Importation of Fresh Fruit of Litchi (Litchi chinensis), 

Longan (Dimocarpus longan), and Rambutan (Nephelium 

lappaceum) into the Continental United States from ASEAN 

Countries 

A Qualitative, Pathway-initiated Pest Risk Assessment

August 15, 2011

Ver. 2

Agency Contact:

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

United States Department of Agriculture 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27606
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 ii

Executive Summary

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) prepared this document to examine plant pest risks associated with the 

importation of fresh litchi (or lychee) (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), longan (Dimocarpus longan

Lour.), and rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.) (Sapindaceae) fruit into the continental United 

States from the following member countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations 

(ASEAN): Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, and 

Vietnam. 

We developed a list of pests reported in one or more of the ASEAN member countries and 

reported as attacking litchi, longan, and/or rambutan based on the scientific literature, port-ofentry pest interception data, and information provided by the countries. We determined which 

pests are quarantine pests likely to follow the commodity pathway, and consequently are 

candidates for risk mitigation measures. Additionally, we determined if the agency-approved 

generic dose of irradiation (400 Gy), which mitigates the risk from all insect pests except for 

Lepidoptera pupae and adults, is adequate to provide phytosanitary security or if other 

phytosanitary measures may be required. For quarantine pests likely to follow the commodity

pathway and for which irradiation treatment is not currently approved by APHIS, we estimated 

their unmitigated risks.

From the pest list, we identified 48 quarantine pests as likely to follow one or more of the 

commodity pathways from at least one ASEAN country:

Pest Taxonomy Pest Scientific Name Pathway

Arthropods

Acari: Eriophyidae Aceria litchii (Keifer) Litchi, Longan

Diptera: Tephritidae Bactrocera correcta (Bezzi) Longan

Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) Litchi

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Bactrocera papayae Drew & Hancock Rambutan

Hemiptera: Coccidae Ceroplastes rubens Maskell Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Ceroplastes rusci (Linnaeus) Litchi, Rambutan

Coccus discrepans Green Longan

Coccus viridis (Green) Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Drepanococcus chiton (Green) Longan

Taiwansaissetia formicarii (Green) Longan (with stems)

Hemiptera: Kerridae Kerria greeni (Chamberlin) Longan (with stems)

Kerria lacca (Kerr) Litchi, Longan (with stems)

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae Crisicoccus theobromae Williams & Watson Rambutan

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Beardsley Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Exallomochlus hispidus (Morrison) Longan, Rambutan

Exallomochlus philippinensis Williams Longan, Rambutan

Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) Longan, Rambutan

Maconellicoccus multipori (Takahashi) Rambutan
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 iii

Pest Taxonomy Pest Scientific Name Pathway

Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Paracoccus interceptus Lit Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Planococcus lilacinus (Cockerell) Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Planococcus litchi Cox Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Planococcus minor (Maskell) Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Pseudococcus aurantiacus Williams Rambutan

Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green) Rambutan

Rastrococcus jabadiu Williams Rambutan

Rastrococcus tropicasiaticus Williams Rambutan

Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae Dichomeris indiserta Meyr. Rambutan

Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae Conopomorpha cramerella Snellen Rambutan

Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley Litchi, Longan

Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae Deudorix diovis Hewitson Litchi, Longan

Deudorix epijarbas (Moore) Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae Stathmopoda conioma Meyrick Rambutan

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Conogethes punctiferalis (Guenée) Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Cryptoblabes gnidiella Millière Rambutan

Tirathaba mundella Walker Rambutan

Tirathaba ruptilinea Walker Rambutan

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae Archips mimicus Walsingham Rambutan

Cryptophlebia illepida Butler Litchi, Rambutan

Cryptophlebia ombrodelta (Lower) Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Gatesclarkeana erotias Meyrick Litchi

Lobesia aeolopa Meyrick Litchi

Ophiorrhabda cellifera Meyrick Rambutan

Thysanoptera: Thripidae Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood Longan

Fungi

Ascomycetes: Erysiphales Oidium nephelii Hadiwidjaja Rambutan

Oomycetes: Pythiales Phytophthora litchii (C.C. Chen ex W.H. Ko, 

H.S. Chang, H.J. Su, C.C. Chen & L.S. Leu) 

Voglmayr, Göker, Riethm. & Oberw.

Litchi

The irradiation treatment, along with standard post-harvest processing, should mitigate the risks 

from all the insects listed above. Additional measures may be required to mitigate risks 

associated with the mite pest, Aceria litchii, and the fungal pathogens, Oidium nephelii and 

Phytophthora litchii. Irradiation should cause some mortality in these pests, but will not 

completely mitigate the risk. Because irradiation does not completely mitigate these pests, we 

analyzed them further. We found Medium Pest Risk Potentials for Aceria litchii, Oidium 

nephelii, and Phytophthora litchii.

Detailed examination and choice of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk are 

part of the pest risk management phase within APHIS and are not addressed in this document.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 iv

Table of Contents

Executive Summary...................................................................................................................... ii

1. Introduction................................................................................................................................1

1.1. Background.....................................................................................................................1

1.2. Standard Post-Harvest Processing and Quarantine Treatment .......................................2

2. Risk Assessment .........................................................................................................................3

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action...................................................................................3

2.2. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan............................3

2.3. Current Status..................................................................................................................4

2.4. Pest Categorization .........................................................................................................6

2.5. Analysis of Quarantine Pests........................................................................................76

3. Authors and Reviewers............................................................................................................86

4. Literature Cited .......................................................................................................................86
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 1

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) 

of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prepared this risk assessment to examine the 

plant pest risks associated with the importation of fresh fruit of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), 

longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.), and rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.) (Sapindaceae) into 

the continental United States from the following eight Association of Southeast Asian Nations 

(ASEAN) member countries: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, 

Thailand, and Vietnam (Figure 1). The two ASEAN countries not included in this list are Burma 

(Myanmar), and Singapore. Synonyms for the commodities are as follows: Nephelium litchi 

Cambess for litchi; N. longana Cambess., Euphoria longana Steud., and E. longana Lam. for 

longan; and E. nephelium DC. and Dimocarpus crinita Louri for rambutan (Morton, 1987b).

We identified which pests are quarantine pests likely to follow the commodity pathways and 

consequently are candidates for risk mitigation measures. Additionally, we determined if the 

agency-approved generic irradiation treatment (400 Gy) is adequate to provide phytosanitary

security or if other measures may be required. PPQ recognizes irradiation as an approved generic 

treatment for all imported fruits and vegetables for all plant pests of the class Insecta other than 

pupae and adults of the order Lepidoptera (PPQ, 2011c). 

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) provides guidance for conducting pest risk 

analyses. The methods used here are consistent with guidelines provided by the IPPC, 

specifically the International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) on Pest Risk Analysis 

for Quarantine Pests, Including Analysis of Environmental Risks and Living Modified 

Organisms (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #11). Our use of biological and phytosanitary terms is consistent 

with the Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #5). Three stages of pest risk 

analysis are described in international standards: Stage 1, Initiation; Stage 2 Risk Assessment;

and Stage 3, Risk Management. This document satisfies the requirements of Stages 1 and 2.

This is a qualitative risk analysis; estimates of risk are expressed in terms of High, Medium, and 

Low pest risk potentials based on the combined ratings for specified risk elements related to the 

probability and consequences of litchi, longan, and rambutan fruits imported from the ASEAN 

countries. The details of the methodology and rating criteria are in the Guidelines for PathwayInitiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000). For the purposes of this assessment, 

High, Medium, and Low probabilities will be defined as:

High: more likely to occur than not to occur

Medium: as likely to occur as not to occur

Low: less likely to occur than not to occur

The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest depends on the risk posed by that 

pest. Identification of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate the risk, if any, for this 

commodity import is undertaken as part of Stage 3 (Risk Management) and is not addressed in 

this document.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 2

Figure 1. Map of the eight ASEAN member countries considered in this risk assessment.

1.2. Standard Post-Harvest Processing and Quarantine Treatment

Standard post-harvest processing information is not available for all the country/commodity

combinations assessed here. For litchi, longan, and rambutan from Vietnam, and for rambutan

from Malaysia, the exporting countries state that the fruit will be sorted (culled) for quality and 

pest absence, followed by packaging in specific materials, such as plastic film or containers

(Othman et al., 2004; PPD, 2005, 2007a, 2007b). Culling and packaging are expected standard 

practices for all commercial quality litchi, longan, and rambutan fruit (e.g., Biosecurity Australia, 

2002; Holcroft et al., 2005; Lim and Diczbalis, 1998; Menzel and McConchie, 1998a; Nakasone 

and Paull, 1998), so we assume that all three commodities from all eight ASEAN countries here 

will undergo, at a minimum, these two steps as part of post-harvest processing. Also, we 

assumed that, if warranted by the identification of insect quarantine pests likely to follow the 

pathway, the commodities would undergo generic irradiation treatment (400 Gy) as a 

phytosanitary measure. These processes will be subject to verification and compliance checks.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 3

2. Risk Assessment

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action

We prepared this commodity-based, pathway-initiated pest risk assessment in response to 

requests for the USDA’s authorization to allow the importation of fresh litchi, longan, and 

rambutan fruit from multiple ASEAN countries into the continental United States. The 

movement of fruits and vegetables from foreign countries into the United States is regulated in 7 

CFR §319.56 (2011). Currently, except for Thailand, the entry of fresh litchi, longan, and 

rambutan fruit from the ASEAN countries into the continental United States is not authorized 

under 7 CFR §319.56; the governments of multiple ASEAN countries seek a change in this 

Federal Regulation to allow entry.

2.2. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

If the species considered for import poses a risk as a weed pest, then a “pest-initiated” risk 

assessment is conducted. The results of the weed potential screenings for litchi, longan, and 

rambutan did not prompt a pest-initiated risk assessment (Tables 1-3).

Table 1. Determining the weed potential of litchi.

Scientific name: Litchi chinensis Sonn. (Sapindaceae)

Common Names: Lychee, Litchi, Leechee, Lichee, Lichi, Litchia (NGRP, 2005)

Synonyms: Nephelium litchi Cambess (Morton, 1987b)

Phase 1: Distribution in the United States: U.S. distribution includes south Florida, 

California, and Hawaii (Morton, 1987b). Litchi is native to China. Currently, it is 

cultivated worldwide in the subtropical regions.

Phase 2: Invasive / Weed Status: Listing as weed

No 7 CFR § 360, 2005; Gunn and Ritchie, 1988; Holm et al., 1997; Holm et al., 1991; 

Holm et al., 1977; Randall, 2005; Reed, 1977; Skinner et al., 2005; Swearingen, 

2005; Weber, 2003; WSSA, 2005

No Other scientific literature.

Phase 3: Summary and Conclusions: A review of the literature did not indicate Litchi 

chinensis is an invasive species. Thus, litchi fruits may be considered for import 

following an appropriate pest risk assessment. 

Conclusion Proceed with the pest risk assessment.

Table 2. Determining the weed potential of longan.

Scientific name: Dimocarpus longan Lour. (Sapindaceae)

Common Names: Longan, Longanier (NGRP, 2005)

Synonyms: Euphoria longana Steud., Euphoria longana Lam., Nephelium longana Cambess. 

(Morton, 1987b)

Phase 1: Distribution in the United States: Native to China and southeast Asia, longan is 
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 4

cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, including South 

Florida, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii (Crane et al., 2001; Morton, 1987b).

Phase 2: Invasive / Weed Status: Listing as weed

No 7 CFR § 360, 2005; Gunn and Ritchie, 1988; Holm et al., 1997; Holm et al., 1991; 

Holm et al., 1977; Reed, 1977; Skinner et al., 2005; Swearingen, 2005; Weber, 

2003; WSSA, 2005

Yes A Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2005).

Yes Other scientific literature (see below).

Phase 3: Summary and Conclusions: The Global Compendium of Weeds lists longan as a 

weedy species (Randall, 2005). The original reference cited by the Compendium 

reports only one case where longan has naturalized (IRC, 2005). This single 

occurrence is insufficient evidence to conclude that longan is an invasive species. 

This species was introduced to South Florida in 1903 and has not become invasive 

(Morton, 1987b). Furthermore, no other member of this genus has been reported 

to be weedy (Randall, 2005). Thus, it is recommended that longan fruits be 

considered for import following an appropriate pest risk assessment. 

Conclusion Proceed with the pest risk assessment.

Table 3. Determining the weed potential of rambutan.

Scientific name: Nephelium lappaceum L. (Sapindaceae)

Common Names: Rambutan, Litchi chevelu (NGRP, 2005)

Synonyms: Euphoria nephelium DC., Dimocarpus crinita Louri (Morton, 1987b).

Phase 1: Distribution in the United States: Rambutan is native to tropical Asia, where it is 

cultivated for its edible fruits (Morton, 1987b). It is also cultivated in other 

tropical areas including Hawaii (Zee, 1995a) and probably Puerto Rico as well. 

Phase 2: Invasive / Weed Status: Listing as weed

No 7 CFR § 360, 2005; Gunn and Ritchie, 1988; Holm et al., 1997; Holm et al., 

1991; Holm et al., 1977; Randall, 2005; Reed, 1977; Skinner et al., 2005; 

Swearingen, 2005; Weber, 2003; WSSA, 2005

No Other scientific literature. 

Phase 3: Summary and Conclusions: Rambutan is not listed by any available source as an 

invasive or weedy species (see above). Based on a description of its biology and 

germination requirements (Morton, 1987b; Zee, 1995a), it seems unlikely that it 

could become invasive. Therefore, fresh fruits of rambutan seem suitable for 

import following an appropriate pest risk assessment. 

Conclusion Proceed with the pest risk assessment.

2.3. Current Status

As stated above, with the exception of Thailand, the entry of fresh litchi, longan, and rambutan 

fruit from ASEAN countries into the United States is currently not authorized under 7 CFR §319. 

Litchi, longan, and rambutan fruit for consumption may enter the continental United States from 
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 5

others areas of Asia/Oceania under certain entry requirements (Table 4) (APHIS, 2011; PPQ, 

2011a, 2011b; query made February 24, 2011).

Table 4. Countries or regions in Asia/Oceania from which litchi, longan, and rambutan fruit are 

permitted entry into the continental United States (APHIS, 2011; PPQ, 2011a, 2011b, 2011c).

Commodity Country/State Requirement for Entry

Litchi China 1) cold treatment (T107-h), 2) prohibited entry into Florida, 3) subject to 

inspection at the port of entry and all general requirements of 7 CFR 

319.56-3

India 1) cold treatment (T107-h), 2) prohibited entry into Florida, 3) subject to 

inspection at the port of entry and all general requirements of 7 CFR 

319.56-3

Taiwan 1) cold treatment (T107-h), 2) prohibited entry into Florida, 3) subject to 

inspection at the port of entry and all general requirements of 7 CFR 

319.56-3, 

Thailand 1) commercial consignments only, 2) irradiation treatment (T105-a-2), 2) 

subject to inspection at the port of entry and all general requirements of 7 

CFR 319.56-3, 3) must be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate 

with two additional declarations stating that: "The fruit has been treated 

with irradiation in Thailand” and "The litchis were inspected during 

preclearance activities and found free of Peronophythora litchi"

Hawaii 1) hot water immersion (T102-d), irradiation (T105-a-1), or vapor heat 

treatment (T106-f), 2) prohibited entry into Florida

Longan China 1) cold treatment (T107-h), 2) prohibited entry into Florida, 3) subject to 

inspection at the port of entry and all general requirements of 7 CFR 

319.56-3

Taiwan 1) cold treatment (T107-h), 2) commercial consignments only, 3) 

prohibited entry into Florida, 4) subject to inspection at the port of entry 

and all general requirements of 7 CFR 319.56-3, 5) must be accompanied 

by a phytosanitary certificate with an additional declaration stating that 

the fruit is free of Conogethes punctiferalis, Cryptophlebia ombrodelta, 

and Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus

Thailand 1) irradiation treatment (T105-a-2), 2) commercial consignments only, 3) 

prohibited entry into Florida, 4) subject to inspection at the port of entry 

and all general requirements of 7 CFR 319.56-3, 5) must be accompanied 

by a phytosanitary certificate with an additional declaration stating that 

“The fruit has been treated with irradiation in Thailand”

Hawaii hot water immersion (T102-d), irradiation (T105-a-1), or vapor heat 

treatment (T106-f)

Rambutan Thailand 1) irradiation treatment (T105-a-2), 2) commercial consignments only, 3) 

subject to inspection at the port of entry and all general requirements of 7 

CFR 319.56-3, 5) must be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate 

with an additional declaration stating that “The fruit has been treated with 

irradiation in Thailand”

Hawaii high temperature forced air (T103-e), irradiation (T105-a-1), or vapor 

heat treatment (T106-g)
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 6

2.4. Pest Categorization

2.4.1. Pests associated with litchi, longan, and rambutan

Below we list the pests associated with litchi, longan, and/or rambutan that are reported in at 

least one of the countries on any host (Table 5). We identify and provide references for the 

presence or absence of these pests in the United States; the affected plant part or parts; the 

quarantine status of the pest; and if the quarantine pests are likely to follow the pathway and 

enter the continental United States on commercial litchi, longan, and/or rambutan fruit. We 

developed this pest list based on the scientific literature, port-of-entry pest interception data, and 

information provided by ASEAN member countries. Pests in shaded rows are quarantine pests 

likely to follow the pathway of commercial fruit shipments and selected for further analysis 

because they are candidates for risk mitigation. We summarize these pests in a separate table 

(Table 6). 

We do not provide information on plant part association and if the pest is likely to follow the 

pathway for non-quarantine pests. Even if non-quarantine pests are able to follow the pathway, 

phytosanitary measures against these pests would not be justified because they already occur in 

the continental United States. Therefore, for non-quarantine pests we indicate that information 

with N/A (not applicable). 
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 7

Table 5. Plant pests reported on litchi, longan, and/or rambutan (in any country) and present on any host in one or more of the ASEAN 

member countries (Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam).

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

ARTHROPODS

Acari: Eriophyidae

Abacarus euphoriae Keifer TH (Davis et al., 

1982)

Amrine and 

Stasny, 1994; 

Davis et al., 

1982

Yes L (Anonymous, 2003) No

Aceria litchii (Keifer) (Syn.:

Eriophyes litchi Keifer)

TH (Waterhouse, 

1993); VN (Tru, 

2008); US (HI) 

(Amrine and Stasny, 

1994)

Waite and 

Elder, 1999; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Taiwan, 2002 Yes L, I, F (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002)

Yes

Aceria longana Boczek & 

Knihinicki 

TH (Anupunt, 2003a) Anupunt, 

2003a

Yes young L, I (Anupunt, 

2003a)

No

Acari: Tarsonemidae

Polyphagotarsonemus latus 

(Banks)

ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(C.I.E., 1986)

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

No N/A N/A

Tarsonemus sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009)

4 Yes

 

1 BN=Brunei; KH=Cambodia; ID=Indonesia; LA=Laos; MY=Malaysia; PH=Philippines; TH=Thailand; VN=Vietnam; US=United States; HI=Hawaii; a

Pest has been 

intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry one or more times on plant commodities originating from one or more of the ASEAN countries in question (PestID, 2009). b This 

organism may or may not occur in other countries within the ASEAN region; however, because this species is a non-quarantine pest, additional research to delimit the 

entire regional distribution was not warranted. c This organism may or may not occur in other countries within the ASEAN region; however, because this species does 

not follow the pathway, additional research to delimit the entire regional distribution was not warranted.

2 Brackets around the quarantine status designation indicate that the pest has a limited distribution in the continental United States and is either under official control or 

under consideration for official control.

3

Plant Parts: Bk = Bark, Br = Branches, F = Fruit, I = Inflorescence, L = Leaves/Foliage, R = Root, Sd = Seed, Sh = Shoot, St = Stem, Tr = Trunk, Tw = Twig, and W = 

Wood.

4

Tarsonemus sp. was intercepted seven times at U.S. ports-of-entry on longan fruit in passenger baggage (PestID, 2009).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 8

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Acari: Tenuipalpidae

Brevipalpus californicus (Banks) MY, PH, TH (CABI, 

2006); US (CABI, 

2005)

van den Berg et 

al., 2001

No N/A N/A

Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes) ID, LA, MY, PH, TH, 

VN (CABI, 2006); 

US (CABI, 2004; 

Jeppson et al., 1975)

CABI, 2006 Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002

No N/A N/A

Acari: Tetranychidae

Eutetranychus orientalis (Klein) MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Bolland et al., 1998)

Bolland et 

al., 1998; 

CABI, 2004; 

Waterhouse,

1993

Yes L (CABI, 2004) No

Oligonychus biharensis (Hirst) 

(Syn.: Paratetranychus 

hawaiiensis)

MY, PH, TH 

(Bolland et al., 1998); 

US (HI) (Bolland et 

al., 1998)

Bolland et al., 

1998; Morton, 

1987b; Moutia, 

1958

Wongsiri, 

1991

Yes L (Moutia, 1958; 

Wongsiri, 1991)

No

Oligonychus coffeae (Nietner) ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Bolland et al., 1998); 

US (CABI, 2005)

Bolland et al., 

1998; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

No N/A N/A

Oligonychus mangiferus 

(Rahman & Sapra)

TH (Bolland et al., 

1998; Waterhouse, 

1993); US (HI) 

(Jeppson et al., 1975)

Bolland et al., 

1998

Yes L (Jeppson et al., 

1975)

No

Oligonychus thelytokus Gutierrez ID (Bolland et al., 

1998)

Bolland et al., 

1998; 

Gutierrez, 1977

Yes L (Gutierrez, 1977) No

Tetranychus urticae Koch [Syn.:

Tetranychus cinnabarinus

(Boisd.)]

ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Bolland et al., 1998); 

US (Bolland et al., 

1998; CABI, 2004)

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; 

Tindall, 1994

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 9

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Coleoptera: Bostrichidae

Sinoxylon anale (Lesne) ID, PH, TH (EPPO,

2005)

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002

No5 N/A N/A

Xylopsocus capucinus Fabricius KH, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN 

(Woodruff et al., 

2005); US (Woodruff 

et al., 2005)

Quilici et al., 

1988; 

Woodruff et al., 

2005

Woodruff et 

al., 2005

No N/A N/A

Heterobostrychus aequalis 

Waterhouse

TH (Anonymous, 

1965a); ID, MY, PH, 

TH (CABI, 2006); 

US (CABI, 2006)

Anonymous, 

1965a

No N/A N/A

Coleoptera: Cerambycidae

Aristobia approximator

(Thomson)

VN (Kawabe and Ito, 

2003); TH (AFFA, 

2004)

AFFA, 2004 Yes Br (AFFA, 2004) No 

Dialeges sp. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes W (Beeson, 1922; 

Browne, 1949; Thapa, 

1970)

No

Niphonoclea albata Newman PH (Waterhouse, 

1993)

Morton, 

1987b

Yes Tw (CABI, 2006) No

Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Aulacophora femoralis

(Motschulsky)

VN (Waterhouse, 

1993)

AFFA, 2004 AFFA, 2004 Yes L (AFFA, 2004) No

Phyllotreta striolata (Fabricius) ID, LA, MY, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(CABI, 2006)

AFFA, 2004 AFFA, 2004 No N/A N/A

 

5

Sinoxylon sp. and S. anale are actionable only for HI, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico; otherwise they are “non-reportable” (PestID, 2009).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 10

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

Henosepilachna 

vigintioctopunctata (Fabricius) 

[Syn.: Epilachna 

vigintioctopunctata

(Fabricius)]

IN, LA, MY, TH, VT 

(CABI, 2006)

Anonymous, 

2003

Yes L, I, F (CABI, 2003) No6

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Apoderus javanica Jek. MY (Yunus and Ho, 

1980)

Yunus and 

Ho, 1980

Yes L (Yunus and Ho, 

1980)

No

Hypomeces squamosus

(Fabricius)

BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006); TH 

(Anonymous, 1965a); 

MY (Khoo et al., 

1991)

Wongsiri, 1991 Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Anupunt, 

2003b; 

CABI, 2006; 

Khoo et al., 

1991; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L, I (Anupunt, 2003b); 

L (Anonymous, 

1965a; Waterhouse, 

1993; Wongsiri, 

1991); L, growing 

points, R (CABI, 

2006)

No

Coleoptera: Nitidulidae

Carpophilus dimidiatus 

(Fabricius)

ID, MY, PH, TH 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(CABI, 2006)

Yunus and 

Ho, 1980

No N/A N/A

Carpophilus marginelius Mot. MY (Yunus and Ho, 

1980)

Yunus and 

Ho, 1980

No7 N/A N/A

Carpophilus mutilatus Erichson PH (CABI, 2006); US 

(CABI, 2005)

CABI, 2005 No N/A N/A

Carpophilus obsoletus Erichson ID, MY (CABI, 

2006); US (CABI, 

2006)

CABI, 2006 No N/A N/A

 

6 The eggs of H. vigintioctopunctata are laid on leaves, the pupae occur externally on leaves and stems, and both the larvae and adults are external feeders (CABI, 2006).

Because of its size and mobility, this pest is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.

7 Carpophilus marginelius is listed as a "non-reportable" pest in PestID (PestID, 2009).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 11

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

Adoretus compressus (Weber) TH, VN, MY, BN, ID 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

Hill, 1983; 

Ooi et al., 

2002

Yes F (Hill, 1983) No8

Adoretus sinicus Burmeister 

(Syn.: A. tenuimaculatus

Waterhouse)

TH, VN, MY 

(Waterhouse, 1993); 

ID (CABI, 2006); US 

(HI) (CABI, 2006)

Wen et al., 

2002

Yes L (Hill, 1983; Wen et 

al., 2002)

No

Adoretus versutus Harold ID, MY (CABI, 

2006)

CABI, 2006 Yes R, Br, decaying 

vegetation, L, I 

(CABI, 2005)

No

Anomala antiqua ID, MY, TH, VN 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (Waterhouse, 1993) No

Anomala cupripes Hope TH, VN, MY 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

Anonymous, 

1965b

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (Waterhouse, 1993; 

Wen et al., 2002); L, R 

(Wang and Liu, 1991)

No

Anomala pallida Fabricius TH, MY, ID 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

Waterhouse, 

1993

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (Waterhouse, 1993) No

Anomala sp. nr. variegata Hope. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

Apogonia cribricollis Burmeister MY (Khoo et al., 

1991; Waterhouse, 

1993); ID, MY 

(CABI, 2006)

Anonymous, 

2003

Khoo et al., 

1991; Ooi et 

al., 2002

Yes L, St, R (Anonymous, 

2003)

No9

Apogonia expeditionis Rits. MY (Yunus and Ho, 

1980)

Yunus and 

Ho, 1980

Yes L (Yunus and Ho, 

1980)

No

Aprosterna pallida F. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

 

8 The adults of A. compressus feed on the fruit of rambutan (Hill, 1983). Many scarabs feed on plant materials such as grasses, foliage, fruits, and flowers, and some are 

serious pests of various agricultural crops (Borrer et al., 1989). We assume that only the adults attack the fruit, as the literature does not mention larvae feeding on fruit 

(White, 1983). Because of the size and mobility of adults, this pest is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.

9 Because of its size, biology, and mobility, A. cribricollis is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 12

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Lepidiota stigma Fabricius ID, MY, TH (CABI, 

2007)

Anonymous, 

2003

Yes R (Anonymous, 2003); 

R, L (CABI, 2007)

No

Maladera birmanica Brske. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

Maladera sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) No10

Xylotrupes gideon (Linnaeus) BN, KH, ID, LA, PH, 

TH, VN (CABI, 

2006)

CABI, 2006; 

Waite and 

Elder, 2004; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002

Yes F (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002; Waite 

and Elder, 2004); R 

(Waite and Hwang, 

2002)

No11

Coleoptera: Scolytidae

Coccotrypes sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 Yes F, St (PestID, 2009) Yes

Euwallacea fornicatus (Eichhoff) 

(Syn.: Xyleborus fornicatus

Eichhoff)

ID, LA, MY, PH, TH, 

VN (CABI, 2006); 

US (HI) (CABI, 

2005)

CABI, 2005; 

Rai and 

Bhandary, 

1973; Wang 

and Yuan, 2003

Yes Bk, St, W (CABI, 

2005); Tr, Br, F, Sd 

(Wang and Yuan, 

2003); Br (Rai and 

Bhandary, 1973)

No12

Diptera: Cecidomyiidae

Lestodiplosis sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 No13 N/A N/A

 

10 The only evidence that Maladera sp. attacks fruit of rambutan is one interception at a U.S. port-of-entry (PestID, 2009). This is insufficient evidence that this beetle 

would follow the pathway of commercial shipments of rambutan fruit and associated fruit pedicels.

11 Only the adults of X. gideon are reported to feed on fruit (Waite and Elder, 2004). Because of the size and mobility of adults, this pest is highly unlikely to stay on the 

commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.

12 Euwallacea fornicatus is reported on fruit once (Wang and Yuan, 2003); all other literature reports this species on bark, wood, branches, and stem. CABI (2005) states 

that fruit are "not known to carry the pest in trade/transport", and "plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport" include bark, stems, and wood. Because the 

larvae reach up to 3.5 mm long (CABI, 2005), they would be unlikely to feed on the small 5 mm stem attached to the litchi fruit. Thus, this beetle seems highly unlikely 

to follow the pathway of commercial quality litchi fruit.

13 Lestodiplosis sp. is listed as “non-reportable” in the PPQ interception database (PestID, 2009).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 13

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Diptera: Tephritidae

Bactrocera correcta (Bezzi) TH (CABI, 2006; 

White and ElsonHarris, 1992)

Allwood et al., 

1999; CABI, 

2006

Yes F (CABI, 2006) Yes

Bactrocera cucurbitae

(Coquillett)

BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(HI) (CABI, 2004)

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

McBride and 

Tanada, 1949; 

White and 

Elson-Harris, 

1992

Yes F, I, R, L, St (CABI, 

2005)

Yes

(Litchi)

No (Longan)

14

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) 

(Syn.: Dacus dorsalis Hendel)

KH, ID, LA, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2007); TH, 

LA, VN, KH (Drew 

and Hancock, 

1994)15; US (HI) 

(CABI, 2005)

CABI, 2006 Allwood et al., 

1999; CABI, 

2006

Allwood et 

al., 1999; 

CABI, 2006; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes F (CABI, 2005; 

Waterhouse, 1993)

Yes

Bactrocera papayae Drew & 

Hancock

BN, ID, MY, TH 

(CABI, 2006)

Allwood et 

al., 1999; 

CABI, 2004

Yes F (CABI, 2006) Yes

Bactrocera sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) Yes

Xarnuta leucotela (Henning) Southeast Asia 

(Allwood et al., 1999)

Allwood et

al., 1999

Yes L (Allwood et al., 

1999)

No

 

14 We found only two references listing longan as a host of B. cucurbitae (McBride and Tanada, 1949; White and Elson-Harris, 1992). The information for longan is based 

on old, unconfirmed Hawaiian records (White and Elson-Harris, 1992), however, and two other references list longan as a “doubtful” (McBride and Tanada, 1949) or 

“possible” host (Kunishi, 1998). Ron Heu, Survey Entomologist with the Hawaii Department of Agriculture, reports that he has no knowledge of B. cucurbitae

attacking longan (Kunishi, 1998). Furthermore, since 1985, despite nearly 3,000 pest interceptions on longans at U.S. ports-of-entry, B. cucurbitae has never been

intercepted (PestID, 2009). Thus, if longan is a host, it seems to be merely an incidental one that is rarely infested. Therefore, this fruit fly seems highly unlikely to 

follow the pathway of commercial quality longan fruit.

15 Bactrocera dorsalis has been reported in Malaysia and Indonesia (e.g., Khoo et al., 1991; Tan and Serit, 1994; Tan and Lee, 1982), but those were probably 

misidentifications (White and Elson-Harris, 1994). A detailed taxonomic study had B. dorsalis occurring in the following ASEAN member countries (Drew and 

Hancock, 1994): Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Recent conclusions are that B. dorsalis is not present in Malaysia, as neither the Crop Protection 

Compendium (CABI, 2007, citing EPPO, 2006) nor EPPO (EPPO, 2007) includes Malaysia in the distribution of B. dorsalis.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 14

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae

Aleurocanthus sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 Yes L (PestID, 2009) No

Aleurocanthus spiniferus

Quaintance & Baker 

BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(HI) (CABI, 2006)

Anonymous, 

1994

Yes L (CABI, 2006) No

Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby KH, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006); US (HI, FL, 

TX) (CABI, 2005)

CABI, 2005 [Yes]16 L (CABI, 2005) No

Aleurodicus dispersus Russell BN, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006); US (FL, HI) 

(CABI, 2006)

Wen et al., 

2002

[Yes]17 L (Wen et al., 2002) No

Aleurotuberculatus psidii Singh TH, PH, MY (PestID, 

2009)

18

Anonymous, 

1965b, 1994

Yes L (Wen et al., 2002) No

Dialeurodes gemurohensis 

Corbett

MY (Evans, 2007) Evans, 2005 Yes L (Hill, 1983)19 No

Hemiptera: Aphididae

Aphis craccivora Koch BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(CABI, 2005)

Blackman and 

Eastop, 2000

No N/A N/A

 

16 Aleurocanthus woglumi is a quarantine-significant species with a limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2003, 2004a).

17 Aleurodicus dispersus is a quarantine-significant species with limited distribution in the continental United States (Dooley, 2004; NIS, 2004a, 2004b).

18 Aleurotuberculatus psidii was intercepted four times at U.S. ports-of-entry on plant material originating from Thailand (two in baggage, two in permit cargo), twice 

from Malaysia (baggage, permit cargo), and from Indonesia four times (all in passenger baggage) (PestID, 2009).

19 Plant part association for D. gemurohensis is based on data at the genus level (Hill, 1983).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 15

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Aphis gossypii Glover BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(CABI, 2005)

CABI, 2005; 

Hill, 1983

Anonymous, 

1994

No N/A N/A

Aphis spiraecola Patch BN, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006); US (CABI, 

2005)

Morton, 1987b No N/A N/A

Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de 

Fonscolombe)

KH, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006); US (CABI, 

2006)

Blackman and 

Eastop, 2000; 

Hill, 1983

Wongsiri, 

1991

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Cicadellidae

Idioscopus clypialis (Lethierry) 

(Syn.: Idiocerus clypealis

Lethierry)

KH, ID, MY, PH, 

TH, VN (CABI, 

2006)

Li-zhong, 

2000

Yes L, I (Wen et al., 2002) No

Hemiptera: Coccidae

Ceroplastes ceriferus (Fabricius) ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); KH (CABI, 

2006); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

CABI, 2006 Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

CABI, 2004

No N/A N/A

Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock 

(Syn.: Paracerostegia 

floridensis Tang)

ID, MY, VN (BenDov et al., 2007); US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Lamberts and 

Crane, 1990

Wen et al., 

2002

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

No N/A N/A

Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus 

Green

TH (Anupunt, 2003a) Anupunt, 

2003a

Anupunt, 

2003a; Coates 

et al., 2003

Anupunt, 

2003a

Yes Br, St (Anupunt, 

2003a); Sh, L, Tw 

(Ali, 1980)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 16

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Ceroplastes rubens Maskell ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); ASEANa

(PestID, 2009); US 

(FL, HI) (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; Hamon and 

Williams, 1984)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2005; 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; PestID, 

2009

[Yes]20 L, St, Tw, F (CABI, 

2005); St, Br, L 

(Hamon and Williams, 

1984)

Yes

Ceroplastes rusci (Linnaeus) ID (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (FL) (BenDov et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; CABI, 

2004

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

[Yes]21 F, L, St (CABI, 2005) Yes

Ceroplastes sinensis Del Guercio PH (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

No N/A N/A

Coccus discrepans Green ID (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007), MY (Hill, 

1983)

Anonymous, 

1965b

Yes L, St, F (CABI, 

2005)22

Yes

Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006; 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

Anonymous, 

1994; 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002

CABI, 2006; 

PestID, 2009

No N/A N/A

Coccus longulus (Douglas) ID, PH, TH (BenDov et al., 2007); US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; Elder, 

2004

No N/A N/A

 

20 Ceroplastes rubens is a quarantine-significant species with a limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2003).

21 Ceroplastes rusci is a quarantine-significant species with a limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2006).

22 Plant part association for C. discrepans is based on data at the genus level (CABI, 2005).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 17

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Coccus viridis (Green) ID, PH, TH, VN, KH 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); MY (Kwee 

and Chong, 1990); 

US (FL, HI) (BenDov et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; PestID, 

200923; 

Hollingswort

h, 2000

[Yes]24 L, F (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002); L, St, 

F (CABI, 2002)

Yes

Drepanococcus chiton (Green) TH (Anupunt, 

2003a); ID, MY, TH, 

VN (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Anupunt, 

2003a

PestID, 2009 Yes L, I, F (Anupunt, 

2003a)

Yes 

(Longan)

Drepanococcus sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) No25

Eucalymnatus tessellatus

(Signoret)

ID, MY, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

No N/A N/A

Kilifia acuminata (Signoret) MY (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

No N/A N/A

Parasaissetia nigra (Nietner) ID, LA, MY, PH, TH, 

VN (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

No N/A N/A

 

23 Since 1985, C. viridis has been intercepted 19 times on rambutan at U.S. ports-of-entry, and 11 were in commercial fruit shipments (PestID, 2009). Adult males have 

never been recorded (Mau and Martin Kessing, 1992), so these were most likely females. Because C. viridis adult females are wingless and do not move (Mau and 

Martin Kessing, 1992), they were very unlikely to have been hitchhikers on non-host plants. Therefore, we think these interceptions confirm the host status of rambutan 

fruit for C. viridis.

24 Coccus viridis is a quarantine-significant species with a limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2003)

25 Since 1985, Drepanococcus sp. has been intercepted twice at U.S. ports-of-entry on litchi, three times on longan, and four times on rambutan from ASEAN countries, 

all in passenger baggage (PestID, 2009). This is insufficient evidence that this organism would follow the pathways. In addition, the genus is accounted for by the 

presence of D. chiton in the list.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 18

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Prococcus acutissimus (Green) 

(Syn.: Coccus acutissimus

Fernald)

ID, MY, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; Morton, 

1987b

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

No N/A N/A

Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell 

(Syn.: Chloropulvinaria 

polygonata)

PH, VN (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007)

Anonymous, 

1994

Yes Tw, L (Anonymous, 

1994)

No

Pulvinaria psidii Maskell [Syn.: 

Chloropulvinaria psidii

(Maskell)]

BN, ID, MY, PH, 

TH, KH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2005; Waite, 

2004a; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; PestID, 

2009

Astridge, 

2001; PestID, 

2009

No N/A N/A

Saissetia coffeae (Walker) [Syn.: 

S. hemisphaerica (Targioni)]

ID, PH, TH, VN, KH 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); BN, ID, KH, 

LA, MY, PH, TH, 

VN (CABI, 2006); 

US (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov and 

Hodgson, 1997; 

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006; CABI, 

2004; Hill, 

1983; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

No N/A N/A

Saissetia oleae (Olivier) ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

No N/A N/A

Taiwansaissetia formicarii 

(Green) [Syn.: Coccus 

formicarii (Green)]

PH (Ben-Dov and 

Hodgson, 1997); ID, 

MY, TH (Ben-Dov, 

1993); MY, KH 

(PestID, 2009)

26

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; Lizhong, 2000

Yes St (PPQ, 1999) Yes (with 

St)

 

26 Coccus formicarii was intercepted on plant material at U.S. ports-of-entry from Malaysia once, and from Cambodia once (PestID, 2009).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 19

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Leptocorisa acuta Thunberg KH, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006) 

Anonymous, 

2003

Yes Sd, L (CABI, 2006); 

L, Tw (Anonymous, 

2003)

No

Leptoglossus gonagra (Fabricius) 

[Syn.: L. membranaceus

(Fabricius)]

TH, MY, BN, PH 

(CABI, 2006; 

Waterhouse, 1993); 

KH, ID, LA, VN 

(CABI, 2006)

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes F (Anonymous, 

1965a); Tw, L, F 

(Ondieki, 1975)

No27

Riptortus linearis (Linnaeus) ID, MY, PH (CABI, 

2006)

Anonymous, 

2003

Yes L (Anonymous, 2003) No

Hemiptera: Coreidae

Amblypelta lutescens (Distant) ID (Cassis and Gross, 

2002)

Astridge et al., 

2004; Waite, 

2005b

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; CABI, 

2006; Waite, 

2005b; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

Astridge, 

2001

Yes F (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002; 

Waite, 2005b); I, F, L 

(Astridge et al., 2004; 

CABI, 2004); F, St, I 

(Astridge, 2001)

No28

Hemiptera: Diaspididae

Abgrallaspis cyanophylli 

(Signoret) 

ID, PH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2007)

PPQ-BATS, 

1996

No N/A N/A

Andaspis hawaiiensis (Maskell) PH (Lit, 1988); PH, 

VN (PestID, 2009)

29; 

US (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

No N/A N/A

 

27 Coreids are generally large, and nymphs are gregarious (Borrer et al., 1989), so these pests, such as L. gonagra, should be readily seen during harvest and eliminated 

from the pathway.

28 Because the nymphs and adults only feed externally on the fruit and because of their mobility (Astridge et al., 2004), A. lutescens is highly unlikely to stay on the 

commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.

29 Andaspis hawaiiensis was intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry on plant material from the Philippines once, and from Vietnam once (PestID, 2009).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 20

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Andaspis punicae (Laing) PH, TH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2009); US (FL) 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2009)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2009

[Yes]30 St, Tr (Ben-Dov et al., 

2009)

No

Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) PH (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); MY, PH, TH 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(FL) (Ben-Dov et al., 

2005; CABI, 2005)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

No N/A N/A

Aulacaspis sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Yes F, L, St (PestID, 2009) Yes

Aulacaspis tubercularis 

Newstead

ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); ASEANa

(PestID, 2009); US 

(FL) (Coile and 

Dixon, 2002a; 

Hodges et al., 2005)

PestID, 200931 Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

PestID, 

200932

[Yes]33 L, St, F (CABI, 2005) Yes (Longan)

34

Chionaspis sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) Yes

Chrysomphalus aonidium

(Linnaeus) (Syn.: C. ficus

Ashmead)

ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(CABI, 2006)

Lamberts and 

Crane, 1990; 

Morton, 1987b

No N/A N/A

 

30 Andaspis punicae is a quarantine-significant species with a limited distribution in the continental United States (PestID, 2009).

31 The only evidence that litchi is a host of A. tubercularis is three interceptions in passenger baggage (PestID, 2009). This is insufficient evidence that this pest has a host 

association with the commodity.

32 Aulacaspis tubercularis was intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry 20 times with rambutan; 18 were in baggage and two were in stores (PestID, 2009). We found no 

confirming reports of host association in the scientific literature, so we think this species does not have an association with this host.

33 Aulacaspis tubercularis is a quarantine-significant species with limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2006; PestID, 2009).

34 Armored scales (Diaspididae) may enter on commercial fruit for consumption, but they are highly unlikely to become established via this pathway. Therefore we are not 

further analyzing them. Please see section 2.4.2 for more information.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 21

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Fiorinia theae Green BN, ID, MY, PH , 

KH (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Anonymous, 

1994

No N/A N/A

Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) ID, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; Quilici et 

al., 1988; 

Tenbrick and 

Hara, 1992; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

PPQ-BATS, 

1996

No N/A N/A

Hemiberlesia rapax (Comstock) PH, VN (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2007)

PPQ-BATS, 

1996

No N/A N/A

Howardia biclavis (Comstock) ID, PH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2006; 

Watson, 2005b)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006; Watson, 

2005b 

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

PPQ-BATS, 

1996

No N/A N/A

Ischnaspis longirostris (Signoret) ID, MY, PH (BenDov et al., 2007); US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2005; Quilici et 

al., 1988

No N/A N/A

Lopholeucaspis cockerelli

(Grandpré & Charmoy)

ID, PH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

No N/A N/A

Morganella longispina (Morgan) ID, PH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2006; 

Watson, 2005c)

Mossler and 

Nesheim, 2002

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 22

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Pinnaspis strachani (Cooley) ID, MY, PH, TH, 

VN, KH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2008); US (BenDov et al., 2008)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2008

No N/A N/A

Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis 

(Green)

ID, PH, TH, VN, KH 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); TH, MY, LA 

(Watson, 2005a); US 

(FL) (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

PestID, 2009; 

Quilici et al., 

1988

Anonymous, 

1994; PestID, 

2009

PestID, 2009 [Yes]35 Bk, St, L (Kosztarab, 

1996); L (PPQ, 2002); 

F, L (PestID, 2009)

Yes 

(Litchi, 

Longan)

34

No (Rambutan)

Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli 

(Cooley) [Syn.: Phenacaspis 

cockerelli (Cooley)] 

ID, MY, PH, TH, 

VN, KH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2007; 

CABI, 2005)

Quilici et al., 

1988

No N/A N/A

Pseudaulacaspis pentagona

(Targioni Tozzetti) 

MacGillivray 

ID, MY, VN (BenDov et al., 2007); US 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2005)

Morton, 1987b No N/A N/A

Rutherfordia major (Cockerell) 

[Syn.: Pseudaulacaspis major

(Cockerell)]

ID (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (FL) (BenDov et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2005; Lamberts 

and Crane, 

1990; Morton, 

1987b; Quilici 

et al., 1988

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

No N/A N/A

Selenaspidus articulatus 

(Morgan)

PH (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (FL) (BenDov et al., 2007); US 

(CA) (CABI, 2004)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

No N/A N/A

 

35 Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis is a quarantine-significant species with a limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2006).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 23

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Thysanofiorinia nephelii 

(Maskell) (Syn.: Fiorinia 

nephelii Maskell)

TH (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (HI) (BenDov et al., 2005); US 

(FL) (Coile and 

Dixon, 2002a, 2002b)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; PestID, 

2009

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

PestID, 

200936

[Yes]37 L (Wen et al., 2002); 

F, St, L (PestID, 

2009); L, F (PestID, 

2009); L (Cooper and 

Oetting, 1987); L 

(Takagi, 1979); Br 

(Mesbah et al., 2001); 

L, St, and Bk 

(Kosztarab, 1996)

Yes (with 

stem)

34,38

Unaspis yanonensis (Kuwana) ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2008)

Anonymous, 

1994

Yes F, L, small Br (CABI, 

2006)

Yes34

Hemiptera: Flatidae

Lawana imitata Melichar VN (Waterhouse, 

1993)

Li-zhong, 

2000; Wen et 

al., 2002

Yes L (Wen et al., 2002) No

Hemiptera: Kerridae

Kerria greeni (Chamberlin) PH, TH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007)

Li-zhong, 

2000

Yes St (PPQ, 1999) Yes (with 

stems)

Kerria lacca (Kerr) (Syn.: 

Laccifer lacca Kerr)

MY (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); ID (CABI, 

2006)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2005; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002; 

Wongsiri, 1991

CABI, 2006 Yes Br (Wongsiri, 1991); 

St (Wen et al., 2002)

Yes (with 

stems)

 

36 The only evidence that rambutan is a host of T. nephelii are two interceptions at U.S. ports-of-entry in passenger baggage (PestID, 2009). This is insufficient evidence 

for a host association with rambutan. The pest is listed in the table because of its association with the other commodities. 

37 Thysanofiorinia nephelii is a quarantine-significant species with a limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2003).

38 Since 1985, F. nephelii has been intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry on fruit, but only in passenger baggage or in ship stores, never in commercial fruit (PestID, 2009). In 

the literature, this species and other species in the genus only attack leaves (e.g., Cooper and Oetting, 1987; Kosztarab, 1996; Takagi, 1979; Wen et al., 2002), branches 

(Mesbah et al., 2001), and bark or stems (Kosztarab, 1996). We found no report that this genus attacks fruit. Thus, this scale is unlikely to follow the pathway of fruit 

without stem.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 24

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Hemiptera: Largidae

Lohita grandis (Gray) (Syn.: 

Macroceroea grandis Gray)

TH (Anonymous, 

1965a; Waterhouse, 

1993); ID (CABI, 

2006)

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

Hemiptera: Lecanodiaspididae

Psoraleococcus multipori 

(Morrison)

ID, PH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes Br (Bhumannavar and 

Jacob, 1989)39

No

Hemiptera: Margarodidae

Icerya purchasi Maskell ID, MY, PH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Anonymous, 

1965b

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; PestID, 

2009

No N/A N/A

Icerya seychellarium (Westwood) BN, ID, MY, PH, TH 

(CABI, 2006)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; CABI, 

2004; Caresche 

and Brenière, 

1961; Lacoste, 

1970; Quilici et 

al., 1988; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Yes L, St (CABI, 2003); L, 

Tw, Br, I, F (PPQ, 

2002)

No40

Icerya sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 Astridge, 

2001; PestID, 

2009

Yes F, St (Astridge, 2001) Yes

 

39 Plant part association for P. multipori is based on data for the genus (Bhumannavar and Jacob, 1989).

40 The giant mealybug I. seychellarum is unlikely to be associated with commercial export quality fruit. Despite its wide geographical range and wide host range (CABI, 

2007; PPQ, 2002), this species has been intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry on fruit only 11 times, and only one was with commercial fruit (PestID, 2009). We found no 

other report of this insect attacking fruit. It usually attacks leaves, twigs, and small branches, except in heavy infestations when it may also attack the petioles of flowers 

and fruits (PPQ, 2002). Even if individuals infest fruit or the fruit’s associated stem, the mealybug’s physical characteristics would make it easily detectable (see PPQ, 

2002). Therefore, infested fruit are likely to be culled during standard post-harvest fruit processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 25

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(CABI, 2005)

Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002

No N/A N/A

Rhynchocoris humeralis 

(Thunberg) 

BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006)

China, 1997 Yes F (PPQ, 1999) No41

Tessaratoma javanica 

(Thunberg)

ID, PH, TH, VN 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

Hill, 1983; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Waterhouse, 

1993

Wongsiri, 

1991

Yes F (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No41

Tessaratoma papillosa (Drury) TH (Anupunt, 2003a; 

CABI, 2006; 

Waterhouse, 1993); 

ID, MY, PH, VN 

(CABI, 2006)

CABI, 2006; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Anupunt, 

2003a; CABI, 

2006

Hill, 1983 Yes Young terminals, I, F 

(Anupunt, 2003a); F, I, 

St (CABI, 2006)

No41

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae

Cataenococcus sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) Yes

Crisicoccus sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 Yes F (Park and Hong, 

1992; PestID, 2009)

Yes

Crisicoccus theobromae

Williams & Watson

ID, MY, PH (BenDov et al., 2007)Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes F (Park and Hong, 

1992; PestID, 2009)

42

Yes

Dysmicoccus brevipes

(Cockerell)

BN, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN, KH 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007; CABI, 

2004)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009; 

PPQ-BATS, 

1996

No N/A N/A

 

41 Because of its size, biology, and mobility, this pest is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.

42 Plant part association information for C. theobromae is based on data for the genus (Park and Hong, 1992; PestID, 2009).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 26

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Dysmicoccus lepelleyi (Betrem) 

(Syn.: Pseudococcus lepelleyi

Betrem)

ID, MY, PH, TH, 

VN, KH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

PestID, 

200943

Yes L (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

No

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes

Beardsley

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (HI, FL) 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2005; Miller and 

Miller, 2002)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

[Yes]44 R, St, I, L, F (PestID, 

2009); L, St, aerial R, 

I, F (Martin Kessing et 

al., 2007)

Yes

Dysmicoccus sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) Yes

Exallomochlus hispidus 

(Morrison) [Syn.:

Cataenococcus hispidus

(Morrison)]

TH, MY 

(Waterhouse, 1993); 

ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); MY (Khoo et 

al., 1991)

PestID, 200945 Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

CABI, 2006; 

Khoo et al., 

1991; PestID, 

2009; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes St, F (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Yes 

(Longan, 

Rambutan)

Exallomochlus philippinensis

Williams

PH (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes F (PestID, 2009); St, F 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)46

Yes

Ferrisia sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) Yes

 

43 The only evidence that rambutan is a host of D. lepelleyi is one interception in baggage at a U.S. port-of-entry (PestID, 2009). Therefore, its association with rambutan 

is doubtful. The pest is listed because of its association with another commodity.

44 Dysmicoccus neobrevipes is a quarantine-significant pest with limited distribution in the continental United States (PestID, 2009).

45 The only evidence we found of Litchi chinensis being a host of Exallomochlus hispidus is six interceptions on litchi at U.S. ports of entry, four in passenger baggage 

and two in ships’ stores (PestID, 2009; query June 18, 2009). This is insufficient evidence for a host association. The pest is listed because of its association with the 

other commodities.

46 Plant part association is based on information for the genus (Ben-Dov et al., 2007).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 27

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) TH (Anupunt, 

2003b); BN, ID, MY, 

PH, TH, VN, KH 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); BN, ID, KH, 

LA, MY, PH, TH, 

VN (CABI, 2006); 

US (Ben-Dov et al., 

2005; CABI, 2005)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2006; CABI, 

2004

PestID, 2009 Anupunt, 

2003b; 

PestID, 2009

No N/A N/A

Hordeolicoccus eugeniae 

(Takahashi)

ID, MY (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes Tw (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)46

No

Hordeolicoccus heterotrichus

Williams

ID, MY, TH, VN, KH 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes Tw (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)46

No

Hordeolicoccus invocatus

Williams

PH (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes Tw (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)46

No

Hordeolicoccus nephelii

(Takahashi) (Syn.: 

Phenacoccus nephelii

Takahashi)

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

Yes Tw (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)46

No

Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; CABI, 2006); 

ID (CABI, 2006); US 

(CA, FL, HI) (CABI, 

2004; Meyerdirk, 

2003)

PestID, 200947 PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 [Yes]48 Bk, F, I, L, St (CABI, 

2004); F (PestID, 

2009)

Yes

(Longan,

Rambutan)

 

47 The only evidence that litchi is a host of M. hirsutus is six interceptions at U.S. ports-of-entry, of which five were with passenger baggage (PestID, 2009). This is 

insufficient evidence that litchi is a host of this scale species. The pest is listed because of its association with the other two commodities.

48 Maconellicoccus hirsutus is a quarantine-significant species with a limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2003).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 28

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Maconellicoccus multipori

(Takahashi)

ID, MY, PH, TH 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

PestID, 200949 Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

Yes F (PestID, 2009); R 

(Malsch et al., 2001)

Yes 

(Rambutan)

Maconellicoccus sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) Yes

Nipaecoccus sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) Yes

Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) 

[Syn.: N. vastator (Maskell)]

ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); KH, ID, MY, 

PH, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006); US (HI) (BenDov et al., 2005)

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

PestID, 2009 Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

Yes F, L, Tw, Br (CABI, 

2005); Tw, Sh, L, I, F, 

Br, R (Ben-Dov et al., 

2005)

Yes

Paracoccus interceptus Lit [Syn.: 

Planococcus morrisoni (Ezzat 

& Mconnell)] 

BN, ID, KH, MY, 

PH, TH, VN (BenDov et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; PestID, 

2009

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) Yes

Paracoccus sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) Yes

Paraputo banzigeri Williams TH (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes R (Bekele, 2001; 

PestID, 2009)

No

Phenacoccus madeirensis Green PH, VN (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

No N/A N/A

Phenacoccus solani Ferris TH, VN (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2007)

PestID, 2009 No N/A N/A

Phenacoccus sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 Yes F (PestID, 2009) Yes

 

49 The only evidence that longan is a host of M. multipori is one interception at a U.S. port-of-entry with fruit in passenger baggage (PestID, 2009). This is insufficient 

evidence that litchi is a host of this scale species. The pest is listed because of its association with the other commodity.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 29

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Planococcus citri (Risso) ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

PestID, 2009 Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; PestID, 

2009; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

No N/A N/A

Planococcus lilacinus (Cockerell) 

(Syn.: Pseudococcus lilacinus

Cockerell)

PH (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); TH, VN 

(PestID, 2009); BN, 

KH, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN (CABI, 

2007)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009; 

Wen et al., 

2002

Morton, 

1987b; 

PestID, 2009

Yes F (PestID, 2009); L, I,

F (Wen et al., 2002); F 

(CABI, 2005)

Yes

Planococcus litchi Cox BN, PH, VN (BenDov et al., 2007)50Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes L (Kosztarab, 1996); 

L, F (PestID, 2009)

51

Yes

Planococcus minor (Maskell) BN, ID, MY, PH, 

TH, VN, KH (BenDov et al., 2007)

PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 PestID, 2009 Yes I (Williams and 

Watson, 1988b); R, L 

(Cox, 1989); F 

(PestID, 2009)

Yes

Pseudococcus aurantiacus

Williams

BN, ID, MY, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes R, L, F, St (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2006); Sh, F 

(Williams and Watson, 

1988b)52

Yes

Pseudococcus baliteus Lit in Lit 

& Calilung

ID, PH, TH, VN, KH 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; PestID, 

2009

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

Yes R (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

No

 

50 Ben-Dov et al. (2007), citing Ben-Dov (1994), Cox (1989), and Williams (2004), lists Thailand as part of Planococcus litchi’s distribution. All these references appear 

to base the Thailand report on interceptions at ports-of-entry in the United States and England. Since 1985, there have been two interceptions at U.S. ports-of-entry of 

this species on plant material in passenger baggage from Thailand. Because the true origin of plant material in passenger baggage is difficult to know, this interception 

data is not strong evidence that this organism occurs in Thailand. Also, the Thailand Department of Agriculture states that, based on extensive survey data, there is no 

record that the pest occurs in Thailand (Ross, 2004). Based on this evidence, we consider this organism to not be present in Thailand.

51 Plant part association information for Planococcus litchi is based on data for the genus (Kosztarab, 1996; PestID, 2009).

52 Plant part association for Pseudococcus aurantiacus is based on data at the genus level (Ben-Dov et al., 2006; Williams and Watson, 1988b).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 30

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Pseudococcus comstocki

(Kuwana)

ID, MY, VN, KH 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2007)

Hill, 1983; 

PestID, 2009

PestID, 2009 Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

No N/A N/A

Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel 

(Syn.: P. citriculus Green) 

BN, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN, KH 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007); US (HI) (BenDov et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007

PestID, 2009 Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes R, L (Ben-Dov et al., 

2006); Sh, F (Williams 

and Watson, 1988b)

Yes

Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi

Gimpel & Miller

BN, ID, MY, PH, 

TH, VN (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2007)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2007; CABI, 

2006; PestID, 

2009

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

CABI, 2006; 

PestID, 2009

No N/A N/A

Pseudococcus longispinus

(Targioni Tozzetti)

BN, ID, MY, PH, 

TH, VN (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2005)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

PestID, 2009

No N/A N/A

Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret) 

[Syn.: Pseudococcus affinis 

(Maskell)]

ID, PH (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007); US (BenDov et al., 2005)

Ben-Dov et al., 

2009

PPQ-BATS, 

1996

No N/A N/A

Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green) 

(synonym: Phenacoccus

iceryoides Green)

BN, MY, TH (BenDov et al., 2007); ID 

(CABI, 2006)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007; 

CABI, 2006

Yes L, I, F, Sh, Tw (CABI, 

2007); L, St, F (Yunus 

and Ho, 1980)

Yes

Rastrococcus jabadiu Williams ID, PH, TH (BenDov et al., 2007)Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes L, St, I, F (CABI, 

2006)53

Yes

Rastrococcus spinosus

(Robinson) (Syn.s: 

Phenacoccus spinosus

Robinson, Puto spinosus

Morrison)

MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); BN, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, TH, VN, 

KH (Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Khoo et al., 

1991

Yes I, F (Otanes, 1936); L, 

St, I, F (CABI, 2006)54

No55

 

53 Plant part association for this pest is based on data for the genus (CABI, 2006).

54 Plant part association for R. spinosus is based on data for the genus (CABI, 2006; Otanes, 1936).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 31

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Rastrococcus tropicasiaticus

Williams

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(Ben-Dov et al., 

2007)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2007

Yes L, St, I, F (CABI, 

2006)53

Yes

Hemiptera: Psyllidae

Neophacopteron euphoriae Yang 

(Syn.: Cornegenapsylla sinica 

Yang et Li)

TH (Anupunt, 2003a) Anupunt, 

2003a; 

Taiwan, 2002

Yes L (Anupunt, 2003a) No

Hemiptera: Scutelleridae

Cantao ocellatus (Thunberg) PH, ID, MY, TH, VN 

(Li-zhong, 2000)

Anonymous, 

2003

Anonymous, 

2003

Yes L (Anonymous, 2003) No

Hymenoptera: Formicidae

Oecophylla smaragdina

(Fabricius)

ID, MY, VN (CABI, 

2007)

Hill, 1983 Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002

No56 N/A N/A

Lepidoptera: Arctiidae

Asuridia metaphaea Hampson TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Chionaema coccinea Moore TH (Wongsiri, 1991) Wongsiri, 

1991

Yes L (Wongsiri, 1991) No

Cyana coccinea Moore LA, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2008)

No

 

55 We found only one reference listing rambutan as a host of R. spinosus (or Phenacoccus spinosus and Puto spinosus) (Khoo et al., 1991). This source notes that mango is 

the most common host, and is otherwise a very general reference on crop pests in Malaysia, which does not provide specific information on R. spinosus on rambutan. 

Hence, this mealybug may not attack rambutan regularly (Khoo et al., 1991). Furthermore, out of over 5,000 pest interceptions since 1985 on rambutan at U.S. ports-ofentry, R. spinosus has never been intercepted (PestID, 2009). Thus, rambutan is likely an incidental, rarely infested host, and we think it is highly unlikely to follow the 

pathway on commercial rambutan.

56 Oecophylla smaragdina is listed as a "non-reportable" pest in PPQ’s interception database (PestID, 2009).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 32

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Lepidoptera: Bombycidae

Trilocha varians Walker MY, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Forsyth, 1966)57 No

Lepidoptera: Cossidae

Indarbela dea (Swinhoe) (Syn.: 

Lepidarbela dea Swinhoe)

VN, ID (Zhang, 

1994); TH (Robinson 

et al., 2008)

CABI, 2004; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002; 

Zhang, 1994

CABI, 2006 Yes Bk, W (CABI, 2006) No

Zeuzera coffeae Neitner TH (Anupunt, 

2003a); ID, MY, PH, 

TH, VN (CABI, 

2006)

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002; 

Wongsiri, 1991

Anupunt, 

2003a; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

Yes Bk, Br (Waite and 

Hwang, 2002); Br 

(Wongsiri, 1991)

No

Lepidoptera: Drepanidae

Tridrepana fulvata Snellen MY, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Eucleidae

Belippa cyanopasta Hampson TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

Lepidoptera: Eupterotidae

Eupterote amaena Walker MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Hill, 1983)58 No

Eupterote testacea Walker TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Nair, 1975) No

 

57 Plant part association for T. varians is based on data for the genus (Forsyth, 1966).

58 Plant part association for E. amaena is based on data at the genus level (Hill, 1983).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 33

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

Dichomeris indiserta Meyr. MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

McQuate et 

al., 2000; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Yunus and 

Ho, 1980

Yes Sd (internal) 

(Robinson et al., 

2001), F (Yunus and 

Ho, 1980)

Yes

Lepidoptera: Geometridae

Ascotis selenaria (Denis and 

Schiffermuller)

TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et al., 

2001

Robinson et 

al., 2001; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Aporandria specularia Guen. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a), TH, MY 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

Biston suppressaria Guenée ID (CABI, 2006); 

MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

CABI, 2004 Yes L (CABI, 2006) No

Cleora alienaria Walker ID, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008;

Robinson et 

al., 2001

Yes I, L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Comibaena attenuata Warr. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a); TH, MY 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

Gymnoscelis imparatalis Walker TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Gymnoscelis tibialis Moore MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 34

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Hemithea tritonaria Walker TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Hypomecis transcissa Walker MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Hyposidra talaca (Walker) BN, ID, MY 

(Waterhouse, 1993); 

TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et al., 

2001; Kuroko 

and Lewvanich, 

1993

Kuroko and 

Lewvanich, 

1993

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993; Kuroko 

and 

Lewvanich, 

1993

Yes L (Mukhtar et al., 

2003; Nasu et al., 

2004; Waterhouse, 

1993)

No

Idiochlora androcmes Prout MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2001; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Borrer et al., 

1989)59

No

Jodis subtractata Walker TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Oenospila flavifusata Walter MY, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Anonymous, 2003; 

Robinson et al., 2001)

No

Pingasa chlora Stoll TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I, L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Pingasa ruginaria Guenée MY, IN (Zhang, 

1994); TH 

(Anonymous, 1965a)

Wongsiri, 1991 Anonymous, 

1965a

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a; Wongsiri, 

1991)

No

 

59 Plant part association for I. androcmes is based on data at the family level (Borrer et al., 1989).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 35

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Thalassodes depulsata Walker MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Hill, 1983) No

Thalassodes falsaria Prout TH (Wongsiri, 1991) Wongsiri, 1991 Wongsiri, 

1991

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Wongsiri, 1991); L, 

I (Ross, 2004)

No

Thalassodes immissaria Walker LA, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et al., 

2008

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes Bud, L (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Thalassodes quadraria Guenée TH (Wongsiri, 1991) Wongsiri, 1991 Wongsiri, 

1991

Yes L (Wongsiri, 1991) No

Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae

Acrocercops delicata Meyrick ID (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2008)

No

Conopomorpha cramerella 

Snellen (Syn.: Acrocercops 

cramerella Snellen)

MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); TH (Anupunt,

2003a; Anupunt, 

2003b); BN, ID, MY, 

PH, TH (CABI, 

2006), VN (PPD, 

2007a)

Bose et al., 

200160

Anupunt, 

2003a60

Anupunt, 

2003b; 

CABI, 2004; 

Khoo et al., 

1991; 

McQuate et 

al., 2000; 

PestID, 2009; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 

2002; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes F (borer) (Waterhouse, 

1993); L, F (Bose et 

al., 2001); Sd, Tw 

(Morton, 1987b); 

young terminals, F 

(Anupunt, 2003a)

Yes 

(Rambutan)

Conopomorpha litchiella Bradley TH (Anupunt, 2003a) Waite and 

Hwang, 2002; 

Zhang, 1994

Anupunt, 

2003a

Yes young terminals 

(Anupunt, 2003a); L 

(Wongsiri, 1991)

No

 

60 Although C. cramerella reportedly attacks litchi (e.g., Bose et al., 2001; Morton, 1987b) and longan (Anupunt, 2003a), the insect identified on litchi in the past was not 

C. cramerella, but C. sinensis or C. litchiella (Waite and Hwang, 2002). Also, the host range of C. cramerella is restricted to rambutan and cocoa (Waite and Hwang, 

2002). Consequently, C. cramerella is listed here as a pest of rambutan only.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 36

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley TH (CABI, 2006; 

Waterhouse, 1993); 

VN (PPD, 2005)

CABI, 2004; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes F, Sd (Wongsiri, 

1991); F (borer) 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

Yes

Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae

Gastropacha pardale Walker BN, ID, TH 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2008)

No

Paralebeda lucifuga Swinhoe MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Yunus and Ho, 

1980)61

No

Suana concolor Walker PH (CABI, 2006); 

MY, ID (Zhang, 

1994); TH, MY 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

CABI, 2006 Yes L (Hutson and Jardine, 

1923)

No

Lepidoptera: Limacodidae

Cheromettia sumatrensis 

Heylaerts

ID, MY, TH 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Idonauton apicalis Walker MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Miresa albipuncta HerrichSchäfferTH, MY, ID 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et al., 

2001; Robinson 

et al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2001; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2001; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Parasa herbifera Walker MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

 

61 Plant part association for Paralebeda lucifuga is based on data for the genus (Yunus and Ho, 1980).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 37

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Phocoderma velutina Kollar TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Scopelodes testacea Butler TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008); MY, VN 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Scopelodes unicolor Westwood ID (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Setora fletcheri Holloway TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Limacodidae

Chalcocelis albiguttatus

(Snellen)

MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); ID, MY, TH 

(CABI, 2006)

Khoo et al., 

1991; Ooi et 

al., 2002; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Ooi et al., 2002) No

Darna diducta (Snellen) ID, MY, PH, TH 

(CABI, 2006)

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

CABI, 2004; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (CABI, 2006) No

Griseothosea cruda Walker MY, ID (Zhang, 

1994)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (CABI, 2006; Ooi et 

al., 2002; Waterhouse, 

1993); Br, Tr (Fang et 

al., 2001)62

No

Parasa lepida (Cramer) MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); TH (Anupunt, 

2003b); KH, ID, LA, 

MY, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006)

CABI, 2006 Robinson et 

al., 2008; 

Wongsiri, 

1991

Anupunt, 

2003b; Khoo 

et al., 1991; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (CABI, 2006; 

Waterhouse, 1993)

No

 

62 Plant part association information for G. cruda is based on data for the family (CABI, 2006; Fang et al., 2001; Ooi et al., 2002; Waterhouse, 1993).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 38

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Setora nitens Walker MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); BN, ID, LA, 

MY, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006)

Khoo et al., 

1991; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (Waterhouse, 1993) No

Setora sinensis Moore [Syn.: S. 

postornata (Hamptson)]

MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); BN, ID, LA, 

MY, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006)

China, 1997 Yes Br, Tr (Fang et al., 

2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae

Acytolepis puspa Distant MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Anthene emolus Godart TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, F (Robinson et al., 

2001); L (Yunus and 

Ho, 1980)

No63

Deudorix diovis Hewitson (Syn.: 

D. epijarbas diovis Hewitson)

ID (Edwards et al., 

1999)

Edwards et al., 

1999; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

Yes F (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002; Waite 

and Hwang, 2002)

Yes

Deudorix epijarbas (Moore) TH (Anupunt, 

2003a); ID (CABI, 

2006); MY (Robinson 

et al., 2008)

Storey and 

Rogers, 1980; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Anonymous, 

1965b; 

Anupunt, 

2003a

CABI, 2004; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes F (Anupunt, 2003a; 

Storey and Rogers, 

1980; Waite and 

Hwang, 2002; Wen et 

al., 2002)64; F, I 

(Verma, 1985); Sd 

(Wongsiri, 1991)

Yes

 

63 Because it feeds externally on the fruit (Robinson et al., 2001), this pest is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and 

processing.

64 Larvae of D. epijarbas feed on seeds within litchi fruit by burrowing through the outer edible fruit tissue (Storey and Rogers, 1980).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 39

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Hypolycaena erylus Godt. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a); TH, MY 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

Nacaduba kurava (Moore) TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I, Sh (Herbison-Evans 

and Crossley, 2005)

No

Prosotas dubiosa (Semper) MY, ID (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Storey and 

Rogers, 1980

Yes I (Storey and Rogers, 

1980)

No

Rapala dieneces Hewitson TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Rapala iarbus (Fabricius) ID (CABI, 2006); 

TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

CABI, 2006; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, I, F (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No63

Rapala manea Hewitson PH, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes I, F (Robinson et al., 

2001); I (Johnson et 

al., 1980)

No63

Rapala pheretima (Hewitson) MY (Waterhouse, 

1993); TH 

(Anonymous, 1965a)

Ross, 2004 Anonymous, 

1965a; 

CABI, 2004; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a); I (Waterhouse, 

1993)

No

Rapala varuna Horsfield TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Lambkin, 1983; 

Storey and 

Rogers, 1980

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I, young green St 

(Lambkin, 1983); I 

(Storey and Rogers, 

1980); I, Sh 

(Herbison-Evans and 

Crossley, 2005); L 

(Yunus and Ho, 1980)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 40

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Remelana jangala Horsfield ID, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008); TH, MY, 

PH, ID (Young, 

2000)

Young, 2000 Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L, I (Young, 2000) No

Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae

Arctornis perfecta Walker MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)65

No

Dasychira mendosa (Hübner) BN, KH, MY, PH 

(CABI, 2006)

Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002

Wongsiri, 

1991

Yes L (PestID, 2009; 

Wongsiri, 1991)

No

Euproctis fraterna Moore VN (Zhang, 1994); 

TH (CABI, 2006)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Anonymous, 2003) No

Euproctis scintillans (Walker) 

(Syn.: Porthesia scintillans

Walker)

ID, MY, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006)

CABI, 2006; 

Hill, 1983; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (Hill, 1983; 

Waterhouse, 1993)

No

Euproctis varians Walker MY, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Anonymous, 

2003

Yes I, L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Leucoma cygna Moore TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Lymantria mathura Moore TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

CABI, 2004; 

Hill, 1983

Yes I (Morton, 1987b) No

Nygmia fraterna Moore TH (Wongsiri, 1991) Wongsiri, 

1991

Yes L (Wongsiri, 1991) No

Olene mendosa Hübner ID, LA, MY, VN, TH 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et al., 

2008

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Orgyia osseata Walker MY, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L, I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

 

65 Plant part association for A. perfecta is based on data for the genus (Robinson et al., 2001).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 41

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Orgyia postica (Walker) (Syn.: 

Notolophus australis posticus

Walker) 

BN, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006)

CABI, 2006 CABI, 2006 CABI, 2006 Yes L (CABI, 2006) No

Orgyia turbata Butler MY, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006)

Wongsiri, 

1991

Yes L (Wongsiri, 1991) No

Orvasca subnotata Walker BN, MY, TH 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes I, L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Somena scintillans Walker TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Metarbelidae

Indarbela disciplaga Swinhoe MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes Bk (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Indarbela obliquifasciata Mell TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L, Bk, W (Robinson et 

al., 2001)66

No

Indarbela quadrinotata Walker TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

CABI, 2004; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002; 

Zhang, 1994

Yes L, Bk, W (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No

Indarbela tetraonis Moore TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Bose et al., 

2001; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002; Zhang, 

1994

PPQ, 1999 Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes Bk, Br (Bose et al., 

2001); Tr (Morton, 

1987b)

No

Squamura disciplaga (Swinhoe) MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); MY, ID, PH 

(Zhang, 1994)

Khoo et al., 

1991

Yes W, Bk (Khoo et al., 

1991)

No

 

66 Plant part association for Indarbela obliquifasciata is based on data for the genus (Robinson et al., 2001).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 42

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Achaea janata (Linnaeus) KH, ID, LA, MY, 

PH, TH, VN (CABI, 

2006); BN, ID 

(Robinson et al., 

2008); US (HI) 

(CABI, 2005)

Astridge and 

Fay, 2003b; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002

Astridge, 

2001; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Astridge and Fay, 

2003b; Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002; Waite 

and Hwang, 2002); L, 

F (CABI, 2005); L 

(Storey and Rogers, 

1980)

No67

Athyrma bubo Hubn. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

Autoba abrupta Walker LA, MY, TH 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et al., 

2008

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes I, L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Autoba brachygonia Hampson TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I, F (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No63

Avatha discolor (Fabricius) MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Herbison-Evans 

and Crossley, 2005)

No

Chlumetia transversa (Walker) 

(Syn.: Salagena transversa)

ID, MY, PH, TH 

(CABI, 2006)

Hill, 1983; 

Morton, 1987b

Yes Sh (Morton, 1987b) No

Erebus ephesperis Hübner TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes F (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No63

Erbeus erepuscularis L. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes F (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No68

 

67 Only the adult stage of Achaea janata feeds on the fruit (CABI, 2004). Because of its mobility, this pest is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity through harvest and 

standard handling and processing.

68 Erbeus erepuscularis is a fruit-sucking moth (Anonymous, 1965a). Because of the size and mobility of the adults, this pest is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity 

through harvest and standard handling and processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 43

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Eublemma abrupta (Walker) 

(Syn.: Autoba abrupta)

TH (Anonymous, 

1965a); TH, MY 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

Ross, 2004 Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

CABI, 2004; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a); I 

(Anonymous, 1965a; 

Waterhouse, 1993; 

Wongsiri, 1991)

No

Eublemma brachygonia

Hampson (Syn.: Autoba 

brachygonia)

TH (Anonymous, 

1965a); TH, MY 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

Ross, 2004 Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

CABI, 2004; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes I (Anonymous, 1965a; 

Waterhouse, 1993)

No

Eublemma versicolor Walker 

(Syn.: Autoba versicolor

Walker)

TH (Anonymous, 

1965a); ID, MY, PH, 

TH (Waterhouse, 

1993)

Storey and 

Rogers, 1980; 

Wongsiri, 1991

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

CABI, 2004; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993 

Yes I (Wongsiri, 1991); F, 

I, St (Yunus and Ho, 

1980); I, F (Storey and 

Rogers, 1980)

No69

 

69 Eublemma versicolor apparently feeds on the inside of litchi fruit (Storey and Rogers, 1980), but most reports indicate the species and genus feed externally on leaves, 

flowers, and/or fruit of its hosts (Anonymous, 1965a; Robinson et al., 2001; Wongsiri, 1991). Related species (e.g., Eublemma olivacea, E. rivula, Autoba sp.) also feed 

externally on leaves of their hosts (Hill, 1983). Since 1985, Eublemma spp. has only been intercepted twice, neither time on fruit or in permit cargo (PestID, 2009).

Thus, this species is highly unlikely to follow the pathway of commercial fruit.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 44

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Eudocima fullonia (Clerck) 

(Syn.: Othreis fullonia Clerck,

O. fullonica Linn.)

TH (Anonymous, 

1965a; Anupunt, 

2003b; CABI, 2006); 

BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, VN (CABI, 

2006); US (HI) 

(CABI, 2006; Zhang, 

1994)

Astridge and 

Fay, 2003a; 

CABI, 2005; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; CABI, 

2006; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Anupunt, 

2003b; 

CABI, 2006; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes F (borer) (Waterhouse, 

1993); F (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002; 

CABI, 2004; Menzel 

and McConchie, 

1998b; Waite and 

Hwang, 2002); F 

(piercer) (Anonymous, 

1965a; Anupunt, 

2003b)

No70

Eudocima hypermnestra Stoll TH (Zhang, 1994) Robinson et 

al., 2008; 

Zhang, 1994

Yes F (Zhang, 1994) No71

Eudocima salaminia (Cramer) TH (Zhang, 1994); 

BN, VN, TH (CABI, 

2006)

Astridge and 

Fay, 2003a; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002

Astridge, 

2001

Yes F (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002; 

Menzel and 

McConchie, 1998b); F 

(piercer) (Astridge, 

2001)

No72

Homodes bracteigutta (Walker) 

(Syn.: Lophoruza chalcocosma

Turner)

MY (Zhang, 1994); 

TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2001

Robinson et 

al., 2001; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I (Herbison-Evans and 

Crossley, 2005); F 

(Robinson et al., 2001; 

Robinson et al., 2005)

No73

 

70 Eudocima fullonia is highly unlikely to follow the pathway of commercial export quality fruit, as only the adults feed on fruit, and only externally (CABI, 2004; Menzel 

and McConchie, 1998b; Waite and Hwang, 2002). Because of the size and mobility of the adults, this pest is not expected to stay on the commodity through harvest and 

shipping. Furthermore, this species feeds on fruit at night (CABI, 2004), further decreasing the likelihood of it being associated with fruit at harvest.

71 Eudocima hypermnestra is highly unlikely to follow the pathway of commercial export quality fruit, as only the adults feed on fruit, and they only feed on the fruit 

externally (Zhang, 1994). Because of the size and mobility of the adults, this pest is not expected to stay on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and 

processing.

72 Only the adults of Eudocima salaminia feed on fruit, and they only feed on the fruit externally (Menzel and McConchie, 1998b; Waite and Hwang, 2002). For those 

reasons, and because of the size and mobility of the adults, this pest is highly unlikely to follow the pathway of commercial export quality fruit.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 45

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Homodes perilitha Hampson TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Ischyja manlia Cramer MY (Zhang, 1994); 

TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Wongsiri, 1991 Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes L (Wongsiri, 1991); F 

(Anonymous, 1965a)

No74

Mecodina subcostalis Walker TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Mocis undata Fabricius MY, ID, TH 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Ophiusa coronata (Fabricius) ID (Zhang, 1994); 

TH, VN (CABI, 

2006); TH, MY 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes F (Herbison-Evans and 

Crossley, 2005)

No75

Oxyodes scrobiculata Fabricius TH (Anonymous, 

1965a; Anupunt, 

2003a; Anupunt, 

2003b; Waterhouse, 

1993); MY 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002; 

Wongsiri, 1991

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Anupunt, 

2003a; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Anupunt, 

2003b; 

CABI, 2004; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a; Anupunt, 

2003a; Wongsiri, 

1991)

No

 

73 We found no specific information about H. bracteigutta or L. chalcocosma (Herbison-Evans and Crossley, 2005). We assumed the species would behave like other 

members of the subfamily Catocalinae, which often pierce fruit as adults and feed on foliage as larvae (Nielson and Common, 1991). Homodes bracteigutta is therefore 

highly unlikely to follow the pathway because minimal processing of the commodity would likely remove the adult prior to shipment.

74 Ischyja manlia is a fruit-piercing moth (Anonymous, 1965a). Because of the size and mobility of the adults, this pest is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity 

through harvest and standard handling and processing.

75 Adults of Ophiusa coronata pierce the fruit to suck juice (Herbison-Evans and Crossley, 2005). Because this species only feeds externally on the fruit and because of its 

size and mobility, it is highly unlikely to remain on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 46

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Pericyma cruegeri (Butler) MY, ID, PH (Zhang, 

1994); TH, MY 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Reddy et al., 1985; 

Robinson et al., 2005)

No

Pseudathyrma bubo Geyer TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, I, F (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No63

Pseudathyrma complens Walker TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Pseudathyrma perficiens Walker TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2008)

No

Serrodes campana Guenée TH (Anonymous, 

1965a); MY (Yunus 

and Ho, 1980)

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I, F (Herbison-Evans 

and Crossley, 2005); L 

(Anonymous, 1965a; 

Robinson et al., 2005); 

I, L (Yunus and Ho, 

1980)

No76

Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) 

(Syn.: Prodenia litura

Fabricius)

BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(HI) (CABI, 2006)

Robinson et al., 

2006

Wen et al., 

2002

Yes L, R, F (CABI, 2005); 

L, I, Sh, F (PPQ, 

2002) 

No77

Sympis rufibasis Guenée MY (Yunus and Ho, 

1980), TH (Kuroko 

and Lewvanich, 

1993)

Kuroko and 

Lewvanich, 

1993

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008;

Kuroko and 

Lewvanich, 

1993

Yunus and 

Ho, 1980;

Kuroko and 

Lewvanich, 

1993

Yes L (Yunus and Ho, 

1980); I, L (Kuroko 

and Lewvanich, 1993)

No

 

76 Only adults of Serrodes campana are reported to feed on fruit, and they feed on damaged ripe fruit (Herbison-Evans and Crossley, 2005). Because of this as well as 

their size and mobility, this pest is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.

77 Spodoptera litura is primarily a leaf-feeder (CABI, 2005; CABI/EPPO, 1997; PPQ, 2002), but apparently sometimes feeds on fruit, reportedly causing 5-10 percent

fruit damage in grapes (CABI, 2005). We found no reports of it feeding on litchi or longan fruit. Also, since 1985, the genus Spodoptera has never been intercepted 

with litchi or longan at U.S. ports-of-entry, and the great majority of interceptions of this genus have been with flowers and leaves (PestID, 2009). Of the interceptions 

with fruit, 38 percent were with Capsicum sp., and other hosts only had 1 to 3 interceptions. Thus, this species is unlikely to follow the litchi and longan fruit pathways.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 47

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Trigonodes hyppasia (Cramer) 

(Syn.: Chaciope deliana)

TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2005; Singh and Goel, 

1986)

No

Vescisa commoda Walker TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes F (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No63

Zurobata vacillans Walker MY, TH, ID 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Nolidae

Erizada semifervens Walker TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, Bk (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Nola analis Wileman & West MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Selepa celtis Moore TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Notodontidae

Dudusa distincta Mell. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

Dudusa nobilis Walker TH (Anonymous, 

1965a); ID, MY 

(CABI, 2006)

CABI, 2004; 

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a; Wongsiri, 

1991)

No

Dudusa synopla Swinhoe TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 48

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Hyperaeschrella insulicola

(Kiriakoff)

MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); TH, MY 

(Waterhouse, 1993)

CABI, 2004; 

Khoo et al., 

1991; Ooi et 

al., 2002; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Waterhouse, 1993) No

Neostauropus alternus Walker BN, ID, MY, PH, 

VN, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Anonymous, 

2003; Robinson 

et al., 2008

Anonymous, 

2003; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes Br, L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Stauropus alternus (Walker) ID, MY, PH, VN 

(CABI, 2006)

Anonymous, 

1965b

CABI, 2006 Yes L (Hill, 1983) No

Tarsolepis remicauda Butler TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2008)

No

Tarsolepis sommeri Hbn. ID (CABI, 2006) CABI, 2006 Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)78

No

Lepidoptera: Nympalidae

Melanitis leda ismene Cramer ID, LA, MY, PH, TH, 

VN (CABI, 2006)

CABI, 2004 Yes L (CABI, 2004) No

Polyura schreiber Godart TH, MY, ID, PH 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

CABI, 2004; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae

Athrypsiastis symmetra Meyrick MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, I, St (Borrer et al., 

1989)79

No

Stathmopoda conioma Meyrick ID, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes I, F (internal), Sd, 

pods, Tw, Sh 

(Robinson et al., 

2001)78

Yes

 

78 Plant part association for this pest is based on data for the genus (Robinson et al., 2001).

79 Plant part association for A. symmetra is based on data for the family (Borrer et al., 1989).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 49

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae

Argyroploce discana Felder. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes L, I (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

Lepidoptera: Pieridae

Delias hyparete Linnaeus TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Psychidae

Clania minuscula Butler (Syn.: 

Eumeta minuscula Butler)

VN (CABI, 2006) Anonymous, 

1994

Yes L, Sh (Simbolon and 

Yukawa, 1993)

No

Dappula tertia Templeton ID, MY (CABI, 

2006)

Anonymous, 

1994

Yes L, Bk (Das, 1956) No

Eumeta variegata (Snellen) 

(Syn.s: Clania variegata 

Snellen, Clania pryeri Leech)

VN (CABI, 2006); 

TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Anonymous, 

1994

Yes L (Sun et al., 1999) No

Heylaertsia griseata Hampson MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Manatha albipes Moore MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Pagodiella hekmeyeri Heylaerts ID, MY, TH 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Pteroma pendula Joannis MY, ID (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Pteroma plagiophleps Hmps. ID, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Hill, 1983 Yes L (Hill, 1983) No

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Cadra cautella (Walker) (Syn.: 

Ephestia cautella Walker)

BN, ID, MY, PH, 

TH, VT (CABI, 

2006); US (CABI, 

2005)

Kumar and 

Lall, 1984

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 50

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Conogethes punctiferalis 

(Guenée) (Syn.: Dichocrocis 

punctiferalis Guenée)

BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); MY 

(Khoo et al., 1991); 

TH (Anonymous, 

1965a); ASEANa

(PestID, 2009)

Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; PestID, 

2009; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Astridge, 

2001; CABI, 

2004; Khoo 

et al., 1991; 

McQuate et 

al., 2000; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes F (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002); F 

(PestID, 2009); I 

(Anonymous, 1965a; 

Waterhouse, 1993); F, 

St, L, Bk (CABI, 

2005); F (CSIRO, 

1991; Gupta and 

Arora, 2001; Ooi et 

al., 2002; Wongsiri, 

1991); F (borer) 

(Anonymous, 1965a; 

Waterhouse, 1993); 

F

80,

(Storey and 

Rogers, 1980)81

Yes

Cryptoblabes gnidiella Millière TH (CABI, 2006); 

MY (Robinson et al., 

2008); US (HI) 

(CABI, 2006)

PestID, 200982 PestID, 200982 McQuate et 

al., 2000

Yes F (internal) (McQuate 

et al., 2000); F 

(internal), L, St 

(internal) (CABI, 

2006)

Yes 

(Rambutan)

Doloessa ochrociliella Ragonot MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2008)

No

Hedylepta barcalis Walker TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

 

80 Larvae of C. punctiferalis feed on litchi seeds within fruit by burrowing through the edible fruit tissue (Storey and Rogers, 1980).

81 Because we could not locate D. punctigeralis elsewhere in the literature, we assume the name in Storey and Rogers (1980) is a misspelling of D. punctiferalis.

82 The only evidence that litchi and longan are hosts of C. gnidiella is one interception at a U.S. port-of-entry on litchi in passenger baggage and one interception on 

longan in mail (PestID, 2009). This is insufficient evidence that these species are associated with those hosts. It is listed here on the basis of its association with 

rambutan.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 51

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Herpetogramma licarsisalis 

Walker

MY, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008), PH (CABI, 

2007); US (HI) 

(Herbison-Evans and 

Crossley, 2005)

Robinson et 

al., 2001; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Herbison-Evans 

and Crossley, 2005; 

Robinson et al., 2001)

No

Heterocrasa expansalis Warren MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Yunus and 

Ho, 1980

Yes L (Yunus and Ho, 

1980)

No

Nacoleia octasema (Meyrick) ID (Zhang, 1994); ID, 

MY (CABI, 2006); 

TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I, L, St, F (CABI, 

2004); F (Robinson et 

al., 2005)

No83

Prasinoxena monospila Meyrick TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes Bk (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Psara basalis Walker ID, TH, MY 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Pycnarmon quinquepuncta

Swinhoe

MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)78

No

Tirathaba mundella Walker ID, MY (CABI, 

2006)

CABI, 2004; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes F (borer) (Waterhouse, 

1993); F (internal), 

growing points, I 

(CABI, 2006)

Yes

 

83 Larvae of Nacoleia octasema feed externally on the fruit (CABI, 2004). Because of the size and mobility of the larvae, this pest is highly unlikely to remain on the 

commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 52

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Tirathaba rufivena Walker MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); ID, MY, PH, 

TH (CABI, 2006)

Storey and 

Rogers, 1980

Khoo et al., 

1991; 

McQuate et 

al., 2000; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

199398

Yes I, growing points, 

young F (CABI, 

2005); F (Yunus and 

Ho, 1980); F (Storey 

and Rogers, 1980)

No84

Tirathaba ruptilinea Walker ID, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes F (internal) (Robinson 

et al., 2001; Wongsiri, 

1991)

Yes

Lepidoptera: Saturniidae

Attacus atlas (Linnaeus) MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); BN, KH, ID, 

LA, MY, PH, TH, 

VN (CABI, 2006)

CABI, 2004 CABI, 2004; 

Khoo et al., 

1991; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (CABI, 2006; 

Waterhouse, 1993)

No

Cricula trifenestrata (Helfer) BN, KH, ID, LA, 

MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006)

CABI, 2004 Yes L (CABI, 2006) No

Lepidoptera: Scythrididae

Eretmocera impactella Walker TH (Zhang, 1994) Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Baloch et al., 1978; 

Srivastava and Pant, 

1974)

No

Lepidoptera: Sphingidae

Cephonodes picus Cram. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a; Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Anonymous, 

1965a

Yes L (Anonymous, 

1965a)

No

 

84 Field surveys found T. rufivena damaging litchi fruit by burrowing through the outer edible fruit tissue to feed on the seed, which causes the fruit “to drop if young, or 

makes it unmarketable” (Storey and Rogers, 1980). Any such fruit will likely be detected during post-harvest processing. Also, the larvae of this species are relatively 

large (up to 30 mm) and very active when disturbed, and they cause immature fruit to abort (CABI, 2005). Thus, this species is highly unlikely to follow the pathway.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 53

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Theretra latreillii (Macleay) TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes F (Robinson et al., 

2005); L, St 

(Hawkeswood, 1993)

No85

Lepidoptera: Thyrididae

Striglina asinina Warren TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2008)

No

Striglina divisata Warr. TH (Anonymous, 

1965a)

Anonymous, 

1965a; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes I (Anonymous, 1965a) No

Lepidoptera: Tineidae

Erechthias leucopogon Meyrick TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes Bk, Sd (Robinson et 

al., 2001)

No86

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae

Adoxophyes fasciculana Walker MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)78

No

Adoxophyes perstricta Meyrick ID (CABI, 2006) Meijerman 

and 

Ulenberg, 

2000

Yes L (Waterhouse, 1993); 

L, F (Hill, 1983)

No87

Adoxophyes privatana Walker MY (Khoo et al., 

1991); ID, MY, VN 

(Waterhouse, 1993); 

TH, MY, PH 

(Meijerman and 

Ulenberg, 2004)

Taiwan, 2002 CABI, 2004; 

Khoo et al., 

1991; Ooi et 

al., 2002; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (Waterhouse, 1993) No

 

85 Theretra spp. feed externally on host plants (CABI, 2004) and the adults and larvae are large and mobile. Therefore, T. latreillii is highly unlikely to stay on the 

commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.

86 Erechthias leucopogon attacks only the bark, not the seed, of longan (Robinson et al., 2001). Therefore, this species is highly unlikely to follow the pathway on longan.

87 Plant part association for A. perstricta is based on data for the genus. Adoxophyes larvae feed only on the leaves and the surface of fruit (Hill, 1983), so this pest is 

highly unlikely to stay on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 54

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Archips dispilana Walker MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Archips machlopis Meyrick MY (Waterhouse, 

1993); TH, MY 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Ross, 2004 Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993; 

Wongsiri, 

1991

Yes L (Waterhouse, 1993; 

Wongsiri, 1991)

No

Archips micaceana (Walker) TH (Anupunt, 

2003a); LA, MY, TH, 

VN (CABI, 2006)

Anupunt, 

2003a; Hill, 

1983; Robinson 

et al., 2001

Anupunt, 

2003a; 

Robinson et 

al., 2001

Robinson et 

al., 2001; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L, I (Anupunt, 2003a; 

Robinson et al., 2001); 

L (Waterhouse, 1993; 

Wongsiri, 1991)

No

Archips mimicus Walsingham MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, I, F (internal) 

(Robinson et al., 2001)

Yes

Archips tabescens Meyrick MY (Waterhouse, 

1993)

Zhang, 1994 Yes L (Zhou and Deng, 

2004)

No

Cerace sardias Meyrick TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Cnesteboda celligera Meyrick ID, MY, TH 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et al., 

2001; Robinson 

et al., 2008

PPQ, 1999 Robinson et 

al., 2001; 

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Cryptophlebia illepida Butler TH, MY, US (HI) 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

CABI, 2004 McQuate et 

al., 2000

Yes F (internal) (McQuate 

et al., 2000)

Yes
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 55

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Cryptophlebia ombrodelta

(Lower)

KH, ID, LA, PH, TH, 

VN (CABI, 2006); 

MY (Robinson et al., 

2008); US (HI) 

(Chang, 1995; 

McQuate et al., 2000)

Hill, 1983; 

Waite, 2004b; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002; 

Zhang, 1994

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; Hyde, 

2000; PestID, 

2009; Waite 

and Hwang, 

2002

McQuate et 

al., 2000

Yes F (Biosecurity 

Australia, 2002; Hill, 

1983; Waite, 2004b; 

Waite and Hwang, 

2002)

Yes

Dudua aprobola Meyrick (Syn.: 

Platypeplus aprobola Meyrick, 

Argyroploce aprobola

Meyrick)

VN (Kuznetzov, 

2003); BN, TH, MY 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

Biosecurity 

Australia, 

2002; Bose et 

al., 2001; 

Morton, 1987b; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002; 

Zhang, 1994

Anonymous, 

1994

Yes I (Abraham and 

Jayanthi, 1999; Bose 

et al., 2001); L 

(Biosecurity Australia, 

2002; Bose et al., 

2001; Mann and 

Singh, 1984; Punnaiah 

and Devaprasad, 1996; 

Wen et al., 2002); L, I 

(Storey and Rogers, 

1980)

No

Gatesclarkeana erotias Meyrick ID (Zhang, 1994) Robinson et al., 

2001; Zhang, 

1994

Yes L, Sh, I, F (internal) 

(Robinson et al., 2001)

Yes

Gatesclarkeana idia Diakonoff TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Homona coffearia (Nietner) ID, MY, PH, VN 

(CABI, 2006); TH 

(Robinson et al., 

2008)

CABI, 2004; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Anonymous, 

1994

CABI, 2004; 

Robinson et 

al., 2005; 

Waterhouse, 

1993

Yes L (CABI, 2004; Hill, 

1983; Waterhouse, 

1993); I (Storey and 

Rogers, 1980)

No

Homona difficilis Meyrick TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Anonymous, 

2003; Waite, 

2005b

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Yes L (Robinson et al., 

2001; Waite, 2005b)

No

Homona eductana Walker MY, TH (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et al., 

2008

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes I (Wongsiri, 1991), L 

(Robinson et al., 2001)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 56

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Lobesia aeolopa Meyrick MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Zhang, 1994 Yes F (internal), L, I 

(Robinson et al., 2001)

Yes

Lobesia genialis Meyrick TH (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2008

Yes I (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No

Ophiorrhabda cellifera Meyrick MY (Robinson et al., 

2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L, F (internal) 

(Robinson et al., 2001)

Yes

Statherotis discana (Felder & 

Rogenhofer)

LA (CABI, 2006; 

Waterhouse, 1993); 

ID, MY, PH, TH, VN 

(CABI, 2006)

CABI, 2006 Robinson et 

al., 2008; 

Waterhouse, 

1993; 

Wongsiri, 

1991

CABI, 2006 Yes L (CABI, 2006; 

Waterhouse, 1993)

No

Statherotis leucaspis Meyrick 

(Syns.: Argyroploce leucaspis

Meyrick, Olethreutes leucaspis 

Meyrick)

TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Bose et al., 

2001; Hill, 

1983; Morton, 

1987b; Zhang, 

1994

Robinson et 

al., 2008; 

Wongsiri, 

1991

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes L (Bose et al., 2001; 

Wongsiri, 1991); I 

(Bose et al., 2001)

No

Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae

Comocritis pieria Meyrick TH, MY (Robinson et 

al., 2008)

Robinson et 

al., 2005

Yes Bk, F (Robinson et al., 

2001)

No88

Orthoptera: Acrididae

Chondracis rosea (De Geer) ID, LA, MY, PH, TH, 

VN (CABI, 2006)

Anonymous, 

2003

CABI, 2006 Yes L (Anonymous, 2003) No

Locusta migratoria manilensis 

(Meyton)

KH, ID, MY, PH, 

TH, VN (CABI, 

2006)

Anonymous, 

2003

Yes L, growing points, I, 

Sd, F, St (CABI, 2006)

No89

 

88 Comocritis pieria feeds externally on the fruit (Robinson et al., 2001), so it is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and 

processing.

89 Because of its size, biology, and mobility, L. migratoria manilensis is highly unlikely to stay on the commodity through harvest and standard handling and processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 57

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Orthoptera: Gryllidae

Tarbinskiellus portentosus 

(Lichtenstein) (Syn.:

Brachytrupes portentosus 

Lichtenstein)

VN (CABI, 2007), 

KH (Nickel, 1979)

Anonymous, 

1994

Anonymous, 

1994, 2003

Yes Seedling (Hill, 1983) No

Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae

Haplothrips sp. ASEANa(PestID, 

2009)

PestID, 2009 Ross, 2004 Yes I, L (Ross, 2004) No

Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Chaetanaphothrips orchidii

(Moulton) 

ID, MY (CABI, 

2006); US (CABI, 

2005)

CABI, 2005 No N/A N/A

Ermothrips lobatus Bhatti TH (Wongsiri, 1991) Wongsiri, 1991 Yes I (Wongsiri, 1991) No

Megalurothrips distalis (Karny) 

(Syn.: Taeniothrips distalis

Karny)

ID, PH, TH (CABI, 

2006)

CABI, 2004; 

Hill, 1983; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Yes L, I (CABI, 2004); I 

(Morton, 1987b)

No

Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus 

Hood

TH (Waterhouse, 

1993; Wongsiri, 

1991); ID (Li-zhong, 

2000)

Wen et al., 

2002

Yes L (CABI, 2003; Wen 

et al., 2002); F (Gima 

et al., 2001)

Yes

Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood TH (Anupunt, 2003a; 

Anupunt, 2003b); 

BN, ID, MY, PH, TH 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(FL, HI) (CABI, 

2006)

Li et al., 2004; 

Waite and 

Hwang, 2002

Anupunt, 

2003a

Anupunt, 

2003b; 

Wongsiri, 

1991

[Yes]

90 Sh (Waite and Hwang, 

2002); Bk, L, Sh (Li et 

al., 2004); Sh, L, F, I 

(CABI, 2004); I 

(Wongsiri, 1991); L, I, 

young F (Anupunt, 

2003a)

No91

 

90 Quarantine significant species with limited distribution in the United States (NIS, 2009d).

91 Scirtothrips dorsalis only attacks immature fruit (CABI/EPPO, 1997). Therefore, this species is highly unlikely to be on harvested fruit and follow the pathway.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 58

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard) ID, MY, PH, TH 

(CABI, 2006); US 

(CABI, 2006)

Anonymous, 

1994

Astridge, 

2001

No N/A N/A

Thrips coloratus Schmutz TH (Wongsiri, 1991) Wongsiri, 1991 Wongsiri, 

1991

Yes L (Wongsiri, 1991) No

Thrips hawaiiensis Morgan ID, LA, MY, PH, TH, 

VN (CABI, 2006); 

US (CABI, 2006)

Wongsiri, 1991 Wen et al., 

2002

Wongsiri, 

1991

No N/A N/A

PATHOGENS

Nematodes92

Aphelenchoides ritzema-bosi 

Steiner [Aphelenchoididae]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Criconemella sp. De Grisse & 

Loof [Criconematidae]

TH (CABI, 2006) CABI, 2007; 

PPQ, 2007

PPQ, 2007 Yes93 R (CABI, 2007) No

Discocriconemella limitanea 

(Luc) De Grisse & Loof 

[Criconematidae]

TH (Ross, 2004)cPPQ, 2007 PPQ, 2007 Yes R (PPQ, 2007) No

Helicotylenchus dihystera (Cobb) 

Sher [Hoplolaimidae] 

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Helicotylenchus exallus Sher 

[Hoplolaimidae]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(PestID, 2009; 

USDA-ARS, 2007)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Helicotylenchus multicinctus 

Golden [Hoplolaimidae]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

 

92 Taxonomy according to Nickle (1991)

93 “Criconemella sp.” is reportedly present in both Thailand and the United States (CABI, 2007), but because species were not reported we do not know if they are the 

same species in both countries. 
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 59

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus 

Golden [Hoplolaimidae]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Hemicriconemoides mangiferae 

Siddiqi [Criconematidae]

TH (Ross, 2004), VN 

(PPD, 2005)c(CABI, 

2006); US (CA, FL) 

(MacGowan, 1984)

Ploetz et al., 

2003; PPD, 

2005; PPQ, 

2007

Liu and 

Zhang, 1999; 

PPQ, 2007

[Yes]94 R (CABI, 2006; Ploetz 

et al., 2003)

No

Hemicriconemoides sp. 

[Criconematidae]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes R (PPQ, 2007) No

Hoplolaimus seinhorsti Luc 

[Hoplolaimidae]

TH (Ross, 2004), PH 

(CABI, 2006)c

PPQ, 2007 Yes R (PPQ, 2007) No

Meloidogyne javanica (Treub) 

Chitwood [Heteroderidae]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Paralongidorus sacchari Siddiqi 

Hooper & Khan 

[Longidoridae]

TH (Ross, 2004)cPPQ, 2007 Yes R (PPQ, 2007) No

Paratrichodorus minor (Colbran) 

Siddiqi [Trichodoridae]

VN (PPD, 2005), PH 

(CABI, 2006)b; US 

(CABI, 2006)

PPD, 2005 No N/A N/A

Pratylenchus zeae Graham 

[Pratylenchidae] 

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Radopholus similis (Cobb) 

Thorne [Pratylenchidae]

TH, PH, ID, BN 

(CABI, 2007)c; US 

(FL, HI, LA, TX) 

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007 [Yes]95 R (PPQ, 2007) No

 

94 Hemicriconemoides mangiferae is a quarantine-significant species with limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2008). 

95 Radopholus similis is a quarantine-significant species with limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2008).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 60

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Rotylenchulus reniformis Linford 

Olievera [Hoplolaimidae]

TH (Ross, 2004),VN 

(PPD, 2005)b; US 

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007; 

PPD, 2005

PPQ, 2007 PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Tylenchorhynchus clavicaudatus 

Seinhorst [Belonolaimidae]

TH (Ross, 2004)cPPQ, 2007 Yes R (PPQ, 2007) No

Tylenchorhynchus crassicaudatus 

[Belonolaimidae]

TH (Ross, 2004)cPPQ, 2007 Yes R (PPQ, 2007) No

Tylenchorhynchus dactylurus 

Das. [Belonolaimidae]

TH (Ross, 2004)cPPQ, 2007 Yes R (PPQ, 2007) No

Tylenchorhynchus sp.

[Belonolaimidae]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes R (PPQ, 2007) No

Tylenchulus semipenetrans Cobb 

[Tylenchulidae]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Xiphinema americanum Cobb 

[Longidoridae]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007; 

Raabe et al., 

1981

No N/A N/A

Xiphinema radicicola Goodey

[Longidoridae]

TH (Ross, 2004)c; US 

(FL) (Westcott and 

Horst, 2001)

PPQ, 2007 [Yes]96 R (PPQ, 2007) No

Algae

Cephaleuros sp. TH (Ross, 2004), VN 

(PPD, 2005) 

PPD, 2005 PPQ, 2007 Yes L (CABI, 2006) No

 

96 Xiphinema radicicola is a quarantine-significant species with limited distribution in the continental United States (NIS, 2009c).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 61

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Cephaleuros virescens Kunze TH (PPRDO, 2003; 

Ross, 2004; 

Salakpetch, 2005), 

BN (Peregrine and 

Bin Ahmad, 1982; 

Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Alfieri Jr. et al., 

1984; Brannen, 2004; 

Mossler and 

Nesheim, 2003

Ploetz et al., 

2003; PPQ, 

2007

Anonymous, 

2002; Ploetz et 

al., 2003; 

PPQ, 2007; 

PPRDO, 2003

Lim and 

Diczbalis, 

1998; 

Peregrine and 

Bin Ahmad, 

1982; Ploetz 

et al., 2003; 

Salakpetch, 

2005

No N/A N/A

Bacteria97

Rhizobium radiobacter

(Beijerinck & van Delden) 

Young [Syn.: Agrobacterium 

tumefaciens (Smith & 

Townsend) Conn; A. 

radiobacter (Beijerinck & van 

Delden) Conn] [Rhizobiales]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(CABI, 2007)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

syringae van Hall 

[Pseudomonadales]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(CABI, 2006)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Fungi and Chromistans98

Alternaria sp. [Ascomycetes:

Pleosporales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes Panicle (Ross, 2004) Yes

Aspergillus niger van Teighem 

[Ascomycetes: Eurotiales]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(CABI, 2007)

PPQ, 2007 PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

 

97 Taxonomy according to Euzeby (2009).

98 Taxonomy according to Farr et al., 2009
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 62

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Botryosphaeria rhodina Berk. & 

M.A. Curtis (Anamorph: 

Botryodiplodia theobromae 

Pat.; Syn.: Diplodia 

theobromae (Pat.) W. Nowell; 

Lasiodiplodia theobromae

(Pat.) Griff. & Maubl.) 

[Ascomycetes: Dothideales]

TH (Ross, 2004), BN 

(Peregrine and Bin 

Ahmad, 1982)b; US 

(CABI, 2007)

Ploetz et al., 

2003; PPQ, 

2007; Rawal, 

1998

Ploetz et al., 

2003

Lim and 

Diczbalis, 

1998; 

Peregrine and 

Bin Ahmad, 

1982; Ploetz 

et al., 2003; 

Rawal, 1998; 

Turner, 1971

No N/A N/A

Botrytis sp.

[Ascomycetes: Helotiales] 

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes I (Ross, 2004) No

Brachysporium sp. 

[Ascomycetes: Incertae sedis]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes St (Ross, 2004) No

Capnodium ramosum Cooke 

[Ascomycetes: Capnodiales] 

TH (PPRDO, 2003; 

Ross, 2004)b

PPQ, 2007; 

PPRDO, 2003

No99 N/A N/A

Chaetomium sp. 

[Ascomycetes: Sordariales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes R (Ross, 2004) No

Cercospora sp. [Ascomycetes] MY (Johnston, 1960) Johnston, 

1960

Yes L (Johnston, 1960) No

Cladosporium cladosporioides

(Fresen) De Vries 

[Ascomycetes:

Mycosphaerellales]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Farr et al., 2009)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Cladosporium sp. 

[Ascomycetes:

Mycosphaerellales]

TH (Ross, 2004); VN 

(PPD, 2005)

PPQ, 2007; 

PPD, 2005

PPQ, 2007 Yes L (Ross, 2004) No

Colletotrichum sp. 

[Ascomycetes: Incertae sedis]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 PPQ, 2007 Yes L (Ross, 2004) No

 

99 This species belongs to the Capnodiaceae family; members of this family are considered true “sooty mold” species that live saprobically on the honeydew excrement of 

sap-feeding insects (Alexopoulos et al., 1996; Cannon and Kirk, 2007). These fungi can be rubbed or washed off from the surface of plant tissues since they do not 

penetrate the host tissues (Nameth et al., 2003). Presence of sooty molds is an indication of sap-feeding insect infestation. Quarantine action is not taken on these types 

of organisms (NIS, 2009b).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 63

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Corynespora cassiicola (Berk. & 

Curtis) Wei [Ascomycetes:

Pleosporales]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Farr et al., 2009)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Cochliobolus lunatus R.R. 

Nelson & Haasis (Anamorph: 

Curvularia lunata (Wakker) 

Boedijn [Ascomycetes:

Pleosporales]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Farr et al., 2009)

PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Curvularia sp. [Ascomycetes:

Pleosporales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 PPQ, 2007 Yes F (Coates et al., 2003) Yes

Cyphella sp. [Basidiomycetes:

Agaricales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes St (Ross, 2004) No

Diplodia sp. [Ascomycetes:

Dothideales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes Sd (Ross, 2004) Yes

Dolabra nepheliae C. Booth & 

W.P. Ting 

[Ascomycetes: Dothideales]

MY (Booth and Ting, 

1964; Rossman et al., 

2007); US (HI, Puerto 

Rico) (Rossman et 

al., 2007)

Rossman et al., 

2007

Booth and 

Ting, 1964; 

Lim and 

Diczbalis, 

1998; 

Rossman et 

al., 2007

Yes St (Booth and Ting,

1964; Lim and 

Diczbalis, 1998; 

Rossman et al., 2007; 

Tindall, 1994)

No

Erythricium salmonicolor (Berk. 

& Broome) Burdsall [Syn.: 

Corticium salmonicolor Berk. 

& Broome) 

[Basidiomycetes: Polyporales]

TH (CABI, 2006; 

Salakpetch, 2005), 

VN, MY, PH, KH 

(CABI, 2006); BN 

(CABI, 2006; 

Peregrine and Bin 

Ahmad, 1982)b; US 

(CABI, 2006)

PPQ, 2007; 

PPD, 2005

PPQ, 2007; 

Turner, 1971

Peregrine and 

Bin Ahmad, 

1982; Ploetz 

et al., 2003; 

PPQ, 2007; 

Turner, 1971

No N/A N/A

Fusarium sp. [Ascomycetes:

Hypocreales]

TH (Ross, 2004), VN 

(PPD, 2005)

PPQ, 2007; 

PPD, 2005

PPQ, 2007 PPQ, 2007 Yes F (Ross, 2004) Yes
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 64

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Galactomyces geotrichum (Butler 

& Peterson) Redhead & 

Malloch (Syn.: Dipodascus 

geotrichum (Butler & 

Peterson); Anamorph: 

Geotrichum candidum Link) 

[Sacchromycetes: 

Saccharomycetales]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Farr et al., 2007)

Anonymous, 

2002; Tsai and 

Hsieh, 1998

PPQ, 2007; 

Tsai and 

Hsieh, 1998

Liu, 1977 No N/A N/A

Gliocephalotrichum simplex (J.A. 

Mey.) B. Wiley & E.G. 

Simmons (Syn.: 

Cylindrocladium simplex J.A. 

Mey.)[Ascomycetes:

Hypocreales]

MY (Liu, 1977); US 

(FL, HI) (Alfieri Jr. et 

al., 1984; Nishijima 

et al., 2002)

Liu, 1977 No (NIS, 

2007)100

N/A N/A

Gliocephalotrichum sp. 

[Ascomycetes: Hypocreales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 No (NIS, 

2007)100

N/A N/A

Gloeosporium sp. [Ascomycetes:

Helotiales]

TH (Ross, 2004); VN 

(PPD, 2005)

PPQ, 2007; 

PPD, 2005

Yes F, L (Ross, 2004) Yes

Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) 

Spauld. & Schrenk 

(Anamorph: Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides (Penz) Sacc.)

[Ascomycetes: Incertae sedis]

VN (PPD, 2005); TH 

(Ross, 2004), BN 

(Peregrine and Bin 

Ahmad, 1982)b; US 

(CABI, 2006)

Anonymous, 

2002; Ploetz et 

al., 2003; PPD, 

2005; Rawal, 

1998

Anonymous, 

2002; PPQ, 

2007

Lim and 

Diczbalis, 

1998; Ploetz 

et al., 2003; 

PPQ, 2007

No N/A N/A

Haematonectria haematococca 

(Berk. & Broom) Samuels & 

Rossman (Anamorph: 

Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc.) 

[Ascomycetes: Hypocreales]

VN (PPD, 2005), TH 

(PPQ, 2007)b; US 

(Farr et al., 2007)

PPD, 2005 PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Lasiodiplodia sp. [Ascomycetes:

Dothideales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 No101 N/A N/A

 

100 Gliocephalotrichum is the anamorph of Leuconectria spp. Leuconectria spp. are members of the family Bionectriaceae within the order Hypocreales. Members are 

associated with dead plant material or other fungi and are cosmopolitan. Rarely are they pathogenic (NIS, 2007).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 65

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Leuconectria clusiae (Samuels & 

Rogerson) Rossman, Samuels 

& Lowen (Anamorph: 

Gliocephalotrichum bulbilium

Ellis & Hesselt)

[Ascomycetes: Hypocreales]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(HI) (Farr et al., 

2007)

PPQ, 2007 No100 N/A N/A

Macrophoma sp. [Ascomycetes:

Botryosphaeriales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes L, F (Ross, 2004) Yes

Marasmiellus scandens (Massee) 

Denis & D.A. Reid (Syn.: 

Marasmius scandens Massee) 

[Basidiomycetes: Agaricales]

MY (Turner, 1971) Turner, 1971 

(one record)

Turner, 1971 No102 L, St (CABI, 2007) N/A

Marasmius equicrinis F. Muell. 

ex Berk. 

[Basidiomycetes: Agaricales]

MY (Turner, 1971) Turner, 1971 No103 L, St (CABI, 2007) No

Marasmius sp.[Basidiomycetes:

Agaricales] 

MY (Johnston, 1960) Johnston, 

1960

No103 L, St (CABI, 2007) No

Meliola nephelii Sacc. var. 

singalensis Hansf. 

[Ascomycetes: Meliolales]

MY (Turner, 1971); 

TH (Ross, 2004)b

PPQ, 2007; 

Turner, 1971

No104 N/A N/A

Meliola sp. [Ascomycetes:

Meliolales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPD, 2005 PPQ, 2007 No104 N/A N/A

 

101 The genus Lasiodiplodia is not of quarantine concern in the United States (NIS, 2007).

102 Marasmiellus is not listed in the pest identification database, but action would not likely be taken on the genus, which typically infests downed trees and plant debris 

(NIS, 2009b). 

103 The genus Marasmius is not listed in interception database, however National Identification Services reports action would not likely be taken on members of genus due 

to their typical habit on downed trees and plant debris (NIS, 2009b).

104 Members of this order of fungi (Meliolales) are among the least economically important of the plant parasitic fungi (Alexopoulos et al., 1996). Meliolales species grow

on plant surfaces, forming dark, superficial coverings (Alexopoulos et al., 1996; Moore-Landecker, 1982). Heavy infestations may cause leaf chlorosis due to the black 

growth blocking sunlight and reducing photosynthesis, but they rarely kill plant cells (Moore-Landecker, 1982; Nameth et al., 2003). This species is a sooty mold that 

grows on the honeydew excrement of plant sucking insects and mites (Coates et al., 2003). Quarantine action is not taken on these fungi (NIS, 2009a).
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 66

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Microsphaeropsis sp. 

[Ascomycetes]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes L (Ross, 2004) No

Mycosphaerella sp.

[Ascomycetes]

TH (Ross, 2004); VN 

(PPD, 2005)

PPD, 2005 PPQ, 2007 Yes L (Ross, 2004; PPD, 

2005)

No

Nectria pseudotrichia Berk. & 

M.A. Curtis (Syn.: 

Thyronectria pseudotrichia

(Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Seeler; 

Anamorph: Tubercularia 

lateritia (Berk) Seifert) 

[Ascomycetes: Hypocreales]

MY (Johnston, 1960; 

Turner, 1971); US 

(Farr et al., 2009) 

Johnston, 

1960; Lim 

and 

Diczbalis, 

1998; Turner, 

1971

No N/A N/A

Oidium nephelii Hadiwidjaja 

[Ascomycetes: Erysiphales]

TH (Ross, 2004; 

Salakpetch, 2005); 

BN (Peregrine and 

Bin Ahmad, 1982); 

ID, PH, MY (Farr et 

al., 2007)

PPQ, 2007; 

Rawal, 1998; 

Salakpetch, 

2005; Turner, 

1971

Yes I, L, F (Coates et al., 

2003; Rawal, 1998); 

young Sh (Rawal, 

1998)

Yes105

Oidium sp. [Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes F, I (Coates et al.,

2003)

Yes

Phytophthora litchii (C.C. Chen 

ex W.H. Ko, H.S. Chang, H.J. 

Su, C.C. Chen & L.S. Leu) 

Voglmayr, Göker, Riethm. & 

Oberw. (Syn.: Peronophythora 

litchii C.C. Chen ex W.H. Ko, 

H.S. Chang, H.J. Su, C.C. 

Chen & L.S. Leu) [Oomycetes: 

Pythiales] 

TH, VN (Coates et 

al., 2003; Vien et al., 

2001)106

Anonymous, 

2002; Ko et al., 

1978; PPQ, 

2007; PPD, 

2005

Yes F, I, L (Coates et al., 

2003; Ross, 2004)

Yes

 

105 Powdery mildews are primarily foliar pathogens but may sometimes occur on fruits (Cooke, 1975; Ploetz et al., 1994). This disease, however, is the most serious 

disease of rambutan in the field and affects mainly young and actively growing leaves, inflorescences, and fruit.

106 This pathogen is present in Vietnam and Thailand (Coates et al., 2003). We found no evidence that P. litchii occurs in Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, or Malaysia, 

but—unless additional data is provided—we assume the pest is present in these countries due to their proximity to Vietnam and Thailand.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 67

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Pestalotia sp. [Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales]

TH (Ross, 2004) Ross, 2004 PPQ, 2007 Yes F (Farr et al., 2007) Yes

Pestalotiopsis cruenta (Syd.) 

Steyaert [Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales]

MY (Johnston, 1960) Johnston, 

1960

Yes L (Johnston, 1960) No

Pestalotiopsis disseminata 

(Thum.) Steyaert 

[Ascomycetes: Xylariales]

MY (Liu, 1977); US 

(FL) (Alfieri Jr. et al., 

1984); US (VA) 

(Roane and Roane, 

1996)

Liu, 1977 [Yes] L (Farr et al., 2009; 

Liu, 1977) 

No

Pestalotiopsis pauciseta (Sacc.) 

Chen (Syn.: Pestalotia 

pauciseta Sacc.)

[Ascomycetes: Xylariales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007; 

Rawal, 1998

Farr et al., 

2007; Zhang 

and Qi, 1996

Yes L, St (Farr et al., 2007) No

Pestalotiopsis sp. [Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Farr et al., 

2007; PPQ, 

2007

Yes I, L, F (Coates et al., 

2003)

Yes

Pestalotiopsis theae (Saw.) Stey. 

[Ascomycetes: Xylariales]

TH (Ross, 2004); BN 

(Peregrine and Bin 

Ahmad, 1982); ID, 

PH, MY (Farr et al., 

2007)

PPQ, 2007 Yes L (Farr et al., 2009; 

Ross, 2004)

No

Phaeosphaeria sp.

[Ascomycetes: Pleosporales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes F (Ross, 2004) Yes

Phellinus noxius (Corner) G. 

Cunn (Syn.: Fomes noxius 

Corner)107 [Basidiomycetes: 

Hymenochaetales]

VN (PPD, 2005); ID, 

MY (CABI, 2006)c

Anonymous, 

2002; PPD, 

2005

Anonymous, 

2002

Turner, 1971 Yes R, Tw (Farr et al., 

2007)

No

Phialophora sp. [Ascomycetes] TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes L (Ross, 2004) No

Phoma sp. [Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales]

TH (Ross, 2004); VN 

(PPD, 2005)

PPD, 2005 PPQ, 2007 Yes F, St (Ross, 2004; 

PPD, 2005)

Yes

 

107 Synonym for P. noxius is from Index Fungorum: http://www.indexfungorum.org/.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 68

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Phomopsis sp. [Ascomycetes: 

Diaporthales]

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 PPQ, 2007 PPQ, 2007 Yes L, St (Ross, 2004) No

Phyllosticta sp. [Ascomycetes] TH (Ross, 2004); 

another Phyllostickta 

sp. was reported in 

MY (Johnston, 1960)

PPQ, 2007 Johnston, 

1960; PPQ, 

2007

Yes L (Johnston, 1960; 

Ross, 2004)

No

Phytophthora botryosa Chee 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

TH (Ross, 2004); 

MY, VN (CABI, 

2006)c

PPQ, 2007; 

Rawal, 1998

Yes L, St, R (Ross, 2004) No

Phytophthora capsici Leonian 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

TH (PPRDO, 2003; 

Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPQ, 2007; 

PPRDO, 2003

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

TH (Ross, 2004); VN 

(PPD, 2005)b; US 

(Westcott and Horst, 

2001)

PPD, 2005 PPQ, 2007 No N/A N/A

Phytophthora nicotianae Breda 

de Hann var. parasitica

(Dastur) G.M. Waterhouse 

[Oomycetes: Pythiales]

TH (Ross, 2004)b; US 

(Farr et al., 2009)

PPQ, 2007; 

Rawal, 1998

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora palmivora (Butler) 

Butler [Oomycetes: Pythiales]

TH (PPRDO, 2003; 

Ross, 2004); PH, 

MY, ID, VN (Farr et 

al., 2007)b; US (AZ, 

CA, FL, HI) (CABI, 

2006)

PPQ, 2007 Ploetz et al., 

2003; PPQ, 

2007; PPRDO, 

2003

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora sp. [Oomycetes: 

Pythiales]

VN (PPD, 2005); TH 

(Coates et al., 2003)

PPD, 2005 Coates et al., 

2003

Coates et al., 

2003

Yes L, F (Coates et al., 

2003)

Yes

Pseudoperonospora sp. 

[Oomycetes: Peronosporales]

VN (PPD, 2005) PPD, 2005 Yes I, F (PPD, 2005) Yes

Pythium sp. [Oomycetes: 

Pythiales] 

TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes R (Ross, 2004) No
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 69

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

Rhabdospora sp. [Ascomycetes] TH (Ross, 2004) PPQ, 2007 Yes 

(NIS, 

2007)

branch, Tw (Ross, 

2004)

No

Rhizoctonia sp. [Basidiomycetes] TH (Ross, 2004); US 

(Agrios, 1997)

PPQ, 2007 No R (Ross, 2004) No

Rigidoporus microporus (Fr.) 

Overeem (Syn.: Fomes 

lignosus Klotzsch)108

[Basidiomycetes: Polyporales] 

TH (Ross, 2004); 

VN, PH, MY (CABI, 

2006)b; US (CABI, 

2006)

PPQ, 2007; 

Rawal, 1998; 

Turner, 1971

No N/A N/A

Septobasidium sp. 

[Urediniomycetes:

Septobasidiales]

MY (Turner, 1971) Turner, 1971 Yes Bk (Turner, 1971) No

Sphaeropsis sp. [Ascomycetes] VN (PPD, 2005) PPD, 2005 Yes L, St, F (Coates et al., 

2003)

Yes

Thanatephorus cucumerus

(Frank) Donk. (Anamorph: 

Rhizoctonia solani Kühn) 

[Basidiomycetes: 

Ceratobasidiales]

TH (CABI, 2006; 

Ross, 2004); VN 

(CABI, 2006; PPD, 

2005); PH, MY

(CABI, 2006)b; US 

(Agrios, 1997; CABI, 

2006)

PPD, 2005; 

PPQ, 2007

No N/A N/A

Uredo nephelii (S. Ito & Muray.) 

Hirats. f. (Syn.: Skierka 

nephelii S. Ito & 

Muray.)[Urediniomycetes:

Uredinales]

TH (Ross, 2004)c Anonymous, 

2002; Farr et 

al., 2007; PPQ, 

2007

Yes L (Farr et al., 2007); St 

(Ross, 2004)

No

 

108 Synonym for Rigidoporus microporus is from Index Fungorum: http://www.indexfungorum.org/.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 70

Pest Scientific Name ASEAN & U.S. 

distribution1

Reported on Quarantine pest2Plant part(s) 

association3

Follow 

Litchi Longan Rambutan pathway

DISEASE OF UNKNOWN ETIOLOGY

Witches’ broom disease109 TH (Batten, 1986; 

Coates et al., 2003)

Koizumi, 1995 Batten, 1986; 

Coates et al., 

2003

Yes Potentially whole plant 

via systemic 

movement (Agrios, 

1997; Siddique et al., 

1998; Waigmann et 

al., 2004)

No110

 

109 Scientists debate whether or not witches’ broom disease is a phytoplasma or virus (Coates et al., 2003).

110 Coates et al. (2003) report that the pathogen for witches’ broom disease causes crowded panicles that lose flowers prematurely. If flowers drop prematurely, fruit 

would not be produced. Even if fruit were able to develop, these types of disease agents are typically moved to new hosts by insect vectors or propagative measures 

such as grafting, budding, or cuttings (Coates et al., 2003; Agrios, 1997). This pathogen is highly unlikely to follow the pathway of fruit for consumption.
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 71

2.4.2. Quarantine pests not considered for risk mitigation

Quarantine pests not listed below (Table 6) could be detrimental to U.S. agriculture or 

ecosystems, but we do not consider them for risk mitigation for a variety of reasons. For 

example, they may be mainly associated with plant parts other than the commodity; associated 

with the commodity, but not likely to remain with the commodity through standard harvest and 

post-harvest processing; have been intercepted as biological contaminants of these commodities 

during U.S. agricultural port-of-entry inspection, but are not likely to be present in commercial 

shipments; or were identified only to the genus level, and the genus in question occurs in the 

continental United States.

Doubtful host association. Multiple species were not listed above because their association with 

the hosts is doubtful. For example, without further information, we consider one or a few 

interceptions at a U.S. port-of-entry on a commodity to be insufficient evidence of a host 

association, especially if the interception occurred on produce in passenger baggage, because the 

origin of the goods may be unclear. This was the case for the following species:

Tuckerella knorri Baker and Tuttle (Acari: Tuckerellidae), Araecerus sp. (Coleoptera: 

Anthribidae), Glyphonyx sp. (Coleoptera: Elateridae), Hypothenemus sp. (Coleoptera: 

Scolytidae), Contarinia sp., Resseliella sp. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), Dacus sp. (Diptera: 

Tephritidae), Batracomorphus sp., Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), Graminella 

expansa Linnavuori (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), Milviscutulus mangiferae (Green) (Hemiptera: 

Coccidae), Fromundus pygmaeus (Dallas) (Hemiptera: Cydnidae), Nilaparvata sp., Diaspis sp., 

Fiorinia sp., Lepidosaphes laterochitinosa Green, Parlatoria ziziphi (Lucas) (Hemiptera: 

Delphacidae), Navarrus phaeophilus (Walker) (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae), Crypticerya sp., 

Drosicha sp. (Hemiptera: Margarodidae), Campylomma sp. (Hemiptera: Miridae), 

Exallomochlus camur Williams, Exallomochlus sp., Paracoccus burnerae (Brain), Planococcus 

angkorensis (Takahashi) (syn.: P. dorsospinus Ezzat & McConnell), Planococcoides sp., 

Rastrococcus biggeri Williams & Watson (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Bactericera sp. 

(Hemiptera: Triozidae), Hendecasis duplifascialis Hampson, (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and 

Frankliniella schultzei (Trybom) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae).

In addition, we did not list Hypsipyla robusta Moore (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Pyralids in 

Hypsipyla generally attack plants in the family Meliaceae, subfamily Swietenioideae 

(Biosecurity Australia, 2007; Griffiths, 2001). Although this genus reportedly feeds on plants in 

other groups, these reports “probably constitute misidentification of the insects and/or 

misinterpretation of the damage,” and “some records may represent chance feeding events” 

(Griffiths, 2001). Besides the report by Zhang (1994) (which is simply a catalog, not an original 

reference source), we found no other report of litchi as a host of H. robusta. Finally, since 1985, 

the genus Hypsipyla has never been intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry on litchi or any other 

Sapindaceae plants (PestID, 2009).

Finally, we also did not list Parlatoria cinerea Danne & Hadden (syn.: P. pseudopyri Kuwana) 

(Hemiptera: Delphacidae). We found no reports of P. cinerea or P. pseudopyri attacking any 

plants in the family Sapindaceae, and only two original references (Butani, 1977a; Butani, 

1977b) for litchi as a host. Those sources are general articles on litchi pests that provide no 

specific information on P. cinerea or P. pseudopyri (e.g., collector’s name, date and location of 

collection, etc.), so they are not strong evidence of a regular host association. Indeed, they note 
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 72

that this pest and other listed scales do not severely damage litchi (Butani, 1977a; 1977b). The 

primary host of this pest is Citrus (e.g., Watson, 2005a; Williams and Watson, 1988a). 

Furthermore, since 1985, out of the 2,249 pest interceptions on litchi at U.S. ports-of-entry, the 

genus Parlatoria has never been intercepted (PestID, 2009). Consequently, litchi is likely rarely 

a host, if at all.

Doubtful presence in exporting country: Other species were not listed above because their 

presence in any of the exporting countries is doubtful. For example, without further information, 

we consider one or a few interceptions at a U.S. port-of-entry on a commodity to be insufficient 

evidence of a pest occurring in a country, especially if the interception occurred on produce in 

passenger baggage, because the origin of the goods may be unclear. This was the case for the 

following species here: Anastrepha sp., Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), 

Aleurocanthus husaini Corbett, Aleurotuberculatus murrayae Singh (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), 

and Thrips imaginis Bagnall (Thysanoptera: Thripidae).

Identification only to genus. Generally, we do not consider risk mitigation measures for 

organisms identified only to the genus level if the genus in question is reported in the United 

States. Often there are many species within a genus, and we cannot know if the unidentified 

species occurs in the United States and, consequently, whether it meets the definition of a 

quarantine pest for the United States. In this pest list document, the preceding statement applies 

to the arthropods Tarsonemus sp. (Acari: Tarsonemidae), Aulacaspis sp., Chionaspis sp.

(Hemiptera: Diaspididae), Icerya sp. (Hemiptera: Margarodidae), Cataenococcus sp., 

Crisicoccus sp., Dysmicoccus sp., Ferrisia sp., Maconellicoccus sp., Nipaecoccus sp., 

Paracoccus sp., and Phenacoccus sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). All of these genera are 

reported to occur in the United States, including the continental United States (Ben-Dov et al., 

2008; CABI, 2007; Hill, 1987). The above statement also applies to the following fungi:

Alternaria sp., Curvularia sp., Diplodia sp., Fusarium sp., Gloeosporium spp., Macrophoma sp., 

Oidium sp., Phoma sp., Pestalotia sp., Pestalotiopsis sp., Phaeosphaeria sp., and Sphaeropsis sp. 

(Ascomycetes), as well as Phytophthora sp. and Pseudoperonospora sp. (Oomycetes). All of 

these genera are reported to occur in the United States, including the continental United States 

(Westcott and Horst, 2001; Agrios, 1997; CABI, 2007; Farr et al., 2009). Lack of specific 

identification may indicate the limits of current taxonomic knowledge, the life stage, or the 

quality of the specimen submitted for identification. By necessity, pest risk assessments focus on 

organisms for which biological information is available. Lack of specific identification does not 

rule out the possibility that a high risk quarantine pest was intercepted. Conversely, the 

development of detailed assessments for known pests that inhabit a variety of ecological niches, 

such as internal fruit feeders or foliage pests, allow effective mitigation measures to eliminate the 

known organisms as well as similar but incompletely identified organisms that inhabit the same 

niche. If pests identified to higher taxa are intercepted in the future, we may reevaluate their risk. 

Lepidopterans. We identified Lepidoptera species in the genera Archips, Conogethes,

Conopomorpha, Cryptoblabes, Cryptophlebia, Deudorix, Dichomeris, Gatesclarkeana, Lobesia, 

Ophiorrhabda, Stathmopoda, and Tirathaba as quarantine pests likely to follow one or more of 

the commodity pathways (Table 6), but their pupae and adults are unlikely to do so. Due to their 

mobility, free-living adults of Lepidoptera are unlikely to be in the pathway of commercially

produced litchi, longan, and rambutan fruits. As for the pupal stage, in most of these genera of 
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concern, the pupae are either associated with plant parts other than fruit or they occur externally

on their host’s plant parts (Ahmed, 1977; Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; CABI, 2007; Hall, 1931; 

Hill, 1987; Hwang and Hsieh, 1989; IPM DANIDA, 2003; Nair, 1975; Ohta, 1940; Ooi et al., 

2002; Popich et al., 1995; Underhill, 1943; van den Berg et al., 2001; Verma, 1985). Or, if the 

pupae occur inside the fruit or seed of their host plants (Atwal, 1976; CABI, 2007; Franssen, 

1936; Gupta et al., 2005; Singh et al., 2002; Verma, 1985; Waite and Hwang, 2002; Zaka ur Rab, 

1980), they would be associated with premature fruit drop and/or obvious damage and symptoms 

(CABI, 2007; Gupta et al., 2005; Singh et al., 2002; Waite and Hwang, 2002), thereby making it 

likely for the fruit to be culled during standard harvest or post-harvest handling and processing. 

We found no information on pupation behavior of the genera Gatesclarkeana, Ophiorrhabda, 

and Stathmopoda. However, since 1985, inspectors at U.S. ports-of-entry have not intercepted 

pupae of these three genera associated with commercial fruit shipments (of any kind), and they 

have not intercepted them with litchi, longan, or rambutan in any pathway, commercial or noncommercial (PestID, 2009). Also, except for two interceptions of Conopomorpha in permit cargo 

with litchi fruit, inspectors at U.S. ports-of-entry have not intercepted pupae of the other 

Lepidoptera genera of concern associated with commercial fruit shipments (of any type of fruit) 

(PestID, 2009). This lack of interception is evidence of the low likelihood of any of the 

Lepidoptera pupae following the pathway of commercial fruit.

Armored scales. Also, the four armored scales (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) identified in this risk 

assessment as quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway—Aulacaspis tubercularis, 

Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis, Thysanofiorinia nephelii, and Unaspis yanonensis—are not 

potential candidates for mitigation measures because, although armored scales may enter on 

commercial fruit for consumption, they are highly unlikely to establish via this pathway (Miller 

et al., 1985; PERAL, 2007). A critical review of the literature, APHIS Plant Protection and 

Quarantine operational data, and expert opinion concludes that, even assuming high quantities of 

imported fruit infested with armored scale species that could be parthenogenic, highly fecund, 

polyphagous, invasive, theoretically able to survive in most of the United States, and capable of 

causing high level consequences, the specific pathway represented by commercially produced 

fruit shipped without leaves, stems, or contaminants constitutes an extremely low risk (PERAL, 

2007). This low risk is explained by poor ability of armored scales to disperse to new host plants 

from fruits for consumption, and consequently, by their low probability of establishment 

(PERAL, 2007). The following characteristics of armored scales contribute to their poor 

dispersal capabilities:

 Legs and wings are absent in females and in feeding immature forms. Males possess wings 

but are short-lived, do not feed, and tend to mate with nearby females. 

 Self-dispersal of armored scales occurs by immature forms, or “crawlers.” They are the most 

vulnerable life stage; their survival decreases with long-distance wind dispersal. Crawlers can 

be passively dispersed by wind from one plant to another only during a period of 

approximately 24 hours. No further dispersal is possible after the crawlers start feeding as 

they lose their legs during the first molt and their mouthparts are deeply inserted in the host, 

anchoring them firmly to the substrate.

 Dispersal from fruit discarded in the environment is considered very unlikely because of low 

wind speeds at ground level and low survival rate of crawlers on the ground or on decaying 

fruit or fruit peel. There is a low probability of active dispersal of crawlers by walking from 
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their natal host since they are not capable of rapid movement over bare soil or rough 

surfaces.

2.4.3. Quarantine pests that follow the pathway and are candidates for risk mitigation

We identified 48 quarantine pests that are likely to follow one or more of the commodity

pathways (Table 6). All of these pests are potential candidates for mitigation measures. For each 

quarantine pest of concern, we provide the reported distribution in the ASEAN region (Table 7). 

As noted in the Introduction, PPQ recognizes 400 Gy irradiation as an approved treatment for all 

plant pests of the class Insecta other than pupae and adults of the order Lepidoptera for all 

imported fruits and vegetables (PPQ, 2011c). The irradiation treatment, along with standard 

postharvest processes, will likely mitigate the risks from all the insects listed in Table 6. 

Additional measures may be required to mitigate risks associated with the mite pest Aceria litchii

and the fungal pathogens Oidium nephelii and Phytophpathora litchii. Irradiation will likely

cause some mortality in these pests, but will not completely mitigate the risk; therefore, we 

selected these pests for further analysis (section 2.5).

Table 6. Quarantine pests identified as likely to follow the pathway of fresh litchi, longan, and/or 

rambutan fruit imported from one or more of the ASEAN member countries into the continental 

United States.

Pest Classification Pest Scientific Name Pathway

Arthropods

Acari: Eriophyidae Aceria litchii Litchi, Longan

Diptera: Tephritidae Bactrocera correcta Longan

Bactrocera cucurbitae Litchi

Bactrocera dorsalis Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Bactrocera papayae Rambutan

Hemiptera: Coccidae Ceroplastes rubens Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Ceroplastes rusci Litchi, Rambutan

Coccus discrepans Longan

Coccus viridis Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Drepanococcus chiton Longan

Taiwansaissetia formicarii Longan (with stems)

Hemiptera: Kerridae Kerria greeni Longan (with stems)

Kerria lacca Litchi, Longan (with stems)

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae Crisicoccus theobromae Rambutan

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Exallomochlus hispidus Longan, Rambutan

Exallomochlus philippinensis Longan, Rambutan

Maconellicoccus hirsutus Longan, Rambutan

Maconellicoccus multipori Rambutan

Nipaecoccus viridis Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Paracoccus interceptus Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Planococcus lilacinus Litchi, Longan, Rambutan
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Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 75

Pest Classification Pest Scientific Name Pathway

Planococcus litchi Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Planococcus minor Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Pseudococcus aurantiacus Rambutan

Pseudococcus cryptus Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Rastrococcus iceryoides Rambutan

Rastrococcus jabadiu Rambutan

Rastrococcus tropicasiaticus Rambutan

Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae Dichomeris indiserta Rambutan

Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae Conopomorpha cramerella Rambutan

Conopomorpha sinensis Litchi, Longan

Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae Deudorix diovis Litchi, Longan

Deudorix epijarbas Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae Stathmopoda conioma Rambutan

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Conogethes punctiferalis Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Cryptoblabes gnidiella Rambutan

Tirathaba mundella Rambutan

Tirathaba ruptilinea Rambutan

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae Archips mimicus Rambutan

Cryptophlebia illepida Litchi, Rambutan

Cryptophlebia ombrodelta Litchi, Longan, Rambutan

Gatesclarkeana erotias Litchi

Lobesia aeolopa Litchi

Ophiorrhabda cellifera Rambutan

Thysanoptera: Thripidae Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Longan

Fungi

Ascomycetes: Erysiphales Oidium nephelii Rambutan

Oomycetes: Pythiales Phytophthora litchii Litchi

Table 7. Distribution in the ASEAN countries of the quarantine pests identified as potential 

candidates for mitigation measures. Key:  = present; BN =Brunei; KH = Cambodia; ID = 

Indonesia; LA = Laos; MY = Malaysia; PH = Philippines; TH = Thailand; VN = Vietnam

Pest BN KH ID LA MY PH TH VN

Aceria litchii  

Archips mimicus 

Bactrocera correcta 

Bactrocera cucurbitae        

Bactrocera dorsalis     

Bactrocera papayae    

Ceroplastes rubens     

Ceroplastes rusci 

Coccus discrepans  

Coccus viridis      

Conogethes punctiferalis        
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Pest BN KH ID LA MY PH TH VN

Conopomorpha cramerella      

Conopomorpha sinensis  

Crisicoccus theobromae   

Cryptoblabes gnidiella  

Cryptophlebia illepida  

Cryptophlebia ombrodelta       

Deudorix diovis 

Deudorix epijarbas   

Dichomeris indiserta 

Drepanococcus chiton    

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes    

Exallomochlus hispidus     

Exallomochlus philippinensis 

Gatesclarkeana erotias 

Kerria greeni  

Kerria lacca  

Lobesia aeolopa 

Maconellicoccus hirsutus        

Maconellicoccus multipori    

Nipaecoccus viridis      

Oidium nephelii     

Ophiorrhabda cellifera 

Paracoccus interceptus       

Phytophthora litchii  

Planococcus lilacinus        

Planococcus litchi   

Planococcus minor       

Pseudococcus aurantiacus     

Pseudococcus cryptus        

Rastrococcus iceryoides    

Rastrococcus jabadiu   

Rastrococcus tropicasiaticus    

Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus  

Stathmopoda conioma  

Taiwansaissetia formicarii     

Tirathaba mundella  

Tirathaba ruptilinea  

2.5. Analysis of Quarantine Pests

For the quarantine pests selected for further analysis, we assessed their likelihood of introduction 

into the continental United States and the undesirable consequences that may result from their 

introduction. We rated the pests using the criteria in the Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest 

Risk Assessments, Version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000). We calculated a cumulative risk rating, or Pest 
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Risk Potential, for each pest by summing all risk element values. Below we summarize the 

values for each pest (Table 10).

The major sources of uncertainty present in this risk assessment include the use of a developing 

or evolving process (Orr et al., 1993; PPQ, 2000), the approach used to combine risk elements 

(Bier, 1999; Morgan and Henrion, 1990), and the evaluation of risk by comparisons to lists of 

factors within the guidelines (Kaplan, 1992; Orr et al., 1993). To address this last source of 

uncertainty, the lists of factors were interpreted as illustrative and not exhaustive, implying that 

additional biological information, even if not explicitly part of the criteria, can be used when 

relevant to a rating. Other sources of uncertainty include the quality of the biological information 

and the amount of information available on the regional flora and fauna. Inherent biological 

variation within a population of organisms introduces uncertainty as well (Morgan and Henrion, 

1990).

2.5.1. Consequences of Introduction

We rated potential consequences of introduction using five risk elements: Climate-Host 

Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal Potential, Economic Impact, and Environmental Impact. 

These elements reflect the biology, host ranges and climatic/geographic distributions of the pests. 

For each risk element, pests are assigned a rating of Low (1 point), Medium (2 points), or High 

(3 points) (PPQ, 2000). A Cumulative Risk Rating is then calculated by summing all risk 

element values. We summarized the risk ratings determined for each pest below (Table 8).

Aceria litchii Risk ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Aceria litchii is reported in China (He and He, 2001; Waite and Hwang, 2002), 

Taiwan (Huang, 1967; Taiwan, 2002; Waite and Hwang, 2002), India (Kumar, 

1992; Waite and Hwang, 2002), Hawaii (Amrine and Stasny, 1994), Pakistan 

(Jeppson et al., 1975; Waite and Hwang, 2002), and Australia (Waite and Hwang, 

2002). Based on the distribution and reported host range of this species, we 

estimate that it could establish in the continental United States in Plant Hardiness 

Zones 10-11 (Magarey et al., 2008). Neither longan nor litchi occur naturally in the 

United States (NRCS, 2008), but longan is commercially grown in southern 

Florida (Crane and Mossler, 2008) and in backyard gardens in southern California 

(Gaskell, 2008). Similarly, litchi is commercially grown in southern Florida and 

Hawaii and is grown as an ornamental in southern California (Crane and Mossler, 

2008; Erickson et al., 1999). Because Zone 11 only comprises approximately 0.1 

percent of the United States (PERAL, 2008), we do not count it toward the total 

number of zones for determining the Climate/Host Interaction risk rating. 

Therefore, we rated this element Low.

Low (1)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Aceria litchii’s host range includes Dimocarpus longan (Sapindaceae) (Huang, 1967; 

Taiwan, 2002) and Litchi chinensis (Sapindaceae) (Huang, 1967; Jeppson et al., 

1975). Because this pest attacks multiple species within a single plant family, we 

rated it Medium.

Medium (2)
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Aceria litchii Risk ratings

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

In India and China, 13-15 overlapping generations are produced each year (Waite 

and Hwang, 2002). On litchi in India, A. litchii completes one life cycle in 15-20 

days and can have up to 10-12 generations per year (Prasad and Singh, 1981). A 

related species, A. guerreronis, has a high reproductive rate (CABI, 2007), 

producing up to 51 eggs over a maximum of 43 days longevity (Ansaloni and 

Perring, 2004). All stages are quite mobile and can easily move from infested 

leaves to new leaves (Waite and Hwang, 2002). Erinose mites can be transported 

from tree to tree by phoresy (e.g., on honeybees at flowering), human activity, or 

other agents, but wind currents are the most common method of movement (Waite 

and Hwang, 2002). There is evidence that this mite may be dispersed via the 

human-mediated movement of plants and plant products. For instance, since 1985, 

the genus Aceria has been intercepted 29 times at U.S. ports-of-entry on various 

plant parts (fruit, leaf, plant, etc.), mostly in cargo (PestID, 2009). In India, this 

mite moves with the importation of plants from affected orchards (Prasad and 

Singh, 1981). However, because of the small amount of commercial production of 

its hosts, litchi and longan, in the continental United States (see Risk Element #4), 

the potential for spread through human-assisted movement would be relatively

limited. Because this pest exhibits both high biotic potential and a capability for 

rapid dispersal, we rated this mite High for this element.

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Aceria litchii is a serious pest of litchi (Kumar, 1992). It is the most important pest of 

litchi in Bihar, India (Mathur and Tandon, 1974; Prasad and Singh, 1981), and one of 

the most important pests in the Guangdong litchi-producing areas of China (He and 

He, 2001). In Taiwan, A. litchii is a “serious” pest of litchi, damaging 20-83 percent 

of the commodity (Huang, 1967), and a pest of “major economic significance” to 

longan (Taiwan, 2002). In Bihar, India, young and mature litchi trees are attacked 

and seriously damaged by A. litchii, causing losses as high as 80 percent in 

severely infested orchards (Prasad and Singh, 1981). This mite is the most 

important pest of litchi in Hawaii and Pakistan (Jeppson et al., 1975). Damage by 

this mite includes a felt-like erineum on leaves and fruit, deformed terminals, leaf 

fall, prevention of fruit set, and malformed fruit (Waite and Hwang, 2002). Such 

fruits may be unmarketable. Introduction of this mite could increase production 

costs due to the implementation of control measures. Also, its introduction has the 

potential to impact the litchi and longan industries economically due to its status 

as a quarantine pest for other countries (e.g., Korea, Chile) (CERIS, 2009).

However, the United States is not a major producer of either litchi or longan 

(Evans et al., 2011; Importation of Longan from Taiwan, 2009). Florida is the 

main producer of longan and litchi in the United States (Crane and Mossler, 2008; 

Evans et al., 2011). There are 1,200 acres of litchi in Florida, compared to 300 

acres in Hawaii and 60 in California (Evans et al., 2011). Florida has 

approximately 400 acres of longan acreage (Crane and Mossler, 2008), accounting

for at least 94 percent of U.S. longan production (Importation of Longan from 

Taiwan, 2009). Although the presence of A. litchii in the continental United States 

could restrict foreign or domestic trade, we assumed this type of impact would be 

Medium (2)
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Aceria litchii Risk ratings

small because 1) we found no evidence that litchi and longan fruits are exported 

from the continental United States, 2) only domestic trade to California (where the 

mite does not already occur and where litchi and longan are grown) would likely

be affected, and 3) as stated above, the United States is not a major producer of 

either of these commodities. For these reasons, we rated the mite A. litchii Medium

for this element.

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

The genera Litchi and Dimocarpus are not listed as Threatened or Endangered in 50 

CFR §17.12 (USFWS, 2006). Although the introduction of A. litchii into the 

continental United States does not present any foreseeable impacts on Threatened or 

Endangered plants, its establishment in the continental United States could initiate 

increased chemical control, as management of A. litchii includes the use of 

chemical pesticides (He and He, 2001; Waite, 2005a). Currently, the main 

arthropod pests of litchi and longan production in Florida include various scale 

insects, citrus root weevils, the lychee webworm, and a barkminer moth (Crane 

and Mossler, 2008). Because there are no mites included among the main 

arthropod pests, we assume the introduction of A. litchii may lead to an overall 

increase in pesticide use for litchi and/or longan producers in Florida. Based on 

this evidence, we rated this pest Medium.

Medium (2)

Oidium nephelii Risk ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

The fungus Oidium nephelii has only been reported from southern Asia (Brunei, 

Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Thailand) (Farr and 

Rossman, 2011; Rajapakse et al., 2006). These areas correspond to Plant 

Hardiness Zones 10-13 (Magarey et al., 2008). In the United States, these zones 

comprise approximately 1 percent of the total area of the United States and 

include approximately 7 percent of the population (PERAL, 2008). Based on this, 

we rated this pathogen Low.

Low (1)

Risk Element #2: Host Range 

The only known host for this fungus is rambutan (Farr and Rossman, 2011; 

Rajapakse et al., 2006). Production areas for rambutan are found only in Florida, 

Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Lightfield, 1996). The Low rating for this element 

reflects the limited host availability in the United States. 

Low (1)

Risk Element # 3: Dispersal Potential

Conidia of Oidium nephelii form on infected leaves, flowers, and fruit and are 

readily dispersed by wind (Coates et al., 2003; Rajapakse et al., 2006). Young and 

actively growing plant parts are most susceptible to infection (Garcia, 1983). 

Conidia can germinate and infect plant tissue in the absence of free water if the 

relative humidity is sufficient (Agrios, 1997). Rambutan powdery mildew 

outbreaks have been observed in both humid and dry conditions (Garcia, 1983; 

Rajapakse et al., 2006; Rukmana and Oesman, 2002). Based on this evidence, we 

assigned O. nephelii a rating of High.

High (3)
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Oidium nephelii Risk ratings

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Powdery mildew is considered the most important disease on rambutan (Coates et 

al., 2003; Rajapakse et al., 2006). In Indonesia, severe flower, bud, and fruit losses 

were experienced, with a disease incidence of 10-93 percent (Rukmana and 

Oesman, 2002). In Sri Lanka, rambutan powdery mildew has reached an epidemic 

level, and reduced fruit quality and production has resulted in economic losses to 

growers (Rajapakse et al., 2006). Oidium nephelii is not listed as a prohibited pest 

by any country (CERIS, 2011) and due to its limited host range, is also unlikely to 

result in a loss of domestic markets. For these reasons, we rated this pathogen 

Medium for this element.

Medium (2)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

The only known host for O. nephelii is rambutan (Farr and Rossman, 2011; 

Rajapakse et al., 2006). Rambutan is believed to be native to Malaysia and 

Indonesia and has been introduced to Florida, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico 

(Lightfield, 1996; Zee, 1995b). There is one endangered species in Hawaii, mahoe 

(Alectryon macrococcus), that is in the same family (Sapindaceae) as rambutan 

(USFWS, 2009); however, because this import request is for the continental 

United States, we do not expect this plant species in Hawaii to be threatened by

this pathogen. If introduced, fungicide applications will likely be necessary to 

control this pathogen (Rajapakse et al., 2006). Based on this evidence, we 

assigned a Medium rating for this risk element.

Medium (2)

Phytophthora litchii Risk ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Phytophthora litchii has been identified in Asia in China (Fujian, Guangdong, and 

Guangxi Provinces) (CABI, 2011; Farr and Rossman, 2011; Tang et al., 2011), 

Japan (Farr and Rossman, 2011; Kobayashi, 2007), Taiwan (CABI, 2011; Farr and 

Rossman, 2011), Thailand (Coates et al., 2003), and Vietnam (Vien et al., 2001) 

and in Oceania in Papua New Guinea (CABI, 2011). These areas correspond to 

Plant Hardiness Zones 4-13 (Magarey et al., 2008). In the United States, these 

zones comprise approximately 85 percent of the total area of the United States and 

include over 99 percent of the population (PERAL, 2008). 

The only known natural host for this pathogen is litchi (CABI, 2011; Farr and 

Rossman, 2011), and production areas for litchi are found only in California 

(select locations), Florida, and Hawaii (Evans and Degner, 2005; Morton, 1987a). 

The rating for this element reflects the low host availability in the United States. 

Experimental hosts (tomato, papaya, and loofah) (Chi et al., 1984) were not 

considered for this risk element, resulting in a rating of Medium.

Medium (2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range 

The host range is limited to litchi (CABI, 2011; Farr and Rossman, 2011). 

Experimental hosts (tomato, papaya, and loofah) (Chi et al., 1984) were not 

considered for this risk element.

Low (1)
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Phytophthora litchii Risk ratings

Risk Element # 3: Dispersal Potential

Phytophthora litchii infects the flowers, fruits, and leaves of litchi and is 

considered a facultative necrotroph (CABI, 2011; Coates et al., 2003). 

Phytophthora species can persist in the soil and on plant debris, and given 

favorable environmental conditions, even low levels of inoculum in the soil or on 

foliage can increase exponentially (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996). Natural spread 

occurs when sporangia (containing motile zoospores) produced on infected plant 

tissues (Vien et al., 2001) spread by rain splash to uninfected host plant tissue 

(CABI, 2011). Free water is important for sporangia release and disease 

development (CABI, 2011), and motile zoospores can swim in flooded soils, 

streams, and other waterways (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996). Human-assisted 

movement of infested soil or infected plant material (including fruit) can aid in 

long-distance spread. For these reasons, we assigned a High rating for dispersal 

potential.

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Phytophthora litchii is an important pathogen of litchi, infecting young and 

mature fruit in addition to leaves, flowers, and pedicels (CABI, 2011; Coates et 

al., 2003; Vien et al., 2001). Litchi downy blight can result in fruit rot and 

premature drop of infected fruit (Coates et al., 2003; Kao and Leu, 1980), 

although sometimes only blossoms are affected (Vien et al., 2001). In Vietnam, 

the price received by farmers for affected fruit was reduced by 25-35 percent

(Vien et al., 2001). Crop losses as high as 60 percent have been reported (Kao and 

Leu, 1980). Phytophthora litchii is listed as a quarantine pest by Chile, French 

Polynesia, Israel, New Caledonia, and the Republic of Korea (CERIS, 2011); 

however any impact of P. litchii on foreign or domestic trade is expected to be 

minimal. We found no evidence that litchi fruits are exported from the continental 

United States; only domestic trade to California, Florida, and Hawaii (where litchi 

are grown) would likely be affected; and the United States is not a major litchi 

producer. We rated this pest Medium for this element. 

Medium (2)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Litchi is the only plant P. litchii is known to infect in nature (CERIS, 2011; Farr 

and Rossman, 2011). Litchi is native to China and is cultivated only in limited 

regions of California, Florida, and Hawaii where the climate is favorable for this 

tropical plant (Morton, 1987a). There is one endangered species in Hawaii, mahoe 

(Alectryon macrococcus), that is in the same family (Sapindaceae) as litchi 

(USFWS, 2009); however, because this import request is for the continental 

United States, we do not expect this plant species in Hawaii to be threatened by 

this pathogen. If introduced, fungicide applications will likely be necessary to 

control this pathogen (Coates et al., 2003; Tang et al., 2011). Based on this 

information, P. litchii was assigned a Medium rating. We did not consider 

experimental hosts (tomato, papaya, and loofah) (Chi et al., 1984) here, but if P. 

litchii is found to infect additional hosts, its potential impact on the environment 

would be more severe.

Medium (2)
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Table 8. Summary of the risk ratings and values for the Consequences of Introduction

Pest ClimateHost 

interaction

Host 

Range

Dispersal 

Potential

Economic 

Impact

Environmental ImpactCumulative 

ratinga

Aceria litchii Low (1) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) Med (2) Medium (10)

Oidium nephelii Low (1) Low (1) High (3) Med (2) Med (2) Medium (9)

Phytophthora litchii Med (2) Low (1) High (3) Med (2) Med (2) Medium (10)

a Low is 5-8 points, Medium is 9-12 points, and High is 13-15 points

2.5.2. Likelihood of Introduction

Likelihood of Introduction is a function of the quantity of the commodity imported annually and 

pest opportunity. Pest opportunity consists of five criteria that consider the potential for pest 

survival along the pathway (PPQ, 2000). We summarized the ratings below (Table 9).

Quantity Imported Annually. The likelihood that an exotic pest will be introduced depends in 

part on the amount of potentially infested commodity that is imported. Volume imported is 

assessed in terms of the expected number of 40-foot long sea shipping containers (approximately

20 metric tons, or 40,000 pounds, each; FAS, 2008).

Low (1 point): < 10 containers/year

Medium (2 points): 10 – 100 containers/year

High (3 points): > 100 containers/year

We do not have estimated quantities of litchi, longan, and rambutan exports from all the ASEAN 

countries to the United States. Consequently, we rated this element based on the information 

available for four of the country/commodity combinations. The government of Vietnam 

estimates that growers in its country can export 5,000 or more metric tons each of rambutan, 

litchi, and longan fruit to the United States (PPD, 2005, 2007a, 2007b). Malaysia exports close to 

4,000 metric tons total of rambutan fruit to 15 different countries (Othman et al., 2004). Based on 

this data, we assume the amount of exports for any of the country/commodity combinations 

could be over 100 containers per year, resulting in a High risk rating for all the pests for this subelement.

Survive Post-harvest Treatment. In this risk element, we evaluate the efficacy of standard postharvest treatments in terms of the mortality or removal of pests exposed to the treatments. As noted 

in section 1.2 of this risk assessment, we assumed that all three commodities from all ASEAN 

countries would undergo culling and packaging as part of the minimal standard post-harvest 

processing.

As an external pest, the mite A. litchii is less likely to survive post-harvest processing compared 

to internal arthropod pests, such as fruit flies or fruit-boring Lepidoptera, because they would 

generally be more visible upon inspection during culling. Also, attack by this mite can cause 

cosmetic damage to host fruit (Mathur and Tandon, 1974; Waite, 2005a). However, due to its 

very small size, if concealed in protected areas of the fruit commodity or if present in the egg 

stage or in low numbers, this organism would be difficult to detect. This mite species can be 

difficult to detect even with a 10x magnification hand-lens (Waite, 2005a). The PPQ Treatment 
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Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 83

Manual (PPQ, 2011c) states that “Eriophyes litchii [Aceria litchii] cannot be effectively detected 

by inspection” on litchi fruits from Hawaii. Consequently, we rated this mite Medium for this 

sub-element.

Signs and symptoms of powdery mildew and downy blight on fruit with moderate to severe 

infections will be visible (Coates et al., 2003; Rajapakse et al., 2006), and these fruit are likely to 

be removed by culling. Newly infected fruit will not show visible signs or symptoms. Oidium 

nephelii and Phytophthora litchii are therefore likely to survive post-harvest treatment and are 

both rated High for this sub-element.

Survive Shipment. Anticipated shipping conditions for litchi, longan, and rambutan fruits from 

the ASEAN countries are unknown, so we assumed standard shipping conditions for these fruits.

To maintain high fruit quality, the recommended temperature and relative humidity for the transport 

and storage of litchi and longan fruit are 1.5 C (35 F) and 90-95 percent (McGregor, 1987). If 

properly packaged and held close to the recommended storage temperature and relative humidity, 

the time available for transit and storage is estimated to be three to five weeks for these fruits 

(McGregor, 1987). Rambutan fruit have a shorter shelf life than litchi and longan fruits, the shelf 

life only lasting approximately 2-7 days depending on storage conditions (Biosecurity Australia, 

2002; Othman et al., 2004). Storage conditions at 10 to 12 C (50-54 F) with 85 to 95 percent 

relative humidity are optimal for rambutan fruit (Biosecurity Australia, 2002); in Malaysia, the 

storage life of the fruit can be extended beyond three days by keeping the fruit at high humidity and 

8 to 10 C (46-50 F) (Othman et al., 2004). Based on this data, we assumed the minimum time for 

transit and storage of imported litchi, longan, and rambutan fruits would be two days, and the 

maximum would be five weeks.

We do not expect these relatively benign shipping environmental conditions and time frames to 

reduce the population level of A. litchii. PPQ does not recognize cold treatment as a quarantine 

treatment for this mite on any commodity (PPQ, 2011c), and we did not find evidence in the 

scientific literature that exposure to temperatures near 35 F would significantly kill this pest. In

this risk assessment, we estimated that the geographic distribution of A. litchii corresponds to 

approximately USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11. The average annual extreme minimum 

temperature for Zone 9 is 20 to 30 F (-7 to -1 C) (Cathey, 1990). The occurence of this mite in 

geographical areas with these minimum temperatures provides further evidence that it would 

likely easily survive shipment temperatures. We therefore rated this organism High for this subelement.

Humidity is not expected to be a factor in the survival of Oidium nephelii as rambutan powdery

mildew outbreaks have been observed in both humid and dry conditions (Garcia, 1983; 

Rajapakse et al., 2006; Rukmana and Oesman, 2002). The temperature range reported for storage 

of rambutan fruit (46 to 54 F, 8 to 12 C) (Biosecurity Australia, 2002; Othman et al., 2004) is 

well within the average temperatures found where this pathogen is already present (Plant 

Hardiness Zones 10 to 13) (Cathey, 1990). Oidium nephelii is expected to easily survive 

shipment on infected rambutan fruit and is rated High.

We estimated above for risk element #1 that Phytophthora litchii would be able to survive in 

Plant Hardiness Zone 4, which has an average annual minimum temperature range of -25 to -20 
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F (-13 to -4 C) (Cathey, 1990), well below the temperatures we anticipate for shipping of litchi 

fruit. The high humidity levels during shipping favor growth of this pathogen (CABI, 2011; 

Coates et al., 2003). We rated P. litchii High for this sub-element.

Not Detected at Port-of-Entry. As with assessing the risk of pests surviving post-harvest 

treatment, estimating the risk that these pests will not be detected at a port-of-entry involves 

consideration of pest size, mobility, symptoms, and degree of concealment.

For the same reasons presented above for the Survive Post-harvest Treatment sub-element, we rated 

the mite A. litchii Medium for this sub-element and the pathogens Oidium nephelii and 

Phytophthora litchii High.

Moved to Suitable Habitat. For this sub-element, we consider the geographic location of likely

markets and the chance that the commodity will be moved to locations suitable for pest survival. 

Fruit imported into the United States typically arrives at multiple ports and is distributed according 

to market demand. As litchi, longan, and rambutan are Asian fruits, the demand may be 

concentrated in Asian American populations (Evans and Nalampang, 2008). However, these fruits 

may also be in demand with consumers who purchase “exotic” fruit. Demand for exotic tropical 

fruits has grown in recent years in the United States and continues to grow (Evans and Nalampang, 

2008; Holcomb, 1989; Pollack, 2001). Consequently, we assumed markets could occur throughout 

the continental United States.

We estimated that both A. litchii and O. nephelii could establish in Plant Hardiness Zones 10-11

in the continental United States. Based on the latest census data, approximately 7 percent of the 

population resides in areas of the United States within Zones 10 and 11 (PERAL, 2008).

Therefore, we gave both species a Medium rating for this sub-element.

In contrast, Phytophthora litchii has the potential to establish in Plant Hardiness Zones 4-13 

(Magarey et al., 2008). These zones include approximately 85 percent of the total area of the 

United States and over 99 percent of the population (PERAL, 2008). The likelihood that fruit 

infected with P. litchii would be moved to a suitable habitat is High.

Contact with Host Material. Even if the final destination of infested commodities is suitable for 

pest survival, suitable hosts must be available in order for the pest to survive. This sub-element 

considers the likelihood that the pest species can come into contact with host material suitable for 

reproduction, and it depends on two factors: the presence of host material in the region and the 

pest’s potential for dispersal.

The hosts of A. litchii have a limited distribution in the continental United States. Neither of its 

hosts, longan nor litchi, occur naturally in the United States (NRCS, 2008), and these plants are 

only grown in southern Florida and southern California (Erickson et al., 1999; Gaskell, 2008; 

NCSU CIPM, 2003). Therefore, the hosts are much less likely to be encountered and colonized 

compared to pests whose hosts also include temperate-zone or widely cultivated plants. Because 

they lack wings, mites in general have limited natural mobility and usually stay on or near their 

host. They are capable only of passive dispersal, such as on air currents (Jeppson et al., 1975; 

Waite and Hwang, 2002). Therefore, compared to other arthropod pests such as fruit flies, they
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are less likely to rapidly disperse from discarded fruit onto a new host. Based on this evidence, 

we rated A. litchii Low for this sub-element.

The only known host for O. nephelii is rambutan (Farr and Rossman, 2011; Rajapakse et al., 

2006), which does not occur naturally in the United States. Production areas are found only in 

Florida, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Lightfield, 1996). Conidia of O. nephelii are readily dispersed 

by wind (Agrios, 1997; Coates et al., 2003; Rajapakse et al., 2006). Although the pathogen is 

easily dispersed, the low availability of hosts makes it unlikely that spores from infected 

imported fruit would come into contact with host plants. We therefore rate this pathogen Low for 

this sub-element.

Phytophthora litchii naturally infects litchi (CABI, 2011; Farr and Rossman, 2011); experimental 

hosts (tomato, papaya, and loofah) (Chi et al., 1984) were not considered for this risk element.

Phytophthora species can persist in the soil and on plant debris and disperse long distances in 

water (flooded soils, streams, waterways) or by human-assisted movement of infested soil or 

infected plant material (including fruit) (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996). However, opportunities for 

contact with litchi host plants in the United States would be limited as production areas are found 

only in California (select locations), Florida, and Hawaii (Evans and Degner, 2005; Morton, 

1987a). For this reason, we considered P. litchii unlikely to come into contact with host material,

and we assigned a Low score for this sub-element.

Table 9. Summary of the ratings for the quantity imported annually, pest opportunity, and the overall 

Likelihood of Introduction. 

Pest Quantity 

imported 

annually 

Ratings for Pest Opportunity Overall 

rating 

(value)a

Survive 

post-harvest 

treatment

Survive 

shipment

Not detected 

at port(s)-ofentry

Moved to 

suitable 

habitat

Contact 

with Host 

Material

Aceria litchii High (3) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) Med (2) Low (1) Med (13)

Oidium nephelii High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) Med (2) Low (1) High (15)

Phytophthora litchii High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (16)

aLow is 6-9 points, Medium is 10-14 points, and High is 15-18 points

2.5.3. Pest Risk Potential and Conclusions

In this risk assessment, we assumed that, in addition to minimal post-harvest handling, the 

commodity would undergo irradiation (400 Gy) as a phytosanitary measure. Of the organisms 

associated with litchi, longan, and rambutan worldwide and reported in one or more of the 

ASEAN countries, we identified 45 insects, one mite, and two fungal pathogens that are 

quarantine pests for the continental United States and likely to follow one or more of the 

pathways of imported fruit. As the irradiation treatment is highly likely to mitigate all the insect 

pests of concern, we only did a more detailed analysis on the mite and pathogens. 

For these analyzed pests, we sum the values for the Consequences of Introduction and the 

Likelihood of Introduction to produce the pest risk potential (Table 10). Pest risk potential is a 
Pest Risk Assessment for ASEAN Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan

Ver. 2 August 15, 2011 86

baseline estimate of the risks associated with the importation of the commodity in the absence of 

phytosanitary measures specific for the pests of concern.

Pests with a Low pest risk potential do not typically require mitigation measures, other than portof-arrival inspection (PPQ, 2000). A rating of Medium indicates that specific phytosanitary

measures may be necessary. A rating of High indicates that specific phytosanitary measures, 

supplemental to port-of-arrival inspection, are strongly recommended. A detailed examination 

and choice of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk is undertaken as part of 

the pest risk management phase and is not discussed in this document.

Table 10. Pest Risk Potentials for pests on litchi, longan, and rambutan from the ASEAN 

member countries of Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, 

Vietnam.

Pest Consequences of 

Introduction rating

Likelihood of 

Introduction rating

Pest Risk Potentiala

Aceria litchii Medium (10) Medium (13) Medium (23)

Oidium nephelii Medium (9) High (15) Medium (24)

Phytophthora litchii Medium (10) High (16) Medium (26)

aLow is 11-18 points, Medium is 19-26 points, and High is 27-33 points

3. Authors and Reviewers

Authors:

Leah C. Millara(primary contact; entomology)

Jeanne M. VanDersalb(plant pathology)

Kimberly A. Schwartzburga (plant pathology)

Reviewers:

Heather M. Hartzoga(plant pathology)

Robert G. Aherna(entomology)

Ashley M. Jacksona, Editorial Assistant

Contributors:

Glenn Fowlera(production of map)

aUSDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST, Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

bUSDA-APHIS, Policy and Program Development

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