# U n i t e d S t a t e s C o u r t o f A pp e a l s

For the Eig hth Circu it

_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

No . 1 8 -2 2 95

_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Un i t ed St at es o f Am eri ca

l ll l l l l l l l l l l l ll l l l l l Pl a i n t i

f f - Ap pel l ee

v

.

Ram el u s D. Brad l ey

l ll l l l l l l l l l l l ll l l l l l Def

en da n t - Ap pel l an t

_ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _
Ap p eal fro m

Un i t ed St at es Di s t ri ct Co u rt
fo r t h e W es t ern Di s t ri ct o f M i s s o u ri - J effers o n Ci t y

_ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _

Su b m i t t ed : Feb ru ary

1 4 , 2 01 9
Fi l ed : M ay

1 3 , 2 01 9

_ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _

Befo re SM ITH, Ch i ef J u d g e, BENTON an d STRAS, Ci rcu i t J u d g es

.

_ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _

BENTON, Ci rcu i t J u d g e.

A ju ry co n v i ct ed Ram e l u s Deju an Brad l ey o f p o s s es s io n wi t h i n t en t to

d i s t ri b u t e co cai n e an d co cai n e b as e, i n v i o l at i o n o f 28 U.S.C. § § 8 4 1 (a)(1 ),

8 4 1 (b )(1 )(C), 8 4 1 (b )(1 )(B), an d 8 5 1 ; an d b ei n g a fel o n i n p o s s es s io n o f a fi rearm , in

v i o l at i o n o f 18 § § U.S.C. 9 2 2(g )(1 ) an d 9 24 (a)(2 )

. H e ap p eal s, arg u in g t h e d i s t ri ctco u rt 1 erred b y d en y i n g h i s m ot i o n s t o s up p res s ; fo r a Fr a n ks h eari n g , di s cl o s u re, an d

p ro d uct i o n ; an d fo r acq u i t t al

. Hav i n g ju ri s d i ct io n un d er 2 8 U.S.C. § 1 2 9 1

, t h i s co u rt

affi rm s.

I.

Det ect i v e Bran d o n W eb er ap p l i e d f o r a warran t t o p u t a GPS t rack er o n

Brad l ey ’ s t ru ck

. Th e s u p p o rt i n g affi d av i t d e t ai led a dru g i nv es t i g at io n , wh i ch

i n cl u d ed a co n t ro l l ed d ru g b uy :

W i t h i n t h e p as t fo u r d a y s , at m y d i rect i o n an d wh il e u n der m y d irect

s u rv ei l l an ce, [Rel i ab le Co n fi d en t i al In fo rm an t ] #1 was p ro vi d ed m o n ey

t o p u rch as e c o c a i ne fro m Brad l ey in Bo on e Co un t y , M i s s o u ri

. I

wat ch ed RCI # 1 an d Brad l ey m eet at an u n d i s cl o s ed [l o cat i on ] i n Bo o ne Co u nt y

. Brad l ey arri v ed at t h e m eet i n g l o cat i o n d ri v i n g a b l ack , Ram

, 4 -d o o r p ick u p beari n g M i s s o u ri Reg i s t rat io n 4 M V2 6 9

. Aft er th e

t ran s act i o n RCI # 1 g av e m e co cai ne t h ey s t at ed h ad b een s o l d t o th em b y Brad l ey

. RCI # 1 p o s i t i v el y i d en ti fi ed Brad l e y f r o m p i ct u res t h at I

p ro v i d ed . Th e co cai n e fi el d -t es t ed p o s i t i v e.

Th ree ot h er ti p s t ers

— t wo rel i ab l e co o p erat i ng ci t i zen s an d a Cri m es t o p p ers

cal l er— co n n ect ed Brad l ey to d ru g d eal i n g , t wo o f wh om t o l d po l i ce he k ep t d ru g s in

h i s t r u ck

. W eb er s wo re t h at

, wi t h i n th e p as t 2 4 ho u rs , he s aw an o t her “ s h o rt -t erm

t ran s act io n ” i n vo l v i n g Brad l ey t h at he be lie ve d w a s dru g -rel at ed b as ed o n h i s t rai n i n g

an d ex p eri en ce. T h e affi d av i t n o t ed Brad l ey had p ri o r co n v i ct i o n s fo r d ru g

t raf f ic king, d i s t ri b u ti o n , an d fel o n y p o s ses s i o n

. A s t at e ju d g e i ss u ed t h e GPS warran t

.

1 Th e H o n o rab l e St ep h en R. Bo u g h

, Un it ed St at es Di s t ri ct J u d g e f o r t h e W es t ern Di s tri ct o f M i s s o u ri

, ad op t i n g th e rep o rt s an d reco m m en d at i o n s o f t h e Ho n o rab l e M at t J

. W hi t wo rt h

, Ch i ef Un i t ed St at es Mag i st rat e J u d g e fo r t h e W es t ern Di s t ri ct of Mi ss ou ri

, an d t h e Ho n o rab le W i l l i e J

. Ep p s , J r., Un i t ed St at es M ag i s t rat e J u d g e fo r t he W es t ern Di s t ri ct o f M i s so u ri

.

-2

-Bas ed on i n fo rm at i o n fro m t h e GPS t rack er an d p h y s i cal s u rv ei l l an ce, p o l i ce

o b t ai n ed s earch warran t s fo r Brad l ey ’ s t ru ck an d a res i den ce i n Bo o ne Co u n ty

. W h en

p o l i ce en t ered t h e res i d en ce, Brad l ey was i n t h e l i v i n g ro o m

. Offi cers reco v ered fo u r

fi rearm s

. On e was at op a t ab le n ex t t o Brad l ey , o n e u n d er th e t a b l e , o ne at o p a

t el ev is i o n st an d i n t h e l i v i ng ro om , an d o n e i n an u ps t ai rs b ed ro o m

. Th ey al s o

reco v ered o v er $ 1 2 ,0 0 0 cas h fro m a p ai r o f m en ’ s s h o rt s in t h e l i v i n g r o o m

. In a

M i ran d i zed i n terv i ew, Brad l ey accu rat el y d es cri b ed th e fi rearm s’ l o cat i o n s an d s ai d

t h ey b el o n ged t o Ti ffan y Sm i t h

, h i s g i rl fri en d an d t h e t en an t t here. Th e t ru ck was

p ark ed i n fro n t o f t h e res i d en ce. In i ts co n s o l e, p ol i ce reco vered aro un d 1 5 1 g ram s

o f co c a i ne, 2 8 g ram s o f co cai n e b as e, an d a d i g i t al s cal e. H e was i n d i ct ed fo r

p o s s es s i o n wi t h i n t en t t o d i s t ri b u t e co cai n e, 2 8 g ram s o r m o re o f co cai n e b as e, an d

b ei n g a fel on i n p o ss es s i o n o f a fi rearm

.

Brad l ey m o v ed to s u p pres s “ al l p h y si cal ev i d en ce al leg ed l y s ei zed ” an d “ an y

s t at em en t s at t ri b u t ed t o h i m .” He ch al l en g ed t h e GPS warran t ’ s p ro b ab l e cau s e.

Aft e r a s u p p res s i on h eari n g , a m ag i s t rat e ju d g e reco m m en d ed den y i n g t h e m o t i o n,

reas on i n g t h at t h e co nt ro l l ed b u y p ro v i d ed p ro bab l e cau s e, t h e o t h er i n fo rm at i o n in

t h e affi dav it s u p p o r t e d i t

, an d, ev en i f pro b ab l e cau s e w ere l ack i n g , t h e g o o d -fai th

ex cep t i o n ap p l ied

. Uni t

ed St a t es v. Br a d

l ey , 2 0 1 7 W L 2 5 7 9 1 69 (W .D. M o

. M ay 3 0,

2 0 1 7 ). Ad o p ti ng th e rep ort an d reco m m en d at i on , t he d i s t ri ct co u rt d en ied th e m o t i o n

t o s u pp res s

. Uni t

ed St at es v. Br a d l ey , 2 0 1 7 W L 2 57 9 0 4 9 (W .D. M o

. J u n e 1 4

, 2 0 1 7 ).

Brad l ey t h en m o ved fo r a Fr an ks h eari n g o n t h e w arran t s an d req u es t ed

d i s cl os u re o f t he co n fi d en t ial i n fo rm a n t ’s a n d t i p st ers ’ i den t i t i es an d an y b en efi t s

g i v en t o t h em , an d pro d u ct i o n o f ev i d en ce ab o u t t h e co n tro l led b uy

. A m a g i s t r a t e ju d g e reco m

m en d ed den y i n g th e m o t i o n, reas o n i n g th a t Brad l ey fai l ed t o m ak e “ a

s u b s t an t i al p rel im i n ary s h o wi n g ” t h at W eb er m ad e an y fal s e o r reck l es s s t at em en t s ,

as req u ired u n d er F

r a n ks v. Del a wa r e , 4 3 8 U.S. 1 5 4

, 15 5 (1 97 8 ), an d fai l ed t o s h o w

t h at t h e co n fi d en t ial i n fo rm an t ’ s o r t i p s t ers ’ t es ti m o n y wo u l d b e m at eri al to h i s cas e,

as req u i red u n der Un i t ed S t a tes v. H a r r i n g t o n , 9 5 1 F.2 d 8 76

, 8 7 7 (8 t h Ci r. 1 9 9 1 ).

-3

-Uni ted St

a t es v. Br a dl

ey , 2 0 1 7 W L 45 3 3 4 5 2 (W .D. M o. Sep t

. 2 2

, 2 01 7 ). A d o p t i n g

t h e rep o rt an d reco m

m en d at i o n , t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt d en i ed a Fr a n ks h eari n g, d is cl o s u re,

an d p ro d u ct i o n

. U

ni t ed St a t es v. Br a d

l ey , 2 01 7 W L 45 3 34 4 7 (W .D. M o

. Oct

. 1 0,

2 0 1 7 ).

At t ri al

, th e Go v ern m en t s o u g h t t o i n t ro d u ce au di o reco rd i n g s o f cal l s Brad l ey

m ad e i n co u n t y jai l aft er h i s arres t. Brad l e y o b j ect ed t o s t at em en t s l i ke “ h e ad m i t s

t h at h e wo u l d b e g o od fo r a d o p e cas e, i f an y th i n g .” Th e d i s t ri ct co urt o v erru l ed h i s

o b ject i on . Th e co u rt l at er d en i ed a m o t i o n fo r acq u i t t al b as ed o n t h e s u ffi ci en cy o f

t h e ev i d en ce. Del i b erat in g fo r ab o u t a h al f h o ur, t he ju ry co n vi ct ed h i m o n al l t h ree

co u nt s

. Brad l ey ap p eal s , arg u i n g t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt erred b y d en y i n g hi s m o t i o n s fo r

s u p p res s i o n ; a Fr a n ks h eari n g , d i s cl o s ure, an d p ro d u ct i o n ; acq u i t t al ; an d

, by

ad m i t t i ng jai l -cal l s t at em en ts

.

II.

On ap p eal fro m t h e d e n i a l o f a m ot i o n t o su p p res s , “ t h is co u rt rev i ews l eg al

co n cl u s i o n s d e n o v o an d fact u al fi n d i n g s fo r cl ear erro r.” Uni t ed St a t es v. M o r r i s , 9 1 5 F.3 d 5 5 2, 5 5 5 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 19 ).

Brad l ey arg u es t h e GPS warran t l ack ed p ro b ab l e cau s e. Pl aci n g a GPS d ev i ce

o n a v eh i cl e i s a Fo u rt h Am en d m en t s earch “ req u i ri n g p ro b ab l e cau s e an d a warran t .”

Uni ted St a t es v. Fa ul k ner , 8 2 6 F.3 d 1 1 3 9

, 1 14 4 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 6 ), ci t i n g Uni t ed St a t es

v. J o nes , 5 6 5 U.S. 4 0 0

, 4 0 4 (2 0 1 2 ). “ Pro b ab l e cau s e ex i s t s wh en , vi ewi n g th e t o t al i t y

o f t he ci rcu m s tan ces , ‘ th ere i s a f a i r p ro b ab i l it y t h at co n t rab an d o r ev i d en ce o f a

cri m e wi l l b e fo u n d i n a p art i cu l ar p l ace.’ ” U ni t ed St a t es v. Reed

, 9 21 F.3 d 7 5 1

,

_ _ _ (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 9 ), q uo t i n g I l l i no i s v. Ga tes

, 4 6 2 U.S. 2 1 3

, 2 3 0

, 2 3 8 (1 9 8 3 ). Th i s co u rt

p ay s “ great deferen ce t o t h e p ro b ab l e c a u s e d et erm i n at i o n s o f t h e i s s u i n g ju d g e o r

m ag i s t rat e,” d eci d in g “ wh et h er t h e i s s u i ng j u d ge h ad a s u b s t an t i al b as i s fo r

-4

-co n cl u d in g t h at p ro b ab le cau s e ex i s t ed .” Fa ul k ner , 8 26 F.3 d at 1 1 4 4

. Th e G PS

warran t ap p l i cat io n h ad m ore t h an s u ffi ci en t i nfo rm at i o n t o es t ab l i sh p ro b ab l e cau s e.

We b e r d e t ai l ed a recen t, s u p erv i s ed

, co n t ro l l ed bu y bet ween Brad l ey an d a

co n fi d en t i al i n fo rm a n t

. Th e affi d av i t n ot ed t h at

, “ o n n u m ero us o ccas i o n s ,” t h e

i n fo rm an t “ p ro v i d ed s p eci fi c i n fo r m at i o n as to t h e l o cat i o n , v eh icl es , an d p ers on s

i n v o l v ed i n i ll eg al d ru g t ran sact i o n s ,” t h e i nfo rm at i o n h as n ev er “ pro v en u n rel i ab l e,”

an d p as t i n fo rm at i o n res u l t e d i n d ru g -ch arg e arres t s i n Bo o n e Co u n t y

. An

“ i n fo rm an t ’ s t rack reco rd o f p ro v i d in g t ru st w o rt h y i n f o rm at i o n ” es t ab l i s h es

rel i ab i l i ty

. I

d

. Brad l ey ’ s s p ecu l at i o n t h at th e i n fo rm an t “ co u l d h av e b een h id i n g t h e

co n tro l l ed s u b s t an ce” b efo re m eet i n g h i m i s n o t s u p p o rt ed b y an y ev i d en ce. Th e

s u p erv i s ed

, co n t ro l l ed bu y i s a s u b s t an t i al b as is fo r t h e i s s u i n g ju d g e t o fi n d p ro b ab l e

cau s e. S ee Uni t ed St a t es v. Ha r t

, 5 4 4 F.3 d 91 1

, 9 1 4 (8 t h Ci r. 20 0 8) (h o l d i n g rel i ab l e

i n fo rm an t ’ s t ip an d co nt ro l l ed b u y es t ab li s hed p ro b ab l e cau s e).

Th e o t h er i n fo rm at i o n in t h e af f i d av i t b o l s t ers t h i s co n cl u s i o n. M u l t i p l e

s o u rces co n n ect ed Brad l ey an d h i s t ru ck to d ru g d eal i n g

. W eb er es t ab l i s h ed t h e t i p s ’

rel i ab i l i ty t h ro u g h : t h e co nt ro l l ed b u y , s ee Uni t ed St a t es v. Br o wn , 4 9 9 F

. 3 d 8 1 7,

8 2 1 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 7 ); Brad l ey ’ s d ru g-rel at ed cri m i n a l h i s t o ry , see Uni t ed St a t es v.

Ga b r i o , 2 9 5 F.3 d 88 0

, 8 8 3 (8 t h Ci r. 2 00 2 ); t h e co o p erat in g ci ti z e n s ’ h i s t o ry o f

p ro v id i n g rel i a b l e d r u g-rel at ed i n fo rm at i o n, see Ha r t

, 5 4 4 F.3 d at 9 1 4 ; an d

v e r i fi cat i o n o f det ai l s ab o u t Brad ley ’ s t ru ck

, s ee Fa ul k ner , 8 2 6 F.3 d at 1 1 4 5

. Co n t rary t o Br a d l e y’s s u g g es t i o n , t h e o m i s si o n o f an y st at em en t ab o u t s o u rces ’

cri m i n al hi s t ori es i s n o t fat al to t h e warran t

. See Uni t ed St a t es v. W il l i a m s , 4 7 7 F.3 d

5 5 4

, 5 5 9 –6 0 (8 t h Ci r. 2 00 7 ) (o m i t t i n g in fo rm an t ’ s cri m i n al h i s t o ry d o es n o t d efeat

p ro b ab l e cau s e wh ere t he “ i n fo rm an t ’ s i n fo rm at i o n i s at leas t p art l y co rro b o rat ed ” o r

“ t h e affi an t es t ab l i s h es t h e i n fo rm at i o n ’ s rel iab i li t y t h ro u gh s o m e o t h er m ean s ”). He

arg u es t h at s om e ti p s were s t al e an d v ag u e, b u t t hey were recen t an d s p eci fi c en o u g h

b as ed o n t h e to tal i t y o f th e ci rcu m s t an ces

. S ee Uni t ed St a t es v. Sa l a m a s i na , 61 5 F.3 d

-5

-9 2 5

, 9 3 1 (8 t h C i r

. 20 1 0 ). Pro bab l e cau s e s u p p o rt ed i s s uan ce of t h e w arran t

. See

Br o wn , 4 9 9 F.3 d at 8 2 1

.

Si n ce th ere i s n o b as i s t o s up p res s , t h is co u rt n eed n ot reach Brad l ey ’ s

arg u m en t s ab o u t t h e g o o d -fai t h ex cep t i o n

.

III.

Acco rd i ng to Brad l ey , t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt s h ou l d h av e g ran t ed a F r an ks h eari n g

an d co m p el l ed d i scl o s u re o f t h e co n fi d en t i al i nfo rm an t ’ s an d t i ps t ers ’ i d en t i t i es an d

an y b en efi t s th ey recei v ed

, an d p ro d u ct i o n o f ev i d en ce ab o u t t h e co n t ro l l ed b u y

. Th i s

co u rt rev i ews fo r ab u s e o f d i s cret i o n a r e fu s al t o g ran t a Fr a nks heari ng o r co m p el

d i s cl os u re o f a co n fi d en t i al i nfo rm an t ’ s i d en t i t y. U n i t ed St a tes v. Ho l

l is

, 2 4 5 F.3 d

6 7 1 , 6 7 3 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 1 ).

To o b t ai n a Fr a n ks h eari n g , a d efen d an t m u s t m ak e “ a s u bs t an ti al p rel i m i n ary

s h o wi n g ” t h at an affi d av i t co nt ai n s an in t en t i o nal o r reck l es s fal s e st at em en t o r

o m is s i o n n eces s ary t o t h e p ro b ab l e cau s e fi n d i n g

. U ni t ed St a t es v. Cha r l

es , 8 9 5 F.3 d

5 6 0

, 5 6 4 (8 t h Ci r. 2 01 8 ). Th i s req u i rem en t “ i s n o t l i gh t l y m et

. ” Uni t ed St a t e s v

. Br a ck et t

, 8 4 6 F.3 d 9 8 7, 9 9 3 (8 t h Ci r. 2 01 7 ), ci t i n g Fr ank s , 43 8 U .S. at 1 7 1

– 7 2.

Brad l ey d en i es s el l i n g a co n t ro l l ed s u bs t an ce t o a co nfi d en t ial i nfo rm an t

. He o ffers

n o p ro o f fo r t h i s co n cl u s ory d en i al

. Th e d i s t ri ct co u rt t h u s d i d n ot ab u s e i t s d i s cret i o n

i n d en y i n g a Fr a n ks h eari n g

. S ee Uni t ed St at es v. W il l ia m s , 66 9 F.3 d 9 0 3

, 9 0 5 (8 th

Ci r. 20 1 2 ) (“ Th ere i s

. . . a p res u m p t i o n o f v al id i t y wi th res p ect to t h e affi d av i t

s u p p ort i n g t he s earch warran t

. To m an d at e an ev i d en t i ary h eari n g, th e ch al l en g er’ s

at t ack m u s t b e m o re t h an co ncl u s o ry

. . . . Th ere m u s t b e a l l eg at io n s of d el i b erat e

f a l s eh o o d o r o f reck l es s d i s reg ard fo r t he t ru t h

, an d t h o s e al leg at i on s m u s t b e

acco m pan i ed b y an o ffer o f p ro o f.”), q u ot i n g Fr a nk s , 4 3 8 U.S. at 1 7 1

.

-6

-A d efen d an t s eek in g i d en t i t y d is cl o s u r e “ m u s t es t ab li s h b ey on d m ere

s p ecu l at i o n t h at t h e in fo rm an t’ s t es t i m o n y wi l l b e m at eri al t o th e det erm in at i o n o f t h e

cas e.” Ha r r ing t o n , 9 5 1 F.2 d at 8 7 7

. Brad l ey arg u es t h at d i s cl o s u re s h o u l d b e

co m p el l ed wh ere an i n fo rm an t p ro v i des i n fo rm at i o n s up p o rt in g a warran t

, wh i ch

l ead s t o cri m i nal ch arg es

. Ho we v e r , h e fai l s t o ex pl ai n h o w di s cl o s u re h ere wo u ld

b e m at eri al t o h i s d efen s e o r a fai r t ri al

. See i d

. , ci t i n g Ro vi ar o v. Uni t

ed St at es , 3 5 3

U.S. 5 3, 6 0

– 6 2 (1 9 57 )

. “ [T] h e i d en t it y o f a ‘ t i p s t er’ wh o s e o bs erv at i o n s fo rm ed t h e

b as i s fo r a s earch w arran t b u t wh o i s n ot a neces s ary wi t n es s t o t h e fact s i s n o t s u b ject

t o c o m p ul s i o n

. ” Ho l

l i s , 2 4 5 F.3 d at 6 7 4

. Here, t h e co n fi d en t i al i nfo rm an t a n d

t i ps t ers p ro v i d ed i n fo rm at i o n th at p o l i c e u s ed t o o bt ai n warran t s , b u t t h ey d i d n ot

wi t n es s , p art i ci p at e i n, o r p ro v id e ev i den ce o f Brad ley ’ s ch arg ed cri m es

. Di s cl o s u re

was n o t req ui red

. S

ee, e.g

. , Fa ul

k ner , 8 2 6 F.3 d a t 1 1 47

. Th e co n fi d en t i al

i n fo rm an t ’ s p art i ci pat i o n i n an u n ch arg ed co n t ro ll ed b u y do es n o t ch an g e t h i s

co n cl u s i o n

. S

ee Ha r r i ng t

on , 9 5 1 F.2 d at 8 7 8 (i den t i t y o f co n fi d en t i al i n fo rm an t n ot

s u b ject t o d i s cl o s ure wh ere i n fo rm an t m ad e co n tro l led b u y s , bu t “ nei t h er wi t n es s ed

n o r p art i ci p at ed in th e s earch ” l ead i n g t o p o s s es s io n ch arg es an d “ co ul d n o t o ffer an y

ev i d en ce b eari n g o n t h e p o s s es s i o n ch arg es ”). T h e d i s t ri ct co u rt d i d n o t a b u s e i t s

d i s cret i o n i n refu s i n g t o co m pel i d en t i ty

d i s cl o s u re.

IV.

Brad l ey arg u es th e d i s t ri ct co u rt er red i n d en y i ng h is m o t io n fo r acq u i t t al

b ecau s e t h e ev i d en c e w as i n s u ffi ci en t

. “ Th i s co u rt rev i ews d e n o vo t h e d en i al o f a

m o ti o n fo r ju d g m en t o f acq u i t t al

, v i ewi n g t h e ev i d en ce m o s t fav o rab l y t o th e g ui l t y

v erd i ct

, res o l vi n g al l ev i den t i ary co n fl i ct s i n fav o r o f t h e g o v ern m en t

, an d accep t i n g

al l reas o n ab l e i nferen ces fro m t h e ev i d en ce.” Uni t ed St a t es v. M o rr i s , 8 1 7 F.3 d

1 1 1 6 , 1 1 1 9 (8 th Ci r. 2 0 1 6 ).

Th e s o l e i ss u e i s wh et h er t h e Go v ern m en t p ro v ed Brad l ey h ad k n o wi n g

p o s s es s i o n o f t h e reco v ered fi rearm s an d dru g s

. “ Pro o f o f co ns t ru ct i v e p o s s es s i o n i s

-7

-s u ffi ci en t t o p ro v e th e el em en t o f k n o wi n g p o ss es s i o n

. . . . ” Uni t ed St a tes v. El l i s , 8 1 7 F.3 d 5 7 0

, 5 7 6 (8 t h C i r

. 2 01 6 ). “ An i n di v i d u al h as co n s t ru ct i ve p o ss es s i o n o f

co n trab an d i f h e h as o wn ers h i p , d o m i n i on or co n t ro l o v er t he co n trab an d i t s el f, o r

d o m i n i on o v er t h e p rem is es in wh i ch t h e co n trab an d i s co n ceal ed .” Uni ted St a t es v.

J a ck so n , 6 1 0 F.3 d 10 3 8

, 10 4 3 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 0 ). Brad l ey arg u es t h at h e was “ s i m p l y

p res en t at t h e s cen e w h ere t he co n t rab an d was fo u n d,” w h i ch is i n s u f fi ci en t fo r a

p o s s es s i o n co n v i ct i o n

. See i d.

Th e ev i d en ce i s m o re t h an s u ffi ci en t to su s t ai n h i s fel o n -i n -p o s s es s i o n

co n vi ct i o n

. B r a d l ey was t h e o n l y ad u lt i n t h e res i d en ce w h en t he fi rearm s were

reco v ered

. Th ree were i n h i s i m m ed i at e v i ci n i t y

. He ad m it t ed k n owi n g th e ot h er was

u n d er a p i l l o w i n an u p s tai rs b ed ro o m

. Ti ffan y Sm i t h t es t i fi ed t h at al t h o u g h t h ree o f

t h e reco v ered g u n s w ere h ers , t h ey were i n a cl o s ed b o x i n a s pare bed ro o m wh en s h e

l eft t h e m o rn i n g t h e w a rran t s w ere ex ecu t ed

. T h e ev i den ce s u p po rt s a reas o n ab l e

i n feren ce t h at Brad l ey rem o v ed t h e fi rearm s fro m th e bo x an d p u t t hem wh ere p o l i ce

fo u n d t hem

— en o ug h fo r co n st ru ct i v e p o s s es s i o n

. S ee Uni t ed St a t es v. G r i m es , 8 2 5

F.3 d 8 9 9

, 9 0 2 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 6 ) (“ Co n s t ru ct i v e p o s s es s i o n r e q u i res k n o w l ed g e o f an

o b ject

, t he ab i l i t y t o co n tro l i t

, an d t h e i n t en t to do s o

. ”); U ni t ed St at es v. W el l s , 4 6 9

F.3 d 7 1 6

, 7 2 0 (8 t h Ci r. 20 0 6 ) (d efen d an t h ad co ns t ru ct i v e p os s es si o n o f fi rearm wh en

h e k n ew i t was i n t h e h o u s e, was wi l l i n g to ret ri ev e i t

, an d an o th er p ers o n ret ri ev ed

i t on h i s i n s t ru ct i o n ).

On h i s p o s s es si o n -wi t h -i n t en t-t o -d i s t ri b u t e co n v i ct i on s , Brad l ey a r g u es t h at

m u lt i p l e p eo p l e h ad acces s to t h e t ru ck

, an d t h at t h e Go v ern m en t d id n o t p res en t

d i rect ev id en ce o f h i s p res en ce i n t h e t ru ck b efo re t h e s earch warran t was ex ecu t ed

.

“ Po s s es s i o n m ay b e jo i nt ; i t n eed n o t b e ex cl u s i v e.” Uni t ed St a t es v. Sm ar t

, 5 0 1 F.3 d

8 6 2

, 8 6 5 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 7 ). Th e Go v ern m en t p res en t ed s u ffi ci en t ev id en ce of Brad l ey ’ s

d o m i n i on an d co n t ro l o f t h e t ru ck

. Ti ffan y Sm i th t es t i fi ed h e d ro v e t h e t ru ck t o h er

h o m e t h e m orn i n g t h e warr a n t s w e r e ex ecu t ed

. Sh e al s o tes t ifi ed t h at t h e t ru ck

b el o n g ed t o Brad l ey an d an o t h er wo m an , an d t h e G o v ern m en t p res en t ed ev i d en ce

-8

-t h at t h e t ru ck was re-t i t l ed t o Brad l ey al o n e d ay s b efo re th e warran t s were ex ecu t ed

.

Th e ju ry was free t o reject h i s t h eo ry th at o n e of t h e o t h er p ers o n s w i t h acces s t o t h e

t ru ck ex cl u s i v el y p o s s es s ed t he d ru g s. S ee Uni t ed St a tes v. W hi t e , 8 1 6 F.3 d 9 7 6

, 9 8 6
(8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 6 ). Th e ev i d en ce i s s u ffi ci en t t o s u s t ai n t h e co n vi ct i o n s

. S ee El l i s , 8 1 7

F.3 d at 5 7 6

– 7 7 (u p h o l di n g p o s s es si o n co nv i ct i o n w h ere reas on ab l e ju ry co u ld

co n cl u d e d efen d an t h ad “ do m i n i o n an d co n t ro l ov er h i s veh i cl e an d t h u s k n o wi n g l y

p o s s es s ed t h e fi rearm

reco v ered t h erefro m ”).

V.

Brad l ey co n t en d s t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt s h o u l d h av e ex cl ud ed t wo s t a t em en t s h e

m ad e i n a reco rd ed

, p o st -arres t jai l cal l : “ o n l y t h i ng t h at ’ s p ro bab l y g o i n g t o s t i ck i s

i f t h ey cl ai m t hat s o m eb o dy s o ld t o m e,” an d “ t h e o n l y t hi n g t h at t h ey real l y g o t o n

m e

. . . i s

. . . i f s o m eb o d y cl ai m s t h at th ey wo re a wi re

. . . to d o so m et h in g .” He

cl ai m s t h e s t at em en t s are i m p ro p er p ri o r-b ad -act s ev i d e nc e, see Fed. R. Ev i d. 4 0 4 (b)

,

an d s u b s t an t i al l y m o re p reju d i ci al t h an pro b at i v e, s ee Fed. R. Ev i d. 4 03

. Th i s co u rt

rev i ews th e ad m i ss io n o f ev i d en ce fo r ab u s e o f d i s cret i o n , an d “ ev i d en t i ary ru l i ng s

are rev ers ed o n l y

fo r a cl ear a n d p r e

j u d i ci al ab u s e o f d i s cret i o n .” W al k er v. Ka ne , 8 8 5 F.3 d 5 3 5, 5 3 8 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 18 ).

Br a dle y ’ s post- a r

r e st sta te m e nts e xpr es s co n cern ab o u t t h e ch arg es ag ai n s t h i m , wh i ch i s di rect ev id en ce o f co n s ci o u s n es s of gu i lt

. Th e ev i d en ce is t hu s i n t ri n s i c to

h i s ch arg ed cri m es , s o Ru le 40 4 (b ) d o es n o t ap p l y

. S ee Uni ted St

a tes v. Sk a r d

a , 8 4 5

F.3 d 3 7 0

, 3 7 7 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 6 ) (h o l di n g th at t h reat “ s h o w[i n g ] co n s ci ou s nes s o f g u i l t

. . . i s co n s i d ered di rect ev i d en ce o f t h e cri m e ch arg ed an d i s n o t s u b je c t t o a R u l e

4 0 4 (b ) an al y s i s ” (i n t ern al ci t at i o n s o m i t t ed )); Uni t ed St a t es v. Fr o s t

, 2 3 4 F.3 d 1 0 2 3,

1 0 2 5 (8 t h Ci r. 2 00 0 ) (“ Ru l e 4 0 4 i s

. . . i n ap p l i cab l e” t o d ep o s it i on t es t i m on y s h o wi n g

“ co n s ci o u s n e s s o f g u i l t ,” as t h e ev i d en ce “ d o es n o t rel at e t o ‘ ot h er act s,’ b u t rat h er

co n st i t u t es ev i d en ce i n t ri n s i c t o t h e o v eral l s ch em e.”). A s fo r Ru l e 4 0 3

, t h e ev i d en ce

m ay b e p reju d ici al

, b ut n o t u n fai rl y s o

. S ee Sk ar d a , 8 4 5 F.3 d a t 3 7 8 (“ Ev i d en ce i s

-9

-n o t u n fai rl y p reju d i ci al m erel y b ecau se i t t en d s t o p ro ve a d efen d an t ’ s g u i l t .”)

. Th e

d i s t ri ct co u rt p ro p erl y

ad m i t t ed t h e s t at em en t s

.

* * * * * * *

Th e ju d g m en t i s affi rm ed

.

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