NOT FOR PUBLICATION

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT

AMIE DRAMMEH; et al., 

Plaintiffs-Appellants, 

 v. 

UBER TECHNOLOGIES, INC., a Delaware 

corporation; et al., 

Defendants-Appellees.

No. 22-36038 

D.C. No. 2:21-cv-00202-BJR 

MEMORANDUM*

Appeal from the United States District Court

for the Western District of Washington

Barbara Jacobs Rothstein, District Judge, Presiding

Argued and Submitted March 26, 2024

Submission Withdrawn June 24, 2024

Resubmitted August 30, 2024

San Francisco, California

Before: PAEZ, NGUYEN, and BUMATAY, Circuit Judges.

Dissent by Judge BUMATAY

Cherno Ceesay (“Ceesay”), an Uber driver, was murdered by two Uber 

riders in a failed carjacking attempt in December 2020. His estate, Amie 

Drammeh et al. (“Drammeh”), sued Uber Technologies, Inc. (“Uber”), for 

* This disposition is not appropriate for publication and is not precedent 

except as provided by Ninth Circuit Rule 36-3.

FILED

AUG 30 2024

MOLLY C. DWYER, CLERK

U.S. COURT OF APPEALS
2 

negligence and wrongful death. Drammeh now appeals the district court’s order 

granting summary judgment to Uber. We have jurisdiction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. 

§ 1291. We review de novo a district court’s grant of a motion for summary 

judgment. See A.T. Kearney, Inc. v. Int’l Bus. Machines Corp., 73 F.3d 238, 240 

(9th Cir. 1995). We also review de novo a district court’s determination of state 

law. Salve Regina Coll. v. Russell, 499 U.S. 225, 231 (1991). 

In granting summary judgment to Uber, the district court concluded that 

Uber did not owe a duty of care to Ceesay. In Washington, “[t]he existence of 

duty is a threshold question of law decided by the court,” Lauritzen v. Lauritzen, 

74 Wash.App. 432, 438 (1994), and determining “whether a duty to protect against 

third party criminal conduct is owed at all” hinges on whether the harms were 

legally foreseeable, McKown v. Simon Prop. Grp., Inc., 182 Wash.2d 752, 764 

(2015). The district court concluded that no special relationship existed between 

Uber and Ceesay giving rise to a duty of care, and regardless, that the specific 

harms were not legally foreseeable to Uber. We disagree with both conclusions, 

and we reverse and remand for further proceedings. 

1. Special Relationship. The district court erred in concluding that Uber 

did not have a special relationship with Ceesay and thus did not owe him a duty of 

care. In a prior order, we certified the question of whether Uber owed Ceesay a 

duty of care to the Washington Supreme Court. See Drammeh v. Uber Tech., Inc., 
3 

105 F.4th 1138, 1140 (9th Cir. 2024). The court declined our request for 

certification. We therefore must “predict as best we can what the [Washington] 

Supreme Court would do in these circumstances.” Marin Tug & Barge, Inc. v. 

Westport Petroleum, Inc., 271 F.3d 825, 830 (9th Cir. 2001) (citation omitted). 

We conclude that, under Washington law, a rideshare company owes a duty to its 

drivers to use reasonable care in matching them with riders. 

In general, there exists “no duty [in tort law] to control the conduct of a third 

person as to prevent him from causing physical harm to another. . . .” Restatement 

(Second) of Torts § 315 (1965). One exception to the general rule is if “a special 

relation exists between the actor and the other which gives the other a right to 

protection.” Id. at § 315(b). Washington law recognizes a number of protective 

special relationships, including between schools and their students, innkeepers and 

their guests, group homes for disabled individuals and their residents, businesses 

and their invitees, employers and their employees, and general contractors and 

subcontractors. See H.B.H. v. State, 192 Wash.2d 154, 169 (2018) (discussing the 

special relationships Washington recognizes). 

When deciding whether to extend the special relationship exception, the 

Washington Supreme Court has looked to whether the relationship in question is 

analogous to any of the relationships currently recognized under Washington law. 

See, e.g., Niece v. Elmview Grp. Home, 131 Wash.2d 39, 44–45 (1997). But mere 
4 

analogy to an existing relationship is not always enough to recognize a new special 

relationship. See, e.g., Turner v. Wash. State Dep’t of Soc. & Health Servs., 198 

Wash.2d 273, 285–88 (2021) (declining to find a special relationship between 

recipients of the state’s long-term care services and the state’s Department of 

Social & Health Services). 

The court has clarified that the inquiry into whether a special relationship 

exists is less about simple analogy to an existing relationship and is instead more

about “vulnerability and entrustment.” H.B.H., 192 Wash.2d at 172–73. The court 

has further explained that a special relationship does not necessarily require

“physical custody.” Id. at 170. Rather, a special relationship under Washington 

law requires the “traits of dependence and control.” Barlow v. State, 2 Wash.3d 

583, 593 (2024).

Predicting what the Washington Supreme Court would do, we conclude that 

the court would recognize a special relationship between rideshare companies and 

their drivers, such that rideshare companies owe a duty to use reasonable care in 

pairing their drivers with riders.1 Significantly, while all parties agree that this 

1 The dissent relies on a “recent Washington state law that ‘preempts the field of 

regulating transportation network companies’” to conclude that we should have 

“left this in the hands of the Washington Legislature.” Dissent at 1 (citing Wash. 

Rev. Code § 46.72B.190(1)). This law, however, has no effect on tort liability; 

rather, it prohibits counties, cities, and municipalities in the state of Washington 

from imposing “any tax, fee, or other charge, on a transportation network company 
5 

case does not involve an employer-employee relationship, the relationship between 

a rideshare company and its drivers is closely analogous to the relationship 

between employer and employee and the relationship between contractor and 

subcontractor. See, e.g., Vargas v. Inland Wash., LLC, 194 Wash.2d 720, 731 

(2019) (holding that when a general contractor “retains control over some part of 

the work,” they have “a duty, within the scope of that control, to provide a safe 

place of work”). 

But we do not rely on mere analogy. Drammeh, in opposing Uber’s 

summary judgment motion, presented sufficient undisputed evidence for us to 

conclude that Uber maintained a requisite level of control in matching drivers with 

riders, such that Ceesay entrusted and was dependent upon Uber for his safety. 

Drammeh pointed to Uber’s “exclusive control over all aspects of the ‘digital 

interface’ between Drivers, Riders, and Uber.” Uber alone controlled the 

verification methods of drivers and riders, what information to make available to 

each respective party, and consistently represented to drivers that it took their 

safety into consideration. 

Ceesay relied entirely on Uber to match him with riders, and he was not 

given any meaningful information about the rider other than their location. The 

or driver.” Wash. Rev. Code § 46.72B.190(1). We thus fail to see its relevance 

here.
6 

dissent points out that Ceesay could have simply rejected the ride, Dissent at 3, but 

this suggestion ignores the incentive structure created by ridesharing companies. 

Ceesay was driving as a means of making money, and in order to make money, he 

needed to accept riders. Uber did not disclose to Ceesay—nor give him any 

opportunity to discover—which riders had suspicious profiles or were using 

anonymous forms of payment. Under the dissent’s logic, then, Ceesay would need 

to reject every ride—effectively quitting his job—in order to ensure his own safety. 

In this way, Ceesay rationally entrusted Uber to use reasonable care in accounting 

for his safety when Uber matched him with riders. The relationship thus possessed 

the “traits of dependence and control.” Barlow, 2 Wash.3d at 593.

The district court erred in concluding that Uber owed no duty to Ceesay. 

Under Washington law, rideshare companies have a special relationship with their 

drivers, such that they owe the drivers a duty to use reasonable care when matching 

them with potential riders. 

2. Foreseeability. The district court also erred in concluding that Ceesay’s 

murder was not legally foreseeable. Under Washington law, foreseeability can be 

both a question of law and a question of fact.2 See McKown, 182 Wash.2d at 762, 

2 Here, we are focused only on legal foreseeability, which is part of the duty 

inquiry and a question of law for the court. McKown, 182 Wash.2d at 764. 

Factual foreseeability, which is normally part of the causation inquiry, is a question 

for the jury and asks “if a reasonable person in the defendant’s position would be 

aware of a general field of danger posing a risk to one such as the plaintiff.” 
7 

764. Legal foreseeability asks whether the defendant “had notice of criminal 

activity sufficient to give rise to a duty”—in other words, whether “the specific 

acts in question were foreseeable.” McKown, 182 Wash.2d at 764, 767. Given the 

special relationship between rideshare companies and drivers, Uber owed Ceesay a 

duty of care when matching him with riders. With this duty in mind, we next ask

whether the harms suffered by Ceesay were legally foreseeable, such that the duty 

would exist in this scenario. See Niece, 131 Wash.2d at 50. When an underlying

duty of care exists, “[i]ntentional or criminal conduct may be [legally] foreseeable 

unless it is ‘so highly extraordinary or improbable as to be wholly beyond the 

range of expectability.’” Id. (quoting Johnson v. State, 77 Wash.App. 934, 942 

(1995), review denied, 127 Wash.2d 1020 (1995)). 

In opposing summary judgment, Drammeh presented sufficient evidence to 

demonstrate that the specific acts which resulted in Ceesay’s death were 

reasonably foreseeable to Uber. Drammeh provided evidence that Uber had 

knowledge that riders were committing violent assaults and carjackings against 

drivers. Here, the “specific acts in question,” McKown, 182 Wash.2d at 767, were 

an attempted carjacking and a violent assault against Ceesay by riders with whom 

H.B.H., 192 Wash.2d at 176–77 (cleaned up). We hold that an assault and 

attempted carjacking by rideshare riders on a rideshare driver is not a legally 

unforeseeable harm. The question of whether these specific riders’ assault on 

Ceesay was within the general field of danger, however, remains a question of fact 

for the jury. See Niece, 131 Wash.2d at 51 n. 10.
8 

Uber paired him. The assault ultimately led to his death. Given Uber’s knowledge 

of assaults at the time, this incident “was not so highly extraordinary or improbable 

as to be unforeseeable as a matter of law.” Asphy v. State, 552 P.3d 325, 340

(Wash. Ct. App. 2024).

The district court thus erred in concluding that the assault on Ceesay was not 

legally foreseeable.

3. Filing Under Seal. The district court also abused its discretion in 

ordering certain documents to be filed under seal. We review a district court’s 

decision to file records under seal for abuse of discretion. Valley Broad. Co. v. 

U.S. Dist. Ct. for Dist. of Nev., 798 F.2d 1289, 1294 (9th Cir. 1986). A district 

court abuses its discretion when it does not “articulat[e] both a compelling reason 

and factual basis” for ordering records sealed. United States v. Bus. of Custer 

Battlefield Museum & Store Located at Interstate 90, Exit 514, S. of Billings, 

Mont., 658 F.3d 1188, 1195–96. (9th Cir. 2011) (cleaned up). 

The district court did not make any factual findings or articulate any reasons 

supporting its order that certain documents be filed under seal. This was an abuse 

of discretion. See id. We thus remand for the district court to “conscientiously 

balance the competing interests of the public and the party who seeks to keep 

certain judicial records secret,” id. at 1195, and offer “compelling reasons and 

specific factual findings,” San Jose Mercury News, Inc. v. U.S. Dist. Ct., 187 F.3d 
9 

1096, 1102 (9th Cir. 1999), for any decision regarding the sealing of documents. 

Plaintiffs-Appellants shall recover their costs on appeal. 

REVERSED AND REMANDED for further proceedings consistent 

with this disposition. 
1 

Amie Drammeh v. Uber Techs., Inc., 22-36038

BUMATAY, Circuit Judge, dissenting:

I think we failed to take the hint here. After the district court issued a thorough 

and well-reasoned decision granting summary judgment to Uber based on the lack 

of a “special relationship,” we certified the question to the Washington Supreme 

Court. The Washington Supreme Court rejected our request for certification. The 

obvious reason—Washington law does not create a “special relationship” for a 

rideshare company to protect its drivers from the criminal conduct of passengers. 

That’s clear from Washington courts’ repeated “reject[ion of the] invitation to 

broaden the common law [“special relationship”] duty. See Barlow v. State, 540 P.3d 

783, 788 (Wash. 2024). Yet we fashion a new expansive tort liability here with 

broad-ranging consequences for rideshare companies in particular and the “gig 

economy” in general. All this, despite recent Washington state law that “preempts 

the field of regulating transportation network companies and drivers.” Rev. Code. 

Wash. § 46.72B.190(1). Even so, somehow the majority sees no value at looking at 

how the Washington Legislature has regulated (or not regulated) the precise industry 

in question here. But under Washington law, “a significant expansion of [tort] 

liability should be left to the consideration of the Legislature” if “[c]urrent 

Washington law does not support the [proposed] liability theory.” Niece v. Elmview 

Grp. Home, 131 Wash. 2d 39, 52, 59 (Wash. 1997). So we should have taken the 

FILED

AUG 30 2024

MOLLY C. DWYER, CLERK

U.S. COURT OF APPEALS
2

hint and left this in the hands of the Washington Legislature. At the very least, we 

should have deferred to the Washington courts’ clear direction.

While the events that took place here are tragic, because Washington law 

doesn’t extend so far as to establish a duty on rideshare companies to protect drivers 

from the criminal acts of passengers, I respectfully dissent.

I.

To sustain the negligence claim here, Amie Drammeh, as the executor of 

Cherno Cessay’s estate, must prove that Uber had a duty to protect its drivers from 

the foreseeable criminal acts of a third party. Absent the narrow exception for a 

“special relationship” or “misfeasance,” under Washington law, “people and 

businesses have no duty to aid or protect others from harm.” Barlow, 540 P.3d at 

786. As the majority does not upset the district court’s misfeasance analysis, I focus 

on whether (1) Uber has a “special relationship” with its drivers, and (2) whether the 

carjacking and murder of an Uber driver in Washington State was reasonably

foreseeable to give rise to a duty of care. 

A.

No Special Relationship

Under Washington law, no “special relationship” is formed unless the plaintiff

is “helpless, totally dependent, or under the complete control of someone else for 

decisions relating to their safety.” Id. at 788; see also Turner v. Wash. State Dep’t of 
3

Soc. & Health Servs., 493 P.3d 117, 125 (Wash. 2021) (concluding no special 

relationship when the department “did not have complete control over the living 

options nor did it make the ultimate decision” regarding the recipient’s living 

situation); Lauritzen v. Lauritzen, 874 P.2d 861, 866 (Wash. 1994) (holding no 

special relationship between a driver and his passenger because the driver lacked the 

“control over access to the premises that [the person with a special duty] was obliged 

to protect”).

No special relationship exists between Uber and its drivers. Uber retains little 

control over its drivers’ day-to-day work. See Rev. Code Wash. § 49.46.300(1)(i)(i)–

(iv) (describing independence of rideshare drivers); see also Folsom v. Burger King, 

958 P.2d 301, 309 (Wash. 1998) (holding no duty between a franchisor and the 

murdered employees of the franchise because the franchisor did not retain control 

over their “daily operation[s]”). Though Uber may decide which customers drivers 

are matched with, drivers retain control over the daily operation of their jobs.

Drivers often use their own personal vehicles and are required to maintain their cars’ 

safety measures. Drivers choose the time when they work, they choose the location 

where they conduct their business, and, ultimately, they exercise a choice in picking 

up a passenger. So an Uber driver can reject a passenger—any time for any reason. 

See Rev. Code Wash. § 49.46.300(1)(i)(ii) (“The transportation network company 

may not terminate the contract of the driver for not accepting a specific 
4

transportation service request[.]”). Nothing in their relationship with Uber prevents 

drivers from taking charge of their own safety. Thus, this relationship “lacks the 

traits of dependence and control” of safety considerations necessary to establish a 

“special relationship.” Barlow, 540 P.3d at 788.

And Uber has no physical custody or control over its drivers—a common 

hallmark of a “special relationship.” See HBH v. State, 429 P.3d 484, 494 (Wash. 

2018). In cases accepting a special relationship outside the physical-custody-andcontrol setting, Washington law requires the defendant to assume responsibility for 

the safety of a “vulnerable victim.” Id. (including examples of foster children and

children in the custody and care of a church). Without this “entrustment for the 

protection of a vulnerable victim,” no special relationship is created. Id. Uber 

drivers are nothing like the foster children considered “vulnerable victims.” They 

are adults who enter an arm’s-length contract with Uber to earn a living. 

The majority’s massive expansion of tort liability will have rippling effects 

across Washington’s economy. Under the majority’s theory, anytime a rideshare 

company (or any other “gig economy” company) fails to ensure the safety of its 

independent contractors, it may be on the hook if the company has any amount of 

control over the contractor’s tasks. Indeed, if merely matching a driver to a 

passenger is enough to create a special relationship, then there’s nothing “special” 

about it.
5

Based on clear Washington law, we should have found no special relationship 

here.

B.

No Foreseeable Harm

The murder and attempted carjacking of Ceesay was also unforeseeable and 

so doesn’t create a duty for Uber. Washington law requires “notice of criminal 

activity sufficient to give rise to a duty” to protect. McKown v. Simon Prop. Grp., 

Inc., 344 P.3d 661, 665 (Wash. 2015). “[I]f the criminal act that injures the plaintiff 

is not sufficiently similar in nature and location to the prior act(s) of violence, 

sufficiently close in time to the act in question, and sufficiently numerous, then the 

act is likely unforeseeable as a matter of law under the prior similar incidents test.” 

Id. at 669.

Uber had no notice of criminal activity like what occurred here. No evidence

shows a dangerous propensity of Uber passengers using a fake account with an 

anonymous payment method to carjack and then murder Uber drivers in Issaquah, 

Washington—where Ceesay was murdered. See Tortes v. King Cnty., 84 P.3d 252, 

255 (Wash. 2003) (criminal acts were unforeseeable because there was “no evidence 

that Metro knew of the excessively dangerous propensities of [the attacker] and 

evidence does not support the fact that there were similar crimes on other Metro 

buses, only that simple assaults had occurred”). So no evidence supports the 
6

proposition that, any time a passenger created an Uber profile and used a gift card 

for payment, Uber was on notice of pending criminal mischief sufficient to form a 

duty to protect. 

And under Washington law, even if statistical evidence showed a general 

increase in carjackings in other parts of the country or the world, this general crime 

rate data does not support that the carjacking in Washington State was foreseeable. 

See Kim v. Budget Rent A Car Sys., Inc., 84 P.3d 252, 255 (Wash. 2001) (rejecting 

“utilization of high crime rates as a basis for imposing a tort duty”).

Given the unforeseeability of Ceesay’s tragic murder, Uber had no duty to 

protect against it.

II.

On the sealing of Uber’s discovery, Uber has shown that the documents at 

issue involve sensitive or proprietary information. And the district court accepted 

Uber’s reasons as “good cause” for a protective order. This isn’t enough to find an 

abuse of discretion. So I would affirm across the board. 

I respectfully dissent.