Nutritional Aspects of Non-Human Primate 

Care -Barbara Henry
Overview

• Know your animal

• Target nutrient values & BMR 

calculations

• Common challenges
Carnivore Omnivore Herbivore

Gum Dominant

Plant/Fruit Dominant

Leaf/Plant Part Dominant

Insect Dominant

Fruit Dominant

Insectivorous Bamboo

Only

Frugivore

Folivore Granivore

Overview
Carnivore Omnivore Herbivore

Insect Dominant

Fruit Dominant

Insectivorous

Insectivore

Tarsius sp.

-Tarsiers

MOSTLY INSECTIVOROUS

Galagoides sp.

-Bush babies

Loris tardigradus

-Slow Loris

FRUIT = INSECT

Callithrix sp.

-Marmosets

FRUIT > INSECT

Lenotopithecus sp.

-Lion tamarin

INSECT > FRUIT

Saimiri sp.

-Squirrel monkeys

Omnivore-Frugivore

Daubentonia madagascariensis

-Aye-aye

FRUGIVORE

Ateles sp.

Spider Monkey
Carnivore Omnivore Herbivore

Gum Dominant

Plant/Fruit Dominant

Leaf/Plant Part Dominant

Insect Dominant

Fruit Dominant

Insectivorous Bamboo

Only

Frugivore

Folivore Granivore

Overview

EXAMINE
FOLIVORE GRANIVORE

FRUGIVORE Ateles sp.

Spider Monkey

Colobus angolensis

-Angolan black and 

white colobus

Colobus polykomos

-King colobus

Colobus satanas

-Black colobus

Colobus guereza

-Abyssinian colobus

Colobus vellerosus

-Geoffrey's colobus

Aotus trivirgatus

-Northern gray-necked owl monkey

Callicebus sp.

-Titi monkey

Cebus albifrons

-White-fronted capuchin Nasalis larvatus

-Proboscis monkey

Presbytis sp.

-Leaf monkeys

Pygathrix sp.

-Douc langur and 

Snub-nosed 

monkeys

Lagothrix sp.

-Wooly monkey

Cacjaa sp.

-Uscari

Chiropotes albinasus

-White-nosed saki

Chiropotes satanas

-Bearded saki

Pithecia pithecia

-White-faced saki

Herbivore
Carnivore Omnivore Herbivore

Gum Dominant

Plant/Fruit Dominant

Leaf/Plant Part Dominant

Insect Dominant

Fruit Dominant

Insectivorous Bamboo

Only

Frugivore

Folivore Granivore

Overview

EXAMINE
GUM DOMINANT LEAF/PLANT PART 

DOMINANT

FRUIT DOMINANT

Otolemur garnetti

-Garnett’s greater bush baby

Cheirogaleus major

-Greater dwarf lemur

Galago alleni

-Allen’s bush baby

Lemur catta

-Ring-tailed lemur

Euoticus elegantulus

-S. needle-clawed bush baby

Euoticus palludus

-N. needle-clawed bush baby

Galago senegalensis

-N. lesser bush baby

Galago moholi

-S. lesser bush baby

Otolemur crassicaudatus

-Thick-tailed greater bush baby

Phaner furcifer

-Fork-marked lemur

Callithrix sp.

-marmoset

Lenotopithecus sp.

-Lion tamarin

Nycticebus coucang

-Slow loris

Hylobates sp.

-Gibbon/Siamang

OMNIVORE

Eulemur coronatus

-Crowned lemur

Perodicticus potto

-Potto

Varecia variegata

-Ruffed lemur

Microcebus sp.

-Mouse lemur

Pongo sp.

--Orangutan

-G.g. gorilla

--W. Lowland gorilla

-Pan

--Bonobo/Chimp

Nycticebus

pygmaeus

-Pygmy loris
Jaw Structure
GI Tract Morphology

Bushbaby Baboon

Northern Douc Langur

Howler
Macaque Squirrel Monkey

Tarsier

Orangutan

GI Tract Morphology
_____Esophagus

_____Stomach

The small intestine 

is about 17 feet or 

5-6 meters long

The large 

intestine is about 

5 feet or (1.5 m) 

_____long
Gut Health

● Gut health = fiber and carbohydrate 

(sugar/starch)?

● Fiber is ingested material that is resistant to 

vertebrate digestive enzymes

● Carbohydrate constitutes 50-80% of the dry 

matter in leaves, fruits, and seeds. Also ~40% 

of the metabolizable energy of the diet for most 

primates.
Sugar

Monosaccharides

galactose fructose glucose

Disaccharides

sucrose fructose lactose

Oligosaccharides

verbascose raffinose stachyose

grains, leguminous 

seeds, nuts, vegetables

Polysaccharides

starch starch-like

Non-starch

Insoluble &soluble fiber
Starch

• Starch digestion by endogenous mammalians 

involving salivary and pancreatic α-amylase

•Problems may arise when high starch leads to 

excessive rapid fermentation may lead to 

digestive upset or stool quality.

• Serious issues may arise high starch/low fiber 

in foregut fermentators.

•Starch-like = glycogen and dextrins
Fiber (non starch)

● Cellulose and hemicellulose = insoluble fiber

 Both can’t be broken down by endogenous 

enzymes

 Symbiotic GI anaerobes = microbial fermentation 

= VFA

 VFA = A, P, and B

● Soluble non-starch poly sacch = soluble fiber

 Fermented by ruminal and intestinal bacteria

 Pectic substances

 Gums/mucilages
Fermentation

•Meeting the energy needs of herbivorous 

primates (colobus or howlers)

•Colon and cecum

•Marmosets and tamarins

•Cebuella pygmaea and Callithrix spp.

•Saguinus spp. And Leontopithecus spp. 

•Microbial fermentation – protein from urea 

and vitamins?
Fiber (non starch)

● Cellulose and hemicellulose = insoluble fiber

 Cellulose cant be broken down by endogenous 

enzymes

● Constituents of plant cell walls (NDF and ADF)

● How to measure? Crude fiber, ADF, NDF, 

Lignin

● Fermentation and its products

● Wild fruits vs our fruits
Fecal & Body Condition Scoring

•Not aware of a gold standard for primates

•Fecal score charts are nice to have to 

monitor any changes

•Tough to develop visual scoring on 

primates

•Essential to weigh animals and during PE 

get hands on

•Perhaps focal points

•Standard pose
Target Nutrient Values

• Physiological state and body condition

– reproduction increased energy need

• Age, health status, environment, group 

dynamics

• Sources of information on nutrient 

requirements

– NRC - actual

– AZA Husbandry manuals/nutrition 

recommendations

• Vitamin D
Metabolism

• Individuals are different

• Life stages – different requirements

• Nutrient targets depend on both internal and 

external

• Nutrients intertact

• Vitamin D needs

• Deficiency and toxicity
Nutrient Target Nutrients

a

Protein,% 15-22

b

Essentialn-3 Fatty Acids,% 0.5

Essentialn-6 Fatty Acids,%2

NDF,% 10-30

c

ADF,%5-15

c

Vitamin A, IU/g8

Vitamin D, IU/g 2.5

d

Vitamin E, mg/kg 50-100

Thiamin, mg/kg3

Riboflavin, mg/kg4

Niacin, mg/kg 25

Pyridoxine, mg/kg4

Folacin, mg/kg4

Biotin, mg/kg 0.11-0.2

VitaminB12, mg/kg 0.01-0.03

Pantothenic acid, mg/kg 12

Choline, mg/kg 750

Vitamin C, mg/kg 200

e

Calcium,% 0.5-0.8

Phosphorus,% 0.4-0.6

f

Magnesium,% 0.08

Potassium,% 0.4

Sodium,% 0.2

Iron, mg/kg 100

Zinc, mg/kg 20-100

Copper, mg/kg 12-20

Manganese, mg/kg 20

Iodine, mg/kg 0.35

Selenium, mg/kg 0.11-0.3
What is a target nutrient?

•Minimal amount of nutrient to achieve some 

measurable outcome

–Basic health

–Normal growth

–Reproduction

–Slow senescence
Energy

Energy is measured in calories and is the amount of 

energy required at 1 atmosphere of pressure to raise the 

temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.50C to 15.50C

BMR calculations base

• Kleiber

– 70(healthy BW [kg])0.75

– That 70 will change based on species and activity 

– Energy requirement of small primates is twice BMR

– Factors for maintenance, growth, 

pregnancy/lactation

– Just a baseline - variance


Practical Diet Formulation

•Free ranging diet information

•GI tract

•Specific to species/closest domestic

•Season

•Physiological state

•Health Status

•Management

•Foods Available

•Presentation
How do you classify produce?

•Trained to fit into categories

–Fruit

–Vegetable

–Leafy Green

–Starch

•Some overlap between categories

•Not enough emphasis on sugar and fiber

•Earlier information on sugar, fiber, starch etc. 

now evaluated on how body breaks down and 

utilized
Fruit

•Fruit = any seed bearing structure in a 

flowering plant formed from the ovary after 

flowering. Eating ovaries.....

–Apples

–Oranges

–All beans

–Tomato

–Corn

–Wheat Grains

•Domestic vs. wild
Primates and Sweet Foods

•Love sweet foods

•Sweet foods high in sugar

•Glucose = most readily available source of 

energy

•Glucose present = choice for energy

• ↑glucose → ↑ insulin → ENERGY

(↓ blood glucose + ↑ intracellular glucose) 
Vegetable

•Vegetable = any vegetative part of a plant that 

is not a fruit, nut, tuber, or grain. 

–Broccoli/cauliflower

–Brussel sprouts

–Radishes

–Onions

–Turnips

–Beets

–Artichoke
Leafy Greens

•Leafy Greens = leaves, petioles, or shoots of 

vegetable plants.

–Romaine

–Spinach

–Escarole

–Kale

–Cabbage

–Celery

–Endive

–Collards
Starchy Vegetable

•Starch vegetable = structure for energy 

storage for plant re-growth the following 

season. Readily broken down by the body or 

cooking into simple sugars

–Sweet/white potato

–Carrot
Nutrient Biscuit 1 Biscuit 2 Biscuit 3 Biscuit 4 Biscuit 5

Protein, % 26 18 21 21 23

Fat, % 6.2 3 5.0 6.4 6.5

NDF, % 17 26 33 - 21

ADF, % 6.8 18 22 - 13

Sugar, % 2.8 17.3 5.5 1.9 -

Starch, % 32.2 16 6.0 - -

Energy, kcal/g 3.15 2.73 2.65 3.9 -

Vitamin D3, IU/g 6.6 3.3 4.2 2.1 3.5

Vitamin A, IU/g 43 25 23 14 -

Vitamin C, mg/kg 500 475 795 605 -

Calcium, % 1.0 1.2 1.0 0.6 1.0

Phosphorus, % 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.7

Iron, mg/kg 440 385 225 86 100

Zinc, mg/kg 160 165 160 62 -

Selenium, mg/kg 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3

Primate Biscuit Comparison
Balancing primate diets

•Consistent plane of nutrition

•Be cognizant of the sugar in the diet

•Know which food items contribute sugar

•Not too much sugar

•Balance sugar with fiber (type)
Types of Fiber

Human

Orangutan
Dental Health

• Dry biscuits/pellets

• Whole vegetables

• Browse
Common Nutrition Challenges

• Seasonal changes or not?

• Weight gain vs weight loss

• Vitamin D

• Obesity
Common Diet Related Issues

Periodontal 

Disease

Dental Caries

Cardiovascular 

Disease

Diabetes

Microbiome 

Shift

Obesity