FOR PUBLICATION

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT

PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE, INC.,

an Arizona nonprofit membership

corporation; BRUCE ASH, an

individual; FERNANDO GONZALES,

an individual; ANN HOLDEN, an

individual; LORI OIEN, an individual;

KEN SMALLEY, an individual,

Plaintiffs-Appellants,

v.

CITY OF TUCSON, a chartered city of

the State of Arizona; JONATHAN

ROTHSCHILD, in his capacity as the

Mayor of the City of Tucson;

REGINA ROMERO, in her capacity as

a member of the Tucson City

Council; PAUL CUNNINGHAM, in his

capacity as a member of the Tucson

City Council; KARIN UHLICH, in her

capacity as a member of the Tucson

City Council; SHIRLEY SCOTT, in her

capacity as a member of the Tucson

City Council; RICHARD FIMBRES, in

his capacity as a member of the

Tucson City Council; STEVE

KOZACHIK, in his capacity as a

No. 15-16142

D.C. No. 

4:15-cv-00138-

CKJ

OPINION
2 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

member of the Tucson City Council;

ROGER RANDOLPH, in his capacity as

the Clerk of the City of Tucson,

Defendants-Appellees.

Appeal from the United States District Court

for the District of Arizona

Cindy K. Jorgenson, District Judge, Presiding

Argued and Submitted 

August 11, 2015—San Francisco, California

Filed November 10, 2015

Before: Alex Kozinski and Richard C. Tallman, Circuit

Judges, and Lawrence L. Piersol,*

 Senior District Judge.

Opinion by Judge Kozinski;

Dissent by Judge Tallman

* The Honorable Lawrence L. Piersol, Senior District Judge for the U.S.

District Court for the District of South Dakota, sitting by designation.
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 3

SUMMARY**

Civil Rights

The panel reversed the district court’s judgment in favor

of the City of Tucson in an action challenging the

constitutionality of Tucson’s hybrid system for electing

members of its city council.

Tucson is divided into six wards of approximately equal

population, and each ward is allotted one seat on the city

council. Under the first step of the hybrid system each ward

holds its own primary limited to residents of that ward. The

winners of the ward primaries advance to the general election,

where they compete against the other candidates nominated

from that ward. In the general election, all Tucson residents

can vote for one council member from each ward that held a

primary during the same election cycle.

The panel first held that in determining the system’s

constitutionality, the primary and general elections must be

considered in tandem as two parts of a single election cycle,

rather than two separate contests judged independentlyof one

another.

The panel determined that the practical effect of the

Tucson system is to give some of a representative’s

constituents—those in his home ward—a vote of

disproportionate weight. That is the very result the Supreme

Court’s one person, one vote jurisprudence is meant to

** This summary constitutes no part of the opinion of the court. It has

been prepared by court staff for the convenience of the reader.
4 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

foreclose. The panel held that every otherwise eligible voter

who will be a constituent of the winner of the general election

must have an equal opportunity to participate in each election

cycle through which that candidate is selected.

The panel rejected Tucson’s argument that the hybrid

system is a reasonable “residency restriction” on the right to

vote. The panel held that when two groups of citizens share

identical interests in an election, the city may not use a

residency requirement to exclude one group while including

the other. The panel concluded that excluding out-of-ward

voters from the primary election discriminates among

residents of the same governmental unit in violation of the

Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Dissenting, Judge Tallman stated that the Constitution

does not require Tucson to draw its district borders in a

particular way for different local elections. He concluded that

Tucson’s hybrid system is constitutional, and the majority

erred in holding otherwise.

COUNSEL

Kory A. Langhofer (argued), Thomas J. Basile and Roy

Herrera, Jr., Brownstein Hyatt Farber Schreck, LLP, Phoenix,

Arizona, for Plaintiffs-Appellants.

Michael G. Rankin, City Attorney, Dennis McLaughlin

(argued), Principal Assistant City Attorney, Office of the

Tucson City Attorney, Tucson, Arizona, and Richard

Rollman, GabroyRollman & Bosse PC, Tucson, Arizona, for

Defendants-Appellees.
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 5

OPINION

KOZINSKI, Circuit Judge:

We consider the constitutionality of Tucson’s unusual

system for electing members of its city council.

FACTS

Tucson’s elections are ordinary in many ways. The city

is divided into six wards of approximately equal population,

and each ward is allotted one seat on the city council. A

candidate for city council must run for the seat in the ward

where he resides. See Tucson City Charter ch. III, § 1; ch.

XVI, §§ 5, 8, 9. From there, things take an odd turn. 

In some American cities, council seats are filled at large,

with the entire city voting for each seat in the primary and

general elections. In other cities, council members are

nominated and elected by the residents of particular districts. 

Tucson splits the difference: Since 1930, the city has used a

“hybrid system” that combines ward-based primaries with atlarge general elections. 

The first step in the hybrid system is a partisan primary. 

Each ward holds its own primary limited to residents of that

ward. The winners of the ward primaries advance to the

general election, where they compete against the other

candidates nominated from that ward. In the general election,

all Tucson residents can vote for one council member from

each ward that held a primary during the same election cycle. 

See Charter ch. XVI, § 9. Thus, a resident of Ward 1 can’t

vote in the Ward 2 primary, but can vote for one of the Ward

2 candidates in the general election. The parties agree that,
6 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

once elected, council members represent the entire city, not

just the ward from which they were nominated. See City of

Tucson v. State, 273 P.3d 624, 631 (Ariz. 2012) (“Tucson

council members, although nominated by ward, represent the

entire city, just as do council members elected at large in

other cities.”); see also Dallas Cty. v. Reese, 421 U.S. 477,

480 (1975) (“[E]lected officials represent all of those who

elect them . . . .”); Fortson v. Dorsey, 379 U.S. 433, 438

(1965) (similar). 

Council seats are filled in staggered elections, with three

council members elected every other year. Once elected, a

council member serves a four-year term. See Charter ch.

XVI, §§ 3–4. The council members from Wards 1, 2 and 4

will be elected in 2015, and the council members from Wards

3, 5 and 6 will be elected in 2017. Because only half of the

council seats are up for election in any given year, only half

of Tucsonans can vote in a primary in each election cycle. 

And approximately 83 percent of the electorate that votes for

any given council seat in the general election has no say in

selecting the nominees competing for that seat.

Plaintiffs are five Tucson voters and a non-profit

corporation called the Public Integrity Alliance (collectively

“PIA”). PIA concedes that the city could use ward-based

primaries andward-based general elections without offending

the Constitution. Similarly, the city could use at-large

primaries and at-large general elections. But PIA argues that

combining these two options into a hybrid system violates the

federal and Arizona Constitutions1by depriving Tucson

1 PIA alleges that the hybrid system violates the Free and Equal

Elections Clause of the Arizona Constitution. Ariz. Const. art II, § 21. 

We have been cited no authority indicating that the rights guaranteed by
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 7

voters of their right to vote in primary elections for

individuals who will ultimately serve as their at-large

representatives. PIA sued the city seeking to enjoin the

hybrid system and secure a declaration that the scheme is

unconstitutional. The district court ruled in favor of the city. 

We have jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1291.

DISCUSSION

We start by resolving a dispute between the parties that

has a substantial bearing on our analysis and, ultimately, on

the result we reach: Are Tucson’s primary and general

elections two separate contests, each governed by rules that

must be judged independently of one another—as the city

contends? Or are they two parts of a single election cycle,

which must be considered in tandem when determining their

constitutionality—as PIA claims? The difference matters a

great deal. If the two elections were separate, PIA’s

constitutional objections would largely evaporate and this

would become a simple case. This is so because there would

be no mismatch between the voting constituency and the

represented constituency in the two elections. It’s only if we

view the two elections as one that serious constitutional

doubts arise. 

Unfortunately, the easy solution is not available because

it is perfectly clear that the two contests are not independent. 

Instead, they are complementary components of a single

election. Although the two contests are separated in time by

that document differ from those guaranteed by the federal Constitution. 

Because PIA did not develop any state-law arguments in its appellate

briefing, we consider the state-law claims abandoned. See Greenwood v.

F.A.A., 28 F.3d 971, 977 (9th Cir. 1994).
8 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

ten weeks, they are entirely co-dependent. Without the

primary, there could be no candidate to compete in the

general election; without the general election, the primary

winners would sit on their hands. Because a candidate must

win a primary in order to compete in the general election, the

“right to choose a representative is in fact controlled by the

primary.” United States v. Classic, 313 U.S. 299, 319 (1941). 

Thus, the Supreme Court has held that the primary and

general elections are a “single instrumentality for choice of

officers.” Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649, 660 (1944); see

Newberry v. United States, 256 U.S. 232, 284–86 (1921)

(Pitney, J., concurring in part) (noting that the primary and

general elections are “essentially but parts of a single

process”). 

Because the primary and general elections are two parts

of a “unitary” process, Allwright, 321 U.S. at 660–61, a

citizen’s right to vote in the general election may be

meaningless unless he is also permitted to vote in the

primary. If a voter’s preferred candidate is defeated in a

primary from which the voter is excluded, the voter would

never have the chance to cast a ballot for his candidate of

choice. Cf. Morse v. Republican Party of Va., 517 U.S. 186,

205 (1996) (invalidating registration fee for Virginia

senatorial nominating convention because the fee limited

voters’ “influence on the field of candidates whose names

[would] appear on the ballot” and thus “weaken[ed] the

‘effectiveness’ of their votes cast in the general election

itself”); Bullock v. Carter, 405 U.S. 134, 146 (1972) (“[T]he

primary election may be more crucial than the general

election . . . .”); Classic, 313 U.S. at 319 (observing that “the

practical influence of the choice of candidates at the primary

may be so great as to affect profoundly the choice at the

general election”); Ayers-Schaffner v. DiStefano, 37 F.3d
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 9

726, 728 n.5 (1st Cir. 1994) (noting that “the ability to vote

in the general election [is not] a satisfactory alternative for

those voters not allowed to vote in the primary, as the

candidate of their choice may have been excluded in the

preliminary election from which they were barred”). 

This case illustrates the point. Although Arizona as a

whole generally votes Republican, Tucson generally votes

Democratic. This means that the Democratic nominee from

each ward will likely win the general election regardless of

whether the ward from which he was nominated is principally

Republican or Democratic. Indeed, the city’s current mayor

and all six council members are Democrats. See Tucson City

Council Democratic Incumbents Re-Elected, Arizona Public

Media (Nov. 6, 2013), available at https://goo.gl/oMkOxi. In

most cases, then, the Democratic ward primary is the only

election that matters; the general election is a mere formality. 

Even if electing the Democratic nominee is not automatic,

there is no dispute that the Democratic nominee enters the

general election with an enormous advantage. Thus the vote

in the primary—and particularly the Democratic primary—

has a commanding influence on the outcome of the general

election. Yet five-sixths of Tucson’s voters have not even a

theoretical possibility of participating in the primarythat will,

for all practical purposes, determine who will represent them

in the city council. 

The Supreme Court has indicated that, “[o]nce the

geographical unit for which a representative is to be chosen

is designated, all who participate in the election are to have an

equal vote” no matter where “their home may be in that

geographical unit.” Gray v. Sanders, 372 U.S. 368, 379

(1963). Gray defines the “geographical unit” by reference to

the constituency of “the representative to be chosen.” Id. at
10 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

379; see id. at 382 (Stewart, J., concurring) (“Within a given

constituency, there can be room for but a single constitutional

rule—one voter, one vote.” (emphasis added)). All parties

before us agree that the constituency of each Tucson council

member is the entire city. Thus, the relevant geographical

unit is the city at large. Because the constituency of the

representative to be elected remains static throughout the

election process, the geographical unit must also remain static

throughout that process.2

If the city were permitted to change the geographical unit

between the primary and general elections, it could decouple

the representative to be elected from his constituency. For

example, Tucson could decree that only voters living on Main

Street are eligible to vote in primaries, thereby forcing the

2 We are not persuaded by the city’s reliance on two decades-old

district court opinions that dealt with hybrid systems for judicial elections. 

Holshouser v. Scott and Stokes v. Fortson involved challenges to state

laws providing that judges would be nominated from their districts but

elected statewide in the general election. In both cases, three-judge

district courts ruled that the principle of one person, one vote is not

applicable to judicial elections. Both courts went on to observe that, even

if that were not the case, the hybrid schemes would not violate one person,

one vote because they didn’t involve dilution or an unequal counting of

votes. See Holshouser, 335 F. Supp. 928, 930, 933 (M.D.N.C. 1971);

Stokes, 234 F. Supp. 575, 577 (N.D. Ga. 1964). The city argues that the

Supreme Court’s summary affirmance in Holshouser, 409 U.S. 807

(1972), is a ruling on the merits that requires us to uphold Tucson’s hybrid

system. But a “summary affirmance without opinion in a case within the

Supreme Court’s obligatory appellate jurisdiction has very little

precedential significance.” Dillenburg v. Kramer, 469 F.2d 1222, 1225

(9th Cir. 1972). It does not enshrine as Supreme Court precedent every

stroke of the pen in the district court’s opinion. The summary disposition

in Holshouser was likely intended to affirm the proposition that one

person, one vote does not apply to judicial elections, as the Court

eventually held in Chisom v. Roemer, 501 U.S. 380, 402–03 (1991).
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 11

entire city to choose among nominees selected by a tiny

minority of residents. Or the State of New York, in an effort

to cap its number of city-slicker senators, could limit the

primary for its junior senator to Manhattanites and the

primary for its senior senator to the rest of the state. We do

not believe that such mismatches between voters at different

stages of a single election cycle are constitutionally

permissible.

Given the city’s concession that each council member

represents all of Tucson, it’s clear that the representational

nexus runs between the city and the council member, not

between the ward and the council member. But the hybrid

system makes the tenure of each at-large council member

largely dependent on the preferences of voters of his home

ward; without their support, a council member could not be

nominated (or re-nominated) in the first place. Given that

reality, each council member will be disproportionately

responsive to voters from his home ward, especially those of

his own party. The city claims that this is a redeeming

benefit of its hybrid system. The exact opposite is true. The

practical effect of the Tucson system is to give some of a

representative’s constituents—those in his home ward—a

vote of disproportionate weight. That is the very result the

Supreme Court’s one person, one vote jurisprudence is meant

to foreclose. See Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533, 560–64

(1964). We cannot endorse an election system that

encourages at-large representatives to prioritize kissing

babies and currying favor in their home wards over the

interests of their constituents who happen to live in other

parts of the city. As the Supreme Court itself has noted, an

at-large representative “must be vigilant to serve the interests

of all the people in the [city], and not merely those of people

in his home [ward].” Fortson, 379 U.S. at 438.
12 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

We hold that every otherwise eligible voter who will be

a constituent of the winner of the general election must have

an equal opportunity to participate in each election cycle

through which that candidate is selected. Just as the city

could not exclude a resident of Ward 1 from voting in the

general election for his council member from Ward 2, so the

city may not exclude that resident from a primary election for

the same official. See Allwright, 321 U.S. at 664 (“[T]he

same tests to determine the character of discrimination or

abridgement should be applied to the primary as are applied

to the general election.”); Classic, 313 U.S. at 318 (“[The]

right of participation [in the nominating process] is protected

just as is the right to vote at the election. . . .”). 

The city’s final argument is that the hybrid system is a

reasonable “residency restriction” on the right to vote. But

when two groups of citizens share identical interests in an

election, the city may not use a residency requirement to

exclude one group while including the other. See Town of

Lockport v. Citizens for Comm. Action at the Local Level,

Inc., 430 U.S. 259, 268 (1977) (residency requirements must

be premised on a “genuine difference in the relevant interests

of the groups that the state electoral classification has

created”); id. (excluded group must be permitted to vote if it

has “substantially identical interests” as included group);

Evans v. Cornman, 398 U.S. 419, 422–26 (1970) (residents

of federal enclave within Maryland couldn’t be excluded

from the franchise because they had “a stake equal to that of

other Maryland residents”); see also Holt Civic Club v. City

of Tuscaloosa, 439 U.S. 60, 72 n.8 (1978) (suggesting that a

city might be required to enfranchise non-residents if it were

“exercising precisely the same governmental powers over

[them] as it does over those residing within its corporate
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 13

limits”).3In this case, the out-of-ward Tucsonans who are

excluded from the ward primaries have precisely the same

interests in those primaries as do the ward residents who are

permitted to participate. The nominees selected in the ward

primaries will advance to the general election; if elected

there, they will represent the entire city. Because all

Tucsonans have an equal interest in determining who the

nominees will be, the citymaynot exclude out-of-ward voters

from the primaries.

Little Thunder v. South Dakota, 518 F.2d 1253 (8th Cir.

1975), is instructive. That case involved a challenge to South

Dakota’s scheme for governing its unorganized counties. The

residents of the unorganized counties were governed by

elected officials in the nearest organized county, but only the

residents of the organized county were allowed to vote for

those officials. The state defended this scheme as a

reasonable residency requirement. Id. at 1255. In its view,

the residents of the unorganized counties (who were mainly

Native Americans) did not share the same interests in the

elections as did the residents of the organized counties. The

Eighth Circuit rejected the argument. Citing Cornman, that

3 Nothing we say has any bearing on the city’s existing candidateresidency requirement, which requires each council member to run for the

seat from the ward in which he resides. See Tucson City Charter ch. XVI,

§§ 5, 9. The Supreme Court has twice upheld similar schemes. Dusch v.

Davis, 387 U.S. 112, 114–16 (1967); Dallas Cty. v. Reese, 421 U.S. 477,

480–81 (1975). In light of Dusch and Reese, the city argues that we are

bound to approve the voter-residency requirements imposed by the hybrid

system. But, despite the similarity in names, candidate-residency

requirements are quite different than voter-residency requirements. 

Neither Dusch nor Reese requires that the same constitutional principles

governing candidate-residency requirements also apply to voter-residency

requirements. See Dusch, 387 U.S. at 115–16.
14 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

court held that a state may not use a residency requirement to

prevent citizens from voting for “those who will function as

their elected officials.” Id. at 1258. The court applied strict

scrutiny and invalidated the scheme. Id.

The fact that two groups live on opposite sides of a

political boundary does not necessarily mean they can be

treated differently for voting purposes. This is the teaching

of Little Thunder. 518 F.2d at 1256; see English v. Bd. of

Educ. of Town of Boonton, 301 F.3d 69, 77, 79 (3d Cir.

2002); United States v. South Dakota, 636 F.2d 241, 245 (8th

Cir. 1980); see also Holt Civic Club, 439 U.S. at 81, 86

(Brennan, J., dissenting) (cautioning against “ced[ing] to

geography a talismanic significance”). If two groups are

represented by the same politician, they are necessarily part

of a “single unit of local government.” Little Thunder, 518

F.2d at 1256. Any boundary that purports to sub-divide that

single unit is hopelessly arbitrary, and any “residency

restriction” that disenfranchises citizens based on where they

live in relation to that arbitrary boundary cannot stand. 

Excluding out-of-ward voters from the primary election

discriminates among residents of the same governmental unit

in violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth

Amendment.

REVERSED.

TALLMAN, Circuit Judge, dissenting:

There are certain times when a federal court may tell a

municipality how to run its local elections. This is not one of

them. Tucson’s hybrid election system does not invidiously
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 15

discriminate against voters based on their race, ethnicity,

gender, or wealth. Rather, plaintiffs argue—and the majority

agrees—that Tucson unconstitutionally denies its citizens the

right to vote by setting different geographical units for its

councilmanic primary and general elections. Because I

conclude that the Constitution does not require Tucson to

draw its district borders in a particular way for different local

elections, I respectfully dissent. 

I

“The Constitution grants States broad power to prescribe

the ‘Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for

Senators and Representatives,’ Art. I, § 4, cl. 1, which power

is matched by state control over the election process for state

offices.” Clingman v. Beaver, 544 U.S. 581, 586 (2005). The

United States Supreme Court has recognized that government

“is the science of experiment” and that states are “afforded

wide leeway when experimenting with the appropriate

allocation of state legislative power.” Holt v. City of

Tuscaloosa, 439 U.S. 60, 71 (1978) (citingAnderson v. Dunn,

6 Wheat. 204, 226 (1821)). However, a state’s power over its

electoral procedures is not absolute and “must pass muster

against the charges of discrimination or of abridgment of the

right to vote.” Moore v. Ogilvie, 394 U.S. 814, 818 (1969).

A

Conspicuously absent from the majority’s opinion is any

mention of the appropriate standard of review. In Burdick v.

Takushi, 504 U.S. 428, 434 (1992), the Supreme Court

announced the standard for evaluating laws respecting the

right to vote. Although we typically invoke strict scrutiny to

evaluate state laws that implicate fundamental rights, Burdick
16 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

requires courts to apply a more deferential level of scrutiny to

most state election laws that abridge the fundamental right to

vote. Id. at 433; Dudum v. Arntz, 640 F.3d 1098, 1113 (9th

Cir. 2011) (recognizing that Burdick creates a sliding scale

standard of review). Courts determine the appropriate level

of scrutiny to evaluate a state election law by examining the

burden the law imposes on voters’ rights and then weighing

that burden against the state’s legitimate interest in

maintaining the law. Burdick, 504 U.S. at 434 (citing

Anderson v. Celebrezze, 460 U.S. 780, 788 (1983)); Lauren

Watts, Reexamining Crawford: Poll Worker Error as a

Burden on Voters, 89 Wash. L. Rev. 175, 180 (2014)

(discussing the Anderson/Burdick framework). 

“Under this standard, the rigorousness of our inquiry into

the propriety of a state election law depends upon the extent

to which a challenged regulation burdens First and Fourteenth

Amendment rights.” Burdick, 504 U.S. at 434. Strict

scrutiny review is appropriate only if the burdens are severe;

otherwise, the state election law is constitutional so long as it

is justified by a state’s “important regulatory interests.” Id. 

B

The Supreme Court has been reticent to apply strict

scrutiny to state election laws: It has done so only to evaluate

discriminatory poll taxes, property ownership requirements

for voting, and durational residency requirements. See

Harper v. Va. State Bd. of Elections, 383 U.S. 663, 665–70

(1966) (invalidating state poll tax); Kramer v. Union Free

Sch. Dist., 395 U.S. 621, 632–33 (1969) (holding that a state

law requiring school district voters to own real property was

unconstitutional); Dunn v. Blumstein, 405 U.S. 330, 335

(1972) (states must show a “substantial and compelling
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 17

reason” for imposing durational residency requirements).

But, the Supreme Court has applied a lesser burden when

evaluating the constitutionality of literacy tests, felon

disenfranchisement laws, and voter identification laws. See

Lassiter v. Northampton Cty. Bd. of Elections, 360 U.S. 45,

50 (1959) (upholding state statute that conditioned voting

eligibility on ability to read and write any section of the

Constitution); Richardson v. Ramirez, 418 U.S. 24, 56 (1974)

(upholding the ability of states to disenfranchise felons);

Crawford v. Marion Cty., 553 U.S. 181, 202 (2008)

(upholding constitutionality of state law requiring voter

identification). In other words, the Supreme Court counsels

us to approach the constitutionality of state election laws

through a deferential lens. See Burdick, 504 U.S. at 433

(“Common sense, as well as constitutional law, compels the

conclusion that government must play an active role in

structuring elections.”).

Applying Burdick’s sliding scale of constitutional

scrutiny, we have “repeatedly upheld as ‘not severe’

restrictions that are generally applicable, even-handed,

politically neutral, and protect the reliability and integrity of

the election process.” Dudum, 640 F.3d at 1106 (citation

omitted). Indeed, we have said that “voting regulations are

rarely subjected to strict scrutiny,” and we are particularly

loathe to strike down as unconstitutional an entire election

system. Id. at 1106, 1114. 

II

The majority concludes that Tucson’s hybrid election

system for electing its city council violates the “one person,

one vote” principle announced in Gray v. Sanders, 372 U.S.

368, 380 (1963). According to the majority, Tucson’s system
18 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

violates equal protection principles by designating different

geographical units for its primary and general elections. The

practical effect of the majority’s decision today is the total

eradication of Tucson’s voting system, which has been in

place since 1930. Tucson is now forced to choose between an

entirely at-large method of election or a ward-only method of

election despite the fact that a majority of Tucson citizens

have twice before voted against adopting these election

systems. The Constitution does not require this sort of

judicial highjacking of state power. Accordingly, I conclude

that Tucson’s hybrid election system is constitutional. 

Several principles inform this conclusion. 

A

Constitutional standards must be satisfied in primary as

well as in general elections. Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649,

661–62 (1944). However, individuals do not have an

absolute right to vote in a primary election. States may, for

example, host a “closed” or “semiclosed” primary, in which

only people who are registered members of a major political

party may vote. See Clingman, 544 U.S. at 584; Nader v.

Schaffer, 417 F. Supp. 837, 850 (D. Conn. 1976), aff’d mem.,

429 U.S. 989; see also Am. Party of Texas v. White, 415 U.S.

767, 786 (1974) (holding that states may establish waiting

periods before voters may be permitted to change their

registration and participate in another party’s primary). In

other words, the Constitution permits states to prohibit

qualified individuals who are registered Independents (or who

chose not to register as a party member) from voting in a

primary election. 

In fact, we have upheld Arizona’s “closed primary”

system in the face of a Fourteenth Amendment challenge
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 19

similar to Plaintiffs’ challenge here. In Ziskis v. Symington,

an independent voter “could not vote in the Arizona state

primary election . . . because [Arizona law] denies any voter

not affiliated with a political party the opportunity to vote in

that party’s primary.” 47 F.3d 1004, 1004–05 (9th Cir.

1995). Ziskis sued the state in federal district court alleging

that the law violated his Fourteenth Amendment right to vote. 

Id. at 1005. On appeal, we ruled in favor of the state. We

held that the law did not overly burden Ziskis’s right to vote

because Ziskis could access the ballot by associating with a

political party, and if Ziskis chose not to register, “his right to

vote in the general election is unaffected.” Id. at 1006. The

Third Circuit recently resolved a similar Fourteenth

Amendment challenge to New Jersey’s closed primary

system. See Balsam v. Sec’y of N.J., No. 14-3882, 2015 WL

1544483, at *3 (3d Cir. Apr. 8, 2015). The court reasoned

that voters do not “have a constitutional right to unqualified

participation in primary elections,” and the burden the closed

primary system placed on plaintiff’s rights was minor

compared to the state’s interests. Id. at *4–5. 

While Ziskis and Balsam do not resolve the exact

constitutional question presented here, they do counsel that

primary and general elections are not on the same

constitutional footing. See 26 Am. Jur. 2d Elections § 223

(“A primary election is one that results in nominations rather

than final elections to office. Thus, a primary election serves

a different function from a general election, in that it is a

competition for the party’s nomination, no more, no less, and

does not elect a person to office but merely determines the

candidate who will run for the office in the general

election.”). Primary elections in Tucson are, in short, nothing

more than the means political groups use to choose the

standard bearers who will face off in the general election. 
20 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

B

The majority finds it to be “perfectly clear” that Tucson’s

primary and general elections are not independent and “must

be considered in tandem when determining their

constitutionality.” Yet, the cases the majority cites do not

establish that primary and general elections must always be

considered together. For instance, United States v. Classic,

was an election fraud case where the federal government

prosecuted certain state election commissioners for allegedly

falsifying ballots in a Democratic primary. 313 U.S. 299,

307–08 (1941). Classic held that the Constitution secures the

right to have one’s “vote counted in both the general election

and in the primary election.” Id. at 322; see also Smith, 321

U.S. at 664–65 (holding that a political party may not create

a “whites only” primary). However, Classic explained that

the right it recognized only applied to voters who were

“qualified” to cast votes in the state’s Democratic primary. 

313 U.S. at 315. Notably, Classic did not decide who was

“qualified” to vote in the Democratic primary and left that

distinction up to the state. See id. at 310–11. 

Classic teaches us that Tucson cannot deprive a

“qualified” voter from voting in a ward primary. However,

Tucson retains broad discretion to decide who is “qualified”

to vote in its primaries. Thus, Classic does not preclude

Tucson from setting up ward-based primaries whose

“qualified” voters are limited to the residents of that

particular ward.

The majority cautions that “if the city were permitted to

change the geographical unit between the primaryand general

elections, it could decouple the representative to be elected

from his constituency.” The majority creates two
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 21

hypotheticals to illustrate its point: First, Tucson could decree

that only voters living on Main Street are eligible to vote in

primaries. Second, the State of New York could limit the

primary for its junior senator to Manhattanites and the

primary for its senior senator to the rest of the state. 

But, an application of Burdick’s sliding scale of

constitutional scrutiny reveals that neither of the majority’s

fictional state election systems would pass constitutional

muster. First, both of these hypotheticals eliminate large

swaths of city residents from voting in any primary, which

would likely be considered a “severe burden” on voting rights

and subject to strict scrutiny under Burdick. And second, the

states would have an extremely difficult time articulating any

sort of legitimate state interest in defense of these election

systems. Unlike the majority’s hypothetical state election

laws, Tucson’s hybrid system gives each citizen the right to

vote in her respective ward primary, and Tucson has

articulated an “important regulatory interest” to support its

hybrid system.

C

Gray v. Sanders, 372 U.S. 368 (1963), is not as favorable

to the majority’s position as it assumes. Gray held that states

cannot construct election schemes so that one person’s vote

is weighed more heavily than another person’s vote. Id. at

380–81. And, let there be no doubt about this—“[o]nce the

geographical unit for which a representative is to be chosen

is designated, all who participate in the election are to have an

equal vote.” Id. at 379. However, the Supreme Court has

never before held that the same geographical unit must apply

to both the primary and general elections. 
22 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

In asserting the contrary, the majority misreads Gray and

views the case in a vacuum. Since Gray, the law on “one

person, one vote” has dealt almost exclusively with

congressional redistricting and malapportionment, see, e.g.,

Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533, 557 (1964), principles that

are not at issue here. And, the Supreme Court has squarely

rejected the notion that an individual has a right to vote in any

election that might impact her life and livelihood. See Holt,

439 U.S. at 69 (“No decision of this Court has extended the

‘one man, one vote’ principle to individuals residing beyond

the geographic confines of the governmental entity

concerned, be it the State or its political subdivisions.”).

Gray does not deprive states of their broad authority to set

the geographical unit from which a representative is to be

elected. See Holt, 439 U.S. at 68–69 (holding that city need

not extend the franchise to the citizens of bordering

municipalities, even though those citizens are subject to the

city’s criminal law jurisdiction); see also Green v. City of

Tucson, 340 F.3d 891, 893 (9th Cir. 2003) (upholding

Arizona’s annexation law that “draws geographical

distinctions” between voters living in unincorporated

communities); City of Herriman v. Bell, 590 F.3d 1176, 1185

(10th Cir. 2010) (“[T]he state has the right to draw different

boundaries for voting purposes—and we generally defer to

these delineations—as long as the separate units further

reasonable government objectives.”). Simply put, Gray does

not reach as far as the majority might wish. 
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 23

III

A

From this it follows that Tucson’s hybrid primary system

does not “severely burden” the Plaintiffs’ right to vote. 

During Tucson’s primary election, the law ensures that each

eligible voter within the relevant geographical unit—the

ward—has an equal right to vote. The same holds true for the

general election: Each eligible voter within the relevant

geographical unit—the city—has an equal right to vote. 

Thus, the Plaintiffs are only entitled to vote in the primary

election of the ward in which they reside. But, their right to

vote in their ward primary is not burdened in any way. See

Holt, 439 U.S. at 68–69.

The majority finds that “the practical effect of the Tucson

system is to give some of a representative’s constituents—

those in his home ward—a vote of disproportionate weight.” 

Not so. While a City Council member, once elected, is likely

to be alert to the particular needs of his home ward, every

single vote in Tucson’s elections are weighted the same. In

fact, the hybrid system’s ability to foster attentiveness to local

needs is precisely the reason it was created in the first place:

the ward-based primary helps to ensure that each ward has a

nominee for City Council who is aware of that ward’s

particular needs. 

B

When a state election law places no severe burden on

voters’ rights, “a [s]tate’s important regulatory interests will

usually be enough to justify reasonable, nondiscriminatory

restrictions.” Clingman, 544 U.S. at 593. Tucson has a
24 PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON

legitimate interest in ensuring geographic diversity on the

City Council, and the hybrid system fairly advances this

legitimate interest. Specifically, Defendants persuasively

assert:

Having nominations through primary

elections in each ward, using separate ballots

for each party, allows the party electorates in

each of those wards to make their own choice

of a nominee, and simultaneously acts as a

guarantee for the City electorate as a whole

that each ward’s nominee actually has support

among the party members within that ward. 

Moreover, since nominees compete in the

general election only against other candidates

nominated in the same ward, see Compl. ¶ 24,

ward nominations also help assure that each

ward has a local representative on the council,

and conversely, that the full Mayor and

Council has members who are aware of each

ward’s issues, problems, and views . . . . The

principal and adequate reason for providing

for the election of one councilman from each

borough is to assure that there will be

members of the City Council with some

general knowledge of rural problems to the

end that this heterogeneous city will be able to

give some due consideration to questions

presented throughout the entire area.

This important regulatory interest is sufficient to justify any

burden the hybrid system places on Plaintiffs’ right to vote. 
PUBLIC INTEGRITY ALLIANCE V. CITY OF TUCSON 25

IV

Tucson’s hybrid system is constitutional, and the majority

errs in holding otherwise. Supreme Court precedent teaches

us that a municipality has broad authority to establish the

relevant geographical units for its elections. See Holt, 439

U.S. at 68–69. Furthermore, the majority points to no case

that requires a municipality to use the same geographical unit

for both its primary and general elections, cf. Gray, 372 U.S.

at 381, and the majority’s holding to the contrary stretches the

“one person, one vote” principle beyond its traditional

application. Finally, because primary and general elections

are not constitutionally equal, see Balsam, 2015 WL

1544483, at *3, state laws may narrow the franchise in a

primary election without running afoul of the Fourteenth

Amendment, see Ziskis, 47 F.3d at 1005–06. See also N.Y.

State Bd. of Elections v. Lopez Torres, 552 U.S. 196, 206

(2008) (permitting nomination bypartyconvention). In short,

the Constitution permits Tucson to set different geographical

units for its primary and general elections.

I respectfully dissent.