REVISED October 20, 2015

IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FIFTH CIRCUIT

No. 13-31287

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

Plaintiff–Appellee,

v.

CLARENCE HAINES, also known as Knowledge Haines; RAYMOND 

PORTER, also known as T. Porter; JOSE ITURRES–BONILLA,

Defendants–Appellants. 

Appeals from the United States District Court 

for the Eastern District of Louisiana

Before KING, SMITH, and ELROD, Circuit Judges.

JENNIFER WALKER ELROD:

Defendants-Appellants Clarence Haines, Raymond Porter, and Jose 

Iturres-Bonilla were charged with one count of conspiracy to possess with 

intent to distribute one kilogram or more of heroin and one count each of using 

a communication facility in facilitating the commission of that crime. Both 

counts stemmed from Defendant-Appellants’ involvement in a heroin ring. At 

trial, the DEA case agent testified both as a fact witness about their case and 

as an expert witness about drug code. All three defendants were convicted on 

both counts. 

United States Court of Appeals

Fifth Circuit

FILED

October 15, 2015

Lyle W. Cayce

Clerk

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 1 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

2

The jury found that the total scope of the conspiracy involved one 

kilogram or more of heroin, and the district court concluded that this finding 

triggered the statutory minimum of 20 years’ imprisonment for Haines and 

Porter, and also increased Iturres-Bonilla’s statutory maximum from 20 years’

imprisonment to life imprisonment. All three defendants challenge the 

sufficiency of the evidence for their convictions and the district court’s use of a 

conspiracy-wide drug-quantity jury finding instead of an individual-specific 

drug-quantity jury finding. All three defendants also argue that the DEA 

agent’s testimony was improper. Iturres-Bonilla makes several other 

challenges to his sentence. 

Because there is no merit to defendants’ sufficiency of the evidence 

arguments, and because the portions of the DEA agent’s testimony that were 

admitted in error were harmless, we AFFIRM the convictions. Because the 

district court improperly sentenced Haines and Porter based upon the 

conspiracy-wide drug quantity, we VACATE their sentences and remand the 

case to the district court for resentencing of Haines and Porter. Because the 

district court did not plainly err in sentencing Iturres-Bonilla, we AFFIRM his 

sentence.

I.

In October 2010, the DEA began investigating a New Orleans drug 

dealer named Marc Guyton. Officer Ricky Jackson testified that he made 

roughly ten undercover purchases of heroin from Guyton between November 

2010 and April 2011. In March 2011, the DEA began tracking Guyton’s calls 

and texts. In April 2011, the DEA also began tracking Haines’s calls and texts. 

Over the next several months, the government began surveilling two other 

members of the drug ring, Harry Berry and Terrance Henderson. This 

surveillance produced much of the evidence presented at trial.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 2 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

3

DEA Task Force Agent Demond Lockhart was the key government 

witness at trial. According to his trial testimony, Guyton called Haines in April 

2011 and, using “code” phrases, expressed his desire to buy heroin from 

Haines. Guyton was returning from an unsuccessful attempt to buy heroin in 

St. Louis. In code, Haines agreed to sell a sample of heroin to Guyton. After 

this phone call, GPS tracking indicated that Guyton went to the block of 

Haines’s home. After midnight, Guyton texted Haines to begin negotiating the 

price of heroin.

Guyton also texted an individual identified as “Nick,” one of his heroin 

customers. Guyton told Nick he wanted Nick to “check something out,” which, 

according to Lockhart, indicated that Guyton wanted someone to test a sample 

of heroin. Later that day, Guyton called Haines and said that “it’s good, I’m 

going to get that from you,” as long as Haines “[m]ake[s] sure it’s that same 

thing right there.” According to Lockhart, this exchange was Guyton’s

confirming to Haines that Guyton would purchase heroin so long as it was the 

same as the sample. Guyton asked Haines to let him know “the ticket,” i.e.,

the price, and to “[c]heck on the half also,” meaning a half-kilogram of heroin. 

Later that day, Guyton texted Haines and said, “just one quarter of 

crawfish; don’t f—k with the one half.” According to Lockhart, “crawfish” was 

a code term for heroin; the text message was changing the order from a halfkilogram to a quarter kilogram. Haines responded that he would “see what 

Cajuns got.” Lockhart testified that “Cajuns” was Guyton’s term for the person 

from whom he would buy heroin. Haines sent a follow-up text stating that 

“Cajuns” would let him know about the order later. At noon, Haines texted 

Guyton that “Cajuns don’t have no mo crawfish.” The only person Haines had 

talked to on the phone that morning, other than his two girlfriends, was Harry 

Berry.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 3 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

4

After the “Cajuns” exchange, Guyton texted Haines and asked, “That’s 

all you had?” Haines responded affirmatively. Guyton responded to Haines, 

“D—n, Knowledge,” which is Guyton’s nickname for Haines. Haines replied, 

“I know, bruh, we need to go to Afghanistan.” Lockhart testified that over 75% 

of the world’s opium comes from Afghanistan, and opium is used to make 

heroin.

That same day, Haines called Guyton and the two of them discussed the 

quality of the heroin that Haines had given to Guyton, apparently in response 

to a negative review that another distributor had given Guyton of the sample 

provided by Haines. Guyton and Haines arranged to meet, and indeed met 

that night at a gas station. Haines and Guyton drove separate vehicles to the

gas station; Haines exited his vehicle and got into the passenger seat of 

Guyton’s vehicle, then shortly thereafter exited Guyton’s vehicle and returned 

to his own vehicle.

The government also presented extensive evidence of the involvement of 

appellant Raymond Terrell Porter, whose nickname was “T,” in the drug ring. 

According to the testimony of co-conspirator McKenzie Weber, Porter had once 

sold nine ounces of heroin to Guyton in Guyton’s Frenchman Street apartment. 

After buying the heroin, Guyton proceeded to “cut” it using a blender. 

In May 2011, Porter called Guyton and Guyton responded that he was 

still at home. Guyton then called two of his heroin customers and asked them 

“to check something out.” As noted above, according to Lockhart’s testimony,

this is the phrase Guyton uses with his customers to indicate he has a sample 

for them to try. The customer texted Guyton shortly thereafter, “Honestly, last 

s—t was better, Brah.” That night, Guyton called a co-conspirator, Dorian 

Goins, and discussed the variances they had noticed in Porter’s products. 

Approximately two weeks later, the New Orleans police department arrested 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 4 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

5

Guyton and found him in possession of 63 grams of heroin. After the arrest, 

Haines and Berry discussed it on the phone. 

At this point, investigators believed that an apartment in Houston, 

Texas, that Berry and his associates called “the spot,” was hosting drug 

transactions involving defendants. In early June 2011, Berry and Haines 

drove to Houston. Berry dropped Haines off at a mall and then went to “the 

spot.” While in Houston, Berry repeatedly called Iturres-Bonilla’s phone. 

During the drive, Berry also contacted Porter and, according to Lockhart, 

spoke in code that indicated Porter had not given Berry enough money. 

After Berry and Haines returned to New Orleans, the investigators put 

surveillance on Berry. Berry drove from Haines’s residence to the home of 

Ruffin Moye, a codefendant. Moye came outside, entered Berry’s vehicle, and 

then exited it again. The next day, police checked Moye’s trash and found 

plastic with heroin residue on it and black tape. It was inside a plastic bag 

that looked as if it had been washed out. The police followed Moye, saw him 

conduct heroin sales, and arrested him. 

Several days later, Berry made another trip to “the spot.” The following 

day, on the way back, Berry stopped at Porter’s brother’s residence for 25 

minutes. After leaving the residence, Berry stopped a block or two away and 

discarded a white plastic bag containing plastic wrap and black electrical tape. 

Berry then went to Porter’s residence. 

In July, Berry took another trip to “the spot.” On the way there, he 

stopped at Haines’s residence and on his way back, he stopped at Haines’s 

residence again. After remaining there for an hour, Berry and Haines left in 

Berry’s truck. Berry stopped his truck around the corner, and Haines exited 

the vehicle threw away a bag in a trash bin. Investigators discovered that the 

bag contained plastic wrap and black electrical tape, and it tested positive for 

heroin residue. 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 5 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

6

Beginning in mid-July, the government intercepted numerous phone 

calls between Iturres-Bonilla and Henderson and between Iturres-Bonilla and 

Berry. On July 15, Berry and Iturres-Bonilla spoke on the phone. IturresBonilla asked, “How everything going with you?” Berry responded, “Ain’t too 

much, slow but sure,” which Lockhart testified was code for steady heroin 

business. Iturres-Bonilla also said, “I got a little situation,” which Lockhart 

testified was a problem with his heroin trafficking. 

In a July phone call with Henderson, Iturres-Bonilla discussed dealing 

with the money Henderson had previously given him, as well as problems with 

his heroin suppliers. Iturres-Bonilla also assured Henderson that the heroin 

business would “pick up.” 

The following day, in a phone call between Berry and Henderson, 

Henderson referred to Iturres-Bonilla (whose voice can be heard on the call) as 

Berry’s “partner.” The three of them discussed the heroin business in New 

Orleans using code phrases relating to cars and auctions. The next day, Berry 

and Iturres-Bonilla continued talking about the drug trade using the “auction” 

codes. Near the end of the call, Iturres-Bonilla stated, “we’re going to go ahead 

and get some other lines, okay?” Lockhart testified that this was an instruction 

to get new telephones. 

Henderson called Iturres-Bonilla several days later and asked him 

whether he kept a “skillet” at “the spot”; a skillet is a device used to cut heroin. 

Several days after that, investigators heard Henderson discussing his plans for 

collecting money from his dealers in New Orleans and the fact that his supplier 

had more heroin available. Henderson then went to New Orleans and met 

with several known heroin dealers. The following day, in Houston, IturresBonilla’s vehicle was spotted in the parking lot of “the spot” next to 

Henderson’s vehicle. Iturres-Bonilla was then stopped by the police in a traffic 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 6 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

7

stop. During the traffic stop, he gave the police a fake ID in the name of 

Ramsey Crespo. 

In mid-August, Berry again went to “the spot.” When returning through 

Baton Rouge, Berry was stopped by Louisiana police on a traffic violation. A 

search of Berry’s car revealed a secret compartment containing 999 grams of 

heroin wrapped in black electrical tape. 

In November, investigators arrested many of the coconspirators and 

executed searches on multiple residences and other properties. DEA agent 

Vincent Saltaformaggio testified that he helped execute a search warrant on 

Iturres-Bonilla’s residence in Richmond, Texas, and also had an arrest warrant 

for Iturres-Bonilla. According to Saltaformaggio, during the search, IturresBonilla ran outside from the garage and threw a metal press over the fence 

into a neighbor’s yard. The metal press, which is commonly used by drug 

dealers to compress drugs, contained 405 grams of heroin wrapped in clear 

cellophane. 

Inside the garage, investigators found a garbage can containing a bag 

with $89,000 in cash. The residence contained a Colombian passport in 

Iturres-Bonilla’s name and two Texas ID cards in the name of Ramsey Crespo. 

The Crespo ID cards displayed a picture of Iturres-Bonilla. In and near the 

sink were cellophane wrapping in soapy water and black tape, both of which 

Saltaformaggio testified were commonly used to wrap heroin. Saltaformaggio 

also testified that investigators had found similar wet cellophane wrapping 

when doing “trash pulls.”1 Specifically, a July trash pull relating to Haines 

and Berry had yielded similarly wet cellophane wrapping.

 

1 A “trash pull” is the term for searching the trash after a suspect has been observed 

discarding trash. 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 7 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

8

The same day, Saltaformaggio also searched “the spot,” which he 

described as “torn up” and lacking any indication that people lived there, such 

as clothing or personal items. Saltaformaggio also testified that he observed 

the red pickup truck from Iturres-Bonilla’s residence near the apartment 

building on a past occasion. 

Iturres-Bonilla’s girlfriend took police to his safe deposit box. The safe

deposit box contained copies of a Colombian passport, copies of a Colombian 

National ID card, and a Puerto Rican birth certificate. The Colombian 

documents all bore Iturres-Bonilla’s name and picture. The birth certificate 

bore the name Ramsey Fabian Crespo Morales. The safe deposit box also 

contained jewelry that was later appraised at $97,000. 

DEA agent Derrick Conn conducted the search on Henderson’s Houston

residence. During the search, Conn found 710 grams of heroin, $9,700 cash, 

and eight cell phones. Lockhart executed the search warrant on Berry’s house. 

The search uncovered $40,000 in cash in a closet and receipts for another 

$20,000 of expenditures. Agent Marc Webber searched Porter’s home. 

Although Porter had not reported income for 2008–2011, his residence included 

granite countertops, large televisions, and over fifty boxes of shoes. Porter 

stated that he was flat broke. Agent Jules Martin led the search of Haines’s 

residence. There, police located $924 in the pants he was wearing and $2,000 

in the pocket of a jacket in his closet. They also found a bottle of mannitol, a 

dietary supplement used for cutting heroin. Finally, they found five cell phones 

in the house. A search of two residences belonging to Guyton uncovered a large 

press, a .223 caliber rifle, and 114 grams of heroin.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 8 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

9

II.

The grand jury returned a 28-count indictment against Haines, Porter, 

Iturres-Bonilla, and eleven other defendants.2 In the Second Superseding 

Indictment, Haines, Porter, and Iturres-Bonilla were charged with conspiring 

to possess with intent to distribute one kilogram or more of heroin in violation 

of 21 U.S.C. §§ 846, 841(a)(1), and 841(b)(1)(A) and knowingly or intentionally 

using a communications facility in committing that violation, in violation of 21 

U.S.C. § 843(b). 

At trial, the government relied on extensive testimony from Lockhart. 

He testified both in his role as the case agent and also as an expert witness on 

drug code.3 Lockhart testified that he had worked on drug investigations for 

eleven years and had listened, through court-ordered phone taps, to “well over 

100,000” phone calls including discussion of heroin or other illegal drugs. He 

testified that through his experience, he had learned to interpret the coded 

language drug dealers use to describe their products and activities. The 

government moved to qualify Lockhart as “an expert in drug code.” 

The defendants cross-examined Lockhart to determine if he was properly 

qualified as an expert in drug code. On cross-examination, Lockhart testified 

that he had not taken courses on drug code and that he was aware of no such 

courses. Lockhart also testified that he had not written articles on interpreting 

drug code, nor had he taught any classes, although he had instructed other 

individuals on interpreting drug code. He testified that he had participated in 

hundreds of narcotics investigations and had been the lead agent on eight of 

those investigations. 

 

2 Ten other defendants pleaded guilty before trial, while the eleventh was a fugitive 

until after the conclusion of this trial. 

3 Our cases and those of our sister circuits use the phrases “jargon,” “code,” “lingo,” 

and “slang” interchangeably. We use the phrase “drug code” here, but discern no substantive 

difference between this term and the other terms. 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 9 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

10

After hearing the defendants’ objections to Lockhart’s being certified as 

an expert in drug code, the district court accepted him as an expert, stating: 

I am going to accept Agent Lockhart as an expert in the field of 

drug jargon. I think his training and experience in drug 

investigations, and clearly there was numerous investigations 

involving the use of code words and slang by drug traffickers 

establishing and qualifying him to testify as an expert in this 

specialize[d] area. It’s unlikely that, without his testimony, the 

jury would be able to understand the recorded conversation which 

feature a certain amount of slang or coded language.

The district court called back the jury and instructed it on the 

importance of distinguishing between Lockhart’s expert testimony and his fact 

testimony. Specifically, the district court directed: 

The following witness, Agent Lockhart, will testify both as an 

expert witness and as a fact witness. An expert witness offers an 

opinion on certain matters based upon special knowledge, skill, 

experience, training or education. Such witnesses may only render 

an opinion in their particular field of expertise. And, in this case, 

the particular field of expertise is drug code. So it’s only in that 

area that he is allowed to offer his opinion. A fact witness, on the 

other hand, testifies exclusively as to the facts that were 

personally experienced or observed by that witness. Regardless of 

[the] capacity in which Agent Lockhart testifies, you should 

evaluate his testimony as you would any other witness. That is, 

you should assess Agent Lockhart’s credibility as a witness and 

give his testimony as much or as little weight as you believe it 

deserves.

Lockhart proceeded to testify at length about the phone calls between 

the defendants and their co-conspirators. Most of this testimony was not 

objected to by the defense. According to Lockhart’s testimony, he listened to a 

phone call between Haines and Guyton in which Guyton asked, “You got some 

pictures over there?” He testified as an expert that “pictures is a code word 

that heroin traffickers use to describe samples or smaller portions of heroin, 

representative samples of a larger portion of heroin.” No defendant objected 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 10 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

11

to this testimony. Likewise, no defendant objected when Lockhart testified 

that an April 3, 2011, phone conversation between Haines and Guyton used 

language masking drug references. Nor did any defendant object when 

Lockhart testified to an April 3, 2011, text message from Guyton to Haines; 

Lockhart testified that the reference to crawfish in the statement, “Just one 

quarter of crawfish; don’t f—k with the one half,” was drug code. Later 

interpretations of “crawfish” and “seafood” as heroin were likewise not objected 

to. 

Lockhart also described a text message exchange between Guyton and 

Haines as being about heroin purchasing. On a recorded phone call Haines 

stated, “Put that with that.” Lockhart testified that this was a reference to 

comingling two quantities of heroin. No party objected to Lockhart’s testifying 

on the meaning of this phrase. Lockhart also repeatedly testified that 

“Cajuns,” the name of a restaurant, was a code word for a source of heroin. No 

party objected to this testimony.

There were some instances in which the defendants objected. Lockhart 

testified that the word “that” in a text message stating “I know you can do that 

for me for 21, ha,” was used as a code phrase for heroin. The defense objected 

on the grounds that “that” was plain English, not drug jargon. The defense 

argued that “[Lockhart] has been qualified as an expert. However, now, he is 

saying that he believed the word ‘that’ was referring to . . . specifically some 

drug. . . . this is not a matter of code, jargon or linguistics; this is purely 

speculation about what a pronoun is in reference to, and that’s what the jury’s 

got to determine.” The district court overruled the objection, telling the 

prosecution, “you can do that, what’s ‘that’ mean. I think it’s appropriate for 

[Lockhart] to tell us in the context of this text [message] what ‘that’ is referring 

to. And I’m going to allow.” Referencing the same text message, the district 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 11 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

12

court explained that “I’m going to allow him to testify as an expert in narcotic 

drugs, drug code, with the context of this text message.” 

In another exchange, the defense lodged a speculation objection to 

Lockhart’s testifying about the context behind a text message. The objection 

was overruled and the following exchange took place: 

Q [Prosecutor]: Agent Lockhart . . . is [the exhibit] a text message, 

and who is that from?

A [Lockhart]: This text massage occurred at 7:16 a.m. on April 3, 

2011. It’s a text message from Marc Guyton to an individual he 

referred to as Nick.

Q: Did you, as the case agent, have the opportunity to investigate 

and find out who the person Nick is? 

A: As we identified, Nick is one of Marc Guyton’s heroin customers.

Q: Could you read the text to the jury.

A: Text message says: Nick, I need you to check something out for 

me; call me ASAP.

Q: Is there any code in that text message? 

A: When Marc Guyton uses the two words ‘check something,’ when 

he uses the phrase ‘check something out,’ he’s referring to [a] 

heroin sample that he wants one of his customers to test.

Q: How did you form that opinion? 

A: Listening to all of Marc Guyton’s telephone calls when he’s 

speaking with his heroin customers.

Lockhart also testified about an intercepted call on April 3, 2011, as 

follows: 

Q: Is there any drug code in this call? 

A: Yes. When Marc Guyton says: ‘What you going to do, man.’ He’s 

asking Clarence Haines if he’s followed through with acquiring the 

total package of heroin that he requested from him on the following 

-- on the previous date. Clarence Haines says: ‘Waiting on the 

word for you.’ He means that I was waiting on you to call me and 

tell me that it was okay for me to follow through. When he, 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 12 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

13

Guyton, says: ‘Yeah, it’s good, I’m going to get that from you.’ 

When he says ‘it’s good,’ he’s letting Clarence Haines know that 

the heroin sample-tested out good and that he wanted to get it, get 

the total package of heroin from him. Also . . . Marc Guyton says: 

‘Make sure it’s that same thing right there.’ He’s telling Clarence 

Haines to make sure that the total package of heroin that he

supplies is identical to the sample that he received from him on 

the previous date.

Later, after reading a portion of a call transcript in which Haines says 

“we need to go to Afghanistan,” Lockhart testified as an expert that that was a 

reference to Afghanistan’s being a major source of heroin. The court overruled 

an objection to that testimony as well. When Lockhart testified that “no news 

is good news” had meaning as drug code, the district court overruled the 

defense’s objection. The defendants also objected to Lockhart’s testifying about 

statements from Houston because they claimed he had been admitted as an 

expert only on New Orleans drug slang. The court overruled that objection. 

At other times, the court sustained objections that were related to the 

scope of Lockhart’s testimony: when Lockhart speculated about the meaning 

of a text message based on his own knowledge of other factual circumstances 

that had happened around the same time; when Lockhart was asked to 

speculate about the identity of a person referenced in a text message; when 

Lockhart interpreted “main man” to refer specifically to Porter (the court said 

it was the jury’s province to draw that conclusion); and when Lockhart 

attempted to recount the contents of a difficult-to-hear audio track that had 

been played for the jury.

In total, during the nine-day trial, the government played or displayed 

approximately 100 calls and texts, submitted 113 exhibits into evidence, and 

presented the testimony of 22 witnesses. The jury convicted each defendant 

on both counts and found that the conspiracy involved one kilogram or more of 

heroin.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 13 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

14

III.

Defendants’ challenges to the sufficiency of the evidence rely in large 

part on their claims that Lockhart was improperly permitted to testify as an 

expert. Accordingly, before addressing their sufficiency challenges, we 

examine whether Lockhart’s testimony was proper. At trial, Lockhart 

provided extensive testimony regarding wiretapped conversations and 

intercepted text messages among defendants and other co-conspirators. 

Defendants argue the district court erred in two respects regarding Lockhart’s 

testimony: (1) the district court improperly permitted Lockhart to testify as an 

expert under Federal Rule of Evidence 702 on the topic of drug code; and (2) 

the district court improperly permitted Lockhart to testify on matters that 

were beyond the scope of his expertise. Defendants properly preserved both of 

these arguments by objecting at trial. We review preserved objections 

regarding the admission of expert or lay testimony for abuse of discretion, 

subject to harmless error analysis.4 United States v. Akins, 746 F.3d 590, 597 

(5th Cir.), cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 189, and cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 467, and cert. 

denied, 135 S. Ct. 707, and cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 707 (2014).

A.

Defendants first argue that Lockhart should not have been qualified as 

an expert under Rule 702 at all. Under Rule 702, expert testimony is 

permissible if the expert is qualified “by knowledge, skill, experience, training, 

 

4 As the government points out, defendants failed to object at trial to many of the 

specific instances of Lockhart’s testimony which they now challenge. Defendants argue that 

objections would have been futile, noting that the district court twice instructed defense 

counsel to “stop beating that dead horse” when they continued to object to Lockhart’s 

testimony. We need not decide whether further objections would have been futile, although 

we note that the district court granted some of defendants’ subsequent objections to 

Lockhart’s testimony. However, because we address Lockhart’s testimony by category rather 

than examining each specific statement and because we find that any errors were harmless, 

we will review all of defendants’ evidentiary challenges under the more generous abuse of 

discretion standard for the sake of simplicity.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 14 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

15

or education” to render his opinion. Fed. R. Evid. 702. Rule 702 further 

requires that: “(a) the expert’s scientific, technical, or other specialized 

knowledge will help the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine 

a fact in issue; (b) the testimony is based on sufficient facts or data; (c) the 

testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods; and (d) the expert 

has reliably applied the principles and methods to the facts of the case.” Id. If 

a “witness testifies as both a fact witness and an expert witness in the same 

trip to the witness stand . . . the government and the court must take some 

special precautions to make clear for the jury when the witness is relying on 

his expertise and when he is relying only on his personal knowledge of the 

case.” United States v. York, 572 F.3d 415, 421 (7th Cir. 2009).

We have “recognized that in the context of drug conspiracies, ‘[d]rug 

traffickers’ jargon is a specialized body of knowledge, familiar only to those 

wise in the ways of the drug trade, and therefore a fit subject for expert 

testimony.’” Akins, 746 F.3d at 599 (quoting United States v. Griffith, 118 F.3d 

318, 321 (5th Cir. 1997)). Our sister circuits have also “consistently upheld the 

use of expert testimony to explain both the operations of drug dealers and the 

meaning of coded conversations about drugs.” United States v. Dukagjini, 326 

F.3d 45, 52 (2d Cir. 2002); see also, e.g., United States v. Freeman, 498 F.3d 

893, 901–02 (9th Cir. 2007) (holding that expert’s testimony on “interpretation 

of encoded drug jargon was admissible”); United States v. Ceballos, 302 F.3d 

679, 686 (7th Cir. 2002) (holding that DEA agents with extensive drug 

investigation experience were properly qualified as experts in drug code). 

Because “drug dealers often camouflage their discussions” with code words,

“expert testimony explaining the meanings of code words may ‘assist the trier 

of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue.’” Dukagjini, 

326 F.3d at 52 (citing Fed. R. Evid. 702).

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 15 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

16

The district court properly qualified Lockhart as an expert under Rule 

702 based on his extensive experience as a drug investigator. Under Rule 702, 

a witness may be qualified as an expert based upon “knowledge, skill, 

experience, training, or education.” We have never required formal 

educational credentials to qualify a witness as an expert, and even “the 

advisory committee notes to Rule 702 state that experience in the field can be 

the predominant, if not the sole, basis for expert testimony in some cases.” 

Ceballos, 302 F.3d at 686. Defendants engaged in extensive voir dire of 

Lockhart before the district court, and they do not argue that they were not 

given adequate opportunity to challenge his credentials. Lockhart had been a 

drug investigator for over eleven years. During that time, he authored over 

fifty Title III (wiretap) affidavits and was the lead investigator in seven or eight 

investigations. He also testified that he has listened to “well over 100,000” 

wiretapped phone calls in his career. Cf. Griffith, 118 F.3d at 322–23 (holding 

that law-enforcement witness was qualified to give expert testimony about 

drug dealers based on her “eight-and-one-half years as a DEA agent” and 

participation in 50 investigations). Lockhart explained that while he had 

never published papers or taught formal classes on drug code, these types of 

formal educational opportunities are not common in the field because formal 

rules of interpretation would lead conspirators to change their tactics and 

undermine investigators’ ability to interpret their conversations. Lockhart 

did, however, have experience informally instructing other investigators in 

drug code interpretation. Based on Lockhart’s extensive knowledge, skills, and 

experience, the district court did not err by qualifying him as an expert.

B.

Defendants next argue that Lockhart’s testimony went beyond the scope 

of his expertise. We agree, in part. Lockhart’s testimony falls into three broad 

categories. He testified about: (1) the “coded” meaning of specific words and 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 16 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

17

terms commonly used in the drug trade; (2) the meaning of specific words and 

terms used by the particular defendants in this case; and (3) the meaning, in 

context, of exchanges using common words such as “what,” “she,” “that,” and 

“stuff.” As we will explain, testimony in category (1) was permissible expert 

testimony; testimony in category (2) was not permissible as expert testimony, 

but was admissible as lay opinion testimony; and testimony in category (3) was 

impermissible. In addition, with respect to category (2), the district court failed 

to guard against conflation of lay and expert testimony. However, we also 

conclude that the district court’s errors with respect to Lockhart’s objected-to 

testimony were harmless.

1.

We begin with the portions of Lockhart’s testimony that were properly 

admitted as expert testimony. In Griffith, the district court permitted a DEA 

agent to testify that “days of work” was code for “pounds of marijuana,” that 

“30” meant “$30,000,” and that “5 price” meant $500 per pound. 118 F.3d at 

322. We observed that “[j]urors as well as judges often need help in deciphering 

the jargon of those engaged in the drug trade.” Id. at 321 (citation omitted). 

We had previously “allowed law officers to testify to the ‘argot or seemingly 

secret jargon’ used in drug money laundering. . . . [and saw] no reason the same 

principle should not apply to drug traffickers as well as their bankers.” Id. at 

321–22 (citation omitted). 

Much of Lockhart’s testimony was proper under Griffith. In particular, 

Lockhart’s testimony about drug code that has consistent meaning in the 

narcotics trade and would be unknown to a lay person was permissible expert 

testimony. For instance, Lockhart testified that “ticket” is a word commonly 

used in the narcotics trade to reference price; “taxing” refers to overcharging a 

customer for heroin; “hitter” is a term for the phone that drug dealers use to 

contact their customers; “at my hat” meant “trying to collect money”; and 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 17 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

18

“picture” is commonly used to refer to a small sample of heroin. Lockhart 

testified that “based on [his] experience with narcotics, when a person is not 

able to sell a lot of drugs or is not profiting from selling drugs, they say they’re 

suffering from starvation. The opposite of starvation is eating . . . [s]o if you 

are profiting from selling drugs and if you are doing well in the drug game, 

you’re eating.” Based on this, Lockhart explained that Haines’s reference to 

his supplier’s “not being hungry anymore” was Haines’s communicating that 

“[o]nce his supplier ‘eats,’ he’s satisfied.” Lockhart also testified about Haines’s 

text message to Guyton, which stated that “we need to go to Afghanistan.” 

Lockhart testified that “[b]ased on information that [he had] received from [his] 

law enforcement career, [he was] aware that over 75 percent of the world’s 

opium is produced in Afghanistan. They use opium to produce morphine, and 

heroin comes from morphine. So, when Clarence Haines referenced going to 

Afghanistan, he’s telling Marc Guyton that that’s the place we need to go to 

obtain the quantities of heroin that we want.” All of this testimony was 

properly admitted as expert testimony under Rule 702.

2.

a.

Turning to the second category of testimony, Lockhart also testified 

about the meaning of specific words and terms used by the particular 

defendants in this case (but not necessarily in the drug trade generally). For 

example, Lockhart testified that when [co-conspirator] Barry said “you know 

I’ll be up there as soon as I can,” the phrase “I’ll be up there” is a reference to 

Houston, Texas. He also testified that Barry uses the phrase “as soon as I can” 

“to inform Bonilla that as soon as he’s [Barry] done distributing heroin he’ll be 

up there.” Lockhart also testified that when Haines sent messages saying “I 

know you can do that for me for 21, ha,” and “that’s all I had,” the word “that” 

was code for “heroin.” Lockhart further testified that “What you going to do, 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 18 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

19

man?” was drug code for “asking Clarence Haines if he’s followed through with 

acquiring the total package of heroin that he requested from him on the . . . 

previous date.” This testimony was not based on Lockhart’s expertise with the 

drug trade writ large; rather, this testimony is based on his familiarity with

this particular case.

We have recognized that this type of testimony is “within the proper 

ambit of a lay witness with extensive involvement in the underlying 

investigation.” Akins, 746 F.3d at 599. Where an “agent’s ‘extensive 

participation in the investigation of [the] conspiracy, including 

surveillance . . . and the monitoring and translating of intercepted telephone 

conversations, allow[s] him to form opinions concerning the meaning of certain 

code words used in this [specific] drug ring based on his personal perceptions,” 

lay opinion testimony is proper. Id. (quoting United States v. Miranda, 248 

F.3d 434, 441 (5th Cir. 2001)). “[E]xplaining the meanings of terms as used in 

the conversations and documents, as well as the relationships between the 

people [the agent is] investigating . . . provide[s] the jury with relevant factual 

information about the investigation.” Id. (quoting United States v. El-Mezain, 

664 F.3d 467, 514 (5th Cir. 2011)).

In Akins, we held that where the witness decoded specific phrases and 

explained the basis for his opinion as to their meaning, his lay opinion 

testimony was proper. Id. at 600. The law enforcement agent testified that he 

knew that “three zones” was code for “three ounces” “because he heard the 

speakers on the intercepted calls use the terms interchangeably [and] that a 

‘nine’ referred to nine ounces of cocaine because the quoted price was consistent 

with that amount in the investigation . . . and ‘[he knew] from the search and 

seizure that [a ‘bi’] is approximately 4–1/2 ounces of crack cocaine.’” Id. at 600 

n.15 (third alteration in original); see also United States v. Macedo-Flores, 788 

F.3d 181, 192 (5th Cir. 2015) (“Although [an FBI agent’s] experience as a law 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 19 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

20

enforcement officer may have allowed him to testify as an expert, our case law 

also allows him to testify to his lay opinion regarding the meaning of code 

words used in an investigation for which he is the lead investigator.”), petition 

for cert. filed (Sept. 2, 2015) (No. 15-5947); Miranda, 248 F.3d at 441 (holding 

that lay witness could testify to “the meaning of certain code words used in this 

drug ring based on his personal perceptions”).

When Lockhart testified that “picture” and “camera” were drug code, he 

also bolstered that opinion with testimony that the GPS tracking device on 

Guyton’s cell phone indicated that Guyton had just returned from St. Louis, 

Missouri when he placed that particular call. Thus, Lockhart was relying on 

both his experience interpreting drug code and his first-hand knowledge of the 

investigation. Lockhart also testified about an exchange between Guyton and 

Terry Thompson, one of Guyton’s heroin customers. Guyton told Thompson 

that he had something for Thompson, and Thompson later responded that “I 

did a little over half of it and it was weak.” Lockhart testified that this 

exchange was Guyton getting Thompson to sample a batch of heroin and report 

on its quality and strength. This testimony is lay opinion under Rule 701 

because it is based upon Lockhart’s personal knowledge of the investigation. 

Similarly, Lockhart’s testimony that “half” in the phrase “check on the half” 

referred to a quantity of heroin was based on his knowledge of the previous 

quantities of heroin that Guyton had purchased. Therefore, it would have been 

admissible as lay opinion testimony under Rule 701 even if Lockhart were not 

also an expert on drug code.

b.

Although Lockhart’s testimony in the second category was admissible as 

lay opinion testimony under Rule 701, it was nevertheless admitted in error in 

some instances, because the district court did not adequately differentiate 

between Lockhart’s lay and expert testimony.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 20 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

21

In Dukagjini, the Second Circuit identified four special concerns that 

arise when case agents testify in a dual capacity as experts and lay witnesses. 

326 F.3d at 53 (“While expert testimony aimed at revealing the significance of 

coded communications can aid a jury in evaluating the evidence, particular 

difficulties, warranting vigilance by the trial court, arise when an expert, who 

is also the case agent, goes beyond interpreting code words and summarizes 

his beliefs about the defendant’s conduct based upon his knowledge of the 

case.”). First,

when a fact witness or a case agent also functions as an expert for 

the government, the government confers upon him the aura of 

special reliability and trustworthiness surrounding expert 

testimony, which ought to caution its use. This aura creates a risk 

of prejudice because the jury may infer that the agent’s opinion 

about the criminal nature of the defendant’s activity is based on 

knowledge of the defendant beyond the evidence at trial, a risk 

that increases when the witness has supervised the case. Simply 

by qualifying as an “expert,” the witness attains unmerited 

credibility when testifying about factual matters from first-hand 

knowledge. Additionally, when the expert bases his opinion on incourt testimony of fact witnesses, such testimony may improperly 

bolster that testimony and may suggest to the jury that a law 

enforcement specialist believes the government’s witness to be 

credible and the defendant to be guilty, suggestions we have 

previously condemned.

326 F.3d at 53 (internal citations, quotation marks, and modifications omitted).

“Second, expert testimony by a fact witness or case agent can inhibit 

cross-examination.” Id. Impeaching an expert is generally difficult because 

the expert usually has impressive credentials, and an expert opinion is less 

easily contradicted than a factual matter. Id. Because a failed effort to 

impeach the witness as expert may bolster his credibility as a fact witness, “a 

defendant may have to make the strategic choice of declining to cross-examine 

the witness at all.” Id.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 21 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

22

Third, “when the prosecution uses a case agent as an expert, there is an 

increased danger that the expert testimony will stray from applying reliable 

methodology and convey to the jury the witness’s ‘sweeping conclusions’ about 

appellants’ activities, deviating from the strictures of Rules 403 and 702.” Id.

at 54 (citing United States v. Simmons, 923 F.2d 934, 946–47 n.5 (2d Cir. 

1991)). The Dukagjini court noted the need for testimony interpreting drug 

code to be “closely monitored by the district court” to avoid letting the agent 

usurp the jury’s function and improperly summarize an investigation by others 

that is not part of the record. Id.

Fourth, a failure to clearly distinguish between fact and opinion 

testimony is likely to confuse the jury. “Some jurors will find it difficult to 

discern whether the witness is relying properly on his general experience and 

reliable methodology, or improperly on what he has learned of the case. When 

the witness is a case agent who testifies about the facts of the case and states 

that he is basing his expert conclusions on his knowledge of the case, a juror 

understandably will find it difficult to navigate the tangled thicket of expert 

and factual testimony from the single witness, thus impairing the juror's 

ability to evaluate credibility.” Id.

Other circuits have likewise noted these four concerns and the need for 

courts and the government to carefully distinguish between an agent’s dual 

roles. E.g., Freeman, 498 F.3d at 903 (“We share the concerns expressed by 

the Second Circuit in Dukagjini.”); United States v. Garcia, 752 F.3d 382, 391–

92 (4th Cir. 2014) (“Despite the district court’s careful attention to [a special 

agent’s] credentials as a decoding expert, however, we hold that the agent’s 

testimony was fraught with error arising from the problems the district court 

itself identified early in the trial: the conflation of [the agent’s] expert and fact 

testimony, particularly her reliance on her knowledge of the investigation to 

support her coding interpretations; her failure to apply her methodology 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 22 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

23

reliably; and last, her failure to state on the record an adequate foundation for 

very many of her specific interpretations.”); York, 572 F.3d at 425 (although 

law enforcement officers are often permitted to testify as both fact and expert 

witness, “there are some inherent dangers with this kind of dual testimony,” 

including risk of jury confusion, undue weight being given to fact testimony 

because of “aura of special reliability,” and undue weight being given to opinion 

testimony because of perception that the officer was privy to facts not 

presented at trial).

The district court in this case recognized the problems arising from the 

dual nature of Lockhart’s testimony. Notwithstanding the court’s instruction 

to the jury at the outset of Lockhart’s testimony, which accurately described 

his dual role, the distinction largely disappeared over the course of Lockhart’s 

extensive direct examination. After denying multiple objections and requests 

for limiting instructions, the court eventually agreed that a limiting 

instruction was needed, noting that “very frankly, we’re going in and out 

[between expert and fact testimony], and it becomes very problematic.” The 

court then instructed the jury that:

[Y]esterday, when Agent Lockhart had been called, I indicated to 

you that he had been offered and accepted by the Court as an 

expert in the field of drug code or decoding some of the terminology, 

and that he would be testifying as an expert witness as well as a 

fact witness. As to the testimony you’ve just heard regarding 

identification of various phone numbers, you should be informed 

that that was fact testimony as related to facts that he’s personally 

aware of but not an expert in that opinion.

After another hour of testimony, the court again correctly recognized 

that Lockhart’s purported expert testimony had strayed from a principled 

application of specialized knowledge and experience. In response to an 

objection, the court stated: “I think the problem is using [Lockhart] now as a 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 23 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

24

transcript and he’s not decoding. He’s just telling us what it said.” The court 

then reminded the jury “that the evidence in this case is the actual tape.”

These instructions were certainly helpful but may have been insufficient 

to mitigate the potential for confusion or prejudice caused by the government’s 

failure to adequately distinguish between Lockhart’s fact and opinion 

testimony. Safeguards sufficient to ensure that a witness’s dual role does not 

prejudice or confuse a jury “might include requiring the witness to testify at 

different times, in each capacity; giving a cautionary instruction to the jury 

regarding the basis of the testimony; allowing for cross-examination by defense 

counsel; establishing a proper foundation for the expertise; or having counsel 

ground the question in either fact or expertise while asking the question.” 

Garcia, 752 F.3d at 392 (finding that a cautionary instruction was insufficient 

to mitigate the potential for prejudice where the court had represented to the 

jury that the government would be clear in its questions whether it was asking 

for fact or opinion testimony, and the government failed to do so); York, 572 

F.3d at 425 (“[D]istrict courts must take some precautions to ensure the jury 

understands its function in evaluating this evidence. The jury needs to know 

when an agent is testifying as an expert and when he is testifying as a fact 

witness.”) (internal citation omitted) (finding error where district court did not 

“flag for the jury when [the agent] testified as a fact witness and when he 

testified as an expert”; agent’s testimony switched back and forth between 

expert experience and knowledge of the particular investigation at issue; and 

the government’s framing of questions asked agent to rely on both expert 

opinion and knowledge of the investigation at the same time); see also 

Dukagjini, 326 F.3d at 56 (“Although we decline to prohibit categorically the 

use of case agents as experts, we note that the Federal Rules of Evidence and 

the Supreme Court place the responsibility upon the district courts to avoid 

falling into error by being vigilant gatekeepers of such expert testimony to 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 24 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

25

ensure that it is reliable and not substantially more unfairly prejudicial than 

probative.”) (internal citation omitted).

The government’s questions and Lockhart’s testimony interpreting the 

wiretapped phone calls in this case frequently failed to distinguish between 

Lockhart’s opinion testimony based on his years of experience investigating 

drug crimes and his fact testimony based on his knowledge of the particular 

conspiracy at issue in the case. This “le[ft] the jury to wonder who was 

testifying, [Lockhart]-the-expert or [Lockhart]-the-case-agent.” York, 572 F.3d 

at 426. Where Lockhart offered fact testimony about the meaning of certain 

words or phrases used in this conspiracy but not in the broader drug trade, 

without explaining the basis of interpretation, the government and the court 

did not adequately clarify for the jury that this was lay testimony. As a result, 

some of Lockhart’s fact testimony, which would otherwise have been 

admissible based on his personal knowledge of the investigation, was admitted 

in error.

Nonetheless, any error here was harmless5 because the record—even 

excluding those portions of Lockhart’s testimony in which his role was 

unclear—is replete with evidence that all three defendants participated in the 

conspiracy. See Part IV, infra.

3.

Turning to the third category of testimony, Lockhart also testified about 

the meaning, in context, of exchanges using common words such as “what,” 

“she,” “that,” and “stuff.” This testimony was impermissible. Federal Rule of 

Evidence 701 provides: 

 

5 As noted above, we are reviewing all of defendants’ evidentiary challenges for abuse 

of discretion subject to harmless error, notwithstanding their failure to object at trial to some 

of the statements they now challenge.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 25 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

26

If a witness is not testifying as an expert, testimony in the form of 

an opinion is limited to one that is: (a) rationally based on the 

witness’s perception; (b) helpful to clearly understanding the 

witness’s testimony or to determining a fact in issue; and (c) not 

based on scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge 

within the scope of Rule 702. 

“[L]ay opinion testimony is permitted under Rule 701 because it has the effect 

of describing something that the jurors could not otherwise experience for 

themselves by drawing upon the witness’s sensory and experiential 

observations that were made as a first-hand witness to a particular event.” 

United States v. Freeman, 730 F.3d 590, 595 (6th Cir. 2013) (emphasis added)

(citation omitted). Testimony on topics that the jury is fully capable of 

determining for itself is not “helpful to clearly understanding the witness’s 

testimony,” Fed. R. Evid. 701, and therefore is inadmissible under Rule 701. 

In Freeman, 730 F.3d at 598, the government offered lay opinion 

testimony from an FBI agent that included interpreting “the situation is over 

with” by explaining that “[t]he situation discussed was regarding [the victim] 

and his having stolen jewelry from [the defendant], [the defendant] having put 

a hit on [the victim] and [the victim] ultimately being killed.” The Sixth Circuit 

cautioned that “a lay opinion should not waste time” or “merely tell the jury 

what result to reach,” and that “[a] witness, lay or expert, may not form 

conclusions for a jury that they are competent to reach on their own.” Id. at 

597. “[A] case agent testifying as a lay witness may not explain to the jury 

what inferences to draw from recorded conversations involving ordinary 

language.” Id. at 598. The court held that the agent’s testimony was improper 

because it “effectively spoon-fed his interpretations of the phone calls and the 

government’s theory of the case to the jury, interpreting even ordinary English 

language.” Id. at 597 (citing United States v. Peoples, 250 F.3d 630, 640 (8th 

Cir. 2001) (finding that the agent’s “testimony was not limited to coded, oblique 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 26 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

27

language, but included plain English words and phrases” and was therefore 

inadmissible under Rule 701)). But see United States v. Ceballos, 302 F.3d 679, 

688 (7th Cir. 2002) (“[W]e hold that the district court did not abuse its 

discretion in permitting [special agents] to offer expert testimony on the 

meaning of pronouns such as ‘it’ and ‘them’ because the pronouns were used in 

an ambiguous manner and because of the agents’ vast experience with drug 

code language.”); United States v. Gadson, 763 F.3d 1189, 1210 (9th Cir. 2014) 

(“Because a jury may become confused by vague pronouns such as ‘who,’ ‘him,’ 

and ‘that,’ [an officer’s] testimony would provide helpful context” and district 

court did not plainly err by admitting it).

Similarly, in United States v. Grinage, 390 F.3d 746, 748–49 (2d Cir. 

2004), a DEA agent testified that several intercepted phone calls using the 

phrases “I need something bad, bad, bad,” and “I need about nearly four,” were 

drug-related “based on [his] knowledge of the entire investigation” and 

“because of his knowledge of [the defendant’s] activities.” The court held that 

this testimony was improper as lay opinion because it “usurped the function of 

the jury to decide what to infer from the content of the calls.” Id. at 750. The 

court warned that under this approach “there would be no need for the trial 

jury to review personally any evidence at all. The jurors could be ‘helped’ by a 

summary witness for the Government, who could not only tell them what was 

in the evidence but tell them what inferences to draw from it. That is not the 

point of lay opinion evidence.” Id.; see also United States v. Hampton, 718 F.3d 

978, 986 (D.C. Cir. 2013) (Brown, J., concurring) (“A lay opinion witness may 

tell jurors ‘what was in the evidence,’ but not ‘tell them what inferences to draw 

from it,’ for that responsibility is up to the jury and the jury alone.”) (citing 

Grinage, 390 F.3d at 750). Such a usurpation of the jury’s function by a 

government agent is especially concerning because “[a]n agent presented to a 

jury with an aura of expertise and authority increases the risk that the jury 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 27 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

28

will be swayed improperly by the agent’s testimony, rather than rely on its own 

interpretation of the evidence.” Freeman, 730 F.3d at 599; see also Grinage, 

390 F.3d at 751 (same). But see Gadson, 763 F.3d at 1209 (“Contrary to the 

rationale of Hampton and Grinage, ‘the application of Rule 701 should not be 

influenced by concern that opinion testimony usurps the role of the jury or that 

factual testimony is more reliable than opinion testimony.’”) (quoting 29 

Charles Alan Wright & Victor James Gold, Federal Practice & Procedure 

§ 6252, at 112 (1997)).

In this case, when Lockhart testified to the meaning of common words 

like “what,” “she,” “that,” and “stuff,” he was offering his own interpretation of 

language that was well within the province of the jury to interpret. The same 

is true with respect to Lockhart’s testimony as to the meaning of pronouns such 

as “that” and “it,” and his testimony that “as soon as I can” was a reference 

related to heroin. At another point, the government introduced an exchange 

between Haines and Guyton in which Haines says, “I wanted to bring him that 

s—t, too” “from last night.” Lockhart testified that he “determined that the . . . 

s—t that [Haines] wanted to bring him back was the heroin that he provided 

to Marc Guyton on the previous night. Or, the money from that heroin, he 

wanted to bring that to his heroin supplier when was finished.” This testimony 

was admitted in error because it went beyond Lockhart’s expertise and 

personal knowledge of the investigation and instead ventured into speculation, 

usurping the jury’s function, which is to draw its own inferences from the 

evidence presented. Furthermore, Lockhart was presented to the jury “with 

an aura of expertise and authority,” Freeman, 730 F.3d at 599, which arose not 

only from his status as the case agent but also because of his extensive 

experience in investigating other drug crimes, increasing the risk that his 

testimony would improperly sway the jury.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 28 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

29

Nevertheless, Lockhart’s interpretation of common words constituted 

only a small fraction of his extensive testimony. As discussed below, there was 

sufficient evidence to sustain the defendants’ convictions apart from Lockhart’s 

improper testimony, and the error was therefore harmless.

IV.

All three defendants challenge the sufficiency of the evidence for their 

convictions. Review of the sufficiency of the evidence is very deferential to the 

jury verdict.

We review a challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence supporting 

a conviction by reviewing all evidence in the light most favorable 

to the verdict to determine whether a rational trier of fact could 

have found that the evidence established the essential elements of 

the offense beyond a reasonable doubt. In determining whether 

there is sufficient evidence to support a verdict, this court asks 

only whether the jury’s decision was rational, not whether it was 

correct. We must accept all credibility choices and reasonable 

inferences made by the trier of fact which tend to support the 

verdict. The evidence need not exclude every reasonable 

hypothesis of innocence or be wholly inconsistent with every 

conclusion except that of guilt, and the jury is free to choose among 

reasonable constructions of the evidence.

United States v. Lewis, 774 F.3d 837, 841 (5th Cir. 2014) (internal quotation 

marks and citations omitted). None of the defendants can overcome this 

exacting standard of review. All of the defendants’ convictions are supported 

by evidence that would allow a rational fact-finder to find all of the elements 

of the offenses.

“In a drug conspiracy prosecution, the Government must prove beyond a 

reasonable doubt: (1) the existence of an agreement between two or more 

persons to violate narcotics law; (2) the defendant’s knowledge of the 

agreement; and (3) the defendant’s voluntary participation in the agreement.” 

United States v. Hayes, 342 F.3d 385, 389–90 (5th Cir. 2003). “A conviction 

under § 843(b) requires proof that a defendant (1) knowingly or intentionally 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 29 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

30

(2) used a communications facility (3) to facilitate the commission of a drug 

offense.” United States v. Mankins, 135 F.3d 946, 949 (5th Cir. 1998)

(emphasis omitted).

Haines contends that there was insufficient evidence to show that he was 

involved in a heroin conspiracy. His argument is premised on our excluding 

Lockhart’s testimony in its entirety. As we have explained, much of Lockhart’s 

testimony was properly admitted and the portions of the testimony admitted 

in error were harmless in light of the other evidence presented. Even without

the objectionable parts of Lockhart’s testimony, there is ample evidence from

which a reasonable jury could find Haines guilty beyond a reasonable doubt of 

conspiracy to possess with intent to distribute a kilogram of heroin. Haines 

was arrested in March 2011 for possession of heroin with intent to distribute. 

Haines spoke with the other members of the conspiracy. Although Haines did 

not visit “the spot” himself, Haines met with Guyton on multiple occasions and

accompanied Berry on his trip to Houston. Berry met with Haines before and 

after his July trip to “the spot,” and Haines discarded a bag of trash containing 

heroin refuse. When Haines’s house was searched, investigators found a large 

amount of cash, a bottle of mannitol, and five cell phones. The portions of 

Lockhart’s testimony that were proper provide still further support for the jury 

verdict. Haines did not object to numerous of Lockhart’s statements 

interpreting certain messages to be related to heroin (for example, the 

“crawfish” messages of April 3), and Lockhart also testified that Haines spoke 

with Guyton on the phone regarding the “ticket,” or the price of heroin. All in 

all, there is more than enough evidence in the record for a rational jury to 

conclude that Haines knowingly joined a heroin conspiracy.

Haines’s conviction for use of a telephone in facilitating a drug 

conspiracy is likewise supported by sufficient evidence. Even discounting the 

objectionable parts of Lockhart’s testimony, there still was ample evidence in 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 30 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

31

the record. The government presented evidence of numerous text messages 

and calls between Haines and Guyton. Lockhart testified—permissibly—that 

many of the phone calls and text messages included discussion of selling heroin 

using code language. Moreover, even without direct testimony about the 

content of the calls, there was ample evidence with which a rational jury could 

conclude, based on the number and timing of the communications, and the 

cryptic and vague language used, that these phone calls and text messages 

were in furtherance of the conspiracy. And with the admission of the 

permissible aspects of Lockhart’s testimony, there is even more evidence to 

support a finding that the Guyton-Haines calls and texts were in furtherance 

of the drug conspiracy. In sum, ample evidence supports the jury verdict.

Porter’s challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence is primarily based on 

his assertion that a rational jury could not conclude beyond a reasonable doubt 

that he was “T.” “T” was the nickname of one of the conspiracy participants, 

and much of Porter’s connection to the case depends upon whether that 

nickname refers to Porter. Porter asserts that there are other people who could 

potentially be nicknamed “T” in this case, including Terrence or an unknown 

entity. Because all of the inculpatory evidence relies on his being “T,” 

according to Porter, the evidence is insufficient to convict him if the jury could 

not have rationally found that he was “T.” 

Be that as it may, there are at least two bases on which a rational jury 

could have inferred that Porter was “T.” First, McKenzie Weber identified 

Porter as “T.”6 Porter did not object to Weber’s repeated assertion that he was 

“T,” and a rational jury might find credible Weber’s testimony that Porter’s 

 

6 Weber testified that he bought drugs from Guyton, who bought them from Porter. 

On cross-examination, Weber admitted that he had not actually seen Porter on the night in 

question when Guyton bought heroin from “T,” and that he had never interacted with Porter 

personally or been around him talking, but maintained that “I know him just seeing him.”

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 31 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

32

nickname is “T.” Second, in one call, Guyton refers to “T” as having brought 

“little B, . . . his step son” to Guyton’s residence, and Porter does have a stepson 

whose name begins with a “B.”

Although Porter attacks Weber’s testimony and the reasonableness of 

referring to a teenage boy as “little B,” these facts are sufficient for a rational 

fact-finder to infer that Porter is “T.” See United States v. Cannon, 750 F.3d 

492, 506 (5th Cir. 2014) (noting that we review the evidence “in the light most 

favorable to the verdict, accepting all credibility choices and reasonable 

inferences made by the trier of fact which tend to support the verdict.”)

(citation omitted). Because a rational jury could have inferred that Porter was 

“T,” a rational jury could have inferred that Porter joined the conspiracy. As 

Porter admits in his brief, it would have been reasonable for a jury to infer that 

the “T” referenced as Guyton’s “main man” is the same “T” who sold Guyton 

heroin during the sale described by Weber. Once the references to “T” are 

inferred to be references to Porter, there is more than enough evidence for a 

rational jury to convict. “T” sold heroin to Guyton, was his “main man” 

(supplier), and had been the subject of Guyton’s complaints regarding heroin 

quality.

Porter also contends that the evidence was insufficient for the jury to 

find that his June 12 call to Berry was in furtherance of the conspiracy, 

meaning his conviction for using a communications facility to facilitate a drug 

offense would have to be reversed. Porter contends that because the phone call 

was just benign sports talk and an agreement for Berry to come over before the 

game’s start time of 7:00 p.m., Porter could not have been “facilitating the 

commission” of a drug conspiracy under § 843(b). In light of the deferential

standard of review, we cannot say that there was insufficient evidence for the 

jury to convict. The government produced evidence that Porter’s arranging to 

meet at 7:00 p.m. was for the purpose of getting heroin from Berry. The 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 32 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

33

evidence established that Berry was on his way back from “the spot.” Right 

before going to Porter’s residence, Berry discarded heroin packaging. Berry 

went to Porter’s house at 4:30 p.m., well in advance of the game, and stayed 

for four minutes. That evidence was sufficient to allow the jury to find that the 

meeting arranged over the call was for a heroin drop-off, which would mean 

Porter used a phone to facilitate the drug conspiracy. Sufficient evidence 

supports Porter’s conviction on both counts.

Iturres-Bonilla challenges the sufficiency of the evidence for his 

conspiracy conviction because, according to him, the government failed to 

prove a sufficient nexus between him, Harry Berry, and Terrance Henderson. 

However, there was sufficient evidence for the jury to find beyond a reasonable 

doubt that Iturres-Bonilla was part of the conspiracy. When his home was 

searched, he attempted to discard 405 grams of heroin that was in a press 

designed to compact the powder. In addition to the press and the heroin, 

investigators found cellophane wrapping and black electrical tape that was 

commonly used to wrap heroin. The phone records indicate that IturresBonilla was in frequent contact with Berry and Henderson, including 

conversations that used coded language to obfuscate the calls’ nature relating 

to drug trafficking. Contrary to Iturres-Bonilla’s assertions, the record is 

replete with evidence tying him to Berry and Henderson. His challenge to the 

sufficiency of evidence on that point is rejected, and the conviction is affirmed.

V.

Iturres-Bonilla argues that the district court erred when it declined to 

permit him to call DEA agent Violet Szeleczky as a witness. Szeleczky was one 

of the DEA agents in charge of investigating the case. When Iturres-Bonilla’s 

lawyer learned that Szeleczky had been cited for poor judgment by the DEA in 

2000, the government informed him that it would not be calling Szeleczky as a 

witness. Iturres-Bonilla’s lawyer stated that he intended to call Szeleczky 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 33 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

34

anyway to elicit statements from her and then use her disciplinary record to 

impeach her. The district court instructed Iturres-Bonilla’s lawyer that he 

could not call a witness just to impeach her, but could call Szeleczky for factual 

testimony and then, if she gave inconsistent testimony, could impeach her. The 

district court also stated that Iturres-Bonilla could impeach Szeleckzy if he 

established that she was hostile. However, the district court warned that it 

would not allow Iturres-Bonilla to call her solely to impeach her.

Iturres-Bonilla argues that the district court improperly “held that a 

party can’t impeach his own witness.” He contends that the district court 

stated he could impeach Szeleczky only if the government called her as a 

witness. This, according to Iturres-Bonilla, was a violation of his right to 

present a complete defense and a violation of his right to confrontation because 

Szeleczky was a significant witness. Iturres-Bonilla is correct that a party may 

impeach his own witness. Fed. R. Evid. 607 (“Any party, including the party 

that called the witness, may attack the witness’s credibility.”). Moreover, 

evidence that one of the DEA agents involved in the investigation and arrest 

of Iturres-Bonilla had been disciplined for poor judgment may have contributed 

to Iturres-Bonilla’s defense. See United States v. Scheffer, 523 U.S. 303, 329 

n.16 (1998) (“Whether rooted directly in the Due Process Clause of the 

Fourteenth Amendment or in the Compulsory Process or Confrontation clauses 

of the Sixth Amendment, the Constitution guarantees criminal defendants a 

meaningful opportunity to present a complete defense.”) (internal citations and 

quotation marks omitted). However, Iturres-Bonilla’s argument fails because 

the district court did not actually prohibit him from calling Szeleczky. In any 

event, Iturres-Bonilla did not raise a Confrontation Clause or Due Process 

objection before the district court and cannot satisfy the plain error standard.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 34 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

35

VI. 

Haines and Porter argue that the district court erred by imposing a 20-

year mandatory minimum sentence. According to Haines and Porter, the 

district court erroneously based the mandatory minimum on the conspiracywide quantity of heroin, rather than on the quantities attributable to each of 

the defendants individually. The government agrees with Haines and Porter 

that the relevant quantity should be the quantity attributable to each 

individual defendant, but nevertheless believes it is constrained by our 

precedent, which it believes makes conspiracy-wide quantity the relevant 

metric. Because it is undisputed that the jury did not make an individualized 

quantity finding with respect to either Haines or Porter, and because such 

findings are necessary to increase their mandatory minimum sentences, we 

vacate their sentences and remand for re-sentencing.

Sentencing in a conspiracy case involves two distinct sentencing ranges:

the statutory range of punishment and the Sentencing Guidelines range. The 

statutory range acts as an outer boundary; a defendant cannot be sentenced 

below the statutory minimum or above the statutory maximum, even if the 

Guidelines recommend a term of imprisonment outside of that statutory range. 

Title 21 U.S.C. § 841 controls the statutory range of punishment for the 

defendants in this case. As we have explained,

Section 841 consists of two relevant subsections. Section 841(a) 

makes it unlawful for any person to manufacture or distribute a 

controlled substance. Section 841(b) defines the applicable 

penalties for violations of § 841(a) based on the type and quantity 

of drug, previous convictions, and whether death or serious bodily 

injury resulted from use of the drug.

United States v. Doggett, 230 F.3d 160, 164 (5th Cir. 2000). The factual 

determination regarding the quantity of the controlled substance can 

“significantly increase[] the maximum penalty from 20 years under 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 35 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

36

§ 841(b)(1)(C) to life imprisonment under § 841(b)(1)(A),” id., and it can 

significantly increase the minimum penalty from zero years under 

§ 841(b)(1)(C) to ten years under § 841(b)(1)(A).7 In Apprendi v. New Jersey, 

530 U.S. 466, 490 (2000), and Alleyne v. United States, 133 S. Ct. 2151, 2158 

(2013), the Supreme Court held that factual determinations that increase 

maximum or minimum sentences, other than a prior conviction, must be found 

by a jury beyond a reasonable doubt (or admitted by the defendant). Because 

the quantity of heroin involved affects Haines’s and Porter’s minimum 

sentences under § 841, it must be found by a jury. See Alleyne, 133 S. Ct. at 

2155 (“Mandatory minimum sentences increase the penalty for a crime. It 

follows, then, that any fact that increases the mandatory minimum is an 

‘element’ that must be submitted to the jury.”).

The question we must address in this case is whether the relevant 

quantity for purposes of determining a mandatory minimum is the quantity 

attributable to the entire conspiracy or the quantity attributable to the 

individual defendant. We hold that Haines and Porter should have been

sentenced based on the drug quantity attributable to them as individuals, not 

the quantity attributable to the entire conspiracy.

The relevant facts of Haines’s and Porter’s sentencing are laid out below. 

A.

The district court calculated Haines’s criminal-history score as six, which 

put him in Criminal History Category III. Haines’s offense level for the drugconspiracy charge was 34. With a criminal-history category of III and a base 

offense level of 34, the Sentencing Guidelines gave a suggested range of 188–

235 months’ imprisonment. The presentence report (PSR) recommended a 

 

7 Section 841(b)(1)(C) applies generally to schedule I controlled substances including 

heroin, but § 841(b)(1)(A) applies if the violation involves 1 kilogram or more of a mixture or 

substance containing heroin.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 36 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

37

sentence of 240 months, however, because 21 U.S.C. § 841(b)(1)(A) mandates 

a 20-year minimum if, inter alia, the offense involved one kilogram or more of 

heroin and the defendant “commits such a violation after a prior conviction for 

a drug felony offense.” Because Haines had a prior felony drug conviction and 

the jury found that “the overall scope of the conspiracy involved 1 kilogram or 

more of heroin,” the PSR recommended applying the statutory minimum.

Haines filed 13 objections to the PSR. In his written objections, he 

challenged specific facts in the PSR as being outside the evidence presented to 

the jury or inconsistent with that evidence. After filing his initial objections, 

Haines submitted a sentencing memorandum. He “object[ed] to any and all 

enhancements or increases of any kind to his sentence based on facts other 

than those decided by the jury or admitted by the defendant,” and cited 

Apprendi and Alleyne. At the sentencing hearing, the district court denied all 

of Haines’s objections. Haines’s attorney stated that he “would reurge the 

objection with regard to the mandatory minimum and . . . would direct the 

Court’s attention to a federal case, [United States v. Gurrusquieta, 54 F. App’x 

592 (5th Cir. 2002)].” Haines’s attorney stated that “just because there was a 

conviction for a certain amount does not automatically trigger the mandatory 

minimum sentences found in Section 841(a)(1), but for sentencing purposes the 

defendant is only accountable for all of the quantities of marijuana [sic] [with]

which he was directly involved.” The district court overruled that objection, 

stating that “Mr. Haines was found by a jury of 12 that he was guilty of 

participating in a conspiracy beyond a reasonable doubt and the jury 

specifically found that it included a kilogram of heroin.” Because of that, the 

district court held that the statutory minimum applied. The court sentenced 

Haines to 240 months’ imprisonment on count one and 48 months’

imprisonment on count two, to run concurrently.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 37 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

38

The district court calculated Porter’s criminal-history score as five, 

which put him in Criminal History Category III. The PSR calculated his base 

offense level at 34 and, as with Haines, the PSR stated that the 20-year 

statutory minimum applied because of a past felony drug conviction and the 

jury finding that the offense involved one kilogram or more of heroin. 

Porter filed six objections to the PSR. In Objection No. 5, Porter 

challenged the portion of the PSR which stated that the mandatory minimum 

sentence of 240 months applied to him:

Paragraph 176 of the PSI states “. . . in accordance with USSG 

§ 5g1.1(C)(2), the applicable advisory guideline range is 240 

months.” According to [Alleyne], which was decided one month 

following the trial in the above referenced matter, “any fact that 

increases mandatory minimum sentence for crime is ‘element’ of 

crime, not ‘sentencing factor,’ that must be submitted to jury.” The 

Sixth Amendment requires that each element must be proven 

beyond a reasonable doubt. Porter objects to this classification 

because the jury did not deliberate on facts that increase the 

mandatory minimum sentence.8

At sentencing, the district court overruled Porter’s objections. Porter’s 

attorney reiterated his objection and explained that the numbers in the PSR 

were mostly reached by conjecture. He stated that the only quantity his client 

was alleged to have “physically touched” was eight ounces. The court overruled 

the objection as moot because the statutory minimum would override any 

guidelines range reached by the PSR calculations. The defendant himself then 

stated that his own conduct did not amount to three to ten kilograms of heroin; 

the PSR, he asserted, was attempting to sentence him for the whole conspiracy. 

The district court explained that the statutory minimum overrode the 

 

8 The only facts in Porter’s case that increased the mandatory minimum were the 

quantity of the heroin attributable to him and his prior conviction. Apprendi and Alleyne do 

not require jury findings for prior convictions, so Porter’s challenge necessarily went to the 

drug quantity.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 38 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

39

guidelines calculations, agreed to note Porter’s objection, and sentenced Porter 

to 240 months’ imprisonment on count one and 48 months’ on count two, to run 

concurrently.

Although Haines and Porters’ objections before the district court did not 

identify the precise issue they now raise on appeal with an ideal level of 

specificity, they were sufficient to put the district court on notice of their 

challenge and preserve the objections on appeal. “Preserved challenges to 

sentences, whether inside or outside the guidelines range, are reviewed for 

abuse of discretion.” United States v. Torres-Perez, 777 F.3d 764, 767 (5th Cir. 

2015).

B. 

For purposes of the Guidelines or for determining statutory minimum 

and maximum sentences, our cases always have limited the defendant’s 

liability to the quantity of drugs with which he was directly involved or that 

was reasonably foreseeable to him. For example, in United States v. QuirozHernandez, 48 F.3d 858 (5th Cir. 1995), as modified on reh’g (May 8, 1995), we 

explained:

Under the Sentencing Guidelines, a defendant who participates in 

a drug conspiracy is accountable for the quantity of drugs, which 

is attributable to the conspiracy and reasonably foreseeable to him. 

Reasonable foreseeability does not follow automatically from proof 

that the defendant was a member of the conspiracy. Reasonable 

foreseeability requires a finding separate from a finding that the 

defendant was a conspirator. Thus, for a sentencing court to 

attribute to a defendant a certain quantity of drugs, the court must 

make two separate findings: (1) the quantity of the drugs in the 

entire operation and (2) the amount which each defendant knew or 

should have known was involved in the conspiracy.

Id. at 870 (citations, quotation marks, and alteration omitted); accord United 

States v. Brito, 136 F.3d 397, 415 (5th Cir. 1998); United States v. Puig-Infante, 

19 F.3d 929, 942 (5th Cir. 1994). Of course, Apprendi and Alleyne require the 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 39 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

40

jury (rather than the court) to determine “the amount which each defendant 

knew or should have known was involved in the conspiracy,” but that finding 

still must be made.

In light of this longstanding rule, we have found error where the district 

court increased a statutory minimum in reliance on a conspiracy-wide quantity 

of drugs. In United States v. Guajardo, we reiterated that “[f]or sentencing 

purposes, a defendant is accountable only for the drug quantity with which he 

was directly involved, and all reasonably foreseeable quantities of marijuana 

within the scope of the joint criminal activity.” 391 F. App’x 384, 386 (5th Cir. 

2010) (internal quotation marks omitted). We held that even though Guajardo 

pleaded guilty to a conspiracy involving more than five kilograms of cocaine

and 500 grams of a mixture of methamphetamine, the district court erred by 

applying a 10-year statutory minimum because the PSR “determined that the 

drug quantity attributable to Guajardo was the equivalent of 300.51 kilograms 

of marijuana[, which was less] than the threshold quantity (1,000 kilograms of 

marijuana) necessary for triggering the 10-year statutory minimum penalty.” 

Id. Likewise, in Gurrusquieta, we noted that a defendant’s conviction for 

conspiring to distribute in excess of 1,000 kilograms of marijuana did not 

automatically trigger the 10-year mandatory minimum because “a defendant 

is only accountable for all quantities of the marijuana with which he was 

directly involved, and all reasonably foreseeable quantities of marijuana that 

were within the scope of the criminal activity that he jointly undertook.” 54 F. 

App’x 592, at *3. “In other words, an individual convicted of conspiring to 

distribute at least 1,000 kilograms of marijuana . . . is not necessarily subject 

to the ten-year minimum. Only if the defendant is responsible for at least 1,000 

kilograms, as determined by the Sentencing Guidelines, does the mandatory 

statutory minimum apply.” Id. (finding no plain error because defendant’s 

sentence fell within the applicable Guidelines range).

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 40 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

41

In its brief, the government agrees with the defendants that “at least [as] 

to imposing a mandatory minimum, . . . the sentence should be based on a 

‘defendant-specific approach’ – a finding as to the type and quantity of drugs 

that can be attributed to the individual defendant by his personal conduct and 

reasonable-foreseeability of co-conspirator conduct.” According to the 

government,

[a]t the time of sentencing, the government advocated [that] both 

mandatory minimums and statutory maximums were controlled 

by the jury’s conspiracy-wide finding. After defendants were 

sentenced, the Department of Justice shifted its policy, urging that 

mandatory minimum sentences in drug conspiracy cases should be 

determined by a jury’s defendant-specific finding, in light of 

Alleyne.

However, at oral argument the government cautioned that the rule for drug 

quantity findings that increase the mandatory minimum should be the same 

as the rule for drug quantity findings that increase the statutory maximum—

and the government suggests that our precedent in United States v. Turner, 

319 F.3d 716 (5th Cir. 2003), requires a finding as to the conspiracy-wide 

quantity for purposes of the statutory maximum.9 That is a bridge we need 

not cross today. We simply hold that, for purposes of statutory minimums at 

sentencing, the relevant quantity is the quantity attributable to the individual 

defendant. In this case, the jury did not make any findings about the drug 

 

9 Last year, relying on Turner, we explained that the government’s burden at trial in 

a drug conspiracy case “does not extend to the ‘individualized question of what drug quantity 

was attributable’ to a particular defendant as a co-conspirator. The Government ‘need only 

allege and prove to the jury the bare facts necessary to increase the statutory sentencing 

maximum for the conspiracy as a whole.’” Akins, 746 F.3d at 607 (quoting Turner, 319 F.3d 

at 722). Like Turner, Akins addressed statutory sentencing maximums. We also 

reemphasized in Akins our well-established rule that “a defendant will not necessarily be 

held responsible for the full amount of drugs involved in the conspiracy, but rather only those 

amounts of drugs that he knew or reasonably could have known or believed were involved in 

the conspiracy, considering the co-conspirator’s role in the conspiracy, his relationship to the 

other conspirators, and any other information with sufficient indicia of reliability.” Id.

(citation and internal quotation marks omitted).

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 41 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

42

quantities attributable to Haines or Porter, and we accordingly vacate their 

sentences and remand for re-sentencing.

VII.

Iturres-Bonilla claims that the district court erred by imposing a 

sentence above the statutory maximum. According to Iturres-Bonilla, he 

should have been sentenced with a statutory maximum of 20 years, but the 

district court erroneously applied a statutory maximum of life imprisonment 

(and sentenced him to 292 months’ imprisonment) based on the conspiracywide quantity of heroin, rather than based on an individualized quantity 

finding. This issue is similar to the one addressed supra with respect to Haines 

and Porter; the difference is that whereas Haines and Porter argued that their 

minimum was set incorrectly, Iturres-Bonilla claims that his maximum was 

incorrectly set. Unlike Haines and Porter, however, Iturres-Bonilla did not 

preserve his objection to the use of conspiracy-wide findings, and he cannot 

prevail on plain error review.

Iturres-Bonilla made 25 objections to the PSR. Several of these 

objections were factual corrections, and several others were objections to 

statements that implied he was guilty. Iturres-Bonilla’s other objections 

mostly concerned the PSR’s calculation of drug quantities. His most detailed 

objection was Objection No. 14, in which he criticized the PSR’s drug quantities 

as “based on guesswork, sheer speculation or grossly insufficient information.” 

The objection also stated:

At trial, the defense maintained that Mr. Iturres-Bonilla was 

responsible for less than one kilogram of heroin. The jury 

concluded otherwise. For appellate purposes and for the purpose 

of these objections, the defense maintains that Mr. Iturres-Bonilla 

was responsible for less than one kilogram of heroin. Mr. IturresBonilla should be held responsible for no more than 405.6 grams 

of heroin. His base offense level should be 28.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 42 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

43

This objection, and its reference to the “base offense level,” is an objection to 

the Guidelines calculation, not to the applicable statutory maximum. Because 

Iturres-Bonilla failed to object to the use of a conspiracy-wide quantity to set 

the statutory maximum, we review for plain error. There are four 

requirements for plain error review:

(1) there must be an error or defect—some sort of deviation from a 

legal rule—that has not been intentionally relinquished or 

abandoned; (2) the legal error must be clear or obvious, rather than 

subject to reasonable dispute; (3) the error must have affected the 

appellant’s substantial rights; and (4) if the above three prongs are 

satisfied, the court of appeals has the discretion to remedy the 

error—discretion which ought to be exercised only if the error 

seriously affects the fairness, integrity or public reputation of 

judicial proceedings.

United States v. Escalante-Reyes, 689 F.3d 415, 419 (5th Cir. 2012) (en banc) 

(citation and internal quotation marks and alterations omitted). IturresBonilla has not argued, much less proven, that he can prevail under that 

standard, and we therefore reject his challenge to the applicable statutory 

maximum. 

Iturres-Bonilla raises three other challenges to the calculation of his 

recommended sentence under the Sentencing Guidelines. We review de novo 

the district court’s Guidelines interpretations and review for clear error the 

district court’s findings of fact. United States v. Miller, 607 F.3d 144, 147 (5th 

Cir. 2010).

First, Iturres-Bonilla claims that the district court erred in determining

his Guidelines range. In calculating Iturres-Bonilla’s Guidelines range, the 

district court determined that Iturres-Bonilla was responsible for between 

three and ten kilograms of heroin as part of the conspiracy. This triggered a 

base offense level of 34. USSG 2D1.1(c)(3). At sentencing, the court made 

several factual findings in support of this quantity. Harry Berry made three 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 43 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

44

trips (June, July, and August 2011) to “the spot” and retrieved heroin to be 

distributed in New Orleans. Following the June trip, Berry discarded an 

empty package containing heroin residue that was consistent with having 

contained half a kilogram of heroin. Following the July trip, Berry discarded 

two such empty packages. Following the August trip, Berry was arrested with 

one kilogram of heroin in his possession, which he had retrieved from “the 

spot,” where Iturres-Bonilla supplied heroin. These trips account for 2.5 

kilograms of heroin.

When Iturres-Bonilla was arrested in November 2011, he was found in 

possession of 405.6 grams of heroin and $89,437 cash. Although the district 

court did not explicitly state that she found the cash to have a heroin 

equivalent, Lockhart had testified at sentencing that $89,000 was equivalent 

to roughly two kilograms of heroin, and Iturres-Bonilla does not appear to deny 

the district court actually held that the $89,000 was part of the calculation. 

The district court did not err in converting the cash into a drug quantity. 

Under § 2D1.1, the court may approximate the quantity of the controlled 

substance if “the amount seized does not reflect the scale of the offense.” USSG 

§ 2D1.1 cmt. n.5. Converting the money seized from a drug defendant into its 

equivalent amount of drugs is not clear error. United States v. Henderson, 254 

F.3d 543, 544 (5th Cir. 2001).

It is true that, as Iturres-Bonilla points out, Lockhart later stated that 

$40,000 could purchase half a kilogram of heroin, which would mean that 

$89,000 could purchase only a little more than one kilogram. This 

inconsistency is immaterial, however, because the cash had to account only for 

94.4 grams of heroin, so whether the district court adopted the one-kilogram 

or two-kilogram conversion, it more than sufficed to push the total to at least 

three kilograms. Accordingly, the district court did not err in calculating the 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 44 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

45

amount of heroin attributable to Iturres-Bonilla for purposes of the guidelines 

calculation.

Second, Iturres-Bonilla claims that the district court erred by applying a 

four-level sentencing enhancement for being an “organizer or leader of a 

criminal activity that involved five or more participants or was otherwise 

extensive.” USSG § 3B1.1(a). Specifically, the court found that the evidence 

at trial established that Iturres-Bonilla was “a source of supply of the heroin 

for Berry and Henderson,” he “directed Berry and Henderson to ‘the spot’ 

where the heroin was to be retrieved,” and he “directed them to switch 

telephones to avoid detection.” Iturres-Bonilla also “further directed Berry and 

Henderson to move more heroin.” Iturres-Bonilla objected to this enhancement 

in his response to the PSR.

A trial court’s finding that a defendant is a leader or organizer is a 

factual finding reviewed for clear error. United States v. Gonzalez, 436 F.3d 

560, 584 (5th Cir. 2006). A court’s factual finding is clearly erroneous “only if, 

based on the entire evidence, [we are] left with the definite and firm conviction 

that a mistake has been committed.” Akins, 746 F.3d at 609 (citation omitted). 

Iturres-Bonilla contends that the district court clearly erred because his “tone 

is not one of a leader, but of a partner.” Rather than directing his coconspirators to get new cell phones, he merely stated that, “We’re going to go 

ahead and get some other lines, okay?” He also notes that Berry and 

Henderson could access the stash house whenever they wanted.

Iturres-Bonilla has not carried his burden to show clear error. The 

district court’s interpretation of the “other lines” comment as imperative is 

plausible. In addition, although Iturres-Bonilla cites United States v. 

Betancourt, 422 F.3d 240, 245 (5th Cir. 2005), for the proposition that being a 

supplier of drugs does not automatically render that person a leader or 

organizer, that case actually supports the district court’s finding. A person’s 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 45 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

46

status as a distributor in a drug conspiracy is relevant in determining both 

“the degree of participation in planning or organizing the offense” and “the 

nature and scope of the illegal activity.” Id. (quoting USSG § 3B1.1 cmt. n.4). 

In light of all this, the district court did not clearly err in finding that IturresBonilla was a leader or organizer of the conspiracy.

Third, Iturres-Bonilla argues that the district court erred in applying a 

two-level sentencing enhancement because Iturres-Bonilla “maintained a 

premises for the purpose of manufacturing or distributing a controlled 

substance.” USSG § 2D1.1(b)(12). Iturres-Bonilla objected to the imposition 

of this enhancement. The district court overruled the objection, finding that 

Iturres-Bonilla had maintained “the spot” for the purpose of making heroin 

transactions, as evidenced by Berry’s trips there to receive heroin and the lack 

of food, clothes, and personal items found when officers searched “the spot.” 

The thrust of Iturres-Bonilla’s argument on appeal is that “the spot” was not 

just for drug transactions, but was more generally maintained to be a safe 

meeting place. He does not appear to be challenging the conclusion that he 

maintained the premises.

A district court’s application of § 2D1.1(b)(12) is a factual finding 

reviewed for clear error. See United States v. Barragan-Malfabon, 537 F. App’x 

483, 484–85 (5th Cir. 2013), cert. denied, 134 S. Ct. 716 (2013) (district court 

did not clearly err in determining that a primary use of the home was the 

storage of controlled substances for distribution purposes); United States v. 

Chagoya, 510 F. App’x 327, 328 (5th Cir. 2013) (“[Defendant-Appellant] has 

not shown that the district court clearly erred in assessing him an increase in 

offense level under § 2D1.1(b)(12).”). The district court did not err. The 

Sentencing Guidelines specify that “distributing a controlled substance need 

not be the sole purpose for which the premises was maintained, but must be 

one of the defendant’s primary or principal uses for the premises.” USSG 

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 46 Date Filed: 10/20/2015
No. 13-31287

47

§ 2D1.1 cmt. n.17. The district court made factual findings, supported by the 

record, showing that one of the main purposes for the apartment was drug 

distribution. Iturres-Bonilla has not shown how the district court’s decision 

was erroneous. His sentence is affirmed.

For the foregoing reasons, we AFFIRM the defendants’ convictions and 

Iturres-Bonilla’s sentence, VACATE Haines’s and Porter’s sentences, and 

REMAND the case to the district court for resentencing of Haines and Porter.

 Case: 13-31287 Document: 00513239011 Page: 47 Date Filed: 10/20/2015