IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FIFTH CIRCUIT

No. 08-10358

JOSE MERCED, President Templo Yoruba Omo Orisha Texas, Inc.,

Plaintiff-Appellant

v.

KURT KASSON; MIKE COLLINS; BOB FREEMAN; CITY OF EULESS,

Defendants-Appellees.

Cons w/ 08-10506

JOSE MERCED, President Templo Yoruba Omo Orisha Texas, Inc.,

Plaintiff-Appellee

v.

CITY OF EULESS,

Defendant-Appellant.

Appeals from the United States District Court for the

Northern District of Texas

Before BARKSDALE, DENNIS, and ELROD, Circuit Judges.

JENNIFER W. ELROD, Circuit Judge:

The Texas Religious Freedom and Restoration Act (TRFRA), Tex. Civ.

Prac. & Rem. Code ch. 110, prevents the state and local Texas governments from

substantially burdening a person’s free exercise of religion unless the

United States Court of Appeals

Fifth Circuit

F I L E D

July 31, 2009

Charles R. Fulbruge III

Clerk
No. 08-10358

He is also the president of Templo Yoruba Omo Orisha Texas, Inc., a Santeria 1

religious organization.

 This section summarizes the testimony of Merced’s expert, who described the tenets 2

of faith and the practices of the Santeria religion. The district court found the expert’s

testimony credible, and the city agreed. 

2

government can demonstrate that doing so furthers a compelling governmental

interest in the least restrictive manner. In this case, we must decide if the city

of Euless, Texas, may practically forbid the keeping—even for brief periods—and

slaughter of four-legged animals within its borders, a ban that prevents

practitioners of the Santeria faith from performing ceremonies essential to their

religion. We hold that, under TRFRA, the Euless ordinances at issue

substantially burden plaintiff’s free exercise of religion without advancing a

compelling governmental interest using the least restrictive means.

José Merced is a Santeria Oba Oriate, or priest, and is a native of Puerto

Rico who moved to Euless in 1990. In 2006, the city informed Merced that he 1

could not legally perform certain animal sacrifices essential to Santeria religious

practice, though he had done so for the previous sixteen years without incident.

He sued the city, seeking a permanent injunction that prohibited Euless from

enforcing its ordinances that burdened his religious practice. The district court

entered judgement for the city following a bench trial, but denied its request for

attorney fees. We reverse the former and affirm the latter.

I. FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND

A. The Santeria Religion2

Modern-day Santeria originated in Cuba and is a fusion of western African

tribal religion and some elements of Roman Catholicism. Its practice centers

around spirits called orishas, which are divine representatives of Olodumare,

the supreme deity. Santeria rituals seek to engage these orishas, honor them,

and encourage their involvement in the material world. Doing so requires the
No. 08-10358

 Merced testified that Templo Yoruba Omo Orisha hopes eventually to build a temple, 3

where certain ceremonies may take place if and as the orishas allow, but has no concrete plans

to do so currently. Merced does not know where the temple will be located.

3

use of life energy, or ashé, the highest concentration of which is found in animal

blood. Thus many Santeria rituals involve the sacrifice of live animals to

transfer ashé to the orishas. Although animal sacrifices are used to celebrate a

range of events, including birth, marriage, and death, the most complex

ceremony takes place when a new priest is initiated. This ceremony, at which

a new shrine is consecrated, generally involves a sacrifice of five to seven fourlegged animals (lambs or goats), a turtle, a duck, ten to fourteen chickens, five

to seven guinea hens, and ten to fourteen doves in addition to other elements

(songs, drum music, and the offering of other objects). The animals are usually

cooked and eaten after these sacrifices.

Santeria ceremonies are highly dependent on the will of the orisha to

which they are directed. Home shrines, which are symbols or physical

manifestations of the orishas, are integral to Santeria, and ceremonies and

sacrifices usually take place in the home of the officiating priest, although

occasionally they may take place in a temple or at the home shrine of another

priest. The orishas determine where sacrifices are to be conducted, and the

priests divine the orishas’ will by a complex divination process. There are more

than 250,000 practitioners of Santeria in the world, but only two Santeria

temples, neither of which is in the continental United States. Thus, home 3

sacrifice is not only the norm, but a crucial aspect of Santeria, without which

Santeria would effectively cease to exist.
No. 08-10358

 Except as noted in the text and below, see infra n.9, these facts are undisputed. 4

 The city admitted in the pretrial order that it did not have any evidence to the

5

contrary.

4

B. Merced’s Religious Practices4

In 1990, Merced moved to Euless and began to conduct ritual sacrifices.

From 1990 to 2006, Merced performed the sacrifices without any interference

from Euless, initiating, on average, one new priest a year. The sacrifices take

place in a room attached to Merced’s garage, which is isolated from the rest of

the house. Merced purchases the animals from local markets and has them

delivered to his house close to the time of the ceremony, usually about 15

minutes beforehand. There is no evidence that he had kept a four-legged animal

in his home before sacrificing it for more than four hours. He keeps the animals

caged outside until he kills them. Merced slits the carotid arteries of the

animals to kill them humanely, and the blood is collected and offered to the

orishas. The paper or plastic mats on which the sacrifices are performed are

wrapped and thrown away. The edible portions of the animals are generally

cooked and eaten (and some portions, like the intestines, are cooked but not

eaten), and any remains are double-bagged and placed either in the trash or in

a dumpster owned by another Santeria practitioner. No one had ever become

sick during one of Merced’s ceremonies, which generally last for several days

(such that participants would presumably be in a position to observe if someone

did become ill).5

On September 4, 2004, Merced was holding a ceremony at his home. The

police received an anonymous call from a neighbor and went to Merced’s house

to stop the ceremony. Once there, the police called two animal control officers,

who allowed Merced to finish the ceremony. In May 2006, the police received

another anonymous call stating that several goats were about to be killed.

Merced was, in fact, hosting a birthday celebration for which no sacrifices were
No. 08-10358

5

planned. When the officers arrived they told Merced not to conduct any

sacrifices because they were likely illegal in Euless. Merced asked how he could

obtain a permit for the sacrifices and was told to contact a supervisor. A few

weeks later, Merced and another priest went to a permits office attempting to

obtain a permit. They were told by two different employees that no such permit

existed because animal slaughter was strictly prohibited. Merced ceased

performing the sacrifices illegal in Euless (although he continued to perform

Santeria rituals that are not prohibited).

Merced has delayed initiating an aspiring priest because the ceremony

must be performed in his home and he cannot perform it legally. Merced is

willing to comply with any disposal or health standards that Euless might

create, but the city denied the availability of a permit or exception for sacrificing

four-legged animals, and intends to prosecute Merced if he attempts any further

sacrifices of four-legged animals.

On December 22, 2006, Merced filed a complaint against Euless and

several city officials alleging violations of 42 U.S.C. § 1983, the Religious Land

Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA), 42 U.S.C. § 2000cc, the First,

Fifth, and Fourteenth Amendments, and TRFRA. The district court dismissed

the suit as to the individual defendants because they had been sued in their

personal capacities. In December, 2007, the district court dismissed the

RLUIPA claim because no zoning laws were at issue. The parties conducted

discovery and proceeded to trial.

C. Euless’s Ordinances and Trial Testimony

Before trial, the parties stipulated that six Euless ordinances prevented

the sacrifice of four-legged animals:

Sec. 10-3. Slaughtering animals.

It shall be unlawful to slaughter or to maintain any property for the

purpose of slaughtering any animal in the city.
No. 08-10358

6

Sec. 10-5. Exceptions and exemptions not required to be

negated.

In any complaint and in any action or proceedings brought for the

enforcement of any provision of this chapter, it shall not be

necessary to negate any exception, excuse, provision or exemption,

which burden shall be upon the defendant.

Sec. 10-9. Penalty for violations of chapter.

Any person violating the terms and provisions of this chapter shall

be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished as

provided in section 1-12 of this Code. Each day that such violations

continues shall be a separate offense. This penalty shall be

cumulative of all other remedies. No fine imposed hereunder shall

be less than $25.00.

Sec. 10-65. Animal care.

If the following shall occur, the animal may be impounded and the

owner shall be guilty of a violation of this chapter:

. . . .

(2) A person shall beat, cruelly ill treat, torment abuse,

overload, overwork or otherwise harm an animal or cause, instigate

or permit any dog fight, cock fight, bullfight or other combat

between animals or between animals and humans.

. . . .

(4) A person shall willfully wound, trap, maim or cripple by

any method any animal, bird or fowl. It shall also be unlawful for

a person to kill any animal, bird or fowl, except domesticated fowl

considered as general tablefare such as chicken or turkey, within

the city.

Sec. 10-68. Restriction on number of dogs, cats or other

animals, or combination, to be kept in residential premises.

It shall be unlawful to keep or harbor more than four dogs, cats or

other animals, or combination of animals, beyond the normal

weaning age on any premises, except as permitted in section 10-104.

Sec. 10-104. Restrictions on size and locations of area for

keeping livestock.

It shall be unlawful to keep and maintain any mule, donkey, mare,

horse, colt, bull, cow, calf, sheep, goat, cattle or other livestock at a

distance closer than 100 feet from any building located on adjoining
No. 08-10358

 Turtles clearly fall within the prohibition on killing, but it is not entirely clear that

6

they could not lawfully be kept in Euless. The city suggests in its brief that the possession of

turtles is prohibited, but the portion of the record it cites as support is testimony that turtles

cannot be traded interstate, but says nothing about possession (other than prohibiting them

in daycare facilities). Euless does not cite any authority for a ban on turtle possession, and

Merced suggests the sale and possession of turtles is allowed with some limitation. See 31

Tex. Admin. Code § 65.331 (permitting possession and sale of certain kinds of turtles); 21

C.F.R. § 1240.62 (forbidding the sale ofturtles with a carapace length of less than four inches).

 Merced’s property is described in the record as a single family residence of 3,500 7

square feet on a wedge-shaped lot with a long driveway. The record is silent on the size of the

lot. Neither party suggests that it is large enough to meet the one-half acre per animal

requirement nor the 100-foot setback.

7

property that is used for human habitation or within an enclosed

area of less than one-half acre (21,780 square feet) per animal. All

such livestock shall be kept within enclosed areas, and a fence of

sufficient strength to contain such animals shall be provided to

maintain the 100-foot separation required hereby. All premises

upon which such livestock are kept or maintained shall be brought

into compliance with the terms of this section.

Taken together, these ordinances forbid the keeping of any more than four

animals at a time, and even then only certain kinds of animals are permitted.

Four-legged animals such as those typically used in Santeria ceremonies (sheep

and goats) are expressly disallowed to be kept—even for a brief period—or

killed. Such animals could be kept if the keeper has a sufficiently large piece 6

of property to meet the requirements of § 10-104.7

Euless’s ordinances make exceptions to these general rules, however, both

on their face and in practice. Section 10-65 allows domesticated fowl to be killed,

and also allows the use of rodent control materials. See Euless Ord. § 10-65(8).

Another ordinance allows designated city employees to kill rabid or vicious

animals. Euless Ord. § 10-4. In practice, the city does not enforce these

ordinances against homeowners who kill rats, mice, or snakes, nor against
No. 08-10358

At oral argument, Euless stated that veterinarians are limited to non-residential 8

areas by the city’s zoning laws.

 The parties also prepared summaries of deposition testimony for other witnesses that 9

were admitted as evidence. The thrust of the city’s summaries is that Santeria sacrifices can

be performed anywhere. One witness’s summary, to which Merced objected as misconstruing

the deposition, stated that animal carcasses from Merced’s sacrifices found their way into a

8

veterinarians who put down large animals. The enforcement of these 8

ordinances is complaint-driven, and Euless was unaware of any violations prior

to the complaints against Merced, who, for his part, was unaware that he was

violating the law before he spoke with city officials in 2006.

At trial, the city called two experts to testify, the first of which, an

attorney, described the governmental purposes behind the Euless ordinances.

Merced objected to this testimony, but the district court allowed it on the

understanding that the expert would not merely state the law. The purpose of

the prohibition on keeping livestock, according to the city’s expert, is to protect

the public’s health and safety, primarily by eliminating the unpleasant

concomitants of live animal care (e.g., runoff of urine and feces, flies, smells,

noise, possible disease transmission). The expert also opined on the health

ramifications of post-slaughter disposal, noting that carcasses attract bugs and

vermin. He further stated that keeping various kinds of animals together in

tight quarters leads to interspecies conflicts, which could lead to injury,

indicating that the humane treatment of the animals is another governmental

purpose.

Euless’s second expert, whose expertise was public health, testified that

disposing of numerous animal remains involves contact between humans and

blood, which can create a breeding ground for disease. Also, he stated that

enteric diseases, such as salmonella and typhoid, can result from concentrations

of animal waste, and that disposal of animal remains in bodies of water is

unlawful, encourages flies to breed, and causes odor and sanitation problems.9
No. 08-10358

local wooded area or pond. The city stipulated, however—and the district court found—that

it did not have any evidence that Merced unlawfully disposed of animal remains. Further, the

district court credited Merced’s expert, who testified that sacrifices occur where the orishas

instruct, which is usually the home of the officiating priest, but could be a temple or the home

of another priest.

 Euless cites a laundry list of Texas statutes and administrative regulations

10

pertaining to the transportation, inspection, and permitting of livestock and fowl in Texas.

None of these citations, however, with the possible exception of 30 Texas Administrative Code

§ 335.25, directly bears on the issue of a lay person lawfully disposing of the remains of

healthy animals. The other disposal provisions cited by the city pertain to diseased animals.

E.g., 4 Tex. Admin. Code § 59.12.

 While the district court couched these statements as findings of fact, the conclusions 11

regarding the elements of a TRFRA claim are, as noted below, reviewed as matters of law.

9

Yet Euless permits the butchering and disposal of large animals, like deer, if

they are dead when brought into the city. Restaurants sometimes dispose of

organic waste in dumpsters, which, per the city’s expert, presents the same

health concerns.

The focus on disposal of the animals’ remains appears to be something of

a red herring. The relevant city ordinance, § 10-70 (requiring the lawful disposal

of a dead animal within twenty-four hours of discovery), is not on the agreed list

of ordinances that prevents Merced’s sacrifices. Nor can the city legitimately

object to the disposal of sacrificial animals when it permits the disposal of

hunted animals. Further, Merced has expressed willingness to comply with the

city’s laws in that regard, and there is no evidence that he has unlawfully or

unsanitarily disposed of anything. So long as he lawfully disposes of the dead

animals within twenty-four hours, he has not violated the ordinance’s plain

terms.10

D. The District Court’s Decision

The district court adopted the parties’ stipulated facts, and found that the

city ordinances did not burden Merced’s free exercise of religion. Specifically,

11

the court stated:
No. 08-10358

10

Well, you know, this is a difficult question because if [Merced]

had received the communication that said he ought to [sacrifice in

his house], and refrain from doing it because of the ordinances of the

city, I think I would have to say I’m persuaded that the answer to

that part is yes [i.e., the ordinances burden Merced’s free exercise

of religion], but I haven’t heard that.

I don’t know that I can say from a preponderance of the

evidence, which is the burden that I have to apply, that the

enforcement of the ordinances in question against the plaintiff

burdens the free exercise of his religion. I can’t do that.

In short, the district court concluded that the ordinances did not burden

Merced’s religious practice because he had not testified the orishas told him to

sacrifice in his house. The court later concluded that the ordinances furthered

a compelling governmental interest and were the least restrictive means of

advancing them. The district court did not issue a written opinion, but entered

judgment in favor of Euless and awarded costs against Merced. It denied

Euless’s motion for attorney fees, which the city requested under 42 U.S.C.

§ 1988 as the prevailing party. Merced timely filed an appeal from the

judgment, and Euless timely filed an appeal from the denial of attorney fees.

These appeals were consolidated in this court.

II. DISCUSSION

Merced raises constitutional claims under the First and Fourteenth

Amendments, claiming this case is “on all fours” with the Supreme Court’s

well-known decision in Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. City of Hialeah,

508 U.S. 520 (1993). While this case shares many similarities with Lukumi, we

begin by analyzing Merced’s statutory claim under TRFRA, which, if successful,

obviates the need to discuss the constitutional questions. See, e.g., Nw. Austin

Mun. Util. Dist. No. One v. Holder, 129 S. Ct. 2504, 2513 (2009) (“[I]t is a

well-established principle governing the prudent exercise of this Court’s

jurisdiction that normally the Court will not decide a constitutional question if
No. 08-10358

 A neutral law of general applicability must still pass the strict scrutiny test if more 12

than one constitutional right is implicated. E.g., Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972)

(combining the right to free exercise of religion with parents’ fundamental right to raise their

children as they choose).

11

there is some other ground upon which to dispose of the case.” (quoting

Escambia County v. McMillan, 466 U.S. 48, 51 (1984)); Ashwander v. Tenn.

Valley Auth., 297 U.S. 288, 347 (1930) (Brandeis, J., concurring) (“The Court will

not pass upon a constitutional question although properly presented by the

record, if there is also present some other ground upon which the case may be

disposed of.”); Burton v. United States, 196 U.S. 283, 295 (1905) (“It is not the

habit of the court to decide questions of a constitutional nature unless absolutely

necessary to a decision of the case.”).

Under TRFRA, “[w]hile we must accept the trial court’s fact findings

supported by the evidence, the ultimate answers determine the legal rights

protected by the Act and are thus matters of law.” Barr v. City of Sinton, ___

S.W.3d ___, 2009 WL 1712798, at *8 (Tex. June 19, 2009). “A district court’s

legal conclusions at a bench trial are reviewed de novo and its findings of fact are

reviewed for clear error.” Adkins v. Kaspar, 393 F.3d 559, 563 (5th Cir. 2004).

The history of state religious freedom acts is, by now, well known. Before

1990, the United States Supreme Court interpreted the Free Exercise Clause of

the First Amendment to protect religious practices substantially burdened by

governmental regulation unless they furthered a compelling state interest. See

City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507, 513–14 (1997); Sherbert v. Verner, 374

U.S. 398 (1963). In 1990, the Court in Employment Division, Department of

Human Resources v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872 (1990), exempted from this balancing

test neutral laws of general applicability, such that Oregon’s criminal laws could

proscribe a Native American’s religious use of peyote without violating the First

Amendment.12
No. 08-10358

12

Congress directly responded to Smith by enacting the Religious Freedom

Restoration Act of 1993 (RFRA), Pub. L. No. 103-141, 107 Stat. 1488 (1993)

(codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000bb–2000bb-4), which restored the Sherbert

balancing test by requiring any governmental regulation that substantially

burdened the free exercise of religion to employ the least restrictive means of

advancing a compelling governmental interest. Flores, 521 U.S. at 512–16. The

Supreme Court struck RFRA down as applied to the states, however, because it

exceeded Congress’s enforcement power under section 5 of the Fourteenth

Amendment. Id. at 532–34. Texas, among other states, likewise responded to

Smith by enacting TRFRA, which provides the same protections to religious free

exercise envisioned by the framers of its federal counterpart, RFRA. Barr, 2009

WL 1712798 at *5. With this understanding, we turn to the text of TRFRA.

Texas Civil Practice and Remedies Code § 110.003 provides:

(a) Subject to Subsection (b), a government agency may not

substantially burden a person’s free exercise of religion.

(b) Subsection (a) does not apply if the government agency

demonstrates that the application of the burden to the person:

(1) is in furtherance of a compelling governmental interest;

and

(2) is the least restrictive means of furthering that interest.

The Supreme Court of Texas recently applied TRFRA for the first time in

Barr v. City of Sinton. 2009 WL 1712798. In Barr, a local pastor set up a

religious halfway house to help non-violent offenders reenter society; applicants

were required to sign a statement of faith indicating belief in basic Christian

doctrines, and to agree to a list of rules described as “biblical guidelines for

Christian living.” Id. at *1. The city then passed a zoning ordinance effectively

banning halfway houses from Sinton, and the pastor sued. Id. at *2. The court

concluded that Sinton’s ordinance violated TRFRA after applying a four-part

test: (1) whether the government’s regulations burden the plaintiff’s free exercise
No. 08-10358

 In the context of RLUIPA, this circuit uses the following definition of “substantial 13

burden”:

[A] government action or regulation creates a “substantial burden” on a

religious exercise if it truly pressures the adherent to significantly modify his

13

of religion; (2) whether the burden is substantial; (3) whether the regulations

further a compelling governmental interest; and (4) whether the regulations are

the least restrictive means of furthering that interest. Id. at *8. We apply the

same approach to the application of TRFRA.

A. Free Exercise of Religion

TRFRA defines “free exercise of religion” as “an act or refusal to act that

is substantially motivated by sincere religious belief. In determining whether

an act or refusal to act is substantially motivated by sincere religious belief

under this chapter, it is not necessary to determine that the act or refusal to act

is motivated by a central part or central requirement of the person’s sincere

religious belief.” Tex. Civ. Prac. & Rem. Code § 110.001(a)(1). As discussed in

Barr, the focus of this initial prong is on plaintiff’s free exercise of religion; that

is, whether plaintiff’s sincere religious beliefs motivate his conduct. 2009 WL

1712798 at *8–9. For example, if Merced wanted to keep and kill goats and

sheep because he could thereby ensure the quality of the meat he consumed,

such a purpose, while meritorious, is non-religious in motivation and lies beyond

TRFRA’s reach. Euless does not dispute that Merced’s sincere religious beliefs

motived his conduct; his killings were, as described by his expert, sacrifices and

not mere slaughter.

B. Substantial Burden

We next consider whether Euless’s ordinances substantially burden

Merced’s sincere religious practices. According to the Texas Supreme Court, a

burden under TRFRA is substantial if it is “real vs. merely perceived, and

significant vs. trivial.” Barr, 2009 WL 1712798 at *9. The inquiry is case-by- 13
No. 08-10358

religious behavior and significantly violate his religious beliefs. . . . [T]he effect

of a government action or regulation is significant when it either (1) influences

the adherent to act in a way that violates his religious beliefs, or (2) forces the

adherent to choose between, on the one hand, enjoying some generally available,

non-trivial benefit, and, on the other hand, following his religious beliefs.

Adkins, 393 F.3d at 570.

14

case and fact-specific. Id.; cf. Adkins, 393 F.3d at 571 (applying RLUIPA).

Federal case law interpreting RFRA and RLUIPA is relevant. Barr, 2009 WL

1712798 at *5.

In Sherbert v. Verner, the case setting the standard TRFRA seeks to

restore, a member of the Seventh-day Adventist Church was terminated by her

employer for not working on Saturday, and applied for unemployment benefits

as provided by South Carolina law. 374 U.S. at 399–400. The state denied

benefits because she was able to work and refused to do so, a refusal that lacked,

in the state’s opinion, good cause. Id. at 400–01. The Supreme Court found this

restriction burdened plaintiff’s religious free exercise:

Here not only is it apparent that appellant’s declared ineligibility for

benefits derives solely from the practice of her religion, but the

pressure upon her to forego that practice is unmistakable. The

ruling forces her to choose between following the precepts of her

religion and forfeiting benefits, on the one hand, and abandoning

one of the precepts of her religion in order to accept work, on the

other hand.

Id. at 404. Similarly, in Wisconsin v. Yoder, the Court found that the state’s

compulsory education law burdened Amish parents’ religious practices: “The

impact of the compulsory-attendance law on respondents’ practice of the Amish

religion is not only severe, but inescapable, for the Wisconsin law affirmatively

compels them, under threat of criminal sanction, to perform acts undeniably at

odds with fundamental tenets of their religious beliefs.” 406 U.S. at 218; see also

Thomas v. Review Bd. of Ind. Employment Sec. Div., 450 U.S. 707, 717–18 (1981)
No. 08-10358

15

(“[Where a state] denies such a benefit because of conduct mandated by religious

belief, thereby putting substantial pressure on an adherent to modify his

behavior and to violate his beliefs, a burden upon religion exists. While the

compulsion may be indirect, the infringement upon free exercise is nonetheless

substantial.”).

Our decisions interpreting RFRA and RLUIPA likewise provide guidance.

In Diaz v. Collins, for example, we held under RFRA that a prison’s grooming

regulations substantially burdened a Native American’s religious practice by

preventing him from wearing long hair as required by his religion. 114 F.3d 69,

72–73 (5th Cir. 1997); accord Longoria v. Dretke, 507 F.3d 898, 903 (5th Cir.

2007) (holding that a prisoner who alleged that he was punished per the prison’s

rules for refusing to cut his hair, which he wore long according to his religious

tradition, stated a claim under RLUIPA based on the substantial burden to his

religious free exercise). We declined to find a substantial burden, however, when

the prison’s regulations prevented the inmate from carrying sacred items (a

headband and a medicine pouch) for approximately two hours each day when he

was not in his cell. Diaz, 114 F.3d at 72.

We reached a similar result in Mayfield v. Texas Department of Criminal

Justice, in which prison officials severely limited the ability of practitioners of

the Odinist/Asatru faith to meet as a group because a security-trained, religious

volunteer was unavailable to conduct the meetings. 529 F.3d 599, 602 (5th Cir.

2008). We held, based on the summary judgment record, that a finder of fact

could conclude that the prison’s policy imposed a substantial burden on the

plaintiff’s religious free exercise. Id. at 614–15 (distinguishing Adkins v. Kaspar

on the grounds that the plaintiff there had the ability to gather in a group at

least once a month, a frequency not present in Mayfield; because the policy may

not have been uniformly implemented as in Adkins; and because the Mayfield

plaintiff did not have the same access to alternative means of worship as the
No. 08-10358

14 In Adkins, a member of the Yahweh Evangelical Assembly (YEA) brought a claim

under RLUIPA because inmate-adherents of that faith were not allowed to meet on YEA

Sabbaths and holy days. 393 F.3d at 571. As in Mayfield, the prison had a policy requiring

a religious volunteer at group meetings, but an outside volunteer was able to come about once

a month. Id. at 562. The YEA members also had access to religious materials (e.g., books,

videos, audiotapes). Id. The Adkins court rejected plaintiff’s RLUIPA claim because the policy

did not impose a substantial burden on his religious practice as it was equally applied to all

religions. Id. at 571.

16

plaintiff in Adkins). The prison also prohibited the plaintiff from possessing 14

runestones (small tiles made from various materials with characters of the

ancient rune alphabet carved on them), which are essential to the Odinist faith.

Id. at 602. Here, too, we held that the plaintiff presented evidence from which

a finder of fact could conclude that the prison’s policies substantially burdened

his religious exercise. Id. at 615–16; see also Sossamon v. Lone Star State of

Tex., 560 F.3d 316, 333–34 (5th Cir. 2009) (finding genuine issues of material

fact precluding summary judgment on the “substantial burden” question under

RLUIPA when prison officials denied use of a chapel for religious services, but

allowed its use for secular functions); Baranowski v. Hart, 486 F.3d 112, 125 (5th

Cir. 2007) (holding that a prison’s policy of not providing kosher foods “may be

deemed to work a substantial burden upon [plaintiff’s] practice of his faith”).

The upshot of these opinions is that, at a minimum, the government’s ban

of conduct sincerely motivated by religious belief substantially burdens an

adherent’s free exercise of that religion. While not a general rule—the inquiry

is fact-specific—we note that such a conclusion accords with the Texas Supreme

Court’s decision in Barr: “A restriction need not be completely prohibitive to be

substantial; it is enough that alternatives for the religious exercise are severely

restricted.” 2009 WL 1712798 at *12; accord Greene v. Solano County Jail, 513

F.3d 982, 988 (9th Cir. 2008 ) (“We have little difficulty in concluding that an

outright ban on a particular religious exercise is a substantial burden on that

religious exercise.”). If a government’s restriction of religious conduct may be a
No. 08-10358

17

substantial burden, then a complete ban presents a much stronger case. We

turn now to the record before us. As noted above, we review the answers to

ultimate questions under TRFRA as matters of law, and accordingly undertake

a review of the evidence to determine whether Euless’s ordinances substantially

burden Merced’s religious exercise.

The district court concluded that Merced’s free exercise of religion was not

burdened because he did not testify that the orishas told him to sacrifice at his

Euless home. We are troubled by this conclusion for two reasons. First,

predicating a substantial burden on the results of a religious ceremony (divining

the will of the orishas) impermissibly allows judges to evaluate the intricacies

of a religious practice. The judiciary is ill-suited to opine on theological matters,

and should avoid doing so. See Smith, 494 U.S. at 887 (“[I]t is not within the

judicial ken to question the centrality of particular beliefs or practices to a faith,

or the validity of particular litigants’ interpretations of those creeds. Repeatedly

and in many different contexts, we have warned that courts must not presume

to determine the place of a particular belief in a religion or the plausibility of a

religious claim.” (quotation marks omitted)).

Second, the evidence does not support the district court’s conclusion. Two

pieces of evidence are significant to this determination. First, Merced’s expert

testified, and the city conceded, that animal sacrifice is essential to the Santeria

religion, and that it is usually performed in the officiating priest’s house.

Second, Merced testified that he ceased to perform Santeria rituals outlawed by

the Euless ordinances, including the initiation of a priest. He stated that he

could not initiate an aspiring priest because he could not do so in his house:

Q. Mr. Merced, since May of 2005, have you known somebody who

might have wanted to be initiated?

A. That is correct, sir, and they are on hold. Yes.

Q. Do they want you to initiate them?

A. That’s correct.
No. 08-10358

 Assuming the five to seven goats or sheep needed to initiate a priest, Merced would 15

need at least two and one-half to three and one-half acres of land to meet the city’s

requirement. While not impossible, compelling a person to acquire a house on such a lot in a

suburban environment to keep a few animals for a matter of hours is a substantial burden.

18

Q. And you did not initiate them?

A. Correct.

Q. And why not?

A. Because I cannot do it at home.

The ordaining of new priests, essential to the continuation of the Santeria

religion, is barred by the Euless ordinances. Despite Euless’s protestation to the

contrary, the restriction on killing the four-legged animals needed to initiate

priests is absolute; the ability to kill small numbers of fowl does not alter that

fact. The relevant inquiry is not whether governmental regulations

substantially burden a person’s religious free exercise broadly defined, but

whether the regulations substantially burden a specific religious practice. See

Tex. Civ. Prac. & Rem. Code § 110.001(a)(1) (defining “free exercise of religion”

as “an act or refusal to act,” indicating that a particular religious activity, not

the religion as a whole, is the appropriate focus of the substantial burden

analysis); Greene, 513 F.3d at 987 (rejecting, under RLUIPA, the broad

interpretation of “religious exercise” as the general practice of one’s religion in

favor of a narrower interpretation that limits the concept to a particular

religious practice). Thus, Merced’s ability to perform some ceremonies does not

mean the city’s ordinances do not burden other Santeria practices. See Barr,

2009 WL 1712798 at *10 (“[A] burden on a person’s religious exercise is not

insubstantial simply because he could always choose to do something else.”).

Likewise, the city’s ban on keeping livestock is effectively outright in residential

subdivisions where lot sizes are often inadequate to meet the city’s size and

setback requirements.15
No. 08-10358

 Euless abandoned on appeal its argument made in the district court that Merced’s 16

free exercise is not burdened by its ordinances because he could go elsewhere to practice those

elements of his religion. The city failed to include this argument in its brief. See Mosley v.

Dretke, 370 F.3d 467, 474 (5th Cir. 2004).

19

Merced cannot perform the ceremonies dictated by his religion. This is a

burden, and it is substantial. It is real and significant, having forced Merced to

choose between living in Euless and practicing his religion. Cf. Adkins, 393 F.3d

at 570 (holding that a government’s regulation is significant if it “forces the

adherent to choose between, on the one hand, enjoying some generally available,

non-trivial benefit, and, on the other hand, following his religious beliefs”).

Indeed, the burden on Merced is even greater because, like the Amish parents

in Yoder, he faces criminal prosecution if he engages in conduct essential to his

religion. See 406 U.S. at 218.16

Euless also argues that a burden is not substantial if it is incidental by

way of a law of general application. Such an interpretation violates TRFRA’s

plain language. TRFRA applies to “any rule, order, decision, practice, or other

exercise of governmental authority.” Tex. Civ. Prac. & Rem. Code § 110.002(a)

(emphasis added). This broad language does not permit this court to read an

exception into the statute for generally applicable laws that incidentally burden

religious conduct.

In conclusion, we hold that the Euless ordinances at issue substantially

burden Merced’s free exercise of religion. We move next to consider the

governmental interests Euless advances in their defense.

C. Compelling Governmental Interest

TRFRA places on the government the burden of proving that the burden

it created both advances a compelling interest and is the least restrictive means

of doing so. Tex. Civ. Prac. & Rem. Code § 110.003(b); Barr, 2009 WL 1712798

at *14. Federal decisions interpreting the Free Exercise Clause are relevant to
No. 08-10358

20

this inquiry. Id. § 110.001(b). These cases have described a compelling

governmental interest using phrases such as “of the highest order,” Lukumi, 508

U.S. at 546, and “paramount,” Yoder, 406 U.S. at 213.

Barr cites with approval the United States Supreme Court’s opinion in

Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficiente Uniao do Vegetal, 546 U.S. 418

(2006), equating the compelling state interest requirements of RFRA and

TRFRA. 2009 WL 1712798 at *13. In O Centro, the Supreme Court interpreted

RFRA to require “the Government to demonstrate that the compelling interest

test is satisfied through application of the challenged law ‘to the person’—the

particular claimant whose sincere exercise of religion is being substantially

burdened.” 546 U.S. at 430–31. The government cannot rely upon general

statements of its interests, but must tailor them to the specific issue at hand: “In

[Sherbert and Yoder], this Court looked beyond broadly formulated interests

justifying the general applicability of government mandates and scrutinized the

asserted harm of granting specific exemptions to particular religious claimants.”

Id. at 431. The courts’ task of balancing the interests is difficult, but the goal is

to “strike sensible balances, pursuant to a compelling interest test that requires

the Government to address the particular practice at issue.” Id. at 439.

Barr is particularly instructive. There, the City of Sinton advanced the

interests of “safety, preventing nuisance, and protecting children” to justify its

exclusion of Barr’s religious halfway house. 2009 WL 1712798 at *14. The

Texas Supreme Court’s next sentence is revealing: “But there is no evidence to

support the City’s assertion with respect to ‘the particular practice at

issue’—Barr’s ministry.” Id. While not requiring the city to wait for

disturbances before taking preventive measures, the court required more than

general platitudes to justify the practical exclusion of a religious ministry from

the city limits. Thus, for Euless to prevail, it must show by specific evidence that

Merced’s religious practices jeopardize its stated interests. This it cannot do.
No. 08-10358

21

The two interests Euless claims are compelling are public health and

animal treatment, the emphasis being on the former. But the parties stipulated

to, and the district court found, the following facts:

25. Defendant has no evidence that any of the Plaintiff’s religious

practices in his home, including the killing of goats, sheep,

and turtles, has adversely affected the health of any person.

26. Defendant has no evidence that any of the Plaintiff’s religious

practices in his home, including the killing of goats, sheep,

and turtles, has adversely affected the safety of any person.

27. Defendant has no evidence that the Plaintiff ever disposed in

an illegal manner of the remains (dead animals or their parts)

of any animal sacrifice in his home.

28. Defendant has no evidence that the Plaintiff ever disposed in

an unsanitary manner of the remains (dead animals or their

parts) of any animal sacrifice in his home.

29. Defendant has no evidence that the Plaintiff ever kept any

goats, sheep, or other animals on his premises for longer than

four hours.

30. Defendant has no evidence that the Plaintiff ever kept any

goats, sheep, or other animals on his premises in a manner

that before the killing caused any injury to any animal.

31. Defendant has no evidence that the Plaintiff ever caused any

animal on his premises to suffer any cruelty or harm, other

than the killing of the animal.

32. Defendant has no evidence that the Plaintiff ever kept any

goats, sheep, or other animals on his premises in an

unsanitary manner.

33. Defendant has no evidence that the Plaintiff ever kept any

goats, sheep, or other animals on his premises in a manner

that denied to any animal sufficient food and water.

34. Defendant has no evidence that any of the Plaintiff’s religious

practices in his home caused any animal greater suffering

than is normal in the legal, commercial slaughter of animals

for meat.

In addition, the city’s manager admitted that killing livestock would still be

illegal in Euless even if it did not present a health hazard, though he considered

it “beyond speculation” that these killings presented just such a risk. But it is
No. 08-10358

 We reiterate that the deposition summary of an Euless witness to the contrary is 17

irrelevant in light of the agreed facts approved by the district court.

 One of Euless’s experts opined that if the keeping and killing of several dozen 18

animals was “allowed all over the city, it would certainly lower the bar of public health.” The

only evidence of numbers, however, is that there are five Santeria priests in Euless. The

danger of allowing them to sacrifice four-legged animals because everyone in Euless will do

it appears, like the report of Mark Twain’s death, greatly exaggerated.

See Barr, 2009 WL 1712798 at *14 (noting that Sinton failed to cite a single study or 19

experience with halfway houses to justify its ban on them). Here, Euless does not cite any

studies or experiences with the Santeria religion in support of its ordinances.

22

undisputed that Merced conducted animal sacrifices for sixteen years in Euless

without incident.

In their briefs, the parties dwell at length on the health implications of

carcass disposal even though, as noted above, the disposal ordinance is not one

that prevents Merced’s activities. And the city admits, based on these

unchallenged findings, that Merced’s method of disposal—placing the remains

in dumpters or trash cans after double-bagging them —is both lawful and 17

sanitary. Even including disposal within the ken of activities relevant to

Euless’s stated interests, the above findings eviscerate any possibility of meeting

Barr’s particularity requirement. The city has absolutely no evidence that

Merced’s religious conduct undermined any of its interests. Euless’s experts did

testify that the city’s interests would be harmed by activities like those Merced

performs, but this general testimony does not vitiate the stipulated facts 18

respecting Merced’s practice, and the government bears the burden at this 19

stage to prove its interests are harmed. Cf. O Centro, 546 U.S. at 428–29

(upholding under RFRA the issuance of a preliminary injunction when the

evidence equally supported harm to the plaintiff’s religious practice and to the

government’s asserted interests when the government bore the burden of proof).

Again, we are not concerned with keeping, killing, and disposing of animals in

the abstract, but with balancing the government’s interests with the particular
No. 08-10358

 Merced also points to various exceptions to Euless’s killing ban, including the killing 20

of fowl and vermin, which likewise weaken the city’s interests. Even though the city’s

manager admitted that killing of four-legged animals is not an evil in itself, see 7 U.S.C.

§ 1902(b) (describing the slaughter technique used by Merced, severing the carotid arteries

with a sharp instrument, as humane), it is still prohibited.

23

practice at issue. Merced has performed these sacrifices for sixteen years

without creating health hazards or unduly harming any animals.

Euless argues that O Centro stands for the proposition that the

government cannot refuse to exempt one kind of religious conduct when it

already exempts a similar kind of religious conduct; that is, it cannot

discriminate between similar practices. We note several exceptions that

undermine Euless’s public health interest regarding the consumption of

uninspected meat and disposal of carcases. First, Texas law exempts from

inspection requirements the slaughter and consumption of meat for the personal

use of the livestock’s owner, his family, and his non-paying guests. Tex. Health

& Safety Code § 433.006(a). Also, Euless permits hunters to bring dead animals

into the city, butcher and consume them, and dispose of the unwanted portions.

Such exceptions weaken Euless’s asserted interests. See Lukumi, 508 U.S. at

546–47 (“Where government restricts only conduct protected by the First

Amendment and fails to enact feasible measures to restrict other conduct

producing substantial harm or alleged harm of the same sort, the interest given

in justification of the restriction is not compelling.”).

20

The city denies that these and other exceptions fall into the same category

as allowing a citizen to briefly keep and kill dozens of animals at one time. But

the difference is one of degree and not one of kind. The keeping, slaughter, and

disposal of a small number of fowl on a regular basis, which Euless permits, over

time has the same corrosive effect on the city’s interests as infrequent sacrifices
No. 08-10358

 Merced testified that he has typically performed sacrifices of four-legged animals

21

about once a year.

24

of a larger number of animals. The city’s experts did not explain any public 21

health rationale behind the differing treatments afforded different animals. The

ordinances allow the killing of several large fowl, like turkeys, but forbid the

killing of even a single goat. Also, a hunter could presumably bring home as

many deer as he could legally shoot and butcher them without running afoul of

any ordinance.

The balancing of interests is difficult. To carry its burden of proof, a

government’s asserted interest must be particularly directed to the conduct at

issue. In answering this legal question, we are persuaded that, on this record,

the scales tip in favor of Merced. Thus, we hold that Euless has failed to assert

a compelling governmental interest in support of its ordinances that burden

Merced’s religious conduct.

D. Least Restrictive Means

Even if Euless marshaled a compelling governmental interest in its favor,

it must also prove that its chosen regulatory method is the least restrictive

means of furthering that interest. Euless does not expend much effort on that

score, arguing that it does not totally ban the killing of all animals, and thus

implements a less restrictive alternative. But it does entirely ban the killing of

goats, sheep, and turtles, which is necessary to initiate a Santeria priest. And

TRFRA requires the least restrictive means, not merely less than a complete

ban. See Tex. Civ. Prac. & Rem. Code § 110.003(b)(2); cf. United States v.

Playboy Entm’t Group, Inc., 529 U.S. 803, 813 (2000) (“If a less restrictive

alternative would serve the Government’s purpose, the legislature must use that

alternative.”).

Merced proposes no fewer than three less restrictive alternatives to

Euless’s current scheme. For purposes of illustration, one will do. Euless could
No. 08-10358

 Because we do not reach Merced’s constitutional claims, we do not discuss attorney 22

fees in relation to them.

25

create a permit system whereby Santeria adherents comply with conditions

designed to safeguard the city’s interests (e.g., reasonable limitations on the time

the animals can be kept before the killings) and in return are allowed to sacrifice

animals as dictated by their religion. Euless does not rebut any of Merced’s

alternatives; it does not even try. Thus, as an alternative to our holding that

Euless failed to identify a compelling interest, we hold that the Euless

ordinances that burden Merced’s religious free exercise are not the least

restrictive means of advancing the city’s interests.

E. Attorney Fees

Euless moved in the district court for an award under 42 U.S.C. § 1988 of

its attorney fees incurred in defending this action. Section 1988 allows district

courts, in their discretion, to award fees to the prevailing party for actions

brought under, among others, 42 U.S.C. § 1983, RLUIPA, and RFRA. § 1988(b).

While prevailing plaintiff’s are usually entitled to such fees, “prevailing

defendants cannot recover § 1988 fees without demonstrating that the plaintiff’s

underlying claim was frivolous, unreasonable or groundless.” Hidden Oaks Ltd.

v. City of Austin, 138 F.3d 1036, 1053 (5th Cir. 1998). We review the district

court’s decision for abuse of discretion. Id. at 1052.

As is plain from our resolution of the merits, Merced’s case is not only

non-frivolous, it is meritorious and prevailing. Because Euless is not a

prevailing party on the TRFRA claim, it is not entitled to attorney fees under

§ 1988. The district court granted Euless’s motion for summary judgment 22

regarding Merced’s RLUIPA claim, but that fact alone does not mean it was

frivolous, id. at 1053, and Euless offers no additional reasons to deem it so.

Thus, we hold the district court did not abuse its discretion in denying Euless’s

request. Merced did not request attorney fees as allowed by TRFRA, Tex. Civ.
No. 08-10358

26

Prac. & Rem. Code § 110.005(a)(4), or § 1988 in the district court nor has he

requested them on appeal. Accordingly, we do not award any.

III. CONCLUSION

Because we conclude that Merced is entitled under TRFRA to an

injunction preventing Euless from enforcing its ordinances that burden his

religious practice of sacrificing animals, see Tex. Civ. Prac. & Rem. Code

§ 110.005(a)(2), we do not reach his claims under the First and Fourteenth

Amendments. For the foregoing reasons, we REVERSE the district court’s

judgment respecting Merced’s TRFRA claim, we AFFIRM the district court’s

denial of attorney fees, and REMAND for further proceedings consistent with

this opinion.