# Patent

## Title
Reflective optical element and EUV lithography appliance

## Abstract

A reflective optical element and an EUV lithography appliance containing one such element are provided, the appliance displaying a low propensity to contamination. The reflective optical element has a protective layer system includes at least two layers. The optical characteristics of the protective layer system are between those of a spacer and an absorber, or correspond to those of a spacer. The selection of a material with the smallest possible imaginary part and a real part which is as close to 1 as possible in terms of the refractive index leads to a plateau-type reflectivity course according to the thickness of the protective layer system between two thicknesses d1 and d2. The thickness of the protective layer system is selected in such a way that it is less than d2.

## Background
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This is a Continuation Application of application Ser. No. 12/399,775 filed Mar. 6, 2009, which is a Continuation Application of application Ser. No. 11/216,560 filed Aug. 31, 2005, which is a Continuation-in-Part Application of PCT Application No. PCT/EP2004/002014 filed Mar. 1, 2004 and published as WO 2004/079753 on Sep. 16, 2004, which claims priority from German Application No. 103 09 084.3 filed Mar. 3, 2003. The entire disclosures of the prior applications are hereby incorporated by reference.


FIELD OF THE INVENTION
The invention concerns a reflective optical element for the EUV and soft X-ray wavelength region, having a multilayer system and a protective layer system, wherein the side of the multilayer system facing the protective layer system terminates in an absorber layer. Furthermore, the invention concerns an EUV lithography appliance with a reflective optical element of this kind.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Multilayers are composed of periodic repetitions, and in the most simple case a period consists of two layers. The one layer material should consist of a so-called spacer material, while the other layer material should consist of a so-called absorber material. Spacer material has a real part of the refractive index close to 1, absorber material has a real part of the refractive index significantly different from 1. The period thickness and the thicknesses of the individual layers are chosen in dependence on the operating wavelength, so that the reflectivity is generally maximized at this operating wavelength.
Depending on the requirement of the reflective optical element in regard to the reflection profile, various configurations of the multilayer system are conceivable. Bandwidth and reflectivity, for example, can be adjusted by having more than just two materials in one period or by deviating from a constant layer thickness or even from constant thickness ratios (so-called depth-graded multilayers).
EUV lithography appliances are used in the production of semiconductor components, such as integrated circuits. Lithography appliances which are used in the extreme ultraviolet wavelength region primarily have multilayer systems of molybdenum and silicon, for example, as the optical reflective element. Although EUV lithography appliances have a vacuum or a residual gas atmosphere in their interior, it is not entirely possible to prevent hydrocarbons and/or other carbon compounds from being inside the appliance. These carbon compounds are split apart by the extreme ultraviolet radiation or by secondary electrons; resulting in the depositing of a carbon-containing contamination film on the optical elements. This contamination with carbon compounds leads to substantial reflection losses of the functional (optical surfaces, which can have a considerable influence on the economic effectiveness of the EUV lithography process. This effect is intensified in that typical EUV lithography appliances have eight or more reflective optical elements. Their transmission is proportional to the product of the reflectivities of the individual optical reflective elements.
The contamination leads not only to reflectivity losses, but also to imaging errors, which in the worst case make an imaging impossible. Thus, cleaning cycles have to be provided when operating an EUV lithography appliance or when using reflective optical elements. These significantly increase the operating costs. But the cleaning cycles not only increase the down time, but also entail the risk of worsening of the homogeneity of the layer thickness of the reflective optical elements and the risk of increasing the surface relief, which leads to further reflectivity losses.
One approach to controlling the contamination for Mo/Si multilayer mirrors is found in M. Malinowski et al., Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 4688 (2002), pages 442 to 453. A multilayer system of 40 pairs of molybdenum and silicon with pair thickness of 7 nm and a Γ=(dMo/(dMo dSi), with dMo being the thickness of the molybdenum layer and dSi the thickness of the silicon layer, of around 0.4, was provided with an additional silicon layer on the uppermost molybdenum layer. Multilayer systems with different thickness of silicon protective layer were measured, extending from 2 to 7 nm. Traditional Mo/Si multilayer systems have a silicon protective layer of 4.3 nm, which helps protect against contamination, although it very quickly becomes oxidized. The measurements revealed that there is a reflectivity plateau for a silicon protective layer of 3 nm, depending on the radiation dose. It is therefore recommended to use silicon protective layers with a thickness of 3 nm, instead of silicon protective layers with a thickness of 4.3 nm. For a longer operating time can be achieved with a silicon protective layer 3 nm in thickness, for the same tolerance in the reflectivity loss.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The problem of the present invention is to provide a reflective optical element for the EUV and soft X-ray wavelength region that has the longest possible lifetime. Furthermore, the problem of the invention is to provide an EUV lithography appliance with the shortest possible down time.
The problem is solved by a reflective optical element, as well as an EUV lithography appliance according to the claims.
It has been found that reflective optical elements for the EUV and soft X-ray wavelength region with long lifetime are achieved if they are provided with a protective layer system that has one or more layers of materials with a particular refractive index, and in which the overall thickness of the protective layer system is chosen according to particular criteria. The one or more layers of the protective layer system should have a refractive index at operating wavelengths between 12.5 nm and 15 nm whose real part is between 0.90 and 1.03, preferably between 0.95 and 1.02, and whose imaginary part is between 0 and 0.025, especially preferably between 0 and 0.015. Thus, as compared to the layers of the multilayer system situated underneath, the layers of the protective layer system have the optical properties of a spacer or lie between those of a spacer and an absorber. The choice of a material with the smallest possible imaginary part and a real part as close as possible to 1 results in a plateau-shaped reflectivity curve, depending on the thickness of the protective layer system between two thicknesses d1 and d2. This means that, with these selected materials, the reflective optical element made of a multilayer system and a protective layer system is insensitive to fluctuations in the thickness of the protective layer system in a particular region. According to the invention, the reflective optical element has a protective layer system with a thickness smaller than d2.
The reflective optical elements of the invention have the benefit that their relative insensitivity to thickness variations in the protective layer system also translates into an insensitivity to the build-up of a contamination layer. Without substantial change in reflectivity, much thicker carbon layers can be tolerated than with traditional reflective optical elements. This also has a positive impact on the homogeneity of the imaging, since even thickness fluctuations over the entire area are negligible.
Basically, for a given operating wavelength, one will select the material, the layer makeup of the protective layer system, and the individual layer thicknesses so that a plateau in the reflectivity is formed between two thicknesses d1 and d2 as a function of the thickness of the protective layer system. The specific thickness of the protective layer system is then advantageously chosen to be as small as possible, but still within the reflectivity plateau. In practice, one must make sure that the minimum layer thickness is always observed for each layer, so that one can produce a closed layer.
It has been found that a standing wave field is formed by reflection at the reflective optical element, whose minimum for a protective layer thickness d1 lies in the vacuum at a distance of a fraction of the operating wavelength. Now, if the layer thickness of the protective layer system is increased, the minimum of the standing wave field approaches the surface. Accordingly, the value of the standing wave field at the surface increases until the maximum is also achieved. Thus, the formation of the reflectivity plateau in dependence on the thickness of the protective layer system results because, with increasing layer thickness, the additionally created absorption, i.e., the resulting decrease in reflectivity, is compensated in that reflectivity gains are produced by increasingly constructive interference after a certain layer thickness.
As an additional effect, fewer photoelectrons are emitted near the minimum of a standing wave field. Since the photoelectrons also break down the hydrocarbons from the residual gas atmosphere into carbon or carbon-containing particles, this has the result of a noticeably slower build-up of the contamination.
A preferred embodiment is therefore characterized in that the thickness d1 of the protective layer system is such that a standing wave formed by reflection at operating wavelength λB has a minimum at a distance from the surface of the reflective optical element of 0.λB, or less. Thus, the minimum lies in the vacuum. With increasing thickness, the surface as it were migrates through the minimum until the thickness d2 is reached. This corresponds to a distance from the surface to the minimum of at most 0.2λB, and the minimum is located inside the reflective optical element.
The specification of the essentially constant curve of the reflectivity is to be understood as meaning that all reflectivity fluctuations in a region that does not limit the functional capability of the reflective optical element are considered to be constant. In an especially preferred embodiment, a reflectivity decrease of 1% of the maximum reflectivity in the protective layer thickness region between d1 and d2 is considered harmless and regarded as being a constant reflectivity curve in the context of this invention.
It is to be assumed that the reflectivity curve as a function of the protective layer thickness between d1 and d2 goes through at least one inflection point at the protective layer thickness dw. For due to the partial compensation of the reflectivity loss in the protective layer thickness region between d1 and d2, the slope of the reflectivity curve changes in this protective layer thickness region. Advantageously, the particular thickness of the protective layer system is chosen to be ≦dw. This ensures that the thickness of the protective layer corresponds to a reflectivity which lies in the region of constant reflectivity in the sense of this invention. As a result, the reflective optical element becomes insensitive to an increase in the thickness of the protective layer, for example, due to contamination.
In an especially preferred embodiment, the thickness of the protective layer system is equal to d1.
The advantageous properties of the invented reflective optical element have especially positive impact when they are used in an EUV lithography appliance. Especially when several reflective optical elements are connected in succession, the more uniform reflectivity and also more uniform field illumination for lengthy periods of time have especially positive impact. It has been found that even with increasing contamination the wavefront errors in the complex optical systems of EUV lithography appliances can be kept small. A major benefit consists in that fewer cleaning cycles are required for the EUV lithography appliance, thanks to the longer lifetime of the reflective optical elements. This not only reduces the down time, but also the risk of degeneration of the layer homogeneity, greater roughness of the surface, or. partial destruction of the uppermost protective layer from too intense cleaning are significantly reduced. In particular, the cleaning processes for the reflective optical elements of the invention can be controlled such that the contamination layer is deliberately not entirely removed,' but rather a minimal contamination layer always remains on the uppermost layer. This protects the reflective optical element against being destroyed by too intense cleaning The thickness of the contamination layer can be measured in traditional manner during its build-up or during the cleaning with a suitable in situ monitoring system.
It has proven to be especially advantageous for the protective layer system to consist of one or more materials from the group Ce, Be, SiO, SiC, SiO2, Si3N4, C, Y, MoSi2, B, Y2O3, MoS2, B4C, BN, RuxSiy, Zr, Nb, MoC, ZrO2, RuxMoy, RhxMoy, and RhxSiy. The SiO2 should preferably be amorphous or polycrystalline.
The best results are achieved with a multilayer system that consists of Mo/Si layers and that ends with the molybdenum layer on the side facing the protective layer system. Depending on the operating wavelength, multilayer system, and requirement for the reflective optical element, it can be advantageous for the protective layer system to consist of precisely two or precisely three layers.
In a preferred embodiment, the protective layer system terminates toward the vacuum with a layer of a material for which the build-up of carbon-containing substances is suppressed. It has been found that certain materials have a low affinity for carbon-containing substances, in other words, carbon-containing substances get stuck to them only with a low probability or they have a slight adsorption rate. Thus, for these materials, the build-up of carbon-containing substances is drastically reduced or suppressed. It has been found that such materials can be used as a protective layer for reflective optical elements for the EUV and soft X-ray wavelength region, without showing significant negative effects on the optical behavior of the reflective optical element. Especially preferred as such are the materials ZrO2, Y2O3, and silicon dioxide in various stoichiometric relations. The silicon dioxide can be in the amorphous or polycrystalline, or possibly even the crystalline state.
In another preferred embodiment, the protective layer system terminates toward the vacuum with a layer of a material that is inert to energy deposition, that is, to bombardment with EUV protons or to external electric fields. This decreases the probability of spontaneous electron emission, which in turn might split apart the residual gases into reactive cleavage products. Hence, the deposition of contamination on the protective layer system is further reduced. One can influence the inertness to external electromagnetic fields, for example, by giving the surface the lowest possible relief and/or using materials that have a large gap between the valency band and the conduction band. Especially preferred for this are the materials Nb, BN, B4C, Y, amorphous carbon, Si3N4, SiC, as well as silicon dioxide in various stoichiometric relations. The silicon dioxide can be in the amorphous or polycrystalline, or possibly even the crystalline state.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
The invention shall be explained more closely by means of several examples and the figures. These show:
FIG. 1 shows the reflectivity of a multilayer with protective layer system as a function of the thickness of the protective layer system;
FIGS. 2a and 2b show the position of the standing wave field for different thicknesses of the protective layer system;
FIG. 3 shows the reflectivity of a first reflective optical element as a function of the thickness of the contamination layer;
FIGS. 4a and 4b shows the dependency of the wavefront error on the thickness of the contamination layer for a six-mirror system for EUV lithography;
FIG. 5 shows the reflectivity of a second reflective optical element as a function of the thickness of the contamination layer; and
FIGS. 6a and 6b show the structure of a reflective optical element including a multilayer system and a protective layer system according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
FIGS. 6a and 6b show schematically the structure of exemplary embodiments of a reflective optical element 10 for the EUV and soft X-ray wavelength region comprising a multilayer system 12 and a protective layer system 13, 13′ on a substrate 11. The multilayer system 12 is made of spacer layers 14 and absorber layers 15. The multilayer system 12 terminates with an absorber layer 15 on which the protective layer system 13, 13′ is arranged. In exemplary embodiments, the multilayer system 12 consists of silicon layers as spacer layers 14 and of molybdenum layers as absorber layers 15.
The protective layer system 13, 13′ has at least one layer of a material with a refractive index whose real part at an operating wavelength between 12.5 nm and 15 nm is between 0.90 and 1.03, preferably between 0.95 and 1.02, and whose imaginary part at an operating wavelength between 12.5 nm and 15 nm is between 0 and 0.025, preferably between 0 and 0.015, so that the reflectivity plotted as a function of the thickness of the protective layer system 13, 13′ at first drops, until a thickness d1 is reached, the reflectivity remains essentially constant between thickness d1 and another thickness, d2, where d2>d1, and the reflectivity further drops for a thickness>d2, and the thickness of the protective layer system 13, 13′ is smaller than d2. The protective layer system 13, 13′ consists of one or more materials from the group Ce, Be, SiO, SiC, SiO2, Si3N4, C, Y, MoSi2, B, Y2O3, MoS2, B4C, BN, RuxSiy, Zr, Nb, MoC, ZrO2, RuxMoy, RhxMoy, or RhxSiy.
In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the protective layer system 13, 13′ consists of two layers 16, 17 (see FIG. 6a) or three layers 16′, 17′, 18 (see FIG. 6b). Advantageously, the protective layer system 13 of the example illustrated in FIG. 6a ends on a side of a vacuum, i.e. terminates with a layer 16 of a material for which the build-up of carbon is suppressed, and the protective layer system 13′ of the example illustrated in FIG. 6b ends toward a side of a vacuum, i.e. terminates with a layer 17′ of a material that is inert to energy deposition. It will be noted that the terminating of the protective layer system 13, 13′ with a layer of a material for which the build-up of carbon is suppressed or with a layer of a material that is inert to energy deposition or with an other kind of layer is independent of the protective layer system consisting of one, two, three or more layers, as well as independent of the features of any other layers present in the protective layer system.
EXAMPLE 1
On a Mo/Si multilayer system located on a substrate of amorphous silicon dioxide, consisting of 50 pairs of 2.76 nm molybdenum and 4.14 nm amorphous silicon (a-SiO2), a three-layer protective layer system is deposited. The protective layer system borders on the uppermost molybdenum layer of the multilayer system with a Y-layer 1.2 nm thick. On the Y-layer is placed a 1.5 nm Y2O3 layer. At the vacuum side, the protective layer system is closed by a 1 nm thick amorphous silicon dioxide layer. The choice of the materials and their thickness is based on the criteria of the invention. In particular, the materials are also selected so as to suppress carbon build-up (Y2O3, a-SiO2) or to be inert to energy deposition (Y, a-SiO2).
Disregarding the interface and surface roughness, one obtains a reflectivity of 70.2% at an operating wavelength of 13.5 nm for an angle of incidence of 0° with the normal to the surface. FIG. 1 shows the reflectivity of the entire reflective optical element under these conditions as a function of the thickness of the protective layer system, but holding constant the thickness of 1.2 nm for Y and 1.5 nm for Y2O3. A distinct reflectivity plateau is formed between a thickness d1=3.7 nm and a thickness d2=6.68 nm of the protective layer system, or an a-SiO2 layer of 1 nm and 2.98 nm. Accordingly, the thickness of the silicon dioxide layer was selected to be 1.0 nm.
In FIGS. 2a and 2b, the resulting standing wave field is shown for a protective layer system thickness of 3.7 nm (FIG. 2a) and for a protective layer system thickness of 6.68 nm (FIG. 2b). Segments a-c corresponding to the protective layer system of amorphous SiO2 (a), Y2O3 (b), and Y (c) and segments d, e corresponding to the multilayer system of molybdenum (d) and amorphous silicon (e). As can be clearly seen, with increasing thickness of the protective layer system the surface of the reflective optical element is situated in the vicinity of the minimum of the existing wave field, it migrates through the minimum, so to speak. This would suggest a slight contamination due to secondary electrons.
FIG. 3 shows the reflectivity of the reflective optical element with the protective layer system of Y, Y2O3, and a-SiO2 as a function of the built-up contamination layer. If one selects a tolerance range of 1% for the fluctuation in reflectivity, a carbon layer up to 4 nm thick can be tolerated without significant change in reflectivity. The operating time is therefore a multiple higher than for traditional reflective optical elements.
In FIG. 4a and b, these positive results are also shown by means of an EUV lithography appliance with six reflective optical elements (S1-S6) according to the invention as mirrors. The tested mirror construction is shown in FIG. 4a. In FIG. 4b, the wavefront error is shown as a function of the carbon thickness.
Although the wavefront varies periodically with the increased carbon thickness, the absolute value of the wavefront error does not exceed a value that would significantly impair the imaging quality of the lithography system for any carbon thickness.
Because of the insensitivity of the reflective optical element discussed here with respect to the build-up of a carbon contamination layer, it is possible to only remove the contamination layer down to a layer of 0.5 nm when cleaning the reflective optical element or when cleaning the entire EUV lithography appliance. This will ensure, on the one hand, that the cleaned optical element once again has a long lifetime. But it will also make sure that the risk of degeneration of the layer homogeneity or roughening of the surface or partial destruction of the topmost layer by too intense cleaning is reduced.
EXAMPLE 2
On a multilayer system of 50 Mo/Si pairs located on an amorphous silicon dioxide substrate, optimized for an operating wavelength of 13.5 nm, a protective layer system of a 2.0 nm thick cerium layer, which adjoins the topmost molybdenum layer of the multilayer system, and a 1.5 nm thick silicon dioxide layer is placed. The minimum of a standing wave produced by reflection on the uncontaminated reflective optical element at operating wavelength λB lies in the vacuum, 0.05 λB from its surface. For a maximum reflectivity of 70.9% at an operating wavelength of 13.5 nm and a tolerated reflectivity decrease of 1%, a carbon contamination layer can tolerate a thickness of up to 3.5 nm (see FIG. 5). This reflective optical element as well is suitable for use in an EUV lithography appliance.
The above description of the preferred embodiments has been given by way of example.
From the disclosure given, those skilled in the art will not only understand the present invention and its attendant advantages, but will also find apparent various changes and modifications to the structures disclosed. The applicant seeks, therefore, to cover all such changes and modifications as fall within the spirit and scope of the invention, as defined by the appended claims, and equivalents thereof.

## Claims

1. A reflective optical element for the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and soft X-ray wavelength regions, the reflective optical element comprising a multilayer system and a protective layer system, wherein:
the protective layer system comprises at least two layers;
the protective layer system terminates at a vacuum side in least one layer of a material with a refractive index whose real part at an operating wavelength between 12.5 nm and 15 nm is between 0.90 and 1.03, and whose imaginary part at an operating wavelength between 12.5 nm and 15 nm is between 0 and 0.025; and
a first layer of the at least two layers of the protective layer system comprises one or more materials selected from the group consisting of SiO2, Y2O3 and ZrO2, while a second layer of the at least two layers of the protective layer system comprises one or more materials selected from the group consisting of silicon dioxide in various stoichiometric relations, Y and ZrO.

2. The reflective optical element according to claim 1, wherein the first layer of the protective layer system comprises SiO2, while the second layer of the protective layer system comprises silicon dioxide in various stoichiometric relations.

3. The reflective optical element according to claim 1, wherein the first layer of the protective layer system comprises SiO2, while the second layer of the protective layer system comprises SiO.

4. The reflective optical element according to claim 1, wherein the first layer of the protective layer system comprises Y2O3, while the second layer of the protective layer system comprises Y.

5. The reflective optical element according to claim 1, wherein the first layer of the protective layer system comprises ZrO2, while the second layer of the protective layer system comprises ZrO.

6. The reflective optical element according to claim 1, wherein the thickness of the protective layer system is equal to d1.

7. An extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) lithography appliance comprising at least one reflective optical element according to claim 1.

8. A reflective optical element for the extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray wavelength regions, the reflective optical element comprising a multilayer system and a protective layer system, wherein:
a side of the multilayer system facing the protective layer system terminates in an absorber layer,
the protective layer system comprises at least two layers,
the protective layer system terminates at a vacuum side in one layer of a material with a refractive index whose real part at an operating wavelength between 12.5 nm and 15 nm is between 0.90 and 1.03, and whose imaginary part at an operating wavelength between 12.5 nm and 15 nm is between 0 and 0.025,
the reflectivity plotted as a function of a thickness of the protective layer system by varying a thickness of the layer terminating the protective system at the vacuum side at first drops, until a first thickness value d1 is reached, the reflectivity remains essentially constant between the first thickness value d1 and a second thickness value d2, where d2>d1, and the reflectivity further drops for a third thickness value >d2,
the thickness of the protective layer system is smaller than d2, and
the layers of the protective layer system each consist of at least one of the materials selected from the group consisting of Ce, Be, Y, MoSi2, B, Y2O3, MoS2, RuxSiy, Zr, Nb, ZrO2, RuxMoy, RhxMoy, and RhxSiy.

9. The reflective optical element according to claim 8, wherein the imaginary part is between 0 and 0.015 and the real part is between 0.95 and 1.02.

10. The reflective optical element according to claim 8, wherein the protective layer system terminates toward a vacuum with a layer of a material for which build-up of carbon is suppressed.

11. The reflective optical element according to claim 8, wherein the protective layer system terminates toward a vacuum with a layer of a material that is inert to energy deposition.

12. The reflective optical element according to claim 8, wherein the thickness of the protective layer system is such that a standing wave formed by reflection at an operating wavelength λB has a minimum at a distance from the surface of the reflective optical element of 0.1λB or less.

13. The reflective optical element according to claim 12, wherein the minimum lies in the vacuum.

14. The reflective optical element according to claim 8, wherein the reflectivity curve as a function of the thickness of the protective layer system is constant in the context of a reflectivity decrease of 1% of the maximum reflectivity in the protective layer thickness region between d1 and d2.

15. The reflective optical element according to claim 8, wherein the reflectivity curve as a function of the thickness of the protective layer system between d1 and d2 goes through at least one inflection point at a protective layer thickness dw and the thickness of the protective layer system is less than dw.

16. A reflective optical element for the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and soft X-ray wavelength regions, the reflective optical element comprising a multilayer system and a protective layer system, wherein:
a side of the multilayer system facing the protective layer system terminates in an absorber layer, and
a reflectivity of the reflective optical element as a function of a thickness of a built-up contamination layer is constant within a tolerance range of 1% for the fluctuation in reflectivity throughout a given contamination layer thickness range that extends from an absence of a contamination layer to a contamination layer having a thickness that is 110% of a thickness of the protective layer system.

17. The reflective optical element according to claim 16, wherein
the given contamination layer thickness is approximately equal to or less than the thickness of the protective layer system.

18. The reflective optical element according to claim 16, wherein the protective layer system consists of two layers.

19. The reflective optical element according to claim 16, wherein the protective layer system consists of three layers.

20. The reflective optical element according to claim 16, wherein the protective layer system comprises one or more materials selected from the group consisting of Ce, Be, SiO, SiC, SiO2, Si3N4, C, Y, MoSi2, B, Y2O3, MoS2, B4C, BN, RuxSiy,Zr, Nb, MoC, ZrO2, RuxMoy, RhxMoy, and RhxSiy.

21. The reflective optical element according to claim 16, wherein the multilayer system is a system that consists of molybdenum and silicon layers, ending with a molybdenum layer on the side facing the protective layer system.

22. The reflective optical element according to claim 16, wherein the protective layer system terminates toward a vacuum with a layer of a material for which the build-up of carbon is suppressed.

23. The reflective optical element according to claim 16, wherein the protective layer system terminates toward a vacuum with a layer of a material that is inert to energy deposition.

24. The reflective optical element according to claim 16, wherein a thickness value d1 of the protective layer system is such that a standing wave formed by reflection at an operating wavelength λB has a minimum at a distance from the surface of the reflective optical element of 0.1λB or less.

25. An extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography appliance with at least one reflective optical element according to claim 16.

26. A reflective optical element for the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and soft X-ray wavelength regions, comprising:
a multilayer system,
a protective layer system; and
a contamination layer that changes in thickness over time from essentially zero to greater than a thickness of the protective layer system,
wherein
the thickness over time of the contamination layer produces fluctuations in reflectivity of the reflective optical element of no more than 1%.