Inorganic Mercury 

TEACH Chemical Summary 

Inorganic mercury is one of three forms of mercury listed in TEACH. In addition to this Chemical 

Summary, there are separate Chemical Summaries for organic mercury (e.g., methylmercury) and for 

elemental mercury. 

U.S. EPA, Toxicity and Exposure Assessment for Children’s Health 

This TEACH Chemical Summary is a compilation of information derived primarily from U.S. EPA and ATSDR resources, and 

the TEACH Database. The TEACH Database contains summaries of research studies pertaining to developmental exposure 

and/or health effects for each chemical or chemical group. TEACH does not perform any evaluation of the validity or quality of 

these research studies. Research studies that are specific for adults are not included in the TEACH Database, and typically are

not described in the TEACH Chemical Summary.

I. INTRODUCTION

Mercury in elemental form is a silver-colored metal that exists as a thick liquid at room temperature, 

familiar to most people as the silver liquid inside mercury thermometers. Mercury can chemically 

combine with other elements to form organic (carbon-containing) and inorganic (not containing carbon) 

compounds. Mercury is a naturally-occurring metal that is used in man-made products and processes, and 

is emitted into air from industrial sources (1-3). Human exposure to mercury occurs from a variety of 

sources, e.g., breathing mercury-containing air, using commercial products that contain mercury, and 

ingesting some types of fish that contain methylmercury (1, 2, 4, 5). The U.S. EPA provides a Web site 

with information about mercury exposure and effects, with a portal at www.epa.gov/mercury (6). 

There are three major types of mercury, each of which is covered in a separate TEACH Chemical 

Summary: 1) elemental mercury, found in thermometers, fluorescent bulbs, dental amalgam fillings, and 

other sources; 2) organic mercury, predominantly methylmercury, found in foods such as fish, and 

ethylmercury found in some vaccine preservatives and some antiseptics; and 3) non-elemental forms of 

inorganic mercury, found primarily in batteries, some disinfectants, and some health remedies and creams 

(1, 2, 5). This Chemical Summary focuses on non-elemental inorganic mercury; additional information on 

elemental and organic mercury is available in separate Chemical Summaries on this U.S. EPA TEACH 

Web site. 

Inorganic mercury describes a category of mercury compounds that includes mercuric chloride, mercuric 

acetate, mercuric sulfide, and other compounds. Of the inorganic mercury compounds, mercuric chloride 

is more common than other compounds. Mercuric chloride is a white powder that is soluble in water (1-3, 

5). Exposure of children to inorganic mercury above levels of concern is uncommon, and most likely to 

occur following ingestion of items containing inorganic mercury, such as some batteries; or use of some 

homeopathic remedies or skin bleaching creams (1, 3, 7-11). 

Mercuric chloride exposure can be toxic to the kidney, stomach, and intestines; and can lead to increased 

blood pressure (1, 12). Experimental animal studies have shown embryotoxic effects, including increased 

rates of miscarriage and stillbirths, following mercuric acetate exposure (13-15) or mercuric chloride 

exposure (16-19) during pregnancy. Autoimmune kidney damage has also been reported in adult rats 

following mercuric chloride exposure (1). 

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 1 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 2 

II. EXPOSURE MEDIA AND POTENTIAL FOR CHILDREN’S EXPOSURE1

Exposure 

Media

Relative 

Potential for 

Children’s 

Exposure2,3 Basis4

CommerciallyAvailable Personal 

Care Products

Medium Inorganic mercury can be found as a constituent in some 

imported cosmetic skin-bleaching creams and herbal 

remedies. Mercuric chloride is also found in some batteries.

Medical/Medicinal 

and Home 

Remedies 

Lower Inorganic mercury may found at elevated levels in some 

medicinal and home remedies. 

See the Organic Mercury Chemical Summary for information about 

ethylmercury from some vaccine uses.

Indoor Air Lower Inorganic mercury is not generally found at elevated levels in 

indoor air. Indoor air may contain higher levels of inorganic 

mercury, e.g., in homes of industrial workers who work in 

chlor-alkali plants after workers wear clothes home from the 

workplace that are contaminated with inorganic mercury. 

See the Elemental Mercury Chemical Summary for information about 

mercury exposure in indoor air from elemental mercury spills, such as 

from mercury-containing thermometer or equipment breakage.

Diet Lower Inorganic mercury is not generally found in foods. 

See the Organic Mercury Chemical Summary for information about 

methylmercury exposure from diet, particularly eating fish.

Ambient Air Lower Inorganic mercury is not generally found at elevated levels in 

ambient air.

Drinking Water Lower Inorganic mercury is not generally found at elevated levels in 

drinking water.

Sediment Lower Inorganic mercury is not generally found at elevated levels in 

sediment.

Soil Lower Inorganic mercury is not generally found at elevated levels in 

soil.

Surface Water Lower Inorganic mercury is not generally found at elevated levels in 

surface water.

1

 For more information about child-specific exposure factors, please refer to the Child-Specific Exposure Factors 

Handbook (http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=55145). 2

 The Relative Potential for Children’s Exposure category reflects a judgment by the TEACH Workgroup, U.S. EPA, that 

incorporates potential exposure pathways, frequency of exposure, level of exposure, and current state of knowledge. Sitespecific conditions may vary and influence the relative potential for exposure. For more information on how these 

determinations were made, go to http://www.epa.gov/teach/teachprotocols_chemsumm.html. 3 Childhood represents a lifestage rather than a subpopulation, the distinction being that a subpopulation refers to a portion 

of the population, whereas a lifestage is inclusive of the entire population. 4 Information described in this column was derived from several resources (e.g., 1-5) including studies listed in the TEACH 

Database (http://www.epa.gov/teach).
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 3 

III. TOXICITY SUMMARY5, 6

Mercury is a neurotoxicant, and may affect many areas of the brain (1, 2, 12). Different forms of mercury 

may not all have neurotoxic effects listed here, and many neurotoxic effects of mercury exposure have 

been attributed to methylmercury exposure (see TEACH Organic Mercury Chemical Summary). 

Reported neurotoxic symptoms of mercury exposure include poor performance on neurobehavioral tests, 

of attention, fine motor function, language, visual-spatial abilities (e.g., drawing), and verbal memory (1, 

2, 12). Exposure to mercury during pregnancy and development may impact neurological and cognitive 

development of children (see TEACH Organic Mercury Chemical Summary) (20, 21). 

Children and adults exposed to mercury, including inorganic mercury, have been reported to develop a 

disorder called acrodynia, or “pink disease” (1, 12). Symptoms include leg cramps; irritability; and 

redness and peeling of the skin of hands, nose, and soles of the feet. Itching, fever, sweating, salivating, 

rashes (including “baboon syndrome” rashes in the buttocks, anal, and genital regions), sleeplessness, 

and/or weakness have also been reported (1). Additional reported effects of inorganic mercury exposure in 

children and adults include kidney damage and digestive tract problems including diarrhea, nausea, and 

ulcers (1, 12). Increased blood pressure and decreased heart rate variability in children exposed to mercury 

has been reported (1, 12, 22-24). Neurological effects including twitching, tics (uncontrollable muscle 

movements), and impaired gait have been reported in adults and children following exposure to mercuric 

chloride (1, 9, 12, 25). There are limited reports of death in adults following ingestion of mercuric 

chloride at doses of 10-42 mg mercury per kg body weight with cardiovascular failure, gastrointestinal 

damage, and acute renal failure (10). 

In experimental animal studies, mercuric acetate or mercuric chloride exposure during development led to 

embryotoxicity (increased fetal deaths, and increased occurrence of fetal abnormalities such as retarded 

growth and exencephaly, or exposed brain tissue) in hamsters and mice (13-19, 26). Following mercuric 

chloride exposure, neonatal rats exhibited altered rates of organ growth for several organs (e.g., liver, 

brain, heart), and altered levels of several neurotransmitters in the brain (27); in adult rats exposure 

resulted in hair loss, weight loss, and immune-mediated kidney damage in adult rats (1). Following acute 

exposure to mercuric chloride (>0.46 mg/kg/day), adult rats experienced acute renal failure attributed to 

tubular and glomerular pathology (12). 

Carcinogenicity Weight-of-Evidence Classification7: Mercuric chloride was classified by U.S. EPA in 

1994 as a possible human carcinogen based upon an absence of data in humans and limited evidence of 

carcinogenicity in rats (observed renal tubular cell tumors in adult rats) (1)

(www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0692.htm, II.A.1). The World Health Organization International Agency for 

Research on Cancer (IARC) in 1997 classified inorganic mercury compounds as Group 3, “not classifiable 

as to their carcinogenicity in humans,” with insufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in humans, and 

limited evidence for carcinogenicity of mercuric chloride in experimental animals 

(http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol58/volume58.pdf). 

5 Please refer to research article summaries listed in the TEACH Database for details about study design considerations 

(e.g., dose, sample size, exposure measurements). 6 This toxicity summary is likely to include information from workplace or other studies of mature (adult) humans or 

experimental animals if child-specific information is lacking for the chemical of interest. Summaries of articles focusing solely 

on adults are not listed in the TEACH Database because the TEACH Database contains summaries of articles pertaining to 

developing organisms. 7 For recent information pertaining to carcinogen risk assessment during development, consult AGuidelines for Carcinogen 

Risk Assessment and Supplemental Guidance on Risks from Early Life Exposure@ at http://www.epa.gov/cancerguidelines. 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 4 

IV. EXPOSURE AND TOXICITY STUDIES FROM THE TEACH DATABASE

This section provides a brief description of human and animal studies listed in the TEACH Database. For more details about 

study design parameters, e.g., doses and exposure information, please refer to article summaries in the TEACH Database. Any 

consideration should include an understanding that exposure levels in animal studies, in many cases, are greater than exposure 

levels normally encountered by humans.

A. HUMAN EXPOSURE AND EFFECTS

Studies that measured total mercury, without distinguishing forms of mercury:

< Total mercury has been measured in many types of food (1, 4, 28-30), including infant and toddler 

foods (26) and children’s diet (28). Another study estimated mercury exposure of children from diet in 

Canada (29). The largest proportion of mercury in diet was attributed to the presence of 

methylmercury in fish (see Organic Mercury Chemical Summary) (1). 

< Total mercury concentrations have been measured in umbilical cord blood (30-36), placenta (31, 32), 

and fetal hair (32). One study in Tennessee measured total mercury in fetal blood, placenta, and 

maternal blood for over 650 pregnancies, and reported significant correlations between mercury 

concentrations in maternal blood and in fetal blood (32). In a study of pregnant women in Iowa, 

increasing blood total mercury concentrations were correlated with the incidence of previous 

stillbirths, and separately with a history of having children with birth defects (30). 

< Total mercury concentrations have also been measured in blood, urine, fingernails, and hair of 

children (34, 37-59), as well as in breast milk (31, 34, 60-68). Also, as part of a large national study 

(National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, or NHANES; 1999-2002), total mercury 

concentrations were measured in blood of children 1-5 years old, and in blood and urine of women 16-

49 years old were measured (69). Results indicated that 5.7% of women 16-49 years old had mean 

total mercury concentrations in blood higher than 5.8 μg/L (blood mercury levels below 5.8 μg/L, the 

U.S. EPA reference blood level, were estimated to be without appreciable harm) (52). 

< Possible effects of mercury exposure on pregnancy outcome have been studied. One study found a 

correlation between increased incidence of miscarriage and total mercury concentrations in well water 

(70). In a study of pregnant women in Iowa, increasing blood total mercury concentrations were 

correlated with the incidence of previous stillbirths, and separately with a history of having children 

with birth defects (71). 

< Longitudinal studies of possible neurodevelopmental effects of mercury exposure have been 

performed, measuring total mercury concentrations in hair and blood of pregnant women and their 

children over time (1, 12). In studies from the Faroe Islands and elsewhere, poorer performance on 

neuropsychological tests in children was associated with higher concentrations of mercury in maternal 

hair during pregnancy or in cord blood (33, 53, 72-77). Similar correlations were found in another 

study in New Zealand (78). In contrast, other studies in the Seychelle Islands found few correlations 

between mercury concentrations in maternal hair and neurological impairments in children (68, 79-

88). Mercury exposures in these studies were largely attributed to methylmercury exposure from the 

consumption of fish in the diet (72-74, 79-92). These large studies, in conjunction with other data, 

have been carefully evaluated and analyzed by the National Research Council and the U.S. EPA, and 

provide the basis for derivation of the current U.S. EPA oral reference dose (RfD) for methylmercury 

(91, 92). 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 5 

< Children’s total mercury blood concentrations were significantly associated with other health effects, 

including increased N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase (a measure of kidney function) and decreased 

serum prolactin (indicating a shift in neurobiochemical metabolism) (58). Total mercury 

concentrations in blood and in hair were significantly associated with decreased logical and spatial 

abilities (56). There were no significant impairments in cognitive testing of children amalgam 

(mercury-containing) dental fillings, as compared to children with composite (mercury-free) fillings 

(93, 94). More information about mercury exposure from dental amalgam use is summarized in the 

TEACH Elemental Mercury Chemical Summary. 

< Possible associations between autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and environmental exposure to 

mercury have been explored. Increased incidence of ASD was associated with mercury air 

concentration at the census tract level (95), and with total reported environmental mercury releases 

(96). One study reported no significant difference in blood concentrations of total mercury between 

children with ASD, and children without ASD (97). More information about mercury exposure from 

vaccines is summarized in the TEACH Organic Mercury Chemical Summary. 

< Some adverse effects on vision (e.g., reduced contrast sensitivity, with difficulties sensing shades of 

gray) in children were significantly associated with increased total mercury concentrations in blood 

(98). In another study, there was no association between contrast sensitivity in 7-year-old children, and 

their cord blood total mercury concentrations at birth (99). 

< Increases in blood pressure and decreases in heart rate variability in 7-year-old children were 

associated with increasing total mercury concentrations in cord blood at their birth (23). A follow-up 

of those children at 14 years of age revealed that there was no longer a significant increase in blood 

pressure associated with cord blood mercury concentrations, though a significant association with 

decreases in heart rate variability remained (24). 

< Exploring possible thyroid effects, one study reported no significant association between cord blood 

total mercury concentrations and infant thyroid hormone concentrations (35). Another large study of 

children found no correlation between blood total mercury levels and blood thyroid hormone levels 

(100). 

Studies that measured inorganic mercury:

< Some studies specifically measured concentrations of inorganic mercury in blood and urine from 

pregnant women and their fetuses (4, 34, 43, 46, 101-103). One study reported that the majority of 

mercury in the blood of pregnant women was methylmercury, and a smaller proportion was inorganic 

mercury (43). Inorganic mercury can cross the placenta (101), and has been measured in cord blood 

(34, 46, 101, 102), and placenta (46, 101-103). Inorganic mercury has been detected in human fetal 

liver, but not brain (103). 

< Inorganic mercury concentrations have been measured in children’s blood and urine (4, 7, 10, 39, 41, 

43-45, 69) and has been detected in breast milk (34, 66, 104). 

< Mothers with higher inorganic mercury blood concentrations (in the highest 5% of concentrations 

measured in this particular study) were nine times more likely to have a child with a neural tube defect 

(105). 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 6 

< Increasing maternal blood inorganic mercury concentrations were significantly associated with 

decreasing maternal blood concentrations of the thyroid hormone, T3; there was no significant 

association with fetal thyroid hormone concentrations (35). 

< Children are most likely to be exposed to high levels of inorganic mercury via ingestion. Reported 

acute exposures of children to inorganic mercury included ingestion of batteries (7) and use of some 

homeopathic medicines (8, 9, 11). Dermal exposure of children from use of some imported skin 

bleaching creams has been reported, though currently the sale of skin bleaching creams containing 

mercury is very uncommon in the U.S. following the U.S. FDA ruling that such creams are not 

considered generally safe and effective (see U.S. Federal Regulatory Information) (10). 

< There are currently few published studies that specifically address health effects in children following 

exposure to inorganic mercury. Most studies pertaining to mercury exposures and effects in children 

have measured total mercury or methylmercury levels (see each TEACH Chemical Summary for 

Elemental Mercury and Organic Mercury for additional information). 

< Acrodynia (also called “pink disease”) is a syndrome that includes a range of symptoms, and has been 

associated with exposure to mercury, including inorganic mercury (1, 12). Associated symptoms 

include leg cramps, irritability, redness and peeling of skin on hands, nose, and soles of the feet. 

Itching, fever, sweating, salivating, rashes, sleeplessness, and/or weakness have also been present. 

Acrodynia was confirmed in Iraq following an incident where many families were exposed to 

mercury-contaminated grain between 1955 and 1972 (see the TEACH Organic Mercury Chemical 

Summary) (1, 12). Acrodynia has also been observed in children, teens, and adults following use of 

skin bleaching creams (1, 12). 

< Neurological effects in children have been reported following exposure to mercuric chloride or 

mercuric sulfide (1, 9, 25). Symptoms included neurological tics (uncontrollable muscle movements), 

impaired gait, and convulsions (1, 9, 25). 

< There have been a number of case studies of inorganic mercury exposure involving children. Some 

herbal remedies may contain inorganic mercury, and use of these remedies has resulted in adverse 

health effects in children. Abnormal heart rhythms, increased heart rate, and elevated blood pressure 

were observed in children exposed to mercuric chloride in older medicinal treatments for worms or for 

teething discomfort prior to the 1960's; these treatments are no longer in use (1). An immune-mediated 

red, itchy skin rash was reported in a 5-year-old child following exposure to a homeopathic medicine 

that contained inorganic mercury (8); the rash was similar to a characteristic rash called “baboon 

syndrome” which is an acute rash in the buttocks, genital, and anal regions sometimes seen after 

exposure to mercury or other compounds, including some antibiotics. In another study, motor tics 

(uncontrollable movements) including eye blinking, head turning, and shoulder shrugging in a boy 

were reported following exposure to inorganic mercury from ingestion of an herbal remedy in Hong 

Kong (9). 

< No observable health effects were noted in two other reports of children with increased inorganic 

mercury concentrations in urine as high as 200 μg/L (7, 10). Note that mercury concentrations of 

concern in blood and urine can be quite different (see the third bullet in this section for information 

about blood mercury concentrations). 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 7 

B. EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL EXPOSURE AND EFFECTS

Experimental animal studies summarized here involved inorganic mercury exposure. 

< The accumulation, tissue distribution, and excretion of inorganic mercury have been studied in 

pregnant or developing hamsters (106-108), mice (109-111), and rats (112-115). These studies used 

protocols of maternal prenatal (106, 107, 112, 114), lactational (107-109, 111, 112, 114), or early life 

exposure (109, 110, 113, 115). Inorganic mercury accumulated in fetal liver (106), and in liver, brain, 

kidney, and plasma of neonatal or young offspring (110, 114). One study compared tissue distribution 

of mercuric chloride and ethlymercury injection of nursing pups, and found significant differences in 

mercury tissue distribution between the two forms of mercury (i.e., more mercury in kidney and liver 

with mercuric chloride exposure, and more mercury in blood and brain with thimerosal exposure) 

(115). 

< Inorganic mercury has been shown to cross the placenta in hamsters and rats (106, 107, 112). 

< Inorganic mercury was shown to be secreted in breast milk (104, 107, 110-112), and absorbed from 

breast milk by nursing pups (111). Neonatal rats demonstrated greater absorption of inorganic mercury 

in the gastrointestinal tract than weanling or adult rats (113). 

< Inorganic mercury has been detected in fetal tissues following methylmercury exposure in hamsters 

(51, 59). Following methylmercury exposure, inorganic mercury was detected in fetal liver and brain, 

suggesting that methylmercury may be processed in the body to form inorganic mercury (106, 107). 

< Possible effects of exposure to inorganic mercury on germ cells have been studied. Mercuric chloride 

exposure had no observable adverse effects on oocytes from exposed hamsters (116) or mice (117). 

Exposure of adult male or female mice to mercuric chloride prior to mating had reduced numbers of 

live pups at birth (16, 118). In adult male mice exposed to mercuric chloride with a single 

intraperitoneal injection, there was decreased fertility and changes in sperm development (119). 

< Embryotoxic effects following maternal exposure to mercuric acetate during pregnancy were reported 

in hamsters (13-15). Increased resorptions (fetal deaths) and increased abnormalities (i.e., retarded 

growth, exencephaly or exposed brain tissue, and fused ribs) in offspring were significantly increased 

(13-15). The sensitivity of embryos to mercuric acetate toxicity varied between strains of hamsters 

with differing genetic backgrounds (13). Routes of administration of mercuric acetate were compared 

in one study with hamsters, and the intraperitoneal injection route demonstrated embryotoxic effects at 

lower doses than other injection sites, or oral exposure (14). Embryotoxic effects of mercuric acetate 

were negated when zinc was co-administered during pregnancy (15). 

< Following mercuric chloride exposure during pregnancy, embryotoxic effects were observed in mice 

and rats. There was a significant reduction in the percentage of live pups per litter following mercuric 

chloride exposure via maternal subcutaneous injection (13, 16, 18) or intravenous injection (17, 19). 

Maternal exposure to mercuric chloride aerosol via inhalation during pregnancy led to increased 

incidence of delayed bone ossification in offspring, and increased numbers of dead fetuses (26). 

Hamsters were more sensitive to embryotoxic effects of mercuric chloride exposure than mice (17). 

< Immune system effects were observed in offspring following maternal exposure to mercuric chloride 

during pregnancy via drinking water (100). As adults, male offspring had significantly increased 

production of some cytokines (e.g., gamma interferon and Interleukin 4) while female offspring had 

decreased production of these cytokines (120). 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 8 

< Exposure of neonatal rats to mercuric chloride by subcutaneous injection resulted in changes in growth 

of brain, heart, kidney, and liver that differed for each type of tissue(25, 121), and stabilized toward 

normal growth over time (27); growth of some organs increased and some decreased. Levels of 

ornithine decarboxylase activity, norepinephrine, dopamine, and other neurochemicals were also 

altered (increased or decreased) in specific areas of the brain following this exposure regimen (27). 

The metal-binding chelator 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanol (BAL) was not effective in alleviating 

symptoms of toxicity in one study (121). 

V. CONSIDERATIONS FOR DECISION-MAKERS 

This section contains information that may be useful to risk assessors, parents, caregivers, physicians, and other decisionmakers who are interested in reducing the exposure and adverse health effects in children for this particular chemical. 

Information in this section focuses on ways to reduce exposure, assess possible exposure, and, for some chemicals, administer 

treatment.

Information About Reducing or Preventing Exposures 

< Much information on children’s health following inorganic mercury exposure comes from information 

published prior to the 1960s (1, 4). The TEACH Database contains scientific articles published in 

1972 or later, and therefore does not contain these publications; these articles are summarized 

elsewhere (1, 4, 12). Many of these earlier studies reported effects of exposure to mercuric chloride in 

infants and children from the use of some household products, such as diaper creams and laxatives, 

which, in the past, contained significant amounts of mercuric chloride; these products no longer 

contain mercury compounds (1, 4). 

< Some medications, including over-the-counter medications, contain small amounts of mercury as a 

preservative, or in solutions to be used as antiseptics (such as mercurochrome). The U.S. FDA 

maintains a list of medications that contain mercury (122). 

< Herbal remedies may contain inorganic mercury, though reported cases of such exposures were the 

result of use of herbal remedies from non-U.S. sources (1, 2, 9). Some traditional Chinese and 

Hispanic remedies for stomach disorders (e.g. herbal balls) may contain inorganic mercury (2). 

< Skin-bleaching creams that contain ammoniated mercuric chloride or mercuric iodide can result in 

mercury exposure (1). The U.S. FDA ruled that these skin-bleaching creams are not generally safe and 

effective, and consequently sale of these creams in the U.S. has been greatly reduced or stopped (see 

U.S. Regulatory Information in this Chemical Summary). 

< Mercury exposure can occur as a consequence of spills from broken thermometers, gauges, or other 

commercially-available items that contain mercury (1, 2, 4, 123); for more details see the TEACH 

Elemental Mercury Chemical Summary. Mercury exposure can also occur from eating fish, and some 

types of fish contain more mercury than others (1, 2, 4, 122-124); for more details see the TEACH 

Organic Mercury Chemical Summary. 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 9 

Other Exposure Information 

< Mercury concentrations in hair have been measured as part of the National Human Exposure 

Assessment Survey (NHEXAS), designed to evaluate human exposure to several chemicals on a 

regional scale in the U.S.; the first phase of the study was completed in 1998 (125). Hair mercury 

concentrations for 182 people, including children, living in the Midwest have been measured as part of 

this survey (39). 

< Concentrations of mercury in blood and urine of women 16-49 years old and children 1-5 years old 

were measured from 1999-2002 as part of the ongoing National Health and Nutrition Examination 

Survey (NHANES) list of chemicals (69). This comprehensive survey is administered annually by the 

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Health Statistics (69). 

< The U.S. EPA used 1999 emissions data for mercury compounds for all 50 states to report countylevel emissions, modeled ambient air concentration estimates, modeled human inhalation exposure, 

and estimated risk (126). 

Other Information Resources 

< The U.S. EPA provides a Web site with a broad array of information resources pertaining to mercury 

exposure and health effects (123). Detailed compilations and analyses of information pertaining to 

exposure and health effects of inorganic mercury are presented in the Toxicological Profile for 

Mercury (1). A Hazard Summary for Mercury Compounds is also available from the U.S. EPA, which 

summarizes information derived from several sources (127). 

< A detailed health risk assessment for mercury and mercury compounds is available as a component of 

the U.S. EPA “Mercury Study Report to Congress” which contains detailed information about 

mercury emissions, health and environmental implications of those emissions, and emission control 

technologies (128). 

< Mercury and mercury compounds are listed as number 3 on the 2005 Priority List of Hazardous 

Substances for the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 

(CERCLA) section 104 (i), as amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act 

(SARA). This is a list, in the order of priority of concern, of substances most commonly found at sites 

listed on the National Priorities list (NPL); there are currently 275 substances on this list (129). 

Mercury had been found in at least 714 of 1,467 current or former NPL sites (1). 

< Consult the U.S. EPA “Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook” (EPA-600-P-00-002B) for factors 

to assess children’s dermal absorption and inhalation rates (129). An updated External Draft of the 

2006 version of this handbook is available (130). 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 10 

VI. TOXICITY REFERENCE VALUES

Mercuric Chloride 

A. Oral/Ingestion

U.S. EPA RfD for Chronic Oral Exposure: 3E-4 (or 0.0003) mg/kg-day; based on autoimmune 

glomerularnephritis in adult Brown Norway rats (http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0692.htm, I.A.1) 

(131). Last Workgroup Verification Date 11/16/88. 

U.S. EPA Drinking Water Advisories (10 kg child or 22 lb. child): 1 day = 0.002 mg/L, 10 day = 0.002 

mg/L (http://www.epa.gov/ost/drinking/standards/dwstandards.pdf) (132). Last revised 5/1/95. 

U.S. EPA Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for Drinking Water: 0.002 mg/L, based on kidney 

damage in adults (http://www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html#mcls) (133). Last revised 7/02. 

U.S. EPA Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG): 0.002 mg/L, based on kidney damage 

(http://www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html#mcls) (133). Last revised 7/02. 

B. Inhalation

U.S. ATSDR Minimal Risk Level (MRL): 0.007 mg/kg/day (oral acute exposure, renal effects); 0.002 

(oral intermediate exposure, renal effects) (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mrls/index.html) (134). Last 

revised 3/99. 

VII. U.S. FEDERAL REGULATORY INFORMATION

< The U.S. FDA ruled that skin bleaching creams containing inorganic mercury (ammoniated mercuric 

chloride or mercuric iodide) were not generally recognized as safe and effective, and subsequent sales 

of the products in the U.S. were eventually stopped. However, foreign skin-bleaching products 

containing inorganic mercury have been found for sale in the U.S., and their use has been reported (1). 

< Mercurochrome (merbromin) is an antiseptic solution that contains small amounts of mercury (2% 

mercury). The U.S. FDA issued a final rule on April 22, 1998 (63 FR 19799) that merbromin (and 

other mercury active ingredients) as not generally recognized as safe and effective as an active 

ingredient for over-the-counter (OTC) first aid antiseptic and antimicrobial diaper rash uses. Also, the 

FDA ruled that products containing these ingredients for these uses could no longer be initially 

introduced or initially delivered for introduction into interstate commerce after October 19, 1998. This 

FDA ruling reduced or eliminated marketing and sales of these products at the retail level in the U.S., 

though mercurochrome is readily available in other countries and still may be in use in the U.S. (135). 

< Mercury is one of 188 hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) listed under section 112(b) of the 1990 Clean 

Air Act Amendments and is regulated from more than 170 industrial source categories (136). 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 11 

< The U.S. EPA requires reporting of quantities of certain chemicals that exceed a defined reportable 

quantity, and that quantity varies for different chemicals (137). Under the Emergency Planning and 

Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) Section 313 “Toxic Chemicals,” mercury is classified as a 

persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic compound (PBT) and as such, quantities of mercury greater 

than 10 pounds manufactured or processed, or otherwise used, is required (137, 138). Under the 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), reporting 

releases of any quantity exceeding 1 pound is required (137). 

< For a comprehensive list of mercury regulations and standards, go to 

http://www.epa.gov/mercury/regs.htm. 

VIII. BACKGROUND ON CHEMICAL

A. CAS Number: 7487-94-7 (mercuric chloride); 7546-30-7 (mercurous chloride); 1600-27-7 (mercuric 

acetate); 1344-48-5 (mercuric sulfide); 21908-53-2 (mercuric oxide). 

B. Physicochemical Properties: Mercuric chloride is a white powder that is soluble in water. Mercuric 

acetate is a white or off-white odorless powder. Mercuric sulfide is a black or red powder (differing in 

color depending on the process used to make the powder). Go to the National Library of Medicine 

ChemID Web site (http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus) and search for mercuric chloride, mercuric 

acetate, or mercuric sulfide.

C. Production: There are several inorganic salts of mercury, the most common of which is mercuric 

chloride (1, 2, 5). Examples of other inorganic mercury compounds include mercuric sulfate, mercuric 

sulfide, and mercuric oxide. Inorganic mercury occurs naturally in the environment, and is also released 

as a consequence of human activities (1-3). Inorganic mercury is mined and processed to generate 

elemental mercury. Most of the mercury found in the environment is elemental and inorganic mercury 

that was released into air from mercury mining processes, emissions of coal-fired power plants, 

emissions from some solid waste incinerators, and other industrial sources (1-3). U.S. production of total 

mercury in 1995 was estimated to be 158 tons, while world production of total mercury in 1995 was 

estimated to be 5,500 tons (3). A recent analysis estimated that U.S. production of total mercury from 

secondary facilities is approximately 430 tons/year (139).

D. Uses: Inorganic mercury can be found in some skin-lightening creams, some homeopathic medicines, 

and some batteries (1, 2, 5). Mercuric chloride may also be used as a topical antiseptic or disinfectant 

(1). Mercurous chloride was widely used in laxatives, worming medications, and teething powders over 

40 years ago, but is no longer used in these products (1, 2). Mercuric sulfide as cinnabar ore is orange in 

color, and is mined and then processed to form liquid elemental mercury (1, 2). Mercuric sulfide and 

mercuric oxide are red (or in some preparations, black) in color, and are used for pigment in some paints 

and tattoo dyes (1, 2). In 2004, the total amount of reported releases and disposals of mercury 

compounds in the U.S. was over 4.7 million pounds (122); total releases are likely to be greater than this 

estimate because not all sources of mercury compound releases are required to report (1, 129).
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 12 

E. Environmental Fate: Mercury is released in the environment as a result of both natural and human 

activities, and persists over time, though the form in which it exists changes over time (1-3). Metallic 

mercury enters the air from mining ore deposits, burning coal and waste, and from manufacturing plants 

(1-3). It enters the water or soil from erosion of natural deposits, discharge from refineries and factories, 

and runoffs from landfills and crop lands. Mercury emissions are transported through ambient air, and 

deposited to water and land where humans and wildlife can be exposed. Concentrations of mercury in 

ambient air are usually low and of little direct concern (1, 2, 4). Once mercury enters water, either 

through air deposition or soil runoff, microorganisms such as bacteria transform inorganic mercury in 

the environment to methylmercury, which can then bioaccumulate in fish and animal tissue (1, 2, 4). 

Higher levels of methylmercury are found in some types of fish (e.g., shark, swordfish, and tile fish) 

than others (see TEACH Organic Mercury Chemical Summary) (122-124). 

F. Synonyms and Trade Names: mercuric chloride, mercuric acetate, mercuric sulfide, mercuric oxide, 

mercury bichloride, corrosive sublimate, mercuric (II) chloride, mercury perchloride, mercurous (I) 

chloride, and others. For a more complete list, go to http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/ and search 

for each compound individually. 

Additional information on inorganic mercury is available in the TEACH Database for Inorganic 

Mercury, and at the following Web sites:

www.epa.gov/glnpo/sediments.html

www.epa.gov/ost/fish/mercurydata.html

www.epa.gov/mercury
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 13 

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Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 14 

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Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 15 

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Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 16 

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Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 17 

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95. Windham, G.C., et al. 2006. "Autism spectrum disorders in relation to distribution of hazardous air 

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98. Altmann, L., et al. 1998. "Visual functions in 6-year-old children in relation to lead and mercury 

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99. Grandjean, P., et al. 2001. "Impact of contrast sensitivity performance on visually presented 

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100. Osius, N., et al. 1999. "Exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and levels of thyroid hormones in 

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101. Ask, K., et al. 2002. "Inorganic mercury and methylmercury in placentas of Swedish women." 

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102. Bjornberg, K.A., et al. 2003. "Methyl mercury and inorganic mercury in Swedish pregnant women 

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104. Oskarsson, A., et al. 1995. "Exposure to toxic elements via breast milk." Analyst 120(3):765-770. 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 18 

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107. Nordenhall, K., et al. 1995. "Transplacental and lactational exposure to mercury in hamster pups 

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108. Nordenhall, K., et al. 1995. "Lactational exposure to methylmercury in the hamster." Arch.Toxicol. 

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109. Shi, C.Y., et al. 1990. "Uptake of mercury by the hair of methylmercury-treated newborn mice." 

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110. Sundberg, J., et al. 1998. "Kinetics of methylmercury and inorganic mercury in lactating and 

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111. Sundberg, J., et al. 1999. "Lactational exposure and neonatal kinetics of methylmercury and 

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112. Mansour, M.M., et al. 1973. "Maternal-fetal transfer of organic and inorganic mercury via placenta 

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113. Walsh, C.T. 1982. "The influence of age on the gastrointestinal absorption of mercuric chloride and 

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122. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. 

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123. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. "Mercury." http://www.epa.gov/mercury/. 

124. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. "Consumption Advice: Joint Federal Advisory for 

Mercury in Fish." http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/fish/advisory.html. 

125. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004. "Exposure Research: NHEXAS National Human 

Exposure Assessment Survey." http://www.epa.gov/nerl/research/nhexas/nhexas.htm. 
Chemical Summary, Inorganic Mercury (continued)

Supporting references and summaries are provided in the TEACH database at http://www.epa.gov/teach/. 

Last revised 9/21/2007: includes research articles and other information through 2006.

Page 19 

126. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. "Technology Transfer Network National Air Toxics 

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127. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. "Technology Transfer Network Air Toxics Website: 

Mercury Compounds Hazard Summary." http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/mercury.html. 

128. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003. "Mercury Study Report to Congress." 

http://www.epa.gov/mercury/report.htm. 

129. U.S. Centers for Disease Control (ATSDR). 2006. "2005 CERCLA Priority List of Hazardous 

Substances." http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/cercla/05list.html. 

130. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. "Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook 2006 

(External Review Draft)." http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=56747. 

131. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1995. "Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) 

Mercuric chloride (HgCl2) (CASRN 7487-94-7)." http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0692.htm. 

132. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. "2006 Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and 

Health Advisories." http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/drinking/dwstandards.pdf. 

133. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. "Drinking Water Contaminants." 

http://www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/index.html. 

134. U.S. Centers for Disease Control (ATSDR). 2006. "Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) for Hazardous 

Substances." http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mrls/index.html. 

135. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. 2001. "Mercury 

Compounds in Drugs and Food." http://www.fda.gov/cder/fdama/mercuryreport.htm. 

136. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. "Technology Transfer Network Air Toxics Website: 

The Original List of Hazardous Air Pollutants." http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/188polls.html. 

137. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. "Lists of Lists: Consolidated List of Chemicals 

Subject to the Emergency Planning and Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) and Section 112(r) of the 

Clean Air Act." http://www.epa.gov/ceppo/pubs/title3.pdf. 

138. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. "Toxics Release Inventory Program (TRI) Program: 

TRI PBT Chemical List." http://www.epa.gov/tri/chemical/pbt_chem_list.htm. 

139. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. "Use and Release of Mercury in the United States." 

http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600r02104/600r02104prel.pdf. Chapter 8:87.