Report to Congress 

on the 

Depreciation of Horses 

Department of the Treasury 

March 1990 
DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 

WASHINGTON 

ASSISTANT SEC R ETA R Y Narch 1990 

The Honorable Lloyd Bentsen 

Chairman 

Committee on Finance 

United States Senate 

Washington, DC 20510 

Dear Mr. Chairman: 

Section 201(a) of Public Law 99-514, the Tax Reform 

Act of 1986, required the Treasury to establish an office to 

study the depreciation of all depreciable assets, and when 

appropriate, to assign or modify the existing class lives of 

assets. Treasury's authority to promulgate changes in class 

lives was repealed by Section 6253 of Public Law 100-647, the 

Technical and Miscellaneous Revenue Act of 1988. Treasury was 

instead requested to submit reports on the findings of its 

studies to the Congress. This report discusses the depreciation

of horses. The legislative history of the Tax Reform Act of 1986 

indicates that such study was to be among the first conducted by

Treasury. 

I am sending a similar letter to Senator Bob Packwood. 

Sincerely, -

Kenneth W. Gideon 

Assistant Secretary

(Tax Policy) 

Enclosure 
DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 

WASHINGTON 

flarch L990 

ASSISTANT SECRETARY 

The Honorable Dan Rostenkowski 

Chairman 

Committee on Ways and Means 

House of Representatives

Washington, DC 20515 

Dear Mr. Chairman: 

Section 201(a) of Public Law 99-514, the Tax Reform 

Act of 1986, required the Treasury to establish an office to 

study the depreciation of all depreciable assets, and when 

appropriate, to assign or modify the existing class lives of 

assets. Treasury's authority to promulgate changes in class 

lives was repealed by Section 6253 of Public Law 100-647, the 

Technical and Miscellaneous Revenue Act of 1988. Treasury was 

instead requested to submit reports on the findings of its 

studies to the Congress. This report discusses the depreciation

of horses. The legislative history of the Tax Reform Act of 1986 

indicates that such study was to be among the first conducted by

Treasury. 

I am sending a similar letter to Representative Bill 

Archer. 

Sincerely, 

Kenneth W. Gideon 

Assistant Secretary

(Tax Policy) 

Enclosure 
Table of Contents 

Chapter I. Introduction and Principal Findings ................................................................ 1 

A.Mandate for This Study .......................................................................................... 1 

B.Principal Findings ................................................................................................... 2 

Chapter XI. The Useful Life. of Thoroughbreds ................................................................ 5 

A.The Hollingsworth Study ....................................................................................... 5 

B. Determination of the Useful Life of Thoroughbreds .............................................. 5 

C.Distribution of Useful Lives ................................................................................... 6 

Chapter III. The Economic Depreciation of Thoroughbreds ........................................... 11 

A. The Average Age-Price Profile of Geldings.......................................................... 11 

�3 .Translating Economic Depreciation into an Equivalent Economic Life ................ 13 

C. Equivalent Economic Life of Colts/Stallions ......................................................... 14 

D.The Treatment of Appreciating Assets ................................................................... 18 

E.The Equivalent Economic Life of Tharoughbred Filliesmares ............................. 19 

F.The Equivalent Economic Life of All Thoroughbreds ........................................... 22 

Chapter IV. The Implications of the Sale of Older Horses .............................................. 27 

Chapter V. Conclusion and Recommendations ................................................................ 31 

Appendix. Exhibits Related to the Congressional Mandate ............................................. 33 

Notes .................................................................................................................................. 35 

References ......................................................................................................................... 39 

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 40 

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Figure 1: Distribution of Useful "Livesof Thoroughbred Geldings ................................. 7 

Figure 2: Distributionof Useful Lives of Thoroughbred Colts/Stallions ........................ 8 

Figure 3: Distribution of Useful Lives of Thoroughbred Filliesmares ........................... 9 

Figure 4: Selected Age-Price Profiles of Thoroughbred Racehorses ............................... 12 

Figure 5: Age-Price and Tax Basis Profiles for Thoroughbred Geldings ........................ 13 

Figure 6: Age-Price Profiles for Thoroughbred Colts Used for Breeding ....................... 16 

Figure 7: Average Age-Price Profile for Thoroughbred Colts/Stallions .......................... 17 

Figure 8: Age-Price and Tax Basis Profiles for Colts/Stallions. ...................................... 19 

Figure 9: Age-Price Profile for Thoroughbred Fillies Used for Breeding ....................... 20 

Figure 10: Age-Price and Tax Basis Profiles For ThoroughbredFilliesmares .............. 22 

Figure 11: Age-Price and Tax Basis Profiles For All Thoroughbreds ............................. 24 

Figure 12: Probability of a Broodmare Auction Sale by Age .......................................... 28 

Figure 13: Equivalent Economic Life and Useful Life of Broodmares by Age .............. 29 

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Chapter I. Introduction and Principal Findings 

A. Mandate for This Study 

This study of the depreciation of horses has been prepared by the Depreciation Analysis 

Division of the Office of Tax Analysis aspart of its Congressional mandate to study the depreciation 

of all assets. This mandate was incorporated in Section 168(i)(1)@) of the Internal Revenue Code 

(IRC), as modified by the Tax Reform Act of 1986 (see Exhibit 1of the Appendix). This provision 

directed the Secretary of the Treasury to establish an office that "shall monitor and analyze actual 

experience with respect to all depreciable assets", and granted the Secretary authority to change the 

classification and class lives of assets. The Depreciation Analysis Division was established to carry 

out this Congressional mandate. The Technical and Miscellaneous Revenue Act of 1988 (TAMRA) 

repealed Treasury's authority to alter asset classes or class lives, but the revised IRC Section 168(i) 

continued Treasury's responsibility to "monitor and analyze actual experience with respect to all 

depreciable assets" (see Exhibit 2 of the Appendix). 

The General Explanation of the Tax Reform Act of 1986 (the "Blue Book")indicates that, in 

choosing assets for study, the Treasury Department should give priority to those assets that do not 

have a class life. An Asset Depreciation Range (ADR) asset guideline class had existed for work 

and breeding horses (Asset Class 01.22, Horses, Breeding or Work), with an ADR guideline period 

of 10years. Although Congress assigned in the Tax Reform Act a three-year Modified Accelerated 

Cost Recovery System (IvlACKS) recovery period to racehorses more than two years old when 

placed in service and to horses (other than racehorses) more than 12years old when placed in service 

(IRC Section 168(e)(3)(A)),no class life exists for racehorses age two or younger, showhorses, and 

horses used for certain other business purposes.' 

Moreover, under IRC Section 263A(e)(2) aspromulgated in the 1986Act, taxpayers electing 

to expense the pre-productive costs of raising certain animals (including horses) were required to 

use the Alternative Depreciation System, which calls for the use of straight-line depreciation over 

the asset's class life. Assets (such as racehorses) that do not have a class life are assigned a 12-year 

life for this purpose (IRC Section 168(g)(2)(C)). Believing that a 12 year recovery period is too 

long, the American Horse Council asked Treasury to study the depreciation of racehorses. In 

addition, the legislative history of the 1986Act indicated a Congressional desire that Treasury give 

priority to a study of racehorses and older horses? 

In view of the priority required to be given to the study of assets not having class lives, the 

Depreciation Analysis Division responded to this request by announcing in the Federal Register its 

intent to study the depreciation of horses. It also held a public meeting at the Treasury Departrnent 

on October 19, 1987 with interested parties (including representatives of the American Horse 

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Council) to determine the best way to collect the required information. While this study was being 

prepared, Congress repealed (in TAMRA) the uniform capitalization rules for certain producers of 

animals (including horses). Although this action appears to have addressed the primary concems 

of the horse industry, the Depreciation Analysis Division has continued to carry out its Congressionally mandated responsibility to study the depreciation of horses. 

The General Explanation of the 1986 Act indicates that the determination of the class lives 

of depreciable assets should be based on the anticipated decline in their value over time (after 

adjustment for inflation), and on their anticipated useful lives (see Exhibit 3 of the Appendix). 

Under current law, the useful life of an asset is taken to be its entire economic lifespan over all users 

combined, and not just the period it is retained by a single owner. For a group of assets, the 

Depreciation Analysis Division calculates the useful life as a weighted average of lives, with each 

weight set equal to the probability that members of the asset group will be retired upon attaining 

the corresponding life. 

The General Explanation also indicates that, if the class life of an asset is derived from the 

decrease in market value as a function of its age, such life (which, to avoid confusion, is hereafter 

referred to as its equivalent economic life) should be set so that the present value of straight-line 

depreciation over the equivalent economic life equals the present value of the decline in value of 

the asset (both discounted at an appropriate real rate of interest). This formula must be modified 

in order to define a single depreciable life for a group of assets. Given that an asset group invariably 

possesses a distribution of retirements over several ages, a portion of the group will inevitably be 

retired before the group is fully depreciated for tax purposes. Under current tax law, suchretirements 

result in loss deductions equal to the retired assets' remaining basis, less any salvage value. From 

the perspective of an investor recovering his or her capital costs, such loss deductions are equivalent 

to depreciation deductions. Therefore, the definition of an equivalent economic life should be 

modified to account for these deductions: the present value of all "cost recovery" deductions, 

determined by applying a straight-line formula to the equivalent economic life and by taking into 

account the probability of retirement of the asset at each age, must equal the present value of the 

average decline in economic value of the asset group? 

B. Principal Findings 

The principal findings of this study are that the average useful life of all horses is 8.8 years, 

and their average equivalent economic life is 10.6 years. Both estimates assume that horses are 

first placed in service and begin depreciating at age two. These findings are primarily based on an 

analysis of thoroughbredhorses acquired asyearlings. However, the availableinformationregarding 

the level of investment in older horses, and an analysis of their equivalent economic lives, suggest 
-3-

that the current class life of 10years for workhorses and breeding stock might reasonably apply to 

all horses, regardless of their age when placed in service or the use to which they are put. 

Accordingly, the current law three-year recovery period for racehorses and older horses should be 

repealed. 

Two general issues related to the analysis and estimation of economic depreciation arose 

during this study, and their resolution affected the principal findings reported above. First, for many 

depreciable assets that decline rapidly in value, the application of the equivalent economic life 

formula is relatively straightfonvard, and the resulting equivalent economic lives of such assets are 

often significantly shorter than their useful lives. For a number of assets, however, the application 

of the equivalent economic life formula is not as straightfonvard, and the resulting equivalent 

economic lives of these assets may be comparable to or even greatly exceed their useful lives. This 

is particularly true in the case of horses. Somehorses are very successful,and may greatly appreciate 

in value for a good portion of their useful lives, while others may be quite unsuccessful and are 

retired very quickly. The early appreciation for the very successful horses is significant enough to 

cause their average present value of economic depreciation to be quite small, or even negative. 

Where this occurs, the economic equivalent life may not be computable. 

The 10.6-year equivalent economic life quoted above was obtained by simply ignoring the 

appreciation of certain "highly successful" horses. An alternative estimate of 12.7years is obtained 

when this appreciation is taken into account as "negative economic depreciation." The treatment 

of this situation is described in greater detail in Chapter TII. 

An additional complication arises from the fact that most horses used for breeding have 

initially been used for racing. IJnder current law, racehorses can generally be depreciated over a 

three year recovery period. Because salvagevalue is no longer arelevant concept for tax depreciation 

purposes, these horses can be fully depreciated within a few years after starting their racing career, 

even though their market value as a breeding horse can sometimes be many times greater than their 

initial acquisition cost. If all racehorses were customarily sold when their use changed from racing 

to breeding, the current law distinction between horses used for racing and those used for work or 

breeding purposes might still be maintained. The sale would result in the recognition of a market 

asset value, and any "excessive" or "deficient" depreciation previously claimed with respect to such 

horses would be recaptured or allowed as a loss at the time of sale. 

Although sales of shares or interests in horses occur frequently, the Depreciation Analysis 

Division was unable to obtain adequate evidence that the complete (or nearly complete) transfer of 

the ownership interests in a racehorse at the time its use changes from racing to breeding is the 
-4- I 

general industry ~ractice.~Accordingly, the depreciation of horses over their entire careers was 

examined for this report; racing horses and breeding horses are thus not regarded as two distinct 

assets, in contrast to their classificationunder current law. 

Despite repeated attempts to acquire more complete information from the American Horse 

Council, an umbrella organization representing the horse industry, and other industry representatives, the Depreciation Analysis Division was forced to rely on a limited set of publicly available 

information: (1) a 1972 article on the useful lives of thoroughbreds by Kent Hollingsworth,past 

editor of The Blood Horse (a joumal published by the Thoroughbred Owners and Breeders Association), and (2) thoroughbred auction data for various years compiled and published in The Blood 

Horse. After a draftof this report was submitted for review to The American Horse Council,they 

provided some additionalinformation,includinginformationon otherbreeds of horses. Inaddition, 

they submitted a letter objecting to various aspects of the methodology used in this study.5 The 

Depreciation Analysis Division believes that the additional information submitted does not alter 

the conclusions of the draftreport. Nevertheless,where appropriate,notes have been added sumrnarizing the views and data presented by the American Horse Council, so that Congress may judge 

for itself the extentto which this additional material might affect the principal findings of this report. 
Chapter II. The Useful Life of Thoroughbreds 

A. The Holiingsworth Study 

In a very informative article entitled "So What is the Economic Useful Life of A Thoroughbred",which was published in The Blood Horse (March, 1972),Kent Hollingsworthreported 

the results of a very extensive study that traced the complete racing and breeding careers of all 

thoroughbred foals born in the years 1939-41and registered with the Jockey Club. Because horses 

can live to 30 years of age, it was necessary for Hollingsworth to focus on such early vintages of 

foals. His study, which was performed with the assistance of the Jockey Club Statistical Bureau 

under the sponsorshipof the Thoroughbred Owners and Breeders Association,provides statistical 

infoxmationbased on the histories of 19,124horses. In the absence of alternativedata, the statistics 

obtained by Hollingswarthrelating to the useful life of thoroughbreds are used in this study. Other 

data contained in the Hollingsworth study, such as the averagelifetime earningsper horse, are likely 

to be no longer relevant, and are not used. Because of the growth in the number of horses (from 

approximately 6,500 thoroughbreds foaled and registered each year in the 1939-41 period to 

approximately 49,500thoroughbredsfoaled in 1988),and the potential impact of the Second World 

War on the Hollingsworth results, the useful life data may be somewhat out of date. Nevertheless, 

the Hollingsworthstudy was intended to provide helpful informationto the Treasury Department 

in 1972regarding the useful life of thoroughbreds, and should continue to be helpful today. 

In obtainingthe distributionof useful lives, Hollingsworth distinguishedbetween racehorses 

and breeding stock. He also focused only on those racehorses that won race money. Since the 

useful life of an asset for tax depreciation purposes now refers to its economic lifespan over all 

users and uses, the separateuseful life informationfor racehorses and breeding stock are combined 

in this study, as described in the fallowing sections. 

13. Determination of the Useful Life of Thoroughbreds 

Because thoroughbred horses not trained for racing and those not raced for a fullyear before 

being sold or retired are not likely to be depreciated, such horses are excluded from this analysis. 

Although Hollingsworth did not publish statistics on those horses that were not trained for racing, 

or on thosethat didnot "start" arace,the AmericanHorseCouncilprovided additionaldataindicating 

that between 30 and 40 percent of the 1939-41 crop of thoroughbred foals studiedby Hollingswarth 

did not "start". 

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Based on the assumption that the fraction of "non-starters" applies equally to fillies, colts, 

and geldings, Hollingsworth's data imply that about 67 percent of "starting" fillies produce more 

. than one foal, and thus may be assumed to be used for breeding. While some filliesthat do not start 

are in fact used for breeding, it is believed that these constitute only a small percentage of all 

non-starters. In any event, the neglect of such horses should not significantly affect the results. 

Likewise, Hollingsworth's data indicate that 29 percent of all starting colts produce more than 5 

foals in their lifetime, and thus may be assumed to be used for breeding.6 The Hollingsworthdata 

thus generally imply that a fair fraction of starting colts, arid a large fraction of starting fillies, are 

subsequently used for breeding.7 

Theuseful lives of those racehorsesthat are not subsequentlyused forbreeding are determined 

from Hollingsworth's data on the ages at which racehorses earn their last race money. Since some 

horses may be unsuccessfully raced for a few years after the last race in which they earned race 

money, this approach tends to understate their useful lives.* On the other hand, it is also assumed 

that horses that start racing but do not earn any race money have the same distribution of useful 

lives as horses that do earn race money. Since horses that win no race money are more likely to 

have shorter useful lives, these two errors tend to offset each other. 

In contrast to Hollingsworth's assumptionthat all racehorses begin racing in the year in which 

they win their first money, it is assumed in this study that all racehorses begin their racing careers 

at two years of age. Most thoroughbreds do start racing at this age, but more importantly,taxpayers 

generally claim that their racehorses are placed in service at this age, even if they do not actually 

enter a race until three years of age. 

The useful lives of those racehorses that are subsequently used for breeding are determined 

from Hollingsworth's data on the ages at which broodmares produce their last foal, and the ages at 

which stallions sire their last foal. Because owners may attempt to use a horse for breeding after 

it has last been able to produce a live foal, this measure tends to understate the useful life of horses, 

and thus also offsets the assumption used in this study by applying the Hollingsworthstatistics to 

racehorses that do not win any race money. 

C. Distribution of Useful Lives 

The following figures present useful life distributions for several types of horses. Figure 1 

represents thoroughbred geldings, and is based entirely on the ages at which such horses last earn 

race money. The averageuseful life is 6.6 years. As expected,this exceedsthe 5.1 "averagenumber 

of seasons earned" noted by Hollingsworth,who considered the horse's useful life to begin when 

it won its first race money. The disb5butionof useful lives for colts/stallions is shown in Figure 2. 
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In this case, useful lives are determined either by the ages at which they last won race money (for 

the 71 percent of the starting colts that were not subsequently used for breeding), or by the ages 

when they sired their last foal. The average useful life is 7.9 years. Figure 3 shows the distribution 

of useful lives for thoroughbred fillies/mares Here also, useful lives are determined either by the 

ages at which they last won race money (for the 33 percent of the starting fillies that were not 

subsequently used for-breeding),or by the ages when they produced their last foal. The average 

useful life is 11.0 years. 

Figure 1. Distribution of the useful lives of starting thoroughbred geldings. 

The auction data indicatethat male yearlings cost about 16percentmore than female yearlings. 

Based on this statistic, and using distributions found in Hollingsworth, the following investment 

weights were derived 39.5 percent for geldings, 14.0 percent for colts/stallions,and 46.5 percent 

for fillies/mares. The investment-weighted averageusefullifefor all thoroughbredhorses combined 

is 8.8 years. 
Figure 2. Distribution of the useful lives of starting thoroughbred colts/stallions. 
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 

Useful Lives (in years) 

Distribution of the useful lives of starting:thoroughbred fdliedmares. 
Chapter The Economic Depreciation of Thoroughbreds 

In this chapter, average age-price profiles,economic depreciation, and equivalent economic 

lives are derived separately for geldings,colts/stallions,and fillies/mares. Conceptual issues related 

to the treatment of gains and losses upon disposition of horses and the treatment of appreciating 

assets are discussed, and their implicationsfor equivalent economic lives are shown. The estimation 

of the equivalent economic life of all thoroughbreds is discussed last. 

A. The Average Age-Price Profile of Geldings. 

Geldings are castrated male horses. In the Hollingsworth study, they outnumber colts by a 

ratio of nearly three-to-one. For convenience, it is assumed that the value of all racehorses not 

subsequently used for breeding (and this clearly includes geldings) declines linearly with the age 

of the horse once it starts racing, which as noted is assumed to occur when the horse is two years 

of age. No change in value is assumed to occur between the date of acquisition and the date the 

horse is placed in service. It is also assumed that the salvage value of a horse is five percent of the 

horse’s value as a yearling, and that the imputed price of the horse declines to this value at the end 

of its useful life &e., when it is at the age at which it has won its last race money). Only the value 

of the horse relative to its acquisition cost is needed to determine its economic depreciation per 

dollar of investment. Thus, the assumption that the horse’s salvage value is proportionalto its price 

as a yearling allows the age-price profiles of horses of varying acquisition costs to be calculated as 

if they all had the same acquisition cost. For convenience,this cost is taken to be $6,500, which is 

the median price of all thoroughbred yearlings acquired at auction in 1987. The implications of 

investment in older horses will be discussed in Chapter TV. 

Based on this $6,500 initial price, a five percent salvage value is $325. This may seem low, 

sincehealthy retired thoroughbred racehorsesmay be sold for recreational use for severalthousands 

of dollars, and even lame horses may be sold for slaughter for about $450. On the other hand, the 

acquisition cost of some yearlings may exceed one million dollars, and the corresponding $50,000 

salvagevalue may be somewhat high. For a horse costing $35,400 (the mean 1987 yearling auction 

price), the calculated salvage value is $1,770, which approximates amounts received for retired 

thoroughbred racehorses. A five percent salvage value thus appears reasonable? 

In summary,the age-priceprofile for allracehorses that are not subsequently used forbreeding 

is assumed to exhibit a simple straight-line decline (starting at age two) from the assumed $6,500 

initial value. However, different horses are assumed to have different straight-line patterns, as 

determined by the distributionof their useful lives (although they all have the same assumed $325 

salvagevalue). Selected age-priceprofiles for geldings, for example, are shown below in Figure 4. 

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The relative fractions of geldings exhibiting each specific pattem is given by the frequency distribution of the useful lives for geldings (see Figure 1). The average age-price profile for allgeldings 

is shown in Figure 5 below. 

$7,000 

$6,000 

$5,000 

$! 

8 $4,000 3: 

cu

0 

6, *2

PI 

$3,000 

$2,000 

$1,000 

$0' , I I I , , I 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910111213141516 

Age of Horse 

Figure 4. Selected age-price profiles of starting thoroughbred racehorses that are not subsequently

used for breeding. 

This method of estimating the average value of a set of non-homogeneous assets, each of 

which declines in value in a straight-line fashion, has been referred to as the Bureau of Economic 

Analysis method (see, for example, Hulten and Wykoff [198 l]),and is known to result in anaverage 

age-price profile that resembles that for a single more rapidly declining asset (asis shown in Figure 

5). The present value (as of the acquisition date of the horse) of the annual decline in value (Le., 

"economic depreciation") for thoroughbred geldings is obtained by discounting each year's decline 

in the average value (starting at age two) from the middle of the year at a discount rate r: 

(1) PV= c [V(i- 1) -V(i)] 

i=3V(1)(1+r)(i-15) ' 
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where PV is the present value of economic depreciation,V (1)is the acquisition price of the horse 

(assumed acquired as a yearling), and where V(i)is the average value of those horses of age i that 

are still racing (as determined from the distribution of useful lives in Figure 1). If a four percent 

real discount rate, r, is used, a present value (as of age one) of 0.8058 is obtained. 

$7,000 

$6,000 

$5,000 

$4,000 

$3,000 

$2,000 

$1,000 

$0' I I I I I L I , 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910111213141516 

Age of Horse 

Figure 5. Average age-price profile for starting thoroughbred geldings and the corresponding 

average equivalent tax basis curve derived from an equivalent economic life of 6.9 years. 

B. Translating Economic Depreciation into an Equivalent Economic Life 

As noted in Chapter 1, the General Explanation of the Tax Reform Act of 1986 provides a 

formula for translating the present value of economic depreciation into an equivalent economic life. 

Inparticular,the equivalenteconomiclife is determinedby equating the present value of straight-line 

depreciation (over the to-be-determined equivalenteconomic life) to the present value of economic 

depreciation. If this procedure is carried out using the same four percent real discount rate and a 

mid-year discounting convention, an equivalent economic life of 5.8 years is obtained for thor-
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oughbred geldings. This result depends on the assumptions that all geldings are considered placed 

in service at age two, and that their training and maintenance costs are expensed. It further assumes 

that all geldings are identical in that they all retire at the same age. 

Without this last assumption,a taxpayer would most likely incur a loss (or gain) when his or 

herhorse was retired. Thisgain (or loss)would be measured by the differencebetweenthe remaining 

tax basis in the horse in the year it was retired and its salvage value. The Depreciation Analysis 

Division believes that these gains (which arise ifthe horse is retired later than "average")and losses 

(which arise if the horse is retired sooner than "average") are altemative ways (in addition to 

depreciation)of recoveringthe capital invested in the horse, and should be factored into the analysis. 

When this is done, the equivalent economiclife of a gelding is found to be 6.9 years, which is close 

to its 6.6-year average useful life. The average equivalent tax basis for geldings is also shown in 

Figure 5. This curve is obtained by depreciating each horse using a stmight-line formula and an 

equivalenteconomic life of 6.9 years, and by calculating appropriate losses and gains according to 

the estimated gelding retirement pattern shown in Figure 1." The areas under the two curves in 

Figure 5, when discounted to a common age, are equal. 

C. Equivalent Economic Life of Colts/Stallions 

The age-priceprofiles for those colts that start but are not subsequently used for breeding are 

assumed to be similar to those for geldings; the relative fraction of such colts in each useful life 

classis obtained fromthe Hollingsworth data on the ages at which colts earned their last race money. 

The value of those colts that are subsequently used for breeding are, however, imputed from the 

stud fees which these horses can generate. 

Following Hollingsworth, a distinction is made between two groups of breeding stallions. 

Although only those stallions that sire five or more foals in their lifetime are considered to be used 

for breeding, a more limited group of stallions (which shall henceforth be referred to as the "very 

successful" stallions) sire ten or more foals in a single season sometime during their life. The 

Hollingsworth study notes that only 1.3 percent of all males fall into this category. However, when 

both the males assumed not to start (and thus also assumed not to be used for breeding purposes) 

and the starting geldings are excluded, this statistic implies that as many as seven percent of the 

startingcoltsbecome very successfulstallions. Likewise,fromHollingsworth'sstatisticthat roughly 

fivepercent of all males areused for breeding,it may be inferred that about 21 percent of all starting 

colts become less than very successful(hereafter referredto as "lesssuccessful")breeding stallions. 

The ratio of the value of seven-year old breeding stallions to their acquisition cost, RV, is 

obtained as the product of four factors: 
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(2) RV = (SeIAC)x (ShISe)xN x (1-OC), 

where (SeIAC)is the ratio of the value of a stallion season (the stud fee for servicing a single mare 

in a single season) to the acquisition cost of the horse (adjusted for inflation), (ShISe)is the ratio 

of the value of a share of the horse (the right to use the stallion to service a single mare each season 

for the remainder of the stallion's breeding career) to the value of a season (which reflects the 

discounted value of the number of future seasons the stallion is expected to serve),N is the estimated 

number of mares serviced per season, and OC is the ratio of the maintenance costs to the stud fees 

received. 

From the 1988 auction data published by The BLoodHorse (January, 1989),it was found that 

(ShISe),or the ratio of the price of a stallion share to that of a stallion season is about 4.4 for a 

seven-year old stallion, but this ratio declines thereafter (initially, at about 4.5 percent per year) 

with the age of the stallion. The Hollingsworth data also indicate that the very successful breeding 

stallions produce about 10.1 foals per crop at age seven, while the less successful breeding stallions 

produce about 2.75 foals per crop at age seven. Although the stud fees received are frequently 

,contingent upon the birth of a live foal, this was not the case for most of the auction prices noted. 

Thus, an adjustment is made to reflect the fact that the number of foals sired might understate the 

mares serviced by a stallion in a season." Based on a 69 percent breeding success rate (which the 

Hollingswarth data show to be appropriate for a seven-year old broadmare), the very successful 

seven-year old stallion appears to service about 14.6 mares per season (i.e., N = 14.6), whereas the 

less successful seven-year old stallion services about 4.0 mares per season (i.e., N = 4.0). 

It is assumed that the current and future costs of maintaining a breeding stallion are about 20 

percent of the fees received by a very successful stallion @e., OC = .20), and about 55 percent of 

the fees received by a less successful stallion (i.e., OC = S5). Because it was generally not possible 

to determine yearling values for those stallions whose seasons were sold at public auction, a less 

exact matching was used to estimate the ratio (SeIAC). From the auction data published in various 

issues of The Blood Horse, the average price was obtained for all yearlings sired by the stallion's 

sire and sold at auction in the year in which the stallion was a yearling. 

When this price is substituted for the acquisition cost of the stallion, an average ratio of the 

value of a stallion's season to its inflation-adjusted acquisition cost of 11.7 percent is obtained (i.e., 

(SeIAC)= .117). This does not mean that purchasers of every yearling colt can necessarily expect 

to obtain such fees in the future. It does mean that, if the acquired colt should prove sufficiently 

successful to be used for breeding, and the relationship between prior yearling prices and current 

stud fees persists, fees of that magnitude may be expected. 
- 16-

Insertingthese factors intoEquation(2),the value of avery successfulseven-year old breeding 

stallion is roughly six times its initial cost. Likewise,the value of a less successful seven-year old 

breeding stallionis about 0.9 times its value as a yearling. The declinein value of breeding stallions 

with age is taken to be the result of two factors--(1)a decline in the ratio of the value of a share to 

that of a season (which reflects the decline in the number of future crops anticipated), and (2)a 

decline in the number of mares serviced, as inferred from the Hollingsworth data on the decline 

with age in the number of foals sired by active stallions.'2 The resulting age-priceprofiles of both 

the very succesjful and the less successful breeding stallions are shown below in Figure 6. In 

obtainingthese profiles, a linear increase (for the very successful stallions)or decrease (for the less 

successfulstallions)between the value of the horse at age two and its value at age seven is assumed. 

$50,000 

$40,000 

< 

0 

$30,000 

3: 

rr

0 

8

'C $20,OOo 

pc 

$10,000 

$0 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920212223242526272829 

Age of Horse 

Figure 6. Estimatedage-price profiles forunretired startingthoroughbred coltsthat are subsequently

used for breeding stock. 

The average age-price profile for all starting thoroughbred colts/stallions is obtained as a 

mixture of the values of those starting colts that are not subsequently used for breeding and the 

values of those that are so used. However, the retirement of the breeding stallions must also be 

considered. Here also, it is assumed that the salvagevalue of a retired stallion is five percent of its 

cost as a yearling. The decline in value of retired breeding stock is assumed to be very sudden;just 
- 17-

prior to retirement the horse has the value noted in Figure 6, and a value of $325 immediately 

thereafter. The frequency of retirements may be obtained from the Hollingsworth data on the ages 

of stallions in the year they sire their last foal; separate statistics are noted for the very successful . 

and the less successful stallions. When these factors are taken into account, the resulting 

retirement-adjusted average age-priceprofile shown below in Figure 7 is obtained. The sharp initial 

decline in the estimated price is due to the rapidretirement of the less successful racehorses, while 

the cusp at nine years of age reflects the assumed peak in the value of very successful stallions. 

The present value (as of the date of acquisition, at a four percent real rate, and with mid-year 

discounting) of the economic depreciation corresponding to this decline in value is 0.6579. 

$7,000 

-7 

$5.000 L \ 

I \ ru

0 I 

8 $3,000

'C

CLC 

$2'000 t 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920212223242526272829 

Age of Horse 

Figure 7. Estimated average age-price profile for starting thoroughbred calts/stallions. 

If retirements are disregarded, an equivalent economic life for starting thoroughbred 

colts/srallions of 17.6 years is obtained. However, a finite equivalent economic life that accounts 

for the gains and losses incurred by taxpayers upon retirement of the horses cannot be obtained: 

with depreciation deductions set to zero, the present value of the loss deductions derived solely 

from the retirement of colts/stallions is 0.7012, which exceeds the present value of economic 

depreciation. Further "negativedepreciation allowances" would be required to equate the present 
-18-

valueof tax deduc?ions with the present value of economic depreciation. Thisresult,when combined 

with the equivalent economic life formula, implies that thoroughbred colts/stallions should not be 

treated as depreciable property. The problem arises due to the significant appreciation in the value 

of the very successful stallions and to the relatively rapid retirement of these horses over the first 

decade of economic life, despite the fact 'hat only about sever1percent of the starting colts ultimately 

belong in this ~ategory.'~ 

.The Treatment of Appreciating Assets 

The determination of class lives using the formula of the General Explanation of the Tax 

ReformAct of 1986meritsspecial attentionin the case of assets such as very successfulcolts/stallions 

that appreciate over aportion of theiruseful lives. Although economic depreciation,which is simply 

the negative of the change in value of a depreciable asset during the year, may be negative as well 

as positive, tax policy considerations may require a distinction be made in the two cases. In the 

context of the equivalent economic life formula, negative economic depreciation may be viewed 

as giving rise to an effective tax on the taxpayer's accrued, but unrealized, holding gains. This is 

reflected in the fact that the asset's equivalent economic life in such cases is typically much greater 

than itsuseful life. Although this is simply the converse of allowingtaxpayersto claim a depreciation 

deduc?ion for their accrued but unrealized losses when their assets decline in value, it is not clear 

that such treatment reflects Congressional intent. 

It clearly is not appropriate for taxpayers to effectively claim depreciation deductions during 

that period when their asset is appreciating in value. On the other hand, under current law, which 

looks to industry-wide or asset-wide evidence in the determination of a class life, to deny depreciation deductions for an asset such as a horse, which has a finite useful life, may also be viewed 

as inappropriate (even if the period over which any specific asset is retained by a given taxpayer 

may not be as~ertainable).'~The legislative history indicates that both the anticipated decline in 

the value of the asset (its "economic depreciation")and its anticipated useful life should be considered in the determination of its class life. The Depreciation Analysis Division generally views 

the asset's decline in economic value to be the more important factor, but this position may not be 

tenable when, as in the case of colts/stallions,an equivalent economic life based on the decline in 

economic value is so different from the asset's useful life. 

An alternativeapproach, which shall be followed in this study,is to treat the value of the very 

successful stallions as equal to their initial value untiltheir estimated price finally declines below 

the initial value. More specifically,in applying the formula of the General Explanation to thoroughbred colts/stallions, the economic depreciation of the very successful stallions is taken to be 
- 

- 

e-- Equivalent Tax Basis Curve (18.5 year life) - 

- 

- 

- 

- 19-

zero between ages 2 and 23. When this is done, the average age-price profile of thoroughbred 

colts/stallions is that shown below in Figure 8. The cusp-like behavior present in Figure 7 is absent, 

and the resulting present value (as of the date of acquisition) of economic depreciation is 0.7570. 

$7,000 

$6,000 

$5,000 

8

3 $4,000 

4-4

0 

8 $3,000 

'C

E4 

$2,000 

$1,000 

-

-

e--Equivalent Tax Basis Curve (18.5 year life) -

-

-

-

$Q""""" ' ' I " """' ' ' I ' " I 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1Q1112131415161718192Q212223zA2526272829 

Age of Horse 

Figure 8. Average age-price profile for starting thoroughbred colts/stallions, ignoring the appreciation in value of the very successful stallions, and the corresponding average equivalent tax basis 

curve derived from an equivalent economic life of 18.5 years. 

If asset retirements are taken into account, an equivalent economic life for starting thoroughbred colts/stallions of 18.5 years is obtained. The corresponding average equivalent tax basis 

curve is also shown in Figure 8. Finally, if both retirements and the appreciation in the value of 

the very successful stallions are ignored, the equivalent economic life is 9.3 years. 

E. The Equivalent Economic Life of Thoroughbred FilliedMares 

The determination of the equivalent economic life of thoroughbred fillies/mares introduces 

an additional complication: a fraction of broodmares are sold at auction at varying ages The 

availability of such market data, however, makes the estimation of their age-price profile somewhat 

more direct. Even in this case, though, the value of the mares must be inferred. Most broodmares 

sold at auction are believed to be in foal, and the price paid must thus be allocated between the 
- 20 -

potential future weanling and the mare it~e1f.l~In order to do this, the ratios of the average value 

of a weanling sired by the same stallion believed to have covered the mare, to the price of the mare 

in foal, were examined for a sample of about 250 mares sold at auction in 1988. 

From these data, it is found that the average price of a weanling sired by the same stallion 

that covered the broodmare is about 43 percent of the average price of the broodmare. As noted, 

Hollingsworth's data indicatethat live foalsareproduced by about 69percent of all active seven-year 

old broodmares (thisfraction declines with the age of the broodmare). It may thus be inferred that 

the value of the broodmare alone is about 70 percent (1.0 - (0.69)(0.43)) of the sales price of the 

broodmare. This fraction shall be used over the entire economic life of the broodmare, which tends 

to understate the value of the broodmare. 

$7,000 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 W 21 22 23 24 25 

Age of Horse 

Figure 9. Age-price profile for unretired starting thoroughbred fiies that are subsequently used 

for breeding stock. 

From a sample of about 200 broodmares sold at auction in 1988, the price of a seven-year 

old broodmare is about 72 percent of the average price paid six-years earlier for female yearlings 
- 21 -

sired by the same stallion that covered the mare, when adjusted for inflation. The average price of 

a seven-year old broodmare alone is thus estimated to be about 50 percent of its initial price as a 

yearling (0.70 x 0.72). 

By regressing the auction prices of broodmares sired by a given stallion against the age of 

the broodmare, it is also found that the value of a broodmare (adjusted for inflation) declines with 

age from age seven (initially at about seven percent per year). In performing the regression, the 

prices of about 175broodmares sired by some of the most prolific stallions were examined. In this 

study, the value of a broodmare is assumed to decline even faster: first by a uniform six percent 

per year, and then by a second factor reflecting the decline in fertility of broodmares with age, as 

determined from the Hollingsworth data. This procedure results in an average rate of decline in 

the price of unretired broodmares in excess of 12percent ann~ally.'~ 

The resulting age-priceprofile for those fillies that are ultimately used for breeding (67 percent 

of the starting fillies) is shown in Figure 9. A linear decrease in value between ages two and seven 

is assumed. As in the case of thoroughbred colts, the average age-price profiles of the 33 percent 

starting fillies that are not subsequentlyused for breeding are assumed to decline in a linear fashion. 

Paralleling the treatment of stallions, a fraction of those mares that areused for breeding are assumed 

to retire at varying ages, as determined from the statistics given in the Hollingsworth study on the 

ages at which broodmares produce their last foal. It is likewise assumed that, when a broodmare 

is retired, taxpayers claim a loss (or gain) on the difference between their adjusted tax basis for the 

horse and its assumed $325 salvage value. 

The estimated average age-price profile for the overall mix of starting racing fillies and 

broodmares is shown in Figure 10. The resulting economic depreciation has a present value (using 

areal 4percent discount rate and amid-year discounting convention)of 0.7569. Taking into account 

the gains and losses incurred by taxpayers upon the retirement of their horses, an equivalent economic life for thoroughbred fillies/mares of 12.0 years is obtained. As in the case of the geldings 

(but in contrast to that of colts/stallions), the equivalent economic life for fillies/mares is not much 

greater than their average useful life (11.0 years). Furthermore, if the taxpayer's retirement gains 

and losses are ignored, the equivalent economic life is 9.3 years. 
e-- Equivalent Tax Basis Curve (12.0 year life) 

- 22 -

$7,000 

$6,000 

$5,000 e--Equivalent Tax Basis Curve (12.0 year life) -

% I \ 8 $4,000 

cu

0 

$3,000 

a

-6" 

$2,000 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 

Age of Horse 

Figure 10. Average age-priceprofile for starting thoroughbred fillies/mares,and the corresponding 

average equivalent tax basis curve derived from an equivalent economic life of 12.0 years. 

F. The Equivalent Economic Life of All Thoroughbreds 

The data presented in the Hollingsworth study,when used in conjunction with public auction 

data, has allowed the equivalent economic lives of thoroughbred geldings, colts/stallions, and 

fillies/maresto be separately determined. The 6.9 year equivalenteconomiclife of geldings,whose 

businessuse is confined to racing, is much shorterthan that for colts/stallionsand filliedmares(18.5 

years and 12.0 years, respectively,if the appreciation in the value of the very successful stallions 

is neglected). 

Although it is possible to establish separate asset classes for each type of horse, the use of a 

single combined asset class (as under current law) would result in a less complicated asset classificationsystem. Sincemany taxpayers own both male and femalehorses for businessuse, an average 

class life based on the economics of horses of both sexes shouldnot unduly disadvantageone group 

of taxpayers over another. In determining the combined equivalent economic life for all thoroughbreds, it is appropriate to weight the present values of economic depreciation for each type of 

horse by the relative level of investment in that type of horse. As noted, the auction data indicate 
- 23 -

that the average price of male yearlings is 16 percent greater than that of female yearlings. When 

this factor is used to adjust the relative numbers of horses of each type, a single weighted average 

present value is obtained by: 

(3) WtdAvg .PV = .3946PV(g) + .1198PV(c/s)+.4656PV(f/m). 

Inserting the present values of economic depreciation for geldings, PV(g ), colts/stallions, 

PV(c/s),and fillies/mares, PV(f/m),into Equation (3) yields an investment-weightedpresent value 

of economic depreciation of 0.7762 if the appreciation in the value of the very successful stallions 

is ignored, and 0.7624 if it is not. Equating thesepresent values to those for straight-linedepreciation 

leads to an overall equivalent economic class life for all starting thoroughbreds of 10.6 years if the 

appreciation in value of the very successful stallions is ignored, and 12.7 years if it is not. These 

results take into consideration the gains and losses incurred by taxpayers on the retirement of their 

horses. Figure 11 below shows the corresponding estimated average age-price profile and the 

average equivalenttax basis curve for all startingthoroughbreds. In this illustration,the appreciation 

in the value of the very successful stallions is ignored. The 10.6 year equivalent economic life is 

not much greater than the current 10 year class life for work and breeding horses. In contrast to 

current law, however, this estimated life applies to all starting thoroughbreds. 

A 10.6-year equivalent economic life is, of course, an average. Short-lived horses -- principally those that will not subsequently be held for breeding -- would be almost entirely retired 

before being fully depreciated, according to the available data. The present value of the deductions 

far such horses would be less than the present value of their economic depreciation. Breeding stock, 

on the other hand would tend to have useful lives that extended well beyond the tax depreciation 

period. These horses, therefore, would be treated relatively favorably. It would be possible, (but 

not necessarily desirable) to establish two classes -- distinguished by the horse’s breeding status. 

For example, it would be straightforward to establisha separate category for geldingshaving a class 

lifethat reflectedthe6.9-year equivalent economiclifefound for suchhorses. Thiswould necessitate 

alonger classlifeforthe remaining horses. An analysis of such horses yields an equivalent economic 

life of 12.8 years for non-gelded thoroughbreds, if we neglect the appreciation of very successful 

stallions, and 16.6 years, if that appreciation is taken into account. 
-24-

$6,000 

$5,000 

2 

LI g $4,000 

b u

0 

8 $3,000 .3

IC 

$2,000 

$1,000 

-

- <--Equivalent Tax Basis Curve (10.6 year life) 

-

-

-

-

$O*"' * i ' l ' l * ' ' l ' ' ' ' ' t 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 

Figure 11. Average age-price profile for all starting thoroughbreds, with neglect of the appreciation in the value of the very successful stallions, and the corresponding average equivalent tax 

basis curve derived from an equivalent economic life of 10.6 years. 

Establishing a second asset class that included all horses not eventually held for breeding 

would be much more complicated. This would require the classification of horses into breeding 

andnon-breeding horses at the time the horse isplaced in service. Toprevent abuse, severepenalties 

would have to be created for later changing a horse's status from "non-breeding" to "breeding". 

Not only would adherence to this scheme place severe restrictions on horse owners, there is a 

question of whether such a classification system could be implemented properly and enforced. In 

any case, analysis yields an equivalent economic life of 6.4 years for "non-breeding" horses and 

15.1 years for "breeding" stallions and mares. If the appreciation in value for certain stallions is 

included, this latter figure increases to 20.5 years. 

The thoroughbred results are summarized in the table below. 
- 25 -

Thoroughbred Results 

(Lives are expressed in terms of years) 

Category 

Geldings 

Colts/Stallions 

Fillies/Mares 

Non-gelded Horses 

"Breeding" Horses 

"Non-breeding" Horses 

All Horses 

Useful 

Life 

6.6 

7.9 

11.0 

10.3 

14.3 

5.8 

8.8 

-~~ 

Equivalent Economic Life 

(Includes the effects of retirements) 

Disregarding the Including the 

Appreciation of Appreciation of 

Stallions Stallions 

6.9 6.9 

18.5 Not Computed 

12.0 12.0 

12.8 16.6 

15.1 20.5 

6.4 6.4 

10.6 12.7 
Chapter IV. The Implications of the Sale of Older Horses 

The previous analysis has been based on the assumption that horses are acquired as yearlings, 

and are held by their owners until retired from racing or, if used for breeding, until retired from the 

breeding stock. The assumption that horses are acquired as yearlings appears to be reasonably 

validated by the auction records. The Blood Horse (January, 1989) indicates that 9,083 yearlings 

were sold at auction in 1988, while only 1,362 weanlings and 3,645 two-year olds were sold. 

Moreover, since depreciation cannot generally be claimed until the horse is at least two years old, 

the fact that some horses are acquired as weanlings or two-year olds should not appreciably affect 

the calculations of their equivalent economic lives. This is so despite the fact that the price paid 

for a weanling is expected to be lower than that paid for a yearling, and likewise the price paid for 

a two-year old is expected to be higher than that for a yearling. While the average 1988 auction 

price for weanlings was $16,044, which is about half of the $31,250 average for yearlings, the 

average price for two-year olds was only $16,464. This suggests that horses offered for sale as 

two-year olds may not be as promising as those retained by their owner. This problem, which has 

been discussed by Ackerlof (1970), is not an easy one to resolve. Although their lower auction 

prices make it likely that the equivalent economic lives of horses acquired as two-year olds may be 

somewhat shorter than the equivalent economic lives of horses acquired as weanlings or yearlings, 

the fact that the Hollingsworth data do not distinguish horses acquired as two-year olds from other 

horses precludes any detailed examination of this issue. 

The fact that horses acquired as two-year olds may have different useful lives than those 

acquired at earlier ages is not, however, the issue that has concerned the horse industry. Rather, it 

is the problem of older horses that has long been of interest to this industry. Under the "facts and 

circumstances" depreciation system in effect prior to the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981,the 

period over which an asset was intended to be used by the taxpayer (its "useful life") determined 

its depreciation period (its "service life").'7 Because older horses are not expected to be used over 

as long a period as younger horses (their "useful life" is clearly limited by their mortality), the horse 

industry has long believed that the recovery period allowed for older horses should be much shorter 

than that for younger horses. 

Based on the results of his study, Hollingsworth proposed special treatment for older horses. 

More specifically, he suggested that for racehorses acquired as a weanling or yearling, a five-year 

useful life be used for colts and fillies, and a six-year useful life for geldings. However, he also 

suggested that these useful lives generally be reduced by one year for each year of the horse's age 

(above the age of one) at which it was placed in service as a racehorse. Likewise, he suggested a 

useful life of 10years for thoroughbred breeding stock placed in service before the horse is seven 

- 27 -
- 28 -

years old, and that this life also generally be reduced by one year for each year of age (in excess of 

six years) at which the horse is placed in service. As noted, current tax law reflects this suggestion 

to a limited extent by assigning a three-year recovery period to any horse (other than a racehorse) 

that is placed in service when more than 12 years of age. 

Although the remaining useful life of nearly all depreciable assets (includinghorses) generally 

declines by one year with each year of the asset’slife, it does not necessarily follow that its equivalent 

economic life behaves in a similar fashion. Nor does it necessarily follow that separate asset classes 

should be established for assets differing only by age. If (as appears to be the case for horses) only 

a modest fraction of used (older) assets are acquired, it is administratively convenient to factor the 

relative investment in these used assets into the calculation of a single class life for all assets of that 

type, regardless of their agewhen acquired. To do otherwisefor all assetswould require enlargement 

of the approximately 125 existing asset classes by a factor of perhaps 25 or more. 

I m

3.0 

2.5 

0 -.I 

(d

v3 

ru0 2.0 

h U sk 

.-% E 1.5 

P

5!

CLC 

1.o 

0.5 

0.0 

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 

Age of Horse 

Figure 12. Estimated probability of an auction sale of thoroughbred broodmares as a function of 

the age of the broodmare. 
We shares in a lirnited number of older stallions are sold at public auction (shares in 200 

stallionswere sold in 1988),only older broodmares appearto be sold at public auction in appreciable 

numbers (5,746 in 1988).18 These mares represent less than 10percent of all active thoroughbred 

broodmares (which, for 1985,are estimated by the American Horse Council to total about 65,000). 

Based on an analysis of the ages of a random sample of 250 broodmares sold at auction in 1988, 

theprobability of an activebroodmare being sold at any given ageis shownin Figure 12. In obtaining 

this probability distribution,the growth in the numbers of yearlings registered each year, the relative 

numbers of the female yearlings that are ultimately used for breeding, and the fraction of broodmares 

that remain active at each age (as inferred from the Hollingsworth data on the ages at which 

broodmares produce their last foal) have all been considered. From Figure 12, it appears that 

broodmares are sold at all ages, rather than only when they have completed their racing career and 

are being converted into breeding ~tock.'~ 

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I1 12 13 14 15 16 17 I8 19 20 21 22 23 

Age of Horse When Placed in Service 

Figure 13. Equivalent economic life and useful life of a thoroughbred broodmare as a function of 

the age of the mare when placed in service. 

Even though the level of investment in broodmares may not be sufficient to warrant the 

establishment of separate asset classes for horses placed in service at each age, the potential impact 

of these horses on the overallclasslifemeritsexamination. The estimatedusefullives and equivalent 
- 30 -

economic lives of thoroughbred broodmares acquired at ages two to twenty-three are shown in 

Figure 13. It may be noted from this figure that, while the useful life declines monotonically with 

the age in which the broodmare is placed in service, the equivalent economic life does not exhibit 

any particular trend. Indeed, it tends to increase at higher ages. This is due to the increasing 

importance of the salvage value relative to the acquisition cost for older horses. This salvage value 

provides a "floor" for-theprice of the horse, and thus limits the rate of economic depreciation. While 

alternative assumptions regarding the salvage value might lead to a decline of equivalent economic 

lives of thoroughbred broodmares with their age when placed in service,neither the existing evidence 

regarding the relative levels of investment in older horses nor the speed of the decline in their 

equivalent economic lives provide compelling evidence for modification of the overall 10.6-year 

equivalent economic life noted earlier for all thoroughbreds.20 
Chapter V. Conclusion and Recommendations 

The analysis has so far focused solely on the useful lives and equivalent economic lives of 

thoroughbreds. However, The Blood Horse (January, 1989) reports that about $532 million was 

spent in 1988 on the acquisition of thoroughbred weanlings, yearlings, two-year olds, and broodmares through sales at public auction. The Harness Horse (February, 1989) indxates that about 

$83 million was spent on auction sales of harness horse yearlings, and perhaps another $350 million 

was invested in 1988 on all other business-use horses. Because investment in thoroughbreds thus 

appears to account for over half of the total investment in business horses, the picture obtained from 

the study of this single breed may be reasonably representative of that for all breeds combined?* 

Other information obtained indicates that the useful lives of horses generally do not exceed 

16 years, but does not otherwise provide evidence on either average useful lives nor average 

equivalent economic lives. This information includes a letter from Mr. Peter Ruhlen, president of 

the Ruhlen Agency, Inc., which is considered to be the largest all-breed insurance underwriter in 

North America. The letter indicates that the Ruhlen Agency does not generally insure any horses 

over 16years of age, and that the Ruhlen Agency has developed information indicating that a horse’s 

productivelife ends at 16. Another letter,from Mr. John Darnell,vice president of the First National 

Bank of Louisville,statesthathis bank feels comfortablefinancingbroodmares,or using broodmares 

as collateral, up to the age of 16. For horses as old as 18 years of age, the bank takes precautions 

to minimize its risk. 

This study showsthat the currentlaw distinction between racehorses and horses used for work 

or breeding is at variance with the general criteriaestablished by the 1986Act for determining class 

lives. It also shows that the equivalent economic lives of older broodmares fail to decline with age, 

and that the frequency of their purchase fails to support the establishment of a separate asset class 

for older horses. 

This study finds that the average useful life of thoroughbreds is 8.8 years, and their average 

equivalent economic life is 12.7 years, by using the straightfonvard application of the General 

Explanation method. If, however, the appreciation in horse values is ignored, then this method 

yields an average equivalent economic life of 10.6 years. These lives appear to also represent 

reasonable approximationsto the economiclives of other breeds of horses. An argument for creating 

multiple horse classes to reflect the diversity of actual useful lives does not seem compelling in 

light of the added complexity such classes would create. Thus, the Treasury Department recommends that the current five MACRS asset classes for horses (01.221,01.222,01.223, 01.224, and 

01.225; see Rev. Proc. 88-22) be combined into a single class, and that the current 10-year class 

life for asset class 01.221 (any breeding or work horse that is 12 years old or less at the time it is 

-31 -
- 32 -

placed in service) be assigned to the single new asset class. This would result in a seven-year 

MACRS recovery period for all horses. Treasury also recommends repeal of the cmnt law 

assignments of a three-year MACRS recovery period for racehorses placed in service after two 

years of age and for horses other than racehorses that are more than 12 years old when placed in 

service. 

These conclusionsmay, at first glance, appear unduly harsh, since only a limited fraction of 

all horses acquired for business purposes become very successful racehorses, or are used for 

breeding. Yet it is the prospect of such success that provides the incentive to invest. The increased 

value of these more successfulhorses, on average, roughly offsets their smallernumbers. Focusing 

only on less successful horses, as suggested by the American Horse Council, while allowing a 

depreciation pattem more closely matching the experience of the majority of horses, would be 

inconsistentwith the basic economics of the horse industry. 
Appendix 

Exhibits Related to the Congressional Mandate 

Exhibit 1 

Section 168(i)(l)(B)of the Internal Revenue Code as Revised by the Tax Reform Act of 1986 

(i) Definitions and Special Rules. 

For purposes of this section-­

(1) Class Life. 

(B) Secretarial authority. The Secretary, through an office established in the 

Treasury-­

(i) shall monitor and analyze actual experience with respect to all depreciable assets, and 

(ii) except in the case of residential rental property or nonresidential real 

property-­

(I) may prescribe a new class life for any property, 

(n) in the case of assigned property, may moddy any assigned item, or 

(III)may prescribe a class life for any property which does not have a 

class life within the meaning of subparagraph (A). 

Any class life or assigneditem prescribed or modified under the preceding sentence shall 

reasonably reflect the anticipated useful life, and the anticipated decline in value over 

time, of the property to the industry or other group. 

Exhibit 2 

Section 168(i)(l)of the Internal Revenue Code asRevised by the Technical and Miscellaneous 

Revenue Act of 1988 

(i) Definitions and Special Rules. 

For purposes of this section-­

(1)Class Life. Except as pravided in this section,the term "classlife" means the class 

life (if any) which would be applicable with respect to any property as of January 1, 

1986,under subsection (m) of section 167 (determined without regard to paragraph (4)

and as if the taxpayer had made an election under such subsection). The Secretary,

through an office established in the Treasury, shall monitor and analyze actual experience with respect to all depreciable assets. 

- 33 -
- 34 ­

rovisions for Changes in Classificationfrom the General Explanation of the Tax Refor 

Act of 1986 

The Secretary, through an office established in the Treasury Department is authorized to 

monitor and analyze actual experiencewith alltangible depreciable assets, to prescribe a new class 

life for any property or class of property (otherthan real property) when appropriate,and toprescribe 

a class life for any property that does not have a class life. If the Secretaryprescribes a new class 

life for property,suchlife will be used in determinirigthe classificationof property. Theprescription

of a new class life for property will not change the ACRS class structure,but will affect the ACRS 

class in which the property falls. Any classificationor reclassification would be prospective. 

Any class life prescribed under the Secretary's authority must reflect the anticipated useful 

life, and the anticipated decline in value over time, of an asset to the industry or other group. Useful 

life means the economiclife span of property over all users combined and not, as under prior law, 

the typical period over which a taxpayer holds the property. Evidence indicative of the useful life 

of property, which the Secretaryis expectedto take into account in prescribing a class life, includes 

the depreciation practices followed by taxpayers for book purposes with respect to the property,

andusefullives experiencedby taxpayers,accordingto their reports. It furtherincludesindependent

evidence of minimal useful life -- the terms for which new property is leased, used under a service 

contract, or financed -- and independent evidence of the decline in value of an asset over time, such 

as is afforded by resale price data. If resale price data is used to prescribe class lives, such resale 

price data should be adjusteddownward to removethe effectsof historical inflation. This adjustment

provides a larger measure of depreciation than in the absence of such an adjustment. Class lives 

using this data would be determined such that the present value of straight-line depreciation

deductionsover the classlife, discountedat an appropriatereal rate of interest,is equal to the present

value of what the estimated decline in value of the asset would be in the absence of inflation. 

Initial studies are expected to concentrate on property that now has no ADR midpoint.

Additionally,clothing held for rental and scientificinstruments (especiallythose used in connection 

with a computer) should be studied to determinewhether a change in class life is appropriate. 

Certainother assets specificallyassigned a recovery period (includinghorses in the three-year

class, qualified technological equipment, computer-based central office switching equipment,

research and experimentationproperty, certain renewable energy and biomass properties, semiconductor manufacturing equipment, railroad track, single-purpose agricultural or horticultural 

structures,telephonedistributionplant and comparableequipment,municipalwaste-watertreatment 

plants, and municipal sewers)may not be assigned a longer class life by the Treasury Department

ifplaced in service before January 1,1992. Additionally,automobiles and light trucks may not be 

reclassified by the Treasury Department during this five-year period. Such property placed in 

service after December 31, 1991, and before July 1,1992, may be prescribed a different class life 

if the Secretary has notified the Committee on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives

and the Committee on Finance of the Senate of the proposed change at least 6 months before the 

date on which such change is to take effect. 
Notes 

1. Although the Conventional age of a horse is usually derived from a fictional January 1birthdate, 

the current classification of horses for depreciation purposes is dependent upon on their true ages.

The analysis contained in this report, however, uses data which is based on the conventional age

classificationof horses. Thus, a horse classified as a “two-yearold”can have an actual age between 

one and three years. 

2. See the discussion between Senators McConnell, .Ford, and Packwood, as reported in the 

Congressional Record of September 27, 1986 (p. S13953). 

3. It is possiblethat retirements will result in additionsto income where salvagevalue is a significant

factor. This is particularly true for retirements that occur after the asset group has been fully

depreciated for tax purposes. Such gains are treated as negative deductions. 

4. The American Horse Council points to information from The Blood Horse’s Stallion Register

for 1988 ,which indicates that about 67 percent of the thoroughbred stallions listed are owned by 

a syndicate,and 33 percent are owned by an individual or farin. From these statistics,they conclude 

that the ownership of perhaps 75 percent of these stallions may have been transferred at the conclusion of their racing career. unfortunately, their data do not indicate the fraction of ownership

retained by the owner(s) of the racehorse, nor when the transfer took place. As noted in note 18 

below, information fromauction salesof stallionshares suggestthat these caveats may be important.

Even if the 75 percent figure were accepted, it would imply that, under current law, the owners of 

25 percent of the more successful stallions could fully depreciate their horses over a three-year 

recovery period, despite their continued value for breeding purposes. Moreover, the establishment 

of a single asset class for all horses would not necessarily be inequitable even to those owners that 

actually sell their horses when their racing careers are over. As shown in Figure 6 and Figure 9, 

the average decline in value of such horses is not expected to be as rapid as the 200 percent declining

balance depreciation over a seven-year recovery period allowed for assets with a 10-year class life 

In any case, the greater allowances that might otherwise have been claimed would have been 

recaptured when the horse was sold. 

5. In particular, the American Horse Council believes this study should only cover racehorses (and 

not breeding and workhorses), objects to the inclusion in this study of data relating to the very

successful horses (which they believe do not comprise more than a small fraction of the total 

population of racehorses), believes that the ability of taxpayers to claim a loss on the disposition

of their horses should not be factored into the calculation of an equivalenteconomic life for horses, 

and in general believes that the depreciation of horses cannot be studied by an approach of the type

used for other assets, because horses are considered too unlike all other assets. For the reasons 

noted in the text, the Depreciation Analysis Division does not concur with these views. 

6. The American Horse Council argues that the presumed short economic life of the 40 percent of 

the thoroughbred foals that do not start should be considered in determining the useful life of a 

racehorse. (They also provide information that a correspondingly large fraction of standardbred 

foals do not start). The Depreciation AnalysisDivision believes, however, that only assets for which 

depreciation may be claimed should be considered when estimating appropriate class lives. 

Unfortunately, a breakdown is not available between those horses that are trained for racing (and 

are thus placed in service) but do not start, and those that are not placed in service. To the extent 

that the non-starters are depreciable business assets with relatively short lives, the useful lives 

reported in this study are somewhat overstated. 

7. The American Horse Council believes that the fact that a mare produced a single foal does not 

necessarily indicate that the mare is being used for breeding purposes. Likewise, it does not believe 

that the fact that a stallion sired five foals in its lifetime does not necessarily imply that the stallion 

is being used for breeding. In their view, only about 5 percent of all thoroughbred males, 3 percent

of standardbred males, and about 13percent of quarterhorse males ever become breeding stallions. 

. 

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They admit that a higher percentage of fillies become mares (they provide information showing

that about 70 percent of all quarterhorse fillies and somewhat less than one-half of all standardbred 

fiiies become mares), but also note that many mares produce relatively few foals. Unlike the 

statistics calculated by the Depreciation Analysis Division for thoroughbreds, the percentages

suggested by the American Horse Council are not adjusted to reflect the fact that a sig"t

fraction of foals do not start, and it is generally only those that do that are subsequently used for 

breeding purposes. 

8. The American Horse Council believes that very fw horses would be allowed to continueto race 

long after their last winning race. 

9. The American Horse Council believes that it is more appropriate to assume that the salvage 

value is independent of the initial value of the horse (although it does not suggest what this value 

might be). As noted in the text, the primary motivation for the assumption of a fractional salvage

value was the desire to be able to express the resulting economic depreciation as a fraction of the 

initial investment. The Depreciation Analysis Division does not believe that the use of an independent salvage value would have a significanteffect on the calculated equivalent economic lives. 

Indeed, setting salvage to zero lowers the estimated equivalenteconomiclife for thoroughbreds by

less than one-half year. 

10. A half-year convention was employed in applying the straight-line formula,Le., the first year's

deduction was set equal to one-half of the fullstraight-linededuction. In addition, the initial year's

depreciation and loss deductions were each discounted by a half-year discount factor. 

11. The American Horse Council believes that guaranteed breeding fees are less common than 

assumed, which suggests that the imputed value of the stallions may be somewhat overstated, and 

thus the calculated equivalent economic life also somewhat overstated. 

12. The data on number of foals sired were first regressed against age in order to obtain a smoothed 

fertility-agecurve. 

13. Compare the retirement distribution shown in Figure 2 with those of Figures 1 and 3. 

14. Of course, even if no depreciation is allowed, the taxpayer can recover his investment by

claiming a loss upon the asset's retirement. 

15. The American Horse Council believes that many fillies are bought off the track for breeding,

and are thus not in foal. Since in this study a portion of the value of the mare is assumed to be 

allocated to the foal, to the extent this need not be done, the calculated values of the mares are 

understated, and the resulting equivalent economic life also understated. 

16. The Hollingsworth data show a decline in fertility to age 16 and then a small general upward

trend throughout the remaining life. This increase in fertility was ignored in the calculation of the 

age-priceprofile. 

17. For a more detailed discussion of the pre-1981 "facts and circumstances" depreciation system and the concept of useful lives then in effect, see for example, Brazell, Dworin, and Walsh 

(1989). 

18. Since the ownership of a stallion may be divided into as many as 40 shares, and on average

only one or two shares in each horse was sold at auction, even the sale of shares in 200 horses 

represents only a very small transfer of ownershipin breeding stallions. It might also be noted that 

these 200 horses were of varying ages,with an averageage of 13.5 years. Seenote 4 above,however, 

for a contrary view of the extent to which racehorses are sold at the end of their racing career. 

19. Notice, however, that the data in Figure 12 imply that only about one-third of all sales of 

broodmares occur at ages 3 or above. 
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20. The level of investmentin older broodmaresis not negligible. In 1988,thoroughbredbroodmare 

auction sales totaled about $166 million out of a total of $532 million in auction sales of all tharoughbreds. Because their salvage value does not decline appreciably with age, however, only

broodmaresplaced in serviceat 15years of age or olderhave an equivalentecanomiclife appreciably

lower than the 12.4-year life noted for a yearling, as shown in Figure 13. As may be seen from 

Figure 9, the estimatedprice of such broadmares is much lower than for younger broodmares. Thus, 

when weighted by the level of investment, the contribution of these much older broodmares to the 

overall equivalent economic life of all thoroughbreds is quite small. 

21. The American Horse Council suggests that some other breeds of horses, such as standardbreds 

and quarterhorses, may have somewhat shorter economic lives than thoroughbreds. 
References 

Ackerlof, George A., "The Market For "Lemons":Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism", 

Quarterly Journal of Economics,No. 3 (August, 1970), pp. 490-500. 

Brazell, David, Lowell Dworin, and Michael Walsh,A History of Federal TaxDepreciationPolicy,

OTA Paper 64(U.S. Department of the Treasury, Washington, D.C., May, 1989). 

Hollingsworth, Kent, "SoWhat is the Economic Useful Life of aThoroughbred?", TheBloodHorse, 

(Thoroughbred Owners and Breeders Association, March, 1972), pp. 11.01-11.06. 

Hulten, Charles R. and Frank C. Wykoff, "The Measurement of Economic Depreciation", in 

Depreciation,Inflation,and the Taxation ofIncome From Capital,ed. by C. Hulten, The Urban 

Institute (Washington, D.C., 1981), pp. 99-103. 

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Thisreport was prepared by Lowell Dworin of the Officeof TaxAnalysis. William Strang colleaed 

and compiled the information, Robert Yuskavage and David Brazell reviewed and revised the 

manuscript, and Carolyn Greene provided secretarial assistance. 

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