IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FIFTH CIRCUIT

No. 13-20208

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 

 Plaintiff - Appellee

v.

FRANCISCO JAVIER RODRIGUEZ, also known as Silver Jesus CundumiBonilla; EDWIN RIVERA-OTERO, also known as Luis Angel Maldonado 

Barroso, also known as Gary Charver Segura-Viveros, also known as Edwin 

Otero-Rivera; CARLOS MANUEL BORIA, also known as Luis German 

Rodriguez, also known as Victor; MARVIN CESAR CARABALI-DIAZ, also 

known as Alex Omar Aponte-Ortiz; ERIC ALBERTO LEWIS, 

 Defendants - Appellants

Appeals from the United States District Court 

for the Southern District of Texas

USDC No. 4:11-CR-1-2

Before JOLLY and DENNIS, Circuit Judges, and REEVES*, District Judge.

PER CURIAM:**

These consolidated appeals arise out of the convictions and sentences of 

defendants Carlos Manuel Boria, Marvin Cesar Carabali-Diaz, Eric Alberto 

* District Judge of the Southern District of Mississippi, sitting by designation.

** Pursuant to 5th Cir. R. 47.5, the court has determined that this opinion should not 

be published and is not precedent except under the limited circumstances set forth in 5th Cir. 

R. 47.5.4.

United States Court of Appeals

Fifth Circuit

FILED

April 13, 2015

Lyle W. Cayce

Clerk

 

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Lewis, Edwin Rivera-Otero, and Francisco Javier Rodriguez. The offense 

conduct centered around a “reverse-sting” operation involving the defendants’ 

attempted armed robbery of a cocaine stash house. For the reasons stated 

below, we AFFIRM.

I. Background

A. Fictional Cover Story

In 2010, federal agents learned that a group of individuals in the 

Houston, Texas, area was seeking to rob a narcotics stash house. Based on this 

intelligence, the agents set up a reverse-sting operation wherein agent Richard 

Zayas would pose undercover in the role of a disgruntled narcotics courier 

looking for a group to rob a drug stash house.

Zayas gained his introduction to the defendants and their associates 

through an unidentified confidential informant (“CI”). After that introductory 

meeting, Zayas had four other meetings with the group in his undercover role. 

These meetings, along with more than twenty related phone calls, were 

recorded.1 

Agent Zayas’s completely fictional cover story was as follows: He is a 

drug courier who periodically traffics six to seven kilograms of cocaine for a 

Cuban drug trafficking organization. He retrieves the cocaine from a stash 

house but is not provided the location of the house until the day of the

scheduled pick up. On that day, he is called and given fifteen minutes to arrive 

at the house. He always sees two individuals at the house: an armed person 

who stays with him and a second person who retrieves the cocaine from a back 

room. Zayas never sees money in the stash house. While Zayas waits for his 

1 Zayas initiated approximately one-third of the phone calls, generally when he had to 

return a call. 

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six or more kilograms of cocaine to be retrieved, he sees twenty-five to thirty 

additional marked kilogram packages of cocaine in the living room.2 The two 

stash house workers give Zayas his allotment of cocaine and the delivery 

instructions, and Zayas leaves. 

B. Reverse-Sting Operation

On October 5, 2010, the CI introduced Zayas to defendant Carabali-Diaz, 

an unidentified man nicknamed Titi, and a third unidentified individual. 

Following that introduction, Zayas told them his fictional cover story. After 

providing his cover story, agent Zayas said he was nervous, and Titi responded, 

“Don’t be . . . . This is going to turn out well.” Carabali-Diaz asked several 

questions about the stash house. Zayas told Carabali-Diaz and Titi that the 

cocaine distributors he dealt with were “serious people” and the robbery would 

not be easy. Titi responded that Zayas need not worry and that the group 

would “go in there with everything.” Carabali-Diaz noted that the group would 

have to remove the markings from the cocaine packages before selling them on 

the street. Carabali-Diaz and Titi discussed how the robbery would take place, 

and Titi stated that they would tie up the stash house occupants as well as 

Zayas. Carabali-Diaz said that the plan “look[ed] good.” Zayas did not tell 

Carabali-Diaz and Titi to use firearms or how to conduct the robbery; he only

explained who and what was in the house. 

Two days later, agent Zayas again met Carabali-Diaz and Titi in his 

undercover role. The three men discussed the robbery plans. Carabali-Diaz 

and Titi said that five people would be in the robbery crew and that they would 

get into the house using police uniforms and vests.3 Carabali-Diaz said that 

2 Agent Zayas testified that markings on cocaine packages are the hallmark of foreign 

cocaine intended for wide distribution. 3 Zayas had not previously mentioned police uniforms. 

3

 

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he had “special people” to do the job and that the group was “prepared.” He 

also discussed the use of firearms and the plan to tie up the stash house 

workers and occupants, including Zayas, to prevent the victims from realizing 

that Zayas was a part of the robbery team. 

Less than three weeks later, agent Zayas participated in another 

meeting with three unidentified members of the group, including the 

unidentified individual from the October 5 meeting. Zayas informed the three 

men that he was scheduled to pick up the cocaine the next night and that he 

would call them to arrange a meeting location just prior to the pickup. Zayas 

reiterated that one of the stash house guards would be armed and that the 

robbery would not be “easy at all.” 

The next day, on October 26, agent Zayas arranged by phone for the 

group to meet him before the robbery. All of the defendants except Rodriguez 

were present for this pre-robbery meeting. Although Lewis was not part of the 

meeting initially, he had driven to the meeting location and joined the 

discussion after Zayas asked him if he planned to participate in the robbery.4 

Titi and an individual named Vito were also present. The group waited a while

at the meeting location because an additional vehicle with two associates and

several items needed for the robbery had not yet arrived. 

While they waited for the two associates and robbery gear to arrive, and 

before Lewis joined the group, agent Zayas told the group that the robbery 

would be difficult and dangerous, stating “this is not easy,” “this is for real 

man,” and “this is no game.” Defendant Boria responded that his associates 

were “experienced,” that the group was armed and ready, that they had police 

uniforms, and that “everything will be done neatly.” Titi noted that the 

4 Lewis drove Rivera-Otero to the meeting place and initially stayed in or near his car 

by himself while the others discussed the impending robbery some seven car-lengths away. 

4

 

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members of the group were “serious” and “used to all this” and that they “even 

ha[d] vests and police uniforms and everything.” 

After defendant Lewis joined the group, they discussed (1) the amount of 

cocaine that would be in the house; (2) that Lewis would find the stash house 

by entering the home’s address into his GPS; (3) how they would bring firearms 

and pretend to be police; (4) that Zayas would have to get on the floor to avoid 

getting hurt; and (5) the general manner in which the robbery would occur, 

including rushing in with guns and knocking down and restraining the home’s 

occupants. Agent Zayas did not instruct the defendants how to conduct the 

robbery but did ask them how they intended to do it.

After these discussions, the group was still waiting for the two other 

associates and the robbery gear. When the associates did not arrive in a 

reasonable time, agent Zayas decided to abort the plan to avoid blowing his 

cover and to ensure that all the perpetrators and firearms would be present for 

the arrests. Zayas told the group that he could not wait any longer; and 

defendants Boria, Rivera-Otero, and Carabali-Diaz said that he should go 

ahead to the stash house and they would execute the robbery the next time he 

did a pickup. Boria then gave Zayas a phone number at which Zayas could 

contact him directly. Boria also showed Zayas a tactical carrier vest that said 

“police.” He stated that when Zayas came back, he (Boria) would have the 

group ready. Rivera-Otero added that the group was “for real.” That evening, 

Boria told his girlfriend, who had been in one of the group’s vehicles during the 

robbery-preparation meeting, that the group was planning to steal drugs from 

a stash house. 

After the October 26 meeting, agent Zayas and defendant Boria spoke 

several times by phone, with most of the calls initiated by Boria. On October 

29, Boria told Zayas that Boria, not Titi, would be the contact person for the 

robbery, and he asked Zayas to call him around Thanksgiving to tell him when 

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the next pickup would occur. Boria called Zayas again on November 23. Agent 

Zayas told Boria that his next pickup from the stash house would be on 

December 2. 

On December 2, the defendants met at Boria’s apartment without Zayas 

and planned the armed robbery. The group discussed how they would enter 

the house, who would yell “police,” and other logistical matters. The 

defendants had police clothing and at least one firearm. After their planning 

session, they put on their police clothing and left to meet Zayas. 

The group, which included the five defendants, met Zayas in a parking 

lot. All of the defendants except Lewis, the getaway driver, were wearing police 

clothing.5 Agent Zayas asked Boria if they had firearms. Boria responded 

affirmatively and showed Zayas a pistol in the passenger door of the vehicle in 

which Boria had been sitting. The group gathered around and discussed, 

among other things, the amount of narcotics that would be in the stash house, 

the stash house setup, and the manner in which the armed robbery would take 

place. Lewis asked Zayas for the address to enter into his GPS. He also told 

Zayas not to be nervous and stated that they would take all of the cocaine in 

the house. Zayas asked if everyone was “all right,” and no one responded in 

the negative or suggested any lack of desire to participate in the robbery. 

Zayas pretended to take a phone call providing the location of the stash 

house and walked away from the group. When agent Zayas was a safe distance 

away, a law enforcement tactical response team arrested the defendants. 

Rodriguez dropped a black jacket and a police shirt when he attempted to flee. 

Government agents recovered numerous items of police clothing, several 

firearms, and many flexible handcuffs (i.e., zip-ties) from the defendants’ 

vehicles. 

5 The other driver, Boria’s girlfriend, did not wear police gear either.

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At no point did Zayas offer the defendants money or provide them guns 

or police uniforms with which to conduct the robbery. He also did not instruct 

them on how to execute the robbery. None of the defendants ever indicated 

any hesitation about proceeding. 

C. The Defendants’ Post-Arrest Statements

Following their arrests, some of the defendants spoke to each other in 

recorded conversations in police vehicles. Defendants Boria and Lewis said 

that the police did not have anything on them except for guns and that it was 

a good thing they were not arrested after entering the stash house and 

handcuffing people. Defendant Rivera-Otero and a group member named 

Ramirez also stated that the police did not have anything on them and 

discussed a plan to say that their police clothing was for Halloween. The two 

also discussed claiming that Zayas directed them to wear the police clothing. 

Several of the defendants also spoke to agents after waiving their 

Miranda rights. Defendant Carabali-Diaz admitted that the group had 

planned to steal thirty-seven kilograms of cocaine, put the drugs in a trash bag 

(which he was holding when arrested), and divide the thirty kilograms that did 

not go to Zayas. He also said that firearms were going to be used and that 

everyone had a gun. Defendant Boria, who was still wearing police clothing 

during his post-arrest interview, admitted to the robbery plan, to having a gun, 

and to planning to sell the cocaine on the street. Defendant Rivera-Otero 

claimed that he had police clothing for Halloween and that he put it on because 

his friend told him to, although he (Rivera-Otero) did not know why. 

Defendant Lewis initially suggested that he knew little about the robbery plan

but then acknowledged that the plan was to go into a stash house, “arrest” 

people using firearms and flexible handcuffs, and steal cocaine. Lewis said he 

was to be the getaway driver and expected to receive $10,000. 

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D. Defendants’ Cases-in-Chief

Only Lewis presented a defense. For his defense, Lewis presented two 

character witnesses and testified on his own behalf. He claimed that he knew 

defendant Rivera-Otero from the gym and occasionally gave Rivera-Otero a 

ride because he (Rivera-Otero) had a suspended driver’s license and no car. 

Lewis said that on October 26, Rivera-Otero asked him for a ride to talk to 

someone about a job. According to Lewis, Rivera-Otero gave him directions to 

the meeting, and they ended up at a gas station. Lewis testified that agent 

Zayas arrived at the gas station, and they followed Zayas in their car to a 

different location. Lewis claimed that he had no knowledge of a robbery until 

Zayas approached him at the second meeting spot and offered to share the 

thirty kilograms of stolen cocaine. Lewis said that he had never been involved 

with drugs before, but he decided to participate as a getaway driver because 

he had been laid off from work. 

On cross-examination, Lewis acknowledged stating at a robberyplanning meeting that the occupants of the stash house would assume that 

there were additional police officers outside. He also admitted to asking agent 

Zayas for the address of the stash house so he (Lewis) could put it into his GPS, 

and he admitted that he saw weapons at Boria’s house at the December 2

robbery-planning meeting. More generally, Lewis admitted that he knew the 

plan was to rob a house of approximately thirty kilograms of cocaine and that 

he was to be the getaway driver. 

E. Charges and Jury Verdict

In 2012, a grand jury returned a superseding indictment charging the 

defendants6 with several crimes, including 

6 Two other associates were also charged but are not parties to this appeal.

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• Conspiracy to possess five kilograms or more of cocaine with the 

intent to distribute it, in violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a)(1) and 

(b)(1)(A) and 846 (“Count 1”);

• Aiding and abetting the attempted possession of five kilograms or 

more of cocaine with the intent to distribute it, in violation of 21 

U.S.C. § 841(a)(1) and (b)(1)(A) and 18 U.S.C. § 2 (“Count 2”); 

• Conspiracy to use and carry firearms during and in relation to a drug 

trafficking crime, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 924(c)(1)(A) and (o)

(“Count 3”); and

• Aiding and abetting the use and carrying of a firearm during and in 

relation to a drug trafficking crime, in violation of 18 U.S.C. 

§§ 924(c)(1)(A) and 2 (“Count 4”).

Defendants Boria and Rivera-Otero were also charged with possession of a 

firearm by a convicted felon, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(1) (“Count 5”).7

A jury found Lewis not guilty of the conduct alleged in Counts 1 and 3. 

The jury found the five defendants guilty of the remaining charged offenses.

II. Discussion

The defendants raise several arguments related to their convictions and 

sentences. We address each argument in turn.

A. Motion to Dismiss the Indictment

Defendants Boria and Lewis argue that the district court erred in 

denying the defendants’ motion to dismiss the indictment due to outrageous 

conduct by the government in setting up the reverse-sting operation. Our 

7 Boria, Rivera-Otero, and Carabali-Diaz were also charged with aggravated identity 

theft, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1028A(a)(1), and false claim of U.S. citizenship, in violation 

of 18 U.S.C. § 911. Carabali-Diaz was charged with unlawful reentry following removal, in 

violation of 8 U.S.C. § 1326(a) and (b)(2). The defendants pled guilty to these crimes, and the 

associated judgments and convictions are not at issue in this appeal.

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review is de novo. See United States v. Sandlin, 589 F.3d 749, 758 (5th Cir. 

2009).

1. Legal Principles

“The due process clause protects defendants against outrageous conduct 

by law enforcement agents . . . [and] forbids the government to act improperly 

even against culpable persons.” United States v. Arteaga, 807 F.2d 424, 426 

(5th Cir. 1986). “It is well-established in this circuit that a due process 

violation will be found only in the rarest and most outrageous circumstances.” 

United States v. Tobias, 662 F.2d 381, 386 (5th Cir. 1981) (quotation marks 

omitted). To violate due process, government conduct must shock the most 

cynical among us. United States v. Yater, 756 F.2d 1058, 1065 (5th Cir. 1985) 

(stating that outrageous government conduct must be “shocking to the 

universal sense of justice” (quotation marks omitted)); see also Sandlin, 589 

F.3d at 758 (“The standard for proving outrageous governmental conduct is 

extremely demanding.”); United States v. Asibor, 109 F.3d 1023, 1039 (5th Cir. 

1997) (“[A] defendant who asserts the defense of outrageous government 

conduct has an extremely high burden of proof.”). Important to this case, a

defendant cannot avail himself of the defense of outrageous government 

conduct where he has been an active and willing participant in the criminal 

activity that gave rise to his arrest. Yater, 756 F.2d at 1066; United States v. 

Posada Carriles, 541 F.3d 344, 361 (5th Cir. 2008) (“Outrageous conduct will 

not be found when the defendant is an active, willing participant in the 

criminal conduct that leads to his arrest.” (quotation marks omitted)); United 

States v. Gutierrez, 343 F.3d 415, 421 (5th Cir. 2003) (requiring a defendant 

claiming outrageous government conduct to demonstrate “both substantial 

government involvement in the offense and a passive role by the defendant”).

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2. Discussion

The evidence here demonstrates that the defendants were willing and

active participants in the armed robbery scheme. They initiated a large 

number of the phone calls and meetings with agent Zayas; they planned the 

robbery and touted their experience and readiness; they brought firearms and 

police clothing to the pre-robbery meetings and planning sessions; and they did 

not express reluctance to proceed.8

The government violates a defendant’s due process rights if it 

“instigate[s] the criminal activity, provide[s] the place, equipment, supplies 

and know-how, and run[s] the entire operation with only meager assistance 

from the defendants.” Tobias, 662 F.2d at 386. That did not occur here. Agent 

Zayas did not provide the guns or police clothing; nor did he provide the idea 

to use such equipment or any instruction as to how to conduct the robbery. To 

be sure, agent Zayas created the fictional cover story, but he did not “provide 

the place, equipment, supplies and know-how” or “run the entire operation.” 

Id. To the contrary, he displayed nervousness and inexperience, and he told 

the defendants that the manner in which they conducted the robbery was up 

to them. Neither does the record show any evidence of coercion.

Accordingly, we find no error in the district court’s decision to deny the 

defendants’ motion to dismiss the indictment based on outrageous government 

conduct. Accord Posada Carriles, 541 F.3d at 361 (finding no outrageous 

government conduct where the defendant was a willing participant in the 

criminal conduct); Tobias, 662 F.2d at 386-87 (holding that there was no 

outrageous government conduct where defendant was a “predisposed active

8 Because Zayas’s cover story included the “fact” that he never saw money in the stash 

house, the defendants understood that they would have to sell the cocaine to profit from their 

robbery. Even given this hurdle, they still proceeded in the attempted robbery, further 

demonstrating their active involvement.

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participant, motivated solely by a desire to make money”); Gutierrez, 343 F.3d 

at 422 (holding that there was no outrageous government conduct where 

defendant provided more than “meager assistance” during the scheme); Asibor, 

109 F.3d at 1039-40 (finding no outrageous government conduct where 

government agents supplied drugs to the defendants and then bought them 

back with government funds, but the defendants were willing participants); 

Yater, 756 F.2d at 1066 (finding no outrageous government conduct where the 

defendant obtained cocaine “through his own contacts without assistance from 

the government and transported it himself to the site of the drug sale”).

B. Confidential Informant’s Identity and Testimony

Defendants Carabali-Diaz, Boria, and Lewis argue that the district court 

erred in denying their motion to compel the testimony or disclose the identity 

of the CI who introduced agent Zayas (in his undercover role) to the 

defendants. We review the district court’s decision for an abuse of discretion. 

See United States v. Ibarra, 493 F.3d 526, 531 (5th Cir. 2007).

1. Legal Principles

“This Court uses a three factor test to determine whether the identity of 

an informant should be revealed: (1) the level of the informant’s activity; 

(2) the helpfulness of the disclosure to the asserted defense; and (3) the 

Government’s interest in nondisclosure.” Id. These factors are commonly 

referred to as the “Roviaro factors” because they are grounded in the Supreme 

Court’s decision in Roviaro v. United States, 353 U.S. 53 (1957).

2. Discussion

Applying Roviaro here, we find no abuse of discretion in the district 

court’s denial of the motion to compel the CI’s testimony or disclose his identity.

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First, the CI was minimally involved. He appeared only once and only to 

introduce agent Zayas in his undercover role. There is no evidence or 

allegation that the CI communicated with the defendants after that

introduction. Nor is there evidence or allegation that the CI attended 

subsequent robbery-planning meetings or indicated that he would participate 

in the robbery. The CI’s minimal involvement in the events of this case weighs

against disclosing his identity or compelling his testimony. See United States 

v. Diaz, 655 F.2d 580, 588 (5th Cir. 1981) (“When an informant’s level of 

involvement in the criminal activity is that of minimal participation, [the first 

Roviaro] factor by itself will not compel disclosure.”).

For similar reasons, the CI’s identity and testimony would have been 

minimally helpful to the defendants’ entrapment defense. The CI merely 

introduced agent Zayas to three people, only one of whom was a defendant. 

There is no evidence or allegation that the CI procured the statements of the 

defendants, planned the robbery, obtained the firearms or police equipment, or 

coerced the defendants’ participation in the crimes at issue. As such, the 

second Roviaro factor weighs against disclosing the CI’s identity or compelling 

his testimony. See United States v. Orozco, 982 F.2d 152, 155 (5th Cir. 1993) 

(“The defendant must make a sufficient showing that the testimony would 

significantly aid the defendant in establishing an asserted defense. . . . Mere 

conjecture or supposition about the possible relevancy of the informant’s 

testimony is insufficient to warrant disclosure.” (citation and quotation marks 

omitted)); United States v. Gonzales, 606 F.2d 70, 75 (5th Cir. 1979) (“This 

principle applies with equal force in cases where the defendant relies on an 

entrapment defense; precedent from this circuit makes it clear that the mere 

allegation of entrapment is not sufficient in and of itself to force disclosure.”).

With the first two Roviaro factors weighing so heavily in the 

government’s favor, it is unnecessary to consider the third factor: the 

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government’s interest in nondisclosure. See Diaz, 655 F.2d at 588-89. Thus, 

we find no abuse of discretion in the district court’s denial of the motion to 

compel the CI’s testimony or disclose his identity.9

C. Jury Instruction on Entrapment

Defendants Boria and Lewis argue that the district court erred in 

declining to instruct the jury on the defense of entrapment. Our review is de 

novo. See United States v. Stephens, 717 F.3d 440, 444 (5th Cir. 2013).

1. Legal Principles

“To be entitled to an entrapment instruction, a defendant must make a 

prima facie showing of (1) his lack of predisposition to commit the offense and 

(2) some governmental involvement and inducement more substantial than 

simply providing an opportunity or facilities to commit the offense.” Id.

(quotation marks omitted).10

“Predisposition . . . focuses upon whether the defendant was an ‘unwary 

innocent’ or, instead, an ‘unwary criminal’ who readily availed himself of the 

opportunity to perpetrate the crime.” Id. at 445 (quotation marks omitted). 

“[A] defendant’s eager willingness to participate in government-solicited 

criminal activity is sufficient to prove predisposition.” United States v. Reyes, 

9 Defendants Carabali-Diaz, Boria, and Lewis also argue that the district court erred 

in not holding an evidentiary hearing before denying their motion to disclose the CI’s identity. 

But, neither an in camera review nor an “on-the-record” Roviaro analysis is required in every 

instance involving a motion to disclose a CI’s identity. See Diaz, 655 F.2d at 588 (“We do not 

think that it was necessary for the district court to interview the informant in camera for we 

conclude that the informant’s testimony could not have been significantly helpful to the 

appellant’s defense.”); see also United States v. Alexander, 559 F.2d 1339, 1344 (5th Cir. 1977) 

(“We refuse to adopt a rule requiring a district court to hold an in camera hearing whenever 

the identity of an informant is requested.”). 10 We “consider the record in the light most favorable to the defendant and determine 

whether there was enough evidence for a reasonable jury to find that the defendant was 

entrapped.” Stephens, 717 F.3d at 444.

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239 F.3d 722, 741 (5th Cir. 2001). Evidence that the defendant was an “active, 

enthusiastic participa[nt]” or that he “demonstrated expertise in the criminal 

endeavor” is also sufficient to prove predisposition. United States v. Nelson, 

732 F.3d 504, 515 (5th Cir. 2013). “Where a defendant promptly avails himself 

of a criminal opportunity, it is unlikely that his entrapment defense warrants

a jury instruction.” Stephens, 717 F.3d at 445 (quotation marks omitted). 

“Government inducement consists of the creative activity of law 

enforcement officials in spurring an individual to crime” and includes “either 

threatening or harassing conduct or actions designed specifically to take 

advantage of the defendant’s weaknesses.” Gutierrez, 343 F.3d at 420 (internal 

quotation marks omitted). “It is well settled that the fact that officers or 

employees of the Government merely afford opportunities or facilities for the 

commission of the offense does not defeat the prosecution.” Jacobson v. United 

States, 503 U.S. 540, 548 (1992) (“Artifice and stratagem may be employed to 

catch those engaged in criminal enterprises.”).

2. Discussion

Viewing the evidence in the defendants’ favor, they failed to present a 

prima facie case of entrapment. With respect to predisposition, the evidence 

shows that the defendants, save Lewis, were willing and active participants

who touted their experience and expertise. For example, the defendants 

planned the robbery, obtained guns, and procured police clothing. And, they 

returned to commit the robbery after the initial robbery attempt was scratched 

when several cohorts failed to arrive on time. The evidence shows that the 

defendants did not hesitate. To the contrary, the evidence shows that they

“promptly avail[ed] [themselves] of the opportunity to carry out an armed 

robbery once the plot was presented.” Stephens, 717 F.3d at 445. The 

defendants’ independent behavior, unlinked to agent Zayas, is further evidence 

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of their predisposition to complete the crimes at issue here. See United States 

v. Brace, 145 F.3d 247, 262 (5th Cir. 1998) (“[E]vidence of the defendant’s ready 

response to the solicitation, as well as evidence of independently motivated 

behavior that occurs after government solicitation begins, can be used to prove 

that the defendant was predisposed, i.e., ready and willing to commit the crime 

even before he was contacted by the government.” (emphases omitted)). Given 

these facts, no reasonable jury could believe that Boria was not predisposed to 

commit the crimes at issue. Thus, no reasonable jury could find that he was 

entrapped, and accordingly, the district court did not err in declining to 

instruct the jury on an entrapment defense.11

The facts regarding Lewis’s participation in the armed robbery presents 

a different case because there is some evidence from which a jury could find a 

lack of predisposition. However, given the evidence, no reasonable jury could 

find that Lewis was induced to commit the crimes at issue. First, the 

government’s use of a reverse-sting operation does not itself constitute 

inducement. Gutierrez, 343 F.3d at 420. Moreover, there is no evidence that 

Agent Zayas appealed to Lewis’s sense of compassion. See, e.g., Sherman v. 

United States, 356 U.S. 369 (1958) (holding that there was sufficient evidence 

of inducement when the government exploited a defendant’s sympathy). Nor 

is there evidence that Zayas repeatedly attempted to convince Lewis to join in 

the face of Lewis’s refusals. See, e.g., United States v. Bradfield, 113 F.3d 515 

(5th Cir. 1997) (finding sufficient evidence of inducement where the 

11 Boria also failed to make a prima facie showing of inducement. Gutierrez, 343 F.3d 

at 420 (“Simply because the chain of events leading to the defendant’s arrest originated with 

the government does not entitle a defendant to an entrapment instruction. It is proper (i.e., 

not an ‘inducement’) for the government to use a ‘sting,’ at least where it amounts to providing 

a defendant with an ‘opportunity’ to commit a crime.” (quotation marks omitted)). There is 

no indication that agent Zayas or any other government agent coerced, harassed, or made 

repeated overtures to Boria or any of the other defendants.

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government persisted in the face of a defendant’s resistance by making

“innumerable telephone calls to [the defendant] to entice him to do a drug 

deal”). To the contrary, Agent Zayas merely offered Lewis a share of a large 

quantity of drugs, and Lewis agreed shortly thereafter. Nothing prevented

Lewis from simply walking away or otherwise declining Agent Zayas’s 

invitation to join in the conspiracy. Lewis’s only evidence of inducement was 

a one-time offer of a share in the spoils of an armed robbery of a stash house 

that held at least thirty kilograms of cocaine. A straightforward offer to enjoy 

the spoils of a crime does not, standing alone, “create[] a substantial risk that 

an offense would be committed by a person other than one ready to commit it.” 

See id. at 521. Given these facts, no reasonable jury could believe that Lewis 

was induced to commit the crimes at issue, and thus, the district court did not 

err in declining to instruct the jury on an entrapment defense. Accord United 

States v. Theagene, 565 F.3d 911, 923 (5th Cir. 2009) (finding sufficient 

evidence of inducement where the defendant was convinced to commit a crime 

in the space of a single conversation and the government appealed solely to the 

defendant’s interest in financial gain, not empathy or compassion). 

D. Constructive Amendment of the Indictment

Count 2 charged that the defendants, “aiding, abetting, and assisting 

others . . . , did knowingly and intentionally attempt to possess with intent to 

distribute a controlled substance, that is, five (5) kilograms or more of a 

mixture and substance containing a detectable amount of cocaine . . . .” When 

instructing the jury, the district court quoted Count 2, including its “attempt” 

and “cocaine” language. The court then stated that, to establish the first 

element of the offense, the government had to prove beyond a reasonable doubt 

“[t]hat the offense of possession with intent to distribute a controlled substance 

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was committed by some person.” No defendant objected to the instruction 

regarding Count 2.

Defendants Boria and Lewis now argue that the indictment was 

constructively amended at trial because the jury instruction’s description of 

the first element of Count 2 omitted the word “attempt” and failed to specify 

that the controlled substance at issue was cocaine. Where a defendant fails

contemporaneously to object, this Court reviews a constructive-amendment 

claim for plain error. United States v. Isgar, 739 F.3d 829, 840 (5th Cir.), cert. 

denied, 135 S. Ct. 123 (2014).12 This Court will reverse for plain error if 

(1) there is an error or deviation from an established legal rule; (2) the error is 

clear or obvious and not subject to reasonable dispute; (3) the error affected the 

defendant’s substantial rights; and (4) if the first three requirements are 

satisfied, this Court determines, in its sound discretion, that the error should 

be remedied to avoid “seriously affect[ing] the fairness, integrity or public 

reputation of judicial proceedings.” United States v. Escalante-Reyes, 689 F.3d 

415, 419 (5th Cir. 2012) (en banc).

1. Legal Principles

“The Fifth Amendment guarantees that a criminal defendant will be 

tried only on charges alleged in a grand jury indictment.” Isgar, 739 F.3d at 

840. “A jury instruction constructively amends an indictment if it permits the 

jury to convict the defendant upon a factual basis that effectively modifies an 

essential element of the crime charged.” Id. In reviewing a jury charge 

12 Lewis argues that a constructive amendment is a reversible error per se if there has 

been a modification of the elements of the crime charged. That is not the law of this Circuit. 

See United States v. Daniels, 252 F.3d 411, 414 (5th Cir. 2001) (“It is now clear that this 

circuit applies plain error review to forfeited constructive amendment arguments.”); United 

States v. Bohuchot, 625 F.3d 892, 897 (5th Cir. 2010) (“[P]lain error review applies even if 

there has been a constructive amendment.”). 

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purportedly amended by an indictment, this Court begins by considering 

“whether the jury instruction, taken as a whole, is a correct statement of the 

law and whether it clearly instructs jurors as to the principles of the law 

applicable to the factual issues confronting them.” United States v. Scher, 601 

F.3d 408, 411 (5th Cir. 2010) (citation and quotation marks omitted). This 

Court “scrutinize[s] any difference between an indictment and a jury 

instruction and will reverse only if that difference allows the defendant to be 

convicted of a separate crime from the one for which he was indicted.” Id. 

(citation and quotation marks omitted).

Defendants Boria and Lewis argue that the district court’s omission of 

the word “attempt” when explaining the first element of the offense allowed 

the jury to convict them of a crime for which they were not indicted—that is, 

the completed crime of possession of cocaine with the intent to distribute it

(rather than the attempted crime). Defendants Boria and Lewis also argue 

that the omission of the word “cocaine” allowed the jury to convict them based 

on “an intent to distribute heroin, methamphetamine or any other controlled 

substance . . . .” 

2. Discussion

Boria and Lewis skip over the fact that the district court directly quoted 

Count 2, including its “attempt” and “cocaine” language. This informed the 

jury that the defendants were charged with aiding and abetting the attempted 

possession of cocaine with the intent to distribute it. More importantly, there 

was ample evidence that the defendants aided and abetted each other in the 

attempted possession of cocaine with the intent to distribute it: They discussed 

the robbery plan in detail and ultimately gathered with the expectation of 

proceeding to the stash house to steal cocaine at gunpoint; they dressed in 

police clothing; they brought guns and tie wraps to subdue and restrain their 

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victims; and they made plans to split the expected windfall from their armed 

robbery. Given the strength of this evidence, it is clear that the third 

prerequisite for granting relief for plain error is not satisfied; the omission of 

the words “attempt” and “cocaine” from one portion of the jury instruction did 

not affect the defendants’ substantial rights. See United States v. Bohuchot, 

625 F.3d 892, 899-900 (5th Cir. 2010) (concluding that the jury charges 

constructively amended the indictment but holding that the error did not affect 

the defendants’ substantial rights or the fairness of the proceedings because 

the evidence against the defendants was “strong”). The indictment, which was 

read verbatim to the jury, charged the defendants with aiding and abetting the 

attempted possession of cocaine with the intent to distribute it, and the 

strength of the evidence was more than sufficient to prove that offense. 

Because the third prerequisite for granting relief for plain error is not satisfied, 

we find no plain error here.13

E. Sufficiency of the Evidence

Defendant Rodriguez argues that his conspiracy convictions represent a 

manifest miscarriage of justice because the record is devoid of evidence 

establishing his guilt, especially given that he did not know about the robbery 

plan until late in the conspiracy period. Because Rodriguez did not move for a 

judgment of acquittal at the close of all the evidence, we review his sufficiencyof-the-evidence challenge for a “manifest miscarriage of justice,” which is a 

“very narrow” standard. United States v. Salazar, 542 F.3d 139, 142, 144 (5th 

Cir. 2008). To prevail, Rodriguez “must show either that the record is devoid 

13 Boria and Lewis assert that, if their constructive-amendment argument with 

respect to Count 2 prevails, we must necessarily find constructive amendment for Count 4. 

The opposite is true here. Because we find no plain error with respect to the jury instruction 

on Count 2, we necessarily find no plain error with respect to the jury instruction on Count 4. 

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of evidence of guilt or that the evidence is so tenuous that a conviction is 

shocking.” Id. (quotation marks omitted).14 

The evidence was more than sufficient to support Rodriguez’s conspiracy 

convictions. Rodriguez was at Boria’s apartment on December 2 when the 

defendants discussed the robbery before their subsequent meeting with agent 

Zayas. Rodriguez also went to the pre-robbery gathering, dressed in police 

clothing. At that robbery-planning meeting, he appeared knowledgeable about 

the plan and prepared to proceed, and he never expressed a desire to withdraw

from the conspiracy. 

When the defendants were arrested on December 2, Rodriguez 

attempted to flee but was taken down by a police canine. While fleeing, he 

dropped a police shirt. After his arrest, agents found police clothing and a 

revolver where Rodriguez had been sitting in the back of one of the getaway

vehicles. 

Even assuming that Rodriguez did not join the criminal plan until 

December 2, his late arrival does not absolve him of guilt. See United States v. 

Blackthorne, 378 F.3d 449, 454 (5th Cir. 2004) (“It is of no consequence that 

[the defendant] might have joined the conspiracy after the point at which some 

overt acts occurred, because one who joins an ongoing conspiracy is deemed to 

have adopted the prior acts and declarations of conspirators, made after the 

formation and in furtherance of the conspiracy.” (quotation marks omitted)); 

United States v. Bates, 600 F.2d 505, 509 (5th Cir. 1979) (noting that late entry 

into conspiracy does not preclude conviction as a participant). Rodriguez 

clearly joined the conspiracy before the armed robbery was expected to occur

14 We review the evidence “in the light most favorable to the government, giving the 

government the benefit of all reasonable inferences and credibility choices.” Salazar, 542 

F.3d at 143 (quotation marks omitted).

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and to facilitate the robbery. He is, therefore, liable as a full participant in the 

operation, and there is sufficient evidence to support his convictions.

F. Sentencing Error

1. Procedural Reasonableness

Defendant Rivera-Otero argues that his sentence is procedurally 

unreasonable because the district court failed to adequately explain the 

sentence.15 Because Rivera-Otero did not object to the procedural 

reasonableness of his sentence in the district court, we review his sentence for 

plain error. See United States v. Dominguez–Alvarado, 695 F.3d 324, 327-28 

(5th Cir. 2012).

We find no procedural error in the district court’s consideration or 

explanation of the sentence chosen. To the contrary, the record reflects that 

the district court listened to several arguments from Rivera-Otero’s counsel, 

considered the § 3553(a) factors, and then provided a thorough explanation of 

facts it considered relevant to determining Rivera-Otero’s sentence. In 

particular, the district court made the following findings related to the crimes 

at issue on appeal: Rivera-Otero “arrange[d] and participate[d] in a scheme to 

conduct an armed robbery of a stash house,” which he believed contained thirty 

kilograms of cocaine. Four firearms were brought to the robbery by RiveraOtero and his cohorts. Rivera-Otero played a managerial role in the offense 

because he recruited defendant Lewis into the conspiracy. He also “attempted 

to impersonate a police officer and was dressed in police clothing at the time of 

15 Cf. Gall v. United States, 552 U.S. 38, 51 (2007) (providing examples of “significant 

procedural error,” including “failing to consider the § 3553(a) factors” and “failing to 

adequately explain the chosen sentence”).

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his arrest.” And, he and his co-conspirators “intended to physically restrain 

their victims.”16 

The district court made these additional findings related to RiveraOtero’s background: Rivera-Otero was an illegal alien who had purchased the 

identity of a deceased U.S. citizen. At the time of his arrest, he possessed “a 

fraudulent Texas identification card, a fraudulent Social Security card, [two] 

fraudulent . . . debit card[s].” He had used so many aliases “to allude law 

enforcement and further his criminal activity” that his “true identity 

remain[ed] unknown.” Rivera-Otero committed the instant offenses less than 

nine months after being released from custody from a prior drug offense 

wherein he was convicted of conspiracy to distribute and possession with intent 

to distribute five or more kilograms of cocaine and sentenced to more than six 

years in prison. 

Before pronouncing the sentence, the district court noted that RiveraOtero “continues to show a disregard for the laws of the United States by 

engaging in similar criminal activity.” The district court also noted that some 

“egregious conduct was not taken into account in the guidelines calculation,” 

namely, the use of police clothing, the impersonation of a law enforcement

officer, and the intent to restrain victims during the armed robbery. Rather 

than capturing this conduct through an upward departure from the guidelines 

range, the district court stated that “a sentence at the high end of the guideline 

range, plus the mandatory consecutive terms [for the counts to which RiveraOtero pled guilty], will adequately capture the likelihood of recidivism and 

address [Rivera-Otero’s] background, characteristics, and promote the respect 

16 The district court agreed with the government that the evidence showed that 

Rivera-Otero recruited Lewis to join the conspiracy. The court also agreed with the 

government that the guidelines calculation should be based upon the amount of drugs 

believed to be in the stash house. After making these findings in open court, the district court 

adopted the presentence report in all relevant respects.

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for the law and safeguard the public as outlined in . . . § 3553(a).” The district 

court then imposed a high-end, within-guidelines sentence.

Given this thorough explanation of the district court’s chosen sentence,

we find no procedural error and certainly no plain error.

2. Substantive Reasonableness

Rivera-Otero also argues that his sentence is substantively unreasonable 

and that a downward departure is warranted because (1) the facts of agent 

Zayas’s cover story “were completely fabricated by government agents” and 

(2) any within-guidelines sentence based on the fictitious cover story is “greater 

than necessary” to fulfill the purposes of sentencing. We review the 

substantive reasonableness of a sentence for an abuse of discretion. United 

States v. Diehl, 775 F.3d 714, 724 (5th Cir. 2015). “Our review for substantive 

reasonableness is ‘highly deferential,’ because the sentencing court is in a 

better position to find facts and judge their import under the § 3553(a) factors 

with respect to a particular defendant.” Id. “Where a sentence falls within the 

Guidelines range, the appellate court may, but is not required to, apply a 

presumption of reasonableness.” United States v. Aldawsari, 740 F.3d 1015, 

1020 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 160 (2014).

In the specific circumstances of this case, the overall sentence is wellsupported by the facts and by the district court’s consideration and explanation 

of the § 3553(a) sentencing factors. It is clear that the district court sentenced 

Rivera-Otero with reference to the applicable guidelines range, the seriousness 

of the crimes, and Rivera-Otero’s background and criminal history. Given the 

district court’s extensive consideration and explanation of the appropriate 

sentence in the light of the § 3553(a) sentencing factors, we cannot conclude 

that the district court abused its discretion in imposing the sentence it did. 

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Rivera-Otero argues that the district court erred when it declined his 

invitation to depart from the sentencing guidelines and impose a belowguidelines sentence. However, because Rivera-Otero has not alleged that the 

district court mistakenly believed that it lacked authority to depart downward, 

this Court lacks jurisdiction to hear Rivera-Otero’s downward-departure 

argument. See United States v. Tuma, 738 F.3d 681, 691 (5th Cir. 2013) (“We 

lack jurisdiction to review the denial of a downward departure unless the 

district court’s denial resulted from a mistaken belief that the Guidelines do 

not give it authority to depart.”); United States v. Sam, 467 F.3d 857, 861 (5th 

Cir. 2006) (“This court lacks jurisdiction to review a downward-departure 

denial unless, as here, the district court held a mistaken belief that the 

Guidelines do not give it the authority to depart.”); United States v. BarreraSaucedo, 385 F.3d 533, 535 (5th Cir. 2004) (“This Court has jurisdiction to 

review a district court’s refusal to grant a downward departure from the 

Guidelines only if the refusal was based on an error of law. Thus, this Court 

may review the district court’s decision only if it refused a downward departure 

on the mistaken conclusion that the Guidelines do not permit such a 

departure.” (citations omitted)); United States v. Cooper, 274 F.3d 230, 248 (5th 

Cir. 2001)

Moreover, his suggestion that the government engaged in “sentencing 

entrapment,” or “sentencing factor manipulation,” when it created a cover 

story involving thirty to forty kilograms of cocaine rather than some lesser 

amount is undermined by a long line of precedent from this Circuit; this is

especially the case where, as here, there was no entrapment and no outrageous 

government conduct. See United States v. Burke, 431 F.3d 883, 886 (5th Cir. 

2005) (“We hold that a sentence for drug conspiracy may be based on fake 

drugs.”); id. at 887 (“[I]n convictions based on reverse-sting operations such as 

this one, where the actual quantity of drugs is controlled by the government 

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instead of by the defendant, the quantity of drugs agreed upon more accurately 

reflects the scale of the offense than the quantity actually delivered. . . . [The 

defendant’s] sentence for drug conspiracy is properly based upon the amount 

he agreed to escort. His crime was complete when he agreed to aid in the 

distribution of 350 kilograms of cocaine with the intent to achieve that 

objective.”); see also United States v. Stephens, 717 F.3d 440, 446 (5th Cir. 2013) 

(“We have never recognized sentencing entrapment as a defense, and we have 

consistently noted that, were we to accept it, it would only be cognizable in 

cases involving “true entrapment,” or “overbearing and outrageous conduct” on 

the part of the Government.” (citations omitted)); id. at 447 (“[S]ince the 

Government’s conduct amounted to nothing more than passive 

encouragement, and since there is no evidence that [the defendant] resisted 

the [opportunity to engage in illegal behavior], we hold that [the defendant]

would not be entitled to a sentencing entrapment defense even were it 

available in this circuit.”); United States v. Tremelling, 43 F.3d 148, 151-52 (5th 

Cir. 1995) (holding that the Government’s bringing quantities of drugs to a 

controlled buy in excess of a previously agreed-upon amount could not amount 

to sentencing entrapment where the defendant did not resist taking on the 

additional drugs). In fact, this Court has affirmatively rejected a previous 

attempt to minimize the severity of a criminal offense through the suggestion 

that there were no actual victims and no possibility of completing the desired 

crime. See Stephens, 717 F.3d at 447 (“While [the defendant] attempts to 

minimize the severity of his offenses by noting that the offense conduct did not 

result in harm to any actual victims and that [he] was led along by his coconspirators and law enforcement agents, we fail to see how such arguments 

can overcome the presumption of reasonableness [in the sentence imposed], 

given that [the defendant] was arrested while proceeding to a location at which 

he fully expected to participate in a potentially highly-dangerous armed 

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robbery of an armored truck.”); see also United States v. Richardson, 925 F.2d 

112, 117-18 (5th Cir. 1991) (holding that there was no separation of powers 

problem in allowing the government to dictate the amount of money involved 

in an undercover laundering sting and that there was no due process violation 

because the defendant “freely decided to accept the negotiated amount”). 

Thus, Rivera-Otero has not shown that the district court’s failure to 

impose a more lenient sentence rendered his sentence unreasonable. He has 

not alleged any facts showing that he was persuaded to commit a greater 

offense than he otherwise was predisposed to commit or that the government 

agents’ conduct was overbearing or outrageous. Nor has he alleged any basis 

upon which his involvement in attempting to steal thirty or more kilograms of 

cocaine—through armed force, physical restraint, and the impersonation of 

law enforcement officers—was conduct that the district court improperly 

considered in determining his sentence. We simply cannot conclude that the 

district court abused its discretion in imposing the sentence it did.

III. Conclusion

For the foregoing reasons, we AFFIRM the defendants’ convictions and 

sentences in all respects.

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