sb2S3] A fuel sometimes used in glitter and fountain 

compositions to create the color white. At one point it was used in flash compositions, but it was 

poisonous and extremely sensitive to shock and static electricity. Comes in two forms - "Chinese 

Needle" and "Dark Pyro." The former is used in glitter compositions and white comets/stars. The latter 

is used to sharpen the report of salutes and increase the sensitivity of flash powder.

Barium Carbonate [BaCO3] Functions as a green color agent when burned with chlorine present (from 

the formation of BaCl+), burns white by itself (with oxygen, creating BaO). Can also be used to reduce 

acidity in chlorate-based color compositions.

Barium Chlorate [BaClO3] Used as an oxidizer in green color compositions.

Barium Nitrate [Ba(NO3)2] Can be used as both a green color agent and an oxidizer. Functions as a green 

color agent when burned with chlorine present (from the formation of BaCl+), burns white by itself (with 

oxygen, creating BaO).

Barium Sulfate [BaSO4] Used as a high-temperature oxidizer in metal-based green color compositions.

Benzoic Acid [C6H5COOH] Used to make metallic benzoates.

Bismuth Trioxide [Bi2O3] Used as a non-toxic alternative to lead tetraoxide to make crackling stars.

Bismuth Subcarbonate [(BiO)2CO3] Also used as a non-toxic alternative to lead tetraoxide to make 

crackling stars.

Boric Acid [H3BO3] Weak acid in a powder form which is added to compositions containing aluminum or 

magnesium and a nitrate. Metals react with nitrates to form amides, which can further react with the 

metal powder to create a highly exothermic reaction which could spontaneously ignite the compound. 

Even a few percent boric acid added to the mixture will neutralize any amides that form.
50

Cab-O-Sil (fumed silica, colloidal silica) [SiO2] Used as an anti-caking agent and to prevent hygroscopic 

chemicals from absorbing water from the air. Sometimes used in flash powders.

Calcium Carbonate (chalk) [CaCO3] [CaCO3] [CaCO3] Used as a color agent in orange star compositions, 

or as an acid-absorber.

Calcium Sulfate [CaSO4 xH2O, where x = 0, 2, 3, 5] Calcium sulfate anhydrate (where x = 0) can be used 

as a high temperature oxidizer in orange color compositions or in strobe compositions.

Charcoal (Carbon) [C] Charcoal is used very widely in pyrotechnics. Charcoal is the by-product of the 

burning of organic substances. It contains impurities which make is more reactive, and therefore is 

used more often than pure carbon in fireworks. It can be made from many types of wood. Charcoal 

from soft woods, such as grape vine or willow, is good for fast-burning compositions like black powder, 

whereas charcoal from hard woods like pine are used to create long-lasting spark effects. Very fine 

charcoal is known as air float. Another type of fine charcoal called lampblack.

Clay (bentonite, sodium aluminum silicate) Powder used for plugs and nozzles in fountains, drivers, rockets, 

and other devices. Can also be made into a paste if mixed with water.

Confectioners’ Sugar (sucrose, table sugar) [C12H22O11] Can be used with an oxidizer such as potassium 

nitrate to create smoke devices or rocket fuel.

Copper Acetoarsenite (Paris green) [Cu3As2O3Cu(C2H3O2) 2] The best blue color agent. It is extremely 

poisonous, however, and is hardly ever used in modern pyrotechnics.

Copper Benzoate [Cu(C6H5COO)2] Can be used as a fuel in blue color compositions. Not often used 

because it is expensive.

Copper(II) Carbonate [CuCO3] Light green powder used as a blue color agent.

Copper Chlorate (Hexahydrate) [Cu(ClO3)2 6H2O] Used as an oxidizer is blue color compositions.

Copper(II) Chloride (campfire blue) [CuCl2] Brownish-yellow compound used as a blue color agent.

Copper Chromite [CuCr2O4] Can be used as a catalyst in rocket propellants. It is added in small quantities 

(1-5%) to rocket fuels and whistle compositions to increase the burn rate.

Copper (II) Oxide [CuO] Black powder used as a blue color agent.

Copper Oxychloride [3CuO CuCl2 3.5H2O] Green powder used as a blue color agent.

Copper (II) Sulfate (Pentahydrate) [CuSO4 5H2O] Anhydrous form is used as a blue color agent.

Copper Benzoate [Cu(C6H5COO)2] Used as a fuel and as a blue color agent.

Cryolite (sodium fluoaluminate) [Na3AlF6] White powder used as a yellow color agent.

Dechlorane [C10Cl12] Used as a chlorine donor.

Dextrin [C6H10O5] Commonly used, water-activated pyrotechnic binder used to hold compositions together 

or as a paste.

Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol) [CH3CH2OH] Commonly used as a solvent for compositions containing organic 

fuels/binders such as shellac and red gum.

Ferrotitanium [60/40 ratio of Fe and Ti] Alloy of iron (ferrum) and titanium, used to create yellow-white 

sparks in fountains and star compositions.
51

Gallic Acid [C7H6O5 H2O] White powder used to create whistles.

Gum Arabic Vegetable gum used as a water-soluble binder.

Hexachlorethane (carbon hexachloride) [C2Cl6] White powder used as a chlorine donor and in smoke 

compositions.

Hexamine (hexamethylenetetramine, methenamine) [C6H12N4] Used as an low reactivity fuel in blue star 

compositions.

Iron [Fe] Gray metallic powder used to create yellow branching sparks, mainly in sparklers and fountains. 

Iron alloys rich in carbon work best.

Iron(II) Oxide (ferrous oxide) [FeO Fe2O3 or Fe3O4] Black powder used as a high-temperature oxidizer in 

thermite compositions.

Iron(III) Oxide (ferric oxide) [FeO Fe2O3 or Fe3O4] Red powder used as a catalyst in rocket compositions, 

as a high-temperate oxidizer in thermite compositions or ignition compositions.

Lactose (milk sugar) [C12H22O11 2H2O] Which powder used in smoke compositions and as a low reactivity 

fuel in blue color compositions.

Lampblack (carbon black) [C] Extremely fine form of charcoal obtained from the burning of crude oils. It is 

used to produce long lasting, finely dispersed orange sparks.

Lead Dioxide (lead (IV) oxide) [PbO2] Used as an oxidizer in friction-sensitive ignitor compositions, such 

as matches.

Lead Tetraoxide [Pb3O4] Red powder most commonly used to make crackling stars, sometimes in hightemperature primes.

Manganese Dioxide [MnO2] Used as a catalyst in composite and whistling rocket propellant formulations.

Magnalium (magnesium-aluminum) [Mg/Al] Alloy of magnesium and aluminum, with properties of both 

metals. Not quite as reactive as magnesium, and not as hard to ignite as aluminum. Used primarily in 

glitter, strobes, colored stars, and crackling stars.

Magnesium [Mg] Highly reactive and flammable metal used to brighten flames without decreasing color 

quality. Coarser grades are used to produce white sparks, whereas fine magnesium is used in flare 

and star compositions. The by-products of the burning of magnesium are more easily vaporized than 

those of aluminum, making magnesium a better fuel. 

Methanol [CH3OH] Used as a solvent (similar to ethanol) to dissolve red gum and shellac. Is often mixed 

with water when used in compositions in order to reduce the surface tension of the water (thus making 

it more "wet").

 

Nitrocellulose Lacquer [C6H7N3O11] Flammable liquid used primarily as a binder in fireworks 

compositions, and as a water-resistant coating for fuses.

Parlon [(C4H6Cl2)n] A polymer used as both a chlorine donor and binder.

Potassium Benzoate [C6H5COOK (C6H5KO2)] Used with potassium perchlorate to make whistle 

compositions.

Potassium Chlorate [KClO3] Common oxidizer used for mainly for colored star, smoke, and priming 

compositions.
52

Potassium Dichromate [K2Cr2O7] Carcinogenic orange crystalline powder used to treat magnesium 

powder in order to make it less susceptible to undesired spontaneous reactions with other chemicals.

Potassium Nitrate (saltpeter) [KNO3] Most commonly used oxidizer in pyrotechnics that is used for many 

applications, the most important being black power (a 75:15:10 ratio of potassium nitrate, charcoal, and 

sulfur).

Potassium Perchlorate [KClO4] Another common oxidizer that is much more stable than potassium 

chlorate. It decomposes at a higher temperature but gives off more oxygen when it does.

Red Gum (accaroid resin) [mixture of different compounds] A common organic fuel and binder that comes 

from the hardened red Kino from a certain tree native to Australia.

Saran [chlorinated polymer] Used as a chlorine donor much like PVC and parlon. Can also be used as a 

binder when mixed with acetone.

Shellac [C16H26O4] A common fuel and binder that has been used for centuries; sometimes thought to be 

the best fuel for making colored flames. Comes from the excretions of an insect native to India.

Sodium Benzoate [NaC7O2H5] Sometimes used as a fuel, most often used to make "whistle mix" to burst 

shells or create whistles.

Sodium Chlorate [NaClO3] Not often used because of its hygroscopicity, but sometimes used in rocket 

propellants.

Sodium Nitrate (Chile saltpeter) [NaNO3] Also very hygroscopic, but sometimes used in flares and stars 

because of the bright yellow light it emits.

Sodium Oxalate [Na2C2O4] Used as a yellow color agent.

Strontium Carbonate [SrCO3] Used as a red color agent

Strontium Nitrate [Sr(NO3)2] Oxidizer sometimes used in red color compositions.

Strontium Sulfate [SrSO4] Sometimes used as a high-temperature Oxidizer sometimes used in red color 

compositions.

Sulfur [S] Serves as a fuel, and to reduce the ignition temperature/increase the burning rate of some 

mixtures.

Titanium [Ti] Metal used to produce bright white sparks, the intensity and duration of which is affected by 

particle size.

Wood Meal (wood flour, sawdust) [mixture of compounds including cellulose, C6H10O5] Fine sawdust used 

as a fuel, mainly in lance compositions.

Zinc [Zn] Used in rocket propellants and to create white sparks.

Zinc Oxide [ZnO] Used to produce white smoke.