February 2, 2015 Abt Associates | Annotated Bibliography for Section XIV, Environmental Impact pg 1

Date February 2, 2015

To Tom Born, U.S. EPA

From Isabelle Morin and Alex Kats-Rubin, Abt Associates

Subject Final Annotated Bibliography for Section XIV, “Environmental Impacts,” of the 

Preamble for “Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Oil and Gas 

Extraction Point Source Category; Proposed Rule”

1 Introduction

This brief memo provides an annotated bibliography for the citations in Section XIV, “Environmental 

Impacts” of the Preamble for “Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Oil and Gas 

Extraction Point Source Category; Proposed Rule.”

2 Annotated Bibliography

Australia and New Zealand Water Quality Guidelines 2000. DCN SGE00937

Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council. October 2000. “Australian 

and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality.” National Water 

Quality Management Strategy. Paper number 5. Chapter 3 Primary Industries- 9.3 

Livestock Drinking Water Guidelines. Available at 

http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/e080174c-b267-455e-a8dbd3f79e3b2142/files/nwqms-guidelines-4-vol3.pdf (Accessed October 21, 2014)

These guidelines are an update to a previous version from 1992, and lay out a broad set of 

recommendations for water quality used for irrigation, livestock drinking water, and on-farm use. 

TDS generally has no adverse health effect on most livestock up to 4000 mg/L, though poultry 

and dairy cattle begin to be sensitive above 2,000 mg/L. At levels between 3,000 mg/L and 

10,000 mg/L, different species of livestock begin to decline in health and productivity, with sheep 

exhibiting the highest tolerance. High TDS can cause gastrointestinal symptoms, reduce 

productivity, stunt growth, impact mortality, and impair egg shell quality. Pregnant or 

physiologically stressed animals are particularly susceptible to mineral imbalance and health 

effects from elevated TDS. 

Bauder et al., 2014 DCN SGE00938

Bauder, Troy Allen, R.M. Waskom, P.L. Sutherland and J.G. Davis. “Irrigation Water Quality 

Criteria.” Fact Sheet No 0.506. Colorado State University Cooperative Extension, (2014).

Memorandum

Environment and Resources
February 2, 2015 Abt Associates | Annotated Bibliography for Section XIV, Environmental Impact pg 2

This fact sheet provides an overview of irrigation water quality on crop production and soil 

quality. The authors discuss salinity hazards for various crop types, sodium hazards to soils, and 

effects of pH and alkalinity, chloride, boron, sulfate, and nitrogen.

Bruvold and Ongerth, 1969 DCN SGE00939

Bruvold, William H., and Henry J. Ongerth. “Taste Quality of Mineralized Water.” Journal 

(American Water Works Association) (1969): 170-174.

Bruvold and Ongerth (1969) present results from water quality taste panel surveys. The samples 

were drawn from wells in community water systems in the central California coastal area, and 

were untreated and not chlorinated. The 27 subjects were presented in each rating session with 11 

water samples ranging in TDS from 50 to 2250 mg/L. Each subject participated in three rating 

sessions, spaced one week apart. Although there was some baseline dissatisfaction at any level of 

TDS, the study found an inverse linear relationship between taste quality and total mineral 

quantity. The study concluded that water with 300 mg/L TDS or less is generally considered of 

excellent taste, water with 900 to 1100 mg/L TDS is considered poor, and water above 

1100 mg/L TDS is considered unacceptable. 

Derry et al., 2003 DCN SGE00940

Derry, A. M., E. E. Prepas, and P. D. N. Hebert. “A comparison of zooplankton communities in 

saline lakewater with variable anion composition.” Hydrobiologia 505.1-3 (2003): 199-

215.

Derry, Prepas, and Herbert conducted a study of zooplankton populations in twelve shallow subsaline to hyper-saline lakes in western Canada. Lake TDS levels ranged from 556 to 96,228 

mg/L. This study sought to investigate the effect not just of overall salt concentration, but also of

relative ion dominance on zooplankton communities. They found that in the dilute sub-saline 

lakes almost all rotifer and crustacean species were highly abundant. Their study supported 

Herbst 2001 model that physico-chemical conditions provided an avenue of escape from intense 

predation and competition in more diverse communities of moderate environments. Higher saline 

environments, however, were characterized by declining levels of biodiversity. 

Ferrar et al., 2013 DCN SGE00525

Ferrar, Kyle J., et al. “Assessment of effluent contaminants from three facilities discharging 

Marcellus Shale wastewater to surface waters in Pennsylvania.” Environmental science & 

technology 47(7) (2013): 3472-3481.

Ferrar et al. (2013) studied discharges from three wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) – two 

publicly owned treatment works (POTWs; WWTP-1 and WWTP-2) and one commercially 

operated industrial WWTP (WWTP-3) – before and after the 2011 request by the Pennsylvania 

Department of Environmental Protection (PADEP) for drilling companies to find alternative 

methods to dispose of their wastewater. The first sample was taken before that request. At that 

time, oil and gas wastewater represented an estimated 0.8% and 5.4% of the effluent flow at 

WWTP-1 and WWTP-2, respectively. WWTP-3 treated exclusively oil and gas wastewaters, 

including unconventional natural gas development wastewaters. The paper describes the types of 

treatment systems used in each plant. The first set of samples, taken prior to the request, showed 

concentrations of Mg, TDS and chloride in excess of water quality criteria at all three WWTPs, 

and Ba, Mn, and Sr at WWTP-2 and WWTP-3. WWTP-3 also showed excess sulfate and 
February 2, 2015 Abt Associates | Annotated Bibliography for Section XIV, Environmental Impact pg 3

benzene. The researchers compared measurements to maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), 

secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCLs), human health criteria for the consumption of 

aquatic organisms, and aquatic life criteria (i.e., criterion maximum concentration (CMC) and 

criterion continuous concentration (CCC)). For strontium, they compared to recommended 

concentration for drinking water of 4 mg/L, while for bromide they used a concentration value of 

0.1 mg/L. Samples taken after the voluntary cessation showed significantly lower concentrations 

of all analytes in the effluent from WWTP-2 and the majority of analytes from WWTP-1 and 

WWTP-3. The researchers conclude that this provides preliminary evidence that WWTPs may 

not provide sufficient treatment for unconventional natural gas development wastewaters. 

Fipps, 2003 DCN SGE00936

Fipps, Guy. “Irrigation water quality standards and salinity management strategies.” AgriLife 

Extension, Texas A&M University. Publication B-1667 (2003): 87829. Available at 

http://soiltesting.tamu.edu/publications/B-1667.pdf (accessed October 21, 2014).

This article reviews parameters for assessing irrigation water quality, and suggests appropriate 

management strategies. Water quality for irrigation is determined according to the total and 

relative concentrations of soluble salts, elements, and compounds. Salinity in water is measured 

by the TDS, or electrical conductivity. Water is considered suitable for irrigation at TDS 

concentrations below 1,400 ppm, and unsuitable above 2,100 ppm. Between 1,400 and 2,100 

ppm, good drainage is needed and sensitive plants will have difficulty obtaining strands. Lower 

quality water if used in irrigation can substantially reduce plant growth and crop yield, though 

numerous farming strategies exist to mitigate salinity buildup. 

Hallock and Hallock, 1993 DCN SGE00941

Hallock, R. J., and L. L. Hallock. "Detailed study of irrigation drainage in and near wildlife 

management areas, west-central Nevada, 1987-90. Part B: Effect on biota in Stillwater 

and Fernley Wildlife Management Areas, and other nearby wetlands." (1993). Available 

at http://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1992/4024b/report.pdf (accessed October 21, 2014)

Hallock and Hallock (1993) studied the effect of irrigation drains on migratory waterfowl and 

plant communities in three wetland and marsh sites. Between the 1860 and the 1970’s, two of the 

sites experienced a seven-fold increase in dissolved solids loads from estimated historic levels of 

200 or 300 mg/L to 1170 mg/L. The increase has largely been due to increased irrigation coupled 

with reduced marsh sizes. For these two sites, coontail and other less salt-tolerant pondweeds 

decreased in abundance and made up less of the pond composition. In one of the sites, the non

salt-tolerant cattail had gone from being one of the dominant species, to being found only rarely

and in scattered patches. The substantial changes in marsh communities and decline of plant 

species without salt tolerance also reduced vegetative cover for nesting water-bird populations. 

Elevated dissolved solids concentrations and associated pollutants adversely affected 

invertebrates, fish, and wildlife. 

Hayes and Severin, 2012 DCN SGE00284

Characterization of Flowback Waters from the Marcellus and the Barnett Shale Regions. Report 

No. 08122-05.09. RPSEA (2012). Available at 

http://www.rpsea.org/media/files/project/2146b3a0/08122-05-RTCharacterization_Flowback_Waters_Marcellus_Barnett_Shale_Regions-03-20-12.pdf

(accessed October 21, 2014).
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The study describes the composition of flowback waters from 19 sites in the Marcellus region of 

Pennsylvania and West Virginia an d5 sites from the Barnett region of northern Texas. The report 

summarizes the results of analyses for general composition and volatile organics, semi-volatile 

organics, pesticides, PCBs and metals. The samples show increased salt (TDS) and decreased 

flow over time, with the main salt consisting of sodium chloride. The commonly observed cations 

are sodium (over 70 percent), calcium (approximately 10 percent), barium, strontium, and iron. 

Common anions include chloride (over 90 percent), bromide, sulfate, and bicarbonate. Other 

detected components include aromatics such as benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene 

commonly associated with petroleum production, whereas PAHs occur occasionally in trace 

amounts. 

Hladik et al., 2014 DCN SGE00535

Hladik, Michelle L., Michael J. Focazio, and Mark Engle. "Discharges of produced waters from 

oil and gas extraction via wastewater treatment plants are sources of disinfection byproducts to receiving streams." Science of the Total Environment 466 (2014): 1085-1093.

Oil and gas wastewaters frequently contain elevated levels of bromide, which is an important 

precursor to several toxic disinfection byproducts (DBPs). In this study, upstream and 

downstream sites were compared with discharges from four POTWs that did not accept oil and 

gas wastewater, and four CWTs and POTWs that did accept oil and gas wastewater. Twenty-nine 

DBPs were analyzed, and POTWs and CWTs receiving wastewater had higher levels of DBPs, 

including DBPs generally not associated with wastewater. Often these were brominated-DBPs, 

which are among the more toxic. 

Parker et al., 2014 DCN SGE00985

Partker, K.M., T. Zeng, J. Harkeness, A. Vengosh, and W. A. Mitch. Enhanced Formation of 

Disinfection Byproducts in Shale Gas Wastewater-Impacted Drinking Water Supplies. 

Environmental Science & Technology. (2014). 48(19): 11161-11169.

The study evaluated the minimum volume of two Marcellus Shale and one Fayetteville Shale 

hydraulic fracturing wastewater (HFW) diluted by fresh water that would generate and/or alter 

the formation and speciation of DBPs after chlorination, chloramination, and ozonation treatment. 

The authors hypothesized that elevated bromide and iodide in HFW may promote the formation 

of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and alter their speciation. The methodology involved diluting 

HFW with fresh water collected from the Ohio and Allegheny Rivers, subjecting the dilution 

series samples to treatment with typical doses of chlorine, chloramines, or ozone, and analyzing 

the treated samples for DBPs. The results showed that HFW dilution as low as 0.01% could result 

in altered speciation toward the formation of brominated and iodinated DBPs. The results also 

showed that HFW dilution as low as 0.03% increased the overall formation of DBPs. The authors 

compare these percentages of HFW to the bromide levels seen in Pennsylvania surface water 

following the “shale gas boom” as compared to pre-2003 levels. This paper suggests either 

eliminating HFW discharges or installing halide-specific removal techniques in centralized brine 

treatment facilities.

Raisbeck et al., 2013 DCN SGE01053

Raisbeck, MF, SL Riker, CM Tate, R Jackson, MA Smith, KJ Reddy, and JR Zygmunt. Water 

quality for Wyoming livestock and wildlife – a review of the literature pertaining to 

health effects of inorganic contaminants. Univ. Wyoming Dept. Veterinary Sciences and 
February 2, 2015 Abt Associates | Annotated Bibliography for Section XIV, Environmental Impact pg 5

Renewable Resources, Wyoming Dept Game and Fish, Wyoming Dept Environ. Quality. 

Laramie, Wyoming. (2011) Available at: 

http://www.wyomingextension.org/agpubs/pubs/B1183.pdf (accessed October 21, 2014)

The report summarizes the health effects of inorganic contaminants based on a review of the 

literature. Chapter 11 describes the impacts of high TDS concentrations. High TDS in raw water 

sources for livestock watering may adversely affect animal health by several possible 

mechanisms. The solutes contained in the elevated TDS decreases the ability of water in the body 

to transport materials (e.g., nutrients, waste products, etc.) by decreasing its ability to dissolve 

additional solutes. Solutes exert an osmotic attraction on water across membranes leading to 

disruption of normal plasma osmolarity with adverse effects of dehydration on affected cells and 

tissues. Further, the adverse effects of excess solutes in drinking water consume metabolic 

resources that could otherwise be used for growth, milk production, or fighting off disease. 

Finally, drinking water TDS levels in the 1.5 percent to 3 percent range are usually fatal to most 

animals.

States et al., 2013 DCN SGE00587

States, S., G. Cyprych, M. Stoner, F. Widra, J. Kuchta, J. Monnell, and L. Casson. 2013. 

Marcellus Shale Drilling and Brominated THMs in Pittsburgh, PA Drinking Water. 

Journal American Water Works Association. August. Volume / Number: 105, Number 8. 

Page(s): E432-E448.

In 2010 the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Water and Sewer Authority (PWSA) observed a significant 

increase in the concentration of total trihalomethanes (TTHMs), especially brominated THM 

species, in its finished water. In an effort to explain these changes, PWSA and the University of 

Pittsburgh's Swanson School of Engineering conducted a treatment plant survey and a series of 

laboratory experiments. As part of the survey, the researchers collected samples of Allegheny 

River water over the course of a year and analyzed these samples for bromide content. In addition 

to daily sampling of the PWSA plant intake, the researchers collected monthly samples at 42 

locations along the river and its tributaries, including downstream from various dischargers (e.g., 

ix coal fired power plants, one steel mill, eight municipal and commercial wastewater treatment 

plants known to have processed wastewater from Marcellus shale drilling operations, and two 

locations where coal mine drainage discharges into the river). They also analyzed the finished 

water samples to determine the concentration of tour TTHMs. Results of the investigation 

indicated that elevated bromide concentrations in the source water were associated with increased 

concentrations of TTHMs, especially brominated THMs, in the drinking water. The survey of the 

river system suggested that industrial wastewater treatment plants (brine plants) treating 

Marcellus Shale wastewater and, to a lesser extent, coal-fired power plants, are the sources of 

bromide in the raw water, based on increased bromide concentrations downstream from the 

plants. The researchers also measured smaller increases in bromide concentration downstream 

from coal-fired power plant discharges. The study results also indicated that PWSA's 

conventional treatment process, which includes enhanced coagulation and secondary 

sedimentation, was ineffective at removing bromide from the source water. The increase in 

bromide concentrations in the Allegheny River system could affect the ability of conventional 

drinking water plants drawing water from this source to comply with the Stage 2 Disinfectants/ 

Disinfection Byproducts Rule.
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U.S. EPA, 2014 DCN SGE00945

U.S. EPA. 2014. “Water Quality Standards Repository” 

http://water.epa.gov/scitech/swguidance/standards/wqslibrary/index.cfm

In this online repository, EPA has compiled unofficial copies of state, territorial, and authorized 

tribal water quality standards that EPA has approved or are otherwise in effect for Clean Water 

Act purposes.

Warner, 2013 DCN SGE00629

Warner, Nathaniel R., Cidney, A. Christie, Robert B. Jackson, and Avner Vengosh. "Impacts of 

shale gas wastewater disposal on water quality in western Pennsylvania." Environmental 

Science & Technology (2013). 47(20): 11849-11857.

In this article, Warner et al. sought to quantify the impact on surface water and stream sediments 

of short- and long-term oil and gas wastewater discharges by examining water quality and stream 

sediment associated with a treatment facility in western Pennsylvania (Josephine Brine Treatment 

Facility). Major elements found in the wastewater effluent include Cl, Br, Ca, Na, and Sr. The 

study looked at concentrations in effluent, stream water and sediment upstream and downstream 

from the plant and in other streams in western Pennsylvania. On average for one site through the 

year, the 0.1% of downstream flow contributed by the effluent wastewater accounted for 78% of 

the chloride flux. Chloride concentrations 1.78 km downstream of the treatment facility were 2 to 

10 times higher than any chloride concentrations recorded in any background western 

Pennsylvania streams. In another stream, bromide levels were enriched 40-fold 1.78 km 

downstream from the point of discharge. Overall, the downstream flows from the treatment 

facility processing oil and gas effluent were characterized by elevated chloride and bromide. 

Radium 226 was found to accumulate in sediments near the discharge site, reaching levels 200 

times greater than upstream and baseline sediments. 

Weber-Scannell and Duffy, 2007 DCN SGE00946

Weber-Scannell, Phyllis K., and Lawrence K. Duffy. "Effects of total dissolved solids on aquatic 

organisms: a review of literature and recommendation for salmonid species." American 

Journal of Environmental Sciences 3(1) (2007): 1-6.

Weber-Scannell and Duffy reviewed 40 peer-reviewed papers and published reports on the 

toxicity and effects of elevated TDS on fish populations, aquatic vertebrates, and aquatic 

invertebrates. Zooplankton and diptera larvae were the most frequently studied of aquatic 

invertebrates, and exhibited extremely wide ranges in sensitivity, from effects at as little as 

280 ppm TDS up to resilience to well above 2000 ppm. Fish sensitivities similarly varied widely 

between species, but also depended for a species upon the life-cycle stage exposed. For example, 

mature fish that were resilient to TDS levels exceeding 2000 ppm could often be extremely 

sensitive during fertilization or embryonic life stages. The studies suggest that of common ions in 

TDS, calcium and sulfates were particularly problematic for fish embryo and fertilization 

mortality. The meta-analysis found that comparatively few studies had considered the effects of 

TDS on plants, algae, or bacteria. Overall, changes in the ionic distribution of aquatic habitats 

shift the composition of the biotic communities, and increases in salinity and TDS limit overall 

biodiversity.
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WHO, 1996 DCN SGE00947

World Health Organization. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 2nd Edition. Volume 2 -

Health criteria and other supporting information. Geneva, 1996. ISBN 92 4 154480 5.

The World Health Organization dropped its health-based recommendations for TDS in 1993, 

instead retaining 1,000 mg/L as a secondary standard for taste.