NATIONAL ORGANIC AQUACULTURE WORKING GROUP 

WHITE PAPER 

May 24, 2005 

PROPOSED NATIONAL ORGANIC STANDARDS FOR 

FARMED-AQUATIC ANIMALS AND PLANTS (AQUACULTURE) 

WITH SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION AND INFORMATION 

Prepared by the National Organic Aquaculture Working Group 

George Lockwood, Richard Nelson, and Gary Jensen, Editors
ii

Writing and Review Team: 

Sebastian Belle 

Fred Conte 

Ralph Elston 

Gary Fornshell 

John Hargreaves 

Ron Hardy 

James Kotcon 

Robert Mayo 

Albert Tacon 

Contributors: 

Deborah Brister 

Emmanuel Briquet 

Robert Butz 

Jerry Cysewski 

Steven Craig 

Linda O’Dierno 

Bill Floyd 

Cathy Greene 

Brad Hicks 

Howard Johnson 

Anne Kapuscinski 

Menghe Li 

Graham Mair 

Andy Matykiewicz 

Bart Reid 

Michael Rice 

Michael Rust 

Rick Spencer 

David Teichert-Coddington 

Les Torrans 

Craig Tucker 
iii

PREFACE 

 The challenge to develop national organic standards for 

farmed aquatic foods, or aquaculture, has been evident since 

initial efforts by the Livestock Committee of the National 

Organic Standards Board as early as 1998. Because of numerous unsolved issues and lack of consensus for national organic standards for aquaculture, there are no specific standards or references to aquatic species in the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Final Rule promulgated in 2002 

for most terrestrial crops, livestock, and poultry. This absence of aquaculture standards is recognized by USDA, and it 

again seeks to develop aquaculture standards for proposal to 

the public for comment under the Organic Foods Production 

Act (OFPA) that provides the authority to promulgate such 

standards. 

 Although the Act clearly includes fish under the definition of livestock, the Final Rule specifically excludes 

aquatic animals. The National Organic Program (NOP) has 

since clarified that the term fish includes shellfish and 

plants to make definitions consistent for aquatic animals in 

the Act and Final Rule. The current lack of USDA organic 

standards for farm-grown aquatic animals has created an unlevel marketing situation for this highly desired healthy 

food category. This lack of USDA organic standards for aquaculture has resulted in inconsistent organic certification 

standards and labeling for aquaculture products, particularly by foreign producers. With the increasing interest by 

consumers for eco-labeled seafood, including organic, the 

lack of nationally recognized standards has impacted market 

opportunities, created confusion among seafood customers, 

and stirred criticism by consumer advocacy groups. 

 To create a nationally coordinated initiative to support the development of national organic standards for 

farmed aquatic species, the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s 

Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service 

recruited and solicited federal and state agencies, individuals, and companies to join a newly created National Organic Aquaculture Work Group (NOAWG). Since its beginning in 

December 2003, NOAWG under the joint leadership of Deborah 

Brister, George Lockwood and Richard Nelson, has mobilized 

expertise both nationally and internationally to review past 

efforts, consider international standards, evaluate alternatives, employ sound science, and to now propose organic 

standards for consideration by USDA. 

 This White Paper is a product of NOAWG and represents a 

peer-reviewed document that has been developed by many participants who are involved in a wide range of aquaculture 

and organic activities. It is intended to serve as a primary 

reference and discussion document for organic aquaculture in 

the United States. As such it is proposed to be reviewed and 
iv

deliberated within the process of the National Organic Standards Board and the National Organic Program to recommend 

organic standards for aquaculture. It is also intended to 

further educate interested persons to understand the unique 

aspects of aquatic-based organic production systems compared 

to more familiar terrestrial-based operations. 

 Lastly, the co-editors would appreciate comments and 

suggestions that can contribute to developing national aquaculture standards that comply with organic principles for 

production and handling, and that clearly meet consumer expectations for organic certified and labeled farmed aquatic 

foods. 
v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

 We wish to thank the many persons who contributed their 

time and expertise freely and voluntarily to prepare this 

comprehensive White Paper. These individuals represent a 

broad range of knowledge and experience that are needed to 

address the variety of topics and complex issues presented. 

We also recognize the initiatives by the University of Minnesota in organizing the first National Organic Aquaculture 

Workshop convened in the United States in 2000 followed by 

an International Organic Aquaculture Conference held in 

2003. These two events, in addition to numerous technical 

sessions at national aquaculture conferences, and presentations on organic aquaculture as early as 1998, offered important forums that have evolved over time into more focused, nationally coordinated efforts. In this regard, we 

appreciate the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Cooperative 

State Research, Education and Extension Service for facilitating the formation of the National Organic Aquaculture 

Work Group (NOAWG) that has assumed a national leadership 

role in supporting and developing much needed national organic aquaculture standards for U.S. consumers. 

 Another significant contributor to this White Paper is 

the previous work by the Aquaculture Working Group formed 

under the auspices of the National Organic Standards Board. 

Reports and recommendations from this Working Group in 2000 

and 2001 provided a solid foundation of information along 

with more recent developments of organic aquaculture standards by numerous international organic certifying organizations. Lastly, we greatly appreciate the encouragement of 

the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Organic Program to prepare this White Paper as a contribution to assist 

in promulgating national organic standards for farmed 

aquatic foods. 

George Lockwood, Richard Nelson and Gary Jensen, co-editors 

GSLockCVCA@aol.com, ecotruchas@hotmail.com, and GJENSEN@ 

CSREES.USDA.GOV 
vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PREFACE iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v 

I. Introduction 1 

Implications for Lack of USDA Organic Standards for 

Farm Grown Fish 2 

Past Organic Aquaculture Activities 3 

New Efforts Underway 4 

Proposed New Sections for Aquaculture 5 

II. Authorities Cited 6 

Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 6 

Final Rule for Organic Standards for Agricultural 

Products 8 

III. Proposed Amendment to §205.2 Terms Defined 10 

Terms Defined 10 

Explanation 11 

IV. Proposed Amendment to Include Organic Aquaculture General

§205.250 14 

Content 14 

Explanation and Supporting Information 15 

V. Proposed Amendment to Include Origin Of Organic Aquaculture Animals §205.251 18 

Content 18 

Explanation and Supporting Information 19 

VI. Proposed Amendment to Include Organic Aquaculture Feed

§205.252 22 

Content 22 

Explanation and Supporting Information 24 

VII. Proposed Amendment to Include Organic Aquaculture Health 

Care §205.253 33 

Content 33 

Explanation and Supporting Information 34 

VIII. Proposed Amendment to Include Organic Aquaculture Living 

Conditions §205.254 Content 36 

Explanation and Supporting Information 37 

IX. Proposed Amendment to Include Organic Aquaculture Facilities §205.255 38

Content 38 

Explanation and Supporting Information 40 

Alternatives Considered 43 

X. Proposed Amendment to Include Aquaculture Additional

§205.256 44 

XI. Proposed Amendment to Include Molluscan Shellfish 

§205.257 45 
vii

Content 

Explanations and Supporting Information 

XII. Proposed Amendment to Include Farmed Organic Aquatic 

Plants §205.258 47 

Content 47 

Explanation and Supporting Information 47 

XIII. Proposed Amendment to Include Harvest, Transport, Post 

Harvest Handling, and Slaughter §205.259 49 

Content 49 

Explanation and Supporting Information 50 

Alternatives Considered 51 

XIV. Substances for Petitioning for Inclusion in §205.600 

Through §205.604 National List Of Approved And Prohibited 

Substances 55 

Evaluation Criteria §205.600 55 

Synthetic Substances Allowed §205.601 56

Nonsynthetic Substances Prohibited §205.602 56 

Synthetic Substances Allowed §205.603 57 

Nonsynthetic Substances Prohibited §205.604 58 

Definitions from the Final Rule and the Act 59 

APPENDICES 

APPENDIX A. Aquaculture Working Group Report to 

the National Organic Standards Board, 

November 17, 2000 62 

APPENDIX B. Aquaculture Working Group Final Report, 

February 6, 2001 74 

APPENDIX C. References and Resource Materials 78 
NATIONAL ORGANIC AQUACULTURE WORKING GROUP 

RECOMMENDED 

ORGANIC AQUACULTURE STANDARDS 

I. INTRODUCTION 

This document is a peer-reviewed proposal for organic 

standards for aquaculture products in the United States. It 

is also intended to serve as a primary resource for the National Organic Standards Board (NOSB)Aquatic Animal Task 

Force as they develop aquaculture standards. 

The recommended standards in this document are proposed 

for formal adoption through public rulemaking processes administered by the National Organic Program (NOP)of the US 

Department of Agriculture (USDA) pending recommendations by 

the NOSB. This document is submitted by the National Organic 

Aquaculture Work Group (NOAWG) that was formed in 2003 to 

create an alliance of interested parties in government, industry and academia, and to mobilize expertise to develop 

organic standards for aquaculture products in the United 

States (U.S.). 

 Consumption of organic products in 2001 was valued at 

$10.4 billion at the retail level in the U.S., with an annual growth of 20% in 2003. This value accounts for 1.4% of 

total food sales. Organic food is the fastest growing sector 

in agriculture. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that global organic aquaculture production will increase 240 fold by 2030. 

Fish are highly nutritious and are highlighted as an 

important food category for a healthy diet in the Dietary 

Guidelines for Americans 2005. The record U.S. per capita 

consumption of seafood in 2004 demonstrates high consumer 

demand for aquatic food products, many of which are farmraised. At present, one out of every three fish consumed in 

the U.S. is farm grown. Unfortunately, while U.S. consumption of aquaculture grown fish and shellfish is increasing, 

there are no USDA organic standards for this important and 

healthy food group. Interested consumers in the U.S. have no 

opportunity to purchase USDA certified organic farmed fish 

since none are available. 

IMPLICATIONS OF THE LACK OF 

USDA ORGANIC STANDARDS FOR FARM GROWN FISH 

The Final Rule for organic standards implemented on October 21, 2002 created consistent national standards and 

certification protocols to protect the integrity of the USDA 

organic seal and gain consumer confidence for organic labeled products. However, because USDA has no national regulation for organic aquaculture products, no enforcement ac-
2

tion can be taken relative to organic–labeled aquaculture 

products. This situation has created confusion among both 

retailers and consumers because of the prohibition to use 

the nationally recognized USDA organic seal, and implies a 

lack of consistent national standards similar to other agricultural products. The U.S. organic farming community also 

supports compliance with national organic standards and the 

high standards associated with the USDA organic seal for any 

food items making an organic certification claim. 

Aquatic foods are the only major food category in the 

revised Federal Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 that 

are not referenced or included in the existing USDA national 

organic standards regulation. The new USDA Food Pyramid 

lists many food items including “Fish.” All except fish are 

available to U.S. consumers with organic labels. This inequity is unfair to producers who may wish to grow organically 

certified aquaculture products as well as to consumers who 

value this choice in the market. Ultimately, consumers will 

drive the demand and acceptance of organic-labeled farmed 

aquatic products. Studies underway will provide more scientific data on consumer demand, preferences, and attitudes on 

organic-certified aquaculture products. 

Retailers and fish farmers are aware of the strong demand by consumers for organically labeled seafood. As a result, foreign certification agencies and growers are establishing organic certification for the importation into the 

United States of foreign grown salmon, shrimp, tilapia, mussels and other species. Foreign producers and seafood importers are not required to comply with any U.S. national 

standard. This situation poses a major threat and disadvantage to U.S. producers. 

The current situation may also impact the acceptance of 

fish by consumers in organic markets because fish are separated from other animal protein products that meet national 

organic standards and are sold with the USDA organic seal. 

According to FAO, active countries producing and certifying 

organic aquaculture products include Australia, Canada, 

Chile, Ecuador, Indonesia, New Zealand, Peru, Thailand, and 

Viet Nam. Additionally, many of the certifying agents accredited by USDA are foreign companies in countries with 

significant exports of farm-raised aquatic foods into U.S. 

markets. 

PAST ORGANIC AQUACULTURE ACTIVITIES 

In 1999, the National Organic Standards Board of the 

National Organic Program was completing its work in articulating proposed organic standards for a wide range of food 

items in preparation of final regulations with the establishment of the “Final Rule,” and briefly considered possible standards for farm-grown fish. However, representatives 

of the aquaculture industry requested that industry, aca-
3

demic and other aquaculture professionals be directly involved in the preparation of such standards. In 2000 an 

Aquaculture Working Group of 11 people was formed that prepared two reports. “The mission of the group was to explore 

whether aquaculture is consistent with organic standards and 

provide a multi-stakeholder perspective to the NOSB for 

their deliberations.” The two Aquaculture Working Group reports recommended that organic standards be adopted for 

aquaculture production. Copies of these reports are included 

as Appendix A and B. 

 In order to more fully examine the issues raised, the 

NOSB formed an Aquatic Animal Task Force at its June 6–7, 

2000, meeting. In October 2001, this task force issued a 

general recommendation calling for the development of standards for the certification of aquaculture production and a 

prohibition on the development of standards for the certification of wild harvested aquatic animals. The full task 

force report is at: http://www.ams.usda.gov/nosb/FinalRecom

mendations/Oct01/AquaticTaskForce.html.

This Task Force concluded that aquaculture production 

could comply with the requirements of the Organic Food Production Act of 1990. However, since the final recommendations of the NOSB Aquatic Animal Task Force (October 2001) 

departed significantly from ad-hoc NOSB Aquaculture Working 

Group majority recommendations, the industry requested that 

the NOP not proceed further towards the establishment of organic standards for aquaculture at that time. To do otherwise would have placed some major species of potential organic certification (salmon, trout, catfish, shrimp, striped 

bass, sturgeon, and shellfish) into doubt. 

 Since 2001, the interest in the certification of 

aquatic animals has grown significantly. Some USDA accredited organic certification agents have developed private 

standards to address the market demand for these products. 

NEW EFFORTS UNDERWAY 

In 2004, the NOP suggested that the matter of national 

organic aquaculture standards be reviewed again. In response 

the National Organic Aquaculture Working Group (NOAWG) was 

formed to review prior efforts and to make further recommendations. This proposal is the result of that effort. 

In the meantime, numerous foreign organic certification 

organizations have adopted standards for a variety of aquaculture products. Foreign growers are producing fish and 

shellfish to these foreign organic standards for exporting 

organically labeled fish into the U.S. and European markets. 

 An umbrella agency, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), has established draft
4

basic standards for aquaculture. Foreign organizations that 

certify aquaculture include Naturland (Germany), Soil Association (UK), KRAV (Sweden), and others in Switzerland, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, France, and Iceland. Some of 

these bodies certify internationally. For example, Naturland 

certifies farmed salmon production in Chile. 

 It is the intention of NOAWG to encourage the adoption 

by the USDA of science-based organic aquaculture standards 

that are equally rigorous to or exceed foreign standards, 

and that are consistent with existing NOP standards for diverse agricultural products. In the formulation of these 

recommended standards, however, NOAWG has referred to foreign standards to compare how common issues are addressed 

around the world. 

STRUCTURE OF THIS WHITE PAPER – 

PROPOSED NEW SECTIONS FOR AQUACULTURE 

This document proposes a number of additions for aquaculture as amendments to the Final Rule. 

These amendments are proposed as additional new aquaculture sections of the Rule. They incorporate all existing 

standards for livestock that apply to aquatic animals. These 

new sections for aquaculture are proposed as separate because, while fish and shellfish are considered livestock in 

the Act, standards established for poultry, cattle, and 

other terrestrial animals are not always directly applicable 

to aquaculture production and handling conditions. To attempt to amend existing livestock regulations, standard by 

standard, to accommodate unique aspects of aquaculture would 

produce considerable confusion with potential for error and 

misunderstanding. 

The various international organizations that have established organic standards for aquaculture also separate 

aquaculture from livestock. Separate sections clearly address the unique aspects of water-based systems compared to 

traditional soil-based systems, and account for the great 

diversity associated with aquatic systems and their environments. 

Likewise, an amendment is proposed to establish a new 

section for aquatic plants. To attempt to include aquatic 

plants with existing standards for terrestrial plants would 

add considerable complexity and potential confusion as well. 

The proposed amendments articulated below are followed by an 

explanation or rationale. The appropriate livestock standards in the Final Rule, the two 2000 Working Group Reports, 

and information from scientific literature are the basis for 

the proposed amendments. In some cases parts of international standards are included to evaluate comparability and 

equivalency. 
5

II. AUTHORITIES CITED 

The Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 [7 U.S.C. 6051]. 

 The entire text of this Act (“the Act”) is found at 

<< http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/archive/archive.htm >>. It 

is the expressed purpose of this title: 

(1) to establish national standards governing the marketing of certain agricultural products as organically produced products; 

(2) to assure consumers that organically produced 

products meet a consistent standard; and 

(3) to facilitate interstate commerce in fresh and 

processed food that is organically produced. 

In Sec.2103 Definitions, the Act states: 

As used in this title: (11) Livestock. The term “livestock” means any cattle, sheep, goats, swine, and poultry, equine animals used for food or in the production 

of food, fish used for food, wild or domesticated game, 

or other non-plant life. [Underline added.] 

 In Sec.2107 General Requirements, the Act provides: 

(c) Wild Seafood. – 

(1) In General.– Notwithstanding section 2107(a)(1)(A) 

requiring products be produced only on certified 

organic farms, the Secretary shall allow, through 

regulations promulgated after public notice and 

opportunity for comment, wild seafood to be certified or labeled as organic. [Underline added.] 

In Sec.2110 Animal Production Practices and Materials, the Act requires: 

(a) In General. – Any livestock that is to be slaughtered and sold or labeled as organically produced 

shall be raised in accordance with this title. 

(b) Breeders Stock.- Breeder stock may be purchased 

from any source if such stock is not in the last 

third of gestation. 

(c) Practices.- For a farm to be certified under this 

title as an organic farm with respect to the livestock produced by such farm, producers on such 

farm – 

(1) shall feed such livestock organically produced feed that meets the requirements of 

this title; 
6

(2) shall not use the following feed – 

(A) plastic pellets for roughage; 

(B) manure refeeding; or 

(C) feed formulas containing urea; and 

(3) shall not use growth promoters and hormones 

on such livestock, whether implanted, ingested or 

injected, including antibiotics and synthetic 

trace elements used to stimulate growth or production of such livestock. 

(d) Health Care. – 

(1) Prohibited Practices.— For a farm to be certified under this title as an organic farm 

with respect to the livestock produced by 

such farm, producers on such farm shall not – 

(A) use subtherapeutic doses of antibiotics; 

(B) use synthetic internal parasiticides on 

a routine basis; or 

(C) administer medication, other than vaccinations, in the absence of illness. 

(e) Additional Guidelines.— 

(1) Poultry.— With the exception of 1 day-old 

poultry, all poultry from which meat or eggs will 

be sold or labeled as organically produced shall 

be raised and handled in accordance with this title prior to and during the period in which such 

meat or eggs are sold. 

Sec.2118 National List. 

(a) In General.— The Secretary shall establish a National List of approved and prohibited substances that 

shall be included in the standards for organic production and handling established under this title in order 

for such products to be sold or labeled as organically 

produced under this title. 

 There are other provisions in the Act controlling the 

National List for approved and prohibited substances that 

are important to aquaculture. 

FINAL RULE 

 The Standards (or Rules) promulgated by the United 

States Department of Agriculture under the Organic Food Production Act of 1990 are posted at << 

http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/NOP/standards/FullRegTextOnly.ht
7

ml >> as “Regulatory Text Only.” This document is commonly 

referred to as the “Final Rule” and herein as the “Rule.” 

 Under §205.2 Terms Defined. The Final Rule provides: 

Livestock. Any cattle, sheep, goat, swine, poultry, or 

equine animals used for food or in the production of 

food, fiber, feed, or other agricultural-based consumer 

products; wild or domesticated game; or other nonplant 

life, except such term shall not include aquatic animals or bees for the production of food, fiber, feed, 

or other agricultural-based consumer products. [Underline added.] 

 However, the exclusion of aquatic animals in this text 

is inconsistent with the Act. This Rule is to be amended in 

the future to delete “shall not include aquatic animals.” 

Under the Act, livestock includes “fish used for food,” and 

all regulations pertaining to livestock apply to aquaculture 

produced fish and shellfish. 

 Of particular importance for aquaculture in the Final 

Rule are the provisions relative to livestock including: 

§ 205.2 Terms Defined. 

§ 205.200 General. 

§ 205.201 Organic production and handling system plan.

§ 205.236 Origin of livestock.

§ 205.237 Livestock feed.

§ 205.238 Livestock health care practice standard.

§ 205.239 Livestock living conditions.

 § 205.600 and § 205.604 “National List” 

 There are other provisions in the Final Rule that apply 

to aquaculture that must be considered. 

 The Organic Food Production Act of 1990 and 

the Final Rule are the authorities for compliance 

in the establishment of organic standards for 

aquaculture in the United States. 
8

III. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO THE FINAL RULE TO 

§205.2 TERMS DEFINED

The following definitions shall be added to §205.2 

Terms Defined. Some definitions are modifications to those 

in the National Aquaculture Act of 1980, Public Law 96-362, 

16 U.S.C. 2801, et seq. and its amendments. 

Aquaculture. The propagation and rearing of aquatic 

animals and plants. 

Aquaculture facility. Any land, structure, or other appurtenance used for aquaculture. Such term includes, 

but is not limited to, any laboratory, hatchery, rearing pond, tank, raceway, net pen, cages, geographically 

defined seafloor for growing molluscs, or other structure or defined boundary used in aquaculture. 

Aquaculture product. Any product of aquaculture, including but not limited to whole alive or dead aquatic 

animals, gutted fish, fillets and other forms of raw or 

processed meat, eggs for human consumption, eggs for 

reproduction, skin and other animal parts, and alive, 

fresh and dehydrated aquatic plants, either whole or 

processed. Byproducts from aquatic animals grown in 

aquaculture, such as, fish meal and oil, silage, and 

hydrolyzed offal, are included. 

Aquatic animal. Any finfish, mollusc, crustacean, or 

other aquatic invertebrate, amphibian, or reptile, 

grown in fresh, brackish or saltwater, except birds and 

mammals. 

Aquatic plant. Any plant grown in an aquaculture facility, including microscopic or macroscopic algae, except 

watercress, rice, water hyacinth, and hydroponic crops. 

Aquaculture production system. A process for growing 

aquatic animals and plants in an aquaculture facility. 

Bivalve molluscs. Molluscan shellfish including oysters, clams, mussels and scallops, but not including 

gastropods and cephalopods. 

Broodstock (aquaculture). Sexually mature aquatic animals used to produce progeny that may be incorporated 

into an organic aquaculture production system. 

Coldwater finfish. Finfish that spawn at temperatures 

below 23oC, including trout, salmon, cod, marine flatfish, northern pike, muskellunge, walleye, sauger, and 

yellow perch. 

Fishmeal and oil. Fishmeal is the clean, dried ground 

tissue of undecomposed whole fish or fish cuttings, 

either or both, with or without the extraction of part 
9

of the oil. Fish Oil is the oil from rendering whole 

fish, fish cuttings, or cannery waste. 

Finfish. Aquatic vertebrate animals not including mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles. 

Metabolic products (aquaculture). Solid and dissolved 

compounds released by aquatic animals during growth in 

an aquaculture production system. 

Monosex stocks. Populations of aquatic animals of one 

sex obtained by artificially induced or natural processes, or by manual selection. 

Shellfish. Aquatic invertebrate animals including molluscs and crustaceans. 

Silage (fish). A mixture of solids and liquids obtained 

by the breakdown of fish tissue through anaerobic fermentation, acid treatment, and with natural enzymes. 

Triploid. Aquatic animals with three sets (3n) of chromosomes. Most aquatic animals are naturally diploid 

(2n). Triploid aquatic animals are typically sterile 

(non-reproductive) and tend to grow faster than diploid 

aquatic animals. 

Warmwater finfish. Finfish that spawn at temperatures 

at or above 23oC, including tilapia, bass, sunfish, 

carp, eel, yellow tail, sea bream, milkfish catfish, 

paddlefish, ornamentals, and minnows. 

Wild fish. Any species of fish or shellfish, raw or 

processed, harvested from wild sources used for food or 

in animal feeds, including feeds for aquatic animals. 

EXPLANATION

 Some definitions of terms are derived from the National 

Aquaculture Act of 1980, the US Code of Federal Regulations, 

and those of international organic standards organizations. 

Coldwater, coolwater and warmwater definitions are patterned 

after Fish Hatchery Management by Piper, McElwain, Orme, et 

al. Other definitions are original to this document.

National Aquaculture Act of 1980, Public Law 96-362, 16 

U.S.C. 2801, et seq. and its amendments, Definitions: 
10

(1) The term “aquaculture” means the propagation and 

rearing of aquatic species in controlled or selected 

environments, including, but not limited to, ocean 

ranching (except private ocean ranching of Pacific 

salmon for profit in those States where such ranching 

is prohibited by law). 

(2) The term “aquaculture facility” means any land, 

structure, or other appurtenance that is used for 

aquaculture and is located in any State. Such term 

includes, but is not limited to, any laboratory, 

hatchery, rearing pond, raceway, pen, incubator, or 

other equipment used in aquaculture. 

(3) The term “aquatic species” means species of finfish, 

mollusk, crustacean, or other aquatic invertebrate, 

amphibian, reptile, or aquatic plant. 

US Code of Federal Regulations (Food and Drug Administration)

21CFR123.3(d) Fish means fresh or saltwater finfish, 

crustaceans, other forms of aquatic animal life (including, 

but not limited to, alligator, frog, aquatic turtle, jellyfish, sea cucumber, and sea urchin and the roe of such animals) other than birds or mammals, and all mollusks, where 

such animal life is intended for human consumption. 

21CFR123.3(h) Molluscan shellfish means any edible species of fresh or frozen oysters, clams, mussels, or scallops, or edible portions of such species, except when the 

product consists entirely of the shucked adductor muscle. 

International Standards Organizations 

IFOAM defines aquaculture as “The managed production of 

aquatic plants and/or animals in fresh, brackish or salt water in a circumscribed environment.” 

BIO-GRO (New Zealand) provides “Aquaculture includes 

the farming of many different species using divers forms of 

production in fresh-, brackish-, and saltwater. 

“This standard covers aquatic plants and fish carnivorous, 

omnivorous and herbivorous organisms of all types and at all 

stages of growth, grown in any form of enclosure such as 

earthen ponds, tanks and cages (open and closed system). 

Wild, stationary organisms in open collecting areas can be 

certified organic.” 
11

IV. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO INCLUDE

ORGANIC AQUACULTURE GENERAL §205.250 (new) 

(a) These standards for aquaculture are in addition to all 

other applicable standards, including livestock standards, and do not replace them. Organic aquaculture facilities growing aquatic animals must comply with applicable livestock standards. Aquatic plants shall meet 

all the relevant standards for terrestrial crops. Documentation and records required for terrestrial crops 

and livestock also shall apply to aquaculture. 

(b) Aquaculture facility managers shall take measures to 

minimize the release of nutrients and wastes into the 

environment. The use of water discharges and filtered 

metabolic products as nutrients for agricultural crops 

and constructed wetlands is encouraged to be included 

in organic production system plans. However, the 

amounts of such discharges and filtered products applied shall not exceed the requirements of targeted 

plants in the receiving area, and excessive amounts 

shall not runoff into unplanned areas. 

(c) Aquaculture facility managers shall provide for the 

health and welfare of aquatic animals, preclude prohibited substances, and minimize contamination of aquaculture products from environmental sources. 

(d) Metabolic products of one species are recognized as organic resources for one or more other species in an 

aquaculture production system. Metabolic products of 

aquaculture species are not considered animal manure 

under §205.2, Terms Defined, Manure, and §205.239 (c) 

Livestock Living Conditions. Where possible, the practice of polyculture of two or more different species 

grown in the same body of water is encouraged, as is 

the integration of additional species as water moves 

through the aquaculture facility or is discharged from 

it. The use of pond water or its solid metabolic products is encouraged for irrigation of organic terrestrial crops. Aquaponics, the combination of aquaculture 

and plant hydroponics, is encouraged in organic aquaculture production systems. 

(e) Biodiversity of natural aquatic ecosystems, functional 

integrity of aquatic environments, and the quality of 

surrounding aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems must be 

protected. All aquatic animals possessed and grown at 

an aquaculture facility must be in compliance with all 

applicable local and national laws. 

(f) Adequate measures shall be taken to prevent escapes of 

cultivated animals and plants from the aquaculture facility and to document any that do occur. 
12

(g) Byproducts from aquatic animals, such as fish meal, 

fish oil, silage and hydrolyzed offal, produced in an 

organic production system, and appropriately handled, 

may be labeled organic. 

EXPLANATION 

IFOAM, Soil Association, and other international standards organizations all articulate standards for aquaculture 

that comply with livestock standards, but are separate from 

them. 

Soil Association (UK) states “The general standards for 

aquaculture must be considered in the context of a whole 

farm or farming system that is being managed organically. 

Fish farmers applying for registration for a fish farming 

enterprise must therefore also comply with all other chapters of these standards as appropriate.” 

“Siting of production units must take into account the 

maintenance of the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and 

the impact of the unit on wildstocks of the same of other 

species in the area.” 

“The basic characteristics of organic fish farming systems are: 

a. The production of fish of prime quality, free 

from artificial ingredients and with minimal 

contamination from the environment. 

b. Production methods that use natural ingredients 

and minimize the use of external resources. 

c. Management procedures that ensure minimal effect on the local environment. 

d. Promotion of health and welfare of fish by 

minimizing stress, reducing the incidence of 

disease and nurturing the vitality of fish 

through meeting their physiological and behavioral needs. 

e. Management to a high standard to minimize the 

need for veterinary intervention 

f. The prohibition of pesticides. 

g. The application of appropriate standards for 

the goods and services used by organic fish 

farms. 

 The encouragement of the use of local resources 

and services." 

In (c), polyculture and integrated aquaculture mimic 

natural processes where metabolic products of one aquatic 
13

product become nutrients for other aquatic products. What 

would otherwise be wasted can become resources for other organic crops. 

From Principals of Organic Production and Handling

 Submitted to the National Organic Aquaculture Work 

Group by Richard Mathews, Program Leader, National Organic 

Program: 

1.1 Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, 

biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference 

to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that 

regional conditions require locally adapted systems. 

These goals are met, where possible, through the use of 

cultural, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials to fulfill specific 

functions within the system. 

1.2 An organic production system is designed to: 

1.2.4 Maintain or enhance the genetic and biological diversity of the production system and its surroundings; 

1.2.5 Utilize production methods and breeds or varieties 

that are well adapted to the region; 

1.2.6 Provide livestock with optimal living conditions 

that promote their health and well being; 

1.2.7 Recycle materials of plant and animal origin in order to return nutrients to the land, thus minimizing the 

use of non-renewable resources; 

1.2.8 Minimize pollution of the soil, water, and air; and 

1.2.9 Become established on an existing farm or field 

through a period of conversion (transition), during which 

no prohibited materials are applied and an organic plan 

is implemented. 

1.7 Organic production and handling operations must comply 

with all applicable local, state, and federal laws and address food safety concerns adequately. 

1.9 Genetic engineering (recombinant DNA technology) is a 

synthetic process designed to control nature at the molecular level, with the potential for unforeseen consequences. 

As such, it is not compatible with the principles of organic 

agriculture (either production or handling). Genetically engineered/modified organisms (GEO/GMO’s) and products produced by or through the use of genetic engineering are prohibited. 

1.10 Although organic standards prohibit the use of certain 

materials such as synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically engineered organisms, they cannot ensure that or-
14

ganic products are completely free of residues due to background levels in the environment. 
15

V. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO INCLUDE

ORIGIN OF ORGANIC AQUACULTURE ANIMALS §205.251 (new) 

(a) Aquatic animals grown in aquaculture to be sold as organic must have been under continuous organic management beginning no later than the second day after the beginning of 

exogenous feeding, where applicable by species, or beginning 

no later than when 5% of total market weight has been 

achieved, whichever is greater. However, in either case, 

substances prohibited in §205.602 and §205.604 are not allowed during earlier life stages; 

(b) Aquatic animals that are removed from an organic production system and subsequently managed on a non-organic facility may not be sold, labeled, or represented as organically produced. 

(c) Broodstock that has not been under continuous organic 

management may not be sold, labeled, or represented as organic slaughter stock. 

(d) The producer of an organic aquaculture facility must 

maintain records sufficient to preserve the identity of all 

organically managed animals and edible and nonedible animal 

products to assure reliable traceability from farm to market. 

(e) Production of triploid fish from the application of 

temperature or pressure shock after fertilization and by 

crossing tetraploids with diploids is prohibited for fish 

to be sold as organic. 

(f) Culture of monosex stocks obtained by crossing sexreversed broodstock or by hybridization is permitted. Culture of monosex stocks selected by visual or manual means 

is allowed. 

(g) Culture of monosex stocks obtained by direct treatment 

with steroidal or other hormones (including methyltestosterone), or by other direct treatment artificial induction methods, is prohibited. 

(h) Cultivation of genetically modified aquatic animals and 

plants is prohibited. 

(i) In cases where hatchery progeny of aquatic animals are 

not commercially available, broodstock may be collected from 

the wild provided that they are collected in a sustainable 

manner, and where appropriate, in collaboration with government agencies, to assure that natural populations and the 

collected individuals are protected and that biodiversity in 

the ecosystem is supported. 

EXPLANATION 
16

 Items (a), (b), (c), (d) and (i) are from livestock 

standards §205.236 Origin of livestock, modified for aquaculture. Item (a) is also a recommendation of the 2000 

Working Group, while (e), (f), and (g) are new. Item (i) is 

from Principles of Organic Production and Handling, NOP, and 

Soil Association (UK) standards and complies with Excluded 

Methods in the Final Rule §205.2 Terms Defined. 

Organic Food Production Act: 

SEC.2100 [7 U.S.C.6509] Animal Production Practices and Materials reads: 

For a farm to be certified under this title as an organic farm with respect to the livestock produced by 

such farm, producers on such farm – (3)shall not use 

growth promoters and hormones on such livestock, 

whether implanted, ingested, or injected, including antibiotics and synthetic trace elements used to stimulate growth or production of such livestock. 

Final Rule: 

§205.2 Terms Defined includes:

Excluded methods. A variety of methods used to genetically modify organisms or influence their growth and 

development by means that are not possible under natural conditions or processes and are not considered 

compatible with organic production. Such methods include cell fusion, microencapsulation and macroencapsulation, and recombinant DNA technology (including 

gene deletion, gene doubling, introducing a foreign 

gene, and changing positions of genes when achieved by 

recombinant DNA technology). Such methods do not include the use of traditional breeding, conjugation, 

fermentation, hybridization, in vitro fertilization, 

or tissue culture." 

 The establishment of monosex stocks is a traditional 

breeding method in both agriculture and aquaculture. Organic 

production allows many animal species to be grown in monosex 

culture. The use of all-female monosex flocks of chickens 

for egg production, and all-female herds of dairy cattle for 

milk production are standard organic practices. 

International Standards Organizations 

 IFOAM requires that animals shall be raised organically from birth. If organic animals are not available, 

brought-in conventional animals shall accumulatively spend 

two thirds of their biomass life span in the organic sys-
17

tem. Operators shall not utilize artificially polyploided 

organisms. 

 Bio Suisse requires “the fish must have been bred at 

least 2/3 of their life on the organic operation in order to 

be sold as fully organic.” 

 Naturland requires “The organisms must have been kept 

and fed at least for 2/3 of their lives in accordance with 

the Naturland standards before marketing with reference to 

Naturland is allowed.” 

 Soil Association prohibits: 

a. Triploid stocks. 

b. Genetically engineered species or breeds. 

c. All female stocks. 

 The prohibition on triploidy follows the British Soil 

Association and others. 

Principals of Organic Production and Handling states: 

1.9 Genetic engineering (recombinant DNA technology) is a 

synthetic process designed to control nature at the molecular level, with the potential for unforeseen consequences. 

As such, it is not compatible with the principles of organic 

agriculture (either production or handling). Genetically engineered/modified organisms (GEO/GMO’s) and products produced by or through the use of genetic engineering are prohibited. 

Alternatives Considered

 Continuous organic management. For many or most aquatic 

animal species, hatchery systems that produce early life 

forms are by other operators than the organic producer. 

Therefore, the alternative of organic hatcheries for aquatic 

animals is impractical in many cases. This is not unlike 

poultry, where organic management begins the second day after hatch. 

 Following the poultry precedent, NOAWG proposes that 

organic management begin no later than the second day after 

the beginning of exogenous feeding, where applicable by species, or beginning no later than when 5% of total market 

weight has been achieved, whichever is greater. 

 Some international standards for organic aquaculture 

use percentage of market weight as the trigger for organic 

management. However, the NOAWG proposal that 5% of total 
18

market weight be the trigger for organic management is substantially lower that these international standards. 

 Triploidy. The 2001 Working Group Report states “The 

group supported triploid fish from the application of temperature or pressure shock after fertilization as acceptable 

in organic aquaculture practices since triploidy itself can 

occur naturally within various species of fish.” There are 

many good arguments to support this position. 

 However, SEC.2100 [7 U.S.C.6509] Animal Production 

Practices and Materials of the Act, and Section 205.2 of the 

Final Rule, proscribe triploidy for aquatic animals to be 

sold as organic. Therefore the production of triploid fish 

is not an allowed alternative for fish to be sold as organic. 

 The 2000 Working Group Report also says, “Additionally, 

it [triploidy] renders the fish sterile, thus providing a 

form of biological barrier, helping to protect from any 

risks posed by escapes of introduced species.” 

 NOAWG proposes that triploid aquatic animals obtained 

by any means be allowed in an organic aquaculture system for 

animals that are use for pest control and that are not to be 

sold as organic. Alternative pest control by using chemicals 

is not allowed in most cases. 
19

VI. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO INCLUDE 

ORGANIC AQUACULTURE FEED §205.252 (new) 

(a) The producer of organic aquaculture products must provide feeds composed of agricultural products that are organically produced and, if applicable, organically handled: 

except that nonsynthetic substances and synthetic substances allowed under §205.603 may be used as feed additives and supplements. 

(b) Notwithstanding (a), sources of fishmeal and fish oils 

produced from wild sources are allowed in aquaculture feeds 

that are certified or labeled as organic. When used in organic aquaculture feeds, fish meal and fish oil must qualify under one or more of the following: 

(1) be produced from wild sustainable fisheries stocks 

not otherwise suitable or destined for direct human 

consumption taking into account impacts upon bycatch species and the ecosystem. 

(2) be trimmings of sustainably managed wild fish and 

shellfish destined for human consumption, including 

viscera, spent carcasses (frames), and roe extraction. 

(3) be from incidental by-catches of fish captured for 

human consumption in fisheries where by-catch is legal and adequately regulated, to avoid waste of 

fishery resources. 

(4) be from capture fisheries stocks that are sustainably harvested, taking into account impacts upon bycatch species and the ecosystem. 

(c) Fish meal and oil from organically raised aquatic animals of a different species are encouraged. 

(d) The use of oils rich in Omega-3 fatty acids produced 

by organically certified microbial processes is allowed. 

(e) A minimum of 50% of fish meal used as an ingredient 

for aquaculture feed shall be derived from products of fish 

allowed in (b)(1-3) above, or from organic aquaculture, 

with the balance that is not so derived from marine fisheries described in (4). There are no restrictions on amounts 

of fish oil obtained from (1), (2), (3) or (4). 

(f) Silage from fish in (b) and(c) that are enzyme processed, or produced with acids and bases that are organically certified or approved on the National List, is allowed.
20

(g) For fish meal and oil used in organic feeds, levels of 

environmental contaminants must not exceed levels commonly 

recognized and accepted as low. Such contaminants include 

dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated 

diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), lead, cadmium and mercury. 

(h) Feed and feeding practices must meet the minimum nutrient requirement for the aquatic animal and minimize the 

nutrient contribution to receiving waters. Specific protocols shall remain under the purview of the producer, certifying agent, and feed manufacturer. 

(i) Where practical, it is encouraged that aquatic animals 

be provided their natural feed sources as closely as possible. 

(j) Meal and oil from certified organic grain products are 

allowed in aquaculture feeds. 

(k) Feeds for aquaculture products for human consumption 

must assure high human food safety standards, healthfulness, and integrity of nutritional benefits. 

(l) Natural sources of pigmenting compounds approved by 

the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for inclusion in 

feeds are allowed. 

(m) Mineral supplements in feeds shall not exceed requirements of the specific aquatic animal. 

(n) The producer of an organic aquaculture system shall 

not: 

(1) incorporate any type of antibiotic or hormone in 

feeds; 

(2) provide feed supplements or additives in amounts 

above those needed for adequate nutrition and health 

maintenance of the species at its specific stage of 

life; 

(3) feed by-products from mammalian or poultry 

slaughter; 

(4) use manure from terrestrial animals as either 

feed or fertilizer; 

(5) use feedstuffs extracted with synthetic solvents 

not approved on the National List; 

(6) use feed, feed additives, and feed supplements in 

violation of the U.S. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic 

Act; 

(7) use artificial and/or synthetic pigments or artificial coloring agents; 
21

(8) use synthetic amino acids in aquatic animal 

feeds; or 

(9) use any genetically modified organism or product 

thereof as a feed ingredient. 

EXPLANATION 

 Wild fishery resources are not certifiable as organic 

by USDA accredited organic or other certifiers under established organic standards, while aquaculture feed utilizing 

fish meal and oil that meet specified criteria in this section may be certified organic. The Stevens amendment copied 

below is the legal authority for the use of fishmeal and 

oil from wild resources in organic aquaculture feeds. 

 USDA-NOP and NOSB Policy Statements copied below also 

provide authority for the inclusion of fishmeal in feed for 

aquatic animals. 

 Paragraph (b)(1) of this proposed standard applies to 

wild fishery resources where little, if any, product is 

used for human consumption. This includes menhaden. Paragraph (b)(4) covers fisheries where a significant amount of 

the harvest is for direct human consumption. This includes 

certain species of sardines and anchovies. The maximum 

amount of 50% specified in (e) for fish meal under (b)(4) 

is intended to conserve those fisheries capable of providing fish for human consumption. 

 The conditions in (b)(1) and (b)(4) requiring consideration of impacts upon by-catch and the ecosystem apply, 

for example, to higher trophic level fish of commercial 

value and other life that depend upon the target fishery 

from which meal and oil are produced. 

 Paragraphs (a) and (h) are modifications of livestock 

feed standards §205.237. Paragraph (b) is recommended in the 

2000 Working Group Report, modified in this proposal to include additional requirements, including some from various 

international standards. Paragraphs (e), (g), (i), and (n) 

include conditions from various international standards. 

Others including (c), (d), (f), (j), (k), and (m), are new 

in this proposal. Paragraph (k) is included to assure that 

organically produced fish contain levels of Omega-3 fatty 

acids comparable to their natural counterparts. 

Alternatives Considered
22

 Fishmeal provides a natural supply of essential amino 

acids in feeds to meet critical nutritional requirements for 

salmon, trout, shrimp and catfish, and other commercially 

important aquatic animals, during part or all of their lifecycle, in amounts greater than 5% of their ration. This 

maximum level of 5% was recommended in the 2001 Aquatic Animal Task Force Report. Of the most highly consumed aquaculture seafood in the United States, only tilapia can be grown 

with this restriction. Furthermore, even if feasible, the 

use of such low amounts of fish meal in the diets of carnivorous fish would be unnatural. Therefore, this alternative is unsuitable. 

 The 2000 Working Group report recommended unlimited 

amounts of fishmeal from sustainably managed fisheries. 

 NOAWG, after considering the 2000 Working Group Report, 

numerous international precedents, NOSB and NOP guidelines, 

and other information, proposes standards for restricted use 

of fishmeal. NOAWG also recognizes the sustainability of 

fisheries used for fishmeal production, and possible heavymetal, PCB, dioxin, and pesticide contaminants.

The Stevens amendment reads: 

“This section complies with Sec.2107 General Requirements, of the Organic Food Production Act of 1990, as 

amended, that provides: 

(c) Wild Seafood. – 

(1) In General.– Notwithstanding section 

2107(a)(1)(A) requiring products be produced 

only on certified organic farms, the Secretary shall allow, through regulations promulgated after public notice and opportunity 

for comment, wild seafood to be certified or 

labeled as organic.” 

 Commonly accepted definitions of “seafood” include 

“edible marine fish and shellfish.” “Edible” means “fit to 

eat.” Most dictionaries searched do not limit “edible” to 

human consumption. In nature, wild carnivorous fish find 

other wild fish “fit to eat.” 

 Therefore, for purposes of interpreting the Stevens 

amendment to OFPA, fishmeal and oil produced from any species of wild fish are allowed in organic aquaculture feed 

rations. 

USDA-NOP and NOSB Policy Statements 
23

 In addition to the Stevens amendment, a recent Guidance Statement and Policy Statements by NOP and NOSB allow 

the use of fish meal in feeds for aquatic animals. 

NOP Guidance Statement, 4/13/2004C

 “This statement provides for the use of fishmeal as a 

protein source in feeding organic livestock because section 

205.237 [of the Final Rule] allows the use of supplements 

in livestock feed provided they are not used in amounts 

greater than those needed for adequate nutrition and health 

maintenance.” 

National Organic Program Policy Statements 

http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/NOP/PolicyStatements/USDAN

OSBFeedback3_10_05.pdf

USDA-NOP Policy Statements include “fishmeal is nonsynthetic” and “fishmeal preserved with natural substances may 

be allowed as a feed additive or feed supplement;” “use of 

fishmeal must comply with FFDCA [Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act] requirements;” and that “any synthetic preservatives added to fishmeal must first be added to the National 

List through rulemaking.” 

 In addition, NOSB states: 

o Fishmeal is nonsynthetic. 

o Fishmeal preserved with natural substances and that 

would not be harmful to human health or the environment should be allowed as a feed additive or feed supplement for organic production, in accordance with 7 

CFR §205.237(a), 7 CFR §205.237(b)(2) and 7 CFR 

§205.238(a)(2). 

o The use of fishmeal must comply with all applicable 

requirements of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic 

Act (FFDCA, 21 U.S.C. 301 et seq.), as required by 7 

CFR §205.237(b)(6). 

o Nonsynthetic (natural) preservative ingredients are 

allowed in fishmeal used in organic production. 

o Synthetic preservative ingredients may only be used 

in fishmeal after petition, review, and placement on 

the National List. 

 NOSB Statement on Future Work: 
24

o The status of fishmeal for use in organic aquaculture should be considered during the development of 

NOP aquaculture standards. Issues including the sustainability of fisheries exploited for fishmeal production and possible heavy-metal, PCB, dioxin, and 

pesticide contaminants in fishmeal should be addressed 

during the development of aquaculture standards. 

o If NOP standards and definitions are developed for 

the production of organic fishmeal, then only organic 

fishmeal can be used as a feed, feed supplement, or 

feed additive for any organic livestock, in accordance 

with 7 CFR §205.237(a), which requires the use of organic feed. 

International Standards Organizations 

 A review of international standards indicates that 

some organic standards organizations require one or more 

additional requirements that fish meal and oil must be: 

∗ by-products from organic and wild sources not 

otherwise suitable for human consumption 

∗ from the same geographical region 

∗ from fisheries certified that they are sustainably harvested, taking into account impacts 

upon by-catch species and the ecosystem 

∗ from trimmings of fish processed for human 

consumption from by-catches of captures for human consumption 

Some standards limit: 

∗ fish meal and oil to 30% of total feed ration 

∗ levels of residues 

Some prohibit: 

∗ fish meal and oil processed from fish that are 

harvested from food grade fisheries 

∗ slaughter products for the farmed species, or 

from terrestrial animals 

∗ artificial, synthetic or nature identical pigmentation, synthetic antioxidants and preservatives, and artificial coloring agents 

∗ feedstuff derived by solvent extraction (e.g., 

hexane) 
25

∗ high energy diets of more than 28% oil 

∗ containing high levels of persistent organic 

compounds with low contamination of PCBs, lead, 

cadmium and mercury 

∗ pure amino acids 

∗ genetically engineered organisms or products 

thereof 

2000 Working Group Report 

 The Working Group recommended that fishmeal and fish 

oils from sustainably managed fisheries be allowed as a 

non-organic feed component for fish from certified organic 

aquaculture systems. They based this on the fundamental 

principal that: 

1) An organism should be provided its natural feed source 

as closely as possible. As cold and cool water carnivorous and omnivorous species are genetically predisposed to fish consumption (fishmeal and fish oil), 

we, therefore, have an obligation to meet the nutritional requirements of the species if these species 

are to be grown organically. Without fishmeal, synthetic amino acids must be added to the feed to artificially create the good balance of amino acids in 

fishmeal. 

2) Organic livestock production standards encourage the 

utilization of the most natural feed sources appropriate for that animal and with minimum loss of feed to 

the environment. With the use of grain protein, indigestible phosphorus would be discharged in the fish 

waste. Phosphorus discharges from fish farms are a major regulatory concern of the EPA. 

3) Consumers will demand that fish be raised and fed as 

fish, not as goats, cattle, or chickens, and therefore 

taste like fish and provide the healthy benefits of 

fish. 

4) The evolution of the husbandry of cattle, swine, and 

sheep has involved breeding and selecting animals that 

consume low cost feeds, including grasses and grains. 

In contrast, aquaculture does not have those thousands 

of years of “selection” and, therefore, relies upon 

fish as the natural food of some fish and not grains 

and grasses. 
26

 The 2000 Working Group also recommended that a producer of an organic aquaculture operation must NOT 

1. Use animal drugs, including hormones, to promote 

growth; 

2. Provide feed supplements or additives in amounts above 

those needed for adequate nutrition and health maintenance for the species at its specific stage of life; 

3. Use terrestrial animal livestock products (the majority felt that the precautionary principle and consumer 

preference would preclude the use of animal byproducts 

in aquaculture fish labeled as organic). 

International Standards Organizations

 IFOAM recommends that “animals shall be fed organic 

feed. 

 Operators may feed a limited percentage of non-organic 

feed under specific conditions for a limited time in the 

following cases: 

 • organic feed is of inadequate quantity or quality. 

 • areas where organic aquaculture is in early stages 

of development. 

 In no case may the percentage of non-organic feed of 

agricultural origin exceed 15% dry matter calculated on an 

annual basis. 

Operators may use non-organic aquatic animal protein and 

oil sources provided that such sources: 

 a) are harvested from independently verified sustainable sources; 

 b) are verified to have contamination levels below 

limits established by standard setting body; and 

 c) do not exceed 50% of the diet. 

Non-organic feed sources may not exceed 50% of the ration.” 

Naturland (Germany) has the following requirements regarding fishmeal/-oil as feed: 

“Principally, fishmeal/-oil shall originate from the same 

geographical region as the aquaculture operations isoperations are located in. The following sources are permitted: 
27

∗ Fishmeal/-oil from fisheries certified independently as sustainable, taking into account as well 

impact on target species as on by-catch species 

and the ecosystem 

∗ Fishmeal/-oil from trimmings of fish processed 

for human consumption 

∗ Fishmeal/-oil from by-catches of captures for human consumption. 

“The use of fishmeal/-oil from other sources may be 

applied for the solely purposes of safeguarding quality and 

only up to a limited amount (maximum 30% of total fishmeal/-oil, referring to total life span of fish).” 

Soil Association (UK) provides “A minimum of 50 per 

cent of the feed ingredients of aquatic origin must be derived from the by-products of wild caught fish from human 

consumption. The balance not derived from such by-products 

must be derived from wild marine resources independently 

certified as sustainable by an approved certification body 

(such as through the Marine Stewardship Council).”

 “The following are prohibited: 

a. Fishmeal from dedicated fishmeal harvesting and 

manufacturing operations that are not independently 

certified as sustainable. 

b. Fishmeal or other processed ingredients derived 

from the same species or from farmed salmonids or 

terrestrial animals. 

c. Artificial, synthetic or nature identical pigmentation. 

d. Growth regulators, hormones or appetite stimulants. 

e. Feedstuffs derived by solvent extraction. 

f. Genetically modified organisms or products/ingredients derived from them. 

g. Synthetic binders. 

h. High energy diets (defined as more than 28 per cent 

oil) aimed at enhancing fish production or fast 

tracking.” 

French Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries “In view 

of the specific nature of these specifications owing to the 

nature of the living environment of the animals concerned 

and the fact that the specific diet of certain families of 

fish (salmonids, bass, char, etc.) mainly bred and consumed 

is primarily carnivorous, the protein and lipid fractions 
28

of the feed must be predominantly of aquatic origin. Fish 

meals and oils shall originate from pelagic fishing of wild 

fish of species managed by quotas, or from “fallen” fish 

originating from fishing intended for human consumption, or 

from fodder fish bred in accordance with organic production 

so as to reduce the pressure on fish stocks.

“Fish meals and oils and also fish protein concentrates analysed must not reveal contamination by synthetic 

chemical pollutants and heavy metals greater than the indicative values set out below:

 PCBs: 2 ppm maximum per kg at a moisture rate of 12% 

 Lead: 10 ppm maximum per kg at a moisture rate of 12% 

 Cadmium: 2 ppm maximum per kg at a moisture rate of 12% 

 Mercury: 0.5 ppm maximum per kg at a moisture rate of 12% 

“Nevertheless, and in order to limit the impact of 

such an obligation on fish stocks and marine ecosystems, 

the proportion of plant or animal ingredients originating 

from organic production used in the feed formula intended 

for farmed fish must be at least 30% for all species. This 

maximum proportion is to be raised to 40% three years after 

the publication in the Official Gazette of the French Republic of these “fish” specifications for non-carnivorous 

species. In the case of carnivorous species, this proportion is to be increased while taking account of the nutritional needs of each species and avoiding pollution brought 

about by an imbalance in the feed. 

“Any incorporation of meat products and of meat and 

bone meals from terrestrial animals in the fish feed shall 

be prohibited, whatever the origin (whether or not organically produced). Other products of terrestrial animals 

(milk products or egg products) must originate from organic 

production. 

“Fish meals used may only be manufactured by processes 

which do not impair their nutritional qualities. Soluble 

fish protein concentrates obtained solely by physical processes are permitted.” 

“Feed for fish reared extensively in fresh water must, 

as far as the live part is concerned, originate from flora 

and fauna produced by the breeding environment managed the 

operator.” 

BIO SUSSE (Switzerland) “For salmonides [sic] and 

other carnivorous fish species, the addition of fish meal 

and fish oil is allowed. It has to be produced either from 
29

residues of edible fish processing or come from provably 

sustainable fishing.”

 AgriQuality (New Zealand) requires “Aquaculture feeds 

shall generally contain 100% certified organic components 

or wild feed resources. When supplying food collected from 

the wild, the “Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries” 

(FAO, 1995) shall be followed. In systems using brought in 

feed inputs, at least 50% of the aquatic animal protein in 

the diet shall come from by-products or other waste and/or 

other material not suitable for human consumption.” 

 TUN (Iceland) “Certified organic by-products and wild 

marine resources otherwise not directly suited for human 

consumption should be used as feeding ingredients. Feed 

produced from wild marine species must, as much as possible, be derived from certified sustainable fisheries. Feed 

materials from wild aquatic resources must be from certified sustainable fisheries by a certifier recognized by 

TUN. If such materials are unavailable at least 50% of the 

aquatic animal protein in a diet shall be from byproducts, 

and the rest shall be from species not usually intended for 

human consumption. 

Substances prohibited for use in feed products: 

a. Synthetic growth promoters, stimulants and appetizers. 

b. Synthetic antioxidants and preservatives, artificial coloring agents and urea. 

c. Materials from the same specie as to be fed. 

d. Feedstuff subjected to solvent (e.g. hexane) extraction. Pure amino acids. 
30

VII. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO INCLUDE 

ORGANIC AQUACULTURE HEALTH CARE §205.253 (new) 

(a) The aquaculture producer must establish and maintain 

preventive health care practices, including: 

(1) Selection of aquatic animals and plants with regard to suitability for site-specific conditions; 

(2) Provision of a source of nutrition or feed sufficient to meet nutritional requirements, including vitamins, minerals, protein and/or amino acids, fatty acids, and energy; 

(3) The maintenance of healthy water rearing conditions including control of potentially toxic metabolic 

compounds (ammonia and carbon dioxide) within acceptable ranges for the species, appropriate water temperatures, adequate levels of oxygen, and pH, with the prevention of extended excursions to stressful extremes. 

Efforts to maintain such conditions must be documented 

by a suitable monitoring and record keeping program for 

key water quality parameters that affect health. The 

frequency of such monitoring shall depend on the culture system, site, species, life stage, and environmental characteristics; 

(4) Establishment of biosecurity measures to protect 

against entry of pathogens into the aquaculture production system, and operational procedures and sanitation 

practices to minimize the occurrence and spread of 

pathogens; 

(5) Provision of conditions that allow for freedom of 

movement and minimization of stress appropriate to the 

species; 

(6) Implementation of physical accommodations to the 

aquaculture facility as needed to promote the animal's 

welfare and minimize pain and stress; and 

(7) Administration of vaccines, other veterinary biologics, and approved natural supplements, such as supplementation or treatment of healthy animals with endemic beneficial bacteria, appropriate to the species 

and location. 

(b) When preventive practices and veterinary biologics are 

inadequate to prevent disease, a producer may administer 

synthetic medications, provided that such medications are 

allowed under §205.603. Parasiticides allowed under §205.603 

may be used on: 

(1) Brood stock, but none that are to be sold, labeled, 

or represented as organically produced. 

(c) The producer of organic aquaculture products must not: 
31

(1) Sell, label, or represent as organic any aquatic 

animal or edible product derived from any aquatic animal treated with antibiotics, any substance that contains a synthetic substance not allowed under §205.603, 

or any substance that contains a nonsynthetic substance 

prohibited in §205.604. 

(2) Administer any type of animal medication, other 

than approved vaccinations, in the absence of illness; 

(3) Administer hormones for growth promotion; 

(4) Administer synthetic parasiticides; 

(5) Administer animal drugs in violation of the U.S. 

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act; or 

(6) Withhold medical treatment from a sick animal in an 

effort to preserve its organic status. All appropriate 

medications must be used to restore an animal to health 

when methods acceptable to organic production fail. 

Aquatic animals treated with a prohibited substance 

must be clearly identified and shall not be sold, labeled, or represented as organically produced. 

EXPLANATION 

 This section is from the 2000 Working Group Report, 

which was drafted, in part, from §205.238 Livestock health 

care practice standard 

International Standards Organizations 

 IFOAM states that “Organic management practices promote 

and maintain the health and well-being of animals through 

balanced organic nutrition, stress-free living conditions 

appropriate to the species and breed selection for resistance to diseases, parasites and infections. 

 Operators should identify the cause of outbreaks of 

disease or infection. 

 Operators should implement management practices including siting criteria that can diminish the causative 

events and future out-breaks of disease. 

 Operators should use natural methods and medicines, as 

the first choice when treatment is necessary. 

 Prophylactic use of veterinary drugs is prohibited. 

 Use of antibiotics is prohibited. 

 Synthetic hormones and growth promoters are prohibited. 
32

 Soil Association (UK) requires: “If illness does occur, 

treatment should be directed at complementing the stock’s 

natural ability to recover and correcting the imbalance that 

created the disorder, rather than just dealing with the 

symptoms. Rapid diagnosis must be made and appropriate action taken in consultation with the farm’s veterinary surgeon. Where possible the affected stock should be isolated 

and quarantine procedures brought into operation. 

 “Treatment must be given even if the stock will lose 

its organic status. Failure to treat could lead to the fish 

farm losing certification. 

 “Withholding periods for stock treated with licensed 

veterinary medicines shall be twice that defined in the 

product license or by the prescribing veterinarian and shall 

not be less than 14 days. 

 “Vaccines that have not been genetically engineered may 

be used where there is a known disease risk to the operation 

as part of a disease prevention strategy. Any vaccines 

should be directed at the specific disease risk in question, 

not administered as a general preventative.” 
33

VIII. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO INCLUDE 

ORGANIC AQUACULTURE LIVING CONDITIONS §205.254 (new) 

(a) Aquaculture systems must establish and maintain living 

conditions that accommodate the health and natural behavior 

of the aquatic animals, including: 

(1) an environment operated within the tolerance limits characteristic of the aquatic animal and stage 

of development by monitoring and maintaining water 

qualities appropriate for the production system 

and species including temperature, pH, salinity, 

photoperiod, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, and nitrite concentrations, without sudden changes or 

prolonged exposure to extremes; 

 (2) containment that allows the animals: 

(i) freedom of movement and opportunity to exercise within the culture system; and 

(ii) minimal potential for injury. 

(b) Cultured organisms that are species-distinct or genetically-distinct populations from native organisms in adjacent 

aquatic environments must be managed with appropriate security measures (mechanical, physical, and biological barriers) to reduce, minimize and prevent the likelihood of escape due to predators, adverse weather conditions (including 

floods), or facility damage.

(c) Predators must be discouraged from damaging or stressing fish stocks by the use of effective means that are 

preferably non-destructive both to target and non-target 

species. Proactive preventive measures such as site selection, physical barriers, repellents, and legal predator 

harassment and control methods are preferred. When such 

measures fail, legal lethal measures may be taken only when 

necessary and with appropriate documentation. Relevant 

statutory bodies shall be consulted in cases where specific 

predator problems arise. 

(d) Non-organic aquatic animals may be used in aquaculture 

production systems for controlling pests, such as weeds, 

snails, and algae. Triploided animals may be employed provided that the animals are legal to culture, are not labeled organic, and are readily separated at harvest from 

the aquatic animals under organic management. 

EXPLANATION

2000 Working Group Report 
34

 The Working Group recommended that an organic aquaculture plan should ensure that cultured organisms that are 

species-distinct or genetically-distinct populations from 

native organisms in accessible aquatic environments be managed with appropriate security measures (mechanical, physical, and biological barriers) to reduce, minimize and prevent the likelihood of escape due to predators, adverse 

weather conditions, or facility damage.
35

IX. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO INCLUDE

ORGANIC AQUACULTURE FACILITIES §205.255 (new) 

(a) Location of organic aquaculture facilities shall take 

into consideration the maintenance of the aquatic environment and surrounding aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem. 

(b) Water sources for aquaculture facilities must be carefully selected and managed to avoid potential environmental 

contaminants that can harm human health. 

(c) Facility boundaries shall be clearly identified. 

(d) Organic aquaculture facilities shall be at appropriate 

distances from contamination sources including pesticide 

drift and other possible contaminants from conventional 

aquaculture. 

(e) Pond berms and tank tops shall be at sufficient elevations to prevent contamination from the environment during 

floods. 

(f) Negative environmental impacts from aquaculture production must be minimized. Effluent discharges must not 

contribute to degradation of the environment by suspended 

and dissolved solid metabolites. 

(g) Recycling of nutrients is encouraged. 

(h) It is recognized that in some situations metabolic 

discharges may enrich and benefit the local environment. 

(i) Effluent discharges must comply with all local, state 

and national water quality laws and regulations, and include treatment when necessary. 

(j) Facilities must include preventative measures against 

possible escapes into the natural environment of the 

aquatic animals in production, including during local 

floods. 

(k) Open water net-pens and enclosures are permitted where 

water depth, current velocities and direction, stocking 

densities, and other factors act to adequately disperse 

metabolic products in order to minimize accumulation of 

discharged solids on the bottom sediments under the net 

pens. However, water currents should not be excessive to 

cause the fish to expend excessive energy to swim and to be 

unable to consume food. Monitoring shall be employed to ensure that the natural assimilative capacity at the site is 

not overburdened. Use of multiple species of aquatic plants 
36

is encouraged to recycle nutrients. Chemical treatment of 

biofouling organisms on nets is not allowed. An organic 

conversion period of at least one year, or one crop cycle, 

whichever is less, shall be required. 

(l) Production systems with direct soil-water contact are 

allowed provided that a conversion period of one year or 

one crop cycle, whichever is less, occurs under organic 

management before production can be certified organic as 

specified in §205.202, Land requirements. 

(m) Organic conversion periods for production systems with 

containment vessels of plastic, metal or concrete surfaces 

shall be at least one year, or one crop cycle, whichever is 

less.

(n) Recirculating systems are permitted if the system supports the health, growth, and well-being of the species, including: 

(1) minimization of disease organisms being introduced 

vertically through eggs or otherwise from parents, 

from water inflows, from feeds, from vectors including birds, and humans, or other sources. 

(2) frequent testing to provide for the maintenance of 

healthy water conditions that meet the natural requirements of the species with respect to control of 

potentially toxic metabolic compounds (ammonia, carbon dioxide, etc.), optimum temperatures, adequate 

levels of metabolic inputs (oxygen and feed), and 

pH, all within acceptable ranges depending upon the 

species, with the prevention of excursions to 

stressful extremes, and with sufficient dewatering 

and rewatering to prevent accumulation of toxic compounds. 

(3) minimization of other health compromising stresses. 

(4) stocking density levels that take into consideration 

animal health and overall well-being, including the 

natural schooling characteristics of the species.

(5) the provision of adequate backup life support systems to provide appropriate maintenance of water 

quality and dissolved oxygen levels in the event 

that primary life support systems fail. 

EXPLANATION 
37

 Item a) is modified after the Soil Association (UK). 

Item d) is new. Item e) is from the 2000 Working Group report. 

 Various international standards require different conversion conditions for aquaculture facilities, including: 

• No conversion period necessary for open water facilities 

• At least one life cycle of the organism 

• Converting and non-organic units must be adequately separated and clearly identified in order 

to prevent cross-contamination or accidental mixing 

Other requirements include: 

∗ Maximum stocking densities of 10 kg fish/m3 in net 

pens 

∗ Artificial lighting, when necessary, shall not exceed 16 hours 

∗ Artificial aeration/oxygen not permitted 

∗ Inlets and outlets to ponds must be adequately 

screened 

∗ Prohibiting and allowing certain construction materials 

∗ Prohibit the destruction of certain environments 

for the construction of ponds 

2000 Working Group Report 

For pond systems there was consensus within the group 

that confined outdoor pond systems, the most common aquaculture systems in both the US and the world as a whole, 

are appropriate systems for organic aquaculture. 

The group reported that significant progress is being 

made in aquaculture regarding nutrient management in open 

waters, making siting of net pens in such areas appropriate 

for organic aquaculture. It also underscored that open ocean 

net pens provide natural environments for some fish, even 

more so than fish ponds or closed systems. 

The report states that recirculating systems are usually indoor systems but, depending on the climate, can also 

be outdoor systems, or a combination. Culture water is sometimes filtered and recycled back to the fish, or circulated 

through beds of vegetables, fruits, grasses, or flowers. 

International Standards Organizations
38

IFOAM recommended standards state “Conversion in organic aquaculture production reflects the diversity of species and production methods. 

Production units should have an appropriate distance from 

contamination sources and conventional aquaculture. 

The conversion period shall be at least one life cycle of 

the organism or one year whichever is shorter. 

Operators shall ensure that conversion to organic aquaculture addresses environmental factors, and past use of the 

site with respect to waste, sediments and water quality 

Organic management maintains the biodiversity of natural 

aquatic ecosystems, the health of the aquatic environment, 

and the quality of surrounding aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem. 

Production should maintain the aquatic environment and surrounding aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem by using a combination of production practices that: 

• Encourage and enhance biological cycles 

• Provide for biodiversity through polyculture and 

maintenance of riparian buffers with adequate plant 

cover. 

Converting material of plant and animal origin into animal 

production results in nutrient and energy losses. For this 

reason feed sources based on by-products and waste materials of biological origin not suitable for human consumption 

should be encouraged. 

Operators shall take adequate measures to prevent escapes 

of introduced or cultivated species and document any that 

are known to occur. 

Operators shall take verifiable and effective measures to 

minimize the release of nutrients and waste into the 

aquatic ecosystem.” 

 Naturland requires “Stocking densities in net cages 

(for salmonids) shall not exceed 10 kg fish/m3, based on the 

anticipated harvest weight. In no case the animals shall 

display any injuries (e.g. of the fins) indicating too high 

stocking densities.” 

 “The husbandry conditions must enable the animal to behave in a way natural to the species...” “The water quality 

(e.g., temperature, pH, salinity, oxygen, ammonium and nitrate concentrations) must conform to the natural requirements of the species in question. If artificial light is 

provably necessary, then the simulated day length shall not 
39

exceed 16 hours.” “Permanent artificial aeration/oxygen is 

not permitted.” 

 Soil Association (UK) requires “The conversion period 

shall generally be at least one production cycle of the organisms in question. During that period the stock must be 

managed to full organic standards, including implementation 

of the integrity management system. 

“During the progressive conversion of a holding, the 

organic, converting and non-organic units must be adequately 

separated and clearly identified in order to prevent crosscontamination or accidental mixing. There must be sufficient 

physical and managerial separation between the units to ensure that the organic operation is inspectable and can maintain its integrity. All stock on one and the same unit must 

be managed to the same standards. 

“Siting of production units must take into account the 

maintenance of the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and 

the impact of the unit on wild stocks of the same or other 

species in the area. 

“Nets and floating structures must be securely moored, 

properly maintained and regularly checked to ensure that 

they remain secure and undamaged. The construction material 

of net pens should be smooth enough to prevent risk of injuring fish during stormy conditions. 

“The impact on the sea/lake bed below net pen sites 

must be minimal and fall within the specific limits defined 

in the integrity management manual.” 

“Densities in saltwater pens – maximum of 10kg/m3

 (one 

per cent).” 

 Naturland (Germany) requires: “The sea bottom below the 

new cages should be regularly inspected for organic deposits 

caused by excrements and feed residues.” 

“In pond farms ... inlet and outlet of the farm shall be 

protected from invasion by wild fishes as well as from stock 

escaping. Net cages shall be secured by means of firm anchoring, strong net walls and a type of construction taking 

into account the prevailing conditions against damage and 

related escaping of stocks.” 

Alternatives Considered

 Containment facilities. Ponds, tanks and raceways are 

the major production system types used in aquaculture facilities for some aquatic animals such as catfish, shrimp 

and trout. Open ocean net pens or cages are a common system 

type for aquaculture facilities growing salmon and other ma-
40

rine aquatic animals. Recirculating aquaculture systems are 

widely used for all life stages of tilapia, and in salmon 

and trout hatcheries. 

 All of these system types, inland ponds, open ocean net 

pens, and indoor recirculating systems are basic alternative 

systems for aquaculture production with the choice depending 

on the site and economic considerations. NOAWG proposes that 

with proper site selection, construction methods, and management practices, each can be acceptable for producing organic aquatic animals and plants. This is consistent with 

various International Standards. 
41

X. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO INCLUDE 

AQUACULTURE ADDITIONAL §205.256 (new) 

(Reserved) 
42

XI. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO INCLUDE 

MOLLUSCAN SHELLFISH §205.257 (new) 

 Organic standards for farmed shellfish, including oysters, clams, scallops and mussels are an important part of 

aquaculture. A group of shellfish experts from across the 

U.S. working independently of NOAWG submitted a report to 

the National Organic Program on May 20, 2005 entitled Organic Aquaculture Standards for Molluscan Shellfish. As 

with other farmed aquatic animals, organic shellfish need 

to be clearly differentiated from conventional sources. 

2000 Working Group Report 

“Feasibility of organic standards for bivalve shellfish: 

Although we do not suggest that organic standards be developed at this time for bivalve shellfish, we urge the NOSB to 

keep the option open for the future, pending new developments and innovations in that industry that support organic 

production practices. 

"For hatchery produced bivalve shellfish, organic management 

would start with spat." 

International Standards Organizations

IFOAM Second Revision draft standards include “Wild, sedentary/sessile organism in open collecting areas may be certified as organic if they are derived from an unpolluted, 

stable and sustainable environment." [The Final Revision

draft does not include this provision.] 

BIO-GRO (New Zealand) has established standards for organic shellfish. These standards recognize that “Filterfeeding shellfish can concentrate pollutants, pathogens and 

algal toxins that may be present. Marine farms applying for 

certification must have a bio-toxin risk management plan approved by BIO-GRO. This must detail: 

• Previous toxic blooms detected in the area; 

• Proposed water and/or product testing; 

• The level of toxin at which harvesting would cease; and 

• Product withholding periods that will protect the consumer. 

“Harvesting may need to be restricted after heavy rainfall as under certain conditions shellfish can accumulate 

levels of contaminants that are potential risks to consumers. The minimum standard is defined in the Ministry of 

Fisheries’ Shellfish Sanitation Standards. These must be detailed in the application along with a general description 

of land use in the surrounding area.” 
43

“Oyster and mussel farms rely on the natural productivity 

of the site to supply food for the stock.” 

 Naturland (for mussels only). “Water quality shall be 

class 1(A) {Number of faec. Escherichia coli in mussel tissue is regarded as a valid measure for water quality in marine mussel culture (Class 1 (A): < 3 faec. E.Coli counts/g 

tissue.)} Water quality shall be determined at least monthly 

by an independent institution. Results have to be documented 

continually. 

 “It is not allowed to cultivate mussels loose on the 

sea bottom and to harvest them by dredge.” 
44

XII. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO INCLUDE

FARMED ORGANIC AQUATIC PLANTS §205.258 (new) 

(a) Aquatic plant production in any aquaculture production 

system shall meet all relevant crop production standards. 

(b) Aquatic plants may be grown in organic systems for human consumption and as feed for aquatic species that utilize 

algae for food, provided that: 

(1) any pond or containment vessel from which algae are 

intended to be represented as "organic," must have 

had no prohibited substances as listed in §205.105, 

applied for a period of 3 years immediately preceding harvest of the crop, except, non-organic macronutrients and micro-nutrients, including trace metals, vitamins, and chelating compounds, are allowed 

to have been in prior uses where non-synthetic nutrients and compounds suitable for the algae species 

were not available. 

(2) aquatic plants may be provided dissolved non-organic 

macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients, including trace 

metals, vitamins, and chelating compounds, where 

non-synthetic nutrients and compounds suitable for 

the algae species are not available; however, the 

dissolved amounts shall not exceed those necessary 

for healthy growth of the plants, and such culture 

media shall be disposed of in a manner that does not 

adversely impact upon the environment. 

(3) the pond or containment vessel have adequate berm 

elevations with distinct defined boundaries and 

buffer zones with runoff diversions to prevent the 

unintended application of a prohibited substance to 

the pond or containment vessel, or allow contact 

with a prohibited substance applied to adjoining 

land that is not under organic management. 

(c) Manure from terrestrial animals may not be used to 

fertilize aquatic plants. 

EXPLANATION 

This is a modification of §205.201 Organic production 

and handling system plan, and §205.202 Land requirements.

2000 Working Group 

 No recommendations were made

International Standards Organizations
45

 IFOAM states “Organic aquatic plants are grown and 

harvested sustainably without adverse impacts on natural 

areas. The act of collection should not negatively affect 

any natural areas. 

 Aquatic plant production shall comply with the relevant requirements of chapters 2 and 4. [crop production 

standards.] 

 Harvest of aquatic plants shall not disrupt the ecosystem or degrade the collection area or the surrounding 

aquatic and terrestrial environment. 
46

XIII. PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO INCLUDE 

HARVEST, TRANSPORT, POST HARVEST HANDLING, 

 AND SLAUGHTER §205.259 (new) 

(a) Handling of stock during harvesting, transport, and 

slaughtering operations must be carried out with minimal 

disturbance and stress to the aquatic animal. Transportation 

and slaughter must be done as fast and humanely as possible. 

(b) Harvest operations must cause minimal disturbance to 

the natural environment. 

(c) Aquatic animals transported to slaughter and processing, or to live haul markets, shall be transported under 

conditions appropriate to the species and in such manner to 

meet the aquatic animal’s specific needs and minimize the 

adverse effects of: 

(1) diminishing water quality 

(2) time spent in transport 

(3) animal density 

(4) metabolic substances 

(5) escape 

(d) Where applicable, animals must be provided a recovery 

period after transport. 

(e) Fish should be held in high quality water for the duration of a fasting period prior to transport and slaughter 

for a period that allows the clearance of the stomach and 

gut contents. 

(f) Just prior to slaughter, finfish must be killed by a 

method that renders them instantly insentient before or immediately after they are taken from the water. 

(1) Permitted procedures include: 

(i) concussion to the head promptly followed by 

severing the gill arches or decapitation. 

(ii) electrical stunning immediately followed by 

severing the gill arches or decapitation. 

(iii) electrocution. 

(iv) ice slurry for warmwater finfish; provided 

that this method will be only permitted for 

five years after the date when organic standards for farmed aquatic animals are promulgated as an amendment to the Final Rule. 

(2) Prohibited are: 

(i) slaughtering of cold water finfish using ice 

or ice slurry. 

(ii) use of carbon dioxide. 

(iii) Use of synthetic anesthetics, including MS222. 
47

(iv) Use of natural plant anesthetics, including 

clove oil, not approved by the U.S. Food and 

Drug Administration for this purpose. 

(v) Suffocation or asphyxiation (leaving fish to 

die in air). 

(vi) Exsanguination (bleeding) without stunning. 

(g) Slaughter using ice or ice slurry is allowed for crustaceans, molluscs, and other aquatic animals that are nonsentient. 

(h) All applicable U.S. Food and Drug Administration Hazard 

Analysis Critical Control Point requirements for raw material acquisition, processing and handling must be followed. 

(i) Maintenance of the cold chain from the point of slaughter up to the sales point must be strictly observed in order 

to prevent any deterioration in product quality. Appropriate 

time-temperature records shall be maintained. 

(j) Strict hygiene must be observed during slaughtering and 

evisceration to ensure adequate cleanliness. 

(k) The disposal of harvest water, blood water, viscera and 

disinfectant should pose no threat to wild or farmed fish or 

the environment and comply with existing laws. 

(l) The provisions of §205.272 Commingling and contact with 

prohibited substances prevention practice standard from the 

point of slaughter up to the sales point must be strictly 

observed. 

EXPLANATION 

 This proposed section has been complied from the applicable standards of IFOAM, Soil Association, and Naturland, 

coupled with the provisions of §205.272 of the Final Rule. 

Ice Slurry in Fish Slaughter 

 Animal welfare guidelines for the slaughter of sentient 

or potentially sentient animals recognize that the animal 

must be rendered insensible (stunned) just prior to slaughter. Blunt trauma to the head and application of sufficient 

electrical current to render the animal insensible are acceptable methods of humane finfish stunning. 

 However, for many warm water finfish, blunt trauma and 

electrical stunning are logistically impractical. The technology for application of a precise blow to the head to stun 

large numbers of warm water finfish has not been developed. 

With the exception of channel catfish, the specifications 

for reliable electrical stunning for most warm water fish 

have not been developed. 
48

 The most common method of slaughter for warm water fish 

is immersion in ice slurry, which is not recognized as a humane method of fish slaughter. Ice slurry does not render 

the fish instantly insensible, but causes physiological 

shock and eventual asphyxiation. To overcome technological 

limitations, death by immersion in ice slurry is proposed to 

be temporarily approved for organic certification, governed 

by the following conditions: 

1. In 5 years after adoption of these organic standards 

for aquaculture, warm water finfish slaughter by immersion in ice slurry will be prohibited. 

2. In the interim, research is encouraged to develop technology for humane slaughter practices for warm water 

species to meet the humane criteria for rapid and effective stunning. 

3. Welfare considerations and humane slaughter criteria 

must be considered in future establishments of welfare 

and slaughter standards for aquaculture. 

Alternatives Considered

 Conventional aquaculture practices include suffocating 

finfish in carbon dioxide enriched ice slurry, leaving fish 

to die in the air, and bleeding without stunning. These are 

unacceptable for aquatic animals that are sentient, specifically finfish. 

 Stunning finfish into an insentient condition prior to 

killing with blows or electrocution without ice slurry is 

feasible for certain cold water fish and is proposed by 

NOAWG. For warmwater aquatic species, such methods require 

further development. It is expected that during the specified five year time period progress will be made with humane 

stunning methods for the exempted species of finfish. 

References in Scientific Literature (See Appendix C) 

2000 Working Group 

 No recommendations were made. 

International Standards Organizations 

 IFOAM states that “Organic animals are subjected to 

minimum stress during transport and slaughter. A person 

specifically responsible for the well being of the animals 

should be present during transport. To avoid unnecessary 

suffering, organisms should be in a state of unconsciousness before slaughter. 
49

 Operators shall comply with relevant requirements of 

Section 5.8.[animal husbandry] 

 The operator shall handle live organisms in ways that 

are compatible with their physiological requirements. 

 Operators shall implement defined measures to ensure 

that organic aquatic animals are provided with conditions 

during transportation and slaughter that meet animal specific needs and minimize the adverse effects of: 

• diminishing water quality 

• time spent in transport 

• stocking density 

• toxic substances 

• escape 

 Operators shall ensure that equipment used to stun 

animals is sufficient to remove sensate ability and/or kill 

the organism and is maintained and monitored. 

 Animals shall be handled, transported and slaughtered 

in a way that minimizes stress and respects speciesspecific needs. Finfish shall be anaesthetized before 

bleeding out.”

 Naturland requires: “Transportation and slaughter must 

be done in a way as fast and considerate as possible in order to avoid any unnecessary suffering of the animals. The 

method of proceeding and the materials used has to be in any 

case oriented towards the needs of the respective animal 

species (sensitivity to higher temperature or to stress). 

Slaughter of fishes shall be carried out by means of incision of gills or immediate evisceration. Prior to this, 

fishes shall be anaesthetized by means of concussion, electrocution, carbon dioxide and, if need be, by natural plant 

anesthetics).” 

 “Live fishes must be provided with adequate oxygen during their transport. A transport density of 1 kg of fish to 

8 liters of water shall not be exceeded. Water exchange with 

water of the same temperature shall be done after a maximum 

of 6 hours of transport duration. A transport duration of 10 

hours shall not be exceeded.” 

“Maintenance of the cold chain from the point of 

slaughter up to the sales point must be strictly observed, 

in order to prevent any deterioration in the product quality.” 

“The wastewater from the slaughtering and processing 

plants must be subjected to appropriate purification process.” 

Soil Association (UK) requires: 
50

• The handling of stock during harvesting and slaughtering operations must be carried out with minimal 

disturbance and stress ... 

• Fish should be held in high quality water for the 

duration of the allowed fasting period prior to 

slaughter. 

• Fish must be killed by a method that renders them 

instantly insensible immediately after they are 

taken from the water. 

• Strict hygiene must be observed during slaughtering 

and evisceration to ensure adequate cleanliness. The 

disposal of blood water, viscera and disinfectant 

should pose no threat to wild/farmed fish or the environment. 

• Concussion to the head following by severing the 

gill arches is permitted 

• Electrocution is permitted. 

• Slaughtering using ice, ice slurry or carbon dioxide 

is prohibited. 

• Suffocation (leaving fish to die in air) is prohibited. 

• Exsanguination without stunning is prohibited. 

[Bleeding]. 
51

XIV. SUBSTANCES FOR PETITIONING FOR INCLUSION IN 

§205.600 through §205.604 NATIONAL LIST OF APPROVED AND PROHIBITED SUBSTANCES

§ 205.600 Evaluation criteria for allowed and prohibited 

substances, methods, and ingredients. 

The following criteria will be utilized in the evaluation 

of substances or ingredients for the organic production and 

handling sections of the National List: 

(a) Synthetic and nonsynthetic substances considered for 

inclusion on or deletion from the National List of allowed 

and prohibited substances will be evaluated using the criteria specified in the Act (7 U.S.C. 6517 and 6518).[below] 

(b) In addition to the criteria set forth in the Act, any 

synthetic substance used as a processing aid or adjuvant 

will be evaluated against the following criteria: 

(1) The substance cannot be produced from a natural 

source and there are no organic substitutes; 

(2) The substance's manufacture, use, and disposal do 

not have adverse effects on the environment and are 

done in a manner compatible with organic handling; 

(3) The nutritional quality of the food is maintained 

when the substance is used, and the substance, itself, 

or its breakdown products do not have an adverse effect on human health as defined by applicable Federal 

regulations; 

(4) The substance's primary use is not as a preservative or to recreate or improve flavors, colors, textures, or nutritive value lost during processing, except where the replacement of nutrients is required by 

law; 

(5) The substance is listed as generally recognized as 

safe (GRAS) by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) when 

used in accordance with FDA's good manufacturing practices (GMP) and contains no residues of heavy metals 

or other contaminants in excess of tolerances set by 

FDA; and 

(6) The substance is essential for the handling of organically produced agricultural products. 

(c) Nonsynthetics used in organic processing will be evaluated using the criteria specified in the Act (7 U.S.C. 6517 

and 6518). [below] 
52

§ 205.601 Synthetic substances allowed for use in organic 

crop production. [see definitions below] 

In accordance with restrictions specified in this section, 

the following synthetic substances may be used in organic 

crop production: Provided, That, use of such substances do 

not contribute to contamination of crops, soil, or water. 

Substances allowed by this section,... 

Amend (a)(3) Copper sulfate to include as an algicide 

in aquaculture ponds. 

Amend (a)(5) Ozone gas to read: Ozone gas – for use as 

an irrigation system cleaner only. and to disinfect water in aquaculture production systems.

Amend (e)(3) Copper sulfate to include as a pest control agent in aquaculture ponds. 

(n) [new] As nutrients for aquatic plants in aquaculture. Ammonium sulfate, di-ammonium phosphate, ammonium nitrate, mono-potassium phosphate, potassium hydroxide, potassium chloride, phosphoric acid, and sodium nitrate and sodium nitrate. 

(o) [new] As trace elements for growing aquatic plants 

in aquaculture. Zinc sulfate, ferric chloride, ferric 

sulfate, magnesium sulfate, copper sulfate, cobalt 

sulfate, calcium chloride, and calcium nitrate. 

(p) [new] Edetate (Versene) as a chelator of trace 

elements for growing aquatic plants in aquaculture. 

(q) [new] Dolomite, dolomitic limestone, calcite, aragonite, gypsum, calcium hydroxide, calcium oxide, limestone, and bicarbonate and carbonates of sodium as 

sources of magnesium, calcium, and carbonate from natural sources for growing aquatic plants in aquaculture. 

(r) [new] Carbon dioxide gas for pH adjustment and 

plant nutrition. 

§205.602 Nonsynthetic substances prohibited for use in organic crop production. 

The following nonsynthetic substances many not be used in 

organic crop production: 

(j) [new] Manure from terrestrial animals, including poultry 

and livestock, in aquaculture.
53

§205.603 Synthetic substances allowed for use in organic 

livestock production. 

In accordance with restrictions specified in this section 

the following synthetic substances may be used in organic 

livestock production: 

(a) As disinfectants, sanitizer, and medical treatments as 

applicable. 

(5) Chlorine materials – disinfecting and sanitizing 

facilities and equipment, and water in aquaculture. Except in aquaculture, residual chlorine levels in the 

water shall not exceed the maximum residual disinfectant limit under the Safe Drinking Water Act. 

(15) [new] Ozone gas to disinfect water in aquaculture 

systems. 

(16) [new] Sodium chloride (NaCl) to kill parasites 

and epiphytes on aquatic animals and in tanks, ponds 

and raceways used in aquaculture. 

(17) [new] Chloraminet, formalin, benzalkonium chloride 

(as a disinfectant and treatment), Chloramine-T, and 

iodophors in aquaculture. 

(18) [new] Sanitizers used in aquaculture processing 

plants. 

(d) As feed additives. 

(2) Trace minerals, used for enrichment or fortification when FDA approved. 

(3) Vitamins, used for enrichment or fortification 

when FDA approved. 

(4) [new] In aquatic animal feeds: 

(i) Fish meal and oil. 

(ii) Ethoxyquin as an antioxidant. 

(iii)Natural astaxanthin. 

(iv) Calcium iodate, potassium iodate, sodium selenite, manganese sulfate, manganese oxide, monocalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, deflourinated phosphate, and sodium phosphate. 

(v) Formic acid in the preparation of silage. 

(vi) Propionic acid in the preparation of silage. 

(e)[new] For water quality control in aquaculture production 

systems. 

(1) Carbon dioxide gas for pH control. 

(2) Sodium carbonate for carbon dioxide removal. 
54

(3) Potassium permanganate for emergency oxygen supplementation in aquaculture ponds. 

(4) Sodium chloride, sea salt, mined salt, gypsum, 

magnesium sulfate, and potassium manganese sulfate for 

osmotic and ionic adjustment.

(5) Sodium chloride (NaCl) to control nitrate toxicity in aquatic animal ponds. 

(6) Potash, muriate of potash, and magnesium potassium 

sulfate as a source of potassium to balance pond salinities. 

(7) Agricultural limestone (calcitic or dolomitic), 

dolomite, calcite, aragonite, gypsum, calcium hydroxide, calcium oxide, natural chalk, marl, crushed seashells, and bicarbonate and carbonates of sodium. 

(8) Zeolite for ammonia control 

(9) Epsom salt in aquaculture 

(10) Yucca extract for ? 

(11) Pond bacteria amendments for ? 

(12) Barley and hay as natural algacides. 

(13) Derris root (rotenone) as a natural piscicide. 

(f) [new] Bentonite (a natural occurring clay) for reducing 

seepage rates in earthen bonds. 

§205.604 Nonsynthetic substances prohibited for use in organic livestock production. 

The following nonsynthetic substances may not be used in organic livestock production: 

(a) Strychnine. 

(b) [new] Malachite green in aquaculture 

(c) [new] Tricaine (MS-222) for any use, including 

anesthesia, in aquaculture 

(d) [new] Methyl testosterone in aquaculture 

(e) [new] Manure from terrestrial animals including 

poultry and livestock in aquaculture.

Definitions 

(from the Final Rule and the Act) 

Synthetic. A substance that is formulated or manufactured by 

a chemical process or by a process that chemically changes a 

substance extracted from naturally occurring plant, animal, 

or mineral sources, except that such term shall not apply to 
55

substances created by naturally occurring biological processes. 

Nonsynthetic (natural). A substance that is derived from 

mineral, plant, or animal matter and does not undergo a synthetic process as defined in section 6502(21) of the Act (7 

U.S.C. 6502(21). For the purpose of this part, nonsynthetic 

is used as a synonym for natural as the term is used in the 

Act. 

Sec.2103.[7 U.S.C.6502] Definitions 

 As used in this title: 

 (21) SYNTHETIC. – The term “synthetic” means a substance that is formulated or manufactured by a chemical 

process or by a process that chemically changes a substance 

extracted form naturally occurring plant, animal, or mineral sources, except that such term shall not apply to substances created by naturally occurring biological processes. 

ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION ACT 

SEC.2118.[7 U.S.C. 6517] NATIONAL LIST. 

(a) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary shall establish a National 

List of approved and prohibited substances that shall be 

included in the standards for organic production and handling established under this title in order for such products to be sold or labeled as organically produced under 

this title. 

(b) CONTENT OF LIST.—The list established under subsection 

(a) shall contain an itemization, by specific use or application, of each synthetic substance permitted under subsection (c)(1) or each natural substance prohibited under subsection (c)(2). 

(c) GUIDELINES FOR PROHIBITIONS OR EXEMPTIONS.— 

(1) EXEMPTION FOR PROHIBITED SUBSTANCES.—The National 

List may provide for the use of substances in an organic farming or handling operation that are otherwise 

prohibited under this title only if— 

(A) the Secretary determines, in consultation 

with the Secretary of Health and Human Services 

and the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, that the use of such substances— 

(i) would not be harmful to human health or 

the environment; 

(ii) is necessary to the production or handling of the agricultural product because of 
56

the unavailability of wholly natural substitute products; and 

(iii) is consistent with organic farming and 

handling; 

(B) the substance— 

(i) is used in production and contains an 

active synthetic ingredient in the following 

categories: copper and sulfur compounds; 

toxins derived from bacteria; pheromones, 

soaps, horticultural oils, fish emulsions, 

treated seed, vitamins and minerals; livestock parasiticides and medicines and production aids including netting, tree wraps 

and seals, insect traps, sticky barriers, 

row covers, and equipment cleansers; 

(ii) is used in production and contains synthetic inert ingredients that are not classified by the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency as inerts of toxicological concern; or 

(iii) is used in handling and is nonsynthetic but is not organically produced; 

and 

(C) the specific exemption is developed using the 

procedures described in subsection (d). 

(2) PROHIBITION ON THE USE OF SPECIFIC NATURAL SUBSTANCES. —The National List may prohibit the use of 

specific natural substances in an organic farming or 

handling operation that are otherwise allowed under 

this title only if— 

(A) the Secretary determines, in consultation 

with the Secretary of Health and Human Services 

and the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, that the use of such substances— 

(i) would be harmful to human health or the 

environment; and 

(ii) is inconsistent with organic farming or 

handling, and the purposes of this title; 

and 

(B) the specific prohibition is developed using 

the procedures specified in subsection (d). 

(d) PROCEDURE FOR ESTABLISHING NATIONAL LIST.— 

(1) IN GENERAL.—The National List established by the 

Secretary shall be based upon a proposed national list 
57

or proposed amendments to the National List developed 

by the National Organic Standards Board. 

(2) NO ADDITIONS.—The Secretary may not include exemptions for the use of specific synthetic substances in 

the National List other than those exemptions contained in the Proposed National List or Proposed 

Amendments to the National List. 

(3) PROHIBITED SUBSTANCES.—In no instance shall the 

National List include any substance, the presence of 

which in food has been prohibited by Federal regulatory action. 

(4) NOTICE AND COMMENT.—Before establishing the National List or before making any amendments to the National List, the Secretary shall publish the Proposed 

National List or any Proposed Amendments to the National List in the Federal Register and seek public 

comment on such proposals. The Secretary shall include 

in such Notice any changes to such proposed list or 

amendments recommended by the Secretary. 

(5) PUBLICATION OF NATIONAL LIST.—After evaluating all 

comments received concerning the Proposed National 

List or Proposed Amendments to the National List, the 

Secretary shall publish the final National List in the 

Federal Register, along with a discussion of comments 

received. 

(e) SUNSET PROVISION.—No exemption or prohibition contained 

in the National List shall be valid unless the National Organic Standards Board has reviewed such exemption or prohibition as provided in this section within 5 years of such 

exemption or prohibition being adopted or reviewed and the 

Secretary has renewed such exemption or prohibition. 
58

APPENDIX A

Aquaculture Working Group 

Report to the National Organic Standards Board 

November 17, 2000 

Working Group Members: 

• Deborah Brister, currently a PhD candidate and graduate 

research assistant at the University of Minnesota, coordinator of the organic aquaculture project and coordinated the National Organic Aquaculture Workshop in June 

at the University of Minnesota (attended by many in our 

working group). 

• Dan Butterfield, operates Butterfield Catfish Farms in 

Tuscaloosa, AL. He has been operating a polyculture system for over 30 years, producing catfish and many minor 

food use species. 

• Robin Downey, Executive Director, Pacific Coast Shellfish 

Growers Association 

• Chris Duffy, currently operates a re-circulating system 

that produces flounder. Previously worked as a commercial ocean going fisherman in the North Atlantic. 

• Gary Fornshell, Extension Specialist at the University of 

Idaho, trout production 

• Becky Goldburg, NOSB member and Senior Scientist at Environmental Defense 

• John Hargreaves, Assistant Professor at Mississippi State 

University, specializing in catfish production. 

• George Lockwood, currently a consultant, has been involved in aquaculture since the mid 1970's. Has commercially grown salmon, oysters, abalone, and marine algae. 

Former President of the World Aquaculture Society. 

• Richard Nelson, co-owner and manager of Nelson and Sons, 

Inc, manufacturer of commercial fish feeds for all segments of the aquaculture market. 

• Eric Sideman, NOSB member and Director of Technical Services for Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association. 

• Margaret Wittenberg, CHAIR: Aquaculture Working Group, VP 

of Governmental & Public Affairs for Whole Foods Market, 

Inc. and former NOSB member 1995-2000. 
59

Mission 

The mission of the group was to explore whether aquaculture 

is consistent with organic standards and give a multistakeholder perspective to the NOSB for their deliberations. 

Guiding Question: Is certified organic aquaculture feasible? 

The group was asked to explore general principles rather 

than detailed practices and standards. The Organic Foods 

Production Act of 1990 was used as the guiding basis for our 

work. The current National Organic Proposed Rule was also 

used as a reference for examples of livestock regulations 

developed based on OFPA. The working group was reminded that 

the designation “organic” refers to a production process, 

not food safety or residue testing. 

The 5 areas we were asked to discuss included: 

1) breeding 

2) feed 

3) healthcare 

4) living conditions 

5) record-keeping 

Specific questions discussed by the group also included the 

following questions asked by the USDA in the March 23, 2000 

Federal Register when they announced the public meetings on 

aquatic animals and organic: 

3⁄4 What should the criteria be for evaluating the suitability of a production site for an organic aquaculture operation? Specifically, how can standards be developed for 

the site of production to address nutrient concentration, 

the emergence and transfer of disease, the escape of captive species to the wild, and detrimental impacts on indigenous species? 

3⁄4 What characteristics of fishmeal are pertinent to the requirement in the OFPA that producers supply livestock 

with organically produced feed that meets the requirements of OFPA? 

3⁄4 What guidelines are needed to ensure that the predator 

control practices used in aquaculture operations are consistent with organic principles? 

3⁄4 Should the induction of triploidy in fish species be 

classified as an allowed or prohibited practice? 

3⁄4 How should standards address the origin of livestock requirements for aquaculture operations that obtain stock 

or fry from wild populations? 

Seven of the Aquaculture Working Group’s members also participated in the 2-day National Organic Aquaculture Workshop 

held June 2000 at the University of Minnesota. A multi-
60

stakeholder discussion on the feasibility of U.S. certified 

organic aquaculture was the focus for the workshop, an event 

attended by members of the organic community, environmentalists, aquaculture producers and researchers, and government 

representatives. The group worked together to craft general 

principles for organic aquaculture with the intent to present them as input from the multi-stakeholder group for the 

NOSB to use in its own deliberations of the issue. The group 

used the IFOAM draft aquaculture standards as a template. 

General principles discussed included basic conditions; location of production units; location of collecting areas; 

health and welfare; spawning, reproduction, and breeding; 

harvesting; transportation of living aquatic organisms; and 

slaughter. Further discussion of the group continued after 

the workshop via a Discussion Room website. 

Summary of the Aquaculture Working Group Deliberations 

Although all members of the Working Group agreed that, 

technically, it would be feasible to have aquaculture systems be certified as organic, there was clearly a majority 

opinion and a minority opinion as to what this meant in 

practice. 

Feed was the most contentious issue. 

The majority position: 

The producer of an organic aquaculture operation must provide the aquatic organisms with a total feed ration composed 

of agricultural products that are organically produced and, 

if applicable, organically handled: 

Except that non-agricultural products and synthetic substances allowed under 205.603 may be used as feed additives 

and supplements and non-organically produced agricultural 

products allowed under 205.606 may be allowed as ingredients 

in organic feed. [Note: fishmeal would have to be from sustainably managed sources.] 

The producer of an organic operation must NOT: 

1. Use animal drugs, including hormones, to promote growth; 

2. Provide feed supplements or additives in amounts above 

those needed for adequate nutrition and health maintenance for the species at its specific stage of life; 

3. Use terrestrial animal livestock products (the majority 

felt that the precautionary principle and consumer preference would preclude the use of animal byproducts in 

aquaculture fish labeled as organic). 

The primary issue involved the use of fishmeal/oils. The majority believed that fishmeal and fish oils from sustainably 

managed fisheries should be allowed as a non-organic feed 

component for fish from certified organic aquaculture systems. They based this on the fundamental principal that: 

1) An organism should be provided its natural feed source as 

closely as possible. As cold and cool water carnivorous 
61

and omnivorous species are genetically predisposed to 

fish consumption (fishmeal and fish oil), we, therefore, 

have an obligation to meet the nutritional requirements 

of the species-if these species are to be grown organically. Without fishmeal, synthetic amino acids must be 

added to the feed to artificially create the good balance 

of amino acids in fishmeal. 

2) Organic livestock production standards encourage the 

utilization of the most natural feed sources appropriate 

for that animal and with minimum loss of feed to the environment. With the use of grain protein, indigestible 

phosphorus would be discharged in the fish waste. Phosphorus discharges from fish farms are a major regulatory 

concern of the EPA. 

3) Consumers will demand that fish be raised and fed as 

fish, not as goats, cattle, or chickens, and therefore 

taste like fish and provide the healthy benefits of fish. 

4) The evolution of the husbandry of cattle, swine, and 

sheep has involved breeding and selecting animals that 

consume low cost feeds, including grasses and grains. In 

contrast, aquaculture does not have those thousands of 

years of “selection” and, therefore, relies upon fish as 

the natural food of some fish and not grains and grasses. 

Fishmeal is not the majority component within feed formulas. 

A rough calculation of fishmeal content in current production (adult) feed formulas would be: 

Channel catfish: 4% 

Tilapia: 5-6% 

Trout: 18-20% 

Sturgeon: 18-20% 

Hybrid striped bass: 18-35% 

Steelhead trout: 36-38% 

Salmon: 25-45% 

Shrimp: 15-30% (new eco-friendly feeds possible at 7%) 

Note: Although diets are changing, salmon, steelhead, and 

trout feeds may also contain fish oil derived from wild 

caught fish in addition to fishmeal (e.g. high protein/high 

fat salmon feeds that some producers use often contain 20% 

fish oil). Many other fish feeds contain a couple of percent 

fish oil. The new trend in feeds is to reduce fishmeal and 

increase energy from fish oil sources. 

Accordingly, the majority suggests to the NOSB that fishmeal 

and fish oil be considered for inclusion on the National 

List according to section 205.606: “Non-organically produced 

agricultural products allowed as ingredients in or on processed products labeled as organic or made with organic ingredients”. 

In free range poultry operations certified as organic, the 

birds are allowed to eat insects, weed seeds, grit, etc, 
62

none of which is certified organic, further supporting the 

allowance of fishmeal for certified organic aquaculture operations. All feed provided for them, which is the bulk of 

their diet, must be certified organic. The majority also believed this allowance for wild feeds should apply to molluscs and the food they filter from their designated culture 

areas. 

The minority position believes that feed for certified organic aquaculture should be organic since a basic principle 

of organic livestock production is organic feed. As such, 

they do not agree that the wild harvested fishmeal/oil 

should be allowed in organic feed, stating that while harvesting fishmeal sustainably is important, it does not make 

the fish meal or fish oil organic. 

Given that it is difficult to determine whether or not a 

fishery is sustainable, they also question whether organic 

certifiers will be able to legitimately certify fisheries as 

sustainable. 

Additional support of the “no fishmeal” position include: 

1) The open ocean is not monitored, therefore, it cannot 

fulfill the three-year requirement that the organic 

farm/site be free of the application of prohibited materials or that it is free of prohibited materials during 

the period of certification. 

2) Even if an individual fishing operation located in an 

open ocean could be monitored and perhaps certified as an 

organic producer, the effects or practices of other fishing operations in the general area could not be monitored 

and thus could jeopardize the organic nature of the system. 

3) Species that feed at low trophic levels can be raised 

without fishmeal and fish oil in their diets

4) Synthetic materials used in fishmeal production may or 

may not be suitable for organic feeds and would need to 

be approved by the NOSB for inclusion on the National 

List.

The minority group would consider allowing fishmeal and fish 

oil as a food supplement as a natural source of amino acids 

and Omega 3 fatty acids, up to a certain percentage, perhaps 

5%. However, there remains a question as to whether feed 

supplements—other agricultural products used to balance a 

ration—would have to be organic. However, at least some of 

the minority are willing to consider using byproducts from 

fish processing to produce fishmeal. Optimally, the byproducts would be from organic farmed fish. 
63

Additionally, fishmeal from fish cultured specifically for 

organic fishmeal would be an acceptable form of feed for organic aquaculture operations. 

Nutrient Management 

The group as a whole believed that aquaculture could achieve 

what is stated in the current National Organic Proposed 

Rule: Livestock Living Conditions 205.239(b)4c: 

"Risk to soil or water quality: The producer of an organic 

livestock operation must manage manure in a manner that does 

not contribute to contamination of crops, soil, or water by 

plant nutrients, heavy metals, or pathogenic organisms and 

optimizes recycling of nutrients." 

Currently, aquaculture is regulated under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit and at the local 

level—usually the state division of environmental quality. 

Additionally, the EPA is working on national effluent limitation guidelines and standards for US aquaculture facilities, similar to the NRCS guidelines that were developed for 

manure and agriculture. The EPA’s work in developing these 

effluent limitation guideline will assess: 

• the quality of wastewater generated and discharged at 

different types of aquaculture facilities; 

• the types of treatment technologies and/or Best Management Practices applicable to treating this wastewater; 

the environmental and water quality impacts caused by 

aquaculture facilities; 

• the costs of treatment and/or practices to address adverse environmental impacts; and 

• the ability of aquaculture facilities to afford treatment 

and/or adopt Best Management Practices. 

Minority position 

Considering the EPA’s proposed standards for terrestrial 

livestock nutrient management (e.g. hog “lagoons”), the minority question the strength, depth, and, therefore, the acceptability of the standards within the environmental and 

sustainable agriculture. Since EPA’s guidelines for aquaculture systems are unlikely to be completed until June 2004, 

it would be inappropriate to rely on compliance with these 

guidelines as a guarantee of adequate nutrient management by 

organic farmers. 

Siting Issues
64

Several issues were discussed in conjunction with siting of 

aquaculture operations: nutrient management issues, netpens, escape of captive species to the wild, residue testing, water quality, type of operation, and whether the 3 

year “no prohibited substances” also applied to water systems. 

Examples of general siting principles: 

"Location of production units shall take into consideration 

the maintenance of the aquatic environment and surrounding 

aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem. Production units should 

be at an appropriate distance from contamination sources and 

conventional aquaculture. Negative environmental impact from 

aquaculture production should be minimized.” (crafted at 

University of Minnesota National Organic Aquaculture Workshop). 

From Iowa Aquaculture Standards: 

“Aquaculture tanks should not be located in sites open to 

pesticide drift or other harmful contaminants. During 

operation, basic water quality sampling for pH, oxygen, nitrogenous wastes, and toxins should be conducted by the operator. Operations must be in compliance with all local, 

state and federal health agency water quality regulations.” 

[Note: no federal health agency regulates water quality.] 

Net-pens and siting in open waters 

The majority of the group stated that significant strides 

are being made in aquaculture regarding nutrient management 

in open waters, making siting in such areas appropriate for 

organic aquaculture. It also underscored natural environments for fish, even more so than constructed fish ponds or 

closed systems. 

Water depth is one of the key variables that needs to be 

considered in siting aquaculture facilities directly within 

open waters. The distance between the bottom of the rearing 

units and the lake (or ocean) substrate must be far enough 

to allow maximum water exchange. Speed of the current and 

direction are also important variables for determining how 

quickly material will fall out of suspension. Currents must 

not only be fast enough for dispersion of aquaculture 

wastes, they must be slow enough so that fish do not expend 

excessive energy swimming and are able to retrieve food before it is drawn out of the rearing unit. To reduce the 

amount of settleable solids, feed management changes such as 

switching to high nutrient dense diets that are highly digestible and nutrient/energy dense are extremely important. 
65

In summary, net cage operations could be appropriate for organic aquaculture provided 

1) the aquaculture facilities are appropriately sited (including possible cumulative effects from surrounding facilities); 

2) the use of appropriate stocking densities and appropriate 

feed that is highly digestible and nutrient dense; (under 

these balanced conditions, nitrogen, phosphorus, and solids emissions from net-pen operations can remain valuable 

components in the entire food web complex in marine systems.) 

3) the use of appropriate monitoring to ensure the natural 

assimilative capacity is not overburdened; 

4) the use of multiple species when possible to recycle nutrients--in polyculture animals and seaweeds can utilize 

nutrients that would otherwise be lost to bacterial degradation. 

Regarding concerns about unacceptable residues and pollutants, in the current proposed rule, if there is a question 

or concern about the presence of pollutants, the certifiying 

agent can require a residue testing of the product as well 

as testing on the soil, water, and waste produced. The Organic Foods Production Act supports this. The OFPA also suggests that “unavoidable residual environmental contamination” may occur. (See 6511(c)2B). 

Accordingly, the current proposed rule has a definition for 

"unavoidable residual environmental contamination" (UREC): 

"Background levels of naturally occurring or synthetic 

chemicals that are present in the soil or present in organically produced agricultural products that are below established tolerances." 

The minority position emphasized that the 3 year “no prohibited materials” precluded open water systems since the waters were not under management control as directed by organic principles. The lack of control of pollutants in the 

open waters is also a concern. 

The minority also believe that the densely packed feedlottype environments in many net-pens mean that net-pen environments are not necessarily “more natural” than other types 

of aquaculture systems. 

Escape of captive species to the wild 

All states in the United States regulate the species that 

may be grown within their borders, usually 
66

through either the Fish and Game departments or departments 

of agriculture. Therefore, there is an underlying consideration by States of the acceptability of the potential impacts 

of escaped fishes. 

The organic aquaculture plan would ensure that cultured organisms that are species-distinct or genetically-distinct 

populations from native organisms in accessible aquatic environments will be managed with appropriate security measures (mechanical, physical, and biological barriers) to reduce, minimize and prevent the likelihood of escape due to 

predators, adverse weather conditions or facility damage. 

Pond systems 

There was consensus within the group that confined outdoor 

pond systems, the most common aquaculture systems in both 

the US and the world as a whole, are appropriate systems to 

consider for organic aquaculture. 

Recirculating aquaculture systems as an option 

Discussion still in progress within the group 

Recirculating systems are usually indoor systems but, depending on the climate, can also be outdoor systems or a 

combination. Culture water is recycled back to the fish or 

circulated through beds of vegetables, fruits, grasses, or 

flowers. No consensus emerged whether indoor systems fit 

into the organic paradigm. 

Health Care: 

Aquaculture operations would be able to comply with the 

health care standards required in organic livestock regulations: no antibiotics, hormones, synthetic parasiticides. 

Well-managed systems minimize the occurrence of disease. 

OFPA allows the use of vaccines. 

Breeding 

Like poultry production, aquaculture depends largely on 

hatcheries. The OFPA states that organic management of poultry must being no later than the 2nd day of life—one day old 

post-hatch chicks can be shipped from hatcheries to growout 

farms. In organic aquaculture, organic management for finfish would likewise start post hatch fry, and for hatchery 

produced shellfish organic management would start with spat. 

Aquaculture brood stock regulations would be similar to terrestrial livestock brood stock regulations. 

Triploidy: 
67

The group supported triploid fish from the application of 

temperature or pressure shock after fertilization as acceptable in organic aquaculture practices since triploidy itself 

can occur naturally within various species of fish. In fact, 

some crops (wheat) are polyploid. Nothing new or different 

is introduced into the animal’s chromosomes—just an extra 

set. Additionally, it renders the fish sterile, thus providing a form of biological barrier, helping to protect from 

any risks posed by escapes of introduced species. 

Mollusc culture 

Discussion of this topic is still pending. The group did not 

have time to discuss how mollusc culture fit within general 

aquaculture standards. 

Harvest, Post-harvest, & Transportation Standards 

Discussion of this topic is still pending. The group did not 

have time to discuss harvest, post-harvest, and transportation related to organic aquaculture standards. 

SUPPLEMENTAL: 

Organic Foods Production Act: Sections related to Aquaculture and Organic 

6502(1) Agricultural Product. The term “agricultural product” means any agricultural commodity or product, whether 

raw or processed, including any commodity or product derived 

from livestock that is marketed in the United States for human or livestock consumption. 

6502(4) Certified Organic Farm. The term “certified organic 

farm” means a farm or portion of a farm, or site where agricultural products or livestock are produced, that is certified by the certifying agent under this chapter as utilizing 

a system of organic farming as described by this chapter. 

6502(11) Livestock. The term “livestock” means any cattle, 

sheep, goats, swine, poultry, equine animals used for food 

or in the production of food, fish used for food, wild or 

domesticated game, or other non-plant life. 

6504 National Standards for Organic Production. To be sold 

or labeled as an organically produced agricultural product 

under this chapter, an agricultural product shall 

(2) except as otherwise provided in this chapter and excluding livestock, not be produced on land to which any prohibited substances, including synthetic chemicals, have been 

applied during the 3 years immediately preceding the harvest 

of the agricultural products. 
68
69

APPENDIX B 

AQUACULTURE WORKING GROUP FINAL REPORT 

FEBRUARY 6, 2001 

Aquatic Livestock Health Care Practice Standard 

(a) The producer must establish and maintain preventive 

livestock health care practices, including: 

 (1) Selection of species with regard to suitability 

for site-specific conditions and resistance to prevalent 

diseases and parasites; 

 (2) Provision of a source of nutrition or feed ration 

sufficient to meet nutritional requirements, including vitamins, minerals, protein and/or amino acids, fatty acids, and 

energy sources 

(3) Establishment of appropriate containment and sanitation practices to minimize the occurrence and spread of 

diseases and parasites including pathogens introduced vertically through eggs or parents, 

water inflows, feeds, or other vectors including mammals, 

birds, and humans; 

 (4) Provision of conditions that allow for minimal 

stress from adverse water quality, and human, intraspecific 

or interspecific interactions, appropriate to the species 

and stage of development; 

 (5) Maintenance of healthy water quality appropriate 

to the species and stage of development; including prevention, where possible, of unnatural rapid environmental 

changes (e.g. temperature, pH, oxygen, toxins) 

 (6) Performance of physical alterations as needed to 

promote the animal's welfare and in a manner that minimizes 

pain and distress; and 

 (7) Administration of vaccines and veterinary biologics 

(i) When preventive practices and veterinary biologics are 

inadequate to prevent sickness, producer may administer 

synthetic medications: provided that, such medications are 

allowed under §205.603. 

(ii) Parasiticides allowed under § 205.603 may be used on 

brood stock 

 (b) The producer of an organic livestock operation must 

not: 

 (1) Sell, label, or represent as organic any animal or 

edible product derived from any animal treated with antibiotics, any substance that contains a synthetic substance not 

allowed under §205.603, or any substance that contains a 

non-synthetic substance prohibited in § 205.604. 

 (2) Administer any animal drug other than vaccinations 

in the absence of illness; 

 (3) Administer hormones for growth promotion; 

 (4) Administer animal drugs in violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act or biologics in violation of the Virus, Serum, and Toxin Act; or 
70

 (5) Withhold medical treatment from a sick animal in an 

effort to preserve its organic status. All appropriate medications must be used to restore an animal to health when 

methods acceptable to organic production fail. Aquatic livestock treated with a prohibited substance must be clearly 

identified and shall not be sold, labeled, or represented as 

organically produced. 

To insert within general organic livestock section of Final 

Rule: 

§ 205.239 Livestock living conditions.

(a) The producer of an organic livestock operation must establish and maintain livestock living conditions that accommodate the health and natural behavior of animals, including: 

(1) Access to the outdoors, shade, shelter, exercise areas, 

fresh air, and direct sunlight suitable to the species, 

its stage of production, the climate, and the environment; 

Except that: 

(2) Recirculating systems for aquaculture are permitted if 

the system being used supports the health, growth, and 

well-being of the species 

NOTE: We understand that the general organic livestock section that requires access to the outdoors will not be 

changed. However, the Aquaculture Working Group highly recommends that (a)(2) would be inserted to include the option 

for recirculating systems of aquaculture. The stipulations 

for what constitutes the qualifier of the recirculating system supporting the health, growth, and well-being of the 

species are as follows: 

a) Minimization of disease organisms being introduced vertically through eggs or otherwise from parents, from water 

inflows, from feeds, from vectors including birds, and humans, or other sources. 

b) The maintenance of healthy water conditions with respect 

to control of toxins (ammonia, carbon dioxide, etc.), optimum temperatures, adequate levels of metabolic inputs required (oxygen and feed), and pH, all within certain acceptable ranges depending upon the species, with the prevention 

of excursions to stressful extremes. 

c) Prevention of other health compromising stresses. 

d) Stocking density must take into consideration animal 

health and overall well-being. 

Aquatic Livestock Living Conditions 

(a) The producer of an organic livestock operation must establish and maintain livestock living conditions which accommodate the health and natural behavior of animals, 

including: 
71

(1) Access to an aquatic environment operated within 

the tolerance limits characteristic of the species, 

stage of development, climate, and the environment; 

(2) Appropriate water quality conditions; 

 (3) Containment areas that allow for: 

 (i) Comfort behaviors, freedom of movement and 

opportunity to exercise within the culture system;. 

(ii) Water quality, including temperature, pH, salinity, photoperiod, and dissolved oxygen, ammonia, and 

nitrite concentrations within established tolerance 

limits of the species; and 

(iii) Minimal potential for injury; 

(b) The producer of an organic livestock operation may provide temporary confinement for an animal because of: 

 1) Inclement weather 

(2) The animal's stage of development; 

(3) Conditions under which the health, safety, or wellbeing of the animal could be jeopardized; or 

(4) Risk to soil or water quality 

(5) Transport to another organic operation, where 

transport of livestock should be done under water quality 

conditions appropriate to the species and in such a manner 

to minimize stress and harm 

(c) Post harvested aquatic animals transported to slaughter/processing or live haul market should be transported under water quality conditions appropriate to the species and 

in such manner to minimize stress and harm. 

(d) The producer of an organic livestock operation must manage inputs 

and manure in a manner that does not contribute to contamination of crops, soil, or water by plant nutrients, heavy 

metals, or pathogenic organisms and optimizes recycling of 

nutrients 

Feasibility of organic standards for bivalve shellfish: 

Although we do not suggest that organic standards be developed at this time for bivalve shellfish, we urge the NOSB to 

keep the option open for the future, pending new developments and innovations in that industry that support organic 

production practices. 

Modification in November 17th Aquaculture Working Group Report to the NOSB: 

Within “Breeding” section: insert ‘bivalve” to describe specific type of shellfish, to read: "For hatchery produced bivalve shellfish organic management would start with spat." 

 
72
73

APPENDIX C 

References 

General

Aarst,B., Beckman, S., Bigne, J. et.al. 2000. The European 

Consumers’ Understanding and Perceptions of Organic Salmon 

Production. IIFET 2000 Proceedings. P.7. 

Boehmer, S., M. Gold, S. Hauser, B. Thomas, and A. Young. 

2005. Organic Aquaculture AFSIC Notes #5. Alternative 

Farming Systems Information Center, National Agricultural 

Library, U.S. Department of Agriculture, p. 46 

FAO. 2002. Organic Agriculture, Environment and Food Security, N. El-Hage Scialabba and C. Hattam, eds. Chapter 6 - 

Aquaculture – Current Status and Future Prospects. Environmental and Natural Resources Series No. 4. 

Mansfield, B. 2004. Organic Views of Nature: the Debate 

over Organic Certification for Aquatic Animals. Sociologia 

Ruralis, Vol. 44(2):216-232. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Marketing Service. 2000. National Organic Program: Final Rule. 7CFR 205. 

Federal Register Vol. 65, No. 246: 80548-80684. 

Slaughter References in Scientific Literature 

American Fisheries Society (AFS). 2004. Guidelines for the 

use of fishes in research. American Fisheries Society, 

American Institute of Fishery Research Biologists, and 

American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. 

http://www.fisheries.org/html/Public_Affairs/Sound_Science/G

uidelines2004.shtml. Accessed 15 March 2005.

Chandroo, K.P., I.J.H. Duncan and R.D. Moccia. 2004a. Can 

fish suffer?: Perspectives on sentience, pain, fear and 

stress. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 86: 225-250. 

Chandroo, K.P., S. Yue and R.D. Moccia. 2004b. An evaluation of current perspectives on consciousness and pain in 

fish. Fish and Fisheries. 5: 1-15 

Conte, F.S. 2004. Stress and the welfare of cultured fish. 

Applied Animal Behaviour Science 86 (2004) 205–223. 

Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC). 1996. Report on the 

welfare of farmed fish. 

http://www.fawc.org.uk/reports/fish/fishrtoc.htm. Accessed 

15 March 2005. 
74

Fisheries Society of the British Isles (FSBI). 2002. Fish 

Welfare, Briefing Paper 2, Fisheries Society of the British 

Isles. Granta Information Systems, Cambridge, UK. 

Lines, J. and S. Kestin. 2005. Electric stunning of trout: 

power reduction using a two-stage stun. Aquacultural Engineering 32:483-491. 

Marx, H., B. Brunner, W. Weinzierl, R. Hoffman, and A. 

Stolle. 1997. Methods of stunning freshwater fish: impact 

on meat quality and aspects of animal welfare. European 

Food Research and Technology 204:282-286. 

Poli , B.M., G. Parisi, F. Scappini and G. Zampacavallo. 

2005. Fish welfare and quality as affected by pre-slaughter 

and slaughter management. Aquaculture International, Volume 

13, Numbers 1-2, pages 29-49. 

Robb, D.H.F. and S. Kestin. 2002. Methods used to kill 

fish: field observations and literature reviewed. Animal 

Welfare 11:269-282. 

Robb, D.H.F., S.B. Wotton, J.L. McKinstry, N.K. Sorenson, 

and S.C. Kenstin. 2000. Commercial slaughter methods used 

on Atlantic salmon: determination of the onset of brain 

failure by electroencephalography. Veterinary Record 

147:298-303. 

Rose, J. D. 2002. The neurobehavioral nature of fishes and 

the question of awareness and pain. Reviews in Fisheries 

Science 10:1-38. 

Roth, B., A. Imsland, D. Moeller, and E. Slinde. 2003. Effect of electric field strength and current duration on 

stunning and injuries in market-size Atlantic salmon held in 

seawater. North American Journal of Aquaculture 65:8-13 

Sneddon, L. U., V. A. Brathwaite, and M. J. Gentle. 2003. 

Do fishes have nociceptors? Evidence for the evolution of a 

vertebrate sensory system. Proc. Royal Soc. London B 

270:1115-1121. 

Southgate, P. and T. Wall. 2001. Welfare of farmed fish at 

slaughter. In practice. J. Vet. Postgrad. Clin. Study 

23:277-284. 

Van de Vis, H. and 15 others. 2003. Is humane slaughter of 

fish possible for industry? Aquaculture Research 34:211-

220. 

Wall, A. J. 2001. Ethical considerations in the handling 

and slaughter of farmed fish. Pages 108–115 in S.C. Kestin 

and P.D. Warris (editors), Farmed Fish Quality. Blackwell, 

Oxford, UK.