### C URRENT 

### S TATUS OF 

### R OADS ON 

### N ATIONAL 

### F OREST 

### S YSTEM 

### L ANDS

Primary Research and Analysis by Cindy Deacon Williams January 1999

Based on the current status of roads on National Forest System lands, there are several issues that must be addressed in any new r oads policy:

 the backlog of road maintenance (i.e., 60% of existing roads are not maintained to the safety and environmental standards for which they were designed);

 the backlog of road decommissioning (i.e., funding to retire ecologically harmful roads) ;

 the burgeoning network of “uninventoried” roads (i.e., over 60,000 miles of road have been created by repeated usage, but were not built and are not maintained to any standard);

 the failure of the size and composition of the National Forest Roads Syste m to reflect the shift in public use and demand (i.e., recreation usage has increased over 40% during the last 10 years and still is rising while timber harvest has declined by 2/3, yet new road decisions are planned to meet timber harvest needs not

recrea tion needs); and

 the lack of policy guidance regarding management of 33 million acres of currently roadless areas, including 8 million roadless acres designated as suitable for timber production, that are neither designated Wilderness nor proposed for wil derness designation nor provided any special classification that highlights their rarity and ecological importance.

 Most i mportantly the policy must remedy the lack of biological/ecological prioritization of all road work

– deconstruction, decommissionin g maintenance, reconstruction.

The National Forest Road System

— estimated at 373,000 miles of forest roads

— is extensive and diverse. Twenty

- three percent of the roads are arterial or collector roads that serve all users, including passenger cars. Fi fty

- seven percent are roads that only are passable by high

- clearance vehicles such as four

- wheel drives. Twenty percent are closed by gates, but their environmental impacts are not otherwise mitigated. In addition to these known roads, the Forest Service has identified an estimated 60,000 miles of "uninventoried roads" that were created by repeated use but never built or maintained to any standards. The actual number of miles of "uninventoried roads" likely is far greater than this estimate.

There also ar e additional public roads on National Forest System lands, such as state and county roads that typically are maintained by others. There are more than 7,000 bridges on forest roads (three

- fourths of these on arterial and collector roads), and untold numbe rs of other stream crossings (e.g., culverts, fords, etc.).Current funding levels are inadequate to maintain existing roads to planned standards minimally needed to keep ecological impacts at low levels. About 60% of National Forest System roads

are n ot fully maintained to the planned safety and environmental standards for which they were designed. The backlog of reconstruction needs on National Forest System roads is considerable. For example, the backlog on arterial and collector roads

is estimated to be over $10 billion, due to their age (three

- fourths are over 50 years old) and their lack of adequate regular maintenance. Furthermore, funding from 1991 to 1996 for decommissioning roads has only financed a reduction of about 0.5% of National Forest System roads per year despite the fact that many more roads meet no existing or anticipated future need and their continued presence poses grave ecological risk.

Public use and demands on National Forest System lands have shifted considerably during

the past 10 years, but the size and composition of the National Forest System road system has not been adjusted accordingly. Annual recreation usage has increased from less that 250 million Recreation Visitor Days to almost 350 million and is projected to con tinue to increase. On the other hand, timber harvest has dropped to below 4 billion board feet from a high of about 12 billion board feet annually. Nonetheless, road construction largely still is an artifact of timber harvest with roads approved, placed, designed, and constructed primarily to meet logging needs.

While a significant portion of the 191 million acres of the National Forest System is roaded, approximately 38% (or 73 million acres) remains roadless. Of this, an estimated

34 million acres cur rently are designated as wilderness and an estimated 6 million acres are designated as proposed wilderness in forest plans. An estimated 33 million acres currently are unroaded in blocks of 5,000 acres or more for which the existing forest plans have

prop osed management that could include building new roads. Of the 33 million acres that are unroaded and available for management activities that could include roading, an estimated 8 million acres are classified as "suitable for timber production," and there fore likely to have road decisions guided predominantly by timber harvest priorities. 

### About 60% of National Forest System roads are not fully maintained to the planned safety and

environmental standards for which they were designed.Photo credit: J. Sowinski Road Gully, SW Washington

Wind River 

# S ECTION 

# VI:

E COLOGICAL 

# E FFECTS OF 

# R OADS

S UMMARY OF 

## S CIENTIFIC 

## F INDINGS ON 

## R OADS AND 

## A QUATIC

ECOSYSTEMS



## R EVIEW OF 

## E COLOGICAL 

## E FFECTS OF 

## R OADS ON 

## T ERRESTRIAL AND


## A QUATIC 

## C OMMUNITIES reprinted with the permission of Conservation Biology



### N ATION 

### F OREST 

### R OADS 

### P OLICY


### B RIEFING 

### M ATERIALS



### P ACIFIC 

### R IVERS 

### C OUNCIL


### M ARCH 

### 2000

### S UMMARY OF 

### S CIENTIFIC 

### F INDINGS ON 

### R OADS AND 

### A QUATIC 

### E COSYSTEMS

Primary Research and Analysis by Cindy Deacon Williams January 1999

This section summarizes findings with respect to the impacts of roads on watershed integrity, fish and aquatic habitat, an d geomorphic processes, and the ecological value of roadless and lightly roaded areas. Additional analyses can be found in a special section on the ecological effects of roads in the February 2000 issue of Conservation Biology

.

From this summary of scien tific findings, there are six issues that must be addressed in any new roads policy:

 The physical impacts of roads on watershed integrity (via alteration of streamflow, sediment loading, sediment transport and deposition, channel morphology, channel stabi lity, substrate composition, stream temperatures, water quality, and riparian conditions);

 The effects of the physical impacts of roads on fish and fish habitat (via fine

sediment effects, changes in streamflow, changes in water temperature, migration

bar riers, and increasing access for disease, exotic fish introductions, and increased fishing pressure);

 The effects of roads on geomorphic processes (including surface erosion and mass movement);

 The increased risk of landslide in certain hillslope locati ons (including the inner gorge, swales, and break

- in

- slope);

 The inevitability, duration, and extent of detrimental impact from roads (via both “legacy” problems associated with old roads and new problems associated with new roads constructed pursuant to “new and improved” standards); and

 The importance of roadless and lightly roaded areas to ecological integrity.

A. I MPACTS ON W ATERSHED I NTEGRITY

The physical impacts of roads on watershed integrity are dramatic and have been well

documented. Roads im pact watershed integrity through three mechanisms: they intercept, concentrate, and divert water. Roads intercept water falling as rainfall directly on road surfaces and cutbanks as well as subsurface water moving underground down the hillslope. Roads co ncentrate flow on the road surface and in adjacent ditches and channels. Roads divert both surface and subsurface water from flowpaths that otherwise would be taken in the absence of a road. The hydrologic and geomorphic consequences resulting from these three processes can be large. Roads directly affect natural sediment and hydrologic regimes by altering streamflow, sediment loading, sediment transport andSummary of Scientific Findings on Roads and Aquatic Ecosystems Page 2 deposition, channel morphology, channel stability, substrate composition, stream
temperatures, wa ter quality, and riparian conditions within a watershed (Lee et al. 1997).

Flow

— Roads interrupt hillslope drainage patterns by intercepting surface and subsurface flow and concentrating and diverting it into ditches, gullies and channels, thereby

effect ively increasing the density of streams in the landscape and altering the timing and magnitude of peak flows and changing base stream discharge (Furniss et al. 1991; Harr et al. 1975; King and Tennyson 1984; Wemple et al. 1996) and sub

- surface flows (Furni ss et al. 1991; Megahan 1972).

Sediment

— Roads contribute more sediment to streams than any other land management activity (Gibbons and Salo 1973; Meehan 1991). Roads greatly increase the frequency of landslides, debris flows, and other mass movements ( Burroughs et al. 1976; Clayton 1983; Dunne and Leopold 1978; Furniss et al. 1991; Hammond et al. 1988; Megahan et al. 1992; Weaver and Hagans 1996). Road and stream crossings are a major source of sediment to streams (Eaglin and Hubert 1993; Furniss et al . 1991). Plugged culverts and fill slope failures are frequent and often lead to catastrophic increases in stream channel sediment (Donald et al. 1997; Furniss et al. 1997; Weaver et al. 1987).

Channel morphology

— Unnatural channel widths and slope and s tream bed form occur upstream and downstream of stream crossings, and these alterations in channel morphology may persist for long periods of time (Heede 1980). 

### Roads contribute more

sediment to streams than any other land management activity

.Summary of Scientific Findings on Roads and Aquatic Ecosystems Page 3 Channelization

— Concentration and diversion of flow by roads into headwater areas can

cause inc ision of previously unchanneled portions of the landscape (Montgomery 1994).

Water Quality

— Roads contribute to water quality degradation through increased sedimentation (as noted above), applied road chemicals (Furniss et al. 1991; Norris et al. 1991; Rh odes et al. 1994), and toxic spills (Furniss et al. 1991; Idaho Department of Transportation 1996). Further, because roads provide easy access for both people and livestock, they concentrate impacts from other public land use activities and provide avenue s for both legal and illegal stocking of non

- native fishes (Lee et al. 1997) and the introduction and spread of noxious weeds (FICMNEW 1998).

B. I MPACTS ON F ISH AND A QUATIC H ABITAT

The physical impacts of roads have detrimental effects on fish and fish h abitat. The physical impacts of roads discussed above have a widespread and profound effect on fish habitat and fish communities and populations across a range of environments and conditions (Lee et al. 1997). Serious degradation of fish habitat affectin g all life

- stages of fishes (including migration, spawning, incubation, emergence, and rearing) can result from poorly planned, designed, located, constructed, or maintained roads (Furniss et al. 1991; Henjum et al. 1994; MacDonald et al. 1991; Rhodes et a l. 1994). Mechanisms through which roads have these deleterious impacts include fine

- sediment effects, changes in streamflow, changes in water temperature caused by loss of riparian cover or conversion of groundwater to surface water, migration barriers, and access for disease, exotic fish introductions, and increased fishing pressure.

Sediment

— The increased sediment flux into streams that is associated with roads causes aggradation, filling of pools, and increased channel widths and width

- to

- depth ratio s (Jackson and Beschta 1984; Lisle 1982; Madej 1982). With increasing road density there is a clear decline in the frequency of pools and the frequency of large pools

— fundamental components of high

- quality fish habitat (Lee et al. 1997). As pools are fi lled by sediment they support fewer fish and the individuals that reside in them suffer higher mortality (Alexander and Hansen 1986; Bjornn et al. 1977). Furthermore, elevated levels of fine sediment adversely affect salmonid embryo survival (Bjornn and R eiser 1991; Chapman 1988; Everest et al. 1987) and have been linked to decreased fry emergence, decreased juvenile densities, loss of winter carrying capacity via loss of concealment cover, and increasing predation (Bjornn et al. 1977; Chapman 1988; Chapma n and McLeod 1987; Everest et al. 1987; Scrivener and Brownlee 1989; Thurow 1997; Weaver and Fraley 1993; Young et al. 

### With increasing road density there is a clear decline in the frequency of pools and the frequency of large pools

— fundamental components of high

- quality fish habitat. Roads contribute to water quality degradation

through increased sedimentation, applied
road chemicals, and toxic spills.Summary of Scientific Findings on Roads and Aquatic Ecosystems Page 4 1991). Increased fine sediment in stream gravel reduces intragravel water exchange, thereby decreasing oxygen concentrations, increasing metabolic waste concentrations, and restricting movements of alevins (Bjornn and Reiser 1991; Chapman 1988; Coble 1961; Cordone and Kelly 1961; Everest et al. 1987). This loss of unembedded interstitial

areas in stream substrates also is correlated with a severe reduction or elimination of tailed frogs (Corn and Bury 1989; Welsh 1990) and benthic organism populations (Chutter 1969; Hynes 1970). Increased fine sediments in rearing areas are correlated with reduced juvenile salmonid densities (Alexander an d Hansen 1986; Bjornn et al. 1977; Chapman and McLeon 1987; Everest et al. 1987; Shepard et al. 1984).

Flows

— Road

- related alterations in the timing and magnitude of peak flows and changes in base stream discharge and sub

- surface flows affect the predicta bility and stability of streamflow, factors found to strongly influence salmonid densities by influencing overwintering survival and reproductive success (McFadden 1969; Seegrist and Gard 1972). For example, post

- spawning high flows can wash out eggs, dis place fry, and otherwise increase mortality (Latta 1962; Shetter 1961).

Temperature

— Increases in temperature are correlated with construction of roads along valley bottoms next to stream channels and the resultant removal of riparian vegetation

and redu ction in riparian canopy cover. Such temperature increases can elevate stream temperatures beyond the range for rearing, increase susceptibility of fishes to disease, reduce metabolic efficiency, shift species assemblages, and inhibit upstream migrations (Beschta et al. 1987; Hicks et al. 1991).

Migration Barrier

— In addition, road/stream crossings are a common migration barrier to fish (Clancy and Reichmuth 1990; Evans and Johnston 1980; Furniss et al. 1991); increasing numbers of culverts are correlate d with decreasing fish densities (Eaglin and Hubert 1993). Improper culvert placement can reduce or eliminate fish passage (Belford and Gould 1989; Beechie et al. 1994).

C. Impacts on Geomorphic Processes

The detrimental impacts of roads on geomorphic processes (including sedimentation and landslides) are large in magnitude and long in duration. Roads produce geomorphic responses ranging from the chronic, long

- term contributions to streams of relatively small amounts of fine sediment to the catastroph ic contributions of large amounts of sediment during mass failures. In addition, roads may alter stream channel morphology directly by encroaching in the floodplain or indirectly by modifying channel flowpaths and extending the drainage network into previ ously unchannelized portions of the hillslope. Further, the results of these geomorphic changes produce cumulative consequences that can be felt considerably downstream. 

### Road

- related alterations in the timing and magnitude of peak flows and changes in base stream discharge

and sub

- surface flows affect the predictability and stability of streamflow.Summary of Scientific Findings on Roads and Aquatic Ecosystems Page 5 Surface Erosion

— Chronic surface erosion from road surfaces, cutbanks, and ditches is well documented (Bilby et al. 1989; Megahan and Kidd 1972a; Reid and Dunne 1984; Sullivan and Duncan 1981), and often is the dominant source of road

- related sediment input to streams. Roads were identified as the major source of sediment in the Chattooga River Basin in Georgia (Van Lear et al. 1995). In the initial years after construction, rates of surface erosion appear highest (Megahan and Kidd 1972a) and, on unpaved roads, are closely correlated to traffic volume (Reid and Dunne 1984; Sullivan and

Du ncan 1981). However, because of maintenance problems, roadbeds and road

- related ditches and channels are continuing sources of sediment long after construction is complete (Miller et al. 1985; Swift 1984, 1988).

Mass movement

— The most dramatic and visib le effect of a road often is its effect on the flow of water through the watershed. In some instances, road

- induced changes in watershed hydrology can have serious consequences. Weaver and Hagans (1996) found that roads were associated in an apparently c ausal manner with 15% to 61% of the new landslides following the February 1996 storm in the Oregon and Washington Cascades and Oregon Coast Range Mountains. That same storm

resulted in a flood event in the Fish Creek watershed on Oregon’s Mt. Hood Nationa l Forest that caused 236 landslides, of which 34% were attributed directly to the road system (Reeves et al. 1997). Similarly, very high associations between the road system and landslides were found in Idaho following 1997 spring storms, with 65% of land slides observed in the North Fork Clearwater Basin and 72% in the Lochsa River Basin associated with roads (Weaver et al. 1998). In addition to the detrimental effects on vulnerable fish species and their habitat through increased sedimentation, these lan dslides resulted in serious personal injury and downstream property damage.

Mass movement can occur as shallow debris slides, deep

- seated slumps, and rapid debris flows. In areas ranging from the Pacific Northwest to New Zealand, mass movements

were 30 to 300 times greater in roaded than in unroaded watersheds (Sidle et al. 1985). Erosion rates on roads and landings in the Klamath mountains of southwest Oregon were 100 times greater than those on the undisturbed area (Amaranthus et al. 1985). Eighty

e ight percent of landslides within Idaho were associated with roads (Megahan et al. 1992). Total sediment production from logging roads in the Idaho batholith was 770 times higher than in undisturbed areas; approximately 71% of the increased sediment produ ction was due to mass erosion and 27% to surface erosion (Megahan and Kidd 1972b). Ninety

- one percent of the annual sediment production by land use activities in the South Fork of the Salmon River has been attributed to roads and skid trails (Arnold

and L undeen 1968). Roaded and logged watersheds in the South Fork Salmon River drainage have significantly higher channel bed substrate embeddedness ratings than undeveloped watersheds (Burns 1984). Increased rates of landsliding in roaded areas as compared t o unroaded forested areas also have been documented in Washington (Reid 1981) and northern California (Hagans et al. 1984). The majority of sediment from

timber harvest activities is related to roads and road construction and associated increased 

### The most dramatic and visible effect of a road often is its effect on the flow of water through the

watershed.Summary of Scientific Findings on Roads and Aquatic Ecosystems Page 6 erosion rates (Beschta 1978; Chamberlain et al. 1991; Dunne and Leopold 1978; Furniss et al. 1991; Gardner 1979; MacDonald and Ritland 1989; Meehan 1991; Megahan et al. 1978; Reid 1993; Reid and Dunne 1984; Rhodes et al. 1994; Swanson and Dyrness 1975; Swanston an d Swanson 1976). Although roads typically are associated with shallow debris slides and rapid debris flows, road construction also has accelerated deep

- seated earthflows either through destabilizing the toe area or diverting water onto the earthflow compl ex (Hicks 1982). Road

- related mass soil movements can continue for decades after the roads have been constructed (Furniss et al. 1991).

Locational predisposition

— In addition to the reported correlation between mass movement and roads, a number of geom orphic locations within a watershed are more susceptible to landsliding than are others. Most landslides observed in Idaho by Weaver et al. (1998) were observed to be most likely to occur in the inner gorge, swale, or break

in

- slope (93%, 86%, and 68% res pectively for the North Fork Clearwater, Lochsa River, and Boise River basins). These three locations also have been identified as being at higher risk of landslide during infrequent, high intensity, or long duration storm events in

northwestern Californi a by LaHusen (1984) and in Oregon and southern Washington by Weaver and Hagan (1996). The risk of landslide in these areas is even greater when these hillslope locations are roaded (Weaver et al. 1998).

D. L IKELIHOOD OF O CCURRENCE

Detrimental impacts f rom roads are inevitable and the extent of such impacts is large. The legacy of past road building is large. Within the range of the northern spotted owl, there are about 180,000 km (or 111,800 mi) of roads, including 250,000 stream crossings (about 1.25 per km or 2 per mi) and a significant number of culverts are unlikely to be able to withstand a 25 year storm event (FEMAT 1993). Within the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project (ICBEMP) area, there are at least 204,333 km (or 126,900 mi) of inventoried roads and an additional 61,300 to 102,166 km (or 38,100 to 63,500 mi) of uninventoried roads (Lee et al. 1997). In the Chattooga River Basin, 80% of the roads contributing sediment to the river are unpaved, multipurpose roads paralleling o r crossing tributary streams (Van Lear et al. 1995).

In recent years, road maintenance has been sharply reduced because funds for maintenance as well as timber purchaser conducted maintenance have declined. This has resulted in chronically poor road main tenance. In the southern Appalachians, forest roads often are not maintained at all, are subjected to maintenance that is inadequate for the level of road use, or are scheduled for maintenance in such a way that the work is poorly 

### Road

- related mass soil

movements can continue for decades after the roads

have been constructed.

In the Chattooga River Basin, 80% of the roads contributing sediment to

the river are unpaved,

multipurpose roads paralleling or crossing tributary streams.Summary of Scientific Findings on Roads and Aquatic Ecosystems Page 7 timed relative to storm patterns (Swift 1984, 1988). This pattern is not unique to the East. There has been a progressive degradation of road drainage structures and function in the Columbia River Basin (Lee et al. 1997) and about 60% of all National Forest System roads are not fully maintained to the planned safety and environmental standards for which they were designed (USDA Forest Service 1998).

In addition, however, it is important to note that increases in sedimentation from new roads and landings are unavoidable even u sing the most cautious logging and roading methods. Few studies have systematically and quantitatively evaluated the extent to which new road design, siting, construction and engineering practices have reduced the ecological impacts of roads (McCashion an d Rice 1983). An analysis of the effects of new road construction and siting practices in the Oregon Coast Range suggested some reduction in slide frequencies over those resulting from the old roading practices (Sessions et al. 1987), however, the new pra ctices were not “put to the test” as no large storms occurred during the study period. Examination of the improved road design practiced by the Boise National Forest indicated that while the new practices were an improvement over the old roading practices , total accelerated sediment yields still were 51% over natural sediment yields (Megahan et al. 1992).Summary of Scientific Findings on Roads and Aquatic Ecosystems Page 8 E. Ecological Value of Roadless and Lightly

- Roaded Areas

Roadless and low road density areas are important refuges for many at

- risk fishes. The

ecol ogical importance of unroaded areas has been highlighted in a number of assessments and reports (FEMAT 1993; Henjum et al. 1994; Lee et al. 1997). Unroaded areas have the potential to maintain natural processes unaltered by land management activities and may be important refugia for strongholds of salmonids and other native fishes (Lee et al. 1997). Sedell and Everest (1991) and McIntosh et al. (1994) documented substantial decreases in the quality and quantity of large, deep pools

— a primary indicator o f high quality, in

- channel habitat condition

— throughout managed areas of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho between 1935 and 1945, while during the same period they documented an increase in large, deep pools (i.e., an improvement in aquatic habitat) in

unman aged portions of the landscape. The areas identified as “key watersheds” within the range of the northern spotted owl were 48% to 70% unroaded (FEMAT 1993). Similarly, the population status review in the Interior Columbia River Basin conducted as part of the ICBEMP process generally found strong fish populations to be most likely in less disturbed subwatersheds, with nearly 60% of the salmonid strongholds predicted to occur in unroaded watersheds (Lee et al. 1997), despite the fact that the historically m ost productive watersheds typically lay elsewhere. For some species of fish, the correlation with road density is extremely high. For example, one of the watershed characteristics most useful in predicting the presence of bull trout is road density, with the trout less likely to be present as road density increases and more likely to be present as road density declines (Lee et al. 1997). Furthermore, the ICBEMP aquatic report found that greater short

- term and long

- term watershed and ecological risks are associated with conducting management activities (e.g., timber harvest, road construction, etc.) in an unroaded area than with proceeding cautiously with management activities in areas already impacted by roads. That is, because unroaded areas provide eco logical services crucial to watershed integrity, the potential short

- and long

- term harm from entering an unroaded area exceeds that of continued management activity in already roaded areas. 

### One of the watershed characteristics most useful in predicting the presence of bull trout is road density.Summary of Scientific Findings on Roads and Aquatic Ecosystems Page 9 L ITERATURE C ITED

Alexander, G.R. and E.A. Hansen. 1986. Sa nd bed load in a brook trout stream. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 6:9

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Arnold, J.F. and L.J. Lundeen. 1968. South Fork Salmon River special survey, soils and hydrology. USDA Forest Service, Boise Natl Forest. Boise, ID.

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In : Salo and Cundy, eds.

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Bjornn, T.C., M.A. Brusven, M.P. Molnau, J.H. Milligan, R.A. Klamt, E. Chacho and C. Schaye. 1977. Transport of granitic sediment in streams and its effects on insects and fish. Forestry, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station, Completion Report, Water Resources Institute. University of Idaho, Moscow.

Bjornn, T.C. and D.W. Reiser. 1991. Habitat requirements of salmonids in stream s: influences of forest and rangeland management on salmonid fishes and their habitats. Pp. 83

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Publ. 19. Bethesda , MD.

Burns, D.C. 1984. An inventory of embeddedness of salmonid habitat in the South Fork Salmon River drainage, Idaho. USDA Forest Service, Boise and Payette Natl Forests. Boise and McCall, ID.Summary of Scientific Findings on Roads and Aquatic Ecosystems Page 10 Burroughs, E.R., Jr., G.R. Chalfant and M.A. Townsend. 1976. Slope stability in road construction: a guide to the construction of stable roads in western Oregon and northern California. USDI Bureau of Land Management. Portland, OR.

Chamberlain, T.W., R.D. Harr and F.H. Everest. 1991. Timber harvest, silvi culture and watershed process. Pp. 181

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Chapman, D.W. 1988. Critical review of variabl es used to define effects of fines in redds of large salmonids. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 117(1):1

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Chapman, D.W. and K.P. McLeod. 1987. Development of criteria for fine sediment in the Northern Rockies Ecoregion. U.S. Enviro nmental Protection Agency. Seattle, WA.

Chutter, F.M. 1969. The effects of silt and sand on the invertebrate fauna of streams and rivers. Hydrobiologia. 34:57

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Clancy, C.G. and D.R. Reichmuth. 1990. A detachable fishway for steep culverts. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 10:244

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Clayton, J. 1983. Evaluating slope stability prior to road construction. USDA Forest Service Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. GTR

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Coble, D.W. 1961. Influence of water exchange and dissolved oxygen in redds on survival of steelhead trout embryos. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 90:469

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Corn, P.S. and R.B. Bury. 1989. Logging in western Oregon: responses of headwater habitats and stream amphibians. Forest Ecology and Management 29:39

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Donald, J.A., B.C. Wemple, G.E. Grant and F.J. Swanson. 1997. Interaction of logging roads with hillslope and channel processes during the February 1996 flood in western Oregon. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 77(46):F273.

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Dunne, T. and L.B. Leopold. 1978. Water in environmental planning. W.B. Freeman and Company. San Francisco, CA.

Eaglin, G.S. and W.A. Hubert. 1993. Effects of logging and roads on substrate and trout in streams of the Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyoming. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 13(4):844

- 84 6.Summary of Scientific Findings on Roads and Aquatic Ecosystems Page 11 Evans, W.A. and B. Johnston. 1980. Fish migration and fish passage: a practical guide to solving fish passage problems. EM

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D.C.

Everest, F.H., R.L. Beschta, J.S. Scrivener, K.V. Koski, J.R. Sedell and C.J. Cedarholm. 1987. Fine sediment and salmonid production: a paradox. Pp. 98

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Federal Interagenc y Committee for Management of Noxious and Exotic Weeds (FICMNEW), eds. 1998. Pulling together: a national strategy for management of invasive plants. 2nd edition. U.S. Government Printing Office.

Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team (FEMAT). 19 93. Forest ecosystem management: an ecological, economic, and social assessment. USDA, USDI and others. Portland, OR.

Furniss, M.J., T.D. Roelofs and C.S. Yee. 1991. Road construction and maintenance. Pp.297

- 323, In : W.R. Meehan, ed. Influences of for est and rangeland management on salmonid fishes and their habitat. American Fisheries Society Sp. Publ. 19. Bethesda, MD.

Furniss, M.J., T.S. Ledwith and others. 1997. Response of road

- stream crossings to large flood events. Six Rivers National Forest , Watershed Enterprise Team. Unpubl. Draft report 10/6/97.

Gardner, R.B. 1979. Some environmental and economic effects of alternative forest road designs. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 22:63

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Gibbons, D.R. and E.O . Salo. 1973. An annotated bibliography of the effects of logging on fish of the western Unites States and Canada. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW

- 10. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. Portland, OR.

Hagans, D.K., W.E. Wea ver and M.A. Madej. 1984. Long term on

- site and off

- site effects of logging and erosion in the Redwood Creek basin, northern California.

NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 490:38

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