811d Ecollomic 

Statistics Adrllillistra!tioll 

BUREAU 

THE CENSUS 
• I 

n i 

U.S. D 

• • 

I 

Charles G. Langham 

Issued 1973 

OF COM ERCE 

Frederick B. Dent. Secretary 

Social Economic Statistics 

Edward D. Administrator 

BU OF THE CENSUS 

Vincent P. Barabba, Acting Director 
Vincent Director 

Associate Director for Economic 

Associate Director for Statistical Standards 

and 11/1",1"\"/1,, 

DATA USER SERVICES OFFICE 

This report was 

Charles G. 

Chief, 

Robert B. Chief 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

in the Data User Services Office 

many persons 

direction of 

Review and 

the Bureau. 

Library of Congress Card No.: 13-600143 

SUGGESTED CiTATION 

U.S. Bureau of the Census. The Economic Censuses of the United 

by Charles G. longham. Working Paper 

D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1B13 

For sale by Publication Oistribution Section. Social and Economic 

Statistics Administration, Washington, D.C. 20233. Price 50 cents. 
N 

Page 

Economic Censuses in the 19th Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

The First "Economic Censuses" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

Economic Censuses Discontinued, Resumed, and Augmented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

Improvements in the 1850 Census . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 

The "Kennedy Report" and the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 3 

Economic Censuses and the Industrial Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 

Economic Censuses Adjust to the Times: 

The Censuses of 1880, 1890, and 1900 .........................•.. , . . 4 

Economic Censuses in the 20th Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 

Enumerations on Specialized Economic Topics, 1902 to 1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 

Censuses of Manufacturing and Mineral Industries, 1905 to 1920. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 

Wartime Data Needs and Biennial Censuses of Manufactures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 

Economic Censuses and the Great Depression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 

The War and Postwar Developments: Economic Censuses 

Discontinued, Resumed, and Rescheduled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

The 1954 Budget Crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 

Postwar Developments in Economic Census Taking: 

The Computer, and" Administrative Records" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 
IC CENSUSES IN 

The collection of census-type statistical data by the 

United States Government actually began with the first 

Decennial Census (1790), within a year after George 

Washington became President. This first census and 

the subsequent decennial censuses were authorized in 

the Constitution (Article I, Section 2), which specified 

that "the actual enumeration shall be made within three 

years after the first meeting of the Congress of the 

United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 

years, in such a manner as they shall by law direct." 

The 1790 and 1800 censuses were confined to a few 

basic population inquiries (name, race, sex, and age). 

The prime reason for taking these censuses was to 

apportion Congressional representatives and direct taxes 

among the States, with little consideration of providing 

for any systematic collection of statistical data for 

Government or private use. There was no substantial 

need for the Government to collect economic statistics 

because agriculture was by far the most important 

occupation of the American people and because the 

duties and powers of the Federal Establishment were 

narrowly defined by most political leaders. 

The First "Economic Censuses" 

By 1810 the fragile beginnings of industrialization 

were becoming manifest, encouraged by various Government bounties and subsidies and by a persistent desire 

among many Americans to be as independent of Europe 

as possible. Also, the fledgling American Government 

had survived the initial critical period of its existence 

and was beginning to exert greater influence on political 

and economic affairs. 

Congress responded to the need for statistics on the 

extent of this newly developed industrialization when, 

in an Act passed on May 1, 1810, it directed the Federal 

marshals and their assistants responsible for conducting 

the 1810 Decennial Census to take "an account of the 

several manufacturing establishments and manufactures 

within their several districts, territories, and divisions." 

No specific questions were outlined, and no report form 

was prescribed; these matters were left to the discretion 

of the Secretary of the Treasury. 

To facilitate the collection of data, the Treasury 

Department divided manufactured products into 27 broad 

categories, encompassing more than 200 kinds of goods. 

As they conducted the population enumeration, the 

marshals and their assistants were to visit the manufacturing establishments in their assigned territories to 

obtain information, generally on the amount produced and 

value of products manufactured. A total of $40,000 was 

allocated to pay the marshals and assistants for taking 

this "account of manufactures." These officials performed their tasks during the period August 181O-July 

1811. However, itwas not until March 1812 that Congress 

authorized $2,000 for the Treasury Department to employ 

a statistician to "digest and reduce returns" and prepare 

E 1 

a statistical report. Mr. Tench Coxe l was hired for this 

purpose, and his report was published in May 1813. This 

report basically covered the kind, quantity, and value of 

goods manufactured and the number of manufacturing 

establishments in each State, territory, district, and 

county. In his summary, Mr. Coxe candidly admitted 

that there had been serious undercounting and omissions 

in the enumeration. Although the report indicated total 

manufactures valued at about $173 million, Mr. Coxe 

estimated that the actual figure probably exceeded 

$200 million. 

The War of 1812 (1812-1815) and the Napoleonic 

Wars in Europe caused an interruption of American 

trade with Europe; the scarcity of imported goods 

(and the diversion of capital from mercantile to industrial investments) encouraged the further development 

of U.S. manufacturing. Although agriculture was still 

the predominant occupation, about 12 percent of the 

labor force in 1820 was employed in "manufacturing 

and mechanical arts." As might be expected in view of 

these developments, several additional manufacturing 

inquiries were included in the 1820 Decennial Census. 

A total of 14 questions were asked to elicit information 

on location of establishments, raw materials used 

(kind, quantity, and cost), number of employees, machinery, expenditures (capital, wages, contingent expenses), and production (value, demand, and sales). 

Again, the data were collected by the Federal marshals 

and their assistants, and an abstract was published, this 

time under the auspices of the U.S. Department of State. 

Statistics were published for each State, territory, and 

district, but there was no attempt to compute U.S. 

totals because the data were again admittedly incomplete. 

This incompleteness was attributed to insufficient funds 

allocated to pay the enumerators and the fact that many 

establishments apparently neglected (or refused) to 

provide the required information. In addition, 1820 

data were not comparable to the 1810 statistics because 

household manufactures (goods produced at home) were 

counted in 1810 but not in 1820. 

Economic Censuses Discontinued, 

Resumed, and AIIIl<>nrll>11ti!>'1I"i 

Perhaps as a result of these unfavorable experiences 

(and the comparatively slow rate of economic growth 

in the 1820's), no attempt was made to collect economic 

statistics in the 1830 Decennial Census. The 1830's 

witnessed a sharp acceleration of economic activity 

that reached boom proportions in 1836- 37, followed, 

however, the country's first great depression (1839-

43). Although President Martin Van Buren viewed the 

Federal Government as having neither the power nor the 

duty to act firmly to ease the crisis, there was considerable pressure to resume the collection of economic 

statistics and to expand the coverage. 

lTench Coxe (1755-1824) was a political economist and 

a member of the Continental Congress who had held several 

government posts) including Assistant Secretary of the 

Treasury, U.S. Co~~issioner of Revenue, and Purveyor of 

Public Supplies. 

1 
2 

The Decennial Census of 1840 therefore encompassed 

not only manufacturing but also fishing, commerce, and 

mining. One special form, "Schedule of Mines, Agriculture, Commerce, Manufactures, Etc.," was utilized 

by the marshals and their assistants to collect data on 

all of these subjects. Manufacturing was divided into 

30 categories on the basis of the manufactured product 

(machinery, paper, furniture, etc.), plus an "all other 

manufactures" classification. In general, statistics 

were compiled on the quantity and value of goods 

produced, amount of capital invested, number of employees, and number of establishments. 

Despite the retarding effects of the War of 1812, 

commercial fishing increased substantially during the 

first part of the 19th century. There was extensive 

growth in cod fishing and mackerel fishing, and this 

period also witnessed the beginnings of large-scale 

commercial fishing for herring, halibut, and oysters. 

Whaling activities expanded markedly after 1815 on 

the Atlantic Coast and after 1835 on the Pacific Coast. 

Fishing was thus a relatively significant industry 

1840 and a fitting subject for data collection in the 

Decennial Census. Commercial fishermen were asked 

about the quantity (and sometimes the value) of fish 

products taken, the number of men employed, and the 

capital invested. 

Commerce and trade activities also accelerated during 

the early and middle decades of the 19th century, as 

evidenced in part by the fact that volume of trade 

(total imports plus total exports) increased almost twofold, from about $126 million in 1821 to approximately 

$248 million in 1841. To measure the extent of commercial activities, the Decennial Census of 1840 included, for the first time, a series of questions on 

number of business enterprises in various categories 

(commercial houses in foreign trade, commission houses, 

lumber yards, grocery stores, etc.), capital invested, 

and number of employees. 

Few statistics on mining are available for the years 

before 1840, but there is strong evidence that considerable expansion also occurred in this activity during 

the period 1800-1840. 2 The planners of the 1840 

Decennial Census sought to remedy the dearth of information on mines and mining by including, for the 

first time, questions on this subject. A series of questions 

were asked on the following classifications of minerals: 

iron; lead; gold; other metals; coal; domestic salt; 

and granite, marble, and other stone. These inquiries 

generally covered quantity and value of minerals produced, men employed, and capital invested in mining 

operations. 

The returns for manufacturing, fishing, commerce, 

and mining were tabulated and statistical tables were 

published on the "commerce and industry of the country. " 

However, as in the 1810 and 1820 censuses, considerable 

undercoverage was acknowledged in 1840 census results. 

Many historians and statisticians consider the economic 

2The available sketchy statistics give evidence of 

this growth. For example, an estimated 108 thousand 

short tons of bituminous coal were mined in 1800, but in 

1840, 1.3 million short tons were extracted. Lead mining 

yielded only 1,000 short tons in 1800 but 17,000 short 

tons in 1840. 

data tabulated and published for these three censuses to 

be of little value except as indicators of the gross 

outlines of manufacturing development. For example, 

Messrs. Robert C. Morgan and W. A. Shannon, Treasury 

Department statisticians, indicated in a technical paper 

prepared for the 34th Congress (1855-56) that economic 

census data before 1840 are almost worthless. 

These inauspicious beginnings of economic census 

taking resulted from several interrelated factors, in 

addition to the customary handicaps faced by the early 

census takers, such as wide geographic dispersion, poorly 

defined boundaries, and inadequate transportation. The 

Federal marshals who supervised the field operations 

had many other duties and often could notdevote adequate 

time and attention to the census. The marshals' 

assistants who conducted the actual enumeration often 

received sketchy instructions or no instructions at alL 

Although they might not have required detailed 

training or instructions to obtain answers to straightforward population questions (e.g., age and sex of 

members of a household), it is reasonable to assume 

that they might have had some conceptual or practical 

problems eliciting answers to more complex economic 

questions (e.g., the cost of raw materials consumed in 

manufacturing during the 

Even assuming that the enumerator was perceptive 

enough to know what information he was seeking and 

how to ask for it, there was still a serious question as 

to whether the respondent could and would provide it. 

The prevailing philosophy in political economy was that 

of laissez faire- - minimal role of government in economic 

affairs--and many entrepreneurs were suspicious and 

uncooperative when asked to provide information about 

their businesses to Government agents. 3 In other cases, 

the census takers found that the respondents' records 

were inadequate or nonexistent (a common situation for 

new enterprises in a developing economy), and the owners 

or operators simply could not provide more than sketchy 

estimates. 

Tabulating the statistics also presented problems 

because, in most cases, the Federal marshals supervising the enumeration had to compile and classify the 

data for their jurisdictions and generally prepare tables 

for publication. This decentralization inevitably introduced some irregularities in the reported information 

because the marshals, who were not trained statisticians, 

frequently used divergent procedures in performing 

these duties. 

m ..... n"'''''m''''',.,·r''' in the 1850 Census 

The evident inaccuracies in the 1840 census (for 

both economic and demographic data) led to considerable 

debate in Congress during the 1840' s, and several 

measures were passed in an effort to iniprove the 1850 

Decennial Census. In March 1849 an Act was passed 

establishing a Census Board, with the Secretary of State, 

3The 1840 census marked the first evidence of official 

concern with the need to regard census data as confidential. Administrative instructions to the marshals admonished them "to consider all communications made to him in 

the performance of his duty, relative to the business of 

the people as strictly confidential." Similar instructions were issued in the 1850, 1860, and 1870 censuses. 
the Attorney General, and the Postmaster General as 

members. This Act also provided that a full-time 

secretary for the Census Board would be appointed 

Congress, at an annual salary of in effect, 

this official functioned as the director of the census. 

The Board was given authority to design and procure 

suitable forms for the 1850 census, forms not 

for collecting the information but also for tabulating 

results and compiling the statistical tables. The Congressional Act creating the Census Board also contained 

specific instructions that data be collected and 

on manufacturing, mining, fishing, and commerce to 

present a "full view" of the industrial development of 

the United States. The Census Board consulted with 

prominent statisticians in Government and the academic 

and business communities to develop six questionnaires, 

one of which (Schedule 5) was for the collection of the 

economic data. It was to be completed by each corporation, company, or individual accounting for annual 

production valued at $500 or more for the year ending 

June 1, 1850. The 14 inquiries included name of 

business, manufacture, or product; amount of capital 

invested in real and personal estate in the business; 

quantities, kinds, and values of raw materials used; 

kinds of motive power used (water or steam); machinery, 

structures, or resources used in the manufacturing 

process; average number of male and female workers 

employed; average cost of male and female 

labor; and quantities, kinds, and values of annual product. 

The questionnaire for social statistics included six 

questions on wages and prices, on average monthly 

wages for a farm laborer board), average daily 

wages for a day laborer and without board), 

average daily wage for a carpenter, average weekly 

wages for a female domestic worker board), 

and price of board to a "laboring per week. 

(Similar questions were included in the 1860 and 1870 

censuses.) 

The enumerators were supplied with written instructions on how each question should be answered and 

examples of properly completed questionnaires. In 

addition, the Federal marshals still supervised field operations, they were relieved of the responsibility of compiling and assembling for publication 

the statistics for their respective jurisdictions. Instead, the classification and compilation of data preparatory to their publication were performed in a 

central office in Washington, D.C. General census 

results were published in June 1853, and partial data for 

manufactures became available in September 1854, but 

complete economic statistics for the 1850 census were 

not published until December 1859. 4 The total value 

of manufactures (including fisheries and the products 

of mines), a s reflected in the 1850 census, exceeded 

$1 billion. This represented a fivefold increase over 

the $200 million estimated for 1810. Although some 

undercounting was acknowledged, most statisticians have 

concluded that 1850 census data--both economic and 

demographic--are considerably more accurate than in 

previous censuses. 

tiThe Census Office (which was under the jurisdiction 

of the newly created Department of the Interior) was disbanded on two occasions as the various census reports 

were completed. Congress did not actually authorize the 

preparation of 1850 economic census reports until June 

1858, at which time a clerical staff had to bA reassembled. 

3 

Part of the improvement is attributed to the efforts 

of Mr. Joseph C.G. Kennedy (1813-1887). Mr. Kennedy, 

a statistician and Pennsylvania newspaper editor-owner, 

served as secretary of the Census Board in 1849-50 and 

was appointed superintendent of the census office in 1850. 

He resigned in 1853 to become U.S. representative to the 

first and second International Statistical Congresses in 

Brussels (1853-1854), during which he consulted with 

leading European statisticians and became familiar with 

government statistical programs in Europe. Mr. Kennedy 

was reappointed superintendent of the census office in 

June 1858 to supervise the preparation of the report 

on economic statistics. At the completion of this 

assignment, he was selected as superintendent of the 1860 

Decennial Census. 

The and the Civil War 

The 1860 Decennial Census was conducted under the 

same basic procedures followed in the 1850 census. 

Although there were some minor modifications of the 

questionnaires used to collect demographic data, the 

14 economic inquiries were identical to those of the 

1850 census. Four census volumes were published, 

including one devoted exclusively to economic statistics. 

A major innovation was the analysis of the census 

statistics prepared by Superintendent Kennedy. Mr. 

Kennedy used the census data as a basis for describing 

"all the great elements of a nation's prosperity as they 

existed in the year 1860." 

In his section on "products of industry" (included in the 

Preliminary Report on the Eighth Census, published in 

1862), Mr. Kennedy described the increasing impact of 

manufacturing and commerce in the United States, estimating that one-third of the entire population in 1860 

was supported, directly or indirectly, by manufacturing. 

His report encompassed a comparative analysis of the 

various industries in which he interpreted the data to 

show how and sectors of the economy expanded, 

stabilized, or decreased and to illustrate interrelationships among the factors of production and socioeconomic 

factors. 

For example, he credited the expanded use of the 

sewing machine in industry with adding "thousands of 

industrious females" to the labor force, as well as 

promoting the growth of the garment industry. He 

praised the "cultivated intellect" of the Federal Army 

mobilized for Civil War duty and cited the increasing 

number of printing presses as being a prime factor in 

making books and newspapers readily available for the 

average citizen to improve his intellect. 

The Civil War had a marked effect on economic 

development in both the North and the South. The need 

for war materiel provided major stimulation to industry, 

particularly in the North, where merchant capitalism 

was supplanted to a large degree by industrial capitalism. 

Wartime requirements for woolen cloth, clothing, iron, 

guns, munitions, and other products led to the use of 

production methods which hastened the Industrial Revolution in the United States. The need to mobilize a Federal 

Army of more than 2 million men brought an attendant 

economic mobilization, the first in the Nation's history. 

The Federal Government actively encouraged industrialization during and after the Civil War by tariff protection, 
4 

a central banking system, large grants to railroads, and 

generally conservative monetary policies. 

Faced with a naval blockade and an economy based on 

cotton, the Confederate Government attempted to develop 

manufacturing. Industrialization increased (particularly 

cotton cloth and leather goods), and the Government took 

over some essential industries. In the wake of the war, 

with Negro slavery ended and the plantation system 

largely eliminated, the South was forced to develop a 

more diversified economy emphasizing manufacturing and 

commerce. 

The Civil War emergency thus compelled the Federal 

Government to adopt explicit policies to promote industrial development. With the implementation of such 

policies-- which continued after the war-- came an increased need for and interest in economic statistics, 

statistics which could best be supplied through the 

periodic censuses. 

Economic Censuses and the Industrial Revolution 

Beginning in the middle of the 19th century (but at 

an even more accelerated pace after the Civil War), 

American society was transformed by the rise of 

industrialism. Many factors, including benign Government policies, encouraged this transformation. There 

was a successful blend of abundant natural resources, 

adequate supplies of capital and labor, technical advances 

in virtually all industries, readily available markets, 

and rapidly expanding and improving transportation networks. Before 1860 the American economy was basically agrarian, but by 1900 the value of manufactured 

goods was double that of agricultural products. During 

that 40-year period, the United States advanced from 

fourth place to first place among the world's industrial 

nations, as measured by the value of manufactures. 

The following statistics, all collected in economic 

censuses, reflect this expansion: In 1859 there were 

only about 140,000 industrial establishments in the 

country, employing 1.3 million workers and producing 

goods with a gross value of $1.9 billion. By 1899 

there were over 500,000 establishments providing jobs 

for 5.3 million workers and producing goods with a 

gross value of $13 billion. Value added by manufacture 

increased from $854 million in 1859 to $5.6 billion in 

1899. 

Industrialization lead to specialization, the growth 

of huge combinations and monopOlies, and the concentration of economic power, all of which had direct 

ramifications for the economic census takers. As 

specialization increased, it became more difficult to 

develop general questions applicable to all establishments. Many unique schedules, tailored to the characteristics of each industry, had to be designed in order 

to obtain meaningful statistics. At the same time, the 

concentration of economic power (and the frequent 

abuse of that power) brought a growing public demand 

for Government regulation of business, which culminated 

in the antitrust movement. As Government exercised 

increasing power over economic affairs, it required 

more and better data upon which to base its far-reaching 

decisions. 

In 1869-70, Congress attempted to draft new census 

legislation to supercede the 1850 law under which the 

1850 and 1860 censuses had been taken, but which was 

deemed inadequate to meet the changing conditions of 

1870. However, agreement could not be reached, and 

the 1870 Decennial Census had to be conducted in 

accordance with the provisions of the old law. The 

1870 questionnaire for "products of industry" was 

modified slightly to collect additional or better information on machinery and machine power sources, 

age of youthful workers, cost of labor, and number of 

months the establishment was in operation, but the 

census volume on "statistics on industry and wealth" 

contained basic tabulations closely resembling those 

of 1850 and 1860. Although there were some innovations 

in 1870 (e.g., the use of tallying machines and the introduction of maps and charts to portray census results), 

it was not until the 1880 census that major changes in 

economic data collection were implemented to meet 

the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution. 

Economic Censuses 

The Censuses of 

to the Times: 

and 1900 

A new census law for the 1880 census, passed in 

March 1879, made provision for the Nation's changing 

economic structure. This law provided for (1) many 

additional special schedules tailored to various specialized industries and businesses, (2) expansion in the 

scope of the censuses, (3) utilization of census supervisors and "experts" to conduct the census, instead 

of the Federal marshals, and (4) a requirement that 

supervisors and enumerators take an oath not to reveal 

"any information contained in the schedule (Le., 

questionnaire], lists, or statements obtained by me to 

any person or persons, except to my superior officers." 5 

The number of general economic questions was 

expanded to 29, and there were 49 special questionnaires 

designed for particular industries in the manufacturing 

area. The 49 special questionnaires contained more 

than 2,000 inquiries. Although there was considerable 

overlap of questions (Le., the same item appearing 

on several special questionnaires, or on the general 

questionnaire and also one or more special questionna ires), more than 700 of the inquiries were unique. 

The number of questions on the special manufacturing 

questionnaires ranged from eight (on a supplemental 

questionnaire for forges and foundries) to 141 (on a 

questionnaire for cotton manufacturers). 

Whereas questions on mining and mineral industries 

had been included on the "products of industry" questionnaire in the 1850, 1860, and 1870 censuses, 42 special 

questionnaires were used to collect data on this subject 

in the 1880 census. These special questionnaires contained a total of almost 3,000 inquiries, including over 

1,600 unique items. The questionnaires for coal mines 

and copper mines contained more than 200 questions, 

but the median number of items on the special questionnaires for minerals was 53. 

5Census workers were subject, upon conviction, LO a 

fine up to $500 for communicating "to any person not 

authorized to receive the same, any statistics of property 

or business lf reported on a census questionnaire" 
Five special questionnaires were used to compile 

statistics on commercial fisheries. The 87 questions 

generally elicited information on the amount and kind 

of fish taken, type of equipment used, employment, and 

finances. There was a basic report form for all commercial fishermen, plus more detailed questionnaires 

for dealers in fresh fish and dealers in salt fish, and 

two for river fishing activities. 

As the tempo of the Industrial Revolution accelerated, 

there was rapid growth of the transportation industry 

railroads) and the communications industry. 

first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, 

and rapid construction of new railroad facilities was 

manifest throughout the latter decades of the 19th century. 

Track mileage increased from in 1860 to 93,000 

in 1880 and to in 1890. The telegraph industry 

was given impetus by the Civil War and the Nation's 

westward expansion. In there were only 

miles of telegraph wire, but by 291,000 miles of 

wire were carrying over 30 million messages annually. 

The growth of the telephone industry was even more 

expeditious: The first commercial telephone exchange 

was opened in 1878, 2 years after the invention of the 

instrument, and by telephones were in use. 

some data on telegraph facilities were 

the 1850 census, the 1880 census marked the 

first effort to compile detailed statistics on 

transportation and communications. Congress directed 

that the Superintendent of the Census collect and 

data on steam railroads, steamboat companies, express 

and telegraph and telephone companies. 

Seven special questionnaires inquiries) were utilized 

for this purpose. Most of the questions (375 items) were 

designed to compile voluminous statistics on the financial 

and physical characteristics of railroads. Financial 

characteristics included income, expenses, and analysis 

of earnings, while characteristics encompassed 

such things as track mileage, amount and kind of rolling 

stock (locomotives and cars), and fuel used to power 

locomotives. A detailed report was requested from each 

railroad, to information on every facet 

of its even a tabulation of employees 

and others killed or in accidents. 

In addition to the questions about current railroad 

characteristics, there was a special on history 

of construction, from which statistics were tabulated on 

built and existent, groups of States, for 

from 1830 to 1880. The 

that information 

was received from every railroad known to exist in 

1880. The instructions the questionnaire 

indicated that "in cases ... in which the records have been 

the officers of such and roads are 

requested to obtain ... this information in the best form 

The recollection of officers and 

long in service of a road may be used ... if more reliable 

data be not accessible." 

on the same subjects 

were directed to steamboat 

5 

The rise of organized labor was still another product 

of the Industrial Revolution in the United States. The 

greatest of the early labor unions, the Knights of Labor, 

was organized in 1869, and the labor movement grew 

sporadically during the latter decades of the 19th 

century, confronted generally unfavorable public 

opinion and a pro-business attitude in Government 

and the courts. At the same time, business and industrial 

leaders with common interests formed trade 

societies and associations. Industrial unrest, with 

its byproducts of strikes and lockouts, accompanied 

the growth of organized labor. The 1880 census--for 

the first and time- -included a series of inquiries 

on labor unions and trade societies objectives 

and methods, membership, receipts, and expenditures) 

and on the number, location, causes, and results of 

strikes and lockouts during calendar year 1880. Four 

special questionnaires containing a total of 101 questions 

were used to collect this information. 

A special survey on wages and prices was included 

as part of the 1880 census. Three special questionnaires 

were designed to collect statistics on wages in the 

manufacturing industries and in the building trades 

and on average retail prices of the "necessaries of 

life." A total of 167 questions were asked on these 

subjects. 

With the concentration of economic power and the 

growth of huge companies and combinations, the individual entrepreneur was forced to assume more and 

greater risks from fire, theft, and natural disaster. 

Many entrepreneurs sought against these 

risks- -protection which be provided by 

transferring the risks to insurance companies. 

The first casualty insurance was not issued 

in the United States until 1832, the first fidelity 

bond, 1840. But by the insurance industry had 

the extent that a few questions on this subject 

on life insurance) were included in the 1860 

census. fire, and marine insurance companies 

were included in the scope of the 1880 census, and 

15 special questionnaires were used to compile statistics 

on the organizational characteristics, finances, insurance 

in force, and other characteristics of insurance companies. considerable was encountered 

in collecting and the except for 

a statement in the statistical compendium, 

no report was issued on this 

The new census law provided for major changes 

procedures. "Supervisors of census," 

the President and confirmed the Senate, 

a ssumed administrative duties from the marshals, who had been overseeing the decennial censuses 

since the first one in 1790. In the economic area, 

"experts" and" enumerators) 

were authorized and analyze statistics on mineral industries, and commercial fisheries in large cities and towns. These 

specialists were college professors, engineers, 

economic statisticians, and others with training and 

experience in the areas. 

For three engineering professors (George F. 

Porter of the Massachusetts Institute 

and James L Greenleaf of Columbia 

were special agents rethe statistics on water power 
6 

used in manufacturing and preparing a report on this 

subject. 

The following industries were assigned to specialists 

in the designated areas: Manufacturing of iron and steel; 

cotton, woolen, and worsted goods; silk and silk goods; 

chemical products and salt; coke and glass; and all 

branches of commercial fishing and mining. The experts 

and special agents were paid at a rate not to exceed 

$6 per day plus expenses, while the regular enumerators 

collecting economic data in other areas were paid 

$0.15 for each establishment reported on the general 

questionnaire and $0.25 for each establishment reported 

on the special questionnaires. 

A new policy of releasing periodic bulletins containing preliminary census results was initiated for the 

1880 census. The statistical compendium summarizing 

census data was published in January 882. The basic 

census volumes reporting manufacturing statistics and 

transportation-communications data were released in 

October 1883, and the mineral industries volume, 

1886. Several special monographs (e.g., on water power 

used in manufacturing; precious metals; and petroleum, 

coke, and building stone) were published in the mid1880's. 

The economic statistics compiled in the 1880 census 

were more comprehensive than in any previous census 

in the United States. The use of experts and special 

agents generally resulted in more complete and consistent returns, which facilitated the tabulation and 

publication of more accurate data on the Nation's 

economy. 

The 1890 census followed the ba sic procedures 

established for 1880, and in many cases the same 

questionnaire formats were utilized. The 1880 experience of employing experts and special agents to 

compile economic data in selected places was deemed 

so successful that, for the 1890 census, specialists 

were used in 1,042 important manufacturing and commercial centers. Another 1880 innovation--that of 

issuing bulletins announcing preliminary census results--

was also extended for the 1890 census. During the period 

1890-1895, more than 6,000 pages of preliminary bulletins 

were released, including a substantial amount of economic 

data. 

The 1890 census also marked what was probably the 

first use of "administrative records" (records used 

by governmental or private organizations to administer 

programs or in day-to-day operations) to compile economic census data. Congress directed that statistics be 

collected on the recorded indebtedness (Le., real estate 

mortgages) of private corporations and individuals. 

Special census agents were sent to real estate recorders' 

offices to abstract information about mortgages made 

during the period 1880-1890. Information abstracted 

included a description of the property, provisions of the 

mortgage, and the addresses of the mortgagor and 

mortgagee. Then, questionnaires (and postage-free 

return envelopes) were mailed to the mortgagors, who 

were asked to supply additional information about their 

:n0rtgage (whether or not it had been fully paid and, 

If not, how much was owed) and return the completed 

report form to the census office. 

The inquiries on transportation were expanded considerably, with coverage extended to sailing vessels 

and rapid-transit facilities in cities. (Rapid-transit 

facilities primarily included electric railroads, which 

became widely used in the 1880' s. The first electric 

railroad was built in Kansas City in 1883, and, by 

1888, there were 13 electric rail systems in use in 

American cities.) 

The 1900 census S included questions on the 

economic subjects: Manufactures, mines and quarries, 

street and electric railroads, for the first time, 

central electric light and power stations. 

The scope of the manufactures census was limited 

law to an exact parallel of the 1890 census. Information was generally compiled on number of establishments, invested, number of wage earners and 

total wages paid, cost of materials, and value of products. 

One general and 32 questionnaires were used 

(a considerable decrease from the 76 manufacturing questionnaires utilized in the census). 

Most manufacturing returns were submitted on the general 

of the total returns), 

there was still some criticism from respondents th~t 

the special questionnaires too much information 

in too much detaiL to the chief statistician 

for manufactures, Mr. S. "experience has 

again demonstrated that it is impossible to obtain 

from the great of manufacturers of the country ... 

replies to the somewhat intricate questions 

which appear on these schedules." 

agents were again to 

manufacturing data in selected areas: A total of 

specialists, supervised by 20 "expert special 

agents," were assigned to these duties in 1,340 cities 

and towns. There were 59 special bulletins prepared 

on various special subjects in manufacturing, such as 

shipbuilding, slaughtering and packing, and lumbering. 

Bulletins on manufacturing were also released for each 

of the States and territories except Alaska. Final 

manufacturing data were published in four volumes and 

summarized in a statistical abstract. 

Statistics on mines and quarries, street and electric 

railroads, and central electric light and power stations 

were initially published in bulletins and later in final 

reports somewhat less detailed than the bound volumes 

of manufactures statistics. Data on covered the 

same general topics as the manufactures statistics 

of mines and mine operators, wage earners and 

total wages, cost of supplies, other operating expenses, 

and and value of minerals extracted), published 

by geographic area and type of mineral. 

For street and electric railroads, statistics were assembled on such topics as number of companies, length 

of rail lines, cost of construction and equipment, employees, and passengers. Data compiled for central 

electric light and power companies included number of 

"statistics for manufacturing are for the year 1900. 

Data for mining, street and electric railroads, and electric light and power stations are for 1902 but these 

results were released as part of the 12th Decennial 

Census publication serieso 
stations, cost of construction and equipment, earnings, 

expenses, and power generated. 7 

Thus, the 19th century witnessed a major growth in 

the scope and coverage of economic censuses which 

roughly paralleled the growth of the American economy. 

The 1810 census encompassed only three broad inquiries 

on manufacturing, but the 1890 census included more than 

inquiries (or levels of detail) relating to manufacturing, mining, fisheries, insurance, mortgages, and 

transportation. The common pattern was that a partic7Data on power companies were actually collected in 

the 1902 census of electric light and power industry. 

These censuses were conducted quinquennially during the 

period 1902-1937. 

7 

ular segment of the economy, previously not included in 

government data-collection activities, would experience 

notable expansion, often encouraged by various external 

variables such as war or discovery of new methods or 

resources. In the wake of this growth, authorities in 

Government and the private sector would express a need 

for statistics which to measure the characteristics of 

the developing industry. 

The relationship between government and business and 

the prevailing economic philosophy in Government were 

also factors. As the Government expanded its role in 

regulating the economy and turned away from laissez 

faire in the purest form, it required more data and better 

data upon which to base future decisions and evaluate past 

decisions. Economic censuses in the 19th century could 

not and did not develop in a vacuum. Instead, they reflect 

the currents of the Nation's economic history. 
CEN SESIN E 

At the beginning of the 20th century, the United 

States found itself the world's leading industrial nation, 

with an economy characterized by the dominance of 

manufacturing. During the second half of the 19th 

century, economic progress had been reflected 

appreciable increases in per capita real income and 

reduction in the length of the work day. Despite these 

advances, violent economic fluctuations buffeted the 

Nation periodically, bringing bank failures, stock market 

panics, lengthy depressions and recessions, and major 

unemployment. 

Government decision-makers, members of the academiccommunity, business leaders, and other experts 

entered the new century faced with an urgent need for 

more data--and more current data--on the burgeoning 

but unpredictable economy. In March 1902, two important steps were taken to meet this need. First, 

Congress directed that "in the year 1905 and every 10 

years after that, there shall be a collection of the 

statistics of manufactures." This was in addition to the 

coverage of manufacturing in the decennial censuses, so 

it actually meant that data on this topic would be compiled 

every 5 years (quinquennially). Secondly, the Bureau of 

the Census was established as a permanent agency in the 

U.S. Department of the Interior (and later transferred to 

the newly created Department of Commerce and Labor). 

It was thus possible to retain a certain number of persons 

familiar with census work and provide an organization to 

collect certain data (e. g., manufacturing statistics) during 

the interval between decennial censuses. 

Enumerations on Specialized Economic 

1902 to 1937 

The Congressional Act establishing the Census Bureau 

as a permanent agency also authorized quinquennial 

censuses of electrical industries beginning in 1902 and 

decennial censuses of water transportation beginning in 

1906. The censuses of electrical industries additionally 

encompassed street railways and telephone and telegraph 

companies. The" street railways" category was expanded in 1922 to include motor buses and in 1932, 

trolley buses. The "telegraph" classification included 

only land telegraph and ocean cable systems for 1902, 

but the definition was enlarged for 1907 ro take m Wireless 

systems. These censuses of electrical industries were 

conducted quinquennially until they were discontinued 

after 1937. The censuses of water transportation were 

taken for 1906, and 1926, after which they were 

discontinued. 

Other enumerations on special economic topics included a census of the express business for 1907 and 

a 1908 census of commercial fisheries conducted in 

close cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries. 

In general, all of these censuses were taken as combination mail-out/mail-back and field canvass operations. 

8 

Censuses of and Mineral 

1905 to 1920 

The first quinquennial census of manufactures was 

taken in 1905, covering the year 1904. According to 

the provisions of the law, this census was confined 

to manufacturing establishments under the "factory 

system," excluding the neighborhood and household 

industries and hand trades 8 which had been included 

in previous censuses of manufactures. To provide for 

comparability, the 1900 manufactures census results 

were retabulated under the new definition. When neighborhood and household industries and hand trades were 

excluded from the 1900 results, the number of manufacturing establishments was reduced from about 509,000 

to approximately 205,000, and value of manufacture, 

from $5.5 billion to $4.6 billion. 

The schedules for the 1905 census were the same as 

those used in and the 1905 bulletins and final 

reports contained the same basic tabulations (number 

of establishments, employment, capital invested, cost 

of manufactures and expenses, value of products, and 

value added manufacture). Statistics were tabulated 

for 339 separate industries and for the usual geographic 

areas. 

Data-collection procedures for the 1905 census had 

to be modified because, for the first time, the manufactures census was not conducted in conjunction with 

the population census field enumeration. A card index 

containing names and addresses of manufacturing establishments was constructed on the basis of 1900 

census results, city directories, trade publications, 

State and local government lists, and similar sources. 

Then, in October 1904, "preliminary circulars" were 

sent to these establishments, asking that they answer 

a few questions (name and address, period of operation, 

and kind of business). Based on the results of this 

"precanvass," the card index was updated, and census 

questionnaires were mailed to the establishments in 

early December 1904. Then, beginning in January 1905, 

835 canvassers (regular Census Bureau employees and 

temporary employees hired for the duration of the 

operation) conducted a field enumeration of companies 

which had not completed and returned their questionnaires. The report of the 1905 census indicates that 

although "many" questionnaires were returned by mail, 

"most" of the returns were secured in the field operation. 

(No specific figures on rates of return weLe glVen.) 

Similar procedures were used in the 1910 census, 

which included mines and quarries in addition to manu8Examples of these industries include custom tailoring, carpentering, taxidermy, and, in general, contract 

work done for individual customers. Also excluded were 

establishments which produced products with an annual 

value of less than $500. 
facturing. Manufacturing establishments were given the 

opportunity to complete and mail in questionnaires, but, 

again, most returns were secured in the field by special 

census agents. A total of 1,227 special agents, plus 

about 100 regular Bureau employees, were assigned to 

canvass the factories, mines, and quarries. In a few 

sparsely settled areas, population census enumerators 

were also required to obtain the manufacturing and 

mining returns. 

The coverage of the 1910 census differed from that 

of 1905 only in that reports were secured, for the first 

time, from custom sawmills and steam laundries. 

However, the number of industries for which a separate 

tabulation was published was reduced to 264, mainly as 

a result of consolidating some of the 1905 categories. 

The Act authorizing the 1910 census also strengthened 

the confidentiality restrictions, particularly as they 

related to economic data, and it was the first law placing 

a restriction on the publication of census statistics. As 

a matter of administrative policy, responses on questionnaires for earlier economic censuses had been considered 

confidential, but the 1910 law specified that information 

furnished business, manufacturing, and mining establishments "shall be used for statistical purposes 

for which it is supplied. That no publication shall be 

made by the Census Office whereby the data furnished 

by any particular establishment can be identified, nor shall 

the Director of the Census permit anyone other than 

sworn employees of the Census Office to examine 

individual reports." 

The Census Bureau acknowledged the importance of 

confidentiality by noting in the volume containing 1910 

manufactures census results that "it is essential to the 

success of the manufactures census that every concern 

should be assured explicitly by law that its business will 

not be disclosed to competitors, to the general public, 

to state and local officials, or even to officials of the 

Federal Government outside of the Census Bureau. 

Only with such a pledge of confidential treatment can 

the Bureau of the Census expect manufacturers to furnish 

data and accurately." 

The 1915 manufactures census again combined a 

mail-out/mail-back enumeration with a field canvass 

by employees detailed from the permanent complement 

of the Census Bureau and by special agents. Data were 

tabulated for the year 1914 for 344 industries plus 271 

industry subgroups. Plans called for the prompt publication of bulletins containing preliminary results, 

but when the United States entered World War I in 

April 1917, the preparation of these bulletins (and of the 

two volumes and the abstract containing final results) 

was delayed because of demands on the public printer 

for war-related work. The last of the bulletins was not 

issued until August 1918, just before the census volumes 

were published. 

The 1920 decennial census included manufacturing and 

mining operations for the year 1919. For manufactures, 

the 1915 definitions and procedures remained in effect, 

with one exception: In addition to collecting data for 

establishments which had not returned questionnaires, 

the field enumerators were also asked to correct 

defective questionnaires (i.e., those with inconsistent 

or incomplete responses) which had been mailed back 

by respondents. A total of 358 industries and 98 industry 

9 

subgroups were covered, but data for seven industries 

had to be combined to avoid disclosure of data for 

individual firms. For the census of manufactures, three 

volumes and an abstract (plus the usual preliminary 

bulletins) were published. 

For mining, statistics were published generally on 

geographic distribution of operations, lands controlled 

by mining operators, character of organization, scale 

of operations, and amount and kind of power used. 

One general questionnaire and several special questionnaires were utilized. The data were published in one 

volume, which contained a general report and analytical 

tables, and tabulations for States and selected mineral 

industries. The tables were arranged to facilitate 

comparisons with the mining statistics published annually 

the U.S. Geological Survey. 

Wartime Data Needs and Biennial 

Censuses of Manufactures 

The mobilization of economic resources for World 

War I led to substantial expansion of American industry. 

Production of metals and minerals in general (and 

iron, steel, and chemicals in particular) increased 

dramatically. The war emergency accelerated the 

decline of laissez faire and the trend toward Government 

regulation of the private sector. Various Federal 

boards and agencies with extraordinary economic powers 

(such as the War Industries Board and the War Labor 

Board) were established for the duration of the war, 

and the Government took over operation of the railroads. 

The demands of the war effort and postwar demobilization 

and reconversion forced the Government to make decisions traditionally reserved for the private sector. 

example, the War Industries Board had authority 

to determine priorities of production and distribution, 

regulate production of civilian goods, and fix prices of 

raw materials.) The temporary organizations compiled 

detailed statistics to assist them in making decisions 

and evaluating progress, in many cases, lack of 

information still handicapped their efforts. Economic 

controls were removed beginning almost immediately 

after the Armistice was signed, and the laissez faire 

philosophy regained popularity in the 1920's, with the 

return to "normalcy." However, the Government's 

interest in economic affairs (and its data needs) continued at a relatively high leveL 

Congress demonstrated these needs when, in the 

Act providing for the decennial census of it directed 

the "collection for the years 1921, 1923, 1925, 1927, 

and for every tenth year after these years, the statistics 

of the products of manufacturing industries." Since the 

decennial censuses would cover the years 1929, 1939, etc., 

censuses of manufactures were thus authorized on a 

biennial basis. 

The reason for compiling these data, as indicated in 

the report of the 1921 census, was to "show the 

absolute and relative magnitude of the various branches 

of industry, and their growth and decline, and (2) the 

industrial importance, and the increase or decrease in 

industrial importance, of individual States and large 

cities." Statistics were to be collected which would 

"throw light upon certain matters of economic and 

sociological importance," such as the size of establishments and hours of labor. 
10 

To reduce the expense of the biennial censuses and 

expedite processing and publication of results, two 

primary actions were implemented for the 1921 census. 

certain items which had been included in the 

censuses of manufactures were omitted. 

items included capital invested, age and sex 

distribution of employees, rent and taxes, primary horsepower used, and kind and quantity of fuel used in manufacturing. Secondly, only limited statistics on number 

of wage earners and value of product were collected 

from manufacturing establishments reporting products 

valued at less than $5,000 for 1921. (In the quinquennial 

censuses, data had been obtained from establishments 

with annual production valued at more than $500.) For 

1921, about 22 percent of the establishments had products 

valued at less than $5,000, but these plants accounted for 

less than 1 percent of the wage earners and total 

production. 

Data were collected for 1921 on 348 separate industries, 98 of which were subdivided to show greater detail. 

Statistics were compiled on number of proprietors or 

firm members, number of salaried employees, number of 

wage earners, amounts paid in salaries and wages and 

for contract work, cost of materials, and value of 

product. 

In planning this first biennial census of manufactures, 

Census Bureau officials consulted extensively with the 

National Association of Manufacturers, committees from 

civic associations (such as chambers of commerce), 

representatives of important trade associations, and 

statisticians in Government and the private sector. 

Assistance from these sources was obtained in developing 

questionnaires, publicizing the census, and generally 

encouraging industry's acceptance of the project. 

The canvass was a combination mail-outjmail-back 

operation and field enumeration. More than half of the 

questionnaires were returned by mail. Preliminary 

summary reports of census results were issued as 

press releases, each relating to a particular industry 

or group of industries. A total of 287 press releases 

were prepared during the period July 1922 to May 1923, 

and a final press summary was released in July 1923. 

Printed bulletins with final results were prepared for the 

industries, and a summary bulletin presented statistics 

for the United States, industries, and for all industries 

combined State. data were then consolidated into 

a one-volume report published in November 1923. 

The procedures and coverage of the 1923 census were 

virtually the same as those of 1921. The mail-outj 

mail-back operation was more successful, due in part 

to the cooperation of chambers of commerce. In many 

large cities, chamber of commerce representatives, 

sworn in as census agents, took complete charge of the 

canvass. Approximately 65 percent of the returns were 

received by mail, and by June 1924 almost 95 percent 

of the establishments had been canvassed by mail or 

in the field. Data were collected and tabulated for 

333 industries, of which 87 were subdivided to provide 

greater detail. As in the 1921 census, preliminary 

statistics were first puhlished in press releases (of 

which there were 290), then final data were assembled 

in industry bulletins and a final one- volume report 

published in January 1926. 

For the 1925 census, 324 industries were covered, 

and about 75 percent of the returns were received 

mail, again with the close cooperation of the chambers 

of commerce and other professional groups. A total of 

254 press releases of preliminary results were prepared, 

plus the usual industry bulletins and the one- volume final 

report released in December 1927. For the 1927 census, 

manufacturers of confectionery and ice cream and 

fabricators of sheet-iron had to complete questionnaires 

only if they produced products with an annual value of 

$20,000 or more. (This was in recognition of the fact 

that many of these smaller firms were primarily 

engaged in retail trade, not manufacturing.) Overall, 

the census encompassed 335 industries, and approximately 65 percent of the returns were received by mail. 

The press release-industry bulletin-final volume publication procedure was again followed, with the final volume 

published in April 1930. 

Economic Censuses and the Great 

The 1930 Decennial Census ""as_ conducted during the 

initial phases of the Great Depression, the beginning of 

which was marked by the stock market crash of October 

1929. Even before the crash and the start of the 

depression, some thoughtful economists and Government 

officials were investigating ways to achieve and preserve 

economic stability. Despite stringent budgets, the 

National Bureau of Economic Research and other public 

and private agencies undertook research projects which 

were frequently handicapped by lack of data, particularly 

in the areas of business and commerce. 

In the Act authorizing the 1930 census, Congress 

provided for a census of construction industries, a census 

of distribution (which included retail and wholesale 

distribution and special topics), and a census of hotels. 

These were in addition to the censuses of manufactures 

and mineral industries traditionally included in the 

decennial censuses. All of these censuses were to 

encompass activities for the year 1929. 

The construction census was initiated in response 

to the post-World War I boom in this sector of the 

economy. In 1920, less than 850,000 workers were 

employed in contract construction, and total private 

construction for that year was valued at $5.4 billion. 

By 1928 (the last full year before the start of the 

depression), more than 1.6 million workers were employed in this field, and total private construction was 

valued at $9.2 billion. 

In planning this first census of construction industries, 

the Census Bureau worked closely with an advisory 

committee representing national contractors' associations and individual construction companies. This 

cooperative effort produced one basic questionnaire 

designed to collect information on (1) organization of 

the establishment, number of salaried employees 

and total salaries (3) number of skilled and unskilled workmen employed, (4) total annual wages, 

length of working day and week, (6) expenses of 

equipment, operations, and overhead, (7) total value 

of year's business various breakdowns), and 

value of materials and building equipment installed. 

The questionnaire was to be completed by all persons 

and establishments engaged in construction business of 

any kind (except industrial concerns, public utilities, 
municipalities, or common carriers which maintained 

construction crews for the repair or maintenance of 

their own property). However, detailed statistics were 

to be compiled only for establishments which reported 

gross business of at least during calendar year 

1929. 

The decision was made to conduct the construction 

census as a operation. In order 

to mail the questionnaires to the right companies at 

the addresses, a directory was prepared on the 

basis of lists of names and addresses provided 

contractors' associations, private statistical agencies, 

builders' exchanges, chambers of commerce, and other 

business and trade associations. Letters were sent to 

officials and postmasters, asking that they 

names and addresses of known construction establishments in their jurisdictions. Census Bureau clerks 

obtained additional names from classified telephone 

directories, and other sources. Ultithe encompassed about unduplicated names and addresses. 

In March form letters signed 

of the Census and the Secretary of 

postage-free return envelopes were 

mailed. were given 15 days to 

their reports, and two were conducted in which 

reminder letters to nonrespondents. In 

cities with of at least nonrespondents 

enumerators conducting the 

census. 

about construction census questionnaires were 

received, of which about 31 were from 

which reported annual business of at least 

Clerks checked each questionnaire for completeness and 

consistency when possible, made necessary corrections. When an apparent error or discrepancy could 

not be corrected on the basis of other reported inforthe Census Bureau contacted the respondent by 

mail to point out the and ask that the item be 

reconsidered. 

A card system of mechanical tabulation was used in 

construction census results (and, in fact, 

all 1930 census data), but a series of clerical 

cross checks and reviews by experienced statisticians 

was implemented to assure maximum accuracy and 

consistency. The results were published in December 

1932 in a bound volume containing 13 uniform tables for 

the United States as a whole and for each State and the 

District of Columbia. Eleven of these tables include 

statistics for establishments with annual business of 

at least and the other two tables contain basic 

statistics (e.g., number of establishments and volume of 

business) for companies with annual business of less than 

$25,000. 

The 1930 census of distribution was conducted entirely 

as a field operation, using procedures which had been 

tested and refined in an ll-city canvass in 1926. The 

retail census covered operations of all retail stores 

and "all establishments doing business in a retail 

manner." Thus, in addition to retail stores per se, 

it encompassed restaurants and some semi-service 

businesses, such as garages, which sell merchandise 

in addition to their services. Retail establishments 

were classified on the basis of the following types of 

operation: Single-store establishments, two-store in11 

dependents, three-store independents, local branch systems, local chains, sectional chains, national chains, and 

miscellaneous types of operation. 

Enumerators personally visited each of the approximately 1.5 million stores to obtain answers to questions 

on one of the six report forms designed for this operation. 

In cities with of at least special 

enumerators were hired exclusively for the census 

of distribution. In smaller cities and rural areas, the 

census canvassers also were assigned to 

visit retail outlets. Statistics were on number 

of stores, personnel, payroll, stocks, sales, operating 

expenses, seasonal employment characteristics, credit 

business, receipts from sale of meals and automotive 

services, value of returned goods and allowances, and 

type of organization. results were published in the form of press releases, and, in February 

1933, a one-volume final report was published, including 

a of data States, counties, and incorporated 

places separate tables for each State. 

The were used 

for the establishments, 

for which four questionnaires were designed. Thewholesale trade classification embraced all establishments 

engaged in purchase, or distribution of goods on 

a conventional wholesale other special 

categories such as wholesalers, drop 

shippers who secure orders from buyers 

and have merchandise from the manufacturer to the, sales branches, 

and cooperative marketing associations. For the purposes of this census, the wholesale field covered virtually 

all merchandising establishments not in the retail group. 

Data were generally on number of establishments, number of salaries and wages, stock, 

net sales, credit sales, sales to ultimate consumers, and 

sales to industrial consumers. These statistics were 

tabulated kind of business (chemical products wholesaler, drug wholesaler, etc.), geographic area 

(division and State), and type of organization (proprietorship, partnership, etc.). Special tabulations were 

arranged to wholesale statistics for cities with 

where almost half of the 

establishments were located. Preliminary results were 

published as press bulletins, and the final bound volume 

was released in December 1933. 

The census of hotels, which included only hotels 

with at least 25 guest rooms, was originally planned 

as a mail-outjmail- back operation. A directory of 

names and addresses of about 27,000 hotels was developed, and report forms were mailed in February 1930. 

Because of changes in ownership, duplications, and classification problems, it was necessary to conduct a field 

canvass to supplement the mail operation.using population census enumerators. Ultimately, statistics were 

for approximately 15,500 hotels (70 percent of 

which returned questionnaires mail, while the other 

30 percent were enumerated in the field operation). 

Tabulations were published on number of hotels, number 

of rooms, seating capacity of dining rooms, receipts, 

employment, salaries and wages, and number of proprietors and firm members. These data were classified 

by plan of operation (American, European, and mixed), 

type of occupancy (transient, permanent, or mixed), 

and geographic division and State. 
12 

The procedures, coverage, and program 

for the 1930 manufactures census closely resembled 

those of the biennial censuses conducted for 1921, 

1923, 1925, and 1927.9 At the recommendation of a 

special advisory committee appointed the Secretary 

of Commerce, some slight changes were made in the 

questions on cost of materials and value of products. A 

total of 165 questionnaires were prepared to canvass 

238 industries, and the number of questions common to 

all questionnaires was increased from 8 to 12. 

The scope of the 1930 census of mines and quarries 

differed considerably from that of the 1920 census. 

Petroleum and natural gas industries, which were 

canvassed in were not included in but 

coverage of sand and gravel, glass-sand, and moldingsand industries was added, and there were a number of 

consolidations and reclassifications of industries. However, the questions, data-collection methods, and 

cation program were basically unchanged. 

Several special reports on economic topics were 

included in the 1930 census program. For 

example, reports were prepared on distribution of 

sales of manufacturing plants, products of manufacturing 

industries, materials used in manufacturing, and location 

of industrial plants. In addition, statistics on unemployment were collected as an to the population census. 

With the addition of the censuses of distribution, construction industries, and hotels, the continuation of the 

manufactures and mineral industries census, and the 

coverage of special topics, the 1930 Decennial Census was, 

by large measure, more extensive than any previous 

economic census in the United States. 

Budget reductions handicap 1931 and 1933 manufactures censuses.--Government policies in the early 

stages of the depression included efforts to improve 

public confidence in the Nation's economic structure 

by reducing Federal expenditures and balancing the 

budget. As a result of the retrenchments, the Census 

Bureau's and personnel authorizations for the 1931 

and 1933 censuses of manufactures were decreased. The 1931 census included 310 industries, but 

some questions (e.g., inquiries on salaried employees, 

power equipment, and coal consumption) were discontinued. Questionnaires were mailed in 1932, 

and about 60 percent were returned maiL 

were conducted by officials of local chambers 

of commerce and, in large industrial centers, Census 

Bureau field office employees. Funding was inadequate 

to provide for a large crew of canvassers, so the 

number of field was limited. restrictions also delayed the of census results. 

Lack of funds and personnel also the 

1933 census. The number of special questionnaires was 

reduced, and greater use was made of the general 

questionnaire and a short form was designed for smaller 

establishments. Again, the mail-out/mail-back enumeration method was with telephone and 

about 75 percent of the questionnaires were returned 

maiL However, the volume containing final census results 

warned data users that the smaller field force available 

90ne major difference in coverage waS that whereas the 

first four biennial censuses of manufacturing included 

only firms reporting annual production valued at 000, 

this cutoff was reduced to $500 for the 1930 census. 

for personal followups had resulted in "some incompleteness of coverage." 

Economic censuses in the "New DeaL" - - President 

Franklin D. Roosevelt's "New Deal" policies, beginning 

in March 1933, provided emergency relief measures, 

some of which directly involved economic census projects. 

The first example of this was the 1933 business census, 

which encompassed retail wholesale distribution, and a new category, "Services, Amusements, 

and Hotels." The service classification consisted of 

personal services (such as barber shops and beauty 

parlors), mechanical repair services (such as radio 

repair shops), and miscellaneous services (such as 

parking lots). Data were collected exclusively in a field 

canvass, which was funded by the Civil Works Administration as part of its emergency project to provide 

temporary employment for 4 million workers during 

the winter of 1933- 34. 

The 1935 censuses were further augmented to include 

a greatly expanded business census (including a census 

of construction) in addition to the biennial census of 

manufactures. Again, the field enumeration method 

was revitalized as a public works project to 

jobs for the unemployed, this time funded by the Works 

Progress Administration 

The scope of the 1935 manufactures census was 

expanded to provide for about the same level of detail 

as in the 1930 census. a mailing list was 

developed and questionnaires were mailed in January 

1936, the companies were instructed to hold their 

questionnaires until enumerators visited their establishments in a door -to-door canvass in all cities, towns, 

and Villages. The field workers were directed to canvass 

every manufacturing concern, even those which had not 

received questionnaires mail. 

The 1935 business census included retail trade, 

wholesale trade, the contract construction industry, 

and service industries services, business 

services, repair and custom services, and miscellaneous 

services), for which data were collected in an extensive 

field operation. In there was a miscellaneous 

business category consisting of many types of establishments not canvassed in any census. The 

miscellaneous category dn_LU'~~·~ 

1. Advertising agencies were mailed, 

but there was extensive field 

2. Radio broadcasting stations 

naires and one followup letter, 

3. Real estate agenCies enumeration exclusively). 

4. Insurance companies field followup). 

5. Banks (data collected by mail the Federal 

Reserve Board, Comptroller of 

and Federal Deposit Insurance 

field supervised the Census 

6. Financial institutions other than such as 

stock brokerage firms and finance companies 

(field enumeration exclusively). 

7. Hotel and tourist courts (field enumeration ex- clusively). 

8. Places of amusement (field enumeration exclusively). 
9. Transportation--motor buses and trucks for hire--

and warehousing (field enumeration exclusively). 

10. Nonprofit organizations, office building management firms, and miscellaneous businesses (field 

enumeration exclusively). 

The announced goal of the 1935 census was to canvass 

"every recognizable place of business" to provide for the 

"first factual appraisal ever available on the effects of 

a serious business depression." A mass of data was 

collected, some of which was tabulated at a special 

Census Bureau branch in Philadelphia, where the unemployment rate was higher than in Washington. Final 

business census results were published in 14 volumes 

(three each for retail trade, wholesale trade, service 

trades, and construction, one for transportation and 

warehousing, and one for the miscellaneous topics), 

plus a series of special reports. A one-volume report 

of the census of manufactures was also prepared. The 

sheer scope and complexity of the operation, the limited 

time available for planning, and the difficulty in supervising the large contingent of field workers and clerks 

inevitably resulted in misclassifications, undercounting, 

tabulation difficulties, and other problems. However, the 

1935 census not only yielded some valuable data for the 

New Deal economic planners, but also helped to ease 

the critical unemployment situation. 

For 1937, only the biennial census of manufactures was 

conducted, and the operation was funded through regular 

census appropriations rather than as an emergency public 

works project. Although the number of speci!{l questionnaires was reduced, the amount of detail concerning 

products was greater than in any previous census. For 

example, questions were added concerning finishedproduct inventories and work-in-progress inventories. 

A total of 351 industries were canvassed, using one 

general questionnaire, 143 special questionnaires, and 

one administrative questionnaire. 

A mailing list was derived from 1935 census files, 

trade directories, license lists, and other sources. 

Questionnaires were mailed in January 1938, and two 

fol~owup letters were dispatched to nonrespondents in 

February and March. Census Bureau field employees 

conducted personal followup during the period AprilJune 1938, after which a final attempt was made to 

obtain outstanding questionnaires by mail. Results were 

published first as press releases with preliminary data, 

then as pamphlets with final results, and ultimately as 

a volume published in December 1939. 

Censuses of business, manufactures, and mineral 

industries, covering activities for the year 1939, were 

taken as part of the 1940 Decennial Census. The business 

census, conducted exclusively as a field canvass, included retail trade, wholesale trade, service industries, 

and construction industries. Most of the classifications 

in the 1935 miscellaneous business category (e.g., banks, 

advertising agencies, and radio stations) were not 

canvassed in 1940. Coverage of places of amusement 

and hotels and tourist courts was shifted to the service 

industry group. 

The 1935 retail classifications were substantially 

modified for 1940, and a special table on "reconciliation 

of classifications" was published to facilitate comparability of 1935 and 1940 tabulations. The scope of the 

13 

census of service trades was also altered, both by the 

addition of the miscellaneous business classifications 

and by internal adjustments. Users of the data were 

advised that, because of the numerous additions and 

deletions, "comparisons of aggregates" for 1935 and 

1940 were not recommended. For the construction 

industries, the size cutoff for tabulation of detailed 

statistics in previous censuses (annual business of at 

least $25,000) was eliminated. For the wholesale 

trade category, the scope remained essentially the 

same as in previous censuses. 

The coverage of the census of manufactures also 

remained approximately the same as that of 1937, 

but the enumeration method was shifted from a maHout/mail-back operation with field followup to a canvass 

conducted exclusively in the field. 1o A new inquiry on 

capital expenditures for plant and equipment was included, 

and the question on personnel required detailed breakdowns for various categories of nonmanufacturing employees and by sex of manufacturing and nonmanufacturing workers. 

The census of mineral industries did involve a mail 

canvass, and most returns were received by maiL The 

mail enumeration of the bituminous coal industry was 

conducted with the close cooperation of the Bituminous 

Coal Division of the U.S. Department of the Interior, 

with questionnaires being distributed and collected 

through field offices of the Interior Department. 

In addition to the usual press releases and pamphlets, 

economic statistics compiled in the 1940 census were 

assembled in 10 volumes (five for the census of business, 

three for the census of manufactures, and two for the 

census of mineral industries). The final tabulation 

stages and the preparation of planned special reports 

were interrupted by U.S. entry into World War II. 

Some of the special reports (e. g., special subject reports 

in the retail area) were abandoned, and the last of the 

volumes was not published until June 1943. 

The War and Postwar Developments: Economic 

Censuses Discontinued, Resumed, and Rescheduled 

During World War II, the periodic economic censuses 

were discontinued in favor of war-related current 

surveys. Numerous surveys were taken to provide 

statistics for the Office of Price Administration the 

War Manpower Commission, the Office of Defense 

Transportation, and other agencies in charge of defense 

efforts. 

The first economic census to be taken after World 

War II was the 1947 manufactures census, which was 

taken in accordance with the provisions of the prewar 

law authorizing biennial censuses on this topic. The 

1947 census was conducted almost entirely as a maHout/mail-back operation,11 and, since there had been 

lOA total of 6,400 field enumerators were employed for 

the censuses of business, manufactures, and mineral 

industries, but no breakdown is available for the separate censuses, particularly since some of these canvassers 

worked on several cenSliseso 

llApproximately 15,000 sawmills, which had highly 

mobile and sporadic operations, were canvassed in the 

field. 
14 

no census since considerable effort had to be 

devoted to developing an adequate mailing list. The 

starting point for this mailing register was the 1940 

list, supplemented by listings provided by other agencies 

(particularly the war agencies) and trade associations. 

Then, the updated register was matched against a master 

file compiled by the Bureau of Old-Age and Survivors 

Insurance of the Social Security Administration. This 

master file contained names and addresses of companies 

with one or more paid employees which were required 

to make payments to the Social Security Trust Fund 

for their workers. (The Social Security Act was passed 

in 1935, but because of challenges of its constitutionality 

and the war emergency, 1947 marked the first time that 

this list was available to the Census Bureau.) Because 

the master file consisted only of firms with employees, 

statistics for nonemployers were not collected in the 

1947 census (and the cutoff point--$5,000 of annual 

product--used in previous manufactures censuses was 

eliminated). 

The combined lists, consisting of almost 1 million 

names, were "purged" to remove duplicates, and, during 

the period August-December 1947, a precanvass was 

conducted to further refine the register. Approximately 

525,000 companies were mailed short questionnaires 

which contained inquiries on company name and address, 

corporation affiliation, manufacturing process used, 

types of products, and number of employees. Information 

reported during this precanvass was used to remove from 

the register additional duplicates, nonmanufacturing 

companies, firms which had gone out of bUsiness, and 

other companies not to be included in the census. 

During the period January-March 1948, about 325,000 

census questionnaires were mailed. A total of 200 types 

of questionnaires were utilized to collect statistics on 

435 manufacturing industries. Nonrespondents and 

companies whose answers were deemed incomplete 

or inadequate were telephoned or visited employees 

of Census Bureau field offices. After additional duplicates and out-of-business and out-of-scope firms were 

culled from the file, statistics were tabulated for 

approximately manufacturing establislh'11ents. 

Another innovation for the 1947 census was that the 

classification of these industries was based on the 1945 

Standard Industrial Classification ManuaL12 previous 

censuses, the Census Bureau had developed its own 

classification, after consultation with specialists in 

Government and the private sector.) data were 

tabulated and published for "standard metropolitan 

areas. " This category, also developed under the aegis 

of the Bureau of the Budget, included 147 "integrated 

economic units with a large volume of daily travel and 

communication between central city and outlying parts 

of the area." 

As in the past, results of the 1947 census were released 

first as preliminary reports, then as final reports, and 

12The Standard Industrial ClaSSification System was 

developed by a cOIT~ittee of statisticians serving under 

the auspices of the Bureau of the Budget. The first SIC 

manual waS published in 1941, and a revised edition was 

published in 1945. 

finally assembled in volumes. Three volumes were 

published (general summary, statistics industry, and 

statistics by State). 

For tpe first time in a census of manufactures, a 

systematic attempt was made to assess the adequacy 

of the coverage of the 1947 census (Le., the degree 

to which establishments which should have been canvassed 

were actually covered). Sample field surveys were 

taken in representative areas of the country by experienced enumerators, working under carefully controlled 

conditions. These surveys indicated that approximately 

98 percent of all employees of in-scope manufacturing 

firms had been included in the census tabulations- -onlv 

2 percent had been missed. • 

In June 1948, Congress passed a new census law 

(Public Law 671), which revised the time frame for 

the economic censuses. This law authorized the Director 

of the Census Bureau to conduct "censuses of manufacturers, of mineral industries, and of other businesses, 

including the distributive trades, service establishments, 

and transportation ... in the year 1949 and every fifth 

year thereafter, and each census shall relate to the 

year immediately preceding the taking thereof." The 

law further specified that, because a manufactures 

census had been conducted for 1947, none would be 

taken in 1949. 

The first application of thlS law was for the 1948 

business census, which included retail trade, wholesale 

trade, and service trades.13 The apprOXimately 3 

million business establishments included in this census 

were classified on the basis of the Standard Industrial 

Classification system. 

The canvass was conducted entirely in the field 

during the period May-November 1948, after the country 

had been divided into 37,000 enumeration districts and 

308 temporary field offices had been established. The 

first phase of the project was a "listing operation" 

during which enumerators systematically canvassed each 

business establishment to secure basic information 

(name of business and proprietor, type of business, 

whether it was part of a multiunit company, etc.) which 

was then used to prepare a listing book for each enumeration district. The field workers were instructed to 

"list all recognizable businesses (except medical, dental, 

and law offices, government and also farms)." 

For most single-unit establishments, the enumerators 

conducting this listing operation left the appropriate 

questionnaire with instructions that it be completed and 

returned to the census office by maiL (Twelve report 

forms were used in the census, including five for service 

establishments, five for wholesale companies, and two 

for retail stores.) For multiunit companies, the questionnaires for an establishments were completed at the 

firm's central office, unless the management specifically 

requested other arrangements. 

The second phase was the data-collection/codingediting operation. Most companies did complete and 

13The law authorized censuses of mineral industries 

and transportation in 1949, but Congress did not appropriate funds for these censuses, and they were not taken. 

Although contract construction firms had been included 

in the preWar business censuses, they were not covered 

for 1948. 
return their questionnaires without further contact and 

were "checked in" in the listing books for each enumeration district. Nonrespondents were mailed reminder 

letters, and those who still did not respond were revisited by field workers. Questionnaires were carefully 

coded and edited in the field offices so that firms whose 

questionnaires were incomplete or below established 

quality standards could be telephoned or visited by 

field workers. Before the temporary offices closed, 

several coverage checks were implemented, including 

matching operations with Social Security Administration 

lists and comparisons of county totals with those of 

neighboring counties or counties with similar economic 

characteristics. 

After the field canvass had been completed, the Census 

Bureau conducted a post-enumeration survey in which 

2,500 representative small areas were reenumerated. 

This survey revealed undercoverage of 8.2 percent of 

service establishments, 5.5 percent of wholesale establishments, and 3.6 percent of retail establishments. In 

general, the undercoverage involved failure to list and 

canvass small businesses, particularly those with no 

employees. 

As usual, preliminary results were published first, 

then final reports which were later assembled in bound 

volumes (three for retail trade, two for wholesale trade, 

and two for service trades). In addition to the usual 

tabulations (receipts, sales, number of establishments, etc.), there were special tabulations on sales of 

retail stores by merchandise line and sales of wholesale 

outlets by commodity line. Statistics were presented for 

147 standard metropolitan areas, in addition to States, 

counties, and cities. 

The 1954 Budget Crisis 

The provisions of Public Law 671 authorized the 

Census Bureau to conduct censuses of business, manufactures, and mineral industries in 1954, covering 

calendar year 1953. Congress appropriated funds for 

planning and preparatory operations in fiscal years 1952 

and 1953 but disallowed the fiscal year 1954 budget 

request for the actual taking of the censuses. Instead, 

funds were provided only for limited special surveys 

of manufactures and business. (For example, for 

calendar year 1953, only about 50,000 of the Nation's 

275,000 manufacturing establishments were canvassed 

in the speCial manufactures survey, and even less was 

done in the business area.) 

There was considerable opposItlOn in Government 

and in the business and academic communities to the 

elimination of the full-scale economic censuses. Trade 

associations, economic and marketing research agencies, 

community planners, professional organizations, and individual data users expressed desire to have these 

censuses resumed. In October 1953, the Secretary of 

Commerce appointed an Intensive Review Committee to 

survey the Census Bureau's programs from the standpoint of their importance in the functioning of the 

American economy. This Committee, which consisted 

of professors, business executives, economists, and 

other speCialists not affiliated with the Census Bureau, 

submitted its report to the Secretary in March 1954. 

Among other things, the report strongly recommended 

that economic censuses be resumed. 

15 

Congress responded to this recommendation with 

dispatch and, in June 1954, Public Law 467 was enacted, 

providing that "the censuses of manufacturing, of mineral 

industries, and of other business, including the distributive trades and service establishments, directed to 

be taken in the year 1954 relating to the year 1953, shall 

be taken instead in the year 1955, relating to the year 

1954." 

Postwar 

The 

",."""<>,n1l",, in Economic CenSLlS Taking: 

and "Administrative Records" 

Beginning with the 1954 Economic Censuses, the 

availability of increasingly sophisticated electronic computers has facilitated the introduction of new methods 

of collecting and processing data. 14 Thefirstlarge-scale 

computer, which was designed and built especially for 

the Census Bureau, was acquired in 1951 and was first 

used in tabulating 1950 census data. In the economic 

census area, the 1954 censuses marked the initial 

utilization of computers. 

The 1954 business census also marked the Bureau's 

first attempt since 1890 to compile census-type statistics 

from "administrative records" (in this case, tax returns 

or social security records). Nonemployers in retail 

trade and service trades were not required to complete 

census questionnaires; instead, selected data items 

(such as employment, payroll, and sales) for retail nonemployers with 1954 sales of at least $2,500, and for 

service nonemployers with 1954 receipts of at least 

were derived from the 1954 income tax returns 

filed with the U.S. Internal Revenue Service. (Just 

prior to the 1954 censuses, and after consultations between 

IRS and the Census Bureau, the Federal income tax forms 

were revised to include limited information to distinguish 

physical location from mailing address and to determine 

whether a firm's activities were within the scope of the 

census.) Retail and service nonemployers with sales and 

receipts below the cutoff points were not included in the 

census, and employers were enumerated via the maHout/mail-back procedure. Nonemployers, although large 

in number, accounted for only about 10 percent of retail 

sales volume and service receipts in 1954. Experience 

had also demonstrated that these small firms were 

the ones most likely to be missed in an enumeration. 

Since nonemployers were not included in the wholesale 

trade portion of the business census or in the censuses of 

manufactures and mineral industries, mail-out/mailback enumeration methods were used exclusively in these 

areas. However, administrative records were employed 

extensively in developing the mailing lists. The starting 

point was the IRS list of all employers who made one or 

more quarterly payments to the Social Security Trust 

Fund under the Federal Insurance Contributions Act 

(FICA). Since this list did not contain kind-of-business 

codes necessary to determine which questionnaire should 

be mailed to a particular establishment, it was necessary 

to match it with various lists containing kind-of14Mechanical punchcard tabulation was first used in 

the 1890 census, and the automatic card-punching machine 

was introduced in 1909. By 1950, more than a thousand 

general and special punchcard processing machines were 

being used in census work. 
16 

business classifications (e.g., the employer master 

file maintained by the Social Security Administration). 

The names on these lists could usually be linked through 

use of the employer identification number assigned to each 

case by SSA, and the matching was performed mechanically on punchcard collating equipment. In order to 

secure accurate and up-to-date information on establishments of multiunit companies and to correct and consolidate the IRS list, the Census Bureau conducted a 

precanvass in the fall of 1954. Multiunit companies 

were asked to complete and return report forms on 

which they listed their establishments with corresponding 

information about name and address, employment, type 

of activity, etc. 

Census questionnaires were mailed early in 1955. In 

the census of manufactures, 192 different questionnaires, 

each tailored to a particular industry or group of 

industries, were used to compile statistics for 450 

industries defined under the Standard Industrial Classification system. Each type of questionnaire contained 

common items (e.g., employment, payroll, manhours, 

and cost of materials), but different questions on such 

subjects as product mix and raw materials were designed 

to suit the characteristics of each industry. The mailing 

list was prepared using the process described above and, 

for large companies, the mailing register for the 1953 

Annual Survey of Manufactures (an annual survey of 

manufacturing concerns with at least 100 employees). 

The questionnaires were distributed and returned by 

mail. Followup letters were sent to nonrespondents, 

and those who still did not respond were contacted 

by telephone or visited by employees of Census Bureau 

field offices. The maHout and followups involving 

large companies (generally those with at least six 

employees) were under the direct control of the Census 

Bureau's Washington headquarters. Bureau field offices 

controlled maHout and followups for the smaller companies. CoveragE: control procedures basically involved 

ensuring that establishments on the mailing list did 

complete and return report forms. 

Similar methods were implemented in conducting 

the mail-out/mail-back canvass of the "mail universe" 

portion of the business census and the census of mineral 

industries. For mining companies, the mailing list 

was supplemented with information provided by the 

Bureau of Mines, the Federal Power Commission, and 

the Defense Department's Petroleum Administration. 

Bureau of Mines field employees also collected a limited 

number of report forms at mine sites. In total, questionnaires were completed by approximately 280,000 manufacturing establishments, 1.8 million business establishments, and 32,000 mining establishments. Data for 

more than a million small companies were derived from 

the tax returns, resulting in an estimated savings of 

$3 million in census funds. 

The computers were used extensively for editing and 

tabulating data. Offset printing copy for many of the 

census reports was prepared on electronic high-speed 

printers directly from the magnetic tape output of the 

computer operations. Imputation of missing items was 

made feasible by use of the computer to derive "imputation ratios." Census operations required the fulltime use of the Bureau's two computers plus additional 

rented time on two other computers. The availability 

of the computer (and the adoption of the general procedure 

of having all report forms for multiunit firms completed 

at company headquarters) also enabled the Census 

Bureau to initiate its first "enterprise statistics program." This involved regrouping data for establishments 

under common ownership or control to prepare tabulations showing various economic characteristics of the 

companies (" enterprises") that owned or controlled 

these establishments. 

As in past censuses, 1954 census results were published in preliminary bulletins, final reports, and bound 

volumes. In addition to the usual summary reports, 

industry and subject reports, and area reports, special 

tabulations were published for "central business districts," newly defined geographic entities encompassing 

the downtown business areas of large cities. 

The 1958 Economic Censuses followed basically 

similar procedures, and the scope, coverage, report 

forms, and tabulations closely resembled those of 1954, 

Again, data for retail and service nonemployers in the 

"nonmail universe" were extracted from income tax 

returns, and the other establishments (the "mail universe") were canvassed in a mail-out/mail-back operation. Innovations for the 1958 censuses included: 

1. The use of more sophisticated" second generation" 

computers. Processing operations performed by 

computers were greatly expanded to include mailing 

list controls, more extensive editing, certain kinds 

of coding, and other operations which had been 

performed manually or with punchcard equipment 

in previous censuses. 

2. The establishment of a census operations office 

in Jeffersonville, Ind. (v,here personnel and office 

space were more readily available), to perform 

the extensive preparatory operations and mass 

clerical procedures--preparation of mailing packages, mailout, receipt, check-in, clerical editing 

and coding, and card punching. For example, the 

Jeffersonville office received prints of microfilmed 

tax returns from IRS district offices and performed 

the editing, coding, and card punching, after which 

the cards were forwarded to Bureau headquarters 

for conversion to electronic tape for computer 

processing. 

3. The introduction of a new geographical area for 

the business census, the major retail center 

(outlying business districts, such as shopping 

centers, in standard metropolitan areas with 

central business districts). 

4. The taking of economic censuses for the first time 

in Guam and the Virgin Islands. (Economic 

censuses were conducted in Puerto Rico beginning 

with a census of manufactures for 1909. The first 

census of business there was for 1939.) 

The 1963 Economic Censuses were expanded to include 

censuses of transportation and commercial fisheries. 

Transportation censuses were authorized in 1948, when 

Congress passed Public Law 671 (which was incorporated 

into Title 13, United States Code, when the statutes were 

codified in 1954). However, funds to take a census were 
not appropriated until 1963. The transportation census 

consisted of: 

1. A Passenger Transportation Survey, which 

produced statistics showing national and regional 

passenger patterns for 1963 and their relationship 

to socioeconomic and geographic factors. Data 

were collected in four quarterly personal interviews with a probability sample of about 6,000 

households. 

2. A Truck Inventory and Use Survey, which yielded 

data concerning the Nation's truck resources, such 

as number of trucks classified by physical characteristics, occupational use, measures of intensity 

of vehicle utilization, and geographic distribution 

of vehicles. Questionnaires were mailed to a 

sample of about 100,000 trucks and truck-tractors 

selected from State motor vehicle registration 

records. 

3. A Commodity Transportation Survey, in which data 

were compiled concerning the physical and geographic distribution of commodities shipped by 

the manufacturing sector of the national economy. 

The basic information was derived from a probability sample of bills of lading or other shipping 

records at a probability sample of manufacturing 

plants. 

4. A Motor Carrier Survey which supplied statistics 

concerning for-hire carriers not subject to economic regulations by the Interstate Commerce 

Commission. This involved a complete mail-out/ 

mail-back enumeration of bus companies and 

public warehouses which also operated trucking 

services, plus a mail-out/mail-back enumeration 

of a probability sample of trucking firms. 

The census of commercial fisheries, resumed at the 

recommendation of the Interior Department's Bureau 

of Commercial Fisheries after a 55-year hiatus, involved a mail canvass of commercial fishing operators 

reporting employment to the Social Security Administration. The questionnaire contained inquiries on employme nt, payroll, receipts, characteristics of vessels, and 

landed catch. For nonemployers, a sample of income 

tax records was used to compile limited statistics. 

Because the mailing list was later revealed to be incomplete, a supplemental vessel survey was conducted for 

1964. 

The 1963 censuses of business, manufactures, and 

mineral industries closely resembled their 1958 counterparts. The main differences involved introduction of 

"third generation" computer systems and the expanded 

use of electronic equipment, including: 

1. Implementation of computer-performed geographic 

coding of establishment addresses. 

2. Substitution of magnetic tape for punchcards in 

developing the census mailing lists from IRS lists. 

3. Development of automated procedures to control 

maHout and followup operations. 

4. Use of a high-speed telephone-transmission system 

to expedite transfer of mass data from the Jeffersonville punching unit to the computer facility 

at Census Bureau headquarters. 

17 

5. Development of a computerized system for work 

and progress reporting for census operations. 

6. Implementation of computer-programmed news 

stories for release of census results and automated mailing to news media. 

Again, selected items of information, such as value 

of receipts and sales, were obtained from tax returns 

for nonemployers, and administrative records were also 

used .i~ as.sembling mailing lists and obtaining industry 

claSSIficatlons for employer firms to be included in the 

mail canvass. In total, about 3 million firms were 

asked to complete questionnaires, and statistics for 

approximately 1.5 million establishments were derived 

from administrative records. 

For 1967,15 the scope of the economic censuses was 

significantly increased. Major elements of this expansion 

consisted of: 

1. Reinstitution of a census of construction industries 

(the first since 1939). 

2. Expansion of coverage of the service trade portion 

of the business census to include architects and 

engineers, law firms, and travel agents. 

3. A 50-percent increase in coverage of the Commodity Transportation Survey component of the 

transportation census. 

The 1967 Economic Censuses thus included censuses 

of business, manufactures, mineral industries, construction industries, commercial fisheries, and transportation. 

The use of administrative records was expanded and 

refined for the 1967 censuses. This mainly mvolved 

using administrative records in lieu of census questionnaires to compile statistics for selected single-unit 

"small employers" (firms with small employment during 

1967), in addition to the nonemployers in retail, service, 

and construction trades. 

In the census of business, payroll cutoffs were 

established for different kinds of businesses to determine 

which firms would be excused from completing questionnaires. The "number-of-employee" equivalent of the 

payroll cutoff was generally in the range of one to three 

employees. The size cutoff for manufacturing firms was 

10 employees, and for mineral industries establishments, 

five employees. Thus, data for more than 1 million 

small employer establishments, canvassed by mail in 

previous censuses, were compiled from tax returns in 

the 1967 censuses. In total, 1.9 million establishments 

were asked to complete questionnaires, and administrative records were used for 2.9 million establishments. 

Various new techniques for handling mass data were 

devised for the 1967 censuses, and new computers and 

auxiliary electronic equipment were utilized. Other 

significant changes in processing methods included the 

lSTitle 13 of the U.S. Code (the law under which the 

economic censuses are taken) was modified in 1964, so 

that the period covered by the economic censuses will be 

the years ending in f12" and H7 11 instead of !!3 H and "8 11 .. 

This revision was introduced to distribute more evenly 

the staff and computer workload generated by the economic 

and demographic censuses. 
18 

expansion of the geographic coding file to facilitate 

computer coding of establishments located in small 

cltles; development of specifications and computer 

programs to perform complementary disclosure analysis 

(to ensure that data for individual establishments were 

not disclosed); and extended use of computer editing to 

replace operations previously performed manually. 

The general plan for the 1972 Economic Censuses"s 

was that the type and amount of data collected would be 

basically the same as in the 1967 censuses. Efforts 

were directed toward improving certain elements of 

the 1967 operation which, according to Census Bureau 

executives and consultants, had sometimes delayed the 

timely publication of census results. The objectives 

were to expedite the receipt and processing of 

administrative records of IRS and SSA, (2) increase 

the efficiency of the geographic coding system whereby 

geographic identification is assigned to all establishments 

included in the censuses, and (3) provide tor better management of computer programming and other computer 

operations. The prime objective was to accelerate the 

release of the statistics to the public so that key 

'"The 1972 Economic Censuses are underway at the time 

of this writing. A detailed Procedural History of these 

censuses is expected to be published in 1976. 

publication series would be issued during the latter 

part of calendar 1973 and final results would be in 

print by the end of calendar year 1974 (considerably 

sooner after the enumeration than in the 1967 censuses). 

With the advent of computer technology in the 1950' s 

and 1960's, management of economic censuses has 

shifted in emphasis, from direction of a large-scale 

clerical operation to administration of a multi-discipline 

project involving systems analysis, operations research, 

and management engineering, in addition to statistics 

and economics. The census administrators must not 

only coordinate the efforts of computer specialists and 

subject-matter analysts within the Census Bureau, but, 

with the increasing use of administrative records of 

other agencies, they must also synchronize the interagency aspects of census operations (e.g., dovetailing 

the receipt of data files from other agencies with the 

census processing and publication schedules). 

To meet these needs, the Bureau has hired and trained 

large numbers of systems analysts, computer programmers, and methods, procedures, and quality control 

specialists, established a reputation for leadership in 

developing new and improved data-processing methods 

and machinery, and attempted to design its organizational structure for maximum efficiency. 
nearest 
OFFICiAL I::Il.JI)INI:l:>;:'