Order Code RL32450

Cruise Ship Pollution: Background,

 Laws and Regulations, and Key Issues

Updated February 6, 2008

Claudia Copeland

Specialist in Resources and Environmental Policy

Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Cruise Ship Pollution: Background, 

Laws and Regulations, and Key Issues

Summary

The cruise industry is a significant and growing contributor to the U.S.

economy, providing more than $32 billion in benefits annually and generating more

than 330,000 U.S. jobs, but also making the environmental impacts of its activities

an issue to many. Although cruise ships represent a small fraction of the entire

shipping industry worldwide, public attention to their environmental impacts comes

in part from the fact that cruise ships are highly visible and in part because of the

industry’s desire to promote a positive image.

Cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers and crew have been compared

to “floating cities,” and the volume of wastes that they produce is comparably large,

consisting of sewage; wastewater from sinks, showers, and galleys (graywater);

hazardous wastes; solid waste; oily bilge water; ballast water; and air pollution. The

waste streams generated by cruise ships are governed by a number of international

protocols (especially MARPOL) and U.S. domestic laws (including the Clean Water

Act and the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships), regulations, and standards, but

there is no single law or rule. Some cruise ship waste streams appear to be well

regulated, such as solid wastes (garbage and plastics) and bilge water. But there is

overlap of some areas, and there are gaps in others. Some, such as graywater and

ballast water, are not regulated (except in the Great Lakes), and concern is increasing

about the impacts of these discharges on public health and the environment. In other

areas, regulations apply, but critics argue that they are not stringent enough to address

the problem — for example, with respect to standards for sewage discharges.

Environmental advocates have raised concerns about the adequacy of existing laws

for managing these wastes, and they contend that enforcement is weak. 

In 2000, Congress enacted legislation restricting cruise ship discharges in U.S.

navigable waters within the state of Alaska. California, Alaska, and Maine have

enacted state-specific laws concerning cruise ship pollution, and a few other states

have entered into voluntary agreements with industry to address management of

cruise ship discharges. Meanwhile, the cruise industry has voluntarily undertaken

initiatives to improve pollution prevention, by adopting waste management

guidelines and procedures and researching new technologies. Concerns about cruise

ship pollution raise issues for Congress in three broad areas: adequacy of laws and

regulations, research needs, and oversight and enforcement of existing requirements.

Legislation to regulate cruise ship discharges of sewage, graywater, and bilge water

nationally was introduced in the 109th Congress, but there was no further

congressional action. 

This report describes the several types of waste streams that cruise ships may

discharge and emit. It identifies the complex body of international and domestic laws

that address pollution from cruise ships. It then describes federal and state legislative

activity concerning cruise ships in Alaskan waters and activities in a few other states,

as well as current industry initiatives to manage cruise ship pollution. Issues for

Congress are discussed. 
Contents

Introduction ......................................................1

Cruise Ship Waste Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Applicable Laws and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

International Legal Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Domestic Laws and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Sewage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Graywater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Bilge Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Ballast Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Considerations of Geographic Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Alaskan Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Federal Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Alaska State Legislation and Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Other State Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Industry Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Issues for Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Laws and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Oversight and Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1

 Lloyd’s Maritime Information Services, on the website of the Maritime International

Secretaries Services, Shipping and World Trade Facts, at [http://www.marisec.org/

shippingfacts/keyfacts/]

2

 International Council of Cruise Lines, “The Cruise Industry, 2005 Economic Summary.”

3

 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Cruise Ship White Paper,” August 22, 2000, p.

3. Hereafter, EPA White Paper. 

Cruise Ship Pollution: Background, Laws

and Regulations, and Key Issues

Introduction

More than 46,000 commercial vessels — tankers, bulk carriers, container ships,

barges, and passenger ships — travel the oceans and other waters of the world,

carrying cargo and passengers for commerce, transport, and recreation. Their

activities are regulated and scrutinized in a number of respects by international

protocols and U.S. domestic laws, including those designed to protect against

discharges of pollutants that could harm marine resources, other parts of the ambient

environment, and human health. However, there are overlaps of some requirements,

gaps in other areas, geographic differences in jurisdiction based on differing

definitions, and questions about the adequacy of enforcement.

Public attention to the environmental impacts of the maritime industry has been

especially focused on the cruise industry, in part because its ships are highly visible

and in part because of the industry’s desire to promote a positive image. It represents

a relatively small fraction of the entire shipping industry worldwide. As of January

2008, passenger ships (which include cruise ships and ferries) composed about 12%

of the world shipping fleet.1

 The cruise industry is a significant and growing

contributor to the U.S. economy, providing more than $32 billion in total benefits

annually and generating more than 330,000 U.S. jobs,2 but also making the

environmental impacts of its activities an issue to many. Since 1980, the average

annual growth rate in the number of cruise passengers worldwide has been 8.4%, and

in 2005, cruises hosted an estimated 11.5 million passengers. Cruises are especially

popular in the United States. In 2005, U.S. ports handled 8.6 million cruise

embarkations (75% of global passengers), 6.3% more than in 2004. The worldwide

cruise ship fleet consists of more than 230 ships, and the majority are foreignflagged, with Liberia and Panama being the most popular flag countries.3

 Foreignflag cruise vessels owned by six companies account for nearly 95% of passenger

ships operating in U.S. waters. Each year, the industry adds new ships to the total

fleet, vessels that are bigger, more elaborate and luxurious, and that carry larger

numbers of passengers and crew. Over the past two decades, the average ship size

has been increasing at the rate of roughly 90 feet every five years. The average ship
CRS-2

4

 Bell, Tom, “Experts: Mega-birth Needed for Cruise Ships,” Portland Press Herald, Sept.

28, 2007.

5

 Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Department of Transportation, “Summary of Cruise

Ship Waste Streams.” 

6

 U.S. General Accounting Office, Marine Pollution: Progress Made to Reduce Marine

Pollution by Cruise Ships, but Important Issues Remain, GAO/RCED-00-48, February 2000.

70 pp. Hereafter, 2000 GAO Report. 

7

 Bluewater Network, Petition to the Administrator, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,

March 17, 2000. The petition was amended in 2000 to request that EPA also examine air

pollution from cruise ships; see discussion below (page 16).

entering the market from 2008 to 2011 will be more than 1,050 feet long and will

weigh more than 130,000 tons.4

To the cruise ship industry, a key issue is demonstrating to the public that

cruising is safe and healthy for passengers and the tourist communities that are

visited by their ships. Cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers and crew

have been compared to “floating cities,” in part because the volume of wastes

produced and requiring disposal is greater than that of many small cities on land.

During a typical one-week voyage, a large cruise ship (with 3,000 passengers and

crew) is estimated to generate 210,000 gallons of sewage; 1 million gallons of

graywater (wastewater from sinks, showers, and laundries); more than 130 gallons

of hazardous wastes; 8 tons of solid waste; and 25,000 gallons of oily bilge water.5

Those wastes, if not properly treated and disposed of, can pose risks to human health,

welfare, and the environment. Environmental advocates have raised concerns about

the adequacy of existing laws for managing these wastes, and suggest that

enforcement of existing laws is weak. 

A 2000 General Accounting Office (GAO) report focused attention on problems

of cruise vessel compliance with environmental requirements.6

 GAO found that

between 1993 and 1998, foreign-flag cruise ships were involved in 87 confirmed

illegal discharge cases in U.S. waters. A few of the cases included multiple illegal

discharge incidents occurring over the six-year period. GAO reviewed three major

waste streams (solids, hazardous chemicals, and oily bilge water) and concluded that

83% of the cases involved discharges of oil or oil-based products, the volumes of

which ranged from a few drops to hundreds of gallons. The balance of the cases

involved discharges of plastic or garbage. GAO judged that 72% of the illegal

discharges were accidental, 15% were intentional, and 13% could not be determined.

The 87 cruise ship cases represented 4% of the 2,400 illegal discharge cases by

foreign-flag ships (including tankers, cargo ships and other commercial vessels, as

well as cruise ships) confirmed during the six years studied by GAO. Although cruise

ships operating in U.S. waters have been involved in a relatively small number of

pollution cases, GAO said, several have been widely publicized and have led to

criminal prosecutions and multimillion-dollar fines.

In 2000, a coalition of 53 environmental advocacy groups petitioned the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to take regulatory action to address

pollution by cruise ships.7

 The petition called for an investigation of wastewater, oil,

and solid waste discharges from cruise ships. In response, EPA agreed to study
CRS-3

8

 EPA White Paper.

9

 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, “Draft Cruise Ship Discharge

Assessment Report,” EPA842-R-07-005, December 2007. Hereafter, EPA Draft Discharge

Assessment Report. See: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Draft Cruise Ship

Discharge Assessment Report, Notice of availability and request for public comments,”

Federal Register, vol. 72, no. 244, Dec. 20, 2007, p. 72353.

cruise ship discharges and waste management approaches. As part of that effort, in

2000 EPA issued a background document with preliminary information and

recommendations for further assessment through data collection and public

information hearings.8 Subsequently, in December 2007, the agency released a draft

cruise ship discharge assessment report as part of its response to the petition. This

report summarized findings of recent data collection activities (especially from cruise

ships operating in Alaskan waters). EPA expects to issue a completed report by the

end of 2008, and at that time will identify a range of options and alternatives to

address cruise ship waste streams.9

This report presents information on issues related to cruise ship pollution. It

begins by describing the several types of waste streams and contaminants that cruise

ships may generate and release. It identifies the complex body of international and

domestic laws that address pollution from cruise ships, as there is no single law in

this area. Some wastes are covered by international standards, some are subject to

U.S. law, and for some there are gaps in law, regulation, or possibly both. The report

then describes federal and state legislative activity concerning cruise ships in Alaskan

waters and recent activities in a few other states. Cruise ship companies have taken

a number of steps to prevent illegal waste discharges and have adopted waste

management plans and practices to improve their environmental operations.

Environmental critics acknowledge these initiatives, even as they have petitioned the

federal government to strengthen existing regulation of cruise ship wastes.

Environmental groups endorsed companion bills in the 109th Congress (the Clean

Cruise Ship Act, S. 793/H.R. 1636) that would have required stricter standards to

control wastewater discharges from cruise ships. Congress did not act on either bill.

Cruise Ship Waste Streams

Cruise ships generate a number of waste streams that can result in discharges

to the marine environment, including sewage, graywater, hazardous wastes, oily bilge

water, ballast water, and solid waste. They also emit air pollutants to the air and

water. These wastes, if not properly treated and disposed of, can be a significant

source of pathogens, nutrients, and toxic substances with the potential to threaten

human health and damage aquatic life. It is important, however, to keep these

discharges in some perspective, because cruise ships represent a small — although

highly visible — portion of the entire international shipping industry, and the waste

streams described here are not unique to cruise ships. However, particular types of

wastes, such as sewage, graywater, and solid waste, may be of greater concern for

cruise ships relative to other seagoing vessels, because of the large numbers of

passengers and crew that cruise ships carry and the large volumes of wastes that they

produce. Further, because cruise ships tend to concentrate their activities in specific
CRS-4

10 The Ocean Conservancy, “Cruise Control, A Report on How Cruise Ships Affect the

Marine Environment,” May 2002, p. 13. Hereafter, “Cruise Control.” 

11 EPA Draft Discharge Assessment Report, pp. 3-5 - 3-6.

12 Cruise Control, p. 15.

13 The Center for Environmental Leadership in Business, “A Shifting Tide, Environmental

Challenges and Cruise Industry Responses,” p. 14. Hereafter, “Shifting Tide.” 

coastal areas and visit the same ports repeatedly (especially Florida, California, New

York, Galveston, Seattle, and the waters of Alaska), their cumulative impact on a

local scale could be significant, as can impacts of individual large-volume releases

(either accidental or intentional).

Blackwater is sewage, wastewater from toilets and medical facilities, which can

contain harmful bacteria, pathogens, diseases, viruses, intestinal parasites, and

harmful nutrients. Discharges of untreated or inadequately treated sewage can cause

bacterial and viral contamination of fisheries and shellfish beds, producing risks to

public health. Nutrients in sewage, such as nitrogen and phosphorous, promote

excessive algal growth, which consumes oxygen in the water and can lead to fish

kills and destruction of other aquatic life. A large cruise ship (3,000 passengers and

crew) generates an estimated 15,000 to 30,000 gallons per day of blackwater waste.10

Graywater is wastewater from the sinks, showers, galleys, laundry, and

cleaning activities aboard a ship. It can contain a variety of pollutant substances,

including fecal coliform bacteria, detergents, oil and grease, metals, organics,

petroleum hydrocarbons, nutrients, food waste, and medical and dental waste.

Sampling done by EPA and the state of Alaska found that untreated graywater from

cruise ships can contain pollutants at variable strengths and that it can contain levels

of fecal coliform bacteria several times greater than is typically found in untreated

domestic wastewater.11 Graywater has potential to cause adverse environmental

effects because of concentrations of nutrients and other oxygen-demanding materials,

in particular. Graywater is typically the largest source of liquid waste generated by

cruise ships (90%-95% of the total). Estimates of graywater range from 30 to 85

gallons per day per person, or 90,000 to 255,000 gallons per day for a 3,000-person

cruise ship.12

Solid waste generated on a ship includes glass, paper, cardboard, aluminum and

steel cans, and plastics. It can be either non-hazardous or hazardous in nature. Solid

waste that enters the ocean may become marine debris, and it can then pose a threat

to marine organisms, humans, coastal communities, and industries that utilize marine

waters. Cruise ships typically manage solid waste by a combination of source

reduction, waste minimization, and recycling. However, as much as 75% of solid

waste is incinerated on board, and the ash typically is discharged at sea, although

some is landed ashore for disposal or recycling. Marine mammals, fish, sea turtles,

and birds can be injured or killed from entanglement with plastics and other solid

waste that may be released or disposed off of cruise ships. On average, each cruise

ship passenger generates at least two pounds of non-hazardous solid waste per day

and disposes of two bottles and two cans.13 With large cruise ships carrying several

thousand passengers, the amount of waste generated in a day can be massive. For a
CRS-5

14 Bluewater Network, “Cruising for Trouble: Stemming the Tide of Cruise Ship Pollution,”

March 2000, p. 5. Hereafter, “Cruising for Trouble.” A report prepared for an industry

group estimated that a 3,000-person cruise ship generates 1.1 million gallons of graywater

during a seven-day cruise. Don K. Kim, “Cruise Ship Waste Dispersion Analysis Report

on the Analysis of Graywater Discharge,” presented to the International Council of Cruise

Lines, September 14, 2000.

15 National Research Council, Committee on Shipboard Wastes, Clean Ships, Clean Ports,

Clean Oceans: Controlling Garbage and Plastic Wastes at Sea (National Academy Press,

1995), Table 2-3, pp. 38-39.

16 Ibid., p. 126.

17 “Shifting Tide,” p. 16.

large cruise ship, about 8 tons of solid waste are generated during a one-week

cruise.14 It has been estimated that 24% of the solid waste generated by vessels

worldwide (by weight) comes from cruise ships.15 Most cruise ship garbage is treated

on board (incinerated, pulped, or ground up) for discharge overboard. When garbage

must be off-loaded (for example, because glass and aluminum cannot be incinerated),

cruise ships can put a strain on port reception facilities, which are rarely adequate to

the task of serving a large passenger vessel (especially at non-North American

ports).16

Cruise ships produce hazardous wastes from a number of on-board activities

and processes, including photo processing, dry-cleaning, and equipment cleaning.

Types of waste include discarded and expired chemicals, medical waste, batteries,

fluorescent lights, and spent paints and thinners, among others. These materials

contain a wide range of substances such as hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons,

heavy metals, paint waste, solvents, fluorescent and mercury vapor light bulbs,

various types of batteries, and unused or outdated pharmaceuticals. Although the

quantities of hazardous waste generated on cruise ships are small, their toxicity to

sensitive marine organisms can be significant. Without careful management, these

wastes can find their way into graywater, bilge water, or the solid waste stream.

On a ship, oil often leaks from engine and machinery spaces or from engine

maintenance activities and mixes with water in the bilge, the lowest part of the hull

of the ship. Oil, gasoline, and byproducts from the biological breakdown of

petroleum products can harm fish and wildlife and pose threats to human health if

ingested. Oil in even minute concentrations can kill fish or have various sub-lethal

chronic effects. Bilge water also may contain solid wastes and pollutants containing

high amounts of oxygen-demanding material, oil and other chemicals. A typical

large cruise ship will generate an average of 8 metric tons of oily bilge water for each

24 hours of operation.17 To maintain ship stability and eliminate potentially

hazardous conditions from oil vapors in these areas, the bilge spaces need to be

flushed and periodically pumped dry. However, before a bilge can be cleared out and

the water discharged, the oil that has been accumulated needs to be extracted from

the bilge water, after which the extracted oil can be reused, incinerated, and/or offloaded in port. If a separator, which is normally used to extract the oil, is faulty or

is deliberately bypassed, untreated oily bilge water could be discharged directly into
CRS-6

18 Statement of Catherine Hazelwood, The Ocean Conservancy, “Ballast Water

Management: New International Standards and NISA Reauthorization,” Hearing, House

Transportation and Infrastructure Subcommittee on Water Resources and Environment,

108th Cong., 2nd sess., March 25, 2004.

19 David Pimentel, Lori Lach, Rodolfo Zuniga, and Doug Morrison, “Environmental and

Economic Costs Associated with Non-indigenous Species in the United States,” presented

at AAAS Conference, Anaheim, CA, January 24, 1999. 

20 68 Federal Register 9751, 9753, February 28, 2003.

the ocean, where it can damage marine life. A number of cruise lines have been

charged with environmental violations related to this issue in recent years.

Cruise ships, large tankers, and bulk cargo carriers use a tremendous amount of

ballast water to stabilize the vessel during transport. Ballast water is often taken on

in the coastal waters in one region after ships discharge wastewater or unload cargo,

and discharged at the next port of call, wherever more cargo is loaded, which reduces

the need for compensating ballast. Thus, it is essential to the proper functioning of

ships (especially cargo ships), because the water that is taken in compensates for

changes in the ship’s weight as cargo is loaded or unloaded, and as fuel and supplies

are consumed. However, ballast water discharge typically contains a variety of

biological materials, including plants, animals, viruses, and bacteria. These materials

often include non-native, nuisance, exotic species that can cause extensive ecological

and economic damage to aquatic ecosystems. Ballast water discharges are believed

to be the leading source of invasive species in U.S. marine waters, thus posing public

health and environmental risks, as well as significant economic cost to industries

such as water and power utilities, commercial and recreational fisheries, agriculture,

and tourism.18 Studies suggest that the economic cost just from introduction of pest

mollusks (zebra mussels, the Asian clam, and others) to U.S. aquatic ecosystems is

more than $6 billion per year.19 These problems are not limited to cruise ships, but

there is little cruise-industry specific data on the issue, and further study is needed to

determine cruise ships’ role in the overall problem of introduction of non-native

species by vessels.

Air pollution from cruise ships is generated by diesel engines that burn high

sulfur content fuel, producing sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and particulate matter,

in addition to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons. Diesel exhaust

has been classified by EPA as a likely human carcinogen. EPA recognizes that these

emissions from marine diesel engines contribute to ozone and carbon monoxide

nonattainment (i.e., failure to meet air quality standards), as well as adverse health

effects associated with ambient concentrations of particulate matter and visibility,

haze, acid deposition, and eutrophication and nitrophication of water.20 EPA

estimates that large marine diesel engines accounted for about 1.6% of mobile source

nitrogen oxide emissions and 2.8% of mobile source particulate emissions in the

United States in 2000. Contributions of marine diesel engines can be higher on a

port-specific basis. 

One source of environmental pressures on maritime vessels recently has come

from states and localities, as they assess the contribution of commercial marine

vessels to regional air quality problems when ships are docked in port. For instance,
CRS-7

21 Ibid., pp. 9751, 9756.

22 The majority of cruise ships are foreign-flagged, primarily in Liberia and Panama. Both

of these countries have ratified all six of the MARPOL annexes. For information, see

[http://www.imo.org/].

large marine diesel engines are believed to contribute 7% of mobile source nitrogen

oxide emissions in Baton Rouge/New Orleans. Ships can also have a significant

impact in areas without large commercial ports: they contribute about 37% of total

area nitrogen oxide emissions in the Santa Barbara area, and that percentage is

expected to increase to 61% by the year 2015.21 Again, there is little cruise-industry

specific data on this issue. They comprise only a small fraction of the world shipping

fleet, but cruise ship emissions may exert significant impacts on a local scale in

specific coastal areas that are visited repeatedly. Shipboard incinerators also burn

large volumes of garbage, plastics, and other waste, producing ash that must be

disposed of. Incinerators may release toxic emissions as well. 

Applicable Laws and Regulations

The several waste streams generated by cruise ships are governed by a number

of international protocols and U.S. domestic laws, regulations and standards, which

are described in this section, but there is no single law or regulation. Moreover, there

are overlaps in some areas of coverage, gaps in other areas, and differences in

geographic jurisdiction, based on applicable terms and definitions.

International Legal Regime

The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a body of the United Nations,

sets international maritime vessel safety and marine pollution standards. It consists

of representatives from 152 major maritime nations, including the United States. The

IMO implements the 1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution

from Ships, as modified by the Protocol of 1978, known as MARPOL 73/78. Cruise

ships flagged under countries that are signatories to MARPOL are subject to its

requirements, regardless of where they sail, and member nations are responsible for

vessels registered under their respective nationalities.22 Six Annexes of the

Convention cover the various sources of pollution from ships and provide an

overarching framework for international objectives, but they are not sufficient alone

to protect the marine environment from waste discharges, without ratification and

implementation by sovereign states.

! Annex I deals with regulations for the prevention of pollution by oil.

! Annex II details the discharge criteria and measures for the control

of pollution by noxious liquid substances carried in bulk.

! Annex III contains general requirements for issuing standards on

packing, marking, labeling, and notifications for preventing

pollution by harmful substances.

! Annex IV contains requirements to control pollution of the sea by

sewage. 
CRS-8

23 The 109th Congress also considered but did not enact legislation to implement the

standards in Annex VI, as part of H.R. 5681, the Coast Guard Authorization Act of 2006.

The House passed H.R. 5681 on September 28, 2006. Title V of the bill incorporated the

text of H.R. 5811, the MARPOL Annex VI Implementation Act of 2006, which was

separately approved by the House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee (H.Rept.

109-667). The Senate did not act on H.R. 5681 before the 109th Congress adjourned in

December 2006.

! Annex V deals with different types of garbage, including plastics,

and specifies the distances from land and the manner in which they

may be disposed of. 

! Annex VI sets limits on sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxide, and other

emissions from marine vessel operations and prohibits deliberate

emissions of ozone-depleting substances. 

In order for IMO standards to be binding, they must first be ratified by a total

number of member countries whose combined gross tonnage represents at least 50%

of the world’s gross tonnage, a process that can be lengthy. All six have been ratified

by the requisite number of nations; the most recent is Annex VI, which took effect

in May 2005. The United States has ratified all except Annex IV. The country where

a ship is registered (flag state) is responsible for certifying the ship’s compliance with

MARPOL’s pollution prevention standards. IMO also has established a large

number of other conventions, addressing issues such as ballast water management,

and the International Safety Management Code, with guidelines for passenger safety

and pollution prevention.

Each signatory nation is responsible for enacting domestic laws to implement

the convention and effectively pledges to comply with the convention, annexes, and

related laws of other nations. In the United States, the Act to Prevent Pollution from

Ships (APPS, 33 U.S.C. §§1905-1915) implements the provisions of MARPOL and

the annexes to which the United States is a party. The most recent U.S. action

concerning MARPOL occurred in April 2006, when the Senate approved Annex VI,

which regulates air pollution (Treaty Doc. 108-7, Exec. Rept. 109-13). Following

that approval, in March 2007, the House approved legislation to implement the

standards in Annex VI (H.R. 802), through regulations to be promulgated by EPA in

consultation with the U.S. Coast Guard.23 

APPS applies to all U.S.-flagged ships anywhere in the world and to all foreignflagged vessels operating in navigable waters of the United States or while at port

under U.S. jurisdiction. The Coast Guard has primary responsibility to prescribe and

enforce regulations necessary to implement APPS in these waters. The regulatory

mechanism established in APPS to implement MARPOL is separate and distinct

from the Clean Water Act and other federal environmental laws.

One of the difficulties in implementing MARPOL arises from the very

international nature of maritime shipping. The country that the ship visits can

conduct its own examination to verify a ship’s compliance with international

standards and can detain the ship if it finds significant noncompliance. Under the

provisions of the Convention, the United States can take direct enforcement action

under U.S. laws against foreign-flagged ships when pollution discharge incidents
CRS-9

24 2000 GAO Report, pp. 19-21.

occur within U.S. jurisdiction. When incidents occur outside U.S. jurisdiction or

jurisdiction cannot be determined, the United States refers cases to flag states, in

accordance with MARPOL. The 2000 GAO report documented that these

procedures require substantial coordination between the Coast Guard, the State

Department, and other flag states and that, even when referrals have been made, the

response rate from flag states has been poor.24

Domestic Laws and Regulations

In the United States, several federal agencies have some jurisdiction over cruise

ships in U.S. waters, but no one agency is responsible for or coordinates all of the

relevant government functions. The U.S. Coast Guard and EPA have principal

regulatory and standard-setting responsibilities, and the Department of Justice

prosecutes violations of federal laws. In addition, the Department of State represents

the United States at meetings of the IMO and in international treaty negotiations and

is responsible for pursuing foreign-flag violations. Other federal agencies have

limited roles and responsibilities. For example, the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, Department of Commerce) works with the

Coast Guard and EPA to report on the effects of marine debris. The Animal and Plant

Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is responsible for ensuring quarantine inspection

and disposal of food-contaminated garbage (these APHIS responsibilities are part of

the Department of Homeland Security). In some cases, states and localities have

responsibilities as well. This section describes U.S. laws and regulations that apply

to cruise ship discharges.

Sewage. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, or Clean Water Act

(CWA), is the principal U.S. law concerned with limiting polluting activity in the

nation’s streams, lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters. The act’s primary mechanism

for controlling pollutant discharges is the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination

System (NPDES) program, authorized in Section 402. In accordance with the

NPDES program, pollutant discharges from point sources — a term that includes

vessels — are prohibited unless a permit has been obtained. While sewage is defined

as a pollutant under the act, sewage from cruise ships and other vessels is exempt

from this statutory definition and is therefore exempt from the requirement to obtain

an NPDES permit. Further, EPA regulations implementing the NPDES permit

program provide that “discharges incidental to the normal operation of vessels” are

excluded from regulation and thus from permit requirements (40 CFR §122.3(a)).

However, a 2006 federal court ruling could result in changes to these regulations that

would remove the current permitting exemption (see discussion of “Ballast Water”

on page 14).

Marine Sanitation Devices. Section 312 of the Clean Water Act seeks to

address this gap by prohibiting the dumping of untreated or inadequately treated

sewage from vessels into the navigable waters of the United States (defined in the act

as within 3 miles of shore). Cruise ships are subject to this prohibition. It is

implemented jointly by EPA and the Coast Guard. Under Section 312, commercial

and recreational vessels with installed toilets are required to have marine sanitation
CRS-10

25 2000 GAO Report, pp. 34-35, 13.

26 The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296) transferred the entirety of the Coast

Guard from the Department of Transportation to the Department of Homeland Security. For

(continued...)

devices (MSDs), which are designed to prevent the discharge of untreated sewage.

EPA is responsible for developing performance standards for MSDs, and the Coast

Guard is responsible for MSD design and operation regulations and for certifying

MSD compliance with the EPA rules. MSDs are designed either to hold sewage for

shore-based disposal or to treat sewage prior to discharge. Beyond 3 miles, raw

sewage can be discharged. 

The Coast Guard regulations cover three types of MSDs (33 CFR Part 159).

Large vessels, including cruise ships, use either Type II or Type III MSDs. In Type

II MSDs, the waste is either chemically or biologically treated prior to discharge and

must meet limits of no more than 200 fecal coliform per 100 milliliters and no more

than 150 milligrams per liter of suspended solids. Type III MSDs store wastes and

do not treat them; the waste is pumped out later and treated in an onshore system or

discharged outside U.S. waters. Type I MSDs use chemicals to disinfect the raw

sewage prior to discharge and must meet a performance standard for fecal coliform

bacteria of not greater than 1,000 per 100 milliliters and no visible floating solids.

Type I MSDs are generally only found on recreational vessels or others under 65 feet

in length. The regulations, which have not been revised since 1976, do not require

ship operators to sample, monitor, or report on their effluent discharges. 

Critics point out a number of deficiencies with this regulatory structure as it

affects cruise ships and other large vessels. First, the MSD regulations only cover

discharges of bacterial contaminants and suspended solids, while the NPDES permit

program for other point sources typically regulates many more pollutants such as

chemicals, pesticides, heavy metals, oil, and grease that may be released by cruise

ships as well as land-based sources. Second, sources subject to NPDES permits must

comply with sampling, monitoring, recordkeeping, and reporting requirements, which

do not exist in the MSD rules. 

In addition, the Coast Guard, responsible for inspecting cruise ships and other

vessels for compliance with the MSD rules, has been heavily criticized for poor

enforcement of Section 312 requirements. In its 2000 report, the GAO said that Coast

Guard inspectors “rarely have time during scheduled ship examinations to inspect

sewage treatment equipment or filter systems to see if they are working properly and

filtering out potentially harmful contaminants.” GAO reported that a number of

factors limit the ability of Coast Guard inspectors to detect violations of

environmental law and rules, including the inspectors’ focus on safety, the large size

of a cruise ship, limited time and staff for inspections, and the lack of an element of

surprise concerning inspections.25 The Coast Guard carries out a wide range of

responsibilities that encompass both homeland security (ports, waterways, and

coastal security, defense readiness, drug and migrant interdiction) and non-homeland

security (search and rescue, marine environmental protection, fisheries enforcement,

aids to navigation). Since the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States, the

Coast Guard has focused more of its resources on homeland security activities.26 One
CRS-11

26 (...continued)

discussion, see archived CRS Report RS21125, Homeland Security: Coast Guard

Operations — Background and Issues for Congress.

27 EPA Draft Discharge Assessment Report, p. 2-13.

likely result is that less of the Coast Guard’s time and attention are available for

vessel inspections for MSD or other environmental compliance.

Annex IV of MARPOL was drafted to regulate sewage discharges from vessels.

It has entered into force internationally and would apply to cruise ships that are

flagged in ratifying countries, but because the United States has not ratified Annex

IV, it is not mandatory that ships follow it when in U.S. waters. However, its

requirements are minimal, even compared with U.S. rules for MSDs. Annex IV

requires that vessels be equipped with a certified sewage treatment system or holding

tank, but it prescribes no specific performance standards. Within three miles of

shore, Annex IV requires that sewage discharges be treated by a certified MSD prior

to discharge. Between three and 12 miles from shore, sewage discharges must be

treated by no less than maceration or chlorination; sewage discharges beyond 12

miles from shore are unrestricted. Vessels are permitted to meet alternative, less

stringent requirements when they are in the jurisdiction of countries where less

stringent requirements apply. In U.S. waters, cruise ships and other vessels must

comply with the regulations implementing Section 312 of the Clean Water Act.

On some cruise ships, especially many of those that travel in Alaskan waters,

sewage is treated using Advanced Wastewater Treatment (AWT) systems that

generally provide improved screening, treatment, disinfection, and sludge processing

as compared with traditional Type II MSDs. AWTs are believed to be very effective

in removing pathogens, oxygen demanding substances, suspended solids, oil and

grease, and particulate metals from sewage, but only moderately effective in

removing dissolved metals and nutrients (ammonia, nitrogen and phosphorous).27

No Discharge Zones. Section 312 has another means of addressing sewage

discharges, through establishment of no-discharge zones (NDZs) for vessel sewage.

A state may completely prohibit the discharge of both treated and untreated sewage

from all vessels with installed toilets into some or all waters over which it has

jurisdiction (up to 3 miles from land). To create a no-discharge zone to protect

waters from sewage discharges by cruise ships and other vessels, the state must apply

to EPA under one of three categories.

! NDZ based on the need for greater environmental protection, and the

state demonstrates that adequate pumpout facilities for safe and

sanitary removal and treatment of sewage from all vessels are

reasonably available. As of 2008, this category of designation has

been used for 61 areas representing part or all of the waters of 26

states, including a number of inland states.

! NDZ for special waters found to have a particular environmental

importance (e.g., to protect environmentally sensitive areas such as

shellfish beds or coral reefs); it is not necessary for the state to show

pumpout availability. This category of designation has been used
CRS-12

28 The 1988 Shore Protection Act (33 U.S.C. 2601-2603) prohibits vessels from transporting

municipal or commercial waste in U.S. coastal waters without a permit issued by the

Department of Transportation. It was intended to minimize trash, medical debris, and

potentially harmful materials from being deposited in U.S. coastal waters. However, its

provisions exclude waste generated by a vessel during normal operations and thus do not

apply to cruise ships.

twice (state waters within the Florida Keys National Marine

Sanctuary and the Boundary Waters Canoe area of Minnesota).

! NDZ to prohibit the discharge of sewage into waters that are

drinking water intake zones; it is not necessary for the state to show

pumpout availability. This category of designation has been used to

protect part of the Hudson River in New York.

Graywater. Under current federal law, graywater is not defined as a pollutant,

nor is it generally considered to be sewage. By regulation, EPA exempts discharges

incidental to the normal operation of a vessel, including graywater, from NPDES

permit requirements (40 CFR § 122.3); however, a federal court has ordered EPA to

set aside this rule (see discussion of Ballast Water, page 16). There are no separate

federal effluent standards for graywater discharges. The Clean Water Act only

includes graywater in its definition of sewage for the express purpose of regulating

commercial vessels in the Great Lakes, under the Section 312 MSD requirements.

Thus, currently graywater can be discharged by cruise ships anywhere — except in

the Great Lakes, where the Section 312 MSD rules apply, but those rules prescribe

limits only for bacterial contaminant content and total suspended solids in graywater.

Pursuant to a state law in Alaska, graywater must be treated prior to discharge into

that state’s waters (see discussion below, page 20).

Solid Waste. Cruise ship discharges of solid waste are governed by two laws.

Title I of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA, 33 U.S.C.

1402-1421) applies to cruise ships and other vessels and makes it illegal to transport

garbage from the United States for the purpose of dumping it into ocean waters

without a permit or to dump any material transported from a location outside the

United States into U.S. territorial seas or the contiguous zone (within 12 nautical

miles from shore) or ocean waters. EPA is responsible for issuing permits that

regulate the disposal of materials at sea (except for dredged material disposal, for

which the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is responsible). Beyond waters that are

under U.S. jurisdiction, no MPRSA permit is required for a cruise ship to discharge

solid waste. The routine discharge of effluent incidental to the propulsion of vessels

is explicitly exempted from the definition of dumping in the MPRSA.28

The Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships (APPS, 33 U.S.C. 1901-1915) and its

regulations, which implement U.S.-ratified provisions of MARPOL, also apply to

cruise ships. APPS prohibits the discharge of all garbage within 3 nautical miles of

shore, certain types of garbage within 12 nautical miles offshore, and plastic

anywhere. As described above, it applies to all vessels, whether seagoing or not,

regardless of flag, operating in U.S. navigable waters and the Exclusive Economic

Zone (EEZ). It is administered by the Coast Guard which carries out inspection

programs to insure the adequacy of port facilities to receive offloaded solid waste.
CRS-13

29 EPA Draft Discharge Assessment Report, pp. 6-4, 6-7.

30 EPA White Paper, p. 10.

31 “Cruising for Trouble,” p. 5.

Hazardous Waste. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA,

42 U.S.C. 6901-6991k) is the primary federal law that governs hazardous waste

management through a “cradle-to-grave” program that controls hazardous waste from

the point of generation until ultimate disposal. The act imposes management

requirements on generators, transporters, and persons who treat or dispose of

hazardous waste. Under this act, a waste is hazardous if it is ignitable, corrosive,

reactive, or toxic, or appears on a list of about 100 industrial process waste streams

and more than 500 discarded commercial products and chemicals. Treatment,

storage, and disposal facilities are required to have permits and comply with

operating standards and other EPA regulations. 

The owner or operator of a cruise ship may be a generator and/or a transporter

of hazardous waste, and thus subject to RCRA rules. Issues that the cruise ship

industry may face relating to RCRA include ensuring that hazardous waste is

identified at the point at which it is considered generated; ensuring that parties are

properly identified as generators, storers, treaters, or disposers; and determining the

applicability of RCRA requirements to each. Hazardous waste generated onboard

cruise ships are stored onboard until the wastes can be offloaded for recycling or

disposal in accordance with RCRA.29

A range of activities on board cruise ships generate hazardous wastes and toxic

substances that would ordinarily be presumed to be subject to RCRA. Cruise ships

are potentially subject to RCRA requirements to the extent that chemicals used for

operations such as ship maintenance and passenger services result in the generation

of hazardous wastes. However, it is not entirely clear what regulations apply to the

management and disposal of these wastes.30 RCRA rules that cover small-quantity

generators (those that generate more than 100 kilograms but less than 1,000

kilograms of hazardous waste per month) are less stringent than those for largequantity generators (generating more than 1,000 kilograms per month), and it is

unclear whether cruise ships are classified as large or small generators of hazardous

waste. Moreover, some cruise companies argue that they generate less than 100

kilograms per month and therefore should be classified in a third category, as

“conditionally exempt small-quantity generators,” a categorization that allows for

less rigorous requirements for notification, recordkeeping, and the like.31

A release of hazardous substances by a cruise ship or other vessel could also

theoretically trigger the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,

and Liability Act (CERCLA, or Superfund, 42 U.S.C. 9601-9675), but it does not

appear to have been used in response to cruise ship releases. CERCLA requires that

any person in charge of a vessel shall immediately notify the National Response

Center of any release of a hazardous substance (other than discharges in compliance

with a federal permit under the Clean Water Act or other environmental law) into

waters of the United States or the contiguous zone. Notification is required for

releases in amounts determined by EPA that may present substantial danger to the
CRS-14

public health, welfare, or the environment. EPA has identified 500 wastes as

hazardous substances under these provisions and issued rules on quantities that are

reportable, covering releases as small as 1 pound of some substances (40 CFR Part

302). CERCLA authorizes the President (acting through the Coast Guard in coastal

waters) to remove and provide for remedial action relating to the release. 

In addition to RCRA, hazardous waste discharges from cruise ships are subject

to Section 311 of the Clean Water Act, which prohibits the discharge of hazardous

substances in harmful quantities into or upon the navigable waters of the United

States, adjoining shorelines, or into or upon the waters of the contiguous zone.

Bilge Water. Section 311 of the Clean Water Act, as amended by the Oil

Pollution Act of 1990 (33 U.S.C. 2701-2720), applies to cruise ships and prohibits

discharge of oil or hazardous substances in harmful quantities into or upon U.S.

navigable waters, or into or upon the waters of the contiguous zone, or which may

affect natural resources in the U.S. EEZ (extending 200 miles offshore). Coast Guard

regulations (33 CFR §151.10) prohibit discharge of oil within 12 miles from shore,

unless passed through a 15-ppm oil water separator, and unless the discharge does

not cause a visible sheen. Beyond 12 miles, oil or oily mixtures can be discharged

while a vessel is proceeding en route and if the oil content without dilution is less

than 100 ppm. Vessels are required to maintain an Oil Record Book to record

disposal of oily residues and discharges overboard or disposal of bilge water.

In addition to Section 311 requirements, the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships

(APPS) implements MARPOL Annex I concerning oil pollution. APPS applies to

all U.S. flagged ships anywhere in the world and to all foreign flagged vessels

operating in the navigable waters of the United States, or while at a port under U.S.

jurisdiction. To implement APPS, the Coast Guard has promulgated regulations

prohibiting the discharge of oil or oily mixtures into the sea within 12 nautical miles

of the nearest land, except under limited conditions. However, because most cruise

lines are foreign registered and because APPS only applies to foreign ships within

U.S. navigable waters, the APPS regulations have limited applicability to cruise ship

operations. In addition, most cruise lines have adopted policies that restrict

discharges of machinery space waste within three miles from shore.

Ballast Water. Clean Water Act regulations currently exempt ballast water

discharges incidental to the normal operation of cruise ships and other vessels from

NPDES permit requirements (see above discussions concerning sewage and

graywater). Because of the growing problem of introduction of invasive species into

U.S. waters via ballast water, in January 1999, a number of conservation

organizations, fishing groups, native American tribes, and water agencies petitioned

EPA to repeal its 1973 regulation exempting ballast water discharge, arguing that

ballast water should be regulated as the “discharge of a pollutant” under the Clean

Water Act’s Section 402 permit program. EPA rejected the petition in September

2003, saying that the “normal operation” exclusion is long-standing agency policy,

to which Congress has acquiesced twice (in 1979 and 1996) when it considered the

issue of aquatic nuisance species in ballast water and did not alter EPA’s CWA
CRS-15

32 68 Federal Register 53165, September 9, 2003.

33 In 1990, Congress enacted the Non-indigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control

Act (16 U.S.C. 4701 et seq) to focus federal efforts on non-indigenous, invasive, aquatic

nuisance species, specifically when such species occur in ballast water discharges. That

law, as amended by the National Invasive Species Act of 1996, delegated authority to the

Coast Guard to establish a phased-in regulatory program for ballast water. 

34 For information, see CRS Report RL32344, Ballast Water Management to Combat

Invasive Species, by Eugene H. Buck.

interpretation.32 Further, EPA said that other ongoing federal activities related to

control of invasive species in ballast water are likely to be more effective than

changing the NPDES rules.33 Until recently, these efforts to limit ballast water

discharges by cruise ships and other vessels were primarily voluntary, except in the

Great Lakes. Since 2004, all vessels equipped with ballast water tanks must have a

ballast water management plan.34

After the denial of their administrative petition, the environmental groups filed

a lawsuit seeking to force EPA to rescind the regulation that exempts ballast water

discharges from CWA permitting. In March 2005, a federal district court ruled in

favor of the groups, and in September 2006, the court remanded the matter to EPA

with an order that the challenged regulation be set aside by September 30, 2008

(Northwest Environmental Advocates v. EPA, No. C 03-05760 SI (N.D.Cal,

September 18, 2006)). The district court rejected EPA’s contention that Congress

had previously acquiesced in exempting the “normal operation” of vessels from

CWA permitting and disagreed with EPA’s argument that the court’s two-year

deadline creates practical difficulties for the agency and the affected industry.

Significantly, while the focus of the environmental groups’ challenge was principally

to EPA’s permitting exemption for ballast water discharges, the court’s ruling — and

its mandate to EPA to rescind the exemption in 40 CFR §122.3(a) — applies fully

to other types of vessel discharges that are covered by the regulatory exemption,

including graywater and bilge water. 

The government has appealed the district court’s ruling, and the parties are

waiting for a ruling from the appeals court. However, in June 2007, EPA also

initiated steps seeking public comment on regulating ballast water discharges from

ships, an information-gathering prelude to a potential rulemaking in response to the

district court’s order. 

The 110th Congress has been considering ballast water discharge issues,

specifically legislation to provide a uniform national approach for addressing aquatic

nuisance species from ballast water under a program administered by the Coast

Guard (S. 1578, ordered reported by the Senate Commerce Committee on September

27, 2007, and H.R. 2830 (H.Rept. 110-338)). Some groups oppose S. 1578 and H.R.

2830, because the legislation would preempt states from enacting ballast water

management programs more stringent than Coast Guard requirements, while the

CWA does allow states to adopt requirements more stringent than in federal rules.

Also, while the CWA permits citizen suits to enforce the law, the pending legislation

includes no citizen suit provisions.
CRS-16

35 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Final Rule, Control of Emissions from New

Marine Compression-Ignition Engines at or Above 30 Liters Per Cylinder,” 68 Federal

Register 9746-9789, February 28, 2003.

36 For information, see [http://www.earthjustice.org/news/display.html?ID=53] and [http://

www.earthjustice.org/urgent/display.html?ID=158].

37 Annex VI, which came into force internationally in May 2005, also regulates ozonedepleting emissions, sulfur oxides, and shipboard incineration, but there are no restrictions

on particulate matter, hydrocarbons, or carbon monoxide.

38 Bluewater Network v. EPA, D.C.Cir., No. 03-1120, June 22, 2004.

Air Pollution. The Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.) is the principal

federal law that addresses air quality concerns. It requires EPA to set health-based

standards for ambient air quality, sets standards for the achievement of those

standards, and sets national emission standards for large and ubiquitous sources of

air pollution, including mobile sources. Cruise ships emissions were not regulated

until February 2003. At that time, EPA promulgated emission standards for new

marine diesel engines on large vessels (called Category 3 marine engines) such as

container ships, tankers, bulk carriers, and cruise ships flagged or registered in the

United States.35 The 2003 rule resulted from settlement of litigation brought by the

environmental group Bluewater Network after it had petitioned EPA to issue

stringent emission standards for large vessels and cruise ships.36 Standards in the rule

are equivalent to internationally negotiated standards set in Annex VI of the

MARPOL protocol for nitrogen oxides, which engine manufacturers currently meet,

according to EPA.37 Emissions from these large, primarily ocean-going vessels

(including container ships, tankers, bulk carriers, as well as cruise ships) had not

previously been subject to EPA regulation. The rule is one of several EPA

regulations establishing emissions standards for nonroad engines and vehicles, under

Section 213(a) of the Clean Air Act. Smaller marine diesel engines are regulated

under rules issued in 1996 and 1999. 

In the 2003 rule, EPA announced that over the next two years it would continue

to review issues and technology related to emissions from large marine vessel

engines in order to promulgate additional, more stringent emission standards for very

large marine engines and vessels by April 2007. Addressing long-term standards in

a future rulemaking, EPA said, could facilitate international efforts through the IMO

(since the majority of ships used in international commerce are flagged in other

nations), while also permitting the United States to proceed, if international standards

are not adopted in a timely manner. Environmental groups criticized EPA for

excluding foreign-flagged vessels that enter U.S. ports from the marine diesel engine

rules and challenged the 2003 rules in federal court. The rules were upheld in a

ruling issued June 22, 2004.38 EPA said that it will consider including foreign

vessels in the future rulemaking to consider more stringent standards. 

In April 2007, EPA announced an extension of the deadline that had been

announced in 2003 for new Category 3 marine diesel engine standards — until

December 17, 2009. EPA explained that more time was needed to assess advanced

emission control technologies and to coordinate with the IMO. Most recently, EPA

published an Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking seeking public comment on
CRS-17

39 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Control of Emissions from New Marine

Compression-Ignition Engines at or Above 30 Liters per Cylinder; Proposed Rule,” Federal

Register, vol. 72, no. 235, Dec. 7, 2007, pp. 69521-69552.

the scope of the rules that the agency should propose for a second tier of Category 3

engines.39 Some groups are displeased with EPA’s delay, and in response, legislation

has been introduced in the 110th Congress that would set specific standards and

deadlines to limit the sulfur content of fuel used by U.S. and foreign-flagged marine

vessels when they enter or leave U.S. ports, and to require advanced pollution

controls for other air emissions from such marine vessels (S. 1499/H.R. 2548).

Considerations of Geographic Jurisdiction. The various laws and

regulations described here apply to different geographic areas, depending on the

terminology used. For example, the Clean Water Act treats navigable waters, the

contiguous zone, and the ocean as distinct entities. The term “navigable waters” is

defined to mean the waters of the United States, including the territorial seas (33

U.S.C. §1362(7)). In turn, the territorial seas are defined in that act as extending a

distance of 3 miles seaward from the baseline (33 U.S.C. §1362(8)); the baseline

generally means the land or shore. In 1988, President Reagan signed a proclamation

(Proc. No. 5928, December 27, 1988, 54 Federal Register 777) providing that the

territorial sea of the United States extends to 12 nautical miles from the U.S.

baseline. However, that proclamation had no effect on the geographic reach of the

Clean Water Act.

The contiguous zone is defined in the CWA to mean the entire zone established

by the United States under Article 24 of the Convention of the Territorial Sea and the

Contiguous Zone (33 U.S.C. §1362(9)). That convention defines “contiguous zone”

as extending from the baseline from which the territorial sea is measured to not

beyond 12 miles. In 1999, President Clinton signed a proclamation (Proc. No. 7219

of August 2, 1999, 64 Federal Register 48701) giving U.S. authorities the right to

enforce customs, immigration, or sanitary laws at sea within 24 nautical miles from

the baseline, doubling the traditional 12-mile width of the contiguous zone. As with

the 1988 presidential proclamation, this proclamation did not amend any statutory

definitions (as a general matter, a presidential proclamation cannot amend a statute).

Thus, for purposes of the Clean Water Act, the territorial sea remains 3 miles wide,

and the contiguous zone extends from 3 to 12 miles. Under CERCLA, “navigable

waters” means waters of the United States, including the territorial seas (42 U.S.C.

§9601(15)), and that law incorporates the Clean Water Act’s definitions of “territorial

seas” and “contiguous zone” (42 U.S.C. §9601(30)).

The CWA defines the “ocean” as any portion of the high seas beyond the

contiguous zone (33 U.S.C. §1362(10)). In contrast, the MPRSA defines “ocean

waters” as the open seas lying seaward beyond the baseline from which the territorial

sea is measured, as provided for in the Convention of the Territorial Sea and the

Contiguous Zone (33 U.S.C. §1402(b)). 

Limits of jurisdiction are important because they define the areas where specific

laws and rules apply. For example, the Clean Water Act MSD standards apply to

sewage discharges from vessels into or upon the navigable waters, and Section 402
CRS-18

40 For an explanation of these terms, see [http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/

Statute%20mile].

41 In 2003, the number of cruise ship passengers in Southeast Alaska was about 800,000,

with tens of thousands of crew, in addition. By comparison, the state’s population is

approximately 650,000. Roughly 95% of the current cruise ship traffic is concentrated in

Southeast Alaska, a region with a population of approximately 73,000 people. Alaska

Department of Environmental Conservation, Commercial Passenger Vessel Environmental

Compliance Program, “Assessment of Cruise Ship and Ferry Wastewater Impacts in

Alaska,” February 9, 2004, p. 8. Hereafter, “Assessment of Impacts in Alaska.” 

NPDES permits are required for point source discharges (excluding vessels) into the

navigable waters. Section 311 of the CWA, as amended by the Oil Pollution Act,

addresses discharges of oil or hazardous substances into or upon the navigable waters

of the United States or the waters of the contiguous zone. Provisions of the Act to

Prevent Pollution from Ships (APPS, 33 U.S.C. §§1901-1915) concerning discharges

of oil and noxious substances apply to navigable waters. Other provisions of that

same act concerning garbage and plastics apply to navigable waters or the EEZ, but

the term “navigable waters” is not defined in APPS. The MPRSA regulates ocean

dumping within the area extending 12 nautical miles seaward from the baseline and

regulates transport of material by U.S.-flagged vessels for dumping into ocean

waters. 

Further complicating jurisdictional considerations is the fact that the Clean

Water Act refers to these distances from shore in terms of miles, without other

qualification, which is generally interpreted to mean an international mile or statute

mile. APPS, the MPRSA, and the two presidential proclamations refer to distances

in terms of nautical miles from the baseline. These two measures are not identical:

a nautical mile is a unit of distance used primarily at sea and in aviation; it equals

6,080 feet and is 15% longer than an international or statute mile.40

Alaskan Activities

In Alaska, where tourism and commercial fisheries are key contributors to the

economy, cruise ship pollution has received significant attention. After the state

experienced a three-fold increase in the number of cruise ship passengers visits

during the 1990s,41 concern by Alaska Natives and other groups over impacts of

cruise ship pollution on marine resources began to increase. In one prominent

example of environmental violations, in July 1999, Royal Caribbean Cruise Lines

entered a federal criminal plea agreement involving total penalties of $6.5 million for

violations in Alaska, including knowingly discharging oil and hazardous substances

(including dry-cleaning and photo processing chemicals). The company admitted to

a fleet-wide practice of discharging oil-contaminated bilge water. The Alaska

penalties were part of a larger $18 million total federal plea agreement involving

environmental violations in multiple locations, including Florida, New York, and

California.

Public concern about the Royal Caribbean violations led the state to initiate a

program in December 1999 to identify cruise ship waste streams. Voluntary

sampling of large cruise ships in 2000 indicated that waste treatment systems on most
CRS-19

42 As part of its efforts to develop these vessel discharge standards, in the summer of 2004

EPA sampled wastewater from four large cruise ships operating in Alaska waters in order

to evaluate the performance of various treatment systems. Results of this sampling are

available at [http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/cruise_ships/results.html.

43 66 Federal Register 38926, July 26, 2001.

ships did not function well and discharges greatly exceeded applicable U.S. Coast

Guard standards for Type II MSDs. Fecal coliform levels sampled during that period

averaged 12.8 million colonies per 100 milliliters in blackwater and 1.2 million in

graywater, far in excess of the Coast Guard standard of 200 fecal coliforms per 100

milliliters.

Federal Legislation. Concurrent with growing regional interest in these

problems, attention to the Alaska issues led to passage of federal legislation in

December 2000 (Certain Alaskan Cruise Ship Operations, Division B, Title XIV of

the Miscellaneous Appropriations Bill, H.R. 5666, in the Consolidated

Appropriations Act, 2001 (P.L. 106-554); 33 U.S.C. 1901 Note). This law

established standards for vessels with 500 or more overnight passengers and

generally prohibited discharge of untreated sewage and graywater in navigable waters

of the United States within the state of Alaska. It authorized EPA to promulgate

standards for sewage and graywater discharges from cruise ships in these waters.42

Until such time as EPA issues regulations, cruise ships may discharge treated sewage

wastes in Alaska waters only while traveling at least 6 knots and while at least 1

nautical mile from shore, provided that the discharge contains no more than 200 fecal

coliforms per 100 ml and no more than 150 mg/l total suspended solids (the same

limits prescribed in federal regulations for Type II MSDs). 

The law also allows for discharges of treated sewage and graywater inside of

one mile from shore and at speeds less than 6 knots (thus including stationary

discharges while a ship is at anchor) for vessels with systems that can treat sewage

and graywater to a much stricter standard. Such vessels must meet these minimum

effluent standards: no more than 20 fecal coliforms per 100 ml, no more than 30

mg/l of total suspended solids, and total residual chlorine concentrations not to

exceed 10 mg/l. The legislation requires sampling, data collection, and recordkeeping

by vessel operators to facilitate Coast Guard oversight and enforcement. Regulations

to implement the federal law were issued by the U.S. Coast Guard in July 2001 and

became effective immediately upon publication.43 The regulations stipulate

minimum sampling and testing procedures and provide for administrative and

criminal penalties for violations of the law, as provided in the legislation.

Pursuant to Title IV, EPA carried out a multi-year project to determine whether

revised and/or additional standards for sewage and graywater discharges from large

cruise ships operating in Alaska are warranted. In particular, EPA sampled

wastewater from four cruise ships that operated in Alaska during the summers of

2004 and 2005 to characterize graywater and sewage generated onboard and to

evaluate the performance of various treatment systems. Much of the information

collected through this effort is summarized in the 2007 Draft Cruise Ship Discharge

Assessment Report.
CRS-20

44 “Assessment of Impacts in Alaska,” pp. 33-57.

In the 109th Congress, the House approved legislation, H.R. 5681, with a

provision (Section 410) directing the Coast Guard to conduct a demonstration project

on the methods and best practices of the use of smokestack scrubbers on cruise ships

that operate in the Alaska cruise trade. The Senate did not act on H.R. 5681 before

the 109th Congress adjourned in December 2006.

Alaska State Legislation and Initiatives. Building on the federal

legislation enacted in 2000, the state of Alaska enacted its own law in June 2001 (AS

46.03.460-AS 46.03.490). The state law sets standards and sampling requirements

for the underway discharge of blackwater in Alaska that are identical to the

blackwater/sewage standards in the federal law. However, because of the high fecal

coliform counts detected in graywater in 2000, the state law also extends the effluent

standards to discharges of graywater. Sampling requirements for all ships took effect

in 2001, as did effluent standards for blackwater discharges by large cruise ships

(defined as providing overnight accommodations to 250 or more). Effluent standards

for graywater discharges by large vessels took effect in 2003. Small ships (defined

as providing overnight accommodations for 50 to 249 passengers) were allowed three

years to come into compliance with all effluent standards. The law also established

a scientific advisory panel to evaluate the effectiveness of the law’s implementation

and to advise the state on scientific matters related to cruise ship impacts on the

Alaskan environment and public health.

In February 2004, the state reported on compliance with the federal and state

requirements for the years 2001-2003.44 According to the state, the federal and state

standards have prompted large ships to either install advanced wastewater treatment

systems that meet the effluent standards or to manage wastes by holding all of their

wastewater for discharge outside of Alaskan waters (beyond 3 miles from shore). As

of 2003, the majority of large ships (56%) had installed advanced technology

(compared with 8% that had done so in 2001), while the remaining 44% discharge

outside of Alaska waters. As a result, the quality of wastewater discharged from

large ships has improved dramatically, according to the state: the majority of

conventional and toxic pollutants that ships must sample for were not detected, and

test results indicate that wastewater from large ships with advanced wastewater

treatment systems does not pose a risk to aquatic organisms or to human health, even

during stationary discharge.

Small ships, however, had not installed new wastewater treatment systems, and

the effluent quality has remained relatively constant, with discharge levels for several

pollutants regularly exceeding state water quality standards. In particular, test results

indicated that concentrations of free chlorine, fecal coliform, copper, and zinc from

stationary smaller vessels pose some risk to aquatic life and also to human health in

areas where aquatic life is harvested for raw consumption.

In addition to the state’s 2001 action, in August 2006 Alaska voters approved

a citizen initiative requiring cruise lines to pay the state a $50 head tax for each

passenger and a corporate income tax, increasing fines for wastewater violations, and

mandating new environmental regulations for cruise ships (such as a state permit for
CRS-21

all discharges of treated wastewater). Revenues from the taxes will go to local

communities affected by tourism and into public services and facilities used by cruise

ships. Supporters of the initiative contend that the cruise industry does not pay

enough in taxes to compensate for its environmental harm to the state and for the

services it uses. Opponents argued that the initiative would hurt Alaska’s

competitiveness for tourism.

Other State Activities 

Activity to regulate or prohibit cruise ship discharges also has occurred in

several other states. 

In April 2004, the state of Maine enacted legislation governing discharges of

graywater or mixed blackwater/graywater into coastal waters of the state (Maine LD.

1158). The legislation applies to large cruise ships (with overnight accommodations

for 250 or more passengers) and allows such vessels into state waters after January

1, 2006, only if the ships have advanced wastewater treatment systems, comply with

discharge and recordkeeping requirements under the federal Alaska cruise ship law,

and get a permit from the state Department of Environmental Protection. Under the

law, prior to 2006, graywater dischargers were allowed if the ship operated a

treatment system conforming to requirements for continuous discharge systems under

the Alaska federal and state laws. In addition, the legislation required the state to

apply to EPA for designation of up to 50 No Discharge Zones, in order that Maine

may gain federal authorization to prohibit blackwater discharges into state waters.

EPA approved the state’s NDZ request for Casco Bay in June 2006.

California enacted three bills in 2004. One bars cruise ships from discharging

treated wastewater while in the state’s waters (Calif. A.B. 2672). Another prohibits

vessels from releasing graywater (Calif. A.B. 2093), and the third measure prevents

cruise ships from operating waste incinerators (Calif. A.B. 471). Additionally, in

2003 California enacted a law that bans passenger ships from discharging sewage

sludge and oil bilge water (Calif. A.B. 121), as well as a bill that prohibits vessels

from discharging hazardous wastes from photo-processing and dry cleaning

operations into state waters (Calif. A.B. 906). Another measure was enacted in 2006:

California S.B. 497 requiring the state to adopt ballast water performance standards

by January 2008 and setting specific deadlines for the removal of different types of

species from ballast water, mandating that ship operators remove invasive species

(including bacteria) by the year 2020.

Several states, including Florida, Washington, and Hawaii, have entered into

memoranda of agreement with the industry (through the International Council of

Cruise Lines and related organizations) providing that cruise ships will adhere to

certain practices concerning waste minimization, waste reuse and recycling, and

waste management. For example, under a 2001 agreement between industry and the

state of Florida, cruise lines must eliminate wastewater discharges in state waters

within 4 nautical miles off the coast of Florida, report hazardous waste off-loaded in

the United States by each vessel on an annual basis, and submit to environmental

inspections by the U.S. Coast Guard. 
CRS-22

45 Washington State Department of Ecology, Water Quality Program, “Focus on: Cruise

Ship Discharges. Draft — Memorandum of Understanding (MOU),” April 10, 2004, p. 2.

46 State of Washington. Department of Ecology. “2004 Assessment of Cruise Ship

Environmental Effects in Washington.” January 2005. 22 p.

47 “Cruise Control,” p. 25.

Similarly, in April 2004 the Washington Department of Ecology, Northwest

Cruise Ship Association, and Port of Seattle signed a memorandum of understanding

(MOU) that would allow cruise ships to discharge wastewater treated with advanced

wastewater treatment systems into state waters and would prohibit the discharge of

untreated wastewater and sludge. Environmental advocates are generally critical of

such voluntary agreements, because they lack enforcement and penalty provisions.

States respond that while the Clean Water Act limits a state’s ability to control cruise

ship discharges, federal law does not bar states from entering into voluntary

agreements that have more rigorous requirements.45 In January 2005 the Department

of Ecology reported that cruise ships visiting the state during the 2004 sailing season

mostly complied with the MOU to stop discharging untreated wastewater, leading to

some improvement in management of wastes. Although enforcement of what is

essentially a voluntary agreement is difficult, the state argues that having something

in place to protect water quality, while not lessening the state’s authority, is

beneficial.46

Industry Initiatives 

Pressure from environmental advocates, coupled with the industry’s strong

desire to promote a positive image, have led the cruise ship industry to respond with

several initiatives. In 2001, members of the International Council of Cruise Lines

(ICCL), which represents 16 of the world’s largest cruise lines, adopted a set of waste

management practices and procedures for their worldwide operations building on

regulations of the IMO and U.S. EPA. The guidelines generally require graywater

and blackwater to be discharged only while a ship is underway and at least 4 miles

from shore and require that hazardous wastes be recycled or disposed of in

accordance with applicable laws and regulations. 

Twelve major cruise line companies also have implemented Safety Management

System (SMS) plans for developing enhanced wastewater systems and increased

auditing oversight. These SMS plans are certified in accordance with the IMO’s

International Safety Management Code. The industry also is working with

equipment manufacturers and regulators to develop and test technologies in areas

such as lower emission turbine engines and ballast water management for elimination

of non-native species. Environmental groups commend industry for voluntarily

adopting improved management practices but also believe that enforceable standards

are preferable to voluntary standards, no matter how well intentioned.47

The ICCL joined with the environmental group Conservation International (CI)

to form the Ocean Conservation and Tourism Alliance to work on a number of

issues. In December 2003 they announced conservation efforts in four areas to

protect biodiversity in coastal areas: improving technology for wastewater
CRS-23

48 EPA White Paper, p. 16.

49 “Assessment of Impacts in Alaska,” p. 12.

management aboard cruise ships, working with local governments to protect the

natural and cultural assets of cruise destinations, raising passenger and crew

awareness and support of critical conservation issues, and educating vendors to

lessen the environmental impacts of products from cruise ship suppliers. Because

two-thirds of the top cruise destinations in the world are located in the Caribbean and

Mediterranean, two important biodiversity regions, in March 2006 ICCL and CI

announced a joint initiative to develop a map integrating sensitive marine areas into

cruise line navigational charts, with the goal of protecting critical marine and coastal

ecosystems.

In May 2004, Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. announced plans to retrofit all

vessels in its 29-ship fleet with advanced wastewater treatment technology by 2008,

becoming the first cruise line to commit to doing so completely. The company had

been the focus of efforts by the environmental group Oceana to pledge to adopt

measures that will protect the ocean environment and that could serve as a model for

others in the cruise ship industry, in part because of the company’s efforts to alter its

practices following federal enforcement actions in the 1990s for environmental

violations that resulted in RCCL paying criminal fines that totaled $27 million.

Issues for Congress

Concerns about cruise ship pollution raise issues for Congress in three broad

areas: adequacy of laws and regulations, research needs, and oversight and

enforcement of existing programs and requirements. Attention to these issues is

relatively recent, and more assessment is needed of existing conditions and whether

current steps (public and private) are adequate. Bringing the issues to national

priority sufficient to obtain resources that will address the problems is a challenge.

Laws and Regulations. A key issue is whether the several existing U.S.

laws, international protocols and standards, state activities, and industry initiatives

described in this report adequately address management of cruise ship pollution, or

whether legislative changes are needed to fill in gaps, remedy exclusions, or

strengthen current requirements. As EPA noted in its 2000 white paper, certain

cruise ship waste streams such as oil and solid waste are regulated under a

comprehensive set of laws and regulations, but others, such as graywater, are

excluded or treated in ways that appear to leave gaps in coverage.48 Graywater is one

particular area of interest, since investigations, such as sampling by state of Alaska

officials, have found substantial contamination of cruise ship graywater from fecal

coliform, bacteria, heavy metals, and dissolved plastics. State officials were

surprised that graywater from ships’ galley and sink waste streams tested higher for

fecal coliform than did the ships’ sewage lines.49 One view advocating strengthened

requirements came from the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. In its 2004 final

report, the Commission advocated clear, uniform requirements for controlling the

discharge of wastewater from large passenger vessels, as well as consistent
CRS-24

50 U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, “An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century,” September

2004, p. 243. 

interpretation and enforcement of those requirements. It recommended that

Congress establish a new statutory regime that should include:

! uniform discharge standards and waste management procedures.

! thorough recordkeeping requirements to track the waste management

process.

! required sampling, testing, and monitoring by vessel operators using

uniform protocols

! flexibility and incentives to encourage industry investment in

innovative treatment technologies.50

A proposal reflecting some of these concepts, the Clean Cruise Ship Act, was

introduced in the 109th Congress as S. 793 (Durbin) and H.R. 1636 (Farr), but

Congress did not act on either bill. The bills were free-standing legislation that

would not have amended any current law, nor ratified Annex IV of MARPOL. The

legislation would have prohibited cruise vessels entering a U.S. port from discharging

sewage, graywater, or bilge water into waters of the United States, including the

Great Lakes, except in compliance with prescribed effluent limits and management

standards. It further would have directed EPA and the Coast Guard to promulgate

effluent limits for sewage and graywater discharges from cruise vessels that were no

less stringent than the more restrictive standards under the existing federal Alaska

cruise ship law described above. It would have required cruise ships to treat

wastewater wherever they operate and authorized broadened federal enforcement

authority, including inspection, sampling, and testing. Environmental advocates

supported this legislation. Industry groups argued that it targeted an industry that

represents only a small percentage of the world’s ships and that environmental

standards of the industry, including voluntary practices, already meet or exceed

current international and U.S. regulations.

As noted above, some states have passed legislation to regulate cruise ship

discharges. If this state-level activity increases, Congress could see a need to develop

federal legislation that would harmonize differences in the states’ approaches.

Another issue for Congress is the status of EPA’s efforts to manage or regulate

cruise ship wastes. As discussed previously, in 2000 Congress authorized EPA to

issue standards for sewage and graywater discharges from large cruise ships

operating in Alaska. The agency has been collecting information and assessing the

need for additional standards, beyond those provided in P.L. 106-554, but has not yet

proposed any rules. In December 2007, EPA released a Draft Cruise Ship Discharge

Assessment Report that builds on the 2000 White Paper and partially responds to the

2000 petition by Bluewater Network and other groups that seek to force EPA to

address cruise ship pollution (see page 2). The draft report examines five cruise ship

waste streams (sewage, graywater, oil bilge water, solid waste, and hazardous waste)

and discusses how the waste streams are managed and current actions by the federal

government to address the waste streams. However, while the draft report

summarizes available information, it does not include recommendations or options
CRS-25

51 EPA Draft Cruise Ship Discharge Assessment Report, pp. 2-36 - 2-39.

52 U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, “An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century,” September

2004, p. 249.

to address management of cruise ship wastes. A final report, expected at the end of

2008, could include such alternatives. 

Other related issues of interest could include harmonizing the differences

presented in U.S. laws for key jurisdictional terms as they apply to cruise ships and

other types of vessels; providing a single definition of “cruise ship,” which is defined

variously in federal and state laws and rules, with respect to gross tonnage of ships,

number of passengers carried, presence of overnight passenger accommodations, or

primary purpose of the vessel; or requiring updating of existing regulations to reflect

improved technology (such as the MSD rules that were issued in 1976).

Research. Several areas of research might help improve understanding of the

quantities of waste generated by cruise ships, impacts of discharges and emissions,

and the potential for new control technologies. In the 2007 Draft Cruise Ship

Discharge Assessment report, EPA stated that it is evaluating technologies for the

treatment of sewage and graywater, including some now used for land-based

treatment that could be adapted for shipboard application, and anticipates making

these analyses publicly available later in 2008.51 

The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy noted in its 2004 final report that

research can help identify the degree of harm represented by vessel pollution and can

assist in prioritizing limited resources to address the most significant threats. The

commission identified several directions for research by the Coast Guard, EPA,

NOAA, and other appropriate entities on the fates and impacts of vessel pollution:52

! Processes that govern the transport of pollutants in the marine

environment.

! Small passenger vessel practices, including the impacts of stationary

discharges.

! Disposal options for concentrated sludge resulting from advanced

sewage treatment on large passenger vessels.

! Cumulative impacts of commercial and recreational vessel pollution

on particularly sensitive ecosystems, such as coastal areas with low

tidal exchange and coral reef systems.

! Impacts of vessel air emissions, particularly in ports and inland

waterways where the surrounding area is already having difficulty

meeting air quality standards.

Oversight and Enforcement. The 2000 GAO report documented — and

EPA’s 2000 cruise ship white paper acknowledged — that existing laws and

regulations may not be adequately enforced or implemented. GAO said there is need

for monitoring of the discharges from cruise ships in order to evaluate the

effectiveness of current standards and management. GAO also said that increased

federal oversight of cruise ships by the Coast Guard and other agencies is needed

concerning maintenance and operation of pollution prevention equipment, falsifying
CRS-26

53 2000 GAO Report, p. 34.

54 U.S. General Accounting Office, Coast Guard: Relationship between Resources Used and

Results Achieved Needs to be Clearer, GAO-04-432, March 2004. Also see CRS Report

RS21125, Homeland Security: Coast Guard Operations — Background and Issues for

Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.

of oil record books (which are required for compliance with MARPOL), and analysis

of records to verify proper off-loading of garbage and oily sludge to onshore disposal

facilities.53

The Coast Guard has primary enforcement responsibility for many of the federal

programs concerning cruise ship pollution. A key oversight and enforcement issue

is the adequacy of the Coast Guard’s resources to support its multiple homeland and

non-homeland security missions. The resource question as it relates to vessel

inspections was raised even before the September 11 terrorist attacks, in the GAO’s

2000 report. The same question has been raised since then, in light of the Coast

Guard’s expanded responsibilities for homeland security and resulting shift in

operations, again by the GAO and others.54 

In its 2000 report, GAO also found that the process for referring cruise ship

violations to other countries does not appear to be working, either within the Coast

Guard or internationally, and GAO recommended that the Coast Guard work with the

IMO to encourage member countries to respond when pollution cases are referred to

them and that the Coast Guard make greater efforts to periodically follow up on

alleged pollution cases occurring outside U.S. jurisdiction.