A NEW ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENT

A REPORT PREPARED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY

WITH THE COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISERS

MARCH 23, 2012
1

Executive Summary

President Obama’s FY 2013 Budget proposes a bold plan to renew and expand America’s 

infrastructure. The plan includes a $50 billion up-front investment connected to a $476 billion 

six-year reauthorization of the surface transportation program and the creation of a National 

Infrastructure Bank. In support of this commitment, the Department of the Treasury, with the 

Council of Economic Advisers, has updated our analysis of the economic effects of infrastructure 

investment. The new data and analyses confirm and strengthen our finding that now is an ideal 

time to increase our investment in infrastructure for the following four key reasons:

 Well-designed infrastructure investments have long-term economic benefits and create 

jobs in the short run;

 This economic activity and job creation is especially timely as there is currently a high 

level of underutilized resources that can be used to improve and expand our 

infrastructure; 

 Middle-class Americans would benefit disproportionately from this investment through 

both the creation of middle-class jobs and by lowering transportation costs for American 

households; and

 There is strong demand by the public and businesses for additional transportation 

infrastructure capacity.

Return on Investment

 Many studies have found evidence of large private sector productivity gains from public 

infrastructure investments, in many cases with higher returns than private capital 

investment. Research has shown that well-designed infrastructure investments can raise 

economic growth, productivity, and land values, while also providing significant positive 

spillovers to areas such as economic development, energy efficiency, public health, and 

manufacturing.

 However, not every infrastructure project is worth the investment. Investing wisely in 

infrastructure is critically important, as is facilitating private financing for public 

infrastructure. Traditional funding methods limit the flexibility and cost-effectiveness of 

infrastructure financing. For example, there is currently very little direct private 

investment in our nation’s highway and transit systems due to the current method of 

funding infrastructure, which lacks effective mechanisms to attract and repay direct 

private investment in these types of infrastructure projects. 
2

 Newer funding initiatives address some of these funding shortcomings. The 

establishment of a National Infrastructure Bank would enable greater private sector coinvestment in infrastructure projects. A National Infrastructure Bank would also allow 

for the rigorous analysis required to direct support to projects with both the greatest 

returns to society and the long-run economic benefits that can justify up-front 

investments.

 Build America Bonds (BABs) were another highly successful tool to attract additional 

private capital to finance infrastructure projects. These bonds were used to fund over 

$180 billion for new public infrastructure such as bridges, transit systems, and hospitals

from 2009 through 2010 in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Reinstatement of 

the BABs program is proposed in the President’s Budget. 

Investing in Infrastructure Uses Underutilized Resources

 Among those who gain employment as a result of additional infrastructure investment,

the average unemployment rate has averaged approximately 13 percent over the past 

twelve months. This is more than one and one-half times the current national 

unemployment rate. Within the construction sector, which accounts for the majority of 

direct employment resulting from infrastructure investment, the unemployment rate has 

averaged 15.6 percent over the past twelve months.

 Construction costs and other costs associated with building projects are especially low in 

the current environment. As a result, the President has taken decisive action to accelerate 

project permitting and environmental review. In the President’s August 31, 2011 

Memorandum, he directed the heads of all executive departments and agencies to: “(1) 

identify and work to expedite permitting and environmental reviews for high-priority 

infrastructure projects with significant potential for job creation; and (2) implement new 

measures designed to improve accountability, transparency, and efficiency through the 

use of modern information technology. Relevant agencies should monitor the progress of 

priority projects; coordinate and resolve issues arising during permitting and 

environmental review; and develop best practices for expediting these decisions that may 

be instituted on a wider scale, consistent with applicable law.” In addition, in this year’s 

State of the Union address, the President announced his intention to “sign an executive 

order clearing away the red tape that slows down too many construction projects.”
3

Supporting the Middle Class

 Investing in transportation infrastructure creates middle-class jobs. Our analysis suggests 

that 61 percent of the jobs directly created by investing in infrastructure would be in the 

construction sector, 12 percent would be in the manufacturing sector, and 7 percent 

would be in the retail and wholesale trade sectors, for a total of 80 percent in these three 

sectors. Nearly 90 percent of the jobs in these three sectors most affected by 

infrastructure spending are middle-class jobs, defined as those paying between the 25th

and 75th percentile of the national distribution of wages.

 The President’s proposal emphasizes transportation choices, including mass transit and 

high-speed rail, to deliver the greatest long-term benefits to those who need it most: 

middle-class families. The average American family spends more than $7,600 a year on 

transportation, which is more than they spend on food and more than twice what they 

spend on out-of-pocket health care costs. For 90 percent of Americans, transportation 

costs absorb one out of every seven dollars of income. This burden is due in large part to 

the lack of alternatives to expensive and often congested automobile travel. Multi-modal 

transportation investments are critical to making sure that American families can travel 

without wasting time and money stuck in traffic. 

 A more efficient transportation infrastructure system will reduce our dependence on oil, 

saving families time and money. Traffic congestion on our roads results in 1.9 billion 

gallons of gas wasted per year, and costs drivers over $100 billion in wasted fuel and lost 

time. More efficient air traffic control systems would save three billion gallons of jet fuel 

a year, translating into lower costs for consumers. Finally, new research indicates that 

Americans who were able to live in “location efficient” housing were able to save $200 

per month in lower costs, including paying less at the pump, over the past decade. 

Americans Want More Transportation Investment 

 After years of underinvestment in our transportation system, Americans’ satisfaction with 

our public transit system is middling when compared to public satisfaction with highways 

and public transit systems around the world. We rank 15th out of 32 OECD nations with 

respect to our satisfaction with our roads and highways. We are tied with four other 

countries at rank 13 (out of 32 OECD nations) with respect to our satisfaction with public 

transit.
4

 One study found that four out of every five Americans agree with the statement that: “In 

order for the United States to remain the world’s top economic superpower, we need to 

modernize our transportation infrastructure and keep it up to date.” Another study found 

that almost 19 out of 20 Americans are concerned about America’s infrastructure and 84 

percent support greater investment to address infrastructure problems.
5

An Economic Analysis of Infrastructure Investment

I. Introduction

President Obama’s FY 2013 Budget proposes a bold plan to renew and expand America’s 

infrastructure. This plan includes a $50 billion up-front investment connected to a six-year $476 

billion reauthorization of the surface transportation program and the creation of a National 

Infrastructure Bank. The President’s plan would significantly increase investment in surface 

transportation by approximately 80 percent when compared to previous federal investment. The 

plan seeks not only to fill a long overdue funding gap, but also to reform how Federal dollars are 

spent so that they are directed to the most effective programs. This report contributes to the 

ongoing policy dialogue by summarizing the evidence on the economic effects of investments in 

transportation infrastructure.

Public infrastructure is an essential part of the U.S. economy. This has been recognized since the 

founding of our nation. Albert Gallatin, who served as President Jefferson’s Treasury Secretary, 

wrote: “The early and efficient aid of the Federal Government is recommended by still more 

important considerations. The inconveniences, complaints, and perhaps dangers, which may 

result from a vast extent of territory, can no otherwise be radically removed or prevented than by 

opening speedy and easy communications through all its parts. Good roads and canals will 

shorten distances, facilitate commercial and personal intercourse, and unite, by a still more 

intimate community of interests, the most remote quarters of the United States. No other single 

operation, within the power of Government, can more effectually tend to strengthen and 

perpetuate that Union which secures external independence, domestic peace, and internal 

liberty.”1

Gallatin spoke in terms of infrastructure shortening distances and easing communications, even 

when the only means to do so were roads and canals. Every day, Americans use our nation’s 

transportation infrastructure to commute to work, visit their friends and family, and travel freely 

around the country. Businesses depend on a well-functioning infrastructure system to obtain 

their supplies, manage their inventories, and deliver their goods and services to market. This is 

true for companies whose businesses rely directly on the infrastructure system, such as shippers 

like UPS and BNSF, as well as others whose businesses indirectly rely on the infrastructure 

system, such as farmers who use publicly funded infrastructure to ship crops to buyers, and 

internet companies that send goods purchased online to customers across the world. A modern 

transportation infrastructure network is necessary for our economy to function, and is a 

prerequisite for future growth. President Eisenhower’s vision is even more relevant today than it 

was in 1955, when he said in his State of the Union Address, "A modern, efficient highway 

 

1 Williamson, John, “Federal Aid to Roads and Highways Since the 18th Century: A Legislative History”

Congressional Research Service, January 6, 2012.
6

system is essential to meet the needs of our growing population, our expanding economy, and 

our national security." Today, that vision would include making not only our highways, but our 

nation’s entire infrastructure system more efficient and effective. 

Our analysis indicates that further infrastructure investments would be highly beneficial for the 

U.S. economy in both the short and long term. First, estimates of economically justifiable 

investment indicate that American transportation infrastructure is not keeping pace with the 

needs of our economy. Second, because of high unemployment in sectors such as construction 

that were especially hard hit by the bursting of the housing bubble, there are underutilized 

resources that can be used to build infrastructure. Moreover, states and municipalities typically 

fund a significant portion of infrastructure spending, but are currently strapped for cash; the 

Federal government has a constructive role to play by stepping up to address the anticipated 

shortfall and providing more efficient financing mechanisms, such as Build America Bonds. The 

third key finding is that investing in infrastructure benefits the middle class most of all. Finally, 

there is considerable support for greater infrastructure investment among American consumers 

and businesses. 

The President’s plan addresses a significant and longstanding need for greater infrastructure 

investment in the United States. Targeted investments in America’s transportation infrastructure 

would generate both short-term and long-term economic benefits. However, transforming and 

rehabilitating our nation’s transportation infrastructure system will require not only greater 

investment but also a more efficient use of resources, because simply increasing funding does 

not guarantee economic benefits. This idea is embodied in the President’s proposal to reform our 

nation’s transportation policy, as well as to establish a National Infrastructure Bank, which 

would leverage private and other non-Federal government resources to make wise investments in 

projects of regional and national significance.

In this report, we begin by reviewing factors that should influence investment in infrastructure. 

We review the economic literature regarding returns to infrastructure investment. Next, we 

consider the specific condition of our economy and labor market, including the availability of 

workers with the requisite skills, which suggest that now is a particularly favorable time to 

initiate these investments. Then we analyze the benefits derived by American families and 

companies from well-functioning infrastructure systems and the costs associated with poor 

infrastructure systems. Finally, we review public and business sentiment regarding infrastructure 

investment. 
7

II. Economic Benefits from Investing in Infrastructure

The United States has a rich history of investing in infrastructure and reaping the long-term 

economic benefits. Influential research by David Aschauer and others has explored the link 

between public infrastructure investment and economic growth.2,3,4 Aschauer’s research and 

numerous other studies have found evidence of large private sector productivity gains from 

public infrastructure investments, in many cases with higher returns than private capital 

investment. Since much of the public capital stock is owned by state and local authorities, more 

recent research has compared the economic benefits of infrastructure investments between 

regions in the United States, generally finding smaller but economically significant benefits in 

comparison to Aschauer’s estimates.5

Investments in infrastructure allow goods and services to be transported more quickly and at 

lower costs, resulting in both lower prices for consumers and increased profitability for firms. 

Major transportation infrastructure initiatives include the building of the national railroad system 

in the 19th century and the creation of the Eisenhower Interstate System in the 1950s and 1960s. 

Observers have concluded that in both of these cases there was a causal link running from 

infrastructure investments to subsequent private sector productivity gains.6 Alternatively, it is 

possible that infrastructure investments occur when productivity gains are also likely to follow 

but for unrelated reasons. Determining causality is difficult.

A study by John Fernald makes progress on establishing causality by comparing the impact of 

infrastructure investment on industries that a priori should experience different benefits from 

infrastructure spending.7 He finds that the construction of the interstate highway system in the 

1950s and 1960s corresponded with a significant increase in the productivity of vehicle-intensive 

industries (such as transportation and gas utilities), relative to industries that do not depend on 

vehicles (such as apparel and textiles and industrial machinery). Fernald’s findings suggest that 

previous investments in infrastructure led to substantial productivity gains, and highlight the 

potential for further increases in productivity through additional, well-targeted investments.

 

2 Aschauer, David. "Is Public Expenditure Productive?" J. Monet. Econ., Mar. 1989a, 23(2), pp. 177-200. 

3 Aschauer, David. "Public Investment and Productivity Growth in the Group of Seven," Econ. Perspectives, 1989b, 

13(5), pp. 17-25.

4 Aschauer, David. "Does Public Capital Crowd Out Private Capital?" J. Monet. Econ., 1989c, 24(2), pp. 171- 88.

5 Munnell, Alicia H, 1992. "Infrastructure Investment and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 

American Economic Association, vol. 6(4), pages 189-98, Fall.

6 Munnell, Alicia H, 1992. "Infrastructure Investment and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 

American Economic Association, vol. 6(4), pages 189-98, Fall.

7

Fernald, John G., "Roads to Prosperity? Assessing the Link Between Public Capital and Productivity," The 

American Economic Review, Vol. 89, No. 3 (Jun., 1999), pp. 619-638.
8

Edward Gramlich argues that the greatest return on investment can be garnered from spending on 

the maintenance of existing highways.10 Citing data from the Congressional Budget Office, he 

finds an extremely high rate of return from bringing road conditions up to their minimum state of 

good repair. Interestingly, he also finds that improvements beyond the state of good repair are 

not associated with positive returns. Allocating maintenance dollars to where they are most 

needed is likely to generate high rates of return and improve safety, suggesting that our spending 

on infrastructure should prioritize funding maintenance where roads are in disrepair. This is 

consistent with the Administration’s “fix-it-first” proposal which emphasizes repairing existing 

infrastructure. 

Not surprisingly, the literature suggests that the economic benefits from various infrastructure 

projects vary widely.11,12 Moreover, even if previous infrastructure investments had economic 

 

8 Mintz, S. (2007). “Building the Transcontinental Railroad.”Digital History. Retrieved October 6, 2010 from

<http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=177>.

9 Edward L. Glaeser, Ed. Agglomeration Economics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010.

10 Gramlich, Edward, "Infrastructure Investment: A Review Essay," Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 32, No. 3 

(Sept., 1993), pp. 1176-1196.

11 Gramlich, Edward, "Infrastructure Investment: A Review Essay," Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 32, No. 3 

(Sept., 1993), pp. 1176-1196.

Building a National Community

The advent of railroads in the 19th century brought time standardization to the United States.

Before rail travel was available, cities and towns across America set their clocks based on local 

sunrises and sunsets. However, the lack of time coordination across cities caused rail travelers 

considerable confusion.8

To address this issue, railroad managers developed the current nationwide time system with four 

distinct time zones to allow for a uniform schedule for arrivals and departures. Thus, the 

development of rail lines furthered the goal of a national community by allowing people and goods 

to travel quickly from one place to another, reducing the time to travel across the country from five 

to six months to just five days, and by leading to the development of a national time standard. 

Just as the development of railroads provided greater opportunities for Americans, boosted 

economic productivity, and helped build a national community, increased investment in 

transportation infrastructure can provide these same benefits today. Research has found significant 

benefits from increased agglomeration of people, firms, and industrial activity, particularly in 

manufacturing.9 Strategic investments in infrastructure can help connect Americans in new ways to 

sustain communities and increase economic growth. 
9

benefits, it is not clear that policymakers should expect the same rate of return for subsequent 

infrastructure investments. This is especially true when one considers the network effects that 

are associated with the creation of original transportation networks. We must continue to take 

advantage of new investment opportunities made available by technological progress and be 

mindful of the fact that at some point, there are diminishing returns from further investments in a 

particular area. As Fernald observed, “Building an interstate network might be very productive; 

building a second network may not.”13

In addition to the positive impact on economic growth and productivity, there are other benefits 

from infrastructure investments. Available evidence suggests that infrastructure investment can 

raise property values, which reflects an improvement in living standards. For example, research 

suggests that proximity to public transit raises the value of residential and commercial real estate. 

Bernard Weinstein studied the effect of the Dallas light rail system on property values, and found 

that a jump in total valuations around light rail stations was about 25 percent greater than in 

similar neighborhoods not served by the system.14 This is consistent with studies conducted in 

St. Louis,

15 Chicago,16 Sacramento,17 and San Diego,18 all of which find that property values 

experience a premium effect when located near public transit systems. Research has also shown 

that broadening the definition of housing affordability to include transportation costs reduces the 

number of effectively affordable neighborhoods in the United States; thus, infrastructure 

investment which lowers transportation costs should help increase access to homeownership.19 

A study by Climent Quintana-Domeque and Marco Gonzalez-Navarro makes progress on 

estimating the causal effect of infrastructure investment on property values, using an 

experimental design.20 Specifically, the study randomly assigned some roads to be paved and 

others to be in a control group in the Mexican city of Acayucan. Their analysis suggests that 

 

12 Gramlich, for example, cites CBO data that demonstrate different rates of return across different types of 

infrastructure investments, including new construction and maintenance.

13 Fernald, John G., "Roads to Prosperity? Assessing the Link Between Public Capital and Productivity," The 

American Economic Review, Vol. 89, No. 3 (Jun., 1999), pp. 619-638.

14 Weinstein, B. et al. “The Initial Economic Impacts of the DART LRT System.” Center for Economic 

Development and Research, University of North Texas, 1999.

15 Garrett, T. “Light Rail Transit in America: Policy Issues and Prospects for Economic Development,” Federal 

Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 2004. 

16 Gruen, A.“The Effect of CTA and METRA Stations on Residential Property Values.” Regional Transportation 

Authority, 1997.

17 Landis, J. et al. “Rail Transit Investments, Real Estate Values, and Land Use Change: A Comparative Analysis of 

Five California Rail Systems.” Institute of Urban and Regional Development, UC Berkeley, 1995.

18 Cervero, R. et al. “Land Value Impacts of Rail Transit Services in San Diego County,” Urban Land Institute, 

2002.

19 Housing and Transportation Affordability Index, Center For Neighborhood Technology (CNT), February 28, 

2012. Housing affordability is traditionally defined as housing cost less than 30 percent of an area’s median income; 

the broader definition is housing plus transportation costs together comprise less than 45 percent of median income.

20 Quintana-Domeque, Climent and Marco Gonzalez-Navarro, “Street Pavement: Results from an Infrastructure 

Experiment in Mexico,” Industrial Relations Section, Princeton University, Working Paper No. 556, (Jul., 2010).
10

such infrastructure investment substantially raised housing values on the newly paved roads, as 

well as provided benefits for home values on nearby streets. The rise in housing values on 

affected streets significantly exceeded the cost of paving the roads. 

The benefits from transportation infrastructure extend beyond its effects on property values and 

housing affordability. For example, in Chicago, transportation agglomeration benefits have led 

to greater business clustering and economic growth associated with manufacturing, as businesses 

took advantage of Chicago’s position in a national transportation network. 

Finally, a well-maintained and robust network of transportation infrastructure, which allows 

individuals to access multiple modes of transportation, results in significant efficiency benefits 

for Americans. One study found that in 2009, households at the national median level of income 

residing in “location efficient” neighborhoods with diverse transportation choices realized over 

$600 in transportation cost savings, compared to similar households living in less efficient 

areas.

21

 Further, well-maintained roads with adequate capacity, coupled with access to public 

transit and other driving alternatives, can lower traffic congestion and accident rates which not 

only saves Americans time and money but also saves lives. Congestion is not limited only to our 

nation’s roads but also to our rails. Freight rail systems can play a vital role in relieving road 

traffic and in moving goods in a more fuel efficient manner. One study estimated that on 

average, freight railroads are four times more fuel efficient than trucks.22 These benefits can also 

reduce dependence on foreign oil, improve energy efficiency, and reduce air pollution. For 

example, one study in the Los Angeles area found that traffic congestion has a significant effect 

on CO2 emissions, and that reducing stop-and-go traffic conditions could potentially reduce 

emissions by up to 12 percent.23 Another study estimates that America’s public transportation 

system reduces gasoline consumption by 4.2 billion gallons annually. 24

 

21 Housing and Transportation Affordability Index, Center For Neighborhood Technology, February 28, 2012.

22 Association of American Railroads, Freight Railroads Help Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions, November 2011.

23 Barth, Matthew and Kanok Boriboonsomsin. “Real-World CO2 Impacts of Traffic Congestion.” University of 

California at Riverside, 2008. <http://www.uctc.net/papers/846.pdf>.

24 American Public Transit Association, “Facts at a Glance, 2012”.

<http://www.publictransportation.org/news/facts/Pages/default.aspx>.
11

Creating a More Livable Community

Infrastructure investment should create a more livable community for working Americans. 

The Department of Transportation, Department of Housing and Urban Development, and the 

Environmental Protection Agency have formed the Partnership for Sustainable Communities, 

which has identified six principles for improving the lives of working families:

 Provide more transportation choices to decrease household transportation costs, reduce 

our dependence on oil, improve air quality, and promote public health. 

 Improve economic competitiveness of neighborhoods by giving people reliable access 

to employment centers, educational opportunities, services, and other basic needs. 

 Target federal funding toward existing communities – through transit-oriented 

development and land recycling – to revitalize communities, reduce public works costs, 

and safeguard rural landscapes.

 Align federal policies and funding to remove barriers to collaboration, leverage funding,

and increase the effectiveness of programs to plan for future growth. 

 Enhance the unique characteristics of all communities by investing in healthy, safe and 

walkable neighborhoods, whether rural, urban, or suburban. 

 Expand location- and energy-efficient housing choices for people of all ages, incomes, 

races, and ethnicities to increase mobility and lower the combined cost of housing and 

transportation. To this end, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 

(HUD) is working with private sector firms to develop a Housing and Transportation 

Affordability (HTA) Index that measures the combined cost of housing and transportation 

as a share of household income. 

o The HTA index will help inform transportation infrastructure investment decisions 

and housing assistance programs by highlighting areas where investment may be 

expected to have the highest payoff. 

o This work is especially important given that from 2000 to 2009, housing and 

transportation costs increased by almost 40 percent, surpassing growth in median 

national income (see footnote 19). 
12

III. Why Now?

The first part of this report demonstrated that additional, carefully selected infrastructure 

investment should yield substantial benefits to the U.S. economy. This section considers the 

current state of our economy and why it is an opportune time to increase infrastructure 

investment. The main conclusion is that because of the availability of underutilized resources 

(especially labor), the opportunity cost of infrastructure investment is currently well below its 

normal level. 

The recession that started in late 2007 had an exceptionally large impact on the labor market, as 

the United States lost 8.7 million jobs between December 2007 and December 2009. Due to the 

collapse of the real estate market, the contraction of employment in the construction industry was 

especially acute. A full 21 percent of those who lost jobs over this time period were in the 

construction industry. 

Even as the economy has begun to recover, construction employment remains well below prerecession levels. In December 2011, total payroll jobs in the construction industry remained 25 

percent below the level of December 2007, dropping 1.9 million from 7.5 million to 5.6 million 

employees (seasonally-adjusted), which constitutes one-third of the total jobs lost over this 

period. In February 2012, the unemployment rate for construction workers was 17.1 percent, and 

over the past twelve months, the unemployment rate for construction workers has averaged 15.6 

percent.

Building more roads, bridges, and rail tracks would especially help those workers that were 

disproportionately affected by the economic crisis – construction and manufacturing workers. 

Accelerated infrastructure investment would provide an opportunity for construction workers to 

productively apply their skills and experience. Moreover, hiring currently unemployed 

construction workers would impose lower training costs on firms than would be incurred by 

hiring workers during normal times because these workers already have much of the requisite 

skills and experience. Analysis by the Congressional Budget Office found that additional 

investment in infrastructure is among the most effective policy options for raising output and 

employment.25 Given this situation, the President’s proposal to front-load our six-year surface 

transportation legislation with an additional $50 billion investment makes sound economic sense. 

There are other factors that make current construction especially timely and costs low, translating 

into lower project costs. This impact on project costs is well-illustrated by the Federal Aviation 

Administration’s experience awarding $1.1 billion in Recovery Act funds for airport 

improvements. The money was designated for 300 projects. The winning bids for those projects 

 

25 Congressional Budget Office, “Policies for Increasing Economic Growth and Employment in the Short Term,” 

January 2010.
13

came in over $200 million below the engineers' estimates. A second round of projects was 

selected, which also received lower bids than anticipated. As a result of these cost savings, 367 

runway and airport improvement projects were funded with the money that was originally 

intended to support 300 projects. 

The states and transit authorities that selected most of the highway ($26.6 billion) and transit ($8 

billion) projects supported by the Recovery Act reported similar experiences, and similar bid 

savings. Overall, the Department of Transportation (DOT) estimates that more than 2,000 

additional airport, highway, bridge, and transit projects were funded because of low bids or 

projects being completed under budget. 

In addition, the President is making it easier for states and localities to undertake infrastructure 

projects by accelerating project permitting and environmental review by federal departments and 

agencies. The August 31, 2011 Presidential Memorandum directed the heads of all executive 

departments and agencies to: “(1) identify and work to expedite permitting and environmental 

reviews for high-priority infrastructure projects with significant potential for job creation; and (2) 

implement new measures designed to improve accountability, transparency, and efficiency 

 

26 National Center of Excellence for Aviation Operations Research (NEXTOR), “Total Delay Impact Study,” 

November 2010.

27 Deloitte, “Transforming the Air Transportation System,” 2011.

NextGen

NextGen is also a timely initiative. American air travelers lose substantial time due to 

congestion, flight delays, cancellations and missed connections. The total cost of these delays

to passengers was estimated at $16 billion in 2007. Problems in our aviation system result in 

significant cost increases to airlines as well, with an estimated $8 billion in increased costs.26

Adopting a next generation air traffic control system (NextGen) could significantly reduce these 

delays and their associated costs. NextGen would help both the Federal Aviation 

Administration and airlines to install new technologies and, among other improvements, move 

from a national ground-based radar surveillance system to a more accurate satellite-based 

surveillance system – the backbone of a broader effort to reduce delays for passengers, increase 

fuel efficiency for carriers, and cut airport noise for those who live and work near airports. 

According to one study, implementation of NextGen technology would result in a reduction of 

4 million hours of passenger delay annually, savings of 3 billion gallons of fuel, and the 

elimination of 29 million metric tons of carbon emissions. Total projected savings from 

NextGen implementation would result in $29 billion of net benefits annually for the United 

States by 2026.27 These benefits justify the President’s request to increase federal investment in 

NextGen to over $1 billion in fiscal year 2013.
14

through the use of modern information technology. Relevant agencies should monitor the 

progress of priority projects; coordinate and resolve issues arising during permitting and 

environmental review; and develop best practices for expediting these decisions that may be 

instituted on a wider scale, consistent with applicable law”. In addition, in this year’s State of 

the Union address, the President announced his intention to “sign an executive order clearing 

away the red tape that slows down too many construction projects.”

Another critical question is whether there are worthwhile infrastructure projects available for 

investment at this time. While well-targeted infrastructure investment can be tremendously 

beneficial, experience has also shown that poorly targeted infrastructure investments have 

limited or even negative effects in the long run. The Recovery Act established the 

Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery (TIGER) program to spur a national 

competition for innovative, multi-modal, and multi-jurisdictional transportation projects that 

promise significant economic and environmental benefits to an entire metropolitan area, region, 

or the nation. As part of the open competition for this investment, the Department of 

Transportation conducted a solicitation for projects meeting the TIGER criteria, providing a test 

case to determine the supply of these kinds of infrastructure projects. TIGER’s purpose is to 

select projects that improve roads, bridges, rail, ports, public transit, and inter-modal facilities.

Since its inception, TIGER allocated $2.6 billion to 172 competitively selected projects. The 

demand for TIGER co-investment has been tremendous. DOT has received applications from 

3,248 projects, from all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Combined, these projects 

requested over $90 billion in federal funding, with many projects also supported by state, local, 

and sometimes private capital. For the most recent round of TIGER funding DOT has received 

more than 1,000 applications requesting $13 billion in funding for innovative infrastructure 

projects. TIGER has also maintained its selectivity, which is the basis for sound investments: 

with an acceptance rate of only 5 percent, TIGER is more selective than admission into Harvard 

University’s freshman class. 

Enhancing the efficiency of existing infrastructure is also a critical component of the President’s 

plan. As noted earlier, research has shown that investment that improves existing infrastructure 

networks can have significant returns. The Recovery Act also created the Transit Investments in 

Greenhouse Gas and Energy Reduction (TIGGER) program to support such improvements by 

providing public transit agencies with one-time grants to improve the energy efficiency of their 

existing operations. Increasing energy efficiency for transportation is particularly important 

since the transportation system accounts for one-third of all carbon dioxide emissions from fossil 

fuel combustion, the largest share of any economic sector in the United States, according to 

Environmental Protection Agency estimates.

28

 The cost of energy is a significant factor in the 

 

28 “Frequent Questions – Emissions.” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010. 

<http://epa.gov/climatchange/fq/emissions.html>.
15

cost of providing public transportation; one study found that the cost of providing public 

transportation rises by $7.6 million for every penny increase in the price of gasoline.29

Since its establishment, the TIGGER program has received $225 million in funding. During 

those three years, the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) has received applications for 889 

projects with a total value of over $3.45 billion, fifteen times larger than the amount of available 

funding. FTA has been able to award TIGGER grants to 88 competitively selected projects.

Finally, it is important to consider the economic situation facing state and local governments 

who are significant partners in funding public infrastructure. During recessions, it is common for 

state and local governments to cut back on capital projects – such as building schools, roads, and 

parks – in order to meet balanced budget requirements. At the beginning of the most recent 

recession, tax receipts at the state and local level contracted for four straight quarters; receipts are 

still below pre-recession levels. Past research has found that expenditures on capital projects are 

more than four times as sensitive to year-to-year fluctuations in state income as is state spending 

in general.30 However, the need for improved and expanded infrastructure is just as great during 

a downturn as it is during a boom. Providing immediate additional federal support for 

transportation infrastructure investment would be prudent given the ongoing budgetary 

constraints facing state and local governments, the upcoming reduction in federal infrastructure 

investment as Recovery Act funds are depleted, and the strong benefits associated with public 

investment. 

Build America Bonds (BABs) are an excellent example of a program that has been highly 

successful at stimulating infrastructure investment. Introduced as part of the Recovery Act, 

BABs are taxable bonds issued by state and local governmental or public entities. The Federal 

government pays a 35 percent direct subsidy to the issuer to offset the additional borrowing costs 

associated with issuing taxable debt. BABs had a very strong reception from both issuers and 

investors. From the inception of the program in April 2009 to when it expired on December 31, 

2010, there were 2,275 separate BABs issues, which supported more than $181 billion of 

financing for new public capital infrastructure projects. State and local governments saved an 

estimated $20 billion in borrowing costs, on a net present value basis, from issuing BABs. On 

average, a Build America Bonds issuer saved 84 basis points on interest costs for 30-year bonds 

and also received significant savings on shorter maturities, as compared to traditional tax-exempt 

bonds.31

 

29 “Impact of Rising Fuel Costs on Transit Services.” American Public Transportation Association, May 2008. 

<http://www.apta.com/resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/fuel_survey.pdf>.

30 James R. Hines, Hilary Hoynes, and Alan Krueger, "Another Look at Whether a Rising Tide Lifts All Boats," in 

The Roaring `90s: Can Full Employment Be Sustained?, edited by Alan B. Krueger and Robert Solow, Russell Sage 

and Century Fund, 2001.

31 Treasury Department Analysis of Build America Bonds, May 2011.
16

BABs were successful for a variety of reasons. Because they are taxable bonds, they broadened 

the set of investors interested in holding municipal debt to include pension funds and other longterm institutional investors that do not have tax liabilities, as well as middle-class taxpayers who 

would not receive the full benefit from tax-exempt debt. This is significant as the traditional taxexempt bond market is approximately $2.8 trillion, while the broader conventional taxable bond 

market is roughly $30 trillion. Second, BABs are a more efficient way to deliver the existing 

federal subsidy for state and local government borrowing. The subsidy for traditional taxexempt bonds is widely considered to be inefficient because federal revenue costs are greater 

than the benefits that state and local governments receive in lower borrowing costs.32

All 50 states, the District of Columbia, and two territories participated in this voluntary program. 

One example of a successful project financed by BABs is the expansion of the Parkland Health 

and Hospital System which is part of the Dallas County Hospital District. Dallas County voters 

approved a plan in 2008 to replace the current hospital with a new, state-of-the-art facility. 

When it came time to finance this important project, BABs were a significant source of funding. 

One analysis found that, “the utilization of BABs as compared to a structure of only tax-exempt 

bonds is estimated to have resulted in a net present value savings to Dallas County taxpayers of 

more than $119 million.”33 The issuance was so successful that it was recognized as the Deal of 

the Year in the Southwest by The Bond Buyer.

 

32 See “Subsidizing Infrastructure Investment with Tax-Preferred Bonds,” CBO/JCT, October 2009.

33 Case Study conducted by First Southwest Company: <http://publicfinance.firstsw.com/case-study/show/46/>.
17

The Role of a National Infrastructure Bank

There are improvements that can be made in how we finance infrastructure investment. Governments on 

all levels face significant budget constraints. It is imperative that we maintain and strategically grow 

our investments in key areas, such as infrastructure, and finding additional sources of capital would 

increase our ability to do so, while also increasing efficiency in our project selection process. 

President Obama has proposed a National Infrastructure Bank to help finance infrastructure projects. A 

well-designed infrastructure bank could:

• increase overall investment in infrastructure by attracting private capital to co-invest in specific 

infrastructure projects;

• improve the efficiency of our infrastructure investment by having a merit-based selection process for 

projects; and

• fill the gaps in our infrastructure funding system, which currently disadvantage investments in multimodal and multi-jurisdictional infrastructure projects.

One way to address the need for more infrastructure investment is to attract more private capital for 

direct investment in transportation infrastructure. There is currently very little direct private investment 

in our nation’s highway and transit systems. The lack of private investment in infrastructure is in large 

part due to the current method of funding infrastructure, which lacks effective mechanisms to attract and 

repay direct private investment in specific infrastructure projects. In addition, the private benefit for 

investors is less than the benefit for society as a whole because of positive externalities from 

infrastructure. A National Infrastructure Bank could address these problems by directly funding 

selected projects through a variety of means. The establishment of a National Infrastructure Bank would 

create the conditions for greater private sector co-investment in infrastructure projects. 

Additionally, with a few notable exceptions, federal funding for infrastructure investments is not 

distributed on the basis of a competition between projects using rigorous economic analysis or costbenefit comparisons. The current system virtually ensures that the distribution of investment in 

infrastructure is suboptimal from the standpoint of raising the productive capacity of the economy. 

To address the lack of merit-based funding, a National Infrastructure Bank would develop a framework 

to analytically examine potential infrastructure projects using a cost-benefit analysis, and would 

evaluate the distributional impact of both the costs and benefits of each project. Of course, not all costs 

and benefits from infrastructure projects can be quantified, but an effort should be made to quantify 

those that can be quantified and to take account of any additional benefits and costs to society. A 

rigorous analytical process would result in support for projects that yield the greatest returns to society, 

and would avoid investing taxpayer dollars in projects where total costs exceed total societal benefits. A 

National Infrastructure Bank would select projects along a sliding scale of support that most effectively 

utilizes the bank’s limited resources, targeting the most effective and efficient investments. 
18

IV. How Infrastructure Investment Affects the Middle Class

For the average American family, transportation expenditures rank second only to housing 

expenditures. As can be seen in Figure 1, the average American annually spends more on 

transportation than food, and more than two times as much as on out-of-pocket healthcare 

expenses. Given how much Americans spend on transportation expenditures, public investments 

which lower the cost of transportation could have a meaningful impact on families’ budgets. 

Reducing fuel consumption, decreasing the need for car maintenance due to potholes and poor 

road conditions, increasing the availability of affordable and accessible public transit systems, 

and reducing fuel consumption by making better use of the land would benefit Americans and 

allow them to spend less money on transportation. 

Figure 1.
19

Middle-Class Americans Are the Biggest Beneficiaries of Improved Infrastructure

For the 90 percent of Americans who are not among the top decile in the income distribution, 

transportation costs absorb one out of every seven dollars of income. Transportation expenses 

relative to income are almost twice as great for the bottom 90 percent as they are for the top 10 

percent.

Figure 2. 

Providing high-speed rail and improved public transportation would provide middle-class 

families with more options to save time and money, so that they can retain more of their income 

for other purposes and spend more time doing what they want, rather than spending time getting 

there. One study concluded that individuals in a two-person household who ride public 

transportation and eliminate one car save, on average, almost $10,000 annually.34 Improved 

 

34 American Public Transportation Association, Transit Savings Report, July 14, 2011. See appendix 1 for cities 

with greatest savings. <http://www.apta.com/mediacenter/pressreleases/2011/Pages/110714_Transit_Savings.aspx>.
20

accessibility to public transportation systems will also help protect household budgets against the 

impact of rising fuel costs over time. For example, research has estimated that between 2000 and 

2009, median income households living in neighborhoods with diverse transportation choices 

and regional accessibility experienced a $200 per month savings in average transport costs, 

compared to similar households in less location efficient areas.35

Moreover, improving our nation’s transportation system can save middle-class families money 

by reducing the costs associated with congestion and the additional automobile maintenance 

caused by poor road conditions. One study found that poor conditions of roads cost the average 

motorist who drives in cities on a regular basis over $400 a year.36,37 Another study by the 

Department of Transportation finds that $85 billion in total investment per year over the next 

twenty years would be required in order to bring existing highways and bridges into a state of 

good repair.38 As Gramlich and others have found, these fix-it-first investments will save money 

for most American families. 

Infrastructure Investment Creates Middle-Class Jobs

Spending on infrastructure generates demand for products and services from a variety of 

industries. For example, road building not only requires construction workers, but also grading 

and paving equipment, gasoline or diesel to run the machines, a variety of smaller hand tools, 

raw inputs of cement, gravel, and asphalt, surveyors to map the site, engineers and site managers, 

and even accountants to keep track of costs. 

Data from the Commerce Department’s Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) provide insight 

into how a dollar’s worth of demand for some broad categories of spending is divided among the 

supplying industries. Analysis of data from the BEA 2010 annual input-output table and related 

data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) on the composition of industry employment 

suggests that 61 percent of the jobs created by investing in infrastructure would be in the 

construction sector, 12 percent would be in the manufacturing sector, and 7 percent would be in 

retail trade, for a total of 80 percent in these three sectors. Using BLS data on the structure of 

occupations in those industries, and the distribution of wages for those occupations by industry, 

nearly 90 percent of the jobs in the three sectors most affected by infrastructure spending are 

middle-class jobs, defined as those between the 25th and 75th percentile in the national 

distribution of wages. 

 

35 Housing and Transportation Affordability Index, Center For Neighborhood Technology, February 28, 2012.

36America’s Roughest Rides and Strategies to Make Our Roads Smoother, Sept. 2010.

<www.tripnet.org/urban_roads_report_Sep_2010.pdf>.

37 See appendix 2 for a chart of 20 urban areas where costs are the highest. 

38 Department of Transportation, 2010 Status of the Nation’s Highways, Bridges and Transit: Conditions and 

Performance Report.
21

Further analysis suggests that the jobs created by investing in infrastructure are not only middleclass jobs, but also are concentrated in occupations and industries that have been 

disproportionately affected by the recent economic downturn. Overall, the unemployment rate 

among those who would be put to work by additional investment in infrastructure has averaged

approximately 13 percent over the past twelve months, more than one and one-half times the 

current national unemployment rate.39

Figure 3.

One example of this can be found in Lincoln, Nebraska. Most people would never guess that an 

investment in improving the New York City transit system would create middle-class 

manufacturing jobs in Lincoln. However, that is exactly what happens every time New York’s 

MTA or Metro North buys a rail car made at the Kawasaki factory in Lincoln. This factory, 

Kawasaki USA’s largest manufacturing plant, employs over 1,000 workers. The plant was 

established in 1974 as a consumer products center and expanded in 2001 to build rail cars. The 

vast majority of new M-8 rail cars ordered by New York Transit’s Metro North System (340 out 

of 382) are made in this plant, meaning that most of the folks who commute from Connecticut to 

 

39 Treasury calculations using most recent Bureau of Labor Statistics data.
22

New York City by rail have ridden or will ride on a car made in this plant. 40 This is another 

example of the geographic diversity of benefits which comes from investing in infrastructure. 

The Costs of Underinvesting in Infrastructure

Although infrastructure investments are expensive, it is even more expensive to skimp on 

infrastructure. There are real costs of failing to invest in infrastructure, including increased 

congestion and foregone productivity and jobs. Already, Americans are wasting too much time, 

money, and fuel stuck in traffic. The Texas Transportation Institute (TTI) recently estimated that 

Americans in 439 urban areas spent some 4.8 billion hours sitting in traffic in 2010, equivalent to 

nearly one full work week for the average commuter. TTI’s calculations suggest that congestion 

caused Americans to purchase an extra 1.9 billion gallons of fuel, costing over $100 billion in 

wasted time and added fuel costs in the 439 urban areas it surveyed.

41

The United States’ infrastructure system benefits working families by reducing transportation 

costs and increasing efficiency. While traffic jams are one of the universal features of our 

infrastructure system, they do tend to occur at peak commuting hours. Those who are on the 

road then tend to be working Americans and the costs are often greatest for those who are on 

fixed schedules. We should continue to invest in infrastructure so working Americans can 

continue to accrue these benefits.

 

40 <http://www.mta.info/mnr/html/newM8.html>.

41 Urban Mobility Report 2011, Texas Transportation Institute, September, 2011.

<http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/mobility-report-2011.pdf/>,

<http://mobility.tamu.edu/ums/report/congestion_cost.pdf>.
23

An Analytic Approach for Measuring Congestion 

Although Texas Transportation Institute’s estimate is a good benchmark when evaluating 

congestion costs, it is important to remember that it is not always clear that time spent in 

congestion should be valued at the wage rate. A key input for achieving an efficient allocation of 

resources along a sliding scale is a rigorous measure of congestion severity across regions. Two 

such measures are available. The Texas Transportation Institute has developed the well-known 

Travel Time Index (TTI) which quantifies the ratio of total travel time in the peak period over 

uncongested travel time in the peak period (commute time under free flow traffic conditions); the 

higher the TTI index, the larger the share of peak travel time that is subject to congestion. The 

TTI is independent of the total amount of peak travel – it simply measures the fraction of peak 

hours subject to delay because of congestion. In contrast, CEOs for Cities42uses an alternative 

measure – total peak travel time, which unlike the TTI index, captures the effects of urban sprawl 

(but does not have anything to say about what fraction of peak commute time is affected by 

congestion). These approaches complement each other. For example, the two metrics can first 

be normalized to the same 0-1 scale (because the units of measure are different). Next, a simple 

average of the normalized metrics can be taken to form a hybrid index that reflects both urban 

sprawl and congestion intensity, and which can then be used to rank locations along a sliding 

scale.

The Department of Transportation recommends using a variety of values of time to evaluate the 

economic costs, depending on whether the travel takes place as part of paid business travel, local 

commuting travel, or long-distance leisure travel. The value of time in freight transportation is 

even more complex, varying with the value and perishability of the cargo that is being 

transported. Additionally, there are costs of congestion beyond lost time and wasted fuel. For 

example, a recent survey by Gallup found that those with long commutes are more likely to 

experience back and neck pain. Studies of economic well-being have found that time spent 

commuting is among the most stressful and least enjoyable of daily activities.43 Moreover, 

congestion leads to more rapid road erosion and higher maintenance costs, a higher frequency of 

accidents and associated need for emergency services, higher pollution per car, and productivity 

losses from traffic delays. All of these potential costs of congestion – and corresponding benefits 

of alleviating congestion – should be factored into any cost-benefit analysis of infrastructure 

alternatives that would relieve congestion.

 

42“ Measuring Urban Transportation Performance – A Critique of Mobility Measures and a Synthesis”, Joe 

Cortright, Impresa and CEOs for Cities, September 2010.

43 Kahneman, Daniel, et al. 2004. “A Survey Method for Characterizing Daily Life Experience: The Day 

Reconstruction Method.” Science 306, no. 5702: 1776–80. Stutzer, Alois, and Bruno S. Frey. 2004. “Stress that 

Doesn’t Pay: The Commuting Paradox.” IZA Discussion Paper 1278. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor, August

2004.
24

 

44 MacDonald JM, Stokes R. Cohen D. Kofner A. Ridgeway G. The Effect of Light Rail on Body Mass Index and 

Physical Activity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2010; 39(2):105-112. 

45 Finkelstein EA, Trogdon JG Cohen JW Dietz W. Annual Medical Spending Attributable to Obesity: Payer- And 

Service-Specific Estimates. Health Affairs 28, no. 5 (2009): w822-w831.

46 Stokes RJ, MacDonald J. Ridgeway G. Estimating the effects of light rail transit on health care costs. Heath Place 

2008;14(1):45–58.

The Public Health Benefits of Transit Investments

If improved infrastructure changed the way Americans live and work, there would be significant 

benefits to health and wellness. For example, MacDonald et al. find that improving 

neighborhood environments and increasing the public’s use of light rail transit would benefit 

health to the extent it causes increased physical activity, a reduction in the incidence of obesity 

(body mass index greater than 30), and a reduction in the odds of becoming obese.44

Using data on individuals before (July 2006 to February 2007) and after (March 2008 to July 

2008) the completion of a light rail system in Charlotte, North Carolina, they find that the use of 

light rail to commute to work is associated with a nearly 1.2 point reduction in body mass index 

as well as an 81 percent reduction in the odds of becoming obese. Moreover, improved 

perceptions of neighborhoods as a result of the availability of light rail were associated with 15 

percent lower odds of obesity as well as higher odds of meeting weekly recommended physical 

activity levels for walking and vigorous exercise (9 percent and 11 percent, respectively). 

In addition to all of the personal benefits associated with a healthier life style, overall costs on 

our health care system are substantially reduced when obesity rates are lowered, given that health 

care costs for the obese are almost twice the rate for normal weight individuals. Finkelstein et al. 

find that between 1998 and 2006, the prevalence of obesity in the United States increased by 37 

percent, adding $40 billion dollars to health care costs.45

A separate study by Stokes et al. estimates that health care savings in Charlotte from the creation 

of the first segment of their light rail system could reach a cumulative $12.6 million by 2015.46 

These facts also suggest that targeted investment in creating new public transportation systems 

could translate into large-scale savings in health care costs. Furthermore, many other academic 

studies show that proximity to public transportation and more rationally-designed neighborhoods 

tend to be associated with increased walking and other physical activity for the general 

population, working or otherwise. 
25

Safety

Failure to maintain our infrastructure network properly has significant consequences. For 

example, in August 2010, three major transportation systems in the Northeast corridor region 

(Amtrak, the Long Island Railroad, and New Jersey Transit) all experienced problems due to 

fire, power failure, and outdated equipment. Particularly illustrative of the need for upgrades of 

America’s infrastructure was the fire in the Long Island Railroad’s track switching system. 

Constructed in 1913, the system’s breakdown forced rail personnel to switch tracks manually 

with mallets and spikes, an obviously outdated and hazardous practice.

Building a Safer and More Reliable Infrastructure System

The American people deserve safe and reliable infrastructure. Bridge collapses in recent years 

in Minnesota and Oklahoma remind us of the risk of neglecting our infrastructure and of unsafe 

designs. One in four bridges in the United States remains structurally deficient or functionally 

obsolete.

In 2006, motor vehicle traffic crashes were the leading cause of death for every person age 3 

through 34. Though 2010 saw the lowest fatality and injury rates ever recorded, it is clear that 

we can still do better, as over 32,000 people died on American highways in 2010, or more than 

90 people every day. Aging transportation systems – whether it is our roadways, transit 

systems, or railways – increase safety risks because they lack proven countermeasures that are 

installed on newer systems and equipment. Devoting resources to raising existing 

transportation infrastructure to a state of good repair in a “fix-it-first” approach is a sound 

strategy to help address critical safety challenges. The Federal Government, along with state, 

local, and private owners and operators of transportation infrastructure, must work together to 

target resources to risks before they become safety hazards.

A promising example of wise investment which can improve public safety is the installation of 

guard rails and cables along highways. One study examined a 14.5 mile stretch of highway 

between Dayton and Cincinnati over a three-year period after guard rails and cables were 

installed. Analysis of this data indicates that this investment could save more than 110 lives 

during the next twenty years, which equates to over 7 lives per mile of guard rail. Given the 

cost of installation of slightly under $90,000 per mile, this investment would more than pay for 

itself, if it saved only one life per year. While it is difficult to generalize as roadway conditions 

vary substantially, this study indicates that there may be significant potential to increase safety 

through additional targeted investment in guard rails and cables.
26

V. Support for Infrastructure is Widespread

The merits of infrastructure investments must also be considered alongside projections of 

population growth, trading patterns, and expected changes in American lifestyles. As the 

economy and population grow, infrastructure resources will be stretched thinner as existing 

systems age and additional needs for new systems arise. With the U.S. population expected to 

grow to almost 440 million people by 2050 and interstate commerce expected to grow as well, 

targeted infrastructure investments can be one strategic tool that policymakers use to prepare for 

the future.47

American firms rely on infrastructure to enable efficient supply chain management and the 

transportation of goods to the point of sale. Investments in transportation infrastructure would 

allow firms in all 50 states to have the opportunity to benefit from growth in foreign markets. 

According to an analysis by the Brookings Institution, exports account for 8 percent of total U.S. 

employment48; smart investments in infrastructure have the potential to create more jobs in 

export-oriented U.S. companies. The President’s National Export Initiative calls for the 

“Departments of Commerce and Transportation [to enter] into a Memorandum of Understanding 

to work together and with stakeholders to develop and implement a comprehensive, 

competitiveness-focused national freight policy. The resulting policy will foster end-to-end U.S. 

freight infrastructure improvements that facilitate the movement of goods for export and 

domestic use.”49 Moreover, the Department of Transportation “estimates that population growth, 

economic development, and trade will almost double the demand for rail freight transportation 

by 2035.”50 Export growth has been strong during the recovery. In 2011, exports were up over 

33 percent from 2009, meaning that America is ahead of schedule in meeting the President’s goal 

of doubling exports over 2009 levels by the end of 2014.

The business and labor communities have also expressed a desire for more transportation 

infrastructure investment. Proposals from the American Public Transport Association (APTA), 

the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the U.S. 

Chamber of Commerce, AFL-CIO, and the President’s Council on Jobs and Competitiveness all

call for greater infrastructure investment. APTA advocates for nearly $15 billion of investment 

for federal public transportation programs, and at least $2.5 billion to be put towards high-speed 

and intercity rail systems. AASHTO reported in 2009 that between $132 billion and $166 billion 

 

47 Department of Commerce. Bureau of Census. Current Population Reports. Population Projections of the United 

States by Age, Sex, Race and Hispanic Origin (Haver Analytics).

<http://www.census.gov/population/www/projections/usinterimproj/>.

48 Katz, Bruce, Rothwell, Jonathan, Istrate, Emilia, “Export Nation”, Brookings Institution, July 2010. 

49 “Report to the President on the National Export Initiative: The Export Promotion Cabinet’s Plan for Doubling 

U.S. Exports in Five Years.”National Export Initiative, 2010.

<http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/nei_report_9-16-10_full.pdf>.

50 “National Rail Freight Infrastructure Capacity and Investment Study.” American Association of Railroads, 2007.

<http://www.camsys.com/pubs/AAR_RRCapacityStudy.pdf>.
27

of investment is necessary to rebuild and repair America’s highways.51 The view that more 

transportation infrastructure is necessary is consistent with other research, including the recently 

issued bipartisan report by two former Secretaries of Transportation, Norman Mineta and Samuel 

Skinner. Their report estimated that an additional investment of $134 billion to $194 billion per 

year is needed to maintain our transportation system, and an even larger sum, from $189 billion 

to $262 billion, would be needed to improve it.52 The U.S. Chamber of Commerce has stated 

that “to have a transportation system that supports a 21st century economy, the United States 

needs a high level of investment targeted at improving performance across all modes and 

geographies. There can be no more business as usual.”53

Support is widespread for reinstating Build America Bonds, particularly among state and local 

governments who were able to save their residents billions in lower borrowing costs as a result of 

BABs. The National Association of State Treasurers, the U.S. Conference of Mayors, the 

National League of Cities, the National Association of Counties, the Council of State 

Governments, and the National Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers, and Treasurers all 

endorsed bringing back BABs.

54 The Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association 

(SIFMA) also weighed-in in support of BABs, writing, “In recognition of its invaluable 

improvement in market structure and contribution to improving efficiency, liquidity and 

transparency for borrowers and investors alike, extending the BABs program would continue to 

provide these benefits to state and local governments.”55

Americans Want Improved Infrastructure Capacity 

American workers, families, and businesses are demanding more infrastructure investment. 

Americans have voted repeatedly for increased investment in transportation infrastructure with 

over 98 percent of the funds requested for transportation projects approved by the voting public 

in 2008.56,57,58,59 A study by the Rockefeller Foundation found that four out of every five 

 

51 Oakley, Janet. “Investing in Transportation Infrastructure.” Government Research Association Annual Policy 

Conference. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 29 July 2009.

<http://www.transportation.org/sites/aashto/docs/Oakley-2009-07-28pdf.pdf>.

52 Mineta, Norman, and Skinner, Samuel, “Well Within Reach: America’s New Transportation Agenda”

53 “Transportation Index National Results From 1990 to 2008.” U.S. Chamber of Commerce.

<http://www.uschamber.com/lra/transportation-index/national-results>.

54 Letter to Senate Finance Committee, July 9, 2010.

55 SIFMA letter to House Ways and Means Committee, March 23, 2010.

56 Treasury calculations based on information compiled from [26], [27], and [28]. Where the funds were approved 

on an annual basis for an indefinite number of years, it was assumed that the measure was not extended beyond the 

initial year. The measures for which the total funding impact is ambiguous were excluded from this calculation. 

57 “2008 Transit Ballot Measures.” Center for Transportation Excellence.

<http://www.cfte.org/success/2006BallotMeasures.asp#2008CompletedTransitBallotMeasures>.

58 “State and Local Ballot Initiatives.” The Associated General Contractors of America.

<http://www.agc.org/cs/State_and_Local_Ballot_Initiatives>.

59 “NCSLnet Search Results: 2008 State Initiatives and Referenda.” National Conference of State Legislatures.

<http://www.ncsl.org/?tabid=13597>.
28

Americans agree with the statement that: “In order for the United States to remain the world’s 

top economic superpower we need to modernize our transportation infrastructure and keep it up 

to date.”60 That study also found that the same proportion, 80 percent, agree that federal 

investment in infrastructure, “will boost local economics and create millions of jobs from 

construction to manufacturing to engineering.” Another survey found that almost 19 out of 20 

Americans are concerned about America’s infrastructure and 84 percent support greater

investment to address infrastructure problems.61

Evidence of this demand for greater transportation infrastructure and increased choice for 

alternatives forms of transportation is apparent in the sharp increase in transit ridership. Over the 

last 15 years transit ridership has grown by over 30 percent, reaching levels not seen since the 

1950s.

62

 This renaissance of transit ridership is in some ways a return to the past (see Figure 4). 

 

60 Rockefeller Foundation Infrastructure Survey, February 2011.

<http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/news/publications/rockefeller-foundation-infrastructure-2>.

61 “The Building America’s Future National Survey,” Luntz et al. 2009.

<http://bafuture.org/Websites/investininfrastructure/Images/Press%20Release%20memo2.pdf>.

62 American Public Transit Association, Public Transportation Ridership Report
29

Figure 4.
30

During the first half of the 20th century, transit systems were responsible for an astoundingly 

large number of total trips taken by Americans. Over 17 billion trips were taken annually on 

mass transit from 1926-1929 (U.S. population averaged approximately 120 million) and despite a 

sharp decline during the Great Depression, transit trips rose to record levels during the 1940s, 

peaking at over 23 billion trips in 1946 (U.S. population was 141 million).

63 After the Second 

World War a series of structural changes took place, including a significant increase in the 

average wealth of American families, the vast expansion of the American automotive industry, 

the building of new roads and highways, including the Eisenhower Interstate System, and the 

removal of street car systems (a form of light rail) in cities throughout the country. Transit 

ridership fell sharply. However, during the last fifteen years there has been a sharp and sustained 

increase in transit ridership, with total trips rising from just under 8 billion in 1996 to 10.4 billion 

in 2011, an increase of over 30 percent. A large driver of this growth has been increased 

ridership in heavy and light rail, which combined have experienced ridership growth of over 70

percent. There are many factors driving this increase, including the creation and expansion of 

transit systems in many cities throughout the nation,

64 increasing congestion on roadways, and 

consumer responses to rising oil prices. While it is difficult to untangle each of these factors, it 

is clear that Americans today are taking more trips on public transit and demanding more 

alternative forms of transportation than they have in the past fifty years. 

International Competitiveness 

By most measures, the United States is investing less in infrastructure than other nations. While 

there are reasons for this disparity, international comparisons can offer a useful benchmark to 

assess our investment decisions. We spend approximately 2 percent of GDP on infrastructure, a 

50 percent decline from 1960.65,66 China, India and Europe, by contrast, spend close to 9 

percent, 8 percent, and 5 percent of GDP on infrastructure, respectively.67 To be clear, these 

simple cross-country comparisons do not account for differences in the current public capital 

stock, differences in demographics and population densities, and different transportation 

preferences across nations. However, it is clear that persistent neglect of our infrastructure will 

impact America’s competitive position vis-à-vis the rest of the world. Indeed, the U.S. Chamber 

of Commerce noted in their Policy Declaration on Transportation Infrastructure that, “Long-

 

63 U.S. Census historical National Population Estimates

64 New light rail lines and systems opened in at least 13 cities from 1996-2011: Dallas, Salt Lake City, Jersey City, 

Portland, Tacoma, Minneapolis, Houston, Trenton/Camden, Charlotte, Seattle, Oceanside, Phoenix, and Norfolk.

65 Milano, Jessica. “Building America’s 21st Century Infrastructure.” Progressive Policy Institute, 15 January 2009.

<http://www.ppionline.org/ppi_ci.cfm?knlgAreaID=450020&subsecID=900194&contentID=254788>.

66 “Remarks by the President at CNBC Town Hall Discussion on Jobs” The White House Office of the Press 

Secretary, 2010. <http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2010/09/20/remarks-president-cnbc-town-halldiscussion-jobs>.

67 Ibid, and Royal Bank of India.
31

term underinvestment in transportation infrastructure is having an increasingly negative effect on 

the ability of the United States and its industries to compete in the global economy.”

The Gallup World Poll indicates that compared to other OECD countries, Americans are 

relatively dissatisfied with their local public infrastructure systems (see Figures 5 and 6). 

Americans’ satisfaction with highways and public transit ranks in the middle of the pack 

globally. With respect to our public transit, we are tied with four other countries at rank 13 out 

of 32 OECD nations. We rank similarly with respect to satisfaction with our roads and 

highways: 15th out of 32 OECD countries. 

Figure 5.
32

Figure 6.
33

VI. Conclusion

An analysis of the economic impact of transportation investment indicates that now is an optimal 

time to increase the nation’s investment in transportation infrastructure. Investing in 

transportation infrastructure would generate jobs to employ workers who were displaced because 

of the housing bubble. We estimate that the average unemployment rate among those who 

would gain employment in the jobs created by additional infrastructure investment has averaged

approximately 13 percent over the past twelve months. There is also accumulating evidence that 

construction costs are currently low because of underutilized resources, so it would be especially 

cost-effective to seize this opportunity to build the quality infrastructure projects that are ready to 

be built. 

Historically, we also know that state and local governments are more prone to cut back on 

infrastructure spending during tough economic times, despite the growing need and demand for 

these projects. Americans overwhelmingly support increasing our infrastructure investment, as 

evidenced by consistent support for local investments on ballot initiatives. This is hardly 

surprising given that our report documents that the American public is less satisfied with our 

transportation infrastructure than residents of most other OECD nations.

Merely increasing the amount that we invest, however, must not be our only goal. Selecting 

projects that have the highest payoff is critically important, as is providing opportunities for the 

private sector to invest in public infrastructure. Given the significant need for greater 

investment, the federal government cannot, and should not, be expected to be the sole source of 

additional investment funds. More effectively leveraging federal investment by pairing it with 

state, local, and private investment is necessary to meet the challenges we face in expanding our 

transportation network. Thus, establishing a National Infrastructure Bank, along with other 

significant reforms in our infrastructure financing system, should remain a top priority.

Evidence also shows that well-functioning infrastructure systems generate large rates of return 

not only for the people who travel on the systems every day – the direct beneficiaries – but also 

for those in the surrounding regions and our nation more generally. Investment in infrastructure 

today will employ underutilized resources and raise the nation’s productivity and economic 

potential in the future. By contrast, poorly planned, non-strategic investment is not only a waste 

of resources, but can also lead to lower economic growth and production in the future. That is 

why any increase in investment should be coupled with broad-based reform to select 

infrastructure projects more wisely. The President’s proposal to increase our nation’s investment 

in transportation infrastructure, coupled with broad-based reform of our transportation funding 

system, would have a significant and positive economic impact in both the short and long term, 

raising our nation’s economic output, creating quality middle-class jobs, and enhancing 

America’s global economic competitiveness. 
34

VII. Appendix

Appendix Table 1: 

Estimated Savings From Using Public Transportation - Selected Cities

Rank City Savings:

Monthly 

Savings:

Annual

1 New York $1,218 $14,618 

2 Boston $1,130 $13,559

3 San Francisco $1,088 $13,060

4 Seattle $995 $11,936

5 Chicago $979 $11,744 

6 Philadelphia $976 $11,717

7 Honolulu $939 $11,268

8 Los Angeles $893 $10,712

9 Minneapolis $890 $10,678

10 San Diego $864 $10,369

11 Portland $859 $10,312

12 Washington, D.C. $861 $10,333

13 Denver $857 $10,287

14 Baltimore $843 $10,113

15 Cleveland $828 $9,936

16 Miami $802 $9,629

17 Dallas $789 $9,472

18 Atlanta $790 $9,480

19 Pittsburgh $779 $9,347

20 Las Vegas $763 $9,157

 Source: American Public Transportation Association, Transit Savings Report, 

 July 14, 2011. Based on a comparison of average monthly public transit costs and 

 average monthly driving costs. For more detail see: 

 <www.apta.com/mediacenter/pressreleases/2011/Pages/110714_Transit_Savings.aspx>.
35

Appendix Table 2: 

Annual Vehicle Operating Cost in Selected Urban Areas

The twenty urban regions with at least 500,000 people (includes the city and its surrounding 

suburbs), where motorists pay the most annually in additional vehicle maintenance because of 

roads in poor condition:

Rank Urban Area Annual Vehicle 

Operating Cost 

1 San Jose, California $756 

2 Los Angeles, California $746 

3 San Francisco – Oakland, California $706 

4 Honolulu, Hawaii $701 

5 Concord, California $692 

6 New Orleans, Louisiana $681 

7 Oklahoma City, Oklahoma $662 

8 San Diego, California $654 

9 New York – Newark, NY/NJ $640 

10 Riverside-San Bernardino, California $632 

11 Sacramento, California $611 

12 Tulsa, Oklahoma $610 

13 Indio-Palm Springs, California $609 

14 Baltimore, Maryland $603 

15 Omaha, Nebraska $587 

16 Kansas City, Missouri / Kansas $587 

17 San Antonio, Texas $549 

18 Dallas-Ft. Worth, Texas $539 

19 Detroit, Michigan $536 

20 Albuquerque, New Mexico $527 

Source: America’s Roughest Rides and Strategies to Make Our Roads Smoother, Sept. 2010. 

<www.tripnet.org/urban_roads_report_Sep_2010.pdf>.