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# 36)11-1-15 8 Docket Number: 

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# TRANSPORT AND DISTRIBUTIO N IN A WATERSHE D

ECOSYSTEM

L. L. Getz Departmen t

o f Ecology , Ethology , an dEvolutio n University o

f Illinoi s G. L. Rolfe Departmen t

o f Forestr y University o

f Illinoi s

tf • » 

## h J*V 

### ten* A. W. Haney

Departmen t

o f Botan y University o

f Illinoi s R. W. Larimore an dJ . W. McNumey Illinoi s Stat e Natura l History Surve y

H. V . Leiand U.S . Geological Surve y P. W. Price Departmen t

o f Entomolog y University o

f Illinoi s R. L. Wortman Departmen t

o f Civi l Engineerin g University o

f Connecticu t J . L . Hudson Departmen t

o f Chemica l Engineerin g University o

f Virgini a R. L. Solomon an dK. A. Reinbold Institut e fo

r Environmenta l Studie s Universit y o

f Illinoi s

^s,r.

ft >

ts. INTRODUCTION Watershed s ar e discret e unit s tha t provid e alogi

ca l bas e fo r input-outpu t

studies
. A majo r

advantag e i s tha t streamflow , alon g wit

h dissolve dan dsus pende dmatter , i s route dthroug h asingl e exit
. Thu s monitorin g fo r

substance s tha t

hav e eithe r

soil o r wate r a s majo r sink s i s greatl y simplified
. Becaus e o f thes e advantages , a

n 8 6 mi 2 watershe dwa s chose n b y th e Universit y o

f Illinoi s fo r

lea dtranspor t

an d distributio n studies , (fig
. 6-1 ) Th e predominantl y ag ricultura l watershe dlie s primaril y t o th e north o f Champaign-Urbana ; however , i t include s abou t

9 0 percen t o f th e metropolita n are awith approximatel y 100,00 0 inhabitants
. Th e rura l portio n o

f th e watershe di s draine db y th e Salin e Branc h o

f th e Vermillio n River , an dth e urba n portio n b y th e Boneyar dCreek
. Th e stream s joi n o n th e eas t

edg e o f Urban aan dflow fro mth e syste mt o th e east . Th e majo r crop s ar e cor n an d soybeans
. Woodlands , pasture , an dwastelan d(suc h a s railroa drights-of-way an dstrea mmargins ) ar e als o include din th e watershe darea . Th e objective s o

f th e stud y include d(1 ) character

izin g th e input , accumulation , an doutpu t o f lead fro mautomobil e source s i n atypica l midwester n ecosystem ; 2) understandin g th e mechanisms con trollin g fluxes betwee n syste mcomponents : an d(3 ) •-Samplin g Station s FIGUR E 6-1.—Ma p o f Salin e Branc h Watershed
.

• i , 10 5

i irievaluatin g potentia l effect s o f lea do n ecosyste m component s othe r

tha n man . Thi s discussio n empha

size s th e first

objective
. An ecosyste mdistributio n mode l wa s develope d [1 ] t o identif

y ecosyste mcomponent s fo r intensive
. stud y an dt o provid e afram e o f referenc e fo r

tr?4 * * numerou s investigators
. A diagrammatica l repres£ii s *«* w tatio n o f th e mode l i s show n in figure 6-2 . Th e mo de l include s majo r

component s o

f bot h th e aquati c an dterrestria l ecosystems ; i t represent s th e syste m b y anetwork

o f node s an dbranches , wher e th e node s represen t

th e component s o

f th e ecosyste mi n agenera l sense , an dth e branche s indicat e possibl e transpor t mechanism s betwee n nodes
. Sourc e node s i

n th e mode l suc h a s aut o emission s onl y hav e lea dexiting , whil e sink node s (outflo w water ) onl y hav e branche s entering
. Thre e attribute s ar e associate dwit

h eac h node : amass , aquantit y o f lea dinpu t

pe r uni t tim e fo r sourc e nodes , an dth e initial concentratio n i n th e node
. Branche s represen t

avariety o

f transpor t

mechan

ism s suc h a s diffusion , leaching , biological uptake , an derosion
. Self-loop s represen t th e fractio n o

f lea d conten t o f anod e tha t

remain s i n tha t

nod e betwee n tim e periods
. Distributio n factor s an dseasona l fac

tor s ar e use dt o quantitativel y describ e th e branc h flows. Th e distributio n specif y th e fractio n o

f th e leadconten t

o f anod e tha t

flows i n th e branche s emanatin g fro mtha t

node
. Thes e distributio n factor s ca n b e constan t

o r rando mvariable s tha t

follo w var iou s probabilit y distribution s base do n th e character

istic s o f th e flux in question
. Transport s ma y als o b e affecte db y th e season s o f th e year . Thi s i s account e dfo r b y modifyin g th e distributio n facto r o f eac h branc h b y an appropriat e seasona l factor
. Th e curren t

network fo r th e mode l contain s ove r 40 node s an d13 0 branche s t o accomodat e zonin g o f M*S*B- TM"N DA

FIGUR E 6-2.—Basi c ecosyste m model
. , ,; ] r . th e syste mint o a'»rang e o f lea dinput s base do n traffi c volume
. Node s suc h a s primar y producer&aS ^ define dgenerall y in thi s model s bu t mor e detaile d stud y o f thes e compartment s b y specie s o r famil y ca n easil y b e included
. ; Initia l run s o

f th e mode l provide dasens e o f ^directio n fpr.:tffe f rsjtudie s i n term s of

identifyin g criti

cal geographica l area s o

f th e watershe dan decosyste m ;components . Th e run s als o provide dindividual in

vestigator s wit

h a n understandin g o

f ho w thei r

studie s an dresult s woul dfit

int o th e ultimat e ecosyste m/ analysis
. _

SYSTE M INPUTS Gasolin e consumptio n represent s th e majo r sourc e o f lea dinpu t

t o th e watershed
. T o determin e th e effect s o f lead , th e magnitud e an ddistributio n o f th e meta l fro mtraffi c sources , a s wel l a s th e spatia l an d tempora l variation s o

f thi s input , mus t

b e deter

mined
. Ideally , th e amoun t an ddistributio n o

f lea d emitte dt o th e atmospher e fro meac h automobil e i n th e watershe dshoul db e examined , bu t thi s woul d b e a n impossibl e task
. Rathe r tha n samplin g emis

sions , leadinpu t

wa s estimate db y relatin g emission s t p gasolin e consumptio n patterns . Th e gasolin e con sumptio n o

f automobile s ha s bee n documente db y numerou s studies
. Wit

h thes e data , i

f vehicular

trav el informatio n i s available , a n estimat e o

f th e magni

tud e ca n b e derived , a s wel l a s th e spatia l an dtem pora l consumptio n o

f gasolin e fo r

aparticula r

area . Traffi c an dtransportatio n engineer s hav e devel

ope dtechnique s fo r

samplin g an destimatin g vehicl e trave l fo r us e i n traffi c plannin g an doperation s stud

ies
. Basically , thes e involv e determinin g traffi c vol

um e o n eac h segmen t

o f street s an dhighways
. Th e traffi c volum e dat aan dinformatio n o n stree t net work s ca n b e use dt o estimat e vehicl e mile s o f trav el
. Thi s wa s th e onl y feasibl e metho do f estimatin g lea demission s fp r

th e watershe darea . Sale s dat amight

appear t p b e an pbvipu s sourc e of gasolin e consumptio n information
. However , ther e i s n o assuranc e tha t th e fue l i s consume di n th e local e wher e i t

i s sold
. Fo r

example , gasolin e purchase dat

alocatio n o n an interstat e highway woul dno t

likel y b e consumedi n th e immediat e area . Sale s informatio n ha s bee n utilize di n thi s study , bu t primaril y t o chec k

th e accurac y o

f estimate s ob

taine dfro mtrave l information
. Method s use din th e curren t watershe dstud y ar e a s follows
. First , th e variou s street s an droad s wer e classifie dint o group s b y traffi c volume
. Thi s classifi

catio n permitte darapi dexaminatio n o f th e syste m b y lookin g a t

thos e street s an droad s tha t ar e re sponsibl e fo r

mos t o f th e lea denterin g th e ecosys tem . Both th e rura l road s an durba n street s wer e cate gorize dint o five classification s b y averag e dail y traffi c (ADT ) volumes
. Th e specificatipn s pf eac h class , a s wel l a s th e tpta l mile s p f roadi n each , ar e summarize dfp r

rura l roads (tabl e 6-1 ) an durba n streets , (tabl e 6-2) 10 6

### tl*' ' P. 4

TABL E 6-4 . -Gasoline consumption within compartments *- ,



# I r '*'

* Clas s Clas s I * Clas s I I Clas s II I Clas s I V Clas s V oy average aauy trajjtc volume {/ AD T
ove r 4,00 0 2,00 0 t o 3,99 9 1,00 0 t o 1,99 9 25 0 t o 99 9 unde r 25 0 IUI} Tota l mile s n.6 5 0. 0 6. 2 15. 1 64. 1 Compartmen t

Rura l Rura l subcompartmen t Urba n Urba n subcompartmen t Tota l dail y vehicl e mile s 164,31 8 1,49 1 575,64 3 262,62 8 Gas C Tota l dail y

onsumptio n (gal. ) 10,52 4 86. 5 46,05 1 21,01 0
I n th e secon dmetho duse di n th e study , traffi c dat awer e analyze dt o provid e estimate s o f vehicl e mile s o f trave l and , eventually , gasolin e consump tion
. Thi s analysi s yielde daspatial distributio n o f gasolin e consumptio n and , therefore , leadoutput . Tabl e 6- 3 show s th e rate s o f gasolin e consumptio n tha t wer e obtaine dfro maut o manufacturer s t o b e use di n th e analysis
. Gasolin e consumptio n fo r th e variou s compartment s i s summarize din table s 6- 3 an d6-4 . TABL

E 6-2.-Classification of urban streets by average daily traffic volume (ADT) Clas s Clas s I Clas s I I Clas s II I Clas s I V . Clas s V AD T ove r 10,00 0 5,00 0 t o 10,00 0 2,50 0 t o 4,99 9 1,00 0 t o 2,49 9 unde r 1,00 0 Tota l mile s 16.9 0 20.0 0 15.8 3 20.2 0 70.4 0 Gasolin e consumptio n b y roadwa y classificatio n i s show n in tabl e 6- 5 an d include s tota l dail y vehicl e miles , gallon s o

f gasolin e consumed , an d th e percen tag e o f tota l gasolin e consumptio n in eac h stree t o r roadclass
. Not e tha t

clas s I , clas s II , an d Interstat e 7 4 make u p 7 6 percen t

o f all gasolin e consumptio n for th e urba n streets , whil e clas s I make s u p 8 9 per cen t o f th e gasolin e consumptio n fo r th e rura l roads
. I n summary , then , th e gasolin e consumptio n fo r th e watershe dis : Urba n 46,05 1 + 2,70 0 gal./da y Rura l 10,52

4 + 56 0 gal./da y Tota l 56,57 5 + 2,94 0 gal./da y

' Gasolin e consumptio n wa s als o compare dbetwee n arura l subcompartmen t

an d a n urba n subcompart

TABL E 6-3 . - Gasoline consumption as a function of speed and classification of

streets and

roads in the watershed based on average Speeds 1 Roa d typ e Spee d (mph ) Ga s Consumptio n (mi/gal. ) Loca l rura l Rout e 4 5 Interstat e 57 , 7 4 Loca l urba n 3 5

6 0 7 0 3 0 16. 7 1 6 1 5 12. 5 ment . Th e 5. 1 mi 2 rura l subcompartmen t i s in th e northwes t corne r o f th e rura l compartmen t

an d ha s 9. 4 m i o f roads
. Th e urba n subcompartment , a n are a o f 4. 0 mi 2 in Champaign , ha s 68. 1 m i o f streets . Gasolin e consumptio n i s abou t 25 0 time s greate r

in th e urba n tha n i n th e rura l section
. I n convertin g gasolin e consumptio n dat at o lead emission s i n th e ecpsystem , th e followin g assump tion s wer e made : (1 ) Gasolin e contain s 2. 5 g o f lea dpe r gal
. (2 ) I n urba n areas , du e t o th e natur e o f th e traffi c flow, 5 0 percen t

o f th e consume dlea di s con sidere dt o b e emitte dfro mth e exhaus t syste m o f th e automobile
. (3 ) I n rura l area s wit

h generall y highe r

vehicl e speeds , 8 0 percen t

o f th e consumedlea di s emitted
. Tota l lea dinpu t

t o th e watershe do n ayearl y basi s i s show n i n figure 6-3 . Th e 1 2 mi 2 urba n compart men t receive s approximatel y 7 5 percen t o f th e tota l lea dinput , whil e th e 74 mi 2 rura l are areceive s onl y 25 percent . Thes e emissio n data , o n aper-vehicl e volum e basis , ar e 0.10 1 g leadpe r vehicl e mil e fo r th e urba n compartmen t

an d 0.12 8 g fo r

th e rura l compartment . Thes e figures compar e favorabl y wit h th e averag e lea demissio n rat e fo r productio n vehi

cle s o f 0.10 8 g/mi
. [2 ] O n th e basi s o f Cantwell' s figure, i f 0.5 0 g o r

4 6 percen t

remain s airborne , th e tota l lea dinpu t

t o th e ecosystem , wit

h th e exceptio n o f air , i s reduce dt o 16,000 kg/year
. Th e majority o f thi s depositio n occur s i n th e urba n are a(10,40 0 kg ) an dalon g majo r

highway s (3,90 0 kg)
. If th e ecosyste mi s divide dint o zone s base do n traffi c volume , th e relativ e concentratio n factor s fo r lea dinput s t o eac h zon e can b e determined , (tabl e 6- 6 ) Zon e 1 i s a5 0 mstri p o f lan do n bot h side s o

f highway s wit

h traffi c volume s greate r tha n 4,00 0 vehicles/2 4 h ; zon e I I i s th e sam e widt h stri p alon g TABL E 6-5 . -Gasoline consumption per day determined

by roadway classification

1 Base d o n dat afro

mautomobil e manufacturers
. Clas s Clas s I Clas s II- V Clas s I Clas s I I Clas s II I Clas s I V Clas s V 1-74 Nort h o f 1-74 Vehicl e mile s Gallon s

Rura l road s 144,50 5 19,81 3 9,33 5

1,189. 4 Percen t

o f tota l gallon s

Urba n road s (no t

includin g 1-74 ) 212,39 0 141,68 5 56.08 3 31,54 5 33,96 8 80,59 0 13,98 2 16,99 1

11,33 5 4,48 7 2,52 4 2,71 7 6,44 7 1,11 9 . 8 9

1 1 3 7 25. 5 1 0 5 6 1 4 2 10 7

246-86 7 O - ft

- 8P. 5

TABL E 6-6.-Relative concentrations of lead by zones Zon e Vehicle s Percen t tota l are aRelativ e concentration 1 I I I II I 

## r v >4,00 0 1,000-2,00 0 Rural , Remot e Urba n 8. 5

1 7 59. 5 1 5 7 0 1 4 1 140 1 Th e value o f

1 i s assigned t o th e rural , remot e area . highway s with traffic volume s les s tha n 4,00 0 vehi

cies/2 4 h ; zon e II I represent s rura l area s remot e fro mhighways ; an d zon e I V i s th e urba n area . Th e relativ e concentratio n factor s fo r zone s I an d I V ar e ver y hig h an d indicat e area s of concer n du e t o th e tremendou s lea dinpu t

pe r uni t area . Th e inpu t

t o th e ecosyste mo

f leadi n rainwate r ha s als o bee n monitored , an drepresentativ e dat afo r th e urba n an d rura l compartment s ar e show n i n fig

ur e 6-4 . Rainfal l inpu t

average s 2 percen t

o f th e tota l fro mautomobil e emissions
. Collection s wer e mad e b y placin g 4 8 acid-washe dpolyethylen e bottle s a t rando mlocation s withi n th e watershe dtP cpllec t sample s durin g eac h stprmperiod
. Th e bottle s wer e place dprio r

t o th e rainfal l an d collecte dafterward s t o avoi ddustfal l contamination
. Tota l rainfal l wa s monitore db y recordin g rai n gages .

SYSTE M OUTPUT S Surfac e drainag e discharg e wa s monitore dcontin

uousl y a t five gagin g station s locate do n th e Salin e Branc h o

f th e Vermillio n Rive r an d Boneyar d Creek.(fig
. 6-5 ) Th e gag e location s allo w acompari



### 3000 0 r 

### 2500 0/YEARAMSKILOGR

l -
- >INP Q 

### < 2000 0
1500 0 1000 0 500 0 URBA N

RURA L URBA N

RURA L
FIGUR E 6-3.—Tota l lea d inpu t fro m automobil e emissio n t o th e urba n an d rura l compartments . 

## r r < U J > - 

### tn < e > o

r Q . Q < L U 

## 100 0
75 0
50 0
25 0 URBA N * J

FIGUR E 6-4.—Lea d inpu t t o rura l an d urba n compartment s o t th e watershe d fro m precipitation . so n o f th e wate r

volum e an d lea doutpu t fro mth e rura l portio n o

f th e watershe dwith thos e fro mth e urba n area . Thi s sam e kin do f comparlsp n ca n b e mad e betwee n asmal l rura l agricultura l watershe dpf approximatel y 4 mi 2 an d atPtall y urba n watershe d p f simila r size , p r betwee n th e entir e rura l an d urba n cpmpartments . A n additipna l gagin g statipn , locate d 5 m i dpwnstrea mfro mth e watershed , provide s a n estimat e p

f strea mrecpver y du e t p dilutip n effect s p f rura l drainag e waters . •

RURAL COMPARTMENT

^ 

# • i : 

## 4

» SALIN E BRANC

H ADDITIONA L «

URBA N COMPARTMENT CHAMPAIGN; - URBAN

A 

## mm: COMPARTMEN T

• LANDFIL L SEWAG E TRT . PUN T

•STREA M GAGIN G STATIO N FIGUR E 6-5.—Schemati c diagra m of idealize d Salin e Branc h watershed . 108


# m mP. 6 

# w

w . $;

v ' V * ' ^ ^ tr . < U J > - \ tn 2 < t r 

## o o

_ J * : 

## < o h - •D Q
_ H 3 O Q < L U

_ J ,*f > ( ' * , • * 

# looo r 75 0 

## - 50 0


## 250

-

FIGUR E 6-6.—Tota l lea d outpu t i n streamwate rfro m urba n an d rura l compartments
. Tota l wate r

volum e movin g pas t

eac h gag e wa s determine dfo r

eac h 2 4 h period
. Wate r

sample s wer e take n a

t 1 5 min
. interval s an dcomposite dfo r eac h 2 4 h perio dat

eac h locatio n b y continuous

duty , compositin g samplers
. Durin g storms , asepa rat e automati c wate r

sample r collecte dindividual 1-1 sample s a t

shorte r tim e interval s proportiona l t o th e height o f th e stream . Wate r sample s wer e filtere dthroug h a0.4 5 /x m Millipore filter. Th e filtrate wa s analyze db y anodi c strippin g voltammetry , an dth e suspende dsolid s b y atomi c absorptio n spectroscopy . Lea dconcentra tion s varie dwidely , rangin g fro m0 t o 1 5 ^g/ 1 in filtrat e an dfro m1 5 t o 20

0 jug/1 i n th e suspende dsolids
. Th e tota l outpu t

o f lea do n ayearl y basi s fo r th e urba n an drura l compartment s i s show n i n figure 6-6 . Th e 60 0 kg annual outpu t fo r th e urba n compart ment i s approximatel y 7 5 percen t o f th e watershe d total
. Outpu t

fro mth e rura l compartmen t total s 21 0 kg
. A compariso n betwee n th e tota l outpu t (fig
. 6-6 ) an dth e tota l inpu t

(fig
. 6-2) indicate s tha t onl y ap proximatel y 2 percen t

o f th e tota l inpu t

exit s vi a 3

Q . r > o Q < U J z U l <_> c r U J 

### a . 10 0 r 7 5 -
5 0
2 5 - 1 1 ""'Y-''Vv""' / ^T-J&fr

-SUSPENDE D f -; . SOLID S r

URBA N 

### *J-0! 

### - , &'# • *> j "V SUSPENDE D SOLID S 

## V '
'HH3i£SI l RURA L FIGUR E 6-7.—Lea d distributio n betwee n filtrat e an d suspend e d solid s i n urba n an d rura l compartments
. streamwater , leavin g aconsiderabl e accumulatio n o f lea din othe r

component s o

f th e system . I n considerin g lea di n streamwater , i t i s importan t t o evaluat e it s distributio n in th e filtrate an dsus pende dsolids
. Thi s i s show n i n figure 6-7 fo r bot h urba n an drura l compartments . A s woul db e expect ed , mos t o f th e lea di s associate dwith suspende d solids , wit

h very littl e dissolve din th e filtrate. Th e rati o o f lea di n suspende dsolid s t o tha t in filtrates varie s fro m4: 1 in th e rura l compartmen t t o 27: 1 in th e urba n compartment . Th e larg e amoun t o f lea d associate dwith suspende dsolid s i n th e urba n com partmen t undoubtedl y wa s relate dt o th e vas t area s o f imperviou s surface s fro mwhic h particle s ar e quickl y washe daway durin g rainfall
. A compariso n o

f tota l lea doutpu t

durin g selecte d stormperiods , base do n th e norma l 2 4 h composit e sample s an dth e individual 5 min
. samples , i s show n i n tabl e 6-7 . Th e composit e sample r underestimate d leadoutpu t

b y a n averag e o

f 3 0 percent . However , ther e wer e n o significant

difference s in samplin g sys te mestimate s durin g period s o f nonstor mflows. I n 197 4 lea doutpu t

fro mth e urba n compartmen t base do n dat afro m5 mi n sample s fro mselecte d stormperiod s an dday s withou t precipitation , amounte dt o 91 0 kg , a s compare dwit h 60 0 kg base d o n composit e sampling
. Thu s th e outpu t i s 7. 5 per cen t o f th e estimate d10,400 k

g urba n input , indicat

in g alarg e annual storag e o f leadi n th e urba n eco system .

'J&-J*. 4

Stor mdat e 4/11/7 4 4/29/7 4 5/28/7 4 6/7/7 4 7/8/7 4 8/2/7 4 TABL E 6-7 .

Tota l -Total

lead output from the urban subcompartment for several selected storms precipitatio n Discharg e (in. ) 0.1 7 0.2 8 0.1 4 0.2 2 0.1 8 0.9 0 (ft 3 )

3 0 x 10 4 40xl0 4 26xl0 4 6 3 x 10 " 8 0 x 10 4 22xl0 5 during 1974

Lea doutput , 5 min
. estimat e (kg ) 2.5 7 3.4 1 2.1 1 8.3 1 7.9 6 8.7 5 Lea doutput ,

composit e estimat e (kg ) 1.9 6 2.3 4 1.8 0 5.2 5 5.9 8 5.6 9 

# w 10 9P. 7

LEA D I N TH E TERRESTRIA L ECOSYSTE M Ai r A numbe r

o f investigation s hav e bee n mad e o f atmospheri c lea dconcentrations
. [3-8 ] Mos t o f th e studie s wer e conducte di n urba n area s wit h hig h traffi c densitie s .an dcharacterize dth e ai r qualit y o

f a n entir e cit y b y usin g onl y afe w samplin g site s (a t th e mos t si x o r eight an dofte n onl y tw o o r

three)
. I n som e cases , studie s covere donl y 1 o r 2 days
. Ai r samplin g equipmen t

wa s ofte n locate dwel l abov e groun dlevel , an dman y time s residentia l ai r quality wa s no t wel l differentiate dfro mtha t o f th e centra l city
. Th e ai r monitorin g programfo r th e ecosyste m stud y encompasse dstudie s o f th e distributio n o

f ambien t atmospheri c lea dconcentration s i n th e rura l an durba n compartments , a s wel l a s sampl e area s wit h varyin g traffic densities
. Thi s provide da n ac curat e pictur e o

f th e ecosystem' s airborn e lead
. Fiel dmeasurement s wer e obtaine dwith Genera l Meta l Works ' high-volum e samplers
. T o ensur e th e mos t effectiv e us e o

f th e samplers , a

n analytica l mode l wa s use dt o predic t th e distributio n o

f air

born e lea dconcentrations
. Th e sampler s wer e the n place dwher e the y woul dmos t effectivel y tes t

th e model
. Figure s 6- 8 an d6- 9 indicat e th e location s o f th e sampler s wit

h alette r assigne dt o eac h location
. Figur e 6- 8 als o show s mean ai r lea dconcentration s fo r th e stud y period
. Th e sampler s wer e powere db y existin g electrica l outlet s o r

propane-fuele delectrica l generator s a t remot e locations
. Initially , Gelman 8 in
. b y 1 0 in. , GA- 1 Metrice l triacetat e filters ( 5 yu mppr e size ) wer e use da s primar y filters, with standar d8 in
. b y 1 0 in
. Typ e A fiber

glas s filters (0. 8 ju

mpor e size ) a s sec ondar y filters
. Both filters wer e analyze dfo r lea d content . Th e singl e 8 in
. b y 1 0 in
. fiber glas s filter gav e result s equivalen t

t o thos e pbtaine dusin g th e dual arrangemen t

an dwa s use din subsequen t tests . Afte r cpmpletipn p

f a24 h ru n (nprma l procedure) , th e filter wa s cu t intp eight

sectipns , an dthre e ran dp msectipn s wer e analyze dfpr lea db y atpmi c ab

sprptip n spectrpscppy . Rural : Fro mAugust , 197 3 t p February , 1974 , 1 1 samplin g location s wer e establishe dthroughpu t th e watershed , (fig
. 6-8 ) wit

h eight in th e rura l an dthre e i n th e urba n cpmpartment . Durin g thi s period , th e rura l atmospheri c concentration s wer e intensivel y sampled , an dpreliminary informatio n wa s obtaine d o n urba n concentrations
. Backgroun dlevel s wer e assume dt o b e 8 8 percen t o f th e measure drura l con centrations
. [9 ] I n all , 15 2 measurement s wer e mad e o n 3 0 differen t

days
. Average s ove r

th e samplin g day s appear

i n figure 6- 8 nex t

t o eac h samplin g loca

tion
. Lea dconcentration s di dno t vary greatl y withi n th e rura l compartment . Lea dconcentratio n at re mot e station s E an dI average dabou t 0.19M g/m 3

. However , a t

station s neare r

th e urba n are abu t

stil l i n th e rura l compartment , th e averag e wa s abou t 0.25>ug/m3 . Urban : Althoug h airborn e lea dsample s wer e take n at thre e urba n station s (D , H , an dK ) durin g the'in

tensiv e rura l samplin g period , th e intensiv e samplin g network fo r th e urba n compartmen t wa s no t estab

lishe dunti l February , 1974 . Fro mMa y t o July , 1974 , al l 1 9 sampler s wer e in operation , whil e tw o addi

tiona l samplin g station s ( C an dJ ) continue dt o oper at e i n th e rura l compartment , (fig
. 6-9 ) Th e urba n compartmen t wa s divide dint o fou r area s base do n use : residential , downtown , universi

ty , an dsuburban-commercial
. Nin e sampler s wer e in operatio n in th e residentia l area . Sampler s D , L , M , Y , an dA

A wer e locate do n lawn s nex t t o street s wit h traffic volume s les s tha n 1,00 0 ADT ; site s U , V , W , an dX wer e o n lawn s alon g mai n residentia l streets , wit

h volume s of

4,00 0 t o 5,00 0 ADT . Th e downtow n area s hadthre e sampler s o n street s wit h 12,000 t o 20,00 0 ADT , wit h on e o f th e sampler s (Q ) o h th e roo f

of atwo-stor y building
. Si x sampler s wer e place do n street s aroun dth e universit y with greatly varyin g volume s (2,00 0 t o 20,00 0 ADT) . Sta

tio n K consiste do

f aground-leve l sample r (Ki ) an d anothe r sample r (K" ) directl y abov e o n th e roo f of a four-stor y building
. Statio n N ha don e sample r (Ni ) 1 7 f t fro mahigh-volum e stree t (20,00 0 ADT ) an d anothe r (N? ) 2 9 f t fro mth e sam e street . Th e subur

ban-commercia l are aha donl y on e samplin g station (H) , whic h wa s i n alight industria l par k

near th e intersectio n o

f Interstat e highway s 5 7 an d74 . Airborn e lea dconcentration s fo r eac h samplin g station an dtraffi c volume s o f th e urba n compart men t ar e summarize di n tabl e 6- 8 fo r th e 3 month samplin g period , May throug h July , 1974 . Th e rela

tiv e magnitud e airborn e lea dconcentration s ar e i n agreemen t

wit h traffi c level s a t

eac h station
. At

sta tio n K , th e roof-to p sample r (K2 ) ha d4 0 percen t lowe r concentration s tha n th e ground-leve l sample r (Ki)
. Thi s support s th e assumptio n o f uniformverti

cal mixin g o

f pollutants , whic h i s ofte n use din ur ba n "box " models
. Measurement s fro mstation N indicate datransvers e decreas e o f 1 4 percen t

i n air

born e lea dconcentration s whe n th e samplin g dis

tanc e wa s increase dfro m1 7 t o 2 9 ft
. Tabl e 6- 9 summarize s airborn e lea dconcentration s fo r ground-leve l station s at eac h o f th e fou r urba n area s alon g wit

h concurren t

rura l concentrations
. I n conclusion , a s show n i n table s 6- 8 an d6-9 , air

born e lea dconcentration s ar e generall y lo w i n th e rura l an dresidentia l areas , whil e muc h highe r value s hav e bee n measure di n th e urba n area s with apeak o f 3.8A«g/m3 . Soil s an d Plant s Th e presenc e o

f lea din plants , ofte n in concentra tion s approachin g ahazardou s level , i s wel l docu

mente di n th e literature
. Numerou s investigation s hav e show n tha t

th e concentratio n o

f lea din soil s an dplant s i s significantl y highe r nea r highway s an d drop s rapidl y alon g gradient s away fro mthi s source . [10-16 ] Althoug h win ddirection , speed , an dturbul

enc e ar e importan t

factor s in determinin g th e steep nes s o f thes e lea dgradients , Suchdolle r [13 ] report 11 0P. 8
_ = ^ 1 

# o Nort h Mea n Lea d Concentratio n August, , 197 3 - February , 197 4 .l73/ug/m 3 + E

0 1 2 

### Mile s Majo rRoad s FIGUR E 6-8.—Averag e ai rlea d concentration s i n ecosystem
.

FIGUR E 6-9.—Locatio n o f urba n ai rsampler s i n ecosystem
. 

## "f c 11 1P. 9

TABL E 6-8. -Averag e urban airborne lead concentrations, May-July, 1974 Sit e (station ) Downtow n Q (root ) T Z Universit y 0 P K, (ground ) k 3 (roof ) N , (1 7 ft) N , (2 9 ft ) Residential U V W X D L M y A A Suburban commercia

l H 1 Difficult t o estimate
. AD T 12-20,00 0 (clas s I ) 12-20,00 0 (clas s 1 ) 12-20,00 0 (clas s 1 ) 15,00 0 (clas s 1 ) 7,00 0 (clas s II) 2,00 0 (clas s IV ) 20,00 0 (clas s 1 ) (' ) 5,00 0 (clas s III

) 5,00 0 (clas s III) 4,00 0 (clas s III

) 25 0 (clas s V ) 70 0 (clas s V ) 80 0 (clas s V ) 80 0 (clas s V ) 50 0 (clas s V ) (' )

2 No t clos e t o aspecifi c street . Airborn e lea d (Mg/m 3 ) 0.76 7 1.44 5 1.26 3 0.56 9 0.63 1 0.42 5 0.30 6 1.54 8 1.345 0.35 7 0.34 2 0.33 2 0.30 6 0.24 2 0.25 0 0.26 9 0.28 4 0.18 3 0.24 4

e dtha t th e gradien t

may b e diminishe dcompletel y withi n 3 0 t o 4 0 mo

f ahighway
. Mott o e t

al
. [11 ] reporte dtha t

th e lea dconten t

o f soil s an dplant s sample dalon g heavil y travele dhighway s increase d with traffi c volume
. The y als o reporte dtha t th e ma jo r effec t o f traffi c wa s limite dt o th e surfac e soi l i n anarro w zon e withi n 3 0 mo f th e road
. Studie s o f lea din plant s an dsoil s wer e initiate di n th e summe r

o f 1970 withi n initial focu s o n si x plan t specie s (includin g corn , soybeans , bluegrass , clover , dandelions , an dfleabane) an dth e associate dsoi l i n transect s awa y fro mamajo r highway (approximate

l y 12,000 vehicle s pe r

24 h)
. [17 ] I n nearl y al l specie s tested , lea di n o r

o n tissue s wa s afunctio n bot h o f distanc e fro mth e roa dan dlea di n th e soil
. Analyse s o f varianc e wer e ru n t o determin e difference s i n lea d conten t o f tax aan dlifeform s (i.e. , annua l o r per ennial)
. N o significant

difference s wer e foun di n roo t lea dbu t th e lifeform-famil y interactio n wa s signifi

can t fo r lea din washe dfoliage
. Tabl e 6-1 0 show s th e interpretatio n o

f th e significant

interaction
. TABL E 6-9 . -A verage airborne lead concentrations, ground level stations, May-July, 1974 Are a Airborn e lea d (Mg/m 3 ) ' Downtow n Universit y Residential Suburban commercia

l Rura l 1.35 2 0.74 7 0.28 7 0.25 4 0.17 0 TABL

E 6-10 . -Analysis of

significant

lifeform-family interaction of lead in washed

foliage by using Tukey 's W-procedure at P< 0.05 1 Soybean s Dandelio n Bluegras s Fleaban e Sweetclover Cor n 11. 4 9. 6 8. 6 6. 8 6. 0 6. 0

1 Value s are mea

n lea dlevel s a s Mg/

g dry-weight

basis
. A commo n underlin e indicate s n o significant difference
. Thes e dat asugges t

tha t som e plan t

specie s accumu late dmor e lea dtha n others , an dtha t th e accumula

tio n rat e wa s no t

influence db y whethe r

th e specie s wa s a n annua l o r

perennial
. Th e correlatio n betwee n distanc e fro mth e highwa y an dsoi l lea dwa s signifi

can t (P= s 0.001 ) u p t o 5 0 mfo r

th e 0 t o 1 0 c msam ples
. Th e correlatio n betwee n th e surfac e soi l lea d conten t ( 0 t o 1 0 cm ) an dth e subsurfac e soi l lea d conten t (1 0 t o 2 0 cm ) wa s als o significant ( P = s 0.001) . Soil s i n th e rura l are ao

f th e watershe dwer e sam ple dintensivel y t o furthe r investigat e th e relation

shi p betwee n traffi c volume , distance , an ddirectio n fro mhighways
. Traffi c volum e estimate s wer e use d i t o classif

y roads
. Samplin g wa s don e i n transect s t o 10 0 t o 20 0 mfro mroa dpavements , with onl y th e surfac e soil s ( 0 t o 1 0 cm ) examined , (fig
. 6-TO ) Eac h 140 0
1200 - 1000 -

100 - E Q . Q . T J O a > 8 0 -

o tn 6 0 - 4 0
2 0 - i . - T 1—- r

-

-

i *1i1
Lo w Traffi c Volum e

~ (Thomasboro Road )

\ / / /

• i.i. l • 

# 1 . l l l l OL . 

## r r 1 1 1 j 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 V 1 1 1 / / / /

' 1 ' 1 ' I

Hig h Traffi c Volum e (U.S : 4 5 North )

1 .

\ \ \ \ \ \

1 i 1 i L . -

-

/ V

— ,'l'l|

- IO O 6 0 2 0 0 2 0 6 0 Distanc e fro m Highwa

y (meters ) 10 0 

# 1

FIGUR E 6-10.—Soi l lea d i n relationshi p t o distanc e fro m high way . 11 2P.1 0



## I t

4.

« • •

*& "

IT. ' •#r sampl e wa s acomposit e o f si x soi l probe s t o adepth o f 1 0 cm , take n a t

5 minterval s alon g th e transect . Figur e 6-1 0 represent s acomposit e o f 1 2 transect s fro mhigh-traffi c highway s an d1 2 transect s fro m low-traffi c highways ; i

t illustrate s th e rapi ddecreas e i n lea dconcentratio n t o background
. Th e highes t level s wer e foun dimmediatel y adjacen t t o pave ment s o f road s wit

h th e highes t

traffi c volumes
. O n th e downwin dsid e (east ) o f north-sout h roads , th e leadconten t

o f soil s decrease dt o backgroun dlevel s withi n 5 0 m . O n th e upwin dside , level s immediatel y adjacen t t o th e pavemen t

wer e comparabl e t o thos e o n th e downwin dside , bu t decrease dmor e rapidl y awa y fro mth e road , reachin g backgroun dlevel s withi n 2 0 m . Road s wit

h lo w traffi c volume s (les s than 2,00 0 vehicle s pe r

24 h ) ha dassociate dsoi l lea d gradient s t o backgroun dlevel s withi n n o mor e tha n 5 t o 1 0 mo

f th e pavement s o n bot h th e upwin dan d downwin dsides
. Thu s soi l lea dwa s seldo minflu

ence dbeyon dth e right-of-way o f road s wit

h les s tha n 2,00 0 vehicle s pe r

24 h
. East-wes t

road s with hig h traffi c volume s ha dsoi l lea dgradient s tha t wer e essentiall y comparabl e o n th e nort h an dsouth side s an dintermediat e t o th e eas t an dwes t

gradient s o n north-south roads
. Lea di n soi l neares t th e pave ment s wa s muc h th e sam e a s fo r th e north-sout h roads , bu t

th e lea dgradien t

decrease dt o backgroun d withi n 3 0 mo

f th e pavement . Th e result s indicat e tha t th e highe r

th e traffi c vol

ume , th e highe r

th e soi l lea dcontent , an dth e farthe r th e lea dgradien t

extend s fro mth e highway
. Eve n o n th e mos t

heavil y travele droads , th e stron g en hancemen t

o f soi l lea dextende donl y 5 0 t o 7 5 m downwin dan d25 t o 4 0 mupwind
. Extremel y hig h

, leadlevel s (> . 5 0 Mg/g ) wer e seldo mfoun di n thi s stud y beyon d2 0 mfro mpavements , excep t in unu sua l circumstance s suc h a s ditche s drainin g roa d surfaces
. Lea daccumulatio n in urba n an drura l soi l profile s i s show n in figure 6-11 . Th e concentration s ar e aver age s o f 1 0 profiles
. Th e urba n profile s wer e take n withi n 1 0 mo

f acit y stree t

(12,00 0 vehicle s pe r

2 4 h)
. Figur e 6-1 2 show s a

n urba n profil e sample dwith

i n 1 mo f aheavil y travele dcity stree t (15,00 0 t o 17,00 0 vehicle s pe r

2 4 h) , wit h abreakdow n o

f th e to p 3 cmint o 1 c msegments . Th e rura l profile s wer e take n in a n agricultura l fieldremot e fro mahighway
. Maximu mconcentration s wer e foun di n th e uppe r 1 0 cm , wit h asharp declin e i n concentratio n betwee n 1 0 an d2 0 cm . Belo w 20 t o 3 0 cm , th e leadconcen tratio n wa s relativel y uniform
. Considerabl y higher concentration s wer e eviden t i n th e urba n profiles , whic h agai n showe dastron g correlatio n wit h traffi c volume
. " Intensiv e studie s o

f lea di n th e vegetatio n o f th e ecosystem , durin g th e summer s o f 1971-74 showe da simila r influenc e o

f th e proximity an ddirectio n fro m highway s a s tha t

observe dfo r

soils
. Samplin g wa s complete dwhe n th e plant s wer e fully matur e in th e field. Alon g th e heavies t travele droad s (12,000 + vehicle s pe r

2 4 h) , ther e wa s significantl y mor e lea d in or o n cor n an dsoybean s withi n 20 mo f th e pave ment ; b y 3 0 mfro mth e pavement , however , lea di n URBA N RURA L o-i o

10-2 0

20-3 0

30-4 0

40-8 0 C M

C M

C M

C M

C M 39 0

165

4 8

4 0

1 9 PP M

PP M

PP M

PP M

PP M 1 6

9

7

6

4 PP M

PP M

PP M

PP M

PP M
FIGUR E 6-11.—Lead concentration s i n urba n an d rura l soi l profiles
. (Value s show n are th e mea n of 1 0 profile s i n eac h location. ) O r o n crop s wa s no t

different fro mth e averag e fo r th e field. O n lesse r

travele droads , ther e wa s n o observabl e influenc e o

f th e highway o n cro p lead
. Alon g th e heavil y travele droads , cor n an dsoybean s growin g withi n 2

0 mo f th e pavemen t

average d abou t 3 0 Mg/ g lead , wherea s plant s farthe r away fro mth e pavemen t

an dalon g secondar y road s aver age d8 Mg/g

- Analyse s o

f kernel s o

f cor n an dsoy bean s showe daconsistentl y lo w lea dcontent , aver agin g les s tha n 2 Mg/g . Figur e 6-1 3 show s acompos it e o f 1 2 transect s fro mhig h traffi c highway s an dil

lustrate s th e influenc e o

f traffi c o n lea di n vegetatio n an dsoils
. (I0,200ppm)0-lc m v ( 6,400ppm ) I -2cm - ( l,400ppm)2-3cm'^r : 0-I0cm(l,l40ppm )
>IO-20cm(l80ppm ) •20-30cm(49ppm )
>30-40cm(39ppm )

FIGUR E 6-12.—Urba n soi l profil e wit h to p thre e 1 c m seg ment s analyze d individually
. 11 3P.1 1

120 0

100 0

80 0 e Q . Q . "§60 0

_ l </)40 0

200 - Soi l Lea d

Plan t Lea d Lea dconten t i n th e vegetatio n o

f th e ecosyste mi s summarize din tabl e 6-11 . Th e siz e (22 3 km 2 ) an d diversit y o

f th e watershe dpreclude daroutin e ap proac h t o sampling
. Consequently , th e watershe d wa s divide dint o rura l an durba n compartments . Th e rura l compartmen t

wa s subdivide dint o vegetatio n habitats
. A descriptio n o f th e division s i s give n below : A . Urban : Al

l area s withi n th e watershe ddevelope d fo r residentia l o r

industria l use . 1 . Pervious : Al

l npnpave dsurfaces
. 2 . Impervious : Al

l pave dsurfaces , includin g roofs
. Rural : B .

6 0 2 0 0 2 0 6 0 Distanc e fro m Highwa y (meters ) FIGUR E 6-13.—Soi l an d plan t lea d a s relate d t o distanc e fro m highway
. 1 . Field s a . Cultivate dfields: All cro p fields tha t wer e tille dwithi n th e las t year . b
. So dfields: Al

l cro p fields and/o r

pas ture s tha t ar e tillable
. 2 . Road s (Se e sectio n o n traffi c sampling. ) a . Pavement . b
. Roadsides : U p t o an dincludin g border

in g fencerows
. 3 . Railroad s a . Trac k pavement . TABL E 6-11 . -Summary of lead content of vegetation and

habitat areas in a Champaign County watershed

Habita t Tota l are a (km a ) Percen to f

watershe d \ Averag e P b Conten t ; o f vegetatio n I (Mg/g

) Averag e dr y biomas s

o f vegetatio n (g/m 2 ) Tota l P b i n vegetatio n o f habitat s (g ) A . Urba n 1 . Perviou s 2 . Imperviou s B . Rura l 1 . Fields a . Cultivate d b . So d 2 . Road s a. Clas s I Pavemen t Roadsid e b . Clas s I

I Pavemen t Roadsid e c . Clas s III Pavemen t Roadsid e d . Clas s I

V Pavemen t Roadsid e e . Clas s V Pavemen t Roadsid e 3 . Railroa d a. Track pavemen t b . Right-of-wa y 4 . Homestea d 5 . Stream s 6 . Fencerow s 7 . Waste area s 8 . Wood s 9 . Pon d (surfac e water )

Tota l 14. 5 17. 2 166. 4 3. 8 0. 8 1.6 0. 1 0. 1 0. 1 0. 2 0. 1 0. 3 1. 1 2. 2 0. 5 0.5 5. 9 3. 1 3. 0 3. 0 1. 5 0. 3 226. 2 or (87. 3 mi a ) 6. 4

7. 6 74. 6 1. 7 0. 3 0. 7 0. 1 0. 1 0. 1 0. 1 0. 1 0. 1 0. 5 0. 9 0. 2 0. 2 2. 7 1.4 1.3 1. 3 0.7 0. 1 6 7

8. 0 4. 1
34. 0 21. 0 15. 6 9. 0 7. 5 6. 7 6. 1 4. 7 5. 8 6. 5 8. 6 28 7 1,40 0 80 0

15 9 15 5 19 4 278,82 0

1,863,68 0 124,64 0
8,65 0 32 6 60 5 28 8

_ 26 2 52 0 11 2 62 3 69 1 66 4 12 7
— 77 8

4,32 3 1,74 2 4,03 1 9,07 7 ' 12,02 3 12,94 8 1,63 8

— Tota l 2,211,10 5 or 2,211. 1 kg V

# •

-

" ' Kf .-

• x- 

# ' f

1 Her b laye r only . 11 4P.1 2

Tyt .< . . 

## 1 .;;. - 

## 1 # o 13c . ••• 

# I * 1 •: , - i. 4
.

5
.

, J

1 j f W ' b
. Right-of-way : U p t o an dincludin g fen

cerows . Homestead s (Se e urba n description)
. Streams : All vegetatio n bordering
. stream s tha t wa s no t utilize dfo r

crop s o r pasture . I n wast e areas , thi s include donl y th e strea mban k

vegetation
. 6 . Fencerows : All unfille darea s betwee n fields, whethe r

afenc e wa s presen t

or not . 7 . Wast e areas : Miscellaneou s area s no t iden

tifie di n othe r

categories
. Include dwer e refus e areas , dr y borro w pits , permanentl y fallowe dfields tha t

lacke dcomplet e arbo

rescen t cover , rura l cemeteries , an dunuse d area s aroun disolate doutbuildings. 8 . Woods : Foreste darea s wit h al l o r nearl y al l

- arborescen t

cover . 9 . Ponds : Generall y borro w pits
. Surfac e wa te r onl y wa s included
. Th e tota l are afo r

eac h compartmen t

an dsubdivi

sion wa s determine dfro maeria l photographs
. Groun dcheck s wer e mad e i n al l case s wher e vegetatio n or lan dus e wa s unclear
. Al l compartment s an d subcompartment s wer e randoml y sample dwith V\ m 2 circular frame s at

pea k standin g crop . Transect s were use dt o determin e th e lea dconten t relativ e t o distanc e an ddirectio n fro mroads , but , with th e exception s note dpreviously , traffi c flo w ha dlittl e influenc e o n th e lea dcontent . Becaus e samplin g wa s rando mwithi n eac h subcompartment , th e observe d biomas s (averaged ) wa s multiplie db y th e tota l are a t o arriv e at

th e tota l biomass
. Th e averag e leadcon tentvo f th e vegetatio n in asubcompartmen t wa s the n use dt o calculat e tota l lea dfo r asubcompartment
. (tabl e 6-11 ) A n extensiv e samplin g o f urba n vegetatio n an d soil s wa s complete di n 1974 . (tabl e 6-11 ) I n th e tran sec t studies , sample s wer e take n at severa l location s withi n th e urba n are adependin g o n traffi c volume ; th e result s sho w asimila r patter n t o th e rura l area . Somewha t different result s wer e obtaine do n on e particular se t o f fou r transect s (stree t

t o house ) o n street s with lo w traffi c volum e (200 t o 40 0 vehicle s per 2 4 h ) an dfou r

o n street s wit

h hig h traffi c volum e (12,000 + vehicle s pe r

2 4 h) , eac h o

f whic h wa s sample da t

fou r differen t time s durin g th e year . (fig
. 6-14 ) Th e concentratio n o

f lea di n both soil s an d plant s alon g thes e transects , especiall y in th e hig h traffic areas , increase da s th e house s wer e ap proached
. Thes e house s wer e al l brick , unguttere d bu t wit h painte dtrim
. I t

i s quit e likel y tha t

lea dpar ticulate s deposite do n th e roofs o f thes e house s were washe dof

f b y rainfal l an daccumulate di n soil s an dplant s alon g th e dri p zone . However , aportio n o f thi s lea daccumulatio n ma y b e aresul t

o f leachin g frompain t

o n th e hous e trim
. Tempora l distributio n o

f lea di s show n i n figure 6
- 1 5 fro murba n an drura l tree-rin g samples
. Th e ur ba n sample s wer e collecte dfro mtree s withi n 1 0 m o f heavil y travele dcit y street s (greate r tha n 10,000 vehicle s pe r

24 h)
. Th e rura l sample s wer e fro m tree s withi n 1 0 mo

f acountr y roa d(1,80 0 vehicle s 30 0 20 0

2 5 2 0 1 5 1 0 Distanc e fro m Stree t (m ) . Clar k 0°—Stree t

-,2000 - 100 0

2 0 1 5 1 0 5 Distanc e fro m Stree t (m ) Gree n Stree t (E-W )

• Soil s (0-IOcm ) -Unwashe d Plan t Materia l FIGUR E 6-14.—Soi l an d plan t lea d concentration s alon g tran sect s fro m lo w (Clar k Street ) an d hig h (Gree n Street ) traffi c volum e cit y streets
. pe r 2 4 h)
. Th e value s ar e average s o f 2 0 sample s an d sho w asignificant

increas e betwee n 50-year-ol dtre e ring s an dcurren t

rings
. Thi s graphicall y illustrate s th e increase dinsul t

o f lea dt o th e environmen t dur

in g th e pas t

half century . [18 ] Urba n Dus t Tw o importan t

point s concernin g th e distributio n o f lea dwer e discusse dearlie r i n thi s chapter
. First , an estimate d7 5 percen t o f th e lea demitte dfro m automobil e exhaust s wa s deposite di n th e urba n compartmen t

o f th e ecosystem . Second , th e highes t concentration s o

f lea di n surfac e soil s wer e withi n

1 0 YEA R AVERAG E (196 3 - 1973 ) 7. 9 PP M 13. 1 PP M P

bRURAL P bURBA N

1 0 YEA R AVERAG E (I9IO-I920 ) 1.9 . PP M P bRURA L 2. 7 PP M P bURBA N
FIGUR E 6-15.—Tre e rin g analysi s o f urba n an d rura l trees
. 11 5P.1 3

2 0 mo r les s o f traffic thoroughfares
. I n urba n areas , thi s mean s tha t

ahig h percentag e o

f th e lea di s de

posite din , on , o r

aroun dresidences , commercia l establishments , an dothe r buildings
. Furthe r

distribu

tio n an dconcentratio n ar e likel y a s lea dassociate d wit h dus t i s blow n aroun db y th e win do r tracke d int o building s fro mstreets , sidewalks , an dothe r outsid e areas . Thu s potentia l human exposur e i s muc h greate r

i n urba n tha n rura l areas , an dth e tota l bod y burde n i s likel y t o increas e wher e peopl e an d automotiv e traffi c ar e concentrated
. A n intensiv e stud y o

f lea din urban dust s an dsoil s ha s bee n conducte din th e urba n compartmen t (Champaign-Urbana ) o

f th e ecosystem . Cadmiu m wa s als o considered , bu t

t o alesse r

exten t tha n lead
. Result s fro mabou t

1,40 0 sample s hav e show n unu suall y high concentration s in homes , schools , busi

nes s establishments , etc. , a s wel l a s o n street s an d surroundin g areas . I t shoul db e emphasize dtha t th e dat areporte d her e for urba n soil s ar e fro mdifferent location s tha n thos e discusse di n th e precedin g section
. Becaus e dus t an dsoi l ar e s o intimatel y connected , it wa s essentia l tha t

both b e collecte dat

th e variou s sam plin g sites
. Thu s ther e i s n o duplicatio n in th e tw o discussion s o

f urba n soils
. Dus t sample s wer e collecte db y avacuumin g tech

niqu e wit h th e speciall y designe dequipmen t show n in figure 6-16 . O n carpete dareas , avacuu minle t pressur e o

f 7. 5 ps i wa s used , whil e aful l pressur e o

f 20 ps i wa s applie dt o othe r sufaces
. Sample s wer e take n withi n a0. 5 mb y 0. 5 marea . A singl e pas s wit h carefull y overlapping , single-directio n strokes ^ wa s sufficien

t t o remov e 9 0 percen t

o f th e leadfro

m_ ' samplin g surfaces
. Dus t collecte di n th e nylo n chamber , (fig
. 6-i6) 3 alon g wit h th e glas s fiber filter, wa s place di n tare d glassen e bag s an dweighed
. Prio r t o use , both the ; filters an dglassen e bag s wer e temperatur e an dhum

idity equilibrate dfor

aperio do

f 2 4 h
. Weighing s wer e mad e rapidl y t o minimiz e hygroscopi c effects
. Plasti c glove s wer e worn in operation s wher e con- ' taminatio n fro mbar e hand s might b e aproblem
. I n ver y dust y area s (city streets , fo r example ) or i f stone s wer e present , sample s wer e take n wit h a standar dwet-dr y industrial-typ e vacuu mcleaner
. Th e cleane r

wa s modifie db y fitting tw o glas s fiber filters back-to-bac k

in plac e o

f th e foa mrubbe r filter tha t protect s th e motor . Th e vacuu mreservoi r wa s line dwith aplasti c garbag e ba g tha t wa s cu t t o fit an dseale dtightl y aroun dth e vacuu minlet
. Fin e dus t tha t faile dt o dro p int o th e reservoi r wa s trappe db y th e filters. Fina l weighing s include dth e filters, plasti c bag , an dth e dus t sample
. Al

l sample s wer e drie dan dpasse dthroug h a3 0 mes h (ASTM ) stainles s stee l scree n prio r t o analysis
. Lea dan d cadmiu mwer e determine db y atomi c absorptio n spectroscopy . Soi l sample s wer e take n fro mth e surfac e 2. 5 c m wit h astandar dauger . Th e sample s wer e crushed , passe dthroug h a2 m

mscreen , an ddrie dfo r

4 h a t 105 ° C prio r

t o analysis
. Interio r Residential : A tota l o

f 23 9 floor

dus t sam ple s wer e take n in 1 2 homes , fou r o f whic h wer e

FIGUR E 6-16.—Vacuumin g technique s use d i n urba n dus t studies
. (A ) Equipmen t 11 6*gfs$p^»«»j $ m^;- P.1 4

-..'' /

t • 

## I -
J ti *

- A sample dtwice
. Te n o f th e home s wer e single-famil y detache ddwellings,an dtw o (site s F an dK ) wer e locate di n multi-story apartmen t buildings
. All o

f th e home s wer e upper-middl e clas s residence s an di n excellen t condition
. The y wer e painte dwith nonlea d o r low-lea dpaint s an dlocate di n relativel y lo w traff

i c densit y areas . Excep t fo r sit e L , al l home s wer e heate dwith force dair , natura l ga s furnaces
. Al l dus t sample s wer e take n i n th e centra l are ao f rooms , well away fro mwalls , windows , an ddoors
. Eigh t o f th e site s (A , B , C , D , E , G , I , L ) wer e locate dwher e th e lea dleve l o f outsid e ai r

wa s als o bein g monitored
. Th e remainin g fou r site s (F , H , K , L ) wer e fairl y clos e t o monitorin g stations
. Detaile dresult s fo r

rug - an dnonrug-covere dsur face s ar e show n fo r

bot h lea dan dcadmiu mi n tabl e 6-12 . Thes e dat aar e summarize di n tabl e 6-13 . Aver

ag e dust-leadlevel s wer e 60 0 Mg/ g 68 0 g/m 2 fo r

th e 1 2 homes
. Lea dconcentration s wer e highe r o n woo d an dtil e tha n o n rugs—95 0 an d45 0 g/m 2 , respec tively
. However , th e tota l amoun t o f settle dlea d wa s highe r

o n rug s whe n expresse do n a n are abasis
. Thi s i s becaus e rug s accumulat e mor e dus t tha n bar e floors. Th e lea dlevel s i n dus t wer e simila

r t o thos e reporte db y Kreuge r

[19 ] fo r suburba n Boston . I n general , th e amoun t

o f indoo r lea di n dus t

wa s proportiona l t o outsid e ai r concentrations , eve n thoug h th e latte r

wer e relativel y lo w (mean , 0.2 8 Mg / m3 , range , 0.1 8 t o 0.3 4 Mg/m3) . Sit e H wa s a n excep tio n wher e lowe r

tha n expecte damount s o f lea d wer e found
. Th e apartmen t location s ( F an dK ) wer e als o lowe r

tha n anticipated , base do n th e traffi c lev

TABL E 6-12 . -Mean lead

and cadmium levels in settled floor dusts at residential

sites Sit e cod e A •• -' JX;.ffi C D E F G H 1 J K L Averag e (1 2 sites ) Lea d Mg/ g 1,44 0 69 0 94 0 76 0 90 0 35 0 24 0 50 0 17 0 27 0 43 0 46 0 60 0 Mg/m

2 1,18 0 71 0 1,70 0 58 0 1,59 0 76 0 10 0 7 0 12 0 40 0 65 0 22 0 68 0 Cad m

Mg/ g 2 8 1 9 1 0 1 0 2 0 4 8 2 6 2 5 7 ' • 9 " 1 2 1 2 1 8 iu m

Mg/m J 2 6 1 4 3 1 • 1 1 3 7 13 2 7 3 4 1 5 1 5 6 2 5 el s in th e area . Airborn e lea dwa s no t measure dnear th e apartmen t

sites , an dlittl e i s know n concernin g suc h insid e apartmen t

buildings
. Cadmiu mlevel s a s hig h a s 10 5 Mg/ g an d21 9 Mg/m

2 wer e measure di n som e homes
. Extremel y larg e amounts , averagin g 4 4 Mg/m 2 , wer e foun di n dus t fro mrugs . A majo r

sourc e o

f thi s cadmiu mappear s t o b e th e rubbe r

backin g o n man y carpets . A ran do msampl e o

f thi s materia l assaye d2,00 0 Mg/ g cad

mium , an dabrasio n might wel l caus e it s presenc e i n dust
. Interio r Nonresidential : Fo r amor e complet e evalu

atio n o f huma n exposure , it

i s necessar y t o establis h lea dan dcadmiu mlevel s i n place s wher e peopl e

FIGUR E 6-16.—(B ) Collectio n technique
. 11 7TABL E 6-l3.-Lead

and cadmium content

of floor dust in homes (rug-covered

versus nonrug-c'overed

surfaces) Site cod e Numbe r o f sample s Lea d Mg/ g Mg/m

2 Cadmium

Mg/ g Mg/m

1 A B B (repeat ) C C (repeat ) D E E (repeat ) F F (repeat ) G H I J K L Rug s

Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Rug s Nonrug s Al l rug s Al l nonrug s 7 1 3 7 6 5 1 0 1 4 9 1 4 7 5 1 7 8 1 1 8 9 7 1 6 1 1 1 3 1 4 1 3 6 7 8 4 4 3 1 0 12 0 11 9 83 0

1,78 0 55 0 1,44 0 42 0 48 0 64 0 77 0 52 0 ' 2,58 0 38 0 87 0 34 0 90 0 59 0 1,69 0 47 0 25 0 24 0 29 0 22 0 32 0 30 0 55 0 21 0 10 0 37 0 19 0 58 0 27 0 44 0 47 0 45 0 95 0 1,49 0 1,02 0 59 0 1,98 0 46 0 14 0 2,71 0 36 0 1,94 0 93 0 86 0 51 0 3,06 0 97 0 1,11 0 1,49 0 1,32 0 4 0 35 0 6 0 11 0 7 0 17 0 4 0 16 0 2 0 80 0 4 0 1,16 0 14 0 64 0 9 0 1,22 0 60 0 2 4

2 9 1 6 1 3 1 7 2 5 1 4 7 1 0 7 1 4 9 1 6 1 4 1 2 3 6 6 4 2 6 6 10 5 1 4 7 1 1 1 2 8 7 6 1 3 4 1 3 1 0 1 3 1 2 1 9 1 8 4 3

1 7 1 8 1 8 2 0 6 5 8 4 3 4 5 3 1 5 7 5 1 3 2 0 4 6 21 9 4 7 1 2 2 7 8 6 2 6 1 3 0 1 2 6 4 2 0 A2 "4 4 1 0 work , shop , o r

visi t outsid e th e home
. I n additio n t o direc t exposur e i n thes e areas , som e o f th e dus t ma y b e inadvertentl y carrie dbac k t o th e hom e o n clo

thin g o r shoes
. Mor e tha n 35 0 sample s wer e collecte din schools , hospitals , foo dmarkets , an duniversit y laboratories , offices , an dclassrooms
. A s i n th e homes , sample s wer e take n in th e centra l areas , away fro mwalls
. Al l area s sample dwer e in goo dphysica l condition , wit h n o evidenc e o

f peelin g o

f chippin g paint
. De

taile dresult s ar e show n in tabl e 6-1 4 an dar e furthe r summarize di n tabl e 6-15 . Lea dan dcadmiu mwer e found , ofte n i n ver y high concentrations , i n al l building s sampled
. Extrem e concentration s wer e foun din chemistr y laboratorie s at th e university
. Sinc e level s o f both metal s wer e muc h les s in adjacen t

offices , th e sourc e o

f suc h hig h level s wa s probabl y chemical s bein g use di n th e laboratories
. Fo r

thi s reaso n th e dat afro mchemistr y laboratorie s wer e no t

include di

n th e averag e value s show n in tabl e 6-15 . Ha dthes e dat abee n included , th e averag e value s o

f 1,40 0 Mg/ g an d2,04 0 Mglm 2 woul dhav e bee n almos t

doubled
. I n general , th e level s o

f leadan dcadmiu mwere abou t twic e a s grea t

a s th e residentia l averages . This , especiall y in th e cas e o f lead , undoubtedl y reflecte dairborn e lea dlevels , whic h wer e fro mtw o t o five time s greate r

i n nonresidentia l tha n in resi

dentia l areas . Heavie r

foo t traffi c may als o b e afac

to r i n tckin g dus t

an dsoi l int o th e building s fro mth e outside
. Again , hig h level s o f cadmiu mwer e asso ciate dwit h rubber-backe drug s o r

floor mats . Outdoo r Residential : Airborn e lea dtha t move s di

rectl y int o house s with ai r current s i s perhap s arela

tivel y mino r

sourc e o

f interio r dust-relate dconcen trations
. Th e majo r

sourc e i s mor e likel y relate dt o lea demission s tha t

accumulat e i n dus t

an dsoi l sur roundin g house s an dar e late r tracke dinsid e o r blow n i n a s reentraine ddus t throug h ope n window s an ddoors
. Th e magnitud e of suc h accumulation s wa s determine daroun dth e 1 0 single-famil y dwell

ing s use dfo r

th e indoo r

residentia l study
. Eigh t o £ thes e home s wer e o

f fram e construction , an dth e othe r tw o ha dpainte dwoo dtrim
. Th e exterior s wer e al l i n excellen t

condition , wit

h n o indicatio n o

f peelin g or

chippin g paint
. Analyse s o f pain t fro m8 of th e house s indicate d1 percen t lea dan d5 0 Mg/

g cadmium
. Dat afro m28 8 sample s (all analyze dfo r lead , 17 7 analyze dfo r

cadmium ) hav e bee n groupe db y area s aroun datypica l hous e an dar e show n i n figure* 6-17 . Both median an drang e value s ar e show n t o compen 11 8l?yX*)t.l P.1 6

* - , TABL E 6-\4.-Leadand cadmium in indoor

floor dusts at nonresidential

sites Samplin g sit e Halls/corridors Roge r Adam s Laborator y Mechanica l engineerin g buildin g Kranner t cour t Federa l building s Rug s Nonrug s Kranner t garag e Columbi aSchoo l Gregor y Hal l Rooms in university buildings Universit y laboratorie s 29 9 RA L 22 1 RA L 57-5 9 RA L 136-13 8 RA L 1 1 RA L Universit y office s 105,115,116 , 202,22 2 RA L Universit y classroom s Variou s - Gregor y Hal l Variou s - Lincol n Hal l Rooms in other

buildings Federa l buildin g office s Rug s Nonrug s Columbi aSchoo l classe s ..Rugs/mat s Nonrug s Al l floor s ; : Dr . Howar dSchoo l classroom s Rugs/mat s Nonrug s Al l floor s Carl e Hospita l comple x Entr y area s (carpet ) Hospita l corridors/room s Foo dmarket s Plai n floor s Matte darea s Numbe r o f sample s
3 1 3 6 1 1 1 2 1 0 4 3

3 5 1 8 8 7 9 1 1 7 8

6 1 1 0 1 7 2 7 1 2 2 6 3 8 1 1 1 1 3 4 2 Lea d J y * S J S

. 2,72 0 3,38 0 50 0 1,71 0 4,68 0 1,83 0 1,01 0 74 0

11,40 0 6,28 0 91 0 5,74 0 8,06 0 1,45 0 59 0 93 0

2,32 0 2,96 0 73 0 65 0 68 0 41 0 43 0 42 0 62 0 36 0 49 0 73 0 Mg/m '

69 0 3,01 0 1,19 0 18,00 0 36 0 8,65 0 1,64 0 23 0

3,39 0 5,77 0 12 0 3,56 0 26^6 0 64 0 19 0 15 5

11,78 0 56 0 3,99 0 20 0 1,60 0 2,36 0 21 0 89 0 7,94 0 18 0 10 0 18,00 0 Cadmiu m

Mg/ g
1 4 9 7 2 3 36 9 5 9 5

18 5 8 6 3 3 6 9 7 9 1 3 2 4 1

1,03 3 1,06 0 2 9 7 1 5 3 0 1 9 2 3 2 0 2 2 9 2 4 Mg/m*

6 8 2 1 24 0 2 8 2 5 1 5 1

5 7 7 4 4 3 4 30 2 7 3 0

2,94 3 20 0 12 2 4 4 8 11 5 5 7 1 39 0 4 2 29 0

I « -


### t'A' sat e fo r

variation s in dat arelate dt o difference s i n hous e locations , orientation , etc . Th e term"near " on th e figure i s define da s 1 m . Lea dlevel s wer e hig h a

t al l location s surroundin g th e homes
. Soi l lea dwa s somewhat greate r near th e roa dan dth e house , bu t

i t di dho t vary greatl y fro m on e locatio n t o another
. I n contrast , concentration s i n dus t varie dconsiderably
. Amount s range dfro m 24 0 t o 6,64 0 Mg/

g away fromth e hous e an dfro m13 0 t o 11,760 Mg/

g near th e house
. O n a

n are abasis , amount s wer e a s follow s (value s expresse da s Mg / m 2 ) : (1 ) stree t

gutters—media n 21,300 , rang e 1,270 t o 211,000 ; (2 ) driveways—median 5,820 , rang e 1,05 0 t o 86,000 ; (3 ) walks—median 1,590 , rang e 720 t o 15,200 ; (4) near

house—median 1,840 , rang e 200 t o 9,100 . Cadmiu mlevel s wer e somewhat higher in soil s an ddust s near

th e hous e ( 1 Mg/

g in soil , 6 t o 8 Mg/

g i n dust)
. Tota l cadmiu mlevel s in dust s wer e rela

tivel y uniform , rangin g fro m7 t o 20 Mg/m 2

- Th e house s use din thi s stud y represen t relativel y idea l conditions : lo w traffi c density in th e vicinity ; us e o f low-lea do r

unleade dpaints , an dexcellen t maintenanc e o

f bot h interior s an dexteriors
. Soi l an d dus t leadlevel s increase ddramaticall y aroun dhous

e s tha t di dno t mee t thes e standards
. Thi s wa s TABL E 6-15 . -Mean lead and cadmium levels in settled floor dusts at nonresidential

sites
Surfac e Numbe r

o f sample s Lea d

Mg/ g Mg/m

2 Cadmiu m Mg/ g Mg/m

2 Rugs/mat s Nonrugs/mat s Al l floor s 4 2

21 2 25 4 86 0

U 0 0 1,400 6,67 0

1,12 0 2,04 0 7 0

1 9 4 4 60 4

1 2 11 0 11 9P.1 7 

# m
40wm<20-H 9 B W \JCHH • - r f

. p ?*/i g '

INTERIO R 600pp m (170-1440 ) • ''yy»y. r •.. -yy :

- A J^y.'^kl0^ REA R LAW N ^ ' NEA R HOUS E lOOppr a (20-1060 ) 1160 pp m ;I30-II760 ) NEA R LAW N SOpp m (3O-990 ) 'JkV * * FRONT SURRJC E X NEA R HOUSE FA R FRON T LAWN 70pp m (20-IK M 59 0 ppm(240-2790LWAL K

< £ r£- 18 0 pp m (90-470 ) PARKVMr IKOpp m (290-5020 ) GUTTE R FIGUR E 6-17.—Composit e diagra m showin g lea d i n soi l (medi a n an d rang e values ) i n residentia l areas . show n i n aspecia l stud y o

f area s surroundin g 7 ad

ditiona l fram e structures . Eac h wa s painte dwith an identica l typ e o

f leade dpain t

(27 percen t

P b b y weight)
. The y wer e locate di n ahighe r traffi c densit y are awher e airborn e lea dcontent s wer e tw o t o thre e time s greate r

tha n in th e previousl y mentione dresi

dentia l area . Thes e house s ar e no t no w use da s per sona l residences , althoug h the y wer e i n th e past . Soi l lea dlevel s ar e show n i n figure 6-1 8 a s th e broke n lin e fo r

painte dfram e houses
. Soi l lea dlev

el s wer e muc h highe r

aroun dthes e 7 house s a s compare dwith th e 1 0 home s prevousl y discussed
. Th e larges t

increase s wer e i n soi l adjacen t t o th e cur b an dnea r

th e house
. However , thes e maximu m value s wer e o

f th e sam e orde r

o f magnitud e a s thos e i n settle ddust s o n walk s an ddriveway s of th e 1 0 house s painte dwit

h low-lea dpaints
. Outdoor Nonresidential : Lea dan dcadmiu m concentration s wer e determine di n soi l an ddus t sample s aroun dsevera l o f th e nonresidentia l build

ing s use dfo r

th e indoo r

study
. Dust s wer e sample d at 7 site s (19 5 samples ) an dsoi l a t 20 location s (18 3 samples)
. Al l sample s wer e analyze dfo r lea da s wel l a s 7 0 percen t

fo r cadmium
. All o f th e building s wer e o

f bric k o r ston e con struction
. Traffi c densit y wa s heavie r tha n a t eithe r o f th e tw o location s discusse dabove , wit h volum e amountin g t o 5,00 0 t o 20,00 0 vehicles/2 4 h
. Th e amoun t o f lea din settle ddusts , show n i n figure 6-1 9 a s afunctio n o

f distanc e fro mth e street , reflecte d th e highe r

traffi c volume
. Averag e lea dconcentra tion s wer e abou t

twic e a s grea t

a s thos e foun din th e residentia l zon e wher e traffi c wa s muc h lighter
. Mean lea daccumulation s a s grea t a s 190,000 Mg/m 2 wer e foun do n sidewalks , bu t th e concentration s decrease dwit

h distanc e fro mth e street . Ther e wa s n o increas e i n lea dvalue s nea r buildings
. However , undisturbe ddus t

sample s wer e obtaine dadjacen t t o building s at

onl y tw o locations , an dth e result s wer e inconculsive
. 2500 -

200 0

150 0 E & 

# 8 l00 

# ° a < 

# a 50 0 i — i 1 1 1 1 r

•— • Ston e Structure , Hig h Traffi c *— » Painte

d Fram e (Hig h Lead) , Hig h Traffi c '

OR-O O BUILDIN G ^ ^ UN E 6- 9 9-1 2 12-1 5 18-2 1 DISTANC E FRO M CURB , m FIGUR E 6-18.—Mea n lea d concentratio n i n soil s aroun d ston e an d painte d fram e building s i n high-traffi c areas . I n figure 6-1 8 soi l leadlevel s aroun dston e structure s ar e designate db y asoli dline , a s afunc

tio n o f distanc e fro mth e curb
. Level s wer e highes t a t th e buildin g line , the n droppe drapidl y an din

crease dagai n neare r

th e street . I n th e nonresidentia l are asoi l lea dcontent s wer e severa l time s greate r

tha n th e residentia l values
. Also , concentration s a t

th e cur b wer e muc h greate r tha n thos e foun din th e specia l stud y o f 7 house s painte dwith leade dpaint , (figur e 6-19 ) I n bot h cas 30000 0 -250,00 0

-20OJ0O O , £

5 t

- 150,00 0
100,00 0 50,00 0 

## 2 z 

## 3

1-3 3- 6 6- 9 9-1 2 BUILDIN G LIN E DISTANC E FRO M CURB, m FIGUR E 6-19.—Mea n lea d concentratio n i n dust s fro m nonres identia l sites
. 12 0P.1 8 assa n

es , th e highe r

lea dvalue s reflecte dth e greate r traffi c density in nonresidentia l areas . Cadmiu mlevel s average d1 Mg/ g i n soil s an d2 t o 6 Mg/ g in dust s with n o well-define dtrends
. Tota l cad

miu mi n dus t decrease dfro m13

4 Mg/m

2 at th e stree t t o 1 Mg/m

2 nea r tn e buildin g line
. Source s o f Lead : Th e accumulatio n o f lea di n dust s andsoil s aroun dbuilding s appear s t o b e directl y re late dt o th e volum e o f traffi c o n neighborhoo d street s an droads
. Simila r increase s in th e lea dcon ten t o f ai r a s afunctio n o

f traffi c densit y sugges t that th e majo r

sourc e i s exhaus t

emission s followin g th e combustio n o

f leade dgasolin e in automobiles
. Leaddeposite do n streets , sidewalks , an ddriveway s i s subjec t t o furthe r

distributio n b y th e physica l force s o f win dan dwater . Windblow n particle s asso ciate dwith dus t

ar e ap t t o b e redeposite dwithi n th e urban environmen t

becaus e o

f th e extremely com ple x win dcurrent s cause db y building s an dstree t canyons . A s aconsequence , th e rathe r larg e buildu p o f leadi n soi l an ddust s aroun dbuilding s shoul db e expected
. Th e degre e t o whic h leade dpain t contribute s t o lea dconcentration s i n soi l nea r building s i s no t

s o clear
. Leachin g fro mleade dpain t i s obviousl y a source , a s show n b y th e highe r concentration s o

f soil lea dnear

th e 7 fram e house s painte dwit h lead

e dpaint , a s compare dwith thos e near th e fram e dwelling s wher e low-lea dpaint s wer e used
. However , afurthe r

compariso n o

f th e sam e 7 fram e house s wth th e bric k

an dston e building s (fig
. 6-18 ) show s twic e th e concentratio n o f soi l lea dnear

th e buildin g lin e o

f th e latter
. Althoug h th e bric k an d ston e building s ha dpainte dwoo dtrim , it i s highl y improbabl e tha t

thi s relativel y smal l amoun t o f painte dsurfac e coul daccoun t fo r th e difference
. Leadwashe dfro munguttere droofs , ledges , an d wall s i s amor e likel y majo r source . Lea dsubjec t

t o washof f coul db e particulate s deposite ddirectl y fro mth e ai r o r associate dwith windblow n dus t tha t collect s o n buildings
. Concentration s o

f lea di n hous e dus t

ma y com e directl y fro mairborn e source s o r indirectl y fro m exterio r soi l an ddust
. Th e airborn e contributio n woul db e greates t

durin g warmweathe r

whe n win

dow s an ddoor s ar e ope n fo r ventilation
. I n contrast , dus t an dsoi l ar e tracke dint o house s durin g al l sea son s an dar e likel y t o b e th e majo r sourc e o

f lead
. O f th e two , dus t

i s perhap s th e mos t

important
. Overal l leadvalue s ar e highe r i n dust , an dit

i s con tinually bein g blow n aroun db y th e wind
. Soi l i s generally mor e stable , especiall y aroun destablishe d building s wher e i t

i s usuall y covere dwit

h vegetatio n andles s susceptibl e tha n dus t t o win dtransport . v., , Healt h Implications : Obviously , th e larg e quanti

tie s o f lead

_ an dcadmiu mi n urba n environment s

- rais e question s abou t

th e possibl e effect s o f in

crease dexposur e o n huma n health , especiall y tha t o f small children
. I n th e absenc e o f clinical evid

ence , it i s onl y possibl e t o conjectur e thes e effects
. Becaus e smal l childre n commonl y pla y o n th e floor an dth e ground , an dals o pu t thei r hand s (o r

almos t an y availabl e object ) in thei r mouths , th e potentia l fo r increase dingestio n o f thes e toxi c substance s mos t certainl y exists
. I t

i s significant

tha t thi s potential exist s in well-maintained , bette r home s an dno t

jus t in th e .rundow n tenement , wit h it s peelin g an dchip

pin g paint , tha t

i s suall y associate dwit h th e critical ingestio n o

f lea db y children
. Th e mer e fac t that suc h condition s exis t

i n heretofor e unsuspecte d neighborhood s shoul db e recognize db y medica l diagnostician s an dclinicians
. SMAL L MAMMAL S Sample s o

f smal l mammal s wer e obtainedb y snap-trappin g fro mth e followin g situations: ; withi n 1 0 mo f ahigh-us e roa d( > 12,000 vehicles/2 4 h) ; withi n 5 mo

f medium-us e road s (2,00 0 t o 6,000 vehicles/2 4 h) ; an dwithi n 5 mo f low-us e road s (4,00 0 vehicles/2 4 h)
. Contro l sample s wer e take n fro msituation s a t

leas t 5 mawa y fro man y road (normall y th e closes t

roa dwa s on e wit

h lo w traffic volume)
. Trappin g wa s don e seasonall y (November , March , June , an dAugust) . All specimen s wer e washe dthoroughl y i n glass

distille dwate r

t o remov e a s muc h particulat e lea d fro mth e fur

an dski n a s possible ; th e specimen s wer e the n freeze-dried
. Th e entir e animal (includin g th e digestiv e tract ) wa s processe dwhe n th e drie d specime n weighe dles s tha n 1 0 g . Specimen s heavie r tha n 1 0 g wer e groun di n ablende r an d1 g subsam

ple s wer e processe dfo r lea danalyses
. Individual s wer e als o selecte dfro meac h trappin g for tissu e analysis
. All lea dconcentration s wer e recorde di n Mg/ g (du)
. Al l specie s excep t

th e white-foote dmouse , Peromyscus leucopus, ha dhighe r lea dconcentration s i

n habitat s adjacen t

t o high-traffi c roads , (tabl e 6-16) . Sinc e th e hom e rang e o f th e white-foote dmous e average s mor e tha n 5 0 min diameter , eve n thos e individual s caugh t

neares t th e highway wer e un doubtedl y spendin g aconsiderabl e amoun t o f time muc h furthe r

removed
. Thi s probabl y account s for th e lo w leve l o

f lea din thi s species
. Lea dconcentration s i n smal l mammal s take n alon g medium-us e road s wer e usuall y intermediat e betwee n thos e take n nea r low

- an dhigh-traffi c roads
. Ther e wa s n o significant differenc e in lea dconcen tration s i n smal l mammal s alon g low-traffi c road s an dthos e take n mor e tha n 5 0 mfro man y road
. Alon g hig h traffi c road s ther e wa s acorrelatio n betwee n habita t

requirement s an dlea dconcentra tion s i n smal l mammals
. Specie s tha t requir e dens e vegetatio n an dd o no t

rang e ou t

int o cultivate dfields (Microtus ochrogaster, prairi e vole ; Blarina brevicauda, short-taile dshrew ; Cryptotis parva, leas t shrew ; an dReithrodontomys megalotis, whit e har

ves t mouse ) ha dhighe r

lea dconcentration s tha n di d thos e tha t

d o exten dthei r

range s int o cultivate d area s an dthu s ou t

mor e tha n 5 0 mfro mroads ; (Peromyscus mainculatus, white-foote dmouse ; Mus musculus, hous e mouse) . Ther e wa s n o correlation s betwee n lea dconcentratio n in th e smal l mammal s an dth e seaso n o

f th e year . Alon g heavy-us e road s ther e wa s agenera l corre latio n betwee n feedin g habit s an dleadconcentra 12 1P.1 9

TABL E 6-16 . -Lead

content of small mammals 1

Specie s Blarina brevicauda Crvptotis parva Peromyscus maniculatus Peromyscus leucopus Reithrodontomys megalotis Microtus ochrogaster Mus musculus Spermophilus tridecemlineatus Hig h (12,000 ) 4 15. 2 (46 ) 12. 3 (13 ) 4 5. 5 (57 ) 2. 6 (16 ) 10. 8 (32 ) 4 8. 2 (40 ) 6. 9 (51 )

- Lea d concentratio n (jig/g dr y Traffi c levels 5 Mediu m ( 2 t o 6,000 ) 4 6. 5 (71 ) 5. 4 (3 ) 3. 7 (103 ) 2. 6 (23 ) 3. 8 (23 ) 4 4. 3 (60 ) 3. 5 (150 ) 8. 2 (13 ) Lo w

(<400 ) 4 3. 9 (49 ) 3. 2 (3 ) 4 2. 6 (63 )

- 3. 1 (6 ) "2. 6 (50 ) 4. 2 (59 )

- weight )

Fields 3 3. 6 (16 ) 7. 4 (7 ) 2. 8 (99 ) 2. 7 (4 ) 3. 1 (20 ) 3. 3 (13 ) • 4. 6 (104 ) 4. 3 (17 ) 

# - 1

^ S Urba n 31. 7 (37 )

- . 12. 1 (8 )

- • - A

- 11. 2 (8 ) ' 13. 7 (4 ) " 16. 0 (1 ) 'Sampl e siz e i n parentheses . 2 Vehicles/2 4 h . Animal s take n withi n 1 0 m o f road . 3 Animal s take n mor e tha n S O m fro m a road . 4 Differenc e betwee n lea d concentration s o f sample s o f

a give n specie s fro m th e indicate d site s significan ta tP < .01 . tion s i n th e bod y tissues
. Insectivore s (th e shrews ) ha dth e highes t

concentration s o

f lead ; herbivore s (prairi e voles ) ha dintermediat e levels ; whil e grani

vore s (deer , white-foote dan dhous e mice ) ha dth e lowes t level s o f lea drecorded
. Th e whit e harves t mous e ( agranivore) di dno t fit thi s pattern ; likewise , Spermophilus tridecemlineatus, 13-linedgroun d squirre l (als o agranivore) , showe dhighe r level s o f lea dtha n othe r

specie s alon g medium-us e roads
. Th e reason s fo r

th e difference s i n thes e tw o specie s coul dno t b e determined ; th e smal l sampl e siz e ma y hav e bee n a t

leas t partiall y responsibl e i n regar dt o th e 13-linedgroun dsquirrel
. Th e highe r

lea dlevel s i n th e shrew s may hav e resulte dfro mfoo dchai n concentration
. Insects , th e majo r die t o f th e shrew , take n fro marea s adjacen t t o high-traffi c roads , als o showe drelativel y hig h concentration s of

lead
. Carnivorou s insect s a t thes e site s displaye dhighe r

lea dconcentration s tha n di d herbivorou s o r

granivorou s species
. Lea dconcentration s i n th e organ s an dtissue s o f th e smal l mammal s itemize dir i tabl e 6-1 7 wer e gen - , erall y highes t

i n th e bones ; othe r

organ s an dtissue s ; di dno t hav e lea dconcentration s significantl y higher tha n tha t o f th e tota l body
. Th e lea dlevel s i n bon e wer e generall y lo w i n term s o f absolut e amounts , , averagin g 10

9 Mg/ g fo r thre e specimen s o

f th e whit e ; harves t mous e an d6

7 Mg/ g fo r 4 9 specimen s o

f th e short-taile dshrew
. There , wa s n o indicatio n o f lead ' concentration s i n an y organ tha t coul dcaus e patho

logica l problems i n th e individual
. Du e t o thei r

size , onl y selecte dorgan s an dtissue s o f th e large r

mammal s wer e analyze dfo r lea d.con tent . Th e organ s wer e remove dfro mth e animal , ; freeze-dried , an dthe n analyzed
. Th e result s ar e pre sente di n tabl e 6-18 . ' Althoug h th e absolut e value s wer e lo w fo r th e larg e mammal s i n bot h th e rura l an durba n areas , th e ; animal s capture dwithi n th e urba n compartmen t (i t wa s assumedthe y spen t mos t o f thei r live s therein ) TABL E 6-17 . -Mean lead concentrations in organs and tissues of

small mammals Lea d concentratio n 0ig/ g dr y weight ) Specie s Blarina brevicauda Microtus ochrogaster Peromyscus maniculatus
Mus musculus Riethrodontomys megalotis Exposur e High Mediu m Lo w Hig h Mediu m Lo w Hig h Mediu m Lo w Control 3 Hig h Mediu m Lo w Contro l Hig h Mediu m Lo w Tota l

bod y 18. 4 6. 7 5. 7 5.1 ' 5. 9 1. 9 '6. 3 4. 3 3. 3 3. 1 6. 8 6. 0 6. 7 2. 0 12. 3 3. 1 2. 7 Gu t

24. 0 7. 0 3. 1 11. 0 18. 4 2. 8 19. 2 6. 0 4. 5 4. 3 18. 6 8. 8 4. 8 2. 7 17. 8 6. 2 3. 5 Splee n

4. 5 3. 6 2. 3 5. 3 2. 2 2. 4 19. 4 3. 0 6. 5 3. 7 12. 1 3. 1 5. 1 2. 1 14. 5 9. 2 5. 6 Live r

4. 6 2. 0 1. 0 1. 6 1. 2 1. 0 3. 5 1. 7 1. 8 1. 1 2. 9 1. 6 1. 6 1. 9 4. 7 1. 1 2. 3 Lun g

16. 9 5. 6 7- 8 2. 8 1. 8 1. 3 6. 4 2. 4 6. 1 1. 5 2. 8 3. 4 1. 7 3. 4 20. 9 4. 2 4. 7 Kidne y

12. 4 5. 8 3. 9 8. 1 7. 6 2. 8 7. 9 9. 0 3. 0 1. 8 8. 1 6. 6 3. 1 3. 4

_ _ 2. 1 4. 8 Bone '

67. 1 19. 9 12. 2 16. 6 23. 2 4. 6 24. 6 8. 0 6. 4 5. 7 19. 2 21. 0 23. 5 9. 3 109. 5 '
_ 18. 4 • Muscle 1

9. 7 5. 7 5. 4 8. 2 3. 0 2. 0 6. 8 7. 4 1. 8 2. 1 5. 9 3. 9 3. 4 3. 8 27.5. , 4. 4

-
' Femu r 'Thig h 3 Fields mor e tha n 5 0 m fro m a road . 12 2 S.f) 

## iTABL E 6- 1 S.-Lead concentration (ug/g dry weight) ' in organs and tissues of

large mammals Lea dconcentratio n (Mg/ g dr y weight ) • r —— - ' " Are aNumbe r

Splee n Live r

Lun g Kidne y Bone 1 Muscle 2 Urba n Rura l 2. 4

0. 4 7. 9

1. 4 3. 1 0. 6 8. 8 3. 7 21. 8

3. 0 0. 9 0. 4

' Femur . 2 Thigh
. 3 Gra y squirrel , 3 ; opossum , 2;raccoon , 1 . 4 Gra y squirrel , 1 ; fo x squirrel , 1 ; raccoon , 2 ; rabbit , 1 ; gray fox , ha dhighe r lea dconcentration s tha n di dthos e fro m (he rura l compartment . Tota l bod y lea dconcentration s appeared , i n gener al , t o hav e bee n relativel y lo w in al l specie s o f mammal s studied
. Ther e wa s n o informatio n a s t o whethe r lea dconcentration s suc h a s thos e foun di n thi s stud y woul dhav e influence dth e variou s popula

tio n parameters . I t

wa s als o no t

know n what

effect , i f any , suc h lea dconcentration s woul dhav e o n th e reproductio n an dsurviva l o f individual s livin g adja

cent t o high-us e roads
. However , eve n i

f lea dhadadeleteriou s effect , it probabl y woul dno t

b e asignificant

facto r affectin g population s o

f th e specie s studied
. Habitat s withi n 5 0 mo f heavy-us e road s constitute donl y 12. 5 per cent o f th e tota l availabl e habita t fo r th e prairi e vole , whit e harves t

mouse , an dleas t

shrew ; 1 1 per cent o f th e availabl e habita t

fo r th e short-taile d shrew ; les s tha n 1. 5 percen t o f tha t fo r th e dee r an d hous e mouse ; approximatel y 1 0 percen t o f tha t fo r the'"13-linedgroun dsquirrel ; an dles s tha n 1 percen t o f th e tota l availabl e habita t fo r th e white-foote d mouse . Any increase dmortalit y or reduce drepro ductio n resultin g fro mth e leadtake n u p b y smal l mammal s woul daffec t

onl y amino r

segmen t o f th e total populatio n o

f an y specie s in th e watershed
. Such losse s woul dquickl y b e replace db y dispersa l fro madjacen t

populations
. I t i s highl y doubtfu l tha t

th e ver y lo w concentra tion s o f lea din th e larger

mammal s coul dhav e a significant impac t o n th e populatio n dynamic s o f thes e animals
. Bird s Sample s o

f th e birdpopulatio n wer e obtaine db y shootin g individual specimen s wit h apelletgu n or shotgu n wit

h coppe r shot
. Severa l factor s wer e con sidere di n obtainin g specimen s fro marea s o f hig h environmenta l lead
. First , few bird s nes t clos e t o road s wit h heav y traffic
. I n addition , th e territorie s o f bird s ar e sufficiently larg e tha t individual s nestin g adjacen t t o aroa dwoul dspen damajo r par t o f thei r tim e outsid e th e zon e o f high leadconcentration
. Thu s bird s fro mth e urban compartmen t woul db e mor e representativ e o

f thos e livin g in high-lea dsitu

ations , an dmos t

o f th e sample s fo r

th e high-lea d are awer e take n there
. However , 4 specimen s o f breedin g red-winge dblackbird s wer e take n fro ma mars h 5 m-fro ma

n interstat e highway
. Contro l spec imen s fo r eac h specie s wer e take n fro msite s mor e tha n 5 0 mfro man y road
. I n almos t all cases , th e bird s fro mth e urba n com partmen t an dth e red-winge dblackbird s obtaine d alon g th e interstat e highwa y ha dhighe r

lea dconcen tration s i n th e organ s an dtissue s sample dtha n di d individual s fro mrura l areas , (tabl e 6-19 ) Th e feath

er s an dbone s (an din starlings , th e kidneys ) ha dth e highes t lea dconcentration s o

f an y tissu e sample d fro mterrestria l vertebrates
. Lea dconcentration s wer e n o higher

in th e robi n an dred-winge dblackbird , whic h fee dextensivel y o n invertebrates , a s com pare dwit

h see dfeeder s (i.e. , Hous e sparrow) o r omnivore s (th e remainin g species)
. Althoug h sampl e size s wer e to o smal l fo r statistica l analysis , adul t hous e sparrows , starlings , grackles , an drobin s ha d somewhat higher leadconcentration s in mos t tissue s tha n di dimmatur e individuals
. Th e highes t

concentration s occurre din th e feath

er s an dbone s o

f urba n birds , relativel y "inactive " TABL E 6.-19 . -Lead

concentration in bird

organs and

tissues from areas of

high-lead

and low-lead environments 1 Specie s Red-winge d blackbir d Hous e sparro w Starlin g Grackl e Robi n Lea dleve l

Lo w (10 ) Hig h (4) 5 Lo w (16 ) Hig h (11 ) Lo w (11 ) Hig h (13 ) Lo w (10 ) Hig h (11 ) Lo w (10 ) Hig h (10 ) Feather s

26. 5 66. 8 27. 0 . 158. 3 6. 4 225. 1 36. 0 81. 4 25. 3 79. 7 Lea dconcentratio n (/ug/ g dr y weight ) Gu t 3 2. 1 3 2. 6 2. 3 26. 2 1. 3 6. 0 1. 4 10. 2 3. 2 24. 5 Live r

5. 8 1. 2 0. 6 12. 0 4. 0 16. 1 2. 5 12. 1 2. 4 10. 5 Lun g

0. 4 4. 1 0. 9 6. 9 3 2. 8 3 5. 2 3 2. 3 2. 7 2. 2 10. 3 Kidne y

3 2. 1 3 4. 1 3. 5 33. 9 3. 6 98. 5 3. 5 13. 5 7. 3 25. 0 Bone 2

6. 9 9. 1 16. 9 130. 4 12. 8 213. 0 21. 5 62. 8 41. 3 133. 7 Muscle 3 3 0. 8 3 0.6

- 0. 9 2. 1 3 0. 8 3 2. 4 0. 8 1. 4 3 1. 0 • 3 1. 2 '&?.

, ^ . 'Sampl e siz e i n parentheses
.

2 Femur . 'Pectoral
. j ^ -y . 4 Difference s betwee n lo w an dhig h lea denvironment s no t significan t

a t th e P < .0 5 level ; al l other s significan t a t leas t a t th e P < .0 5 level
. Sample s take n 1 0 mfro minterstat e highway
. %£>* 12 3

246-86 7 O - 7 7 - 9P.2 1

tissues
. However , i

t i s highl y doubtfu l tha t

th e lea d concentration s foun din eve n th e mor e critica l or gan s were great

enoug h t o affec t

th e surviva l o

f birds
. In contras t

t o some observation s o f insectivorou s small mammals , ther e wa s n o indicatio n o f food

chai n concentratio n o

f lea din bird s i n thi s study
. Th e prominen t

insectivorou s specie s ha dn o highe r concentration s than di dth e seed , fruit , o r omnivo

rou s feeders
. Althoug h th e bird s wer e obtaine dduring th e sprin g whe n man y wer e feedin g o n fruit s an d berries , th e youn g bird s shoul dhav e ha ddiet s con sistin g primaril y o

f invertebrates
. However , i n mos t instance s wher e ther e wa s adifference , th e youn g hadlower

level s than th e adults
. I t woul dappea r tha t ag e i s mor e importan t

i n th e accumulatio n o

f leadtha n actua l feedin g habits
. Tota l Lead i n Terrestria l Vertebrate s Estimate s o

f th e tota l amoun t

o f lea din smal l mammal s i n th e rura l compartmen t wer e a s follows : (1 ) I f all specie s wer e at

amaximu mpopulatio n densit y at th e sam e time , th e tota l amoun t o f leadstore dwoul db e 47. 2 g . (2 ) I f al l specie s wer e a t

thei r lowes t populatio n density a t th e sam e time , the y woul dcontai n a tota l o f 2. 2 g . (3 ) Th e bes t

estimat e o

f th e averag e amoun t

o f leadi n th e mammal' s bod y at ajn y give n tim e wa s 23. 7 g . Thu s th e amoun t

o f lead , in th e tota l standin g bio

mas s o f smal l mammal s in th e ecosyste ma t an y give n tim e wa s very small , representin g a n insignificant facto r in th e flux o

f lea dthroug h th e ecosystem . I n conclusion , terrestria l vertebrate s d o ho t appear t o b e significantl y affecte db y curren t environmenta l concentration s o

f lea dfro mvehicl e exhaust
. Neithe r d o thes e animal group s appea r t o b e significant

fac

tor s i n th e lea dflu

x in eithe r

th e urba n o r

rura l com partment s o

f th e ecosystem . Insect s Insec t communitie s i n th e ecosyste mwer e sam ple do n aweekl y basi s durin g th e 197 3 an d197 4 growin g seasons . Sampl e site s wer e locate di n var iou s compartment s o

f th e ecosyste mprimaril y i n relatio n t o potentia l lea dinput
. High-lead-inpu t area s wer e clos e t o an interstat e highwa y bordere dby
. mowe dgras s ( > 12,000 vehicles/2 4 h) ; intermediat e area s wer e alon g secondar y road s (2,00 0 vehicles/2 4 h) ; an dlow-inpu t

area s wer e remot e t o traffi c o r les s tha n 500 vehicles/2 4 h
. Sample s wer e als o take n in fields o f cor n an dsoybeans , bot h adjacen t t o th e interstat e highway an dremot e fro mheav y traffic , an di n remot e area s o

f natura l vegetation
. Sample s wer e collecte dwith aportabl e suctio n trap , sorted , drie dfo r 4 8 h a t 85 ° C , an dweighed
. Mas s collec

tion s o f insect s fo r

lea danalyse s wer e mad e b y walkin g a t

ase t distanc e fro mth e pavemen t fo r abou t 1 0 min
. Additiona l collections , use dt o estimat e insec t biomas s pe r

uni t area , wer e take n b y placin g th e suctio n tra p nozzl e diamete r 3 4 cm ) verticall y ont o th e groun dan dextractin g th e insect s fro mthi s know n are a(0.085 5 m 2 ) o f substrate
. Insect s wer e categorize daccordin g t o thei r feedin g habits : suckin g plan t

juices , chewin g plan t

parts , o r preyin g upo n othe r

insects
. Sample s fro magive n sit e withi n th e 3 categorie s wer e composite dunti l abou t 1 g (dw ) o f insec t materia l wa s collected
. Thi s materia l wa s the n analyze dfo r

lea dconten t

b y atomi c ab

sorptio n spectroscopy . N o significant

difference s i n th e lea dconten t o f insect s wer e observe dbetwee n sample s take n at differen t site s with th e sam e traffi c densit y an dvege tatio n type , no r

betwee n sample s take n a t differen t time s o f th e year . Therefore , th e dat awer e groupe d

. TABL E 6-20.-Mean lead

content (ug/g) in the urban and

rural compartments ofthe ecosystem Sampl e site Urba n Hig h traffi c volume Intermediat e Lo w traffi c volum

e Rura l Hig h traffi c volum

e Lo w traffi c volum

e Remote fro

mtraffi c Urba n Hig h traffi c volum

e Intermediat e Lo w traffi c volum

e Privat e yard Rura l Lo w traffi c volum

e Remote fro mtraffi c Leaf-hopper s

(Cicadellidae) 15. 0 5. 7 11. 6 10. 5 7. 8
4. 1 3. 1 3. 4 12. 9
3. 5 Plant

bug s (Miridae) 29. 5 6. 2
11. 0 7. 5 5. 4
9. 8 3. 0 3. 4

3. 9 Long-horne d

grasshopper s : I (Tettigoniidaej 63. 2 77. 4
49. 4 44. 5 4. 8

-

- Short-horne d

grasshopper s (Acrididae) 197 3 57. 5

13. 4 10. 8
197 4

- Flower

Qies (Syrphidae) 39. 6 24. 9 6. 7 12. 9 15. 8 5. 5
15. 5 3. 0 4. 8 8. 4

- Ant s

(Formicidae) 99. 1 54. 6 66. 8 52. 3 21. 5 10. 4
45. 1 13. 3 "' : 20. 1 27. 0 2. 4 3. 8 Lad

y beetle s (Coccinellidae)

-

-

3 11. 3 8. 3 10. 7 3. 3 14. 0 3. 7 . a

* *

12 4an

danalyze dfo r

difference s betwee n insec t feedin g type s an dbetwee n eac h o f th e majo r

traffi c densit y andvegetatio n categories
. . . * ; Lea dconten t

in insect s wa s positivel y correlate d wit h lead-emissio n levels , decreasin g fro marea s o f high-traffi c volum e t o area s remot e fro mroads , (ta

ble 6-20) A compariso n o f familie s sample ddurin g 1973 an d197

4 show s tha t

th e lea dconcentration s in 197 4 wer e abou t

5 0 t o 6 0 percen t

lowe r tha n in 1973 . Th e reason s fo r

observe dpopulation s shift s an d lowe r leadlevel s ar e unknown
. I n high-lead-emissio n areas , ther e wa s atren do f increasin g lea dconten t

fro msucking , t o chewing , t o predatory insects ; n o suc h tren dwa s eviden t in low

emissio n areas , (fig
. 6-20) [20 ] Chewin g insect s prob

ably ingeste dmor e lea dfro msurfac e deposit s o n leave s tha n di dinsect s suckin g liquid s fro mth e in

ternal vascular

tissue s o

f plants
. Dat ao n predator y insect s tha t

fee do n lead-containin g herbivore s sug geste dtha t

leadwa s selectivel y retaine di n th e body , leadin g t o biological concentratio n i n thi s two-trdph

ic-leve l system . Ther e wa s n o evidenc e o f lea d concentratio n b y herbivorou s insects
. Ther e wa s als o adecreas e ir i th e lea dconten t

o f insect s with increasin g distanc e fro mahigh-traffic

volume highway , (tabl e 6-21 ) Thi s patter n wa s simi

la r t o tha t fo r lea di n soil s an dplants
. Th e biomas s o

f insects , estimate db y suction

trappin g aknow n area , differe dat eac h locality
. Nea r th e interstat e highway , fro m0 t o 7 mfro mth e pavement , th e mean biomas s wa s 0.324 g/m 2 ; th e mea n leadconten t

o f 25. 3 uglg, resultin g in alea d concentratio n o

f 8.2 1 Mg/m

2

- Fro m1 3 t o 20 m s fro m th e interstate , th e biomas s wa s 0.40 8 g/m 2 ; th e lea d conten t wa s 10. 9 jug/g , resultin g i n aconcentratio n o f 4.4 3 Mg/m

2

- At Brownfiel dmeado w nex t t o alow-us e road , th e biomas s wa s higher : 0.50 0 g/m 2 with a mea n lea dconten t

o f 10. 2 ppm , yieldin g aconcen tratio n o f 5.07 Mg/m

2

. Th e level s o

f lea dpe r

uni t are awer e muc h lowe r

in site s remot e fro mroad s an d i n agricultura l crops , eve n thoug h crop s adjacen t t o th e interstat e (i.e. , abou t 3 0 mfro mth e pavement ) wer e sampled
. Natura l vegetatio n habitat s ha da mea n insec t biomass.o f

0.37 8 g/m 2 , whil e soybea n an dcorn fields ha dan insec t biomas s o

f onl y 0.14 6 g/m 2

. Lea dconcentration s wer e 1.5 8 Mg/m 2 an d0.6 1 f-glm-, respectively
. Th e lo w insec t biomas s an d resultin g lo w leadconcentration s i n croppe darea s ma y b e attribute dt o th e lo w diversit y o f habitat s i n cultivate dfields, a s wel l a s t o th e us e o f insecti

cides
. 

### S h TABL E 6-2 1 .-Lead

concentration of

insects at

two distances from a high-traffic-volume road (interstate highway) p^jj L '"sec t

feeding typ e Lea dconcentratio n (jig/g ) 0- 7 mfrom pavement 13-2 0 mfro m pavement Suckin g Chewin g Predator y Mea n 15. 7 27. 3 31. 0 24. 7 9. 8

10. 4 20. 0 13. 4 •M r

- Mr 

### E Q L 

### a.
U J 1 - 

## z O O Q 

### < 

### 3 0 r 

### 2 5 2 0 1 5 1 0 5
L H SUCKIN G 

### L H

CHEWIN G 

### L H

PREDATORY 

### FEEDIN G TYPE S FIGUR E 6-20.—Lead conten t o f variou s insect trophi c level s fo rlo w (L) an d hig h (H ) traffi c areas . Becaus e abou t

7 5 percent " o

f th e ecosyste mcon siste do f cultivated , lan darea s with lo w insec t bio

mas s an dbecaus e th e level s o f lea di n th e existin g insec t populatio n wer e relativel y low , it seem s tha t th e insec t componen t

o f th e ecosyste mdi dno t

ac t a s areservoi r

fo r larg e quantitie s o

f lead
. However , insect s di dcontribut e significantl y t o th e flow o f energ y an dpollutant s u p th e foo dchain , an dlea d concentratio n near

high-emissio n area s coul dresul t i n poisonin g o

f insec t predators
. Conclusion s Lea di n th e terrestria l portio n o f th e syste mwa s concentrate di n th e soils , plants , animals , an din

sect s i n th e urba n are ao r near high-traffic-volume highways
. Sample s take n i n location s remot e fro m traffi c source s ha drelativel y lo w lea dconcentra tions , whic h ma

y b e considere dt o represen t th e backgroun dlevel
. However , becaus e o f th e consid

erabl e enhancemen t

o f lea dconcentration s in soil s an dorganism s collecte dnea r high-traffi c area s an d becaus e of

th e increas e i n th e environmenta l lea d loa dwith time , a s show n b y tree-rin g studies , i t i s importan t tha t area s wit

h high-traffi c volume s b e closel y monitore din th e futur e t o ensur e tha t envi

ronmenta l lea dconcentration s d o no t reac h toxi c levels
. Additiona l studie s i n thes e high-lea denviron

ment s ar e currentl y in progres s t o evaluat e th e pos sibl e los s o

f plan t o r cro p productivity
. I t

i s critica l tha t threshol da s wel l a s toxi c concentration s b e 12 5determined , especiall y i n th e cas e of plan t produc

tivity , t o allo w amor e thoroug h evaluatio n o f th e lea dproblem
. LEA D I N TH E AQUATI C ECOSYSTE M Fro mth e terrestria l par t o f th e ecosystem , lea d enter s th e aquati c syste mprimaril y in surfac e runof f a s suspende dparticle s o r adsorbe dt o soi l particles
. Atmospheri c fallout , aerosol s scrubbe dfro mth e ai r b y precipitation , an ddirec t contac t with product s containin g leadar e othe r source s o

f lea dt o th e aquati c system . Sinc e man y aquati c system s hav e n o major export s o

f lead , the y mus t

b e considere dpo tentia l sink s fo r

lea dpollutants
. Th e sediments , plants , invertebrates , an dfish in th e stream s wer e examine dt o determin e th e distri

butio n an daccumulatio n o f lea db y higher

trophi c levels , an dt o measur e th e physica l transpor t o f lea d b y aquati c invertebrate s an dfish. Th e Salin e Ditc h drainag e above ' th e villag e o f Mayvie w (whic h include s al l o f th e ecosyste munde r study ) wa s divide dint o fou r sectors—rural , urban , marginal , an dcombined , (fig
. 6-21 ) Th e 1 4 samplin g station s assigne dt o the
. variou s sector s include da variety o f habitat s an dlocalities, (fig
. 6-21 ) Essentia l measurement s o f strea msiz e an dchar

acte r wer e mad e an dupdate dthroughou t th e stud y period
. Width , depth , curren t velocity , an dsubstrat e typ e wer e measure do n transect s a t 40 0 minterval s alon g th e strea mlength
. Discharge , botto mcomposi

TABL E 6-22 . Substrate composition ofthe benthos sampling stations in various parts ofthe Saline Ditch drainage

RURA L SECTO R

.URBA N SECTOR ' I Champaig n - Urban a Cit y Limit s Q Samplin g station s V Sewage treatmen t plan t FIGUR E 6-21.—Th e Salin e Ditc h drainag e basin , stud y are a divisions , an d samplin g stations . Division-statio n Rural tributarie s

I 1 1 II I I V Rura l mainstrea m V V I VI I Margina l VII I I X Urba n X X I XI I Combine d XII I XI V San d

2 6 5 4 2 5 4 8 2 3 5 4 4 5 0 9 6 5 7 1 3 3 4 5 2 SU t
5 0 9 5 9 6 9 8 28 . 7 4 0 2 1 1 1 2 8
8 7 Grave

l Rubbl e (percent ) 2 4

1 8 1 1 2 5 2 5 24

3 1 4 4 4 1 1 0

1 5 2 9 3 6 1 4 Concret e '

..s^tiM

•'. ,

• * •••m. '*~."r

-

• •

i '. .

26 2 0

tion , an dstrea mare afo r eac h station wer e calculat

e dfro mthes e data
. Th e rura l secto r

include d136. 3 km 2 o

f predomi

nantl y agricultura l lan dalon g th e mai n strea mo f th e Salin e Ditc h an dit s headwate r tributarie s nort h o

f Champaign-Urbana. Mos t o f th e 47. 5 k

mof'rura l stream s hav e bee n channelize dt o facilitat e drainage
. Fou r samplin g station s ( I t o IV ) wer e establishe do n th e primar y an dsecondar y tributarie s an dthre e (V " t o VII) o n th e mai n stream . Th e averag e discharg e o f th e rura l secto r

wa s abou t

2 0 m^/min
. Th e pre dominan t substrat e o

f th e tributarie s wa s silt , wit h san dan dgrave l i n th e mai n stream , (tabl e 6-22) Th e margina l sector , a5. 5 k mstrea msectio n wit

h adrainag e basi n o

f 22. 9 km 2 , i s an extensio n o f th e rura l mai n strea man dwa s considere datransitiona l are abetwee n th e rura l an durba n sectors . Du e t o th e complexity of

externa l influences , principall y o f ur ba n origin , minimal effor t wa s expende do n th e tw o station s (VII I an dIX ) i n thi s sector . Th e discharg e an dsubstrat e compositio n wer e ver y simila r t o thos e o f th e mai n strea mi n th e rura l sector . Th e urba n secto r

include d16. 1 km 2 o

f th e Bone

yar dCree k

drainag e basin
. Th e creek , a4. 8 k mtrib

utar y o f th e Salin e Ditch , i s locate dwithi n th e cit y limit s o f Champaig n an dUrbana
. Th e averag e dis

charg e i s abou t

5. 0 m3/min
. Almos t

2 0 percen t

o f Boneyar dCree k

i s route dthroug h channel s o f poure dconcrete , segment s o f whic h hav e botto m sediment s entirel y composedo f san dan dgravel , (tabl e 6-22 ) Hig h tota l dissolve dsolid s an dperiodi c occurrence s o

f ammoni acharacterize dth e chemica l natur e o f th e tributary
. Th e combine ddivisio n wa s comprise do f th e dis

charge s fro mth e Salin e Ditc h headwaters , Boheyar d Creek , an dth e urba n sewag e treatmen t plant
. Tw o 12 6station' s (XII I an dXIV ) wer e locate dalon g th e 10. 6

k mlength
. Th e discharg e fro mth e tota l ecosyste m watershe do

f 6 0 m 3 /min
. wa s measure dat .statio n XII I downstrea mo

f th e effluen

t outle t fo r th e urba n sewag e treatmen t

plant
. Urba n an drura l lands , a s well a s asanitar y landfill , wer e withi n th e 37. 7 km 2 drainag e basi n o

f thi s sector . Th e substrat e wa s almos t entirel y san dan dgravel , (tabl e 6-22) an dth e wate r wa s generall y hig h i n th e nutrients
. Sediment s Sedimen t sample s wer e take n with a1/30 0 m 2 positio n corin g devic e t o adept h o f 1 0 c mbecaus e mos t o f th e penetratio n o

f benthi c organism s an d wate r circulatio n wa s judge dt o occu r onl y in tha t portio n o f th e sediment
. Sample s wer e screene dt o remov e materia l large r

tha n 2. 0 m

mi n diameter , becaus e preliminary work indicate dtha t

mor e tha n 9 0 percen t o f th e lea dwa s associate dwit h smaller particles
. Sample s wer e drie dan dthoroughl y mixe d before subsample s o

f 1 t o 2 g , obtaine db y arifletyp e sampl e splitter , wer e analyze dfo r lead
. Th e lea dconcentratio n o f sedimen t

sample s differe dsignificantl y i n variou s section s o f th e Salin e Ditc h drainage , (tabl e 6-23 ) Th e lea dconcentration s i n Boneyar dCree k

sediment s o

f th e urba n secto r reache damaximu mo

f 1,10 0 Mg/ g nea r statio n XII . Sediment s at

station X , th e headwater s o f Boneyar d Creek , ha damea n lea dconten t o f 584 Mg/g. Othe r urban sedimen t

samplin g point s showe dawid e variatio n i n lea dcontent , bu t wer e wel l belo w th e mean/valu e o

f 387. 5 iug/g
. However , th e urba n concentratio n wa s mor e tha n 1 0 time s greate r tha n tha t o f th e combine dsector . Mai n strea mrura l sediment s ha dlea dconcentration s les s tha n thos e o f th e combine dsector . Ther e wa s n o significant differenc e i n sedimen t

leadconcentration s betwee n station s o n th e rura l tributarie s an dthos e in th e margina l sector , whic h receive s mor e leaddu e t o som e urba n runoff

. Th e relativel y hig h concentratio n o f lea di n th e sediment s o f th e rura l tributarie s resulte dfro mth e ability o f thes e ver y fine highl y organi c sediment s t o bin davailabl e lea dmor e successfull y tha n th e san dtha t dominate s strea m bed s i n th e marginal an dothe r sectors . Th e mai n strea mrura l section s ( V t o VII) ha dth e lowes t significant concentrations
. Lea dconten t

o f sediment s decrease dwith dept h a s show n b y separat e analyse s of 1 c msegment s o

f 1 0 c mcor e sample s take n fro m6 rura l an d6 urba n points
. Concentration s wer e exceedingl y hig h in th e to p 1 c mfro mbot h areas , (fig
. 6-22) Thes e relativel y hig h concentration s wer e probabl y du e t o accumulatio n o

f ne w lea dparticle s throug h constan t mixin g a t th e sediment-wate r

interface
. Lea dstorag e i n strea msediments , especially urba n areas , wa s substantial , (tabl e 6-23 ) Storag e i n th e uppe r 1 0 c mo f sedimen t varie dfro m1. 5 g/m 2 i n th e rura l mai n strea mt o 5. 7 g/m 2 i n th e combine d sector ; amaximu mwa s reache di n th e urba n sector , wher e th e mea n wa s nearl y 60 g/m2 . Thes e value s wer e mor e tha n 6 order s o f magnitud e large r

tha n th e value s fo r

storag e foun di n th e aquati c biologica l components , (tabl e 6-24) Sedimen t profile s wer e als o examined , fro msil t substrate s u p t o adept h o f 3 0 c mi n th e urba n strea man dth e rura l mai n stream . At quarterl y interval s durin g th e year , 2 4 sample s wer e take n an d average dwith eac h strea msegment . Lea d concentration s decrease dwit h increasin g dept h i n 

### Urba n Strea m Sedimen t Profil e f



### 57 0 ppm< ^

J %J:J K
f 

### Rura l Strea m 6300pp m 375 0 . 305 0

— 

### 233 0

—

— 

### 84 0

— 

### 32 0 0 - le m 1 " 2 

## 2 - 3 3- 4 4- 5 5- 6 6- 7 7- 8 8- 9 

## 9 - 1 0 >

» 

## 34 2 pp m 19 7 16 7 13 3 10 1 6 7 4 9 V6 9 pp

m

FIGUR E 6-22.—

A compariso n o f th e lea d concentratio n i n 1 c m segment s o f th e to p 1 0 c m o f urba n an d rura l sediments
. 12 7TABL E 6-23.-Mean lead

concentrations and

storage in sediments, to a depth of 10cm, from the various compartments of Saline Ditch and

Boneyard

Creek Urba n Combine d Tributarie s Margina l Mai

n rura l Statio n X-XI I Numbe r o f sample s 104 Lea dstorag e (g/m 3 ) 58. 1 P b level (Mg/

g dr y weight) 387. 5 Significance 1 XIII-XIV 6 8 5. 7 37. 8 I-1 V

7 5 2. 4 15. 8 VIII-IX

1 5 2. 1 13. 8 V-VI

I 4 7 f 1. 5 •' * 10. 2 'Commo n underscore indicate s mean s tha t ar e no t significantl y different

a t th e S percen t

level
. bot h th e rura l an durba n profiles , (fig
. 6-23 ) However , th e value s wer e muc h highe r fo r th e urba n stream . Th e lea ddistributio n patter n o f strea msediment s resemble dtha t o f terrestria l soi l profiles
. Biot a Th e biomas s an dlea dconcentration s wer e deter

mine dfo r aquati c organism s i

n th e drainag e syste m an duse dt o calculat e lea dstorag e in th e biota
. Th e biomas s i n eac h secto r wa s calculate dfron i th e biomas s densit y a t

eac h samplin g station
. Lea dcon centration s fo r

eac h secto r

wer e determine dfro m sample s accumulate dfro mal l station s i n aparticular sector . Th e mas s (g ) o

f ataxonomi c grou p wa s mul

tielie db y th e specifi c lea dconcentratio n (/xg/g ) t o findth e lea dstorage . Thi s metho dpermitte dth e lea d accumulatio n o

f ataxonomi c grou p t o b e weighte d fo r th e amoun t

o f habita t suitabl e fo r

tha t group . Plants : Aquati c plant s occurre din al l sectors , bu t wer e abundan t

onl y durin g th e summer . Plant s an d invertebrate s wer e sample dtogethe r with substrat e sampler s o

f thre e size s an dkinds : VA m 2 ope n cylin

der , 1/2 5 m 2 gra b sampler , o r

1/30 0 m 2 corer . Th e siz e use ddepende do n th e density o f organisms
. Sample s wer e washe do n aNo . 3 0 mes h sieve , an d

th e plant s wer e separate dfro meac h othe r an dfro m invertebrates
. Aquati c plant s wer e washe dwith wa ter , dried , an dgroun dt o apowde r prio r t o analysis
. ' Th e plan t

biomas s durin g th e war mmonth s wa s highl y variabl e i n al l sectors , rangin g fro m0 t o 300 g/m 2 (we t

weight)
. Th e alg aCladophora occurre d throughou t

th e syste man dha dhighl y variabl e lea d concentrations , rangin g fro mmean s o f 20.1/xg/g (dr

y weight ) i n th e rura l secto r u p t o 347 jzg/

g (dry weight ) i n Boneyar dCreek , (tabl e 6-25 ) Thes e value s reflecte dth e relativ e amoun t o f lea dinpu t

of th e tw o sectors . Potamogeton wa s commo n in rura l stream s (30. 0 Mg/ g lead) , whil e Elodea wa s a n importan t con stituen t o f th e combine dsecto r

(89.9/ug/g lead)
. Th e tota l lea dstore db y plant s wa s highl y variabl e du e t o fluctuation s i n biomass
. (tabl e 6-24 ) Invertebrates : Invertebrat e sample s wer e obtained an dseparate di n th e sam e manne r a s aquati c plants ; The y wer e washe di n 9 5 percen t ethy l alcohol , dried , an dgroun dt o apowde r fo r analysis
. Th e distributio n an dbiomas s o f benthi c inverte

brate s wer e highl y variable , (tabl e 6-26 ) Th e biomas s densit y i n th e combine dsecto r wa s consistentl y highe r tha n i n th e rura l o r

urba n sectors , primaril y becaus e o

f th e increase dnutrient s availabl e fro m
TABL E 6-24.-Seasonal

lead storage in biota of

Saline Ditch and

Boneyard

Creek Compartment/organis m Rura l Fis h Benthi c invertebrate s Macrophyte s Tota l Urba n Fis h Benthi c invertebrate s Macrophyte s Tota l Combine d Fis h Benthi c invertebrate s Macrophyte s Tota l Summe r 2.3 6 24.0 7 1 298.9 1 324.3 4
112.2 2 1 2,608.7 0 2,720.9 2
339.4 4 1 109.7 5 449.1 9 Leadconcentratio n Cig/m l )

Fal l 3.5 2 27.4 5 30.9 7
874.5 0 874.5 0
899.6 8 899.6 8 Winte

r 2.8 1 60.4 8 63.2 9 4,497.4 1 4,497.4 1 5,304.9 6 5,304.9 6 Sprin g

2.6 0 40.9 0 43.5 0
839.13 839.13
312.8 5 312.8 5 1 Highl y variabl e du e t o fluctuation s i n biomass
. 12 8 

# 4• t w.** ^ cs»jj^r^«7 ; P.2 6


## Urban Strea m 57 0 ppm , 29 0 Sedimen

t Profil e

13 0 < 0-1 0 c

m
10-2 0
20-3 0
3 0 + Rura l

Strea m 6 9 pp m
4 1
2 7
>I 4
FIGUR E 6-23.—Mea n lea d concentration s (fig/g) i n urba n an d rura l strea m profile s (sil t substrate)
. i& agricultura l runof

f an dsepti c tank s i n thi s sector . Th e weighte daverag e biomas s densitie s betwee n th e rura l an durba n sector s wer e similar
. Durin g th e sprin g an dfall , period s o f relativel y hig h oxyge n concentrations , benthi c population s ma y wel l hav e bee n limite db y substrat e instability
. I n al l sector s an di n all seasons , th e biomas s densit y wa s consist

entl y highes t

o n sil t substrates , (tabl e 6-26) I n th e rura l sector , nearl y 7 0 percen t o f th e invertebrate s wer e foun do n th e 2 5 percen t o f strea mbotto mcov ere dwit h silt
. I n mos t

instances , thes e wer e area s o f depositio n protecte dfro mth e curren t an dleas t

sub

jec t t o disturbance
. Th e instabilit y o f thes e sof

t sub

strates , whe n expose dt o increase dcurrents , limite d invertebrat e productio n i n al l sectors . Thu s substrat e stability an dstrea moxyge n conten t wer e limitin g factor s fo r

benthi c invertebrat e biomass , whic h in turn affecte dth e biologica l lea dstorag e an dflux i n al l sectors .

- I n general , th e benthi c population s wer e highes t i n winte r an dlowes t

in summer , regardles s o f sub

strate, (tabl e 6-26 ) Thes e season s were , respectively , th e period s o

f highes t an dlowes t

oxyge n availabili

ty . Whil e th e smal l seasona l difference s i n th e bio

mas s o f th e rura l secto r

migh t b e explaine db y natura l benthi c cycle s base do n oxyge n availability , th e populatio n change s i n th e urba n an dcombine dsec tor s canno t

b e explaine dthi s way . Her e th e substan

tia l seasona l change s i n biomas s occurre dmostl y amon g tubificids , organism s with nonseasona l cy cles
. Th e Tubificida e an dChironomidae , whic h to gethe r compris e mor e tha n 9 5 percen t of th e benthi c invertebrate s o

f th e urba n an dcombine dsectors , hav e respirator y pigment s t o improv e thei r oxyge n exchang e efficiency , enablin g the mt o surviv e sum mer s whe n th e oxyge n concentratio n i s frequentl y low
. Seasona l change s in leadconcentration s wer e de

termine donl y fo r

th e Tubificida e fro mth e urban , sector . N o significant

differenc e wa s foun dinjnea n seasona l lea dconcentration s fo r spring , summer , an dfall
. However , th e leadconcentratio n in tubificid s increase dfro mamea n of 32 2 /zg/ g (sprin g throug h fall ) t o 48 4 Mg/

g i n winter
. Thi s pea k

valu e corre spond s with aperio do

f hig h surfac e runof

f becaus e th e groun dwa s relativel y impermeable du e t o freez

ing
. Lea dstorag e i n th e rura l an dcombine dsector s (tabl e 6-24 ) varie da s aresul t o f change s in biomass , bu t storag e i n th e urba n secto r reflecte dchange s in bot h biomas s an dlea dconcentrations
. Th e onl y measurabl e biological transpor t o f lead i n th e Salin e Ditc h drainag e wa s du e t o th e drif t o f aquati c invertebrates
. Plankto n i s essentiaU y nonex istent , an dfish movement s ar e minimal
. (Se e tabl e 6
- 27. ) Sample s o

f driftin g invertebrate s wer e take n in lat e summe r

whe n pea k

value s shoul dhav e bee n encountered
. A 1 ft 2 ne t o f No . 20 mes h Saran cloth wa s place di n th e strea mfo r betwee n 3 0 min
. an d1 h
. Th e sample s wer e take n durin g th e da y withi n 1 h afte r sunse t an dwithi n 1 h befor e sunrise
. Measurement s o

f flow rat e throug h th e mouth o f th e ne t a t th e beginnin g an den do f eac h samplin g perio d permitte dquantificatio n o f drif t biomass
. Sample s wer e analyze dfo r

lea dconcentration s i n th e drif t wer e expresse do n adail y basis , (tabl e 6-27 ) Lea d fluxes i n th e urba n an drura l sector s wer e simila r becaus e th e lo w strea mflow o f th e urba n secto r

wa s offset b y it s relativel y hig h lea dconcentration s i n th e biota
. Th e amoun t

o f lea dtransporte ddurin g pea k period s o

f strea mdrif

t (lat e summer ) wa s sev era l order s o

f magnitud e les s tha n th e amoun t o f lea dmove di n solutio n o r adsorbe dt o suspende d material
. Thu s drif

t organism s d o no t

constitut e a significant lea dtransport . Fish : Fis h wer e sample db y confinin g the mi n a measure dportio n of

strea mwith 2 0 f

t seine s of

3/1 6 in
. mesh
. Th e upstrea msein e wa s slowl y move d downstream , drivin g th e fish int o aba g sein e at th e lowe r en dof th e blocked-of

f section
. A serie s o

f sample s fro man isolate dstrea msectio n indicate d tha t thi s techniqu e effectivel y remove d5 0 percen t o f th e fish populatio n withou t specifi c selection , excep t tha t larg e carp (Cyprinus carpio) successfull y avoide dcapture . Th e uniformity o f th e bank s an d botto mo f th e Salin e Ditch , du e t o earlie r channeli

zation , permitte deffectiv e us e o f thi s technique
. Fis h wer e sorte dafte r

capture , ove n drie dwithou t a preservative , an dgroun dt o apowde r fo r lea danaly

sis
. Th e biomas s distributio n of fish wa s easil y deter

mine dbecaus e the y occurre di n measurabl e number s onl y i n th e rura l secto r

an dportion s o

f th e marginal sector . Th e fish populatio n wa s consistentl y nea r 3 g/m3 (we t weight ) i n th e rura l sector . Lea dconcentration s in fish wer e lowe r tha n thos e i n aquati c plant s o r

invertebrates , (tabl e 6-25 ) 12 9P.2 7

TABL E 6-25.-lea d concentrations of predominant

organisms from rural, urban, and

combined

compartments ofthe Saline Ditch

Lea d concen tration . (Mg/

g dt y weight ) Compartment/organis

m Arithmetic mea n Numbe

r o f sample s Standar

d deviation Rura l Plant s

Invertebrate

s

Fis h

Urba n Plant s Invertebrate

s Combine d Plant s

Invertebrate

s Cladophora Potamogeton Hirudinea Oligochaeta Tubificidae Sphaeriidae Lirceus fontinalis Hexagenia limbata Anisoptera Chironomidae Decapoda Catostomus commersoni (whit e sucker ) Etheostoma nigrum (johnn y darter ) Ericymba buccata (silverja w minnow

) Notropis umbratilus (redfi n shiner ) Pimephales notatus (bluntnos e minnow

) Semotilus atromaculatus (creekchub ) Cladophora Tubificidae Chironomidae Decapoda Elodea Cladophora Tubificidae Chironomidae Physa Psychodidae 20. 1 30. 0 12. 6 13. 2 16. 0 5. 5 7. 6 10. 4 6. 6 20. 1 4. 7 2. 4 4. 1 1. 8 1. 9 2. 7 1. 4
34 7 1 1

1 5 1 2 7 1 3 1 1 5 1 5 6 1 2 23 1 9 9 2 9 29 8 3 3 5 5. 1

5. 4 14. 8 7. 6 11. 8 3. 1 3. 4 9. 7 2. 4 18. 2 5. 2 1. 6 2. 4 0. 9 0. 6 2. 7 0. 6
13 9 36 7 15 3 1 1 89. 9 34. 9 48. 6 42. 7 41. 7 32. 3 2 9

5 4 2 2 / 

# Y 7 1 1 2 

### r o /• 106 ^

93. 3 7. 5 33. 9 16. 4 25. 5 TABL E 6-26.-Biomas s density of benthic invertebrates from the Saline Ditch and

Boneyard

Creek

• Biomas s densit y (g/m 1 we

tweight ) Compartmen

t Rura l

Urba n .

Combine d Substrat

e sa t San d Grave l Weighte d averag e SU t San d Grave l Weighte d averag e Silt San d Grave l Weighte d averag e Summe

r 9. 2 1. 7 0. 6 6. 5 34. 2 9. 8 3. 7 6. 0 177. 5 28. 2 47. 1 56. 1 Fal

l 16. 9 1. 8 1. 3 12. 4 5. 0 12. 8 51. 8 11. 2 587. 6 32. 5 23. 9 73. 1 Winte

r 20. 5 3. 9 2. 3 13. 8 64. 2 80. 1 41. 8 1,251. 3 272. 8 299. 4 Sprin

g 18. 9 1.9 0. 7 12. 2 63. 7 19. 1 15. 8 313. 9 5. 0 49. 1 13 0TABL

E 6-27. -Pea k

period drift from the Saline Ditch and Boneyard Creek and the amount

of lead transported

by drifting organisms • • Organis m Rura l compartmen t Chironomidae Ephemeroptera Coleoptera Hemiptera Tirchoptera Physa Nematamorpha Zygoptera Tota l Urba n compartmen t Qiironomidae Psychodidae \ Culicidae

Amphipoda i Tipulidae \ , . Terrestrial t Tota l We t (g/10 0 m 3
0.04 2 0.00 6 0.01 1 0.03 0 0.00 2 0.01 9 0.01 3 0.00 1 0.12 4 0.55 9 0.06 7 0.00 2 0.00 3 0.00 2 0.15 1 0.78 4 Combine dcompartmen t X'.' Chironomidae

Psychodidae Coleoptera Corixidae Gastropoda Trichoptera Tubificidae . Nematamorpha Terrestrial, I *Tota l i " 1 » 1.78 0 0.15 6 0.01 0 0.01 0 0.12 8 0.00 7 0.00 4 0.01 9 0.01 6 2.13 0 Pea k

perio ddrif

t Dr y ) (g/day )

1.0 9 0.1 4 0.5 0 1.4 3 0.0 7 0.9 0 0.4 0 0.0 5 4.5 7 1.2 6 0:1 5

-

-

- 0.3 8 1.8 0 388. 8 35. 5 3. 9 4. 0 50. 8 1. 7 1. 0 4. 8 3. 9 494. 4 Lea d

(mg/day ) 0.0 1 0.0 1 0;0 2 0.1 0
— 0.0 1 0.0 1
— 0.1 6 0.1 3 0.0 2

- 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.1 5 17. 7 1. 0 0. 2 0. 2 2. 8 0. 1

- 0. 2
— 22. 2

1 

### i* * i , • J i •* • Seasona l lea dstorag e i n fish wa s essentiall y nonexis

tent , (tabl e 6-24 ) Interaction s I n strea msediment s an d thre e selecte dgroup s o f organisms , (fig
. 6-24) th e lea dconcentration s showe d progressiv e increase s tha t correlate dwith th e rela

tiv e inpu t receive db y aparticula r strea msector . Value s o f lea dconcentration s fro mth e rura l mai n streaman d tributarie s (considere dbaselin e data ) were exceeded , successively , b y value s fro mth e marginal , combined , an d urba n sectors . Th e highes t lea dconcentrations , in al l case s muc h greate r tha n an y others , wer e foun di n th e urba n division
. Perhap s th e mos t

strikin g resul t

wa s th e variability o f lea dconcentration s n different specie s fro mth e same sector . I n th e rura l sector , wher e th e onl y comple x communit y structur e existed , lea dconcen tration s o f dr y animal tissu e range dfro m1. 4 t o 16. 0 Mg/g . (fig
. 6-25)Th e organism s i n th e rura l stream s were divide dint o fou r

group s base do n thei r

foo d an dhabita t

requirements
. Th e first group—compose do

f th e mayfl

y (Hexagenia limbata), th e Tubificidae , an d th e oli

ogchaetes,—burro w int o an d inges t th e substrate
. [21 ] Thes e organism s showe dadefinite preferenc e fo r sil t substrat e wher e the y wer e continuall y ex posed , bot h internall y an d externally , t o hig h lead sediments
. Th e secon dgrou p wa s compose do f th e followin g benthi c organism s tha t

inhabi t th e sediment-wate r interface : crayfis h (Orconectes virilis), whic h feed s o n vegetatio n an d detritus ; [22 ] th e pelecypods , whic h ar e filter

feeder s tha t

utiliz e suspende ddetri

tus ; an d th e johnn y darte r (Etheostoma nigrum), a benthic , carnivorou s fish tha t occasionall y ingest s detritu s an d silt
. [23 ] Thes e organism s occasionall y contacte dlead-ric h materia l i n thei r foo dsourc e an d environment
. Th e remainin g tw o group s consiste do f fishes tha t ha dver y littl e clos e bod y contac t with settle do r suspende dsedimen t

material
. Thes e includ e th e whit e sucke r

(Catostomus commersoni) an d th e bluntnos e minno w (Pimephales notatus), whic h ar e botto mfeedin g omnivore s tha t ofte n inges t

detritus
. [24-26 ] Th e creekchu b (Semotilus atromaculatus), silverjaw minno w (Ericymba buccata), an d redfi n shine r (Notropis umbratilus), whic h compris e th e fourth group , ar e principall y carnivores
. [26-30 ] Thei r mos t likel y lea dsourc e i s thei r food
. Th e creekchub' s mea n leadconcentratio n wa s signifi

cantl y lowe r

tha n thos e fo r

al l othe r species
. I t

tend s t o b e apiscivore , whil e th e silverjaw minno w an d redfi n shine r

ar e usuall y restricte dt o eatin g inverte

brates
. Th e lac k o f lea daccumulatio n throug h trophi c levels , particularl y th e lo w concentration s i n th e carnivores , (fig
. 6-25 ) clearl y indicate dtha t lea dac cumulatio n b y aquati c orgamsm s throug h ingestio n wa s o f minima l importance
. Thu s i n contras t t o som e terrestria l foo dchains , ther e appeare dt o b e n o biological magnificatio n o f lea dthroug h trophi c lev

el s i n th e aquati c system . Conclusion s I n th e rura l sector , th e highes t lea dconcentration s i n strea msediment s wer e onl y slightl y highe r tha n in th e surroundin g fieldsoils , whil e sediment s i n th e urba n secto r

wer e man y time s higher
. Strea msedi

ment s acte da s asink

wher e leadaccumulate dt o hig h levels
. Th e highes t concentration s wer e i

h th e urba n sector . Lea dlevel s o

f sediment s an d organism s reflecte d th e relativ e amoun t

o f urba n runof

f enterin g th e stream . I n th e urba n sector , adramati c increas e in lea daccumulatio n b y Tubificidae corresponde dt o a perio do f increase dhig h lea drunoff
. Lea dconcentration s o

f aquati c organism s varie d substantiall y withi n an d betwee n sectors . Lea dcon centration s i n th e sam e kin do f organism s wer e gen erall y 2 t o 4 time s higher i n th e combine dsecto r tha n i n th e rura l sector . Simila r Organism s i n th e urba n secto r

ha d lea dconcentration s 1 0 t o 20 time s highe r tha n thos e i n th e rura l compartment . Th e mean concentration s fo r

eac h specie s withi n asecto r wer e markedl y different
. Organism s a t lo w trophi c

13 1P.2 9 .'.nr • \ i

-r Urba n Compartmen t Combine d Compartmen t Margina l Compartmen t Rura l Mai n Channe l Tributarie s Sediment s Tubificida e Cladophoracea e Chironomida e FIGUR E 6-24.—Mea n lea d leve l of representativ e organism s an d sediment s o f compartment s o f compartment s i n th e Salin e Ditch . level s ha dth e highes t

concentrations , whil e thos e a t th e to p trophi c leve l ha dth e lowes t lea dconcentra tions
. Thu s ther e wa s n o biologica l magnificatio n of lea dthroug h th e aquati c trophi c structure . Th e biologica l lea dconcentration s wer e apparentl y influence db y th e amoun t o f contac t an organis m ha dwith , th e substrate
. Thi s phenomeno n wa s regu late db y habita t

preference s an dfeedin g habits
. Thu s th e actua l amoun t

o f lea dstore db y th e biot a of astrea msegmen t

dependend s o n th e type s an da moun t o f habita t available , th e community composi

tion , an dth e lea dconcentratio n i n th e sediments
. Fluctuation s i n biomas s du e t o change s i n habita t o r communit y structur e wer e commo n an dcause dsig

nificant change s i n th e amoun t

of lea dstored
. How

ever , lea dstorag e variation s i n th e urba n secto r 13 2 wer e afunctio n o f biomas s an dbiot alea dconcen trations
. Th e amoun t

of lea dtransporte db y driftin g strea m invertebrate s wa s insignifican t i n thi s ecosystem . SUMMAR

Y AN D CONCLUSION S A n 8 6 mi 2 watershe dwa s studie dt o determin e th e movemen t

o f lea dint o an dthroug h th e ecosystem , a s wel l a s th e effect s o

f lea do n variou s bioti c com ponents . Gasolin e consumptio n wa s th e majo r sourc e o f lea dinpu t

t o th e watershed
. I t

wa s esti

mate dtha t

th e tota l inpu t

t o th e ecosystem , with th e exceptio n o

f air , wa s 16,00 0 kg/yr
. Th e 1 2 mi 2 urba n 

### i



# 1P.3 0



### 4 "SB* - compartmen t

receive d7 5 percen t

of th e tota l lea d input
. Th e majority of

th e lea dexitin g fro mth e ecosys te mwa s carrie di n tii e drainag e water , primaril y in associatio n with suspende dsolids
. I t wa s estimate d tha t 91 0 k g o

f lea dexite dfro mth e ecosyste mvi a strea mwate r

annually
. O

f this , 7 5 percen t

wa s fro m th e urba n compartment . Wit h 16,000 kg o

f leadpe r yea r enterin g th e wat ershe dan donl y 91 0 k g pe r yea r exitin g vi astrea m water , 14,80 0 kg pe r

year , o r

92. 5 percen t

o f th e lea dinput , remaine dwithi n th e ecosystem . Airborn e lea dconcentration s wer e lo w i n th e rura l are a(0.17 ^ g/m 3 ) , an di n th e urba n are aconcentra tion s varie dfro m1.35 2 Mg/m 3 o n high-us e downtow n street s t o 0.287/xg/m 3 o n low-us e residentia l streets . I n bot h th e urba n an drura l compartments , lea d concentration s wer e highes t i n th e to p 1 0 c mo

f soi l in area s immediatel y adjacen t t o street s an droad s wit h hig h traffi c volumes
. A stud y o f lea di n dust s an dsoil s i n th e urba n compartmen t of th e ecosyste m showe dhig h concentration s insid e buildings
. Lea d level s i n dust s withi n home s average d66 0 Mg/ g an d 68 0 uglnfi. I n nonresidentia l interiors , dust s aver age d140 0 ngjg lea dan d2,04 0 /xg/m 2

. Th e concentra tion s o f lea di n dust s an dsoil s aroun dbuilding s an d i n dust s insid e building s appeare dt o b e directl y relat

e dt o th e volum e o

f traffi c o n neighborhoo dstreet s an droads
. Concentration s of

lea dassociate dwit

h vegetation , in smal l mammal s an dothe r vertebrates , an di n in

sect s wer e als o highes t

i n area s adjacen t

t o high-us e road s an dstreets . Becaus e th e vegetatio n biomas s wa s large , it

wa s estimate dtha t

2,21 1 kg o

f lea d were associatec l with th e vegetatio n o f th e ecosys tem . Fo r al l animals , th e tota l bod y lea dconcentration s wer e relativel y low
. Th e highes t concentratio n fo r a n urban-dwellin g mammal wa s 31. 7 ppm . Althoug h ther e ma y b e som e food-chai n magnificatio n i n in

sectivore s tha t

feednea r

road s with hig h traffi c vol

umes , terrestria l vertebrate s d o no t appea r t o b e sig

nificantl y affecte db y curren t environmenta l lea d concentrations , no r

d o thes e terrestria l vertebrate s appea r t o b e significant

factor s i n th e lea dflux i n eithe r th e urba n o r

rura l compartment s b

f th e eco system . I n contras t

t o th e cas e wit

h vertebrates/ther e is

> a n increas e i n lea dconcentration s i n insec t foo d chain s fro msuckin g t o chewin g t o predator y insect s i n high-lea darea s nex t

t o heavil y travele droads
. However , th e lo w biomas s an dlo w lea dconcentra tion s indicat e tha t

insect s ar e no t

amajo r reservoi r o f lea di n thi s ecosystem . I n th e aquati c system , lea dconcentration s i n th e to p 1 0 c mo

f strea msediment s wer e hig h i n th e ur ba n strea m(387.5Mglg), whil e rura l strea mlea dcon centration s wer e man y time s lower
. Th e hig h urba n concentration s wer e relate dt o lea dparticulate s washe dfro mth e larg e imperviou s area s o f th e urba n compartmen t

durin g storms . Aquati c biot aha dlea dconcentration s man y time s highe r i n th e urba n strea mtha n i n th e rura l stream . Ther e wa s n o biological magnificatio n o f lea di n aquati c foo dchains
. Lea di n aquati c organism s wa s relate dt o th e amoun t

o f contac t with substrate s con tainin g hig h lea dconcentrations
. Th e strea mdrif t o f invertebrate s wa s insignificant i n transportin g lea d fro mth e ecosystem . I n conclusion , mos t

o f th e lea dtha t

entere dth e watershe dremaine dwithi n it
. Th e majo r lea dreser voir s wer e th e soils , plants , an dstrea msediments
. 

### Cree k Chu b Silverja w Minno w Redfi n Shine r Whit e Sucke r Bluntnos e Minno w Johnn y Darte r Cla m Crayfis h Mayfl y Nymp h Leec h
u 

### Aquati c Wor m Sludg e Wor m 

## SS 3

^ ^ 

# SSS S N\\\\\\\\ ^ NNWWWWW N 

# s\\\\\\\\\\\\N sSSSSSSSWSSSWSWSWWSSV I \\\\\\\\\\\\\\^^^ ^ 

## l\\\\\\\\\\V\V\\\\\^^ ^ 

# s\vv\^v\^^^^^ ^ Lea d Level s (ppm-dr y weight ) — FIGUR E 6-25.—Relativ e lea d concentration s o f organism s fro m th e rura l compartment , mov in g upwar d i n th e tropi c structure
. 133

### The highes t concentration s an

damajo r portio n o f the store dlea

dwer e associate dwit

h the urba n compartmen t an dare s adjacen

t t o high-us e rura

l roads
. Thes e area s shoul

db e monitoredi

n th e futur

e t o detec t change s i

n lea dstorag e an

dconcentration s wit h tim e an d.wit h additiona

l lea dinput , t o deter

min e i f toxi c level s ar

e reached
. Insec t foodchain s an

dinsectivorou s bird s should als o b e closel

y monitoredi

n high-lead-inpu

t areas . Aquatic system s shouldreceiv e close r examination i n th e future , a s sediment s ar e majo r meta l reser voirs
. REFERENCE S 1 . G . L . Rolfe . A . Chaker

, J . Melin , an

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d Contro l o f Metals . 9

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(3) : 1 8 (1880) . 

# 'I I

134