OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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SIDS Initial Assessment Report

For

SIAM-29

October 20-23, 2009

1. Chemical Category: Long Chain Chlorinated Paraffins (LCCPs)

2. CAS Registry Numbers 

and Substance Names:

Substance Name/Description CAS Number

Paraffin waxes and hydrocarbon waxes, chloro 63449-39-8

Alkanes, C18 - 28, chloro 85535-86-0

Paraffin oils, chloro 85422-92-0

3. Sponsor Country: United Kingdom (U.K.)

4. Shared Partnership with: Chlorinated Paraffins Industry Association (CPIA)

5. Roles/Responsibilities of the Partners:

• Name of industry sponsor 

/consortium

Chlorinated Paraffins Industry Association

1250 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 700

Washington, DC 20036

• Process used Documents drafted by the Environment Agency (UK EA), the 

UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and CPIA. 

6. Sponsorship History

• How was the chemical or 

category brought into the 

SIDS Program?

Industry sponsored the assessment of LCCPs under the ICCA 

HPV Initiative and the U.K. under the UK Coordinated 

Chemicals Risk Management Programme. 

7. Review Process Prior to the SIAM:

8. Quality Check Process:

Industry:

Data searches were conducted of literature, databases, and 

internal company files. Critical biological studies discussed in 

the SIAR were reviewed for quality by the U.K. and industry 

sponsors and assigned a reliability code, based on the review 

process guidance of Klimisch et al. (1999). Only those studies 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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given a reliability code of 1 or 2 were evaluated in the 

assessment report, though all studies have been included in the 

dossier. The summary formats for select endpoints were based 

on descriptions in the OECD Form and Guidance for preparing 

and submitting the SIDS DOSSIER, which is in the Manual for 

Investigation of HPV Chemicals. 

U.K. Government:

Environment Agency (UK) has conducted an extensive risk 

assessment of LCCPs that was published in 2009. This 

document was used in the preparation of this SIAR.

9. Date of Submission:

10. Date of Last Update:

11. Comments:
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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CONTENTS

1 IDENTITY..............................................................................................................................................................5

1.1 Identification of the Substance .......................................................................................................................5

1.2 Purity/Impurities/Additives ............................................................................................................................7

1.3 Physico-Chemical properties..........................................................................................................................7

1.4 Category Justification .....................................................................................................................................12

2 GENERAL INFORMATION ON EXPOSURE.....................................................................................................12

2.1 Production Volumes and Use Pattern .............................................................................................................12

2.2 Environmental Exposure and Fate..................................................................................................................14

2.2.1 Sources of Environmental Exposure ...................................................................................................14

2.2.2 Photodegradation.................................................................................................................................14

2.2.3 Stability in Water.................................................................................................................................16

2.2.4 Transport between Environmental Compartments..............................................................................16

2.2.5 Biodegradation ....................................................................................................................................18

2.2.6 Bioaccumulation..................................................................................................................................20

2.2.7 Other Information on Environmental Fate ..........................................................................................20

2.3 Human Exposure ............................................................................................................................................20

2.3.1 Occupational Exposure........................................................................................................................20

2.3.2 Consumer Exposure ............................................................................................................................20

3 HUMAN HEALTH HAZARDS.............................................................................................................................21

3.1 Effects on Human Health................................................................................................................................21

3.1.1 Toxicokinetics, Metabolism and Distribution .....................................................................................21

3.1.2 Acute Toxicity.....................................................................................................................................22

3.1.3 Irritation...............................................................................................................................................23

3.1.4 Sensitisation ........................................................................................................................................24

3.1.5 Repeated Dose Toxicity ......................................................................................................................24

3.1.6 Mutagenicity........................................................................................................................................28

3.1.7 Carcinogenicity ...................................................................................................................................29

3.1.8 Toxicity for Reproduction ...................................................................................................................31

3.2 Initial Assessment for Human Health.............................................................................................................34

4 HAZARDS TO THE ENVIRONMENT.................................................................................................................36

4.1 Aquatic Effects...............................................................................................................................................36

4.2 Terrestrial Effects...........................................................................................................................................46

4.3 Initial Assessment for the Environment..........................................................................................................46

5 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................................48

Tables

Table 1: Physico-chemical properties.............................................................................................7

Table 2: Estimated atmospheric half-lives for long-chain chlorinated paraffins...........................................16
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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Table 3: Estimated Henry’s Law Constants.....................................................................................17

Table 4: Estimated KOC values for long-chain chlorinated paraffins from structure.....................................17

Table 5: Results of level III fugacity modeling for long-chain chlorinated paraffins....................................18

Table 6: Biodegradation Results Reported by Hildebrecht (1972).............................. ...........................19

Table 7: Acute Toxicity............................................................................................................22

Table 8: Skin Irritation............................................................................................................23

Table 9: Eye Irritation.............................................................................................................23

Table 10: Repeat-Dose Toxicity.................................................................................................26

Table 11: In Vitro Bacterial Cell Genetic Toxicity...........................................................................28

Table 12: In Vitro Mammalian Cell Genetic Toxicity........................................................................29

Table 13: In Vivo Genetic Toxicity.............................................................................................29

Table 14: Developmental Toxicity..............................................................................................33

Table 15: Acute Toxicity of LCCPs to Fish....................................................................................37

Table 16: Acute Toxicity of LCCPs to Aquatic Invertebrates...............................................................38

Table 17: Chronic Toxicity to Fish.............................................................................................41

Table 18: Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Invertebrates........................................................................43

Table 19: Summary of Key Chronic Aquatic Toxicity Data for LCCPs..................................................47
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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SIDS Initial Assessment Report

1 IDENTITY

1.1 Identification of the Substance

CAS Registry 

Numbers and IUPAC 

Names:

Substance Name CAS Number

Alkanes, C18 - 30, chloro 63449-39-8 

Alkanes, C18 - 28, chloro 85535-86-0

Paraffin oils, chloro 85422-92-0

Molecular Formula: CnH2n+2-yCly, where n = 18 to 32 and y = ~4 to ~30

Example Structural 

Formulas:

Molecular Weights: Typically 400 to >1000 g/mole

Synonyms: Long Chain Chlorinated Paraffins, LCCPs

Chlorinated paraffins (CP) are derived from the chlorination of straight-chain hydrocarbon

substances (i.e., n-paraffins, n-alkanes). CPs are classified according to their carbon-chain length 

and percentage of chlorination, with carbon-chain lengths generally ranging from C10 to C30 and 

chlorination from approximately 30% to greater than 70% by weight. CPs are generally divided 

into three categories based on their carbon chain-length:

• Short: C10 to C13

• Mid: C14 to C17 

• Long: C18 to C30

Short-Chain CPs (SCCPs) and Mid-Chain CPs (MCCPs) have been previously reviewed under the 

OECD SIDS program. The UK Environment Agency published a risk assessment on LCCPs in 

2009 (UK EA 2009).

Most CPs are complex substances containing components with different carbon chain lengths and 

different degrees of chlorination, although all have a common structure in that no secondary carbon 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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atom carries more than one chlorine atom. The content of each commercial CP product is 

determined by the nature of the n-alkane feedstock used and the overall degree of chlorination. The

substances identified in this assessment have generally been identified based on these two variables 

(e.g., C22-26, 43% chlorine by weight). While LCCPs range from C18 to C30, the dominant 

commercial products are generally greater than 20 carbons (i.e., C20-30) and are produced from 

paraffin feedstocks that typically have an average carbon chain length between 22-25 carbon 

atoms). These LCCPs have a very small percentage of chain length constituents C20 or less (0.2% 

C20 and trace or non-detectable levels of C19). Figure 1 provides an assessment of the carbon chain 

length distribution for typical C20-30 LCCP products.

0

5

10

15

20

C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 C27 C28

Percentage composition

Carbon chain length

Figure 1: Carbon chain length distribution for C20-30 products

Source: Zitko and Arsenault (1977) as cited in UK EA (2009)

There are also some minor LCCP products predominantly in the C18-20 range that are derived from 

different n-alkane feedstocks (generally centering on C18/19 alkyl chain lengths) that frequently 

contain a sizeable amount (10- 20%) of C17 and minor amounts (≤1%) of C16. As such, for several 

endpoints data on mid-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs), C14-17, have been considered as readacross data in the evaluation of these C18-20 products. 

The actual physical form of the chlorinated paraffins can vary from free-flowing mobile liquids to 

highly viscous, glassy liquids, to waxy solids and powders (BUA, 1992; Houghton, 2003). 

Generally, the higher the chlorine content the more solid the product. The same hydrocarbon 

feedstocks are used to produce C20-30 products that are liquid and solid; it is the extent of 

chlorination that determines whether the product is a liquid (usually 40-50%) versus a solid 

(chlorine content typically 70-72%). 

For purposes of this assessment, the LCCPs are being divided into 3 subgroups to reflect differences 

in carbon chain length (those derived from the C18-C20 hydrocarbon feedstock and those from the 

C20-C30 hydrocarbon feedstock), physical state (as a result of degree of chlorination), and use 

pattern. These subgroups are:

- C18-C20 LCCPs (Liquid)

- C20-C30 LCCPs (Liquid)

- C20-C30 LCCPs (Solid)
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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Common LCCP Products and Their Physical States

Carbon chain Chlorine content Physical state

C18-20

C20-30

Source: UK EA (2009)

1.2 Purity/Impurities/Additives

The purity of the chlorinated paraffin is related to the purity of the n-paraffin used as feedstock. In 

North America and Western Europe, chlorinated paraffins are made from purified n-paraffin 

feedstocks containing no more than 1-2% isoparaffins and <100 ppm (<0.01%) aromatics (which 

are specifically removed from the paraffins feedstock by hydrodesulfurization). The n-alkane 

feedstocks may contain n-alkanes beyond the nominal or predominant carbon number range 

reported for the feedstock, as such chlorinated paraffin commercial products may contain some 

constituents outside this range. The carbon number range (C18-C30) of the LCCP category is 

generally fully encompassing of the main commercial products, though some C18-20 products may 

contain a significant (10-20%) amount of C17 chlorinated alkane. 

Stabilisers such as long-chain epoxidised soya oil are added to some LCCPs to inhibit the release of 

hydrogen chloride at elevated temperatures. These are used at concentrations <0.05% by weight.

1.3 Physico-Chemical properties

Table 1 presents representative physico-chemical data for each of the three subgroups of the LCCP 

category. Due to the range of carbon chain lengths and differing degrees of chlorination of the 

substances in the LCCPs category, a range of values for each physico-chemical property is expected

and trends have been highlighted. Where estimated data are presented, representative chemical

structures have been used as inputs resulting in a single estimated value. Single representative 

values for key endpoints (e.g., octanol-water partition coefficient, vapour pressure, water solubility)

required for fate and behaviour endpoint modelling have been selected following appraisal of the 

measured and estimated data. 

Table 1: Physico-chemical properties

Property Substance Value Rel. Ref. Remarks

Physical State Varies from liquid 

to viscous liquid to 

semi-solid to solid

Pour/Melting 

Point

C18-20 (liquid) All liquid LCCPs 

have pour points in 

the range of 

C18-20, 20% Cl -26 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C18-20, 40.5% Cl -15 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

LIQUIDS

ca. 30-35% wt. Cl

ca. 44% wt. Cl

ca. 48-52% wt. Cl

ca. 40-43% wt. Cl 

ca. 48-54% wt. Cl

ca. 70-72% wt. Cl

LIQUIDS

SOLID
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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Property Substance Value Rel. Ref. Remarks

(all values are 

pour points

unless 

otherwise 

noted)

C18-20, 44% Cl -25°C 2 Hoechst AG 

(1990).

approximately -30o

to around 10oC. 

Because of the 

complex nature of 

the substances, 

distinct melting 

points are not 

evident. Instead the 

commercial 

substances display 

pour points. While 

many of the data 

for pour points are 

assigned reliability

4, an overall trend 

is apparent making 

a weight of 

evidence approach 

possible. Pour 

points generally 

increase with 

increasing chlorine 

content and chain

length. Solid 

LCCPs have 

softening points

C18-20, 47.5 Cl -9 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C18-20, 48% Cl -17 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C18-20, 52.2 Cl 2 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C18-20, 52% Cl 0 °C 2 Hoechst AG 

(1990).

C20-30 (liquid)

C20-30, 41.5% Cl -15 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C 20-30, 42% Cl -30 °C 2 ICI (1989). 

C20-30, 42.15% 2 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C20-30, 45.75% 10 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C20-30, 46% Cl 4 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C 20-30, 48% Cl -15 °C 2 ICI (1989). 

C20-30 (solid)

C20-30, 70% Cl -30 °C to -3 °C 2 ICI (1989) 

C18-28, 71.5% Cl 103 – 115 °C

(softening point)

2 Dover (2008c)

Boiling Point > 210 - 300 °C 

(decomposition)

UK EA (2009)

Strack (1986)

Actual boiling 

point levels cannot 

be determined as 

the products 

decompose prior to 

boiling. 

Decomposition 

occurs at >210-

300o

C. Modelled 

data (using 

MPBPWIN (ver 

1.28)) on 

representative 

chloroalkane 

molecules have 

been provided.

C18H33Cl5

(41.6% Cl)

~413 °C (estimated) 2 UK EA 2009 

(modeled data)

C18H30Cl8

(53.6% Cl)

~467 °C (estimated) 2 UK EA 2009 

(modeled data)

C20H36Cl6

(43.6% Cl)

~454 °C (estimated) 2 UK EA 2009 

(modeled data)

C20H33Cl9

(53.9% Cl)

~508 °C (estimated) 2 UK EA 2009 

(modeled data)

C25H45Cl7

(41.9% Cl)

~530 °C (estimated) 2 UK EA 2009 

(modeled data)

C25H42Cl10

(50.9% Cl)

~583 °C (estimated) 2 UK EA 2009 

(modeled data)

C30H53Cl9

(43.6% Cl)

~623 °C (estimated) 2 UK EA 2009 

(modeled data)

C30H49Cl13

(53.0% Cl)

~695 °C(estimated) 2 UK EA 2009 

(modeled data)

C25H29Cl23

(71.3% Cl)

~827 °C (estimated) 2 UK EA 2009 

(modeled data)

C30H35Cl27

(70.8% Cl)

~956 °C (estimated) 2 UK EA 2009 

(modeled data)

Density C18-20 (liquid) Ranges from 

approximately 0.9 

to 1.3 g/mL (g/cm3

) 

at 20o

C for C18-

C20 LCCPs.

C18-20, 20% Cl 0.923 mg/l @ 25 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C18-20, 35% Cl 1.055 g/cm3 @ 20 °C 4 Hoechst AG 

(1990).

C18-20, 40.5% Cl 1.13 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C18-20, 47% Cl 1.21 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Houghton (2003).
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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Property Substance Value Rel. Ref. Remarks

C18-20, 47.5% Cl 1.21 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

Ranges from 

around 1.1 g/cm3 to 

1.6 g/cm3 at 20o

C

for C20-C30 

LCCPs. 

The density 

increases with 

increasing chlorine 

content.

C18-20, 50% Cl 1.27 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Houghton (2003).

C18-20, 52% Cl 1.3 g/cm3 @ 20 °C 4 Hoechst AG 

(1990).

C18-20, 52.2% Cl 1.28 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C20-30 (liquid)

C20-30, 37% Cl 1.11 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Dover 2008b

C20-30, 39% Cl 1.08 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Dover 2008b

C20-30, 40% Cl 1.11 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Dover 2008b

C20-30, 41.5% Cl 1.16 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C20-30, 42% Cl 1.16 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C20-30, 42% Cl 1.16 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Houghton (2003).

C20-30, 42% Cl 1.15 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Dover 2008b

C20-30, 43% Cl 1.15 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Dover 2008b

C20-30, 46% Cl 1.216 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C20-30, 48% Cl 1.24 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 INEOS (2005). 

C20-30, 48% Cl 1.26 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Houghton (2003).

C20-30, 50% Cl 1.23g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Dover 2008b

C20-30, 43% Cl 1.25 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Dover 2008b

C20-30 (solid)

C18-28, 71.5% Cl 1.62g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Dover 2008c

C20-30, 70% Cl 1.63 g/ml @ 25 °C 4 Houghton (2003).

Vapour 

Pressure

C18-20 (liquid) The vapour 

pressure of LCCPs 

are all extremely 

low, though the 

results vary quite a 

bit. Variability in 

measured values 

may result from the 

nature of these 

complex mixtures 

and difficulties 

measuring such 

low vapour 

pressures. 

Measured values 

are likely to 

represent the 

vapour pressures of 

the most volatile 

components in the 

tested LCCP. 

Estimated values 

are based on a 

single 

representative 

chemical structure.

modelled data 

using MPBPWIN 

(ver 1.28)

estimated at 25 oC, 

using the following 

C18H34Cl5

(41.6% Cl)

5.3 × 10-4 Pa (estimated). 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C18H30Cl8

(53.6% Cl)

2.5 × 10-5 Pa (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C20-30 (liquid)

C20H36Cl6

(43.6% Cl)

5.1 × 10-5 Pa (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C20H33Cl9

(54% Cl)

2.3 × 10-6 Pa (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C23, 42-54% Cl 2.67 × 10-3 Pa @ 65 °C 2 Howard (1975).

C25H45Cl7

(41.9% Cl)

6.3 × 10-7 Pa (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C25H42Cl10

(50.9% Cl)

2.7 × 10-8 Pa (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C30H53Cl9

(43.6% Cl)

2.4×10-9 Pa (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C30H49Cl13

(53% Cl)

3.1×10-11 Pa(estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C20-30 (solid)

C25H29Cl23

(71.3% Cl)

1.4 × 10-15 Pa(estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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Property Substance Value Rel. Ref. Remarks

C30H35Cl27

(70.8% Cl)

6.1×10-19 Pa (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

input melting point 

values: -25 oC for 

42 – 44% Cl, 0oC 

for 51 – 54% Cl 

and 100 oC for 71% 

Cl LCCPs. The 

vapour pressure 

generally decreases 

with increasing 

carbon chain length 

and chlorine 

content. Estimates 

of representative 

chloroalkane 

chemicals range 

from around 5×10-4

Pa to 6.3×10-15 Pa 

at 25o

C for liquid 

LCCPs and 1.4×10-

15 to 6.1×10-19 at 

25o

C for solid 

LCCPs.

Partition 

coefficient noctanol/water 

(log value)

C18-20 (liquid) Modelled data

developed using 

KOWWIN (ver 

1.6). Ranges from 

around 7.5 to ~20. 

The log Kow 

generally increases 

with increasing 

carbon chain length 

and chlorine 

content.

C18H34Cl5

(41.6% Cl)

10.2 (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C18H30Cl8

(53.6% Cl)

10.7 (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C18-26, 44% Cl 7.46 – 11.48 2 Renberg (1980).

C20-30 (liquid)

C20H36Cl6

(43.6% Cl)

11.3 (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009)

C20H33Cl9

(54% Cl)

11.9 (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009). 

C21.5 (average), 

42% Cl

7.63 – 12.83 2 Renberg (1980).

C22-26, 42% Cl, 9.29 – >12.83 2 Renberg (1980).

C22-26, 48% Cl 8.69 – 12.83 2 Renberg (1980).

C25H45Cl7

(41.9% Cl)

14.0 (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009). 

C25H42Cl10

(50.9% Cl)

14.5 (estimated) 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009). 

C30H53Cl9

(43.6% Cl)

16.8 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009). 

C30H49Cl13

(53% Cl)

17.5 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009). 

C20-30 (solid)

C25H29Cl23

(71.3% Cl)

16.9 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009). 

C30H35Cl27

(70.8% Cl)

20.1 2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009). 

Water C18-20 (liquid) Estimated values 

from the UK EA 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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Property Substance Value Rel. Ref. Remarks

Solubility C18H34Cl5

(41.6% Cl)

0.017-6.1 ug/l (estimated;

input log Kow 10.16 & 

7.5)

2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009).

were developed 

using WSKOW 

(ver 1.3) and have 

been calculated 

using 2 different 

selected log Kow 

values as inputs, 

one the estimated 

value from 

KOWWIN and the 

other from the 

lower end of the 

measured log Kow 

data. The upper 

limits from the 

estimates are 

reasonably 

consistent with the 

measured data. All 

values were about 

5 μg/l or lower at 

25o

C. The water 

solubility generally 

decreases with 

increasing carbon 

chain length.

C20-30 (liquid)

C25H45Cl7

(41.9% Cl)

1.6 × 10-6 - 2.0 μg/l

(estimated; input log Kow 

13.96 & 7.6)

2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009). 

C25 (average)

43% Cl

≤ 6.4 ug/l @ 20 ± 2 °C 2 Madeley & 

Gillings (1983). 

C20-30 (solid)

C18-28, 71.5% Cl 0.0066 mg/L @ 20 °C 2 Dover 2007

C25 (average) 

70% Cl

≤ 5.9 ug/l @ 20 ± 2 °C 2 Madeley & 

Gillings (1983). 

C25H29Cl23

(71.3% Cl)

1.6×10-11 - 1.0×10-8 μg/l

(estimated; input log Kow 

16.92 & 14)

2 UK Env. Agency 

(2009). 

Flash Point C20-30 (liquid)

C18-28, 43% Cl > 210 °C 2 Dover 2008a

C20-30, 39-50% Cl >232 °C 2 Dover 2008b

Viscosity C18-20 (liquid)

C18-20, 47% Cl 1.7 Pa·s @ 25 °C 2 Houghton (2003).

C18-20, 50% Cl 1.8 Pa·s @ 25 °C 2 Houghton (2003).

C20-30 (liquid)

C20-30, 39-40% Cl 0.3 - 0.8 Pa s @ 25 °C 2 Dover 2008a

C20-30, 37-49% Cl 0.8 – 29.5 Pa s @ 25 °C 2 Dover 2008b

C20-30, 42% Cl 2.5 Pa s @ 25 °C 2 Houghton (2003).

C20-30, 42-51% Cl 2.9 - 37.5 Pa s @ 25 °C 2 Dover 2007

C20-30, 48% Cl 28 Pa s @ 25 °C 2 Houghton (2003).

C20-30, 42% Cl 22 Pa·s @ 25 °C

3.2 Pa·s @ 50 °C

2 Campbell (1980).

C20-30 (solid)

C20-30, 70% Cl Solid; softening point = 

95-100 °C

2 Houghton (2003).

The data presented in Table 1 and their trends have been used to select the following representative 

values for physico-chemical endpoints used further in this assessment (environmental fate and 

behaviour modelling) for the three sub-groups of LCCPs:

Vapour pressure (at 25 oC): 

C18-20 liquid (ca. 40 – 52% Cl): 2.5 × 10-4 Pa

C20-30 liquid (ca. 40 – 54% Cl): 2.5 × 10-5 Pa 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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C20-30 solid (ca. 70% Cl): 1.5 × 10-14 Pa for LCCPs.

Water Solubility: 5 ug/l for all LCCPs

Log Kow: 

C18-20 liquid (ca. 40 – 52% Cl): 9.7 

C20-30 liquid (ca. 40 – 54% Cl): 10.3 

C20-30 solid (ca. 70% Cl): 17

1.4 Category Justification

The Long-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins (LCCP) category contains complex commercial substances 

whose chemical components are predominantly in the range of carbon chain lengths from C18 to C30

and whose chlorine contents are approximately 35- 70% by weight. Alkyl chains of the constituents 

are always primary, and each of their carbon atoms never contains more than one chlorine 

substituent. The substances in this category have a predictable range of physico-chemical 

properties and physical forms based primarily on degree on chlorination. As chain length and 

degree of chlorination increases, so do pour (melting) points and octanol-water partition 

coefficients; water solubilities decrease with increasing chain length. The data in this SIAR are 

presented based on carbon-chain length, chlorine content, and physical form in order to fully 

compare and array the data for each type of substance within the category. As a consequence of 

differing use patterns depending on physical form, degree of chlorination and chain length, the 

category is sub-divided into three groups: C18-20 liquid, C20-30 liquid and C20-30 solid LCCPs (see 

Identity section). C18-20 LCCPs are produced from an n-alkane feedstock with chain lengths centred

around C18/19, whereas C20-30 LCCPs are made from an n-alkane feedstock centred around C24/25; 

whether the latter are categorised as liquid or solid depends on the degree of chlorination. 

However, they appear to exhibit similar environmental fate and toxicology data, which support 

these substances being included in the same category. Further, while there are ranges to the physicchemical properties LCCPs all still display similar characteristics – very low water solubility, low 

vapour pressure, and high Kow values. Environmental fate modelling indicates that all LCCPs are 

anticipated to partition almost entirely to the soil or sediment depending on release patterns

indicating that exposure patterns will likely be very similar for all LCCPs. 

Data from the related substance MCCPs are used to fill endpoints in the assessment of human health 

hazards for C18-20 LCCPs. C18-20 LCCP data gaps exist for oral acute toxicity, irritation, oral 

repeated dose toxicity, toxicity for reproduction (effects on fertility) and developmental toxicity. 

MCCPs, as described in the Identity section, have carbon chain lengths between C14 and C17 and are 

similar in physico-chemical properties to C18-20 LCCPs, so this approach seems justified.

2 GENERAL INFORMATION ON EXPOSURE

2.1 Production Volumes and Use Pattern 

LCCPs are produced by the direct chlorination of n-paraffin feedstocks predominantly in the range 

of C18-30, with the main commercial products being in the range of C20-30 and a smaller class of 

products in the C18-20 range. The precise carbon-chain distribution for an individual product will 

vary depending on the petroleum oil source. LCCPs are manufactured at a handful of locations in 

the European Union, United States, and elsewhere globally, but there is currently no manufacturing 

site in the United Kingdom (CPIA, EuroChlor, UK EA, 2009). The global production of LCCPs is 

estimated to be >300,000 tonnes/year. 
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The total EU usage of LCCPs has been in the range of 5,000-10,000 tonnes/year from 1998-2004

(Euro Chlor, 2000 and 2005). The main areas of use of LCCPs are as a secondary plasticiser in 

PVC, as a flame retardant in rubber and textiles, as a plasticiser/flame retardant in 

sealants/adhesives and paints, as an extreme pressure additive to metal cutting/working fluids and as 

a component of leather fat liquoring treatments (UK EA, 2009). In very general terms, the 

chlorinated paraffins with chlorine contents in the range 40-50% wt Cl are used in plasticising 

applications, whereas the chlorinated paraffins with very high chlorine contents (e.g. 70% wt Cl) 

are used mainly as flame retardants (Zitko and Arsenault, 1974). The relative use in each 

application in the EU for 2004 is shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 also shows the total use of LCCPs in 

Nordic countries from the SPIN database (search of CAS 63449-39-8 on www.spin2000.net). 

Rubber

Paints

Sealants/adhesives

Metal cutting/working

Leather

PVC

Other

Textiles

Figure 2: Uses of long-chain chlorinated paraffins in the EU

Source: UK EA (2009)

Figure 3: Total use of LCCPs in the Nordic Countries (tonnes/year)
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Source: SPIN Database for CAS number 63449-39-8 (2008)

2.2 Environmental Exposure and Fate

2.2.1 Sources of Environmental Exposure

There are no known natural sources of LCCPs. LCCPs may enter the environment, principally as 

emissions to water during their manufacture and transportation, during their incorporation into 

downstream products (PVC, metal working fluids, sealants, rubber, leather fat liquors, paints, 

textiles) and their processing, especially at high temperatures, and during the use and final disposal 

of these products.

The predicted fate of LCCPs in waste-water treatment plants is that the vast majority will be 

adsorbed onto industrial sewage sludge and the remainder (<10%) will be released to surface water 

in the effluent from the plant. 

Although LCCPs have very low vapour pressures, minor emissions to air may occur from sources 

with elevated temperatures (e.g. during polymer processing). Minor emissions may also occur over 

the lifetime of products (e.g. polymers, paints, sealants) containing LCCPs, although the rate and 

amount of loss is expected to be minimal.

2.2.2 Photodegradation

In air, a chemical can react with photosensitized oxygen in the form of •

OH or with ozone. These 

reactions are characterized as indirect photodegradation, and can result in a parent chemical's 

degradation in the atmosphere. LCCPs react with •

OH in air to degrade, but react at a negligible rate 

with ozone. Therefore, photolysis as a result of hydroxyl radical attack will contribute significantly 

to the physical degradation of these chemicals in the atmosphere, but reactions with ozone will not 

contribute to their loss from the environment. 

LCCPs second order rate constants (kOH) for the indirect photodegradation reaction were estimated 

from chemical structure using the Syracuse Research Corporation AOP (version 1.86; the program 

is based on the Atkinson method), and example calculations have been given in Table 2. The 

estimated atmospheric half-lives are based on an atmospheric hydroxyl radical concentration of

5x105 •OH/cm3.
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The estimated atmospheric half-lives range from 18 to 112 hours. The half-lives are inversely 

related to carbon chain length as they decrease with increasing carbon chain length, but are directly 

related to chlorine content as they increase with increasing chlorine content. 
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Table 2: Estimated atmospheric half-lives for long-chain chlorinated paraffins

Formula Chlorine 

content (% wt. 

Cl)

kOH (cm3/molecule s) Atmospheric half-life

C18H33Cl5 41.6 1.27×10-11 30.3 hours

C18H30Cl8 53.6 9.83×10-12 39.2 hours

C20H36Cl6 43.6 1.47×10-11 26.2 hours

C20H33Cl9 53.9 1.05×10-11 36.7 hours

C25H45Cl7 41.9 1.88×10-11 20.5 hours

C25H42Cl10 50.9 1.53×10-11 25.2 hours

C25H29Cl23 71.3 3.43×10-12 112 hours

C30H53Cl9 43.6 2.14×10-11 18.0 hours

C30H49Cl13 53.0 1.79×10-11 21.5 hours

C30H35Cl27 70.8 5.51×10-12 69.9 hours

In comparison, direct photochemical degradation occurs through the absorbance of solar radiation 

by a chemical substance. If the absorbed energy is high enough, then the resultant excited state of 

the chemical may undergo a transformation. A prerequisite for direct photodegradation is the 

ability of one or more bonds within a chemical to absorb ultraviolet (UV)/visible light in the 290 to 

750 nm range. Light wavelengths longer than 750 nm do not contain sufficient energy to break 

chemical bonds, and wavelengths below 290 nm are shielded from the earth by the stratospheric 

ozone layer.

An approach to assessing the potential for a substance to undergo photochemical degradation is to 

assume that degradation will occur in proportion to the amount of light absorbed by the chemical at 

wavelengths >290 nm (Zepp and Cline, 1977). LCCP constituents do not absorb light within a 

range of 290 to 750 nm. Therefore, photolysis is not expected to contribute to the degradation of 

category members in the environment.

2.2.3 Stability in Water

There is no evidence that LCCPs are subject to hydrolysis. LCCPs do not contain any functional 

groups which are likely to hydrolyse. 

2.2.4 Transport between Environmental Compartments

The high log Kow values of LCCPs indicate that they would adsorb strongly onto sludge and 

sediments and would not be expected to be mobile in soil.

Estimated Henry’s law constants (H) are provided in Table 3 below, as estimated from Syracuse 

Research Corporation’s Henry (version 3.00) program, which estimates Henry’s law constant via a 

bond contribution method, a group contribution method, and an “experimental value 

adjusted” (EVA) method (UK Environment Agency, 2009). Koc values used in these 

calculations were estimated using Syracuse Research Corporation’s PCKOC (version 1.63) 

program.
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Table 3: Estimated Henry’s Law Constants

Formula

Chlorine 

Content 

(% wt Cl)

Bond 

Contribution 

Method

Group 

Contribution 

Method

EVA method 

(four estimates)

C18H33Cl5 41.6 5,005 0.084 210, 60, 16, 155

Mean = 110±88

C18H30Cl8 53.6 219 1.2 x 10-6 9.2, 2.6, 0.7, 6.7

Mean = 4.8±3.9

C20H36Cl6 43.6 3,101 0.004 131, 37, 10, 96

Mean = 69±55

C20H33Cl9 53.9 136 6.1 x 10-8 5.7, 1.6, 0.4, 4.2

Mean = 3.0±2.4

C25H45Cl7 41.9 4,509 5.7 x 10-4 189, 54, 15, 140

Mean = 100±79

C25H42Cl10 50.9 198 8.4 x 10-9 8.3, 2.4, 0.6, 6.1

Mean = 4.4±3.5

C25H29Cl23 71.3 2.5 x 10-4 8.6 x 10-30

1.06 x 10-5, 3.0 x 10-6,

8.2 x 10-7, 7.9 x 10-6

Mean = 5.6 x 10-5 ± 4.5 x 10-6

C30H53Cl9 43.6 2,310 1.9 x 10-6 97, 28, 7.5, 72

Mean = 51±41

C30H49Cl13 53.0 35.6 7.0 x 10-13 1.5, 0.4, 0.1, 1.1

Mean = 0.8±0.6

C30H35Cl27 70.8 1.6 x 10-5 1.8 x 10-35

6.8 x 10-7, 1.9 x 10-7,

5.2 x 10-8, 5.0 x 10-7

Mean = 3.6 x 10-7 ± 2.9 x 10-7

Estimated organic carbon-water partition coefficient (KOC) values for long-chain chlorinated 

paraffins are provided in Table 4 below (UK Environment Agency, 2009).

Table 4: Estimated KOC values for long-chain chlorinated paraffins from 

structure

Formula Chlorine Content

(% wt Cl) KOC (l/kg)

C18H33Cl5 41.6 2.93 x 106

C18H30Cl8 53.6 1.27 x 107

C20H36Cl6 43.6 1.61 x 107

C20H33Cl9 53.9 7.00 x 107

C25H45Cl7 41.9 5.58 x 108

C25H42Cl10 50.9 2.42 x 109

C25H29Cl23 71.3 1 x 1010 a

C30H53Cl9 43.6 1 x 1010 a

C30H49Cl13 53.0 1 x 1010 a

C30H35Cl27 70.8 1 x 1010 a

a = upper limit of estimation method.
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Distribution – The potential environmental distribution of long-chain chlorinated paraffins 

has been studied using a generic level III fugacity model (EQC version 1.01, May 1997), a 

summary of which is provided in Table 5 below (UK Environment Agency, 2009).

Table 5: Results of level III fugacity modeling for long-chain chlorinated 

paraffins

Release 

Compartment

Percent Distribution

Air Water

C18-20 liquid C20-30 liquid C20-30 solid C18-20 liquid C20-30 liquid C20-30 solid

100% to air 1.14 x 10-3 % 4.45 x 10-4 % 3.68 x 10-4 % 3.40 x 10-3 % 3.35 x 10-3 % 3.34 x 10-3 %

100% to water 7.12 x 10-6 % 2.78 x 10-7 % 8.08 x 10-24 % 0.853 % 0.857 % 0.858 %

100% to soil 7.05 x 10-8 % 2.35 x 10-9 % 6.37 x 10-24 % 3.01 x 10-3 % 3.01 x 10-3 % 3.01 x 10-3 %

50% to air + 

50% to water 1.12 x 10-3 % 4.41 x 10-4 % 3.66 x 10-4 % 0.018 % 0.012 % 8.45 x 10-3 %

Release 

Compartment

Percent Distribution

Soil Sediment

C18-20 liquid C20-30 liquid C20-30 solid C18-20 liquid C20-30 liquid C20-30 solid

100% to air 99.6 % 99.6 % 99.6 % 0.393 % 0.387 % 0.386 %

100% to water 0.625 % 0.062 % 2.19 x 10-18 % 98.5 % 99.1 % 99.1 %

100% to soil 99.6 % 99.6 % 99.6 % 0.348 % 0.348 % 0.348 %

50% to air + 

50% to water 97.9 % 98.6 % 99.0 % 2.06 % 1.35 % 0.976 %

2.2.5 Biodegradation

While there is no current OECD guideline study for ready or inherent biodegradation, there are a 

variety of available data on the biodegradability of LCCPs. LCCPs are considered not to be readily 

biodegradable. The results indicate some potential for biodegradation with acclimated 

microorganisms, but limited biodegradation in non-acclimated organisms. The potential for 

biodegradation appears to increase with decreasing chlorine content. There is also some evidence 

that biodegradation may occur under anaerobic conditions. 

The biodegradation of a C20–30, 42% wt Cl product has been determined in a prolonged test 

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Madeley and Birtley, 1980) – determined to have a 

reliability of 2. The test was carried out using an emulsion of the chlorinated paraffin. Two 

microbial populations were used in the study: firstly a culture from soil collected close to a CP

production plant that was acclimatised over an eight week period to a concentration of 20–50 mg/l 

of the CP; and secondly, a non-acclimatized culture obtained from the effluent of a laboratory 

activated sludge unit treating domestic sewage. Results were based on comparing BOD to the 

theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD) and showed 7.5% biodegradation after 25 days for nonacclimated organisms and 23% biodegradation after 25 days for acclimated organisms.
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To investigate the potential for degradation further, Madeley and Birtley (1980) carried out a series 

of experiments using a 14C-labelled pentacosane (radiolabelled on the central carbon) mixed with 

the same C20–30, 42% wt Cl product in Hach respirometers with non-acclimated microorganisms. 

After eight weeks incubation, around 11% of the 14C was collected as 14CO2, indicating that where 

degradation had occurred it was extensive enough to release the central carbon atom of the C25

chain. In addition to the above studies, Madeley and Birtley (1980) also reported preliminary

studies investigating the degradation of the C20–30, 42% wt Cl product under anaerobic conditions. 

The anaerobic bacteria were obtained from anaerobic sludge digesters. Gas production (methane 

and CO2) in the presence of increasing quantities of an emulsion of the CP was determined over 30 

days and compared with controls. No significant increase or decrease in bacterial activity was seen 

at concentrations of the CP of up to 10% by weight of dry sludge solids. It was concluded that the 

substance was not toxic to the bacterial population present but also was not actively degraded under 

these conditions.

Additional biodegradation results by Hildebrecht (1972), reliability 2, were reported by Howard et 

al. (1975), though the reliability of these data has been questioned as the test systems appear to have

contained additional carbon sources that may have been biodegradable under the conditions of the 

test (UK EA 2009). In this study, the biodegradability of a C20-30, 42% wt Cl LCCP and a C20-30, 

70% wt Cl LCCP were evaluated using oxygen consumption over 20 hours in a Warburg 

respirometer or over five days using a BOD method. The sewage seed used was acclimated to up to 

100 mg/l of chlorinated paraffins before use in the test. The results obtained are shown in the table 

below.

Table 6: Biodegradation Results Reported by Hildebrecht (1972)

Substance Formulation 

Tested

Warburg Respirometry BOD dilution method

Oxygen 

Consumption

(mg/L)

Degradation* BOD

(mg/L)

Degradation*

C20-30, 

40–42% Cl

500 mg/L of a 

mixture containing 

75% LCCP, 5% 

surfactant and 20% 

water.

83 17.2% 120 25%

C20-30, 

70% Cl

500 mg/L of a 

mixture containing 

37.5% LCCP, 

37.5% 

perchloroethylene, 

5% surfactant and 

20% water.

298 17.2% 30 2%

Surfactant 500 mg/L surfactant 377 46.5% 530 65%

*Degradation was estimated by the authors as the percentage of the theoretical oxygen demand based on the 

total carbon content of the test solution. Substances other than the chlorinated paraffin contribute to this total 

carbon content.

Hoechst AG (1976 and 1977) reported five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) values for 

several products: C18–20, 35% Cl, C18–20, 44% Cl, C18–20, 49% Cl and C18–20, 52% Cl. Unfortunately, 

the reliability of these studies could not be assigned (reliability 4) because few details of how the 

tests were carried out are given. The results show little or no biodegradation when compared with 

the measured chemical oxygen demand (COD) values. 
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There is some evidence that LCCPs may be subject to biodegradation in sea water/estuarine 

sediment (Zitko & Arsenault, 1974 & 1977). It is not possible to derive any biodegradation rates 

applicable to the marine environment from these data.

2.2.6 Bioaccumulation

LCCPs have been shown, experimentally, to bioaccumulate in fish and mussels. Much of the data 

was obtained using exposure concentrations well in excess of the water solubility of the substance 

tested and it is not possible to obtain a reliable BCF value from them. The potential for uptake and 

accumulation of the substance by fish and other aquatic and terrestrial organisms is uncertain, but 

appears to decrease with increasing carbon chain length and increasing degree of chlorination. The 

model estimated BCFs in fish for the LCCP are as follows (method taken from the EU Technical 

Guidance Document parabolic equation, application for substances with log Kow >6 and molecular 

weight < 700 g/mol: log BCF = -0.2 x(log Kow)2 + (2.74 x log Kow – 4.72)): 

C18-20 liquid LCCP BCF = 1,096 L/kg 

C20-30 liquid LCCP BCF = 192 L/kg

C20-30 solid LCCP BCF <1 L/kg

There is evidence from feeding studies that LCCPs can be taken up via the diet, but in all cases the 

concentrations reached in the animals were less than those in the diet. This indicates that although 

uptake of the substance can occur via the food, the levels should not increase through the food chain

(UK EA 2009).

Based on estimates of BCF taking the known accumulation properties of structurally similar 

substances into account, the BCF for LCCPs is considered to be <2,000 L/kg (UK EA, 2009). Thus 

it is concluded that LCCPs are unlikely to meet the B or vB (very bioaccumulative) EU criteria. 

2.2.7 Other Information on Environmental Fate

2.3 Human Exposure

2.3.1 Occupational Exposure

Occupational exposure to LCCPs may occur during their manufacture, their incorporation into 

downstream products (PVC, metal working fluids, sealants, rubber, leather fat liquors, paints, 

textiles) and their processing, especially at high temperatures and during the use of these products.

LCCPs are either viscous liquids with very low vapour pressures or solids. The exposure route of 

greatest significance is by inhalation of aerosols during the use of liquid products such as metalworking fluids, of vapours during high temperature processing (e.g., of PVC) or of the dusts from 

the solid grades. The aerosols from the products containing liquid grades also have the potential to 

come into contact with the skin, although this route is regarded as being insignificant. 

2.3.2 Consumer Exposure

LCCPs and products which contain them are not supplied directly to the consumer. A search of the 

U.S. Household Products Database, a comprehensive database of chemical ingredients in household 

products maintained by the U.S. National Library of Medicine, found no consumer products 

containing LCCPs (U.S. NIH 2008).
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3 HUMAN HEALTH HAZARDS

3.1 Effects on Human Health

This assessment considers the available mammalian toxicity data on LCCPs, which includes a 

significant amount of data for most health endpoints. In a few cases were data are limited, 

additional data on other chain length CPs (e.g., MCCPs) have been considered. In particular, data 

on MCCPs have been used to help characterise the effects of the C18-20 subgroup for acute, repeatdose and reproductive endpoints. 

3.1.1 Toxicokinetics, Metabolism and Distribution

As part of a 90-day repeat-dose toxicity study on a C22-26, 43 % Cl, groups of 25 male and 25 female 

F344 rats that had previously received either 100 or 3750 mg/kg bwt/day of test compound by 

gavage, were given by gavage single doses of 100 and 3750 mg/kg bwt 14C chlorinated pentacosane 

(43.2% w/w Cl), respectively, at the end of their exposure period (IRDC, 1984b). In addition, 

groups of 18 male and 18 female naïve F344 rats received the same doses of radiolabelled 

compound.

The vast majority of radiolabel was recovered in the faeces, ranging from 82.3% to 95.7% after 7 

days in all groups of naïve rats, suggesting that the compound was either poorly absorbed or that a 

significant quantity was excreted in the bile, either unchanged or metabolised. Small quantities of 

radioactivity were found in the urine (ranging from <0.1% to 0.8% after 7 days in all groups of 

naïve rats) and in expired air (ranging from <0.1% to 0.4% after 7 days in all groups of naïve rats). 

Up to 4.3% of the radioactivity was found in the tissues 7 days after administration of the 

radioactive dose. The highest levels were found in liver, 12 hours after dosing with 3750 mg/kg bwt 

(pre-treated males – 568 +/- 119 ppm: pre-treated females -1682 +/- 281 ppm). Levels of the order 

of one order of magnitude less were found in adipose tissue and the kidney, peaking 7 to 28 days 

after administration and declining significantly over the next 9 weeks. High levels (232 +/- 121 ppm 

in the high dose pre-treated group) were also found in the ovaries 7 days after administration of the 

test dose. Blood levels tended to peak 12 to 24 hours after administration of the test dose and 

declined significantly over the first seven days.

A similar study (IRDC 1984a) was reported as part of a 90-day repeat dose toxicity study in which a 

C22-28, 70% Cl LCCP was administered via the diet. The study design was the same, as were the 

doses administered. The radiolabelled compound, a 14C chlorinated pentacosane (70% w/w Cl) was 

administered by gavage.

The elimination of radioactivity and distribution and elimination of residual radioactivity showed a 

very similar pattern to that described in the previous experiment, with the majority of radioactivity 

being recovered in the faeces and residual radioactivity being found primarily in the liver. 

Distribution and elimination from adipose tissue was again slower than for other compartments. 

Radioactivity was also seen in the ovaries, but to a lesser extent than with the 43% Cl compound.

Given the inconclusive nature of these absorption results, a default assumption is that 50% of the 

oral dose is absorbed.
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3.1.2 Acute Toxicity

Studies in Animals

Inhalation

No acute toxicity studies are reported in which LCCPs have been administered by inhalation.

Dermal

No acute toxicity studies are reported in which LCCPs have been administered by the dermal route. 

Oral

LCCPs are of low acute toxicity following oral administration. Table 7 summarizes the acute oral 

toxicity data for LCCPs. Valid studies in the rat, mouse, and dog have been reported on both liquid 

and solid LCCPs in the C20-30 range. The most consistent observation made during the postexposure period was evidence of faecal incontinence, presumably associated with the large volume 

of test material administered. No mortalities were observed and all studies reported LD50 values > 

5.0 g/kg bwt.

No valid studies have been conducted on a C18-20 liquid grade LCCP. However, the fact that C14-17 

CPs also have high LD50 values (i.e. > 2.0 g/kg bwt) suggests that this type of LCCP would have a 

similar low acute toxicity (UK Environment Agency, 2009).

Table 7: Acute Toxicity

SUBSTANCE ROUTE SPECIES VALUE REL. REFERENCE

C20-30 (liquid)

C22-26; 42% Cl Oral rat LD50 > 10 ml/kg bw 2 Chater and Jaggers

(1978).

C22-26; 42% Cl Oral rat LD50 > 5000 mg/kg bw 2 ICI (1963).

C23 (average); 

43% Cl 

Oral rat LD50 > 11700 mg/kg bw 1 NTP (1986). 

Bucher (1987).

C20-30; 41-50% Cl Oral rat LD50 > 10,000 mg/kg bw 2 Birtley (1980).

C20-30; 51-60% Cl Oral rat LD50 > 10,000 mg/kg bw 2 Birtley (1980).

C20-30; 61-70% Cl Oral rat LD50 > 10,000 mg/kg bw 2 Birtley (1980).

C23 (average); 

43% Cl

Oral mouse LD50 > 23400 mg/kg bw 1 NTP (1986).

Bucher (1987).

C22-30; 42% Cl Oral mouse LD50 > 5000 mg/kg bw 2 ICI (1963).

C22-30; 42% Cl Oral dog LD50 > 5000 mg/kg bw 2 ICI (1963).

C20-30 (solid)

C22-30; 70% Cl Oral rat LD50 > 5000 mg/kg bw 2 ICI (1964).

C22-30; 70% Cl Oral rat LD50 > 5000 mg/kg bw 2 ICI (1963).

C22-30; 70% Cl Oral mouse LD50 > 5000 mg/kg bw 2 ICI (1963).

C22-30; 70% Cl Oral dog LD50 > 5000 mg/kg bw 2 ICI (1963).

Conclusion

LCCPs demonstrate a low order of acute toxicity. No mortalities were observed and the reported 

oral LD50 values all exceeded 5,000 mg/kg bwt in the rat, mouse and dog. This conclusion is also 

supported by additional acute intraperitoneal (i.p.) studies in rats and mice that showed no mortality 

at 5,000 mg/kg bwt (i.p.) with several different LCCP test substances. The lack of acute toxicology 

data via inhalation or dermal exposure routes for LCCPs is not expected to be an important data gap 
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as these routes of exposure are insignificant for LCCPs, which have very low vapour pressure and 

are absorbed very poorly through the skin.

3.1.3 Irritation

Skin Irritation

Studies in Animals

Valid studies have been conducted on a C22-26 liquid LCCP in rabbits and rats and also on several

C20-30 liquid LCCPs in rats. All results were not irritating in rats and slightly irritating in the rabbit 

for C22-26, 42% Cl.

Table 8: Skin Irritation

SUBSTANCE SPECIES RESULT REL. REFERENCE

C20-30 (liquid)

C22-26; 42% Cl Rabbit slightly 

irritating

2 Chater and Jaggers

(1978).

C20-30; 41-50% Cl Rat not irritating 2 Birtley (1980).

C20-30; 51-60% Cl Rat not irritating 2 Birtley (1980).

C20-30; 61-70% Cl Rat not irritating 2 Birtley (1980).

C22-26; 42% Cl rat not irritating 2 Chater and Jaggers

(1978)

Eye Irritation

Studies in Animals

Two studies in rabbits have been conducted on C20-30 liquid LCCPs and one on a solid C22-30, 70% 

Cl LCCP. The results from these studies are reported in Table 9 and include both non-irritating and 

slightly-irritating effects for the products. 

Table 9: Eye Irritation

SUBSTANCE SPECIES RESULT REL. REFERENCE

C20-30 (liquid)

C20-30; 61-70% Cl rabbit not irritating 2 Birtley (1980).

C22-26; 42% Cl rabbit slightly irritating 2 Chater and Jaggers

(1978)

C20-30 (solid)

C22-30, 70% Cl rabbit Slightly irritating 2 ICI (1964)

Respiratory Tract Irritation

Studies in Animals

There are no studies on the respiratory tract irritant effects of LCCPs, though given their very low 

vapour pressure, inhalation exposure is anticipated to be minimal.

Conclusion

LCCP have been shown to be, at most, only slightly irritating to the skin and eyes in experimental 

animals. Skin and eye irritation have been investigated in animal studies for a number of LCCP 

products. These studies suggest that LCCPs have the potential to cause slight irritation.
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Single exposure to MCCPs also caused slight irritation in standard tests, but somewhat more 

pronounced irritation has been reported following repeated exposure, presumably due to defatting 

properties. The UK has advocated (UK, 2009) that in the absence of studies on repeated application 

of LCCPs to skin, a conservative assumption is made that the C18-20 LCCPs could have a similar 

effect. 

There are no specific data on respiratory tract irritation, but on the basis of the low skin and eye 

irritation potential it is anticipated that the LCCP products are unlikely to cause such an effect.

Further, the potential for exposure to the respiratory tract is likely to be minimal given the very low 

vapour pressure of LCCPs.

3.1.4 Sensitisation

Studies in Animals

Skin

C22-26, 42% Cl liquid grade LCCP was tested for skin sensitisation using intradermal injection of a 5 

% solution of the LCCP in olive oil followed 7 days later by a topical application of 20% LCCP in 

olive oil. Erythema and oedema were scored 24 and 48 hours post application and no evidence for 

sensitisation of the skin was reported (Chater and Jaggers, 1978). 

Several additional sensitisation studies have also been reported for LCCPs, including the study by 

Bailey and Sheldon (1998) that reported no evidence of sensitisation in Buehler guinea pigs tested 

with a C22–26 product (chlorination level not reported) and a study Huels (1985) of a C18–27, 40% 

chlorination product, which elicited a positive response. The results from Bailey and Sheldon 

(1998) are available only as an SOT abstract, so the details and validity of this study are uncertain. 

The only information on the Huels (1985) is from a limited entry from the original IUCLID file and 

while it reports a positive finding, many studies of this period did not account for the presence of 

stabilisers that were known sensitisers. As no details are available on this study it is impossible to 

make any determinations about the test substance. In addition, data on SCCPs and MCCPs indicate 

that these substances are not sensitisers (IPCS 1996).

Respiratory Tract

There are no relevant data available.

Conclusion

The valid available data indicate that LCCPs do not cause skin sensitisation.

3.1.5 Repeated Dose Toxicity

Studies in Animals

Inhalation

No repeated dose toxicity studies are reported in which LCCPs have been administered by 

inhalation.

Dermal

No repeated dose toxicity studies are reported in which LCCPs have been administered by the 

dermal route.
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Oral

Valid repeat dose studies in the rat and mouse have been conducted via the oral route on solid and 

liquid LCCP products as summarized below in Table 10.

Repeat dose toxicity studies have been conducted on a C23 (average), 43% Cl, a C22-26, 43 % Cl and 

a C22-28, 70% Cl LCCP product in the F344 rat and, with the C23 (average) 43 % Cl product, in the 

B6C3F1 mouse. The chemicals were administered either by gavage or in the diet at doses up to 

3750 mg/kg bwt/day (rat) or 7500 mg/kg bwt/day (mouse). These studies include shorter duration 

1-2 week studies, several 13 week subchronic studies, and two chronic studies conducted by the 

U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP) in both the rat and mouse.

In the rat, LCCPs caused pathological evidence of liver toxicity (granulomatous inflammation), 

with females being more sensitive than males. Liver enzymes were measured in one study and 

alanine aminotransferease activity was increased in both sexes. In the study with the C22-26, 43 % Cl 

LCCP, there was also evidence of kidney toxicity, with mild nephrosis being seen in the males 

receiving the highest dose employed (3750 mg/kg bwt/day). 

In the mouse, administration of the C23, 43 % Cl LCCP caused no effects on body or organ weights, 

no clinical signs of toxicity and no treatment-related histopathological effects. 

The overall LOAEL for LCCPs in the 90-day studies in the rat was 900 mg/kg bwt/day in males and 

100 mg/kg bwt/day in females, based on hepatotoxicity. The NOAEL for males was 300 mg/kg 

bwt/day, but no NOAEL was obtained for females. In the mouse, the NOAEL for LCCPs was 7500 

mg/kg bwt/day.
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Table 10: Repeat-Dose Toxicity

SUBSTANCE SPECIES EXPOSURE VALUE REL. REFERENCE

C20-30 (liquid)

C22-26; 43% Cl rat 13 weeks, 

gavage

NOAEL:

male 900 mg/kg/day;

female could not be 

established

LOAEL:

male 3750 mg/kg/day;

female 100 mg/kg/day

1 IRDC (1984b)

C23 (average), 

43% Cl

rat 13 weeks, 

gavage

NOAEL:

male > 3750 mg/kg/day 

(top dose);

female could not be 

established

LOAEL:

female 235 mg/kg/day

2 NTP 1986/ 

Bucher 1987

C23 (average), 

43% Cl

rat 103 week 

gavage

LOAEL (mg/kg/day):

male 1875 

female 100

2 NTP 1986/ 

Bucher 1987

C23 (average), 

43% Cl

mouse 13 weeks, 

gavage

NOAEL 7500 mg/kig/day 

(top dose)

2 NTP 1986/ 

Bucher 1987

C23 (average), 

43% Cl

mouse 103 week 

gavage

NOAEL (mg/kg/day):

male > 5000 (top dose)

female > 5000 (top dose)

2 NTP 1986/ 

Bucher 1987

C22-26; 43% Cl rat 14 days,

gavage

NOAEL > 3000 mg/kg/day

(top dose)

1 IRDC (1981b)

C20-30 (solid)

C22-28; 70% Cl rat 13 weeks, 

oral feed

NOAEL 900 mg/kg bw;

LOAEL 3750 mg/kg/bw

1 IRDC (1984a)

C22-28; 70% Cl rat 14 days, 

oral feed

NOAEL > 1715 mg/kg bw

(top dose)

1 IRDC (1981a)

C22-28; 70% Cl rat 5 days,

gavage

NOAEL > 5000 mg/kg bw

(top dose)

2 IRDC (1982d)

In the NTP (1986) rat chronic study, groups of 50 male or 50 female F344 rats were given a C23, 

43% Cl LCCP product dissolved in corn oil by gavage at doses of 0, 1875 and 3750 mg/kg bwt/day 

(males) or 0, 100, 300 or 900 mg/kg bwt/day (females), 5 days/week for 103 weeks. In addition, 

groups of 20 male and 20 female received the same doses for either 6 or 12 months in order to 

monitor any increase in organ weights and any changes in the levels of serum hepatic enzymes and 

haematological parameters. Increased liver weights were seen in both male and female rats, the 

effect being seen after 6 months dosing in female rats and after 12 months dosing in male rats. The 

effects were accompanied by a slight elevation in several serum enzyme levels and, in females only, 

variations in haematological parameters. The primary pathological lesion reported was a diffuse 

lymphohistiocytic inflammation of the liver and the pancreatic and mesenteric lymph nodes. No 

NOAEL for non-neoplastic effects was observed in this study. The LOAEL for effects in the liver 

was 1875 mg/kg bwt/day in male rats and 100 mg/kg bwt/day in female rats. 

In the NTP (1986) mouse chronic study, groups of 50 male or 50 female B6C3F1 mice were given a 

C23, 43%Cl LCCP product dissolved in corn oil by gavage at doses of 0, 2500 and 5000 mg/kg 

bwt/day, 5 days/week for 103 weeks. Treatment had no effect on survival and there were no clinical 

signs of toxicity or increases of non-neoplastic lesions. Reduced weight gain was seen in some 

treated groups but the effect was not dose-dependant. The NOAEL for both male and female mice 

was 5000 mg/kg bwt/day.
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There is no valid repeat-dose toxicity study on a C18-20 liquid grade LCCP, though repeat dose 

toxicity studies on the longer chain length compounds as well as on MCCPs (C14-17) are available 

to provide a source of read-across data. In a recent and well-conducted rat 90-day dietary study of 

MCCPs (CXR, 2005), no effects were observed at 23 mg/kg/day and changes were seen in the 

kidneys at 222 mg/kg/day (increased weight, ‘chronic nephritis’ and tubular pigmentation). 

Mechanistic studies indicated some deposition of α2u-globulin in proximal convoluted tubules of 

male rats only at higher dose levels. An increase in kidney weight of 9-13% was observed at the top 

dose of 222 mg.kg-1.day-1 in the CXR study and of 18% at the top dose of 625 mg.kg-1.day-1 in 

another study (reference?). The increase above controls in the incidence and severity of what has 

been misleadingly termed ‘chronic nephritis’ (‘a mixed population of interstitial inflammatory cells, 

tubular regeneration and minimal degenerative changes in the tubular epithelium occurring alone or 

in combination’) was seen in treated males at 10 mg.kg-1.day-1 and above. At 10 mg.kg-1.day-1 the 

severity of these changes was graded as ‘trace’, and even at the highest exposure level, 625 mg.kg1

.day-1, was only ‘mild’. Furthermore, a significant increase above controls in the incidence of this 

lesion (10/15 vs. 1/15) was only seen at the top dose of 625 mg.kg-1.day-1 with 3/15 and 4/15 

animals affected at 10 and 100 mg.kg-1

.day-1 respectively. It is therefore concluded that, although 

kidney changes were observed from 10 mg.kg-1.day-1, a lesion considered to be of toxicological 

significance only occurred at the top dose of 625 mg.kg-1

.day-1.

 Tubular pigmentation was also 

seen in females at the top dose of 625 mg.kg-1.day-1.

Studies in Humans

No human experience following repeated exposure to LCCPs and repeated dose toxicity studies in 

humans on LCCPs have been reported.

Conclusion

There are valid 90-day repeat dose toxicity studies in the rat on a C23, 43%Cl LCCP, a C22-26, 43 % 

Cl LCCP (both liquid grades) and a C22-28, 70% Cl LCCP (a solid grade). There are also a valid 90-

day repeat dose toxicity studies in the mouse and valid 2-year repeat dose studies in both the rat and 

the mouse on the C23 (average), 43%Cl LCCP.

The principal target organ in both the 90-day and the 2-year studies was the liver, with some wider 

involvement of the lymphatic system in male rats and the haematological system in female rats. The 

female rat was the most sensitive sex and species. The overall LOAEL for LCCPs in the 90-day and 

2-year studies in the rat was 900 mg/kg bwt/day in males and 100 mg/kg bwt/day in females, based 

on hepatotoxicity. The NOAEL for males in the 90-day study was 300 mg/kg bwt/day, but no 

NOAEL was obtained for females. In the mouse, the overall NOAEL for LCCPs was 5000 mg/kg 

bwt/day based on the results of the 2-year study.

Additionally, a NOAEL of 23 mg.kg-1.day-1is identified for repeated dose toxicity for MCCPs based 

upon effects seen in rat kidney (increased weight at the next dose level of 222 mg.kg-1.day-1 and 

‘chronic nephritis’ and tubular pigmentation at 625 mg.kg-1.day-1). It is noted that at 222 mg.kg1

.day-1 there were also slight decreases in plasma triglycerides and cholesterol levels. These results 

may be considered in combination with the C20-30 LCCPs as read-across data for the C18-20 LCCPs. 
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3.1.6 Mutagenicity

Studies in Animals

In vitro Studies

Valid studies of liquid grade LCCP products have been shown to be negative in the Ames test, 

using the Salmonella strains shown below, both with and without metabolic activation. 

Table 11: In Vitro Bacterial Cell Genetic Toxicity

SUBSTANCE TYPE RESULT REL. REFERENCE

C18-20 (liquid)

C18-20; 40% Cl Ames - Salmonella strains TA98, TA100, 

TA1535, TA1537, TA1538

Negative 2 Hoechst AG 

(year unknown)

C20-30 (liquid)

C23 (average) 43% 

Cl

Ames - Salmonella strains TA98, TA100, 

TA1535, TA1537

Negative 1 Zeiger (1987).

C22-26; 42% Cl Ames - Salmonella strains TA98, TA100, 

TA1535, TA1538

Negative 1 ICI (1981).

On the other hand, the C23 (average) 43% Cl LCCP product was shown to cause chromosomal 

aberrations in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells at a concentration of 5000 μg/ml with metabolic 

activation. It also caused sister chromatid exchanges in CHO cells at concentrations ranging from 

5.0 to 5000 ug/ml, both with and without metabolic activation.
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Table 12: In Vitro Mammalian Cell Genetic Toxicity

SUBSTANCE TYPE CONC. RESULTS REL. REFERENCE

C23 (average); 

43% Cl 

Chromosome 

aberration test –

Chinese Hamster 

Ovary (CHO) cells

1250 to 5000 

ug/plate

Increased 

chromosomal 

aberrations were seen 

following exposure to 

5000 ug/plate only

1 Anderson (1990).

5, 500, 1700 and 

5000 ug/plate

Increased SCEs were 

observed at all 

concentrations tested.

1 Anderson (1990).

In vivo Studies

In-vivo, both a C22-26, 43%Cl and a C22-28, 70%Cl LCCP product showed no evidence of 

chromosome aberrations in rat bone marrow cells (Fischer 344) following the administration of 

either product by gavage at doses of 500, 1500 or 5000 mg/kg bwt/day for 5 days.

Table 13: In Vivo Genetic Toxicity

SUBSTANCE SPECIES EXPOSURE RESULTS REL. REFERENCE

C20-30 (liquid)

C22-26; 43% Cl rat gavage, 5 days negative 1 IRDC (1983a).

C20-30 (solid)

C22-28; 70% Cl rat gavage, 5 days negative 1 IRDC (1983e).

Studies in Humans

There are no reports of mutagenicity studies on LCCPs in humans.

Conclusion

In summary, LCCPs, like other CPs, do not induce mutations in bacteria. There is some evidence of 

weak clastogenic potential in-vitro in mammalian cells, but this is not seen in-vivo in rat bone 

marrow cells. Taking all of the data on LCCPs into account and considering what is known about 

shorter chain CPs, it is concluded that LCCPs, as a group, are without significant mutagenic 

potential.

3.1.7 Carcinogenicity

In vitro Studies

There are no reports of relevant in-vitro carcinogenicity studies on LCCPs in humans.

In vivo Studies in Animals

Inhalation

No carcinogenicity studies are reported in which LCCPs have been administered by inhalation.

Dermal

No carcinogenicity studies are reported in which LCCPs have been administered by the dermal 

route.
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Oral

Groups of 50 male or 50 female F344 rats were given a LCCP product with an average C23

(average) 43% Cl dissolved in corn oil by gavage at doses of 0, 1875 and 3750 mg/kg bwt/day 

(males) or 0, 100, 300 or 900 mg/kg bwt/day (females), 5 days/week for 103 weeks. The incidence 

of tumours in males was not affected by LCCP treatment. However, a dose-related increased 

incidence in adrenal gland medullary phaeochromocytoma was seen in females in the LCCP treated 

groups (1/50, 4/50, 6/50 and 7/50 in the control, 100, 300 or 900 mg/kg/day, respectively). All the 

tumours, except for one at 100 mg/kg/day, were benign. The response in the high dose group being 

statistically significantly different from control values. Also, an increased incidence of endometrial 

stromal polyps of the uterus was reported, but the effect was not statistically significant. The NTP 

report concludes that there was no evidence of carcinogenicity in male rats and equivocal evidence 

of carcinogenicity in female rats (NTP, 1986).

Groups of 50 male or 50 female B6C3F1 mice were given a LCCP product which had an average 

C23, 43% Cl composition dissolved in corn oil by gavage at doses of 0, 2500 and 5000 mg/kg 

bwt/day, 5 days/week for 103 weeks. In males there was a dose-related increased incidence of 

malignant lymphomas (6/50 (12%), 12/50 (24%) and 16/50 (32%) in the control, 2500 and 5000 

mg/kg/day groups, respectively). The historical incidence of this type of tumour in corn-oil vehicle 

control male B6C3F1 mice is 22%, similar to that observed at the lower dose level of 2500 

mg/kg/day, so only the increased incidence at 5000 mg/kg/day can be considered to be treatmentrelated. Slight increases in the incidence of liver tumours and of follicular cell tumours of the 

thyroid gland were also observed, but the increased incidences were not statistically significant and 

were within the range of historical controls for the laboratory. The number of female deaths after 

week 65 was unusually high, probably the result of a Klebsiella oxytoca infection, which likely 

reduced the power of the study to detect a carcinogenic effect. In females there was a marginal 

increase in the incidence of hepatocellular carcinomas (1/50, 1/49 and 6/50 in the control, 2,500 and 

5,000 mg/kg/day groups, respectively) and of adenomas and carcinomas combined (4/50, 3/49 and 

10/50). The historical incidence of hepatocellular carcinomas in corn-oil vehicle control females 

was about half that observed in the high dose group. The NTP report concludes that there was clear 

evidence of carcinogenicity in male mice and equivocal evidence of carcinogenicity in female mice 

(NTP, 1986; Bucher, 1987).

Studies in Humans

No epidemiological studies are reported in which populations have been exposed to LCCPs.

Conclusion

There are valid studies on the carcinogenic effects of a C23 (average), 43% Cl LCCP in rats and 

mice. An increased incidence of malignant lymphoma in male mice reported at the highest dose 

tested, 5000 mg/kg/day, provided evidence that LCCPs are carcinogenic. Marginal increases in the 

incidence of adrenal medullary phaeochromocytomas observed in female rats from 100 mg/kg/day 

and in hepatocellular carcinomas in female mice at 5000 mg/kg/day were not considered to 

represent convincing evidence of carcinogenicity. 

Overall, there is evidence that C23 LCCPs are carcinogenic, but only exposure levels that are so high 

(in excess of 2500 mg/kg/day) that the relevance of this property to a human health hazard 

assessment is doubtful. 
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There are no valid studies on the carcinogenic effects of a C18-20 liquid grade LCCP or a C >20 solid 

grade LCCP. 

3.1.8 Toxicity for Reproduction

Studies in Animals

Effects on Fertility

There are no specific studies of LCCPs on reproductive capability. No changes in the weight or 

macroscopic and microscopic appearance of the reproductive organs were reported in the repeated 

dose toxicity studies, available for the LCCP products tested. 

Potential concern for reproductive parameters associated with MCCPs could conservatively be 

considered relevant to the C18-C20 LCCP product. In a 1-generation reproductive effects study of 

MCCPs in rats, an effect related to Vitamin K deficiency was noted in the pups. Studies in MCCPs 

have shown internal haemorrhaging in newborn rats, leading to death in some cases (UK 

Environment Agency, 2008). This effect is most likely due to a substantial reduction in blood levels 

of Vitamin K in dams fed MCCPs. This reduction has been investigated with studies revealing very 

low Vitamin K levels in the milk and, consequently, low Vitamin K levels in the offspring 

(Elcombe et al 2004). Additional follow-up testing to more fully assess the impact of MCCPs on 

Vitamin K is being conducted and results should be available within the next year.

Developmental Toxicity

Groups of 25 pregnant female CD rats were given a C22-26, 43%Cl LCCP product at doses of 0, 500, 

2000 and 5000 mg/kg bwt/day from days 6 to 19 of gestation. The dams were terminated and all 

foetuses were recovered for examination on day 20. In the dams, there was no evidence of maternal 

toxicity. The developmental end points studied were the weight of the uterus, the number and 

location of viable foetuses, the number of early and late resorptions, the number of total 

implantations and corpora lutea and the incidence of foetal malformations. No signs of 

developmental toxicity were noted. The NOEL for both maternal and foetal toxicity in this study 

was 5000 mg/kg bwt/day. (IRDC, 1983b).

Groups of 25 pregnant female CD rats were given a C22-28, 70%Cl LCCP product at doses of 0, 500, 

2000 and 5000 mg/kg bwt/day from days 6 to 19 of gestation. The dams were terminated and all 

foetuses were recovered for examination on day 20. In the dams, there was no evidence of maternal 

toxicity. The developmental end points studied were the weight of the uterus, the number and 

location of viable foetuses, the number of early and late resorptions, the number of total 

implantations and corpora lutea and the incidence of foetal malformations. No signs of 

developmental toxicity were noted. The NOEL for both maternal and foetal toxicity in this study 

was 5000 mg/kg bwt/day. (IRDC,1984c).

Groups of 16 pregnant female Dutch Belted rabbits were given a C22-26, 43%Cl LCCP product at 

doses of 0, 500, 2000 and 5000 mg/kg bwt/day from days 6 to 27 of gestation. The dams were 

terminated and all foetuses were recovered for examination on day 28. In the dams, there was no 

evidence of maternal toxicity. The developmental end points studied were the weight of the uterus, 

the number and location of viable foetuses, the number of early and late resorptions, the number of 

total implantations and corpora lutea and the incidence of foetal malformations. In the dams 

receiving 5000 mg/kg bwt/day, there was a slight increase in mean implantation loss and a slight 

decrease in the mean number of viable foetuses. However, these effects were not statistically 

significant. In the foetuses, no treatment-related effects were observed, although the number of 

foetuses examined in the high-dose group was small. No teratogenic or developmental effects were 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

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observed. The NOEL for maternal toxicity in this study was 5000 mg/kg bwt/day. The NOEL for 

foetotoxicity in this study was 2000 mg/kg bwt/day (IRDC 1982a).

Groups of 16 pregnant female Dutch Belted rabbits were given a C22-28, 70%Cl LCCP product at 

doses of 0, 100, 300 and 1000 mg/kg bwt/day from days 6 to 27 of gestation. The dams were 

terminated and all foetuses were recovered for examination on day 28. In the dams, there was an 

incidence of lung congestion that was not dose-related. There was no other evidence of maternal 

toxicity. The developmental end points studied were the weight of the uterus, the number and 

location of viable foetuses, the number of early and late resorptions, the number of total 

implantations and corpora lutea and the incidence of foetal malformations. No adverse toxic or 

developmental effects on the foetuses were observed. The NOEL for both maternal and foetal 

toxicity in this study was 1000 mg/kg bwt/day (IRDC 1983c).
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Table 14: Developmental Toxicity

SUBSTANCE SPECIES EXPOSURE DOSE VALUE REL. REF.

C20-30 (liquid)

C22-26; 43% Cl Rat gavage; daily 

on gestation 

days 5-19

0, 3000, 

5000 

mg/kg/day

NOAEL Maternal Toxicity

= 3000 mg/kg bw

NOAEL Teratogenicity

> 5000 mg/kg bw

2 IRDC 

(1981d).

C22-26; 43% Cl Rat gavage; daily 

on gestation 

days 6-19

0, 500, 

2000, 5000 

mg/kg body 

weight

NOAEL Maternal Toxicity

> 5000 mg/kg bw

NOAEL Teratogenicity

> 5000 mg/kg bw

1 IRDC 

(1983b). 

C22-26; 43% Cl rabbit gavage; daily 

on gestation 

days 6-27

0, 500, 

1000, 2000, 

3000, 5000 

mg/kg/day

NOAEL Maternal Toxicity

= 2000 mg/kg bw

NOAEL Teratogenicity

> 5000 mg/kg bw

2 IRDC 

(1981c).

C22-26; 43% Cl rabbit gavage; daily 

on gestation 

days 6-27

0, 500, 

2000, 5000 

mg/kg/day

NOAEL Maternal Toxicity

= 2000 mg/kg bw

NOAEL Teratogenicity

= 2000 mg/kg bw

1 IRDC 

(1982a). 

C20-30 (solid)

C22-30; 70% Cl Rat gavage; daily 

on gestation 

days 6-19

0, 1000, 

2000, 5000 

mg/kg/day

NOAEL Maternal Toxicity

= 2000 mg/kg bw

NOAEL Teratogenicity

> 5000 mg/kg bw

2 IRDC 

(1983d).

C22-30; 70% Cl Rat gavage; daily 

on gestation 

days 6-19

0, 500, 

2000, 5000 

mg/kg/day

NOAEL Maternal Toxicity

> 5000 mg/kg bw

NOAEL Teratogenicity

> 5000 mg/kg bw

1 IRDC 

(1984c).

C22-30; 70% Cl rabbit gavage; daily 

on gestation 

days 6-27

0, 100, 300, 

1000 mg/kg 

body wt./ 

day

NOAEL Maternal Toxicity

< 100 mg/kg bw

NOAEL Teratogenicity

> 1000 mg/kg bw

1 IRDC 

(1983c).

C22-30; 70% Cl rabbit gavage; daily 

on gestation 

days 6-27

0, 2000, 

3750, 5000 

mg/kg/day

NOAEL Maternal Toxicity

< 2000 mg/kg bw

2 IRDC 

(1982b). 

C22-30; 70% Cl rabbit gavage; daily 

on gestation 

days 6-27

50, 200, 

1000 

mg/kg/day

NOAEL Maternal Toxicity

= 200 mg/kg bw 

NOAEL Teratogenicity

> 1000 mg/kg bw

2 IRDC 

(1982c). 

Studies in Humans

Effects on Fertility

There are no relevant fertility studies on LCCPs in humans.

Developmental Toxicity

There are no relevant developmental toxicity studies on LCCPs in humans.

Conclusion

Effects on Fertility

There are no studies of LCCPs on reproductive capability. No changes in the weight or 

macroscopic and microscopic appearance of the reproductive organs were reported in the repeated 

dose toxicity studies, available for the LCCP products tested. 

Developmental Toxicity
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There are valid developmental toxicity studies on both solid and liquid grade LCCPs with a carbon 

chain length 20-30. There is no evidence that these grades of LCCP cause developmental effects in 

either rats or rabbits. There was some evidence that these grades of LCCP might impact on 

implantation and foetal survival in the rabbit, although the effect was not statistically significant at 

the highest dose level studied, 5000 mg/kg bwt/day.

There is no valid developmental toxicity study on a C18-20 liquid grade LCCP. However, given the 

results of the studies on the C >20 LCCPs and the fact that MCCPs have shown no adverse effects 

in developmental toxicity studies, it is concluded that the C18-20 liquid grade LCCP are also likely to 

be devoid of developmental toxic effects.

3.2 Initial Assessment for Human Health

Toxicokinetics, metabolism and distribution

90-day studies, in which radio-labelled LCCPs were administered orally to rats, showed that they 

were poorly absorbed from the GI tract, >80% of the administered radio-activity being excreted in 

the faeces within seven days. (IRDC 1984a; IRC 1984b.) 

There have been no studies on absorption through the skin. It is known that both SCCPs and 

MCCPs are absorbed via this route to only a very small extent. It is not anticipated that LCCPs 

would behave any differently. Similarly, there are no studies on the absorption of LCCPs through 

the respiratory tract, either as vapour, aerosol or dust. It is not anticipated that LCCPs would be 

absorbed to any significant extent via this route.

Acute toxicity

There is adequate data to assess the acute toxicity of LCCPs. LCCP grades with carbon chain length 

20-30 (both solid and liquid) are of very low acute toxicity, having oral LD50 values in excess of 2.0 

mg/kg bwt in the rat and other species. It is known that MCCPs also are of very low acute toxicity. 

(UK Environment Agency, 2007). As such it is likely that C18-20 liquid grade LCCPs are of very low 

acute toxicity, having oral LD50 values in excess of 2.0 mg/kg bwt in the rat.

There are no data on the acute toxicity of LCCPs following dermal administration. However, as it is 

anticipated that they would not be absorbed to any significant extent via this route, it is considered 

unnecessary to conduct such tests. Similarly, there are no data on the acute toxicity of LCCPs 

following inhalation. However, as it is anticipated that they would not be absorbed to any 

significant extent via this route, it is considered unnecessary to conduct such tests.

Irritation

There is adequate data to assess the irritant potential of LCCPs. LCCPs have been shown to be, at 

most, only slightly irritant to the skin and eyes in experimental animals. They would not be 

anticipated to be irritating to the respiratory tract.

Sensitisation

There are no valid available data to indicate that LCCPs cause skin sensitisation.

Repeat-dose toxicity

There are valid 90-day repeat dose toxicity studies in the rat on a C23, 43%Cl LCCP, a C22-26, 43 % 

Cl LCCP (both liquid grades) and a C22-28, 70% Cl LCCP (a solid grade). There are also a valid 90-

day repeat dose toxicity studies in the mouse and valid 2-year repeat dose studies in both the rat and 

the mouse on the C23, 43%Cl LCCP.
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The principal target organ in both the 90-day and the 2-year studies was the liver, with some wider 

involvement of the lymphatic system in male rats and the haematological system in female rats. The 

female rat was the most sensitive sex and species. The overall LOAEL for LCCPs in the 90-day and 

2-year studies in the rat was 900 mg/kg bwt/day in males and 100 mg/kg bwt/day in females, based 

on hepatotoxicity. The NOAEL for males in the 90-day study was 300 mg/kg bwt/day, but no 

NOAEL was obtained for females. In the mouse, the overall NOAEL for LCCPs was 5000 mg/kg 

bwt/day based on the results of the 2-year study.

There is no valid repeat-dose toxicity study on a C18-20 liquid grade LCCP, though available data on 

MCCPs, C14-17, with a NOAEL of 23 mg/kg/day, to use for read across purposes.

Mutagenicity

There is adequate data to assess the mutagenic potential of LCCPs. LCCPs, like other CPs, do not 

induce mutations in bacteria. There is some evidence of weak clastogenic potential in-vitro in 

mammalian cells, but this is not seen in-vivo in rat bone marrow cells. Taking all of the data on 

LCCPs into account and considering what is known about shorter chain CPs, it is concluded that 

LCCPs, as a group, are without significant mutagenic potential.

Carcinogenicity

There are valid studies on the carcinogenic effects of a C23, 43%Cl LCCP in rats and mice. Overall, 

whilst there is some evidence from animal studies that exposure to C23, 43%Cl LCCP may lead to 

tumours, the evidence is, at best, weak. 

There are no valid studies on the carcinogenic effects of a C18-20 liquid grade LCCP or a C >20 solid 

grade LCCP. However, given the results on the studies in rats and mice on the C >20 liquid grade 

LCCP and the fact that CPs, in general, are not genotoxic, it would seem inappropriate to conduct 

further carcinogenicity studies in animals on these grades. 

It is concluded that LCCPs do not present a carcinogenic hazard for humans.

Toxicity for Reproduction

Effects on Fertility

There are no studies of LCCPs on reproductive capability. A 1-generation reproductive effects 

study of MCCPs in rats is available. This study demonstrated a potential effect from lactation

which appears to be most likely due to a substantial reduction in blood levels of Vitamin K in dams 

fed MCCPs.

Developmental Toxicity

There are valid developmental toxicity studies on both solid and liquid grade LCCPs with a carbon 

chain length 20-30. There is no evidence that these grades of LCCP cause developmental effects in 

either rats or rabbits. There was some evidence that these grades of LCCP might impact on 

implantation and foetal survival in the rabbit, although the effect was not statistically significant at 

the highest dose level studied, 5000 mg/kg bwt/day.

There is no valid developmental toxicity study on a C18-20 liquid grade LCCP. However, given the 

results of the studies on the C >20 LCCPs and the fact that MCCPs have shown no adverse effects 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

36

in developmental toxicity studies, it is concluded that the C18-20 liquid grade LCCP are also likely to 

be devoid of developmental toxic effects.

4 HAZARDS TO THE ENVIRONMENT

4.1 Aquatic Effects

Valid aquatic toxicity data are available for fish and invertebrates. There are no valid data available 

for algae. While in general, aquatic toxicity of chlorinated paraffins appears to be inversely 

related to the carbon chain length and degree of chlorination, the most sensitive species for shortchain and mid-chain chlorinated paraffins was identified as Daphnia magna. Therefore it can be 

predicted that if LCCPs exhibit effects below their limit of water solubility, these will be most 

apparent in Daphnia magna. Measured algal data for SCCPs and MCCPs are presented. The overall 

trends observed in measured toxicity for chlorinated paraffins and the algal data presented suggest 

that filling this data gap is not critical for the environmental hazard assessment. Quantitative read 

across is not presented for the algal endpoint, since the SCCPs result was extrapolated and neither a 

dose-response nor an EC50 could be derived from the MCCP data due to absence of effects.

Aquatic toxicity testing is problematic due to the very low water solubility of LCCPs. In addition, 

owing partly to the variety of methods used to prepare test solutions there is a lack of certainty that 

saturated test solutions did not contain undissolved test substance in many instances. This, and the 

fact that any effects observed were near the limit of water solubility, complicates interpretation of 

test results. 

Acute Toxicity Test Results 

Acute toxicity data are available on several different species of fish and also on invertebrates 

(Daphnia magna). No acute toxicity effects were observed in fish for either liquid or solid LCCPs, 

with the lowest tested concentration being 300 mg/L. Table 15 presents the results of the acute fish 

toxicity studies on LCCPs. 

Johnson and Finley (1980) summarised the results of acute toxicity tests carried out by the 

Columbia National Fisheries Research Laboratory over the years 1965-1978. Few details of the test 

methods are available, and so it is not possible to validate these data. The 96-hour LC50 values 

reported for LCCPs with both rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and bluegill sunfish (Lepomis 

macrochirus) were >300 mg/l for a C20-30, 40-42% wt Cl product, >300 mg/l for a C>20, 48-54% wt

Cl product and >300 mg/l for a C20-30, 70% wt Cl product. The paper also reports similar results for 

a C18-20, 39% wt Cl product in rainbow trout and bluegill sunfish. 

Lindén et al. (1979) studied the toxicity of a C22-26, 42% wt. Cl product over 96 hours with bleak 

(Alburnus alburnus) in brackish water. The tests were carried out under static conditions with no 

aeration (the dissolved oxygen level was measured at the end of the test and was considered to be 

acceptable if the concentration was ≥5 mg/l). The water used in the test had a salinity of 7%, a 

temperature of 10°C and a pH of around 7.8. Six test concentrations and one control were used in 

the test, with groups of ten fish exposed at each concentration. The test substance was dissolved in 

acetone prior to addition to the test chamber; the concentration of acetone in the final solution was 

≤0.5 mg/l. No monitoring of the actual concentration of the test substance was carried out during 

the test, and the 96h-LC50 was determined as >5,000 mg/l based on the nominal concentration 

added at the start of the test.
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

37

Madeley and Birtley (1980) summarised the results of acute toxicity tests using a C20-30, 42% wt Cl 

product with rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). A concentrated emulsion of the chlorinated 

paraffin was prepared and dilutions of this emulsion were used in the test. No further information is 

available on the media preparation technique. A semi-static test system was used, with the test 

solution being renewed every 24 hours. The tests were carried out at a temperature of 15±1°C for 96 

hours with 10 fish at each exposure concentration. The emulsion concentration was verified by 

measurement (using infrared spectrophotometry after solvent extraction of the chlorinated paraffin). 

Some loss of chlorinated paraffin from the test emulsions was seen, particularly at the higher 

concentrations tested, and so the results are based on the mean measured level found in the 

emulsions. No toxicity or unusual behaviour was seen at the highest concentration tested (mean 

measured emulsion concentration 770 mg/l).

Table 15: Acute Toxicity of LCCPs to Fish

Substance Species Exposure Value Rel. Reference

C18-20 (liquid)

C18-20; 39% Cl Oncorhynchus 

mykiss / Salmo 

gairdneri 

96 hrs LC50 > 300 mg/L

(nominal)

2 Howard et al. (1975). 

Johnson & Finley 

(1980).

C18-20; 49% Cl Leuciscus idus 48 hrs 48h Toxic Threshold 

>500 mg/L (nominal)

2 Hoechst AG (1976).

C18-20; 52% Cl Leuciscus idus 48 hrs 48h Toxic Threshold 

>500 mg/L (nominal)

2 Hoechst AG (1976).

C20-30 (liquid)

C22-26; 42% Cl Alburnus 

alburnus 

96 hrs LC50 > 5000 mg/L

(nominal)

2 Linden et al. (1979).

C20-30; 40% Cl Lepomis 

macrochirus 

96 hrs LC50 > 300 mg/L

(nominal)

2 Howard et al. (1975). 

Johnson & Finley 

(1980).

C22-26; 48-50% Cl Lepomis 

macrochirus 

96 hrs LC50 > 300 mg/L

(nominal)

2 Howard et al. (1975). 

Johnson & Finley 

(1980).

C22-26; 48-50% Oncorhynchus 

mykiss / Salmo 

gairdneri 

96 hrs LC50 > 300 mg/L

(nominal)

2 Howard et al. (1975). 

Johnson & Finley 

(1980) .

C20-30; 40% Cl Oncorhynchus 

mykiss / Salmo 

gairdneri 

96 hrs LC50 > 300 mg/L

(nominal)

2 Howard et al. (1975). 

Johnson & Finley 

(1980).

C20-30; 42% Cl Oncorhynchus 

mykiss / Salmo 

gairdneri 

96 hrs Toxic Threshold

> 770 mg/L (nominal)

2 Madeley & Birtley 

(1980).

C20-30 (solid)

C22-26; 70% Cl Lepomis 

macrochirus 

96 hrs LC50 > 300 mg/L

(nominal)

2 Johnson & Finley 

(1980).

C22-26; 70 % Cl Oncorhynchus 

mykiss / Salmo 

gairdneri 

96 hrs LC50 > 300 mg/L

(nominal)

2 Howard et al. (1975). 

Johnson & Finley 

(1980).

There are several acute studies in Daphnia magna; including studies on a commercial LCCP C18-20, 

52% wt Cl product and another on a C>20 43% wt Cl LCCP. Table 16 presents the results of the 

acute invertebrate studies for LCCPs.

The studies by Frank et al. (1993, 1994) on the C18-20, 52% wt Cl product were conducted using 

dilutions of the water soluble fraction of the chlorinated paraffin. Stock solutions of the chlorinated 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

38

paraffin were made up in water to give nominal concentrations of either 100 mg/l or 10 g/l. Both 

solutions were filtered with glass and membrane filters to remove undissolved test material 

(microscopic and spectroscopic investigation of the filtered solutions gave no indication of the 

presence of droplets) to give the respective water soluble fractions. The concentration of the 

chlorinated paraffin in the water soluble fractions was determined by AOX (adsorbable organic 

halogen) analysis. The detection limit of the method used was around 10 μg Cl/l, which is 

equivalent to around 20 μg/l of the chlorinated paraffin. In the first experiment, this analysis 

showed that the concentration of chlorinated paraffin present in the water soluble fraction was 

around 462-519 μg/l for the 10 g/l nominal solution but was not detectable in the 100 mg/l solution 

(i.e. <20 μg/l). The 10 g/l nominal stock solution an EC0 of 360 μg/l and an EC15 of 500 μg/l was 

determined (maximum mortality seen was 15%). These same results (recalculated as EC0 of 357 

μg/l and EC15 as 400 μg/l for the 10 g/l nominal stock solution), along with the results of another 

acute test using the same methodology are reported in Frank and Steinhäuser (1994). No effects 

were seen in the second acute toxicity tests with the 100 mg/l nominal stock solution (EC0≥26 μg/l) 

or the 10 g/l nominal stock solution (EC0≥877 μg/l). The authors noted that the effects seen in the 

acute tests showed poor reproducibility, probably because effects were seen only around the 

solubility limit in the test system used. However, the authors thought that the possibility of 

undissolved droplets affecting the results could be ruled out as floating Daphnia were only 

sporadically observed in the test. Nevertheless, the results of these tests should be treated with 

caution, as the effects were mainly seen in the saturated solutions only (UK EA 2009).

The study by Thompson (2005) tested water accommodated fractions at initial loadings of 0.21, 1.0 

and 5.1 mg/l. While some question has been raised about the sufficiency of the equilibrium time 

(UK EA 2009), no effects were observed over a 48 hour period.

Table 16: Acute Toxicity of LCCPs to Aquatic Invertebrates

Substance Species Exposure Value Rel. Reference

C18-20 (liquid)

C18-20; 52% Cl Daphnia magna 48 hrs EC0 = 360 μg/L

(measured)

EC15 = 400 - 500 μg/L

(measured)

(15% max. mortality)

2 Frank (1993).

UK Environment 

Agency (2009).

C18-20; 52% Cl Daphnia magna 48 hrs EC0 = >26 - >877 

μg/L (measured)

(no effects observed)

2 Frank & Steinhauser 

(1994).

UK Environment 

Agency (2009).

C20-30 (liquid)

C20-30; 43% Cl Daphnia magna 48 hrs No adverse effects seen 

over 48 hours. (5.1 

mg/l WAF)

2 Thompson (2005)

Toxicity to Aquatic Plants

Craigie and Hutzinger (1975) determined the toxicity of a C20-30, 50% wt Cl product to three species 

of marine algae (Dunaliella tertiolecta, Olisthodiscus sp. and Thalassiosira fluviatilis). The tests 

were carried out for 6 days at 20°C. The chlorinated paraffin was dissolved in acetone and an 

appropriate volume of this solution was added to the flask and evaporated to dryness under a jet of 

air. Natural sea water (30 ml) was then added to the flasks and the flasks were stoppered with a 

cotton wool bung and autoclaved. The nominal chlorinated paraffin concentrations tested were 1 

mg/l and 100 mg/l but no measurements were carried out to verify the actual exposure 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

39

concentration. The test was started by adding a 1 ml inoculum of 3 to 4 day old algal culture to the 

flask and each flask was shaken by hand twice daily. Each concentration was tested in duplicate. 

The algal biomass was determined by turbidity measurements after 6 days exposure. No effects on 

biomass was seen in any of the exposed populations (the turbidity of the solutions was within 

96-105% of the control values.

The validity of this test is highly questionable as the method of administration of the test substance 

may not have been appropriate. It appears that an acetone solution of the substance was added 

directly to the test vessel and evaporated to dryness before the test water was added, and then the 

vessel was autoclaved (the temperature was not stated). As this substance is likely to be highly 

adsorptive onto the glass vessel used, and twice daily shaking of the vessel was the only method 

used to effect mixing, it is highly uncertain that all the chlorinated paraffin added would be in 

solution, or even in suspension and it is possible that most of it remained adsorbed onto the test 

vessel. As no monitoring was carried out during the test it is not possible to determine if any 

substance was lost during the autoclaving procedure (UK EA 2009).

For chlorinated paraffins as a whole, toxicity seems to decrease as chain length and degree of 

chlorination increase. Measured algal data are available for the homologues SCCPs and MCCPs, 

which are presented below. These data suggest that LCCPs would not be expected to exert effects 

on freshwater algae below their limit of water solubility. 

Predictions of algal toxicity have not been presented as the model used does not perform well for 

these kinds of substances. 

SCCP Algal Toxicity

Several valid studies on freshwater and marine algae are available for SCCPs. 96-hour EC50s range 

from 0.043 to 3.7 mg/l, with the marine alga Skeletonemacostatum appearing to be more sensitive to 

short chain length paraffins than the freshwater alga Selenastrum capricornutum (96-hour EC50 = 

3.7 mg/l based on cell density by particle count).

It should be noted that the EC50 value given for Selenastrum exceeded the highest mean measured 

concentrations of the test substance; it is an extrapolated value. Further, the toxic effects seen with 

the marine alga were transient, with no effects being seen at any concentration after 7 days 

exposure.

MCCP Algal Toxicity

The toxicity of a C14-17, 52% wt. Cl paraffin to the green alga Selenastrum capricornutum was

determined in a valid study using OECD method 201. Overall, very little effect on algal growth was 

observed in the test. The maximum inhibition in the growth rate seen was 3%, and the maximum 

inhibition of biomass was 18%. No clear dose-response curve was determined. The NOEC from the 

test is around 0.1 mg/l (nominal), but it should be noted that no statistically significant effects were 

seen at some higher concentrations. The low levels of inhibition seen mean that it is not possible to 

derive an EC50 from the test.

Toxicity to Microorganisms

There are four studies in microorganisms available, three of which were conducted according to 

OECD 209 TG. While all four studies are assigned a reliability code of 4 (not assignable), their 

concurrent results suggest that LCCPs are of low toxicity to microogranisms (tests according to 

OECD 209 TG returned NOECs of 1000 mg/l or higher). 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

40

Chronic Toxicity Test Results

Chronic aquatic data are available in fish and invertebrates for both liquid and solid LCCPs. Table 

17 reports the results for chronic aquatic toxicity studies in fish and Table 18 reports the results for 

the chronic aquatic toxicity studies in invertebrates.

The difficulties already outlined in testing LCCPs make interpretation of some of the results 

difficult. In addition, methods to prepare test solutions may result in the more soluble components 

present in the commercial LCCP being preferentially represented in the resultant solution. This 

should be borne in mind especially when considering the chronic aquatic toxicity dataset.

Chronic Fish Toxicity

Bengtsson et al. (1979) studied the toxicity of a C18-26, 49% wt Cl LCCP to bleak fish (Alburnus 

alburnus) as part of a bioaccumulation study. The tests were performed at 10°C using a semi-static 

procedure in which the test solutions containing 125 μg/l of the substance were renewed every two 

to three days over the 14 day exposure period. The water used in the experiment was Baltic Sea 

water with a salinity of 7‰, and acetone was present in all aquaria, including controls at a 

concentration of 0.1 ml/l. The fish used in the experiment had an average weight of 4.5 g and were 

not fed during the exposure period. Six groups of 15 fish were used for both the exposure and 

control solutions. No mortality or effect on behaviour was seen in fish exposed to the LCCP during 

the test.

The toxicity of two LCCPs to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) has been studied over 60 days 

in a GLP study (Madeley and Maddock, 1983a and 1983b). The substances tested were a C22-26, 

43% wt. Cl LCCP and a C20-30, 70% wt Cl LCCP. Both products were mixed with 

n-pentacosane-13-

14C that had been chlorinated to a similar degree. Neither of the commercial 

products tested contained a stabiliser. A flow-through system was used for each test and the 

concentrations of chlorinated paraffin were determined by both radioactivity measurements and 

parent compound analysis (using a TLC technique). The tests were carried out at 12±1°C. For the 

tests with the 43% wt Cl product the water quality parameters were: dissolved oxygen 9.3-11.4 

mg/l; pH 7.4-8.55; hardness 42-71 mg/l as CaCO3. Similarly for the tests with the 70% wt Cl 

product the water quality parameters were: dissolved oxygen 10.4-12.5 mg/l; pH 7.5-8.1; hardness 

36-46 mg/l as CaCO3. The fish were fed a diet of proprietary trout food throughout the test at a rate 

of 2% of body weight/day. The major endpoint determined at the end of the studies was mortality. 

However, qualitative observations were also made on behaviour (the control fish were assumed to 

show "normal" behaviour) in terms of: a) swimming behaviour; b) general behaviour of individuals 

(e.g. intense activity, sluggishness, quiescence, position in test vessel); c) response to presence of 

food; d) skin pigmentation. 

In both tests, fish were introduced into the exposure vessels 1 week prior to addition of the test 

substance. At the start of the test, the chlorinated paraffin (as an acetone solution) was added to the 

in-flowing water. The flow-through system used had a 95% replacement time of around 7 hours, 

and so the actual exposure concentration would have reached the steady state level within a 

relatively short space of time. The fish used in the study weighed 1.4-3.2 g (for the experiments 

with 43% wt Cl substances) and 0.53-2.77 g (for the experiments with the 70% wt Cl substance) at 

the start of the study and groups of 30 fish were used at each exposure concentration.
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

41

Table 17: Chronic Toxicity to Fish

Substance Species Exposure Value Rel. Reference

C20-30 (liquid)

C18-26; 49% Cl Alburnus 

alburnus 

14 days NOEC > 0.125 

mg/L (nominal)

2 Bengtsson et al. 

(1979).

C22-26; 43% Cl Oncorhynchus 

mykiss / Salmo 

gairdneri 

60 days NOEC = 4 mg/L

(measured)

2 Madeley & 

Maddock (1983a). 

C20-30 (solid)

C20-30; 70% Cl Oncorhynchus 

mykiss / Salmo 

gairdneri 

60 days NOEC = 3.8 

mg/L (measured)

2 Madeley & 

Maddock (1983b). 

For the C22-26, 43% wt Cl substance (Madeley and Maddock, 1983a), two nominal exposure 

concentrations of 1.0 and 3.2 mg/l were used. Acetone at a concentration of 500 ppm (0.5 ml/l) was 

also present in the test solutions and so acetone controls were also run in the test. The actual mean 

measured exposure concentrations during the test were 0.97 mg/l and 4.0 mg/l at the two exposure 

concentrations respectively. These values were based on 14C-measurements (parent compound 

analysis was in general agreement with these values). No fish died during the study. One fish was 

lost from the acetone control (reported to have escaped), and no significant effects were seen on 

behaviour of the exposed fish compared with controls. The NOEC from this study was therefore 

reported as 4.0 mg/l, the highest concentration tested. The test report gives details of the fish 

weights and lengths at the end of the study. These were 9.46 g and 84.2 mm in the freshwater 

controls; 9.23 g and 81.2 mm in the acetone controls, 8.59 g and 81.5 mm in the 0.97 mg/l exposure 

group and 8.38 g (this is incorrectly given as 7.38 g in the original report) and 80.7 mm in the 4.0 

mg/l exposure group. These weight data are not commented on in the report but have subsequently 

been analysed statistically to show that there was no significant (p=0.05) differences in mean fish 

weights between the exposed populations or the control or solvent control populations (Thompson, 

2001). The mean length of the fish was similar in all exposed and control populations.

For the C20-30, 70% wt Cl substance (Madeley and Maddock, 1983b) three nominal exposure 

concentrations of 1.0 mg/l, 2.1 mg/l and 4.2 mg/l were used. Acetone at a concentration of 500 

ppm (0.5 ml/l) for the two lower exposure concentrations or 1,000 ppm (1 ml/l) for the higher 

exposure concentration was also present in the test and so two acetone controls were run. The mean 

measured exposure concentrations by 14C-analysis were 0.84 mg/l, 1.9 mg/l and 3.8 mg/l in the 

three test solutions respectively (parent compound analysis gave similar values). No significant 

mortalities occurred as a result of the exposures. A small number of deaths or losses did occur in all 

exposure vessels, but this was not considered unusual in a 60 day study. Abnormal behaviour (a 

few individuals were slow to respond to the presence of food and showed a darkening of skin 

pigmentation) was observed in all populations, including controls. These symptoms became 

apparent on day 3 and had disappeared by day 7. A similar behaviour re-occurred in the acetone 

control populations between days 12-16. Subsequently, all populations behaved normally except 

for isolated occurrences. In the early part of the study, the fish in the 3.8 mg/l group, and to a lesser 

extent the 1.9 mg/l group, found it difficult to locate their food due to the cloudy nature of the 

suspensions tested, however they later appeared to become acclimatised to the test conditions. It 

was concluded that no chemical-related effects on the behaviour of the fish was seen in the study. 

Although not commented on in the test report, mean fish weights and lengths were also reported. 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

42

These were 3.87 g and 59.2 mm in the freshwater controls, 4.14 g and 60.9 mm in the 500 ppm 

acetone controls, 3.70 g and 59.5 mm in the 1,000 ppm acetone controls, 4.74 g and 65.3 mm in the 

0.84 mg/l exposure group, 5.05 g and 66.0 mm in the 1.9 mg/l exposure group and 4.11 g and 62.4 

mm in the 3.8 mg/l exposure group. Although it is not possible to analyse these data statistically, it 

is clear that no effects on growth were seen as a result of the chlorinated paraffin treatments in this 

test. The NOEC from this study is therefore 3.8 mg/l.

Chronic Daphnia Toxicity

There are several 21-day reproduction studies in Daphnia magna on liquid LCCPs. The most 

recent and best documented of these is the study by Sharpe and Penwell (2007), which tested a 14Clabelled, C25, 43% wt Cl chlorinated alkane, single chemical not a commercial LCCP, according to 

the OECD 211 method using a semi-static test procedure. In this study, a stock solution of the test 

substance was prepared in dimethylformamide and aliquots of this were added to Elendt’s M4 

medium for use in the test (the amount of dimethylformamide in the test solution was 0.1 ml/l). The 

test medium had a hardness of 234 mg/l as CaCO3. Test solutions were renewed every 48 hours 

during the test. The exposures were carried out using borosilicate glass beakers each containing 1 

organism and 80 ml of test solution. A total of ten replicates per treatment group were carried out. 

The nominal concentrations tested were 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, 16, 32 and 64 μg/l and a dilution water control 

and solvent control group were also run. The actual concentration of chlorinated paraffin present 

was determined in “fresh” and “spent” solution at days 0-2, 4-6, 10-12 and 18-20. The analytical 

method used was radiochemical analysis (direct scintillation counting of the test solution). The 

measured concentrations in “fresh” solutions ranged from 85% to 105% of the nominal values and 

the measured concentrations in the “spent” solutions ranged from 50% to 84% of the nominal 

values. The mean measured concentrations found in the six treatment groups were 1.6, 3.0, 5.4, 13, 

27 and 55 μg/l respectively. It should be noted that this analytical method would not necessarily 

distinguish between truly dissolved chlorinated paraffin and non-dissolved chlorinated paraffin. 

The endpoints determined in the study were adult length, reproduction (number of live offspring 

produced per parent animal surviving to the end of the study) and adult mortality. No statistically 

significant differences (at the p=0.05 level) were seen between the treatment groups and the control 

groups for either adult length or reproduction, as such the NOEC = 55 μg/L.
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

43

Table 18: Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Invertebrates

Substance Species Exposure Value Rel. Reference

C18-20 (liquid)

C18-20, 52% wt. Cl Daphnia magna 21 days No statistically 

significant effects 

observed at 2 μg/L

(NOEC) (measured; 

based on re-analysis by 

Thompson) 

2 Hooftman and 

Henzen/TNO 1993

Thompson 2007. 

C18-20; 52% wt. Cl Daphnia magna 21 days ~29 – 32 ug/l (NOEC) 

(measured)

2 Frank (1993); 

Frank and 

Steinhäuser (1994)

C20-30 (liquid)

C25; 43% Cl Daphnia magna 21 days NOEC = 55 ug/L

(measured)

LOEC > 55 ug/L

(measured)

EC50 > 55 ug/L

(measured)

1 Sharpe & Penwell 

(2007)

C22-26; 43% Cl Mytilus edulis 60 days NOEC: 2.18 mg/L

(measured)

LOEC: 2. 18 mg/L

(measured)

2 Madeley & 

Thompson (1983b)

C20-30 (solid)

C20-30; 70% Cl Mytilus edulis 60 days NOEC: 1.33 mg/L

(measured)

LOEC: 1.33 mg/L

(measured)

2 Madeley & 

Thompson (1983a)

A 21-day study of C18-20; 52-56% Cl in Daphnia magna was carried out by TNO (Hooftman and 

Henzen 1993). The substance tested was a commercial product containing 1.5% epoxidised 

soybean oil. The test was carried out according to the OECD 202 methodology using a semi-static 

test procedure (test solution renewal was carried out every 48-72 hours). The dilution water used 

was a synthetic medium (DSWL) prepared by addition of various salts to ground water. The 

hardness of the medium was 214 mg/l as CaCO3. The study tested a saturated solution, a blank 

control (DSWL medium only) and a column control (DSWL medium pumped through a column 

containing unspiked chromosorb 60/80 mesh). Four replicates (10 daphnids in 400 ml of test 

solution) were carried out for each treatment. The parent survival in both of the control groups was 

97.5%. In the C18-20, 52% wt. Cl treatment group the parent survival was 92.5%. This was not 

statistically significantly different (at the p=0.05 level) from the control groups. Therefore it was 

concluded that no treatment-related effects on parent morality were seen in the study. The 

reproduction rate (expressed as the cumulative number of young per living female) in the study was 

113.6 in the blank control and 127.3 in the column control. The response of the two controls was 

not statistically significantly different (at the p=0.05 level). The reproduction rate in the C18-20, 52% 

wt. Cl treatment group was 100.8. This was 88.7% of the blank control response and 79.1% of the 

column control response. These responses were analysed statistically in TNO (Hooftman and 

Henzen 1993) using the two-tailed Dunnett-test with a 95% significance level. No statistically 

significant differences were found between the C18-20, 52% wt. Cl treatment group and the blank 

control but it is not entirely clear from the report whether the reduction in the reproduction rate in 

the treatment group compared to the column control was statistically significant or not. In various 

parts of the report (including the overall summary) it is stated that this difference was statistically 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

44

significant, but in other places there are statements that no statistically significant differences were 

found.

In order to investigate these results further, a re-analysis of the data from this study was developed 

by Thompson (2007). The statistical analysis was carried out on the same dataset as summarised in 

the TNO (Hooftman and Henzen 1993) study and incorporated the dataset for a medium-chain 

chlorinated paraffin that was also tested at the same time as the C18-20, 52% wt. Cl substance. The 

data were found to be normally distributed and the variances were homogenous, satisfying the 

requirements for the use of ANOVA (with Dunnett’s procedure to maintain a family error rate of 

0.05) to determine significant differences from the column control. Using this procedure, no 

significant difference was seen between the reproduction rate in the C18-20, 52% wt. Cl treatment 

group (or the medium-chain chlorinated paraffin treatment group) and the column control. In 

addition, a further analysis was carried out comparing the treatment groups with the pooled control 

group (the combined blank control and column control) and this again showed no statistically 

significant differences for the C18-20, 52% wt. Cl treatment group.

Overall, the results of the TNO (1993) study indicate that although a reduction in reproduction rate 

occurred in the study compared with the control group, the statistical significance of this reduction 

is marginal, and depends on the exact method used to analyse the data. Either way the study can be 

interpreted as showing a NOEC (or a response close to a NOEC) at a concentration of 2 μg/L; the 

limit dose of the study. As this is a single value, dose response could not be determined from this 

study. 

Frank (1993) conducted a 21-day reproduction study using dilutions of the water soluble fractions 

of two stock solutions (100mg/l and 10 g/l loading rates) of a C18-20 52% Cl LCCP. The dilutions 

used were 1:2, 1:4, 1:8 and 1:16 for the 100 mg/l loading and 1:4, 1:8, 1:16, 1:32 and 1:64 for the 

10 g/l loading. In these experiments, the test medium was changed 3 times/week and 10 animals 

per concentration were used. The tests were carried out at 20°C and a pH of 7.79-8.44. Two 

end-points were determined in the study: effects on parent mortality and effects on reproduction 

(number of offspring/adult). Parent mortality in the controls was 0% in the test carried out with the 

10 g/l nominal stock solution and 10% in the test carried out with the 100 mg/l nominal stock 

solution. Elevated mortality was seen in the exposed populations: for the 10 g/l stock solution the 

LOEC was determined as the 1:8 dilution (approximately 58-65 μg/l) and the NOEC was 

determined as the 1:16 dilution (approximately 29-32 μg/l); for the 100 mg/l nominal stock solution 

the LOEC was determined as the 1:4 dilution and the NOEC was determined as the 1:8 dilution 

(concentrations were measured by AOX (adsorbable organic halogen) analysis; based on the 

detection limit for the analysis of the stock solution, these dilutions equate to LOEC and NOEC of 

<5 and <2.5 μg/l respectively). From the dose response curves it appears that 100% parent 

mortality occurred at concentrations of around <10 μg/l in the 100 mg/l nominal stock solution 

experiments and around 125 μg/l in the 10 g/l nominal stock solution experiments.

For the reproduction end point, the average number of young per adult in controls was 72.3 

(variability 17.8%) in the 100 mg/l nominal stock solution series of experiments and 73.5 

(variability 6.2%) in the 10 g/l nominal stock solution experiments. A significant reduction in the 

number of young per adult was seen in some of the exposed organisms. For the 100 mg/l nominal 

stock solution, this effect on reproduction was significantly different from the control groups at the 

lowest concentration tested (a 1:16 dilution which is equivalent to a chlorinated paraffin 

concentration of <1.2 μg/l, based on the detection limit of the analytical method used). Thus the 

NOEC/LOEC for this series of experiments was <1.2 μg/l. Similarly, for the 10 g/l nominal stock 

solution effects were again seen at the lowest concentration tested (a 1:64 dilution, which is 

equivalent to a chlorinated paraffin concentration of 7.3-8.1 μg/l). This value is treated as the LOEC 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

45

for this series of experiments. The report also indicates that the NOEC is very close to this value 

since using a different statistical method, the Dunnett-Test rather than the Williams-Test, the effects 

seen at this concentration were not statistically significantly different from controls.

The same 21-day results were reported by Frank and Steinhäuser (1994). In addition, this paper 

also reports the results of a similar test carried out using the water soluble fraction from a 1 mg/l 

nominal stock solution. This stock solution appears to have been prepared in a different manner 

from those previously. A solution of the chlorinated paraffin in pentane was prepared and a portion 

of this was added to the water, followed by stirring for 1 hour at 40°C to evaporate the solvent, prior 

to filtration. This showed no effects on parent mortality or reproduction in the test. However, it 

was not possible to determine the concentration of AOX (and hence chlorinated paraffins) present 

in these solutions, and so the actual exposure concentration is unknown.

There are a number of significant deficiencies in the studies by Frank (1993) and Frank and 

Steinhäuser (1994) that make these data very difficult to interpret in terms of the effects of the C18-20

liquid chlorinated paraffins (UK EA 2009). However, the raw data from the 21-day Frank (1993) 

and the Frank and Steinhäuser (1994) studies have been obtained and reanalysed (Thompson, 2001)

and discussed at length in the UK Environmental Risk Assessment of LCCPs (UK EA 2009). The 

analysis of these data suggest that while there are deficiencies, they were useful in developing the 

predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) of 2.9 μg/L for C18-20 LCCPs (UK EA 2009). 

Chronic Toxicity to Mussel

The toxicity of two LCCPs to the common mussel (Mytilus edulis) has been determined over 60 

days (Madeley and Thompson, 1983a and 1983b). The compounds tested were the same C22-26, 

43% wt. Cl and a C>20, 70% wt. Cl products (mixed with a small amount of radiolabelled 

n-pentacosane that had been chlorinated to a similar degree) as used in the 60-day rainbow trout 

study by Madeley and Thompson. The test used a flow-through system with filtered natural 

seawater (salinity 35‰, pH 8.0-8.3, dissolved oxygen 6.1-8.25 mg/l) at 15°C. Acetone was present 

in the test solutions at a concentration of 0.5 ml/l (500 ppm), and acetone controls were also run 

using this concentration. Groups of 30 mussels were used for each exposure concentration; the 

mussels were fed during the test (algal cells were added to the in-flowing water at a rate of 

1.0-1.1x109 cells/day).

For the C22-26, 43% wt. Cl substance two nominal concentrations of 0.32 mg/l and 3.2 mg/l were 

tested. The mean measured concentrations for these two exposures over the duration of the test 

were determined as 0.12 mg/l and 2.18 mg/l respectively by 14C-analysis. Measurements by parent 

compound analysis (using a TLC method) at various times during the test were in general 

agreement with these values. The 2.18 mg/l exposure solution was reported to be cloudy in 

appearance, with a fine white deposit being observed, indicating that the solubility of the substance 

in the test system had been exceeded. No significant mortality occurred in the test. Reduced filter 

feeding activity compared to control populations was consistently observed in the 2.18 mg/l 

exposure group from the 7th day onwards, and it was thought that this may reflect a response to the 

"particulate" nature of the test solution.

For the C>20, 70% wt. Cl substance, the two nominal concentrations tested were 0.56 mg/l and 1.8 

mg/l. The mean measured concentrations at these two exposures were determined as 0.46 mg/l and 

1.33 mg/l by 14C-measurements. Occasional parent compound analyses were in general agreement 

with these values. Some deposition of the test substance was noted at the highest concentration, 

indicating that the solubility of the substance in the test system had been exceeded. No mortality as 

a result of exposure to the chlorinated paraffin was seen in the test. Again, reduced filtration 

activity was seen in the 1.33 mg/l exposure group when compared with the control populations, 
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

46

particularly during the second half of the exposure period. However, this observation was variable, 

and on a number of occasions the filter feeding activity was comparable to controls and so this 

reduction in activity was considered to be minimal and tentative.

4.2 Terrestrial Effects

There are no toxicity studies available for LCCPs on soil-dwelling or avian organisms. However, 

data on other chlorinated paraffins show low toxicity to terrestrial species.

4.3 Initial Assessment for the Environment

LCCPs have low volatility and water solubility. Based on Mackay Level III fugacity modelling, in 

the environment LCCPs are expected to migrate almost entirely to the soil when released to the air 

or soil and to the sediment when released to the water. The limited amount of LCCPs that stay in 

the air would break down via photooxidation mediated primarily by hydroxyl radicals with a 

calculated degradation half-life range of 18 to 112 hours (based on a 12-hour day and a hydroxyl 

radical concentration of 5x105 OH/cm3

). For LCCPs in the soil and sediment, while these materials

would not be considered readily biodegradable, there is some information that microorganisms may 

consume these substances over time. LCCPs do not appear to be toxic microorganisms in the 

available study data.

There is a relatively large amount of aquatic toxicity data available for LCCPs; the key chronic data 

are summarized in Table 19 below. The substance generally shows little or no toxicity at 

concentrations well in excess of its water solubility in acute tests. Effects have been seen on 

Daphnia at high concentrations in acute tests, but these are likely to be physical effects rather than 

direct toxicity of the substance itself. No valid algal study exists for LCCPs, but data from related 

chlorinated paraffins and the overall toxicity profile of these substances suggest that filling this 

datagap is not critical for the environmental assessment. Daphnia magna have been identified as the 

most sensitive species for chlorinated paraffins as a substance class. Although there is uncertainty 

with data interpretation given the difficulties testing LCCPs, available chronic studies with Daphnia 

magna indicate that effects are unlikely to be observed below the limit of water solubility for C20-30

(liquid and solid) LCCPs. Two studies are available which investigated chronic toxicity to Daphnia 

magna from C18-20 LCCPs. These gave conflicting evidence, one showing no effects at saturation 

and the other indicating effects around the limit of water solubility. Interpretation of aquatic test 

results is complicated by the difficulties associated with test media preparation and analysis,

resulting from the complex nature of the materials and their low water solubility.
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

47

Table 19: Summary of Key Chronic Aquatic Toxicity Data for LCCPs

Substance Species Exposure Value Rel. Reference

C18-20 (liquid)

C18-20, 52% 

wt. Cl

Daphnia magna 21 days No statistically 

significant effects 

observed at 2 

μg/L (measured)

(based on reanalysis by 

Thompson) 

2 Hooftman and

Henzen/TNO 1993

Thompson 2005 

C18-20; 52% wt. 

Cl

Daphnia magna 21 days ~29 – 32 ug/l 

(NOEC) 

(measured)

2 Frank (1993); 

Frank and 

Steinhäuser (1994)

C20-30 (liquid)

C18-26; 49% 

Cl

Alburnus 

alburnus

91 days (accumulation 

period) & subsequent 

316 days (elimination 

period)

LC0 > 3400 mg/L

(nominal)

2 Bengtsson & 

Baumann (1982).

UK Environment 

Agency (2008).

C22-26; 43% 

Cl 

Oncorhynchus 

mykiss / Salmo 

gairdneri 

60 days NOEC = 4 mg/L

(nominal)

2 Madeley & 

Maddock (1983a). 

C22-26; 43% 

Cl

Mytilus edulis 60 days NOEC: 2.18 mg/L

LOEC: 2. 18

mg/L (nominal)

2 Madeley & 

Thompson 

(1983b)

C25; 43% Cl Daphnia magna 21 days NOEC = 55 ug/L

LOEC > 55 ug/L

EC50 > 55 ug/L

(measured)

1 Sharpe & Penwell 

(2007)

C20-30 (solid)

C20-30; 70% 

Cl 

Oncorhynchus 

mykiss / Salmo 

gairdneri 

60 days NOEC = 3.8 

mg/L

2 Madeley & 

Maddock (1983b). 

C20-30; 70% 

Cl

Mytilus edulis 60 days NOEC: 1.33 mg/L

LOEC: 1.33 mg/L

2 Madeley & 

Thompson (1983a)
OECD SIDS ALKANES, C18 - 30, CHLORO

48

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