A Reliable Waterway System Is 

Important to Agriculture

A publication of the Agricultural Marketing Service • www.ams.usda.gov/services/transportation-analysis • FEBRUARY 2022

Overview

and widths of ports, waterways, locks, and 

dams.7

● The Harbor Maintenance Tax (HMT) was created 

by the Water Resources Development Act of 

1986. HMT is a 0.125 percent ad valorem tax 

on the value of imports and certain domestic 

waterborne cargo deposited in the Harbor 

Maintenance Trust Fund (HMTF) for harbor 

maintenance and dredging.8

● Estimated FY 2019 HMT receipts and investment 

interest were $1.8 billion, and congressional 

appropriations from the HMTF were $1.5 billion, 

yielding an estimated year-end balance of

$9.5 billion.9

● Commercial vessels engaged in waterborne 

transportation in the inland waterways system 

generate revenues and investment interest from 

a tax on diesel fuel of 29 cents per gallon. The 

tax is deposited in the Inland Waterways Trust 

Fund (IWTF) to finance the Federal costs of 

authorized locks and dams projects.10 

● During FY 2021, the funding for the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers (USACE) was $7.8 billion, with 

$113 million appropriated from IWTF. Congress 

lowered the required IWTF contribution from 50 

percent to 35 percent for construction projects 

funded from FY 2021 through FY 2031, thereby 

increasing the general fund share to 65 percent.11

● U.S. agriculture is expected to contribute 

$10.5 billion to the U.S. balance of trade in fiscal 

year (FY) 2022.1

● All U.S. exports are forecast to reach 

$175.5 billion. Imports are forecast to reach 

$165.0 billion in FY 2022. 2

● In addition to forestry and fishery products, 

critical farm inputs (such as fertilizer, feed, and 

fuel) move on the waterway system.3

● In calendar year 2019, U.S. agricultural exports of 

$142 billion generated an additional

$161.4 billion in the U.S. economy and 

supported 1,102,000 jobs. The farm sector’s 

share of the income supported by agricultural 

exports was 25.5 percent.4 

● In 2019, every $1 billion of U.S. agricultural 

exports required approximately 7,784 full-time 

civilian jobs throughout the economy. U.S. 

agricultural exports in 2019 required a total of 

1,102,000 such jobs.5 

● In 2020, 166.9 million metric tons (mmt) of 

agricultural exports and 40.5 mmt of agricultural 

imports were waterborne.6

● Exporters, importers, and domestic shippers 

depend on maintaining the authorized depths 
2 • A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture

Grain Exports

● The October 2021 estimates for MY 2021/22 

exports include:15

 Corn—71.9 mmt

 Soybeans—58.0 mmt

 Wheat—23.81 mmt

 Soybean meal—13.1 mmt

 Rice—2.9 mmt

 Soybean oil—0.8 mmt

Grains Inspected and/or weighed for export by region and port area, 2020, by share of total 

metric tons*

0.5%

1.3%

1.4%

8.5%

12.6%

27.5%

48.1%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

East Gulf

Atlantic

Lakes

Texas Gulf

Interior

Pacific

Mississippi Gulf

*136.5 million metric tons

● Based on the October 2021 estimates for 

marketing year (MY) 2021/22, the United States 

is projected to export 22 percent of the grain it 

produced. This will include 53 percent of wheat, 

48 percent of rice, 44 percent of soybeans, and 

18 percent of corn.12 

● The Mississippi River, Texas Gulf, and East 

Gulf ports accounted for 57 percent of grains 

inspected and/or weighed for export in calendar 

year 2020, nearly 81.2 mmt.13

● Pacific Northwest (PNW) ports accounted for 

28 percent of grains inspected and/or weighed 

for export in 2020, nearly 39 mmt.14

Source: USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service.
A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture • 3

Ethanol, Corn Production, Fertilizer, and Barge Traffic

used for animal feed.21 A bushel of corn yields 

2.7 gallons of ethanol and 17.5 pounds of 

distillers’ grains.22

● Nearly 11.0 mmt of distillers’ grains were 

exported in calendar year 2020.23

● USDA estimates an area of 85.1 million corn 

acres harvested in October 2021 yielded (in MY 

2021/22) 176.5 bushels per acre—amounting 

to 5.2 billion bushels, or 35 percent of the 

total corn supply. This crop will be converted 

to ethanol and byproducts including distillers’ 

grains, corn gluten feed, corn gluten meal, and 

corn oil.24

● Corn is the largest user of nitrogen in terms of 

application rates per acre, total acres treated, 

and total applications.25

● In 2019, U.S. waterways carried more than

41.9 million tons (38.0 mmt) of fertilizer 

movements. Of this total, 16.8 million tons 

(15.2 mmt) moved by barge through the inland 

waterways.26 

● U.S. ethanol operating production at 209 

refineries is over 17.4 billion gallons per year.16

● More than 1.3 billion gallons of ethanol were 

exported in calendar year 2020.17

● Major multimodal ethanol terminals include 

Albany, NY; Baltimore, MD; Chicago, IL; 

Houston, TX; Linden, Newark, and Sewaren, NJ; 

Mount Vernon, IN; New Orleans, LA; Sauget, IL; 

Providence, RI; and Tampa, FL.18

● About 90 percent of ethanol is transported 

by train or truck. The remaining 10 percent is 

mainly transported by barge.19 

● Over 324 million gallons of ethanol were moved 

by tanker and barge between Petroleum 

Administration for Defense Districts (PADD) in 

calendar year 2020, from PADD 2 Midwest to 

PADD 3 Gulf Coast and from PADD 3 to PADD 1C 

Lower Atlantic.20 

● Barges also move some of the fertilizer needed 

to grow corn to produce ethanol, as well as some 

of the distillers’ grains, an ethanol byproduct 

Ethanol movements on the U.S. waterways

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019

Million tons

Total Movements Internal Movements

Source: U.S. Census Bureau Trade Data
4 • A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture

Barge and Rail Competition

● In calendar year 2020, barges carried over

40 million short tons (36.3 mmt) of corn, wheat, 

and soybeans downbound through Mississippi 

Locks 27, Ohio Locks and Dam 52, and Arkansas 

Lock and Dam 1.27 

● In 2020, the U.S. waterways carried 305.2 million 

tons (276.9 mmt) of food and farm products, 

including 200.8 million tons (182.2 mmt) of grain 

and oilseeds.28

● In 2020, a total of 37,611 grain barges were 

unloaded in the New Orleans port region, 

showing that an additional 12,227 grain barges 

entered the river below these locks.29 

● Railroads sent 317,564 carloads, approximately 

35.2 million short tons (31.9 mmt) of U.S. grain, 

to ports in 2020.30 

● Railroads consider barge rates and the spread 

between U.S. Gulf and Pacific Northwest ocean 

vessel freight rates, and price their services 

accordingly.31

● USDA’s Transportation of U.S. Grains, A Modal 

Share Analysis, 1978-2019 Update shows that 

barges moved 49 percent of all grain exports in 

2019 and railroads moved 38 percent.32

● Barges moved 48 percent of corn, 62 percent of 

soybeans, 28 percent of wheat, and 47 percent 

of all grains to export grain elevators in 2019.33

● In 2019, railroads moved 33 percent of corn,

29 percent of soybeans, 60 percent of wheat, 

and 38 percent of all grains to export locations.34

● Studies have shown that, without barge 

competition, agricultural shippers pay higher rail 

transportation costs, the farther they are from 

an inland waterway.35

Agriculturally significant waterways

Source: USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service.
A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture • 5

Top U.S. Ports for Agricultural Exports

● In calendar year 2020, U.S. bulk and 

containerized waterborne agricultural exports 

totaling 166.9 mmt were valued at $120.0 

billion. Of the total exports (39.1 mmt), 23 

percent were moved in containers. During the 

same period, containers were used to transport 

7.5 percent of total U.S. waterborne grain 

exports.36 

● In 2020, the top five U.S. bulk agricultural export 

destination countries were China, Japan, Mexico, 

Columbia, and Philippines.37

● The top five U.S. ports for bulk and containerized 

agricultural exports in 2020 were the New 

Orleans Port Region, LA; Kalama and Tacoma, 

WA; Houston, TX; and Los Angeles, CA. In terms 

of containerized exports, the top five ports were 

Los Angeles, Long Beach, and Oakland, CA; 

Norfolk, VA; and Tacoma, WA.38

Top U.S. ports for waterborne agricultural exports, 2020

Source: PIERS, formerly known as the Port Import Export Reporting Service.

43.8%

8.4%

5.5%

4.9%

3.9%

3.4%

3.4%

3.2%

3.2%

2.8%

17.5%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%

New Orleans Port Region

Kalama

Tacoma

Houston

Los Angeles

Seattle

Longview

Long Beach

Norfolk

Oakland

Others
6 • A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture

Top U.S. Ports for Agricultural Imports

● In calendar year 2020, U.S. bulk and 

containerized waterborne agricultural imports 

totaled 50.6 mmt valued at $113.0 billion, of 

which 80 percent of the total imports (40.5 mmt) 

were moved in containers.39 

● The top five U.S. ports for bulk and containerized 

agricultural imports in 2020 were New York, NY; 

Philadelphia, PA; Long Beach, CA;

Savannah, GA; and Houston, TX. In terms of 

containerized imports, the top five ports were 

New York, NY; Philadelphia, PA; and 

Long Beach, Los Angeles, and Oakland, CA.40

Top U.S. ports for waterborne agricultural imports, 2020

Source: PIERS.

Harbor Channel and Inland Waterway Draft Issues

● Inadequate channel depths and widths due to 

drought and sedimentation (shoaling) can lead 

to higher transportation costs, as barges and 

vessels may be loaded to less than capacity 

because of low water.41

● The number of barges in a tow may be reduced 

to the available channel width, and one-way, 

or daytime-only traffic restrictions may be 

imposed.42

● In these cases, more barges and vessels and 

additional time may be required to ship a given 

weight of commodities.43

● There have been extended periods in which low 

river levels, shoaling, and reduced channel 

widths impeded barged grain movements and 

access to shallow draft ports.44

● At a 9-foot draft, a typical U.S. barge size is 195 

feet by 35 feet, which holds up to 1,500 short 

tons (1,360.8 metric tons (mt)) of cargo;45 for 

each foot of reduced draft, the barge loses about 

200 short tons (181.4 mt) of capacity.46

22.9%

7.9%

6.8%

6.6%

6.3%

5.9%

5.2%

5.1%

4.8%

4.5%

24.1%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

New York

Philadelphia

Long Beach

Savannah

Houston

Los Angeles

Oakland

Wilmington DE

New Orleans Port Region

Baltimore

Others
A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture • 7

● When harbor channels are at less than 

authorized depths, S-Class container vessels lose 

3,840 tons (3,483.6 mt) of cargo capacity per 

foot;47 Panamax bulk grain carriers lose 

2,148 tons (1,948.6 mt) per foot;48 and the 

largest Great Lakes vessels lose almost 

3,200 tons (2,903.0 mt) per foot.49

● The ongoing dredging project led by USACE and 

the State of Louisiana to deepen the shipping 

channel from the Gulf of Mexico to Baton Rouge 

from a depth of 45 feet (13.7 meters) to 50 feet 

(15.2 meters) aims to reap an average annual 

benefit of $96.8 million to the Nation’s economy, 

with a benefit-to-cost ratio of about 5.47 to 1.50 

Effects of Temporary Closures on Costs, Receipts, and 

the Federal Budget

● U.S. exporters compete based on world prices.51

● Temporary closures and restrictions on traffic 

in harbors and channels can occur because of 

high water, storm debris, drought, shoaling, 

groundings, natural disasters, human-made 

disasters, slowdowns, strikes, and lockouts. 

These impediments can lead to congestion, 

delays, spoilage, diversion to other modes and 

ports, higher transportation costs, reduced farm 

income, and lost sales.52,53,54,55

● Higher transportation costs can result in lower 

cash bids in interior markets.56

● U.S. exporters may be unable to pass on higher 

transportation costs, as customers can purchase 

similar products from other countries.57

● In contrast, U.S. importers may be able to 

pass on higher transportation costs to their 

customers.58,59

● Users of railroads and highways face congestion, 

constrained capacity, and driver and equipment 

shortages.60,61,62

● USACE maintains authorized depths and widths 

of channels, locks, and dams. This maintenance 

moderates the effects of congestion, provides 

resiliency, and enhances recovery after 

transportation disruptions.63

● USACE works to maintain operable navigation 

channels through accelerated dredging, rock 

removal, river training structures to remove 

sediment, strategic management of water 

releases from reservoirs, routinely scheduled 

surveys, and close collaboration with channel 

users and the U.S. Coast Guard on river 

conditions.64

● Important partners in a reliable waterway system 

include:

 U.S. Coast Guard, which provides security, aids 

to navigation, and implements vessel traffic 

safety restrictions.65

 National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, which provides nautical charts 

and maps, marine weather and river level 

information, surveys after disruptions, and 

marine debris removal.66

 Maritime Administration, which promotes 

the development and maintenance of an 

adequate, well-balanced, U.S. merchant 

marine and marine highways. 

 Saint Lawrence Seaway Development 

Corporation, which promotes use of the 

Seaway and maintains and operates the 

two U.S. Seaway locks and vessel traffic 

control in areas of the St. Lawrence River 

and Lake Ontario, in collaboration with its 

Canadian partner, the St. Lawrence Seaway 

Management Corporation. 

 Federal Maritime Commission (FMC), which 

regulates oceanborne transportation to 

ensure a competitive and reliable international 

ocean transportation supply system that 

supports the U.S. economy. FMC also protects 

the public from unfair and deceptive practices. 
8 • A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture

Want To Know More? Try These Publications:

Studies, statements, legislation, and reports on modal share, competition, and multimodal 

infrastructure investment

Chang, K.L., P.A. Caffarelli, J. Gastelle, and A. Taylor. May 18, 2017. “Inland Ports Help Reduce Traffic Congestion,” Grain 

Transportation Report, USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/GTR051817.pdf#page=2

Chang, K.L., April 22, 2021. “Importance of Navigation on the Upper Mississippi River System to the Grain Industry. USDA, 

Agricultural Marketing Service,” Grain Transportation Report. USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/GTR04222021.pdf#page=2

Chang, K.L., June 17, 2021. “The Water Resources Development Act and Appropriations for the U.S. Waterways 

Commercial Navigation System,” Grain Transportation Report. USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/GTR06172021.pdf#page=2

Chang, K.L., P.A. Caffarelli, and J. Gastelle. October 2021. Transportation of U.S. Grains: A Modal Share Analysis, USDA, 

Agricultural Marketing Service. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/TransportationofUSGrainsModalShare1978_2019.pdf

Federal Maritime Commission. July 2015. U.S. Container Port Congestion and Related International Supply Chain Issues: 

Causes, Consequences and Challenges. https://www.fmc.gov/assets/1/Page/PortForumReport_FINALwebAll.pdf 

Federal Register. September 2021. America’s Supply Chains and the Transportation Industrial Base. National Archives.

https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/09/16/2021-19974/americas-supply-chains-and-the-transportationindustrial-base

GAO. July 26, 2017. Inland Harbors: The Corps of Engineers Should Assess Existing Capabilities to Better Inform Dredging 

Decisions, GAO-17- 635, Government Accountability Office (GAO). https://www.gao.gov/assets/690/686127.pdf

Informa Economics. May 2018. Impact on Crops and Product Export Flows of Dredging the Lower Mississippi River to 

50 Feet. (Prepared for Soy Transportation Coalition.) 

http://www.soytransportation.org/newsroom/STCLowerMississippiRiver50-FootDraftStudy.pdf

Inland Waterways Trust Fund. February 2018. IF 10020. Congressional Research Service. 

https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/details?prodcode=IF10020

Institute for Water Resources. “Value to the Nation.” U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Last Retrieved. December 1, 2021. 

https://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/Missions/Value-to-the-Nation/Navigation/

Martin Associates. July 2018. Economic Impacts of Maritime Shipping in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Region.

https://greatlakes-seaway.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/eco_impact_full.pdf

NASDA. September 2016. Agriculture Infrastructure. NASDA Policy Statement. 10.1. Agricultural Transportation. National 

Association of State Departments of Agriculture (NASDA). 

https://www.nasda.org/policy/nasda-policy-statements/agriculture-infrastructure#agriculture-transportation

Salin, D. September 2018. Brazil Soybean Transportation (quarterly), USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Brazil2ndQuarter2018.pdf

Salin, D. February 2020. United States–South America Ocean Grain Freight Spreads (Summary), USDA, Agricultural 

Marketing Service. https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/OceanGrainFreightSpreadsUpdate.pdf
A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture • 9

Salin, D. August 2021. Soybean Transportation Guide: Brazil 2020, USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service.

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/BrazilSoybeanTransportationGuide2020.pdf

Salin, D. November 2021. Brazil Soybean Transportation (quarterly), USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Brazil_Quarter3_2021.pdf

Soy Transportation Coalition. November 30, 2021. Top 10 Most Wanted List of Infrastructure Priorities. Transportation 

and Infrastructure. Last retrieved. 

https://soygrowers.com/news-releases/soy-transportation-coalition-releases-top-10-wanted-list-infrastructure-priorities/

Specialist in Transportation Policy. December 21, 2017. Federal Freight Policy: In Brief. Congressional Research Service. 

R44367. 

https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20171221_R44367_b51e2043595f5b0f21b1858aa2aa3ecb10d9b435.pdf

Texas A&M Transportation Institute. April 2018. Predictable Funding for Locks and Dams. (Prepared for Soy 

Transportation Coalition.) 

http://www.soytransportation.org/newsroom/PredictableFundingForLocksAndDams_FinalReport-4-16-18.pdf

Transportation Research Board. Special Report 315. Funding and Managing the U.S. Inland Waterways System: What 

Policymakers Need to Know. http://www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/172741.aspx

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. February 27, 2017. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: Water Resource Authorizations, 

Appropriations, and Activities. R41243. 

https://www.google.com/

search?q=Army+Corps+of+Engineers%3A+Water+Resource+Authorizations%2C+Appropriations%2C+and+Activities

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. April 2018. Mississippi River Ship Channel, Gulf to Baton Rouge, LA. Integrated General 

Reevaluation Report And Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement. Mississippi Valley Division. New Orleans 

District. Final Report Update.

https://hdl.handle.net/11681/34635

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. December 2020. Capital Investment Strategy (CIS) of 2020.

https://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/Portals/70/docs/IWUB/Inland%20Waterways%20Capital%20

Investment%20Strategy%20Report%202020%20Final%20Transmitted%20to%20Congress%204Jan21.

pdf?ver=zAvoCiOFncpHG9WgP4JU2g%3d%3d

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. December 2020. Investment Program Action Team. Five-Year Review and Update of the 

Inland and Intracoastal Waterways Twenty-Year Capital Investment Strategy.

https://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/Portals/70/docs/IWUB/Inland%20Waterways%20Capital%20

Investment%20Strategy%20Report%202020%20Final%20Transmitted%20to%20Congress%204Jan21.

pdf?ver=zAvoCiOFncpHG9WgP4JU2g%3d%3d

University of Arkansas, December 2021. A Modal Comparison of Domestic Freight Transportation Effects on The General 

Public: 2001–2019. https://martrec.uark.edu/research/completedprojects/tti_modal_final_acc.pdf

USDA, Office of the Chief Economist. July 2021. America’s Farmers: Resilient Throughout the COVID Pandemic.

https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2020/09/24/americas-farmers-resilient-throughout-covid-pandemic

USDA, Agriculture Agricultural Marketing Service. Continually updated. Agricultural Transportation Open Data Platform.

https://agtransport.usda.gov/

USDOT. January 2017. Beyond Traffic: 2045 Final Report. System Implications. Marine. pp. 172-176. U.S. Department of 

Transportation.

https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/BeyondTraffic_tagged_508_final.pdf
10 • A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture

USDOT. March 30, 2021. Port Performance Freight Statistics Program. U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of 

Transportation Statistics. https://www.bts.gov/ports

White House (The). February 12, 2018. Legislative Outline for Rebuilding Infrastructure in America. 

https://www.transportation.gov/briefing-room/legislative-outline-rebuilding-infrastructure-america

Disruptions to navigation and temporary closures 

Caffarelli, P. and A. Sparger. November 2017. Analysis of Grain Basis Behavior During Transportation Disruptions (report 

summary), USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service. http://dx.doi.org/10.9752/TS215.11-2017

Inland and Intracoastal Waterways: Primer and Issues for Congress. July 2020. Congressional Research Service.

https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF11593

Kelly, N. December 2019. “Barge Traffic Disruptions and Their Effects on Shipping Costs in Agricultural Freight Corridors,” 

Grain Transportation Report, USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/BargeTrafficDisruptions.pdf

Kelly, N. December 2019. “River Transportation and the Broiler Industry in North Alabama: A Descriptive Analysis,” Grain 

Transportation Report. USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/RiverTransportationinNorthAlabama.pdf

Marathon, N. and M. Chang. October 5, 2017. “Low Water Impacts on Barge Navigation,” Grain Transportation Report, 

USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/GTR100517.pdf#page=2

Marathon, N. and M. Chang. March 15, 2018. “Flooding Disrupts Barge Traffic and Raises Rates, Grain Transportation 

Report, USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service. http://dx.doi.org/10.9752/TS056.03-15-2018

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Waterborne Commerce of the United States (WCUS) Ports and Waterways Web Tool. U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, Waterborne Commerce Statistics Center. 

http://cwbi-ndc-nav.s3-website-us-east-1.amazonaws.com/files/wcsc/webpub/#/

USDOT. October 2017. The Impacts of Unscheduled Lock Outages. Submitted to the National Waterways Foundation 

and the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Maritime Administration by the Center for Transportation Research, the 

University of Tennessee and Vanderbilt Engineering Center for Transportation and Operational Resiliency, Vanderbilt 

University. 

https://www.marad.dot.gov/wp-content/uploads/pdf/low-res-Lock-Outage-NWF_FINAL_REPORT-2017-002.pdf

U.S. Department of Homeland Security. May 2020. Identifying Critical Infrastructure During COVID-19. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency. 

https://www.cisa.gov/identifying-critical-infrastructure-during-covid-19.

Walters, L., T. Wade, and S. Suttles. 2020. Food and Agricultural Transportation Challenges Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic. 

Choices 35(3). Agricultural & Applied Economics Association.

https://www.choicesmagazine.org/UserFiles/file/cmsarticle_752.pdf

Washington Council on International Trade. February 22, 2016. The Economic Costs of the 2014-2015 West Coast Port 

Slowdown on Washington State.

https://wsfb.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/WCIT-Port-Delay-Economic-Impact-Report.pdf

Yu, T.E, B.C. English and R.J. Menard. September 2016. Economic Impacts Analysis of Inland Waterway Disruption on 

the Transport of Corn and Soybeans, Staff Report #AE16-08, University of Tennessee, Department of Agricultural and 
A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture • 11

Endnotes

NOTE:

Consistent with established practices, this report only considers those trade actions which are in place or have had 

formal announcement of effective dates as of the time of publication of the monthly World Agricultural Supply and 

Demand Estimates on October 12, 2021 and the quarterly Outlook for U.S. Agricultural Trade on November 23, 2021. 

Further, unless a formal end date is specified, this report also assumes such actions are in place throughout the time 

period covered by these forecasts.

1 Kenner, B., J. Hui, and D. Russell. November 23, 2021. Outlook for U.S. Agricultural Trade, AES-118. USDA, Economic 

Research Service and USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service. 

https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=102734 

2

 Ibid.

3 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Navigation Data Center, Waterborne Commerce Statistics Center.

https://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/about/technical-centers/wcsc-waterborne-commerce-statistics-center/

4 USDA/ERS Agricultural Trade Multiplier/2019 Data Overview. August 5, 2021. 

https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/agricultural-trade-multipliers/2019-data-overview/

5 Ibid.

6 PIERS https://ihsmarkit.com/products/piers.html, a brand name of a service formerly known as the Port Import Export 

Reporting Service.

7 Study of Rural Transportation Issues, Chapter 12: Barge Transportation (pdf) and Chapter 14: Ocean Transportation 

(pdf). USDA and U.S. Department of Transportation, April 2010.

https://www.ams.usda.gov/services/ transportation-analysis/rti

8

 Corps of Engineers—Civil Works, Appendix, The Budget for Fiscal Year 2022. The White House, May 28, 202.

https://www.govinfo.gov/app/collection/budget/2022

9 Ibid.; Full Utilization of The Harbor Maintenance Trust Fund Act. 116 Congress, House of Representatives, Rept.116-136. 

Part 1. July 2, 2019. https://www.congress.gov/116/crpt/hrpt136/CRPT-116hrpt136.pdf

10 U.S. Corps of Engineers—Civil Works. Fiscal Year 2021- Budget of the U.S. Government. The White House. 

February 10, 2020. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BUDGET-2021-BUD/pdf/BUDGET-2021-BUD-22.pdf

11 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: FY2021 Appropriations, Congressional Research Service, IFII462, March 24, 2021.

https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF11462/5

12 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: FY2021 Appropriations, Congressional Research Service, IFII462, March 24, 2021. 

https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF11462/5
12 • A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture

13World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE) – 617. USDA, Office of the Chief Economist, Agricultural 

Marketing Service, Farm Service Agency, Economic Research Service, and Foreign Agricultural Service, October 12, 2021.

https://www.usda.gov/oce/commodity/wasde/wasde1021.pdf

14 Ibid.

15 World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates, WASDE – 617. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of the Chief 

Economist, Agricultural Marketing Service, Farm Service Agency, Economic Research Service, and Foreign Agricultural 

Service, October 12, 2021. https://www.usda.gov/oce/commodity/wasde/wasde1021.pdf

16 Ethanol Biorefinery Locations. November 3, 2021. Renewable Fuels Association. 

https://ethanolrfa.org/ethanol-101/where-is-ethanol-made

17 U.S. Census Bureau Trade Data compiled on the Global Agricultural Trade System by the USDA, Foreign Agricultural 

Service. https://apps.fas.usda.gov/gats/default.aspx

18 OPIS/STALSBY Petroleum Terminal Encyclopedia, 2018 edition. Oil Price Information Service. 

https://www.opisnet.com/product/directories/opisstalsby-petroleum-terminal-encyclopedia/

19 Ethanol Production and Distribution. U.S. Dept. of Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center. 

https://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/ethanol_production.html

20 Table 59: Movements of Crude Oil and Petroleum Products by Tanker and Barge Between PAD Districts. Petroleum 

Supply Monthly. U.S. Energy Information Administration. https://www.eia.gov/petroleum/supply/monthly/

21U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Navigation Data Center. Waterborne Commerce Statistics Center. 

https://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/about/technical-centers/wcsc-waterborne-commerce-statistics-center/

22 Biofuels Data Sources, Conversion Factors, USDA, Economic Research Service, January 5, 2018. 

https://www.ers.usda.gov/about-ers/partnerships/strengthening-statistics-through-the-icars/biofuels-data-sources/

23 U.S. Census Bureau Trade Data compiled on the Global Agricultural Trade System by the USDA, Foreign Agricultural 

Service. https://apps.fas.usda.gov/gats/default.aspx

24 World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates, WASDE – 581. USDA, Office of the Chief Economist, Agricultural 

Marketing Service, Farm Service Agency, Economic Research Service, Foreign Agricultural Service, October 12, 2021. 

https://www.usda.gov/oce/commodity/wasde/wasde0918.pdf. 

25 Ribaudo, Marc, Michael Livingston, and James Williamson. Nitrogen Management on U.S. Corn Acres, 2001-10, EB-20. 

USDA, Economic Research Service, November 2012. 

https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/42865/33561_eb20.pdf?v=41228

26 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Navigation Data Center. Waterborne Commerce Statistics Center.

https://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/About/Technical-Centers/WCSC-Waterborne-Commerce-Statistics-Center-2/
A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture • 13

27 Lock Performance Monitoring System, Tonnage Report. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Web. http://corpslocks.usace.

army.mil/lpwb/f?p=121:1:0. Mississippi River Locks 27, also known as Chain of Rocks Locks, Granite City, IL, is the last 

lock for downbound barges on the Mississippi River. For purposes of measuring downbound tonnages on the Ohio River, 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers collects data at Locks and Dam 52, Brookport, IL, because it is strategically located 

on the Ohio River near the junction of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. Locks and Dam 53, Grand Chain, IL, is 

technically the last lock on the Ohio River. Arkansas River Lock and Dam 1, also known as Norrell Lock, Tichnor, AR, is the 

last lock on the Arkansas River, but traffic must use the White River to connect with the Mississippi River. On the White 

River, Montgomery Point Lock and Dam, near Tichnor, AR, is used only during low water conditions.

28 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Navigation Data Center. Waterborne Commerce Statistics Center. 

https://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/About/Technical-Centers/WCSC-Waterborne-Commerce-Statistics-Center-2/

29 U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service. Grain Transportation Report. Figure 12. Grain Barges for 

Export in New Orleans Region. https://www.ams.usda.gov/services/transportation-analysis/gtr

30 U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service. Grain Transportation Report. Table 3. Rail Deliveries to Port 

(carloads). April 26, 2018. https://www.ams.usda.gov/services/transportation-analysis/gtr

31 Study of Rural Transportation Issues, Chapter 6: Rail Competition and its Importance to Agriculture (pdf). U.S. Dept. of 

Agriculture and U.S. Dept. of Transportation, April 2010. https://www.ams.usda.gov/services/transportation-analysis/rti.

32 Chang, Kuo-Liang “Matt”, Peter Caffarelli, Gastelle, Jesse Gastelle. Transportation of U.S. Grains: A Modal Share 

Analysis, October 2019. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/TransportationofUSGrainsModalShare1978_2019.pdf

33 Ibid.

34 Ibid.

35 Study of Rural Transportation Issues, Chapter 6: Rail Competition and its Importance to Agriculture (pdf). U.S. Dept. of 

Agriculture and U.S. Dept. of Transportation, April 2010. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/services/transportation-analysis/rti

36 Calculated by USDA using data obtained from PIERS https://ihsmarkit.com/products/piers.html, a brand name of a 

service formerly known as the Port Import Export Reporting Service.

37 Ibid.

38 Ibid.

39 Ibid.

40 Ibid.

41Marathon, Nick and Kuo-Liang “Matt” Chang. Low Water Impacts on Barge Navigation. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 

Agricultural Marketing Service. Grain Transportation Report. October 5, 2017. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/GTR100517.pdf#page=2

42 Ibid.
14 • A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture

43 Ibid.

44 Inland Harbors: The Corps of Engineers Should Assess Existing Capabilities to Better Inform Dredging Decisions. GAO17-635. Government Accountability Office. July 26, 2017. https://www.gao.gov/assets/690/686127.pdf

45 Study of Rural Transportation Issues, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Marketing Services. A report in 

response to Section 6206 of the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008. Chapter 12. April. 2010. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/RTIReportChapter12.pdf

46 Draft Table, Cargo In Short Tons. FMT Dry Cargo. October 14, 2014. 

http://fmtdrycargo.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/B0207-212.pdf

47America’s Ports and Intermodal Transportation System. U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Maritime Administration. 

January 2009. http://www.glmri.org/downloads/Ports&IntermodalTransport.pdf

48 Ibid.

49 Dredging Crisis. Lake Carriers’ Association. News and Issues. Position Papers. January 11, 2018. 

http://www.lcaships.com/category/position-papers/

50 50-foot dredging depth proposed for parts of lower Mississippi River. NOLA.com. Latest update: July 2021. 

51USDA Agricultural Projections to 2027. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Office of the Chief Economist, World Agricultural 

Outlook Board. Prepared by the Interagency Agricultural Projections Committee. Long-term Projections Report OCE2018-1, 117 pp. February 2018. https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=87458

52Caffarelli, Peter and Adam Sparger, Analysis of Grain Basis Behavior during Transportation Disruptions (Summary), U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service, November 2017. 

https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/AnalysisofGrainBasisBehaviorTransportationDisruptionsSummary.

pdf

53Marathon, Nick and Kuo-Liang “Matt” Chang. Flooding Disrupts Barge Traffic and Raises Rates. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 

Agricultural Marketing Service. Grain Transportation Report. March 15, 2018. 

http://dx.doi.org/10.9752/TS056.03-15-2018

54 “Effects on Agriculture of a Closure of West Coast Port Facilities,” United States District Court for the Northern District 

of California, San Francisco Headquarters, United States of America, Plaintiff, v. Pacific Maritime Association, and 

International Longshore and Warehouse Union, Defendants, Declaration of Ann M. Veneman, Secretary of Agriculture, 

October 7, 2002.

55 Did the West Coast Port Dispute Contribute to the First-Quarter GDP Slowdown? Amiti, Mary, Tyler Bodine-Smith, 

Michele Cavallo, and Logan Lewis. Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Liberty Street Economics. IFDP Notes. July 2, 2015. 

http://libertystreeteconomics.newyorkfed.org/2015/07/did-the-west-coast-port-dispute-contribute-to-the-first-quartergdp-slowdown.html

56 Caffarelli, Peter and Adam Sparger, Analysis of Grain Basis Behavior during Transportation Disruptions (Summary), U.S. 

Dept. of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service, November 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.9752/TS215.11-2017

57 Caffarelli, Peter and Adam Sparger, Recent Grain Disappearance Suggests Increased Demand for Truck Transportation, 

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service, Grain Transportation Report. February 1, 2018. 

http://dx.doi.org/10.9752/TS056.02-01-2018
A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture • 15

58 Rehkamp, Sarah and Patrick Canning. Accounting for Direct and Embedded Imports in the U.S. Food and Beverage 

Dollar. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Amber Waves. July 6, 2015.

https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2015/july/accounting-for-direct-and-embedded-imports-in-the-us-food-andbeverage-dollar/

59 U.S. Department of Transportation. Beyond Traffic: 2045 Final Report. January 2017. 

https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/BeyondTraffic_tagged_508_final.pdf

60 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Missions, Civil Works, Navigation. http://www.usace.army.mil/Missions/Civil-Works/

Navigation/

61 Ibid.

62 U.S. Coast Guard, Missions, Marine Transportation System Management Program. 

https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Our-Organization/Assistant-Commandant-for-Prevention-Policy-CG-5P/Marine-TransportationSystems-CG-5PW/

63 U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, About Our Agency. 

http://www.noaa.gov/about-our-agency

64U.S. Dept. of Transportation. Maritime Administration. About Us. https://www.marad.dot.gov/about-us/

65 U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation, About Us.

https://www.seaway.dot.gov/about/what-does-slsdc-do/

66 Federal Maritime Commission. About the Federal Maritime Commission.

https://www.fmc.gov/about/about_fmc.aspx

Preferred Citation

Chang, Kuo-Liang. A Reliable Waterway System Is Important to Agriculture. February 2022. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 

Agricultural Marketing Service. Web. <http://dx.doi.org/10.9752/TS050.02-2022>

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