Best Management Practices 

for Creating a Community 

Wildfi re Protection Plan

Northern

Research Station

United States 

Department of Agriculture

Forest

Service

General Technical

Report NRS-89
Visit our homepage at: http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/

Published by: For additional copies:

U.S. FOREST SERVICE U.S. Forest Service

11 CAMPUS BLVD., SUITE 200 Publications Distribution

NEWTOWN SQUARE, PA 19073-3294 359 Main Road

 Delaware, OH 43015-8640

January 2012 Fax: 740-368-0152

Manuscript received for publication May 2011

Cover photos:

Upper left: “Sometimes others are motivated to become involved when a 

neighbor takes visible action.” Photo credit: V. Sturtevant, Southern Oregon 

University

Upper right: “Smaller scale plans inspire landowners to remove hazards in 

undeveloped areas on their land.” Photo credit: P. Jakes, U.S. Forest Service

Lower left: “Multiple frames bring more people to the CWPP process. A frame 

centered on safe evacuation motivated residents of the community to clear along 

roadways.” Photo credit: D. Williams, U.S. Forest Service

Lower right: “A Firewise plan is useful for implementing on-the-ground projects 

identifi ed in larger scale county CWPPs.” Photo credit: P. Jakes, U.S. Forest 

Service
Best Management Practices for Creating 

a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

Th is research was funded by the Joint Fire Science Program, Project ID 04-S-01, 

“Community Wildfi re Protection Plans: Enhancing Collaboration and Building Social 

Capacity,” the National Fire Plan through the Northern Research Station, and the 

authors’ home institutions.

Pamela J. Jakes 

U.S. Forest Service 

Northern Research Station 

St. Paul, MN

Christine Esposito

Terracom Public Relations 

Chicago, IL

Kristen C. Nelson 

Department of Forest Resources 

University of Minnesota 

St. Paul, MN

Victoria E. Sturtevant 

Department of Environmental Studies 

Southern Oregon University 

Ashland, OR

Daniel R. Williams 

U.S. Forest Service 

Rocky Mountain Research Station 

Fort Collins, CO

Sam Burns 

Offi ce of Community Services 

Fort Lewis College

Durango, CO

Antony S. Cheng 

Department of Forest, Rangeland, 

 and Watershed Stewardship 

Colorado State University 

Fort Collins, CO
Abstract

A community wildfi re protection plan (CWPP) is a means of bringing local solutions 

to wildland fi re management. In developing and implementing CWPPs, communities 

assume a leadership role in reducing wildfi re risk on federal and nonfederal land. Although 

many communities have created CWPPs, foresters estimate that less than 10 percent of 

the communities at risk from wildfi re have CWPPs in place. Th ese communities can learn 

a great deal from the experiences of those who have developed CWPPs before them. In 

this publication, we identify best management practices for CWPP development and 

implementation based on the experiences of 13 communities in 8 states. Th ese communities 

represent much of the social and ecological diversity found across the U.S. in the WildlandUrban Interface (WUI)—where human development meets forested areas.
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 1

Introduction

Empowerment. Th at is the goal of this booklet, to help you, your neighbors, and emergency 

management professionals work together to protect your important things from wildfi re—

before a wildfi re happens.

What tool can you use to make that happen? A Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 

(CWPP). A CWPP is a plan that communities create, in collaboration with emergency 

management and land management agencies, allowing them to be proactive in managing 

their wildfi re risk.

Although this booklet is about developing a CWPP, it is not a step-by-step, how-to guide 

to creating one. (Such references are already available; see the Resources section, page 25). 

Instead, beginning with a quick guide, it is a collection of best management practices 

suggested by a variety of communities that have already implemented CWPPs. 

What should you consider when deciding whether to begin a CWPP process? What are the 

most important community assets for creating a CWPP? What should you expect during 

the planning process and after? Th is booklet provides answers based on the experiences of 

a diverse set of communities located across the country. While some of the answers may 

validate your experience, others may off er you new insights.

Th e journey in managing wildfi re risk and protecting your home and community is ongoing. 

Let your fi rst steps begin here. 
2 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

Context

Pay attention to the local community context because what precedes the CWPP 

can help or hinder the process.

• Remind community members of how they handled past challenges, such as a 

wildfi re or environmental disaster; this will help the community understand 

how it is vulnerable and create a sense of urgency for developing a CWPP.

• Study previous collaborative eff orts in the community, whether wildfi re 

planning or other projects, to identify how they were successful and use 

lessons from those experiences to lay the groundwork for doing a CWPP. 

• Identify people who were involved in earlier collaborative or wildfi re planning 

eff orts and bring their experience to developing a CWPP. 

• If your community has little or no experience with collaboration or wildfi re 

planning, fi nd ways to overcome this inexperience.

• If previous disagreements within a community, related to wildlife or not, 

threaten the CWPP process, address them early to prevent them from 

becoming barriers.

Community Capacity

Identify the community’s capacities, or resources, and employ them in developing 

a CWPP. Find ways to further develop community capacity during the CWPP 

process.

• Identify leaders, from within the community or drawn from outside it, who 

can mobilize others and serve as catalysts for action, and recruit them for your 

CWPP process.

• Tap into resources that help CWPP participants successfully work together 

because an eff ectively functioning collaborative group can overcome obstacles 

such as shortages in fi nancial and physical resources.

• Build community capacity and use these new resources to achieve outcomes 

beyond wildfi re preparedness.

Networks

Use existing social networks and build new ones to facilitate the CWPP process.

• Involve people in the CWPP process who have access to multiple social 

networks and can serve as intermediaries between the networks.

• Build or expand social networks during the CWPP process to bring more 

resources (people, technology, and funding) to the process and increase 

support for CWPP implementation and other community activities.

• Be aware that social networks and their members have goals for wildfi re or 

resource management that could potentially confl ict with goals identifi ed in 

the CWPP and keep your eyes on what you want to achieve.

Two Minute Guide to CWPP Best Management Practices
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 3

Framing

Consider how the CWPP frame will impact the planning process and outcomes. 

• Continually evaluate how the CWPP frame is impacting the process and be 

open to changing how the CWPP frames wildfi re issues.

• Consider multiple frames to bring more people to the process and broaden 

potential resources, projects, and outcomes.

• Engage community residents by selecting a CWPP frame of protecting lives 

and property; engage larger forest land owners and public land managers by 

selecting a CWPP frame of ecosystem restoration or other landscape level 

issue.

• Ensure that the CWPP frame refl ects local values to increase CWPP relevance.

Scale

Select a scale at which you can make something happen.

• Develop a smaller scale CWPP, at the neighborhood or community level, if 

your goal is to motivate homeowners to reduce hazards on their properties.

• Develop a larger scale plan, such as at the county level, if your goal is to 

reduce wildfi re risk across the landscape.

• Consider how framing and scale are linked and make sure they are 

compatible.

Long-term Success

Help ensure long-term success by quickly showing progress on CWPP goals, 

linking the CWPP to other plans and frameworks, and allowing the CWPP to 

evolve as conditions change.

• Incorporate projects into the CWPP that can be accomplished quickly to 

foster homeowner buy-in and broaden support for the longer term eff ort.

• Nest local CWPPs within broader plans or link them with other types of plans 

to augment resources, broaden support, and enhance implementation.

• Where possible, incorporate the CWPP into a formal government structure.

• Quickly identify changes aff ecting the CWPP and adapt the plan to new 

conditions as they arise. 
4 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

Best Management Practices and Community Stories

Context

Pay attention to the local community context because what precedes the CWPP can 

help or hinder the process.

Community history provides a context for the CWPP and shapes the CWPP process. 

Positive past experiences can help create a strong foundation for the CWPP. Identifying 

negative past experiences, and lessons learned from them, prevents those experiences from 

becoming barriers to developing and implementing a CWPP. 

• Remind community members of how 

they handled past challenges, such as a 

wildfi re or environmental disaster; this 

will help the community understand 

how it is vulnerable and create a sense 

of urgency for developing a CWPP.

 Even though an adverse event happened 

in the past or in another place, it can 

open a window of opportunity for 

inspiring change in a community. It 

is important to act quickly before the 

window closes and the urgency of the 

desired action diminishes.

• Study previous collaborative eff orts in the community, whether wildfi re planning 

or other projects, to identify how they were successful and use lessons from those 

experiences to lay the groundwork for doing a CWPP.

 Th e Firewise Communities/USA Recognition Program provides a series of steps 

that people living in an area at risk from wildfi re can follow to keep their homes 

and neighborhoods safer from fi re. Fire Safe Councils began in California as a way 

to support individuals and communities in eliminating the impacts of catastrophic 

wildfi res. Achieving Firewise designation and establishing a Fire Safe Council are 

examples of collaborative projects that can feed into a CWPP. Having one of these 

organizations means that a community has a group of landowners who are already 

aware of wildfi re risk and are committed to protecting their properties. Th ese 

individuals may have recently participated in wildfi re education programs or advocated 

for Firewise inspired local ordinances.

The Libby, Montana, 

high school teams 

are named the Libby 

Loggers, refl ecting a local 

culture and context that 

emphasizes the importance 

of forest industries to the 

community. 

Photo credit: P. Jakes, U.S. Forest Service
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 5

 Examples of other collaborative eff orts 

that may have taken place in a community 

include projects to improve rangeland or 

watershed health, clean up environmental 

contamination, or develop a community 

center. Any activity that brings the 

community together to take civic action to 

improve local conditions can enhance the 

CWPP process. 

 Likewise, homeowners associations and 

other neighborhood groups that are already 

organized for taking local collective action can 

support creation of a CWPP.

• Identify people who were involved in earlier 

collaborative or wildfi re planning eff orts 

and bring their experience to developing a 

CWPP. 

 Participants in projects such as those described above provide a pool of candidates 

for the CWPP team who have experience working collaboratively and can convey its 

benefi ts to new team members. 

• If your community has little or no experience with collaboration or wildfi re 

planning, fi nd ways to overcome this inexperience.

 Just because a community has not engaged in an earlier collaborative process does not 

mean it cannot successfully create a CWPP. However, a community may need to draw 

on the expertise of a public agency, nongovernmental organization, or consultant to 

lead it through the necessary collaborative process. It may also invest in training or 

other resources to increase its level of collaboration readiness.

 To foster collaboration, the CWPP committee may need to meet more often at fi rst, 

focus on information sharing and learning, and take fi eld trips to build a shared 

understanding of the situation and a sense of being part of a team. 

• If previous disagreements within a community, related to wildfi re or not, threaten 

the CWPP process, address them early to prevent them from becoming barriers.

 Being aware of earlier confl icts can help participants address diff erent interests and 

keep the CWPP process moving forward. By openly discussing what occurred during 

these disagreements and by brainstorming lessons to be learned, those involved in 

the CWPP gain skills that improve and strengthen the CWPP process. Professional 

facilitation can be especially useful in these circumstances.

Previous collaborative 

projects in a community, 

such as the community 

coming together to dispose 

of fl ammable vegetation, 

can lay the groundwork for 

doing a CWPP. 

Photo credit: V. Sturtevant, Southern Oregon University
6 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

Taylor: A Town with a History of Collaboration 

Taylor, Florida, is a small, relatively isolated community surrounded by federal, state, and 

private industrial forest lands. In the 10 years preceding creation of the town’s CWPP, the 

area around Taylor had three major wildfi res. As a result, public and private landowners in 

the Taylor area were well accustomed to working together on fi re suppression. By way of the 

local Taylor Church, community members also had a history of working together; more than 

half of the town’s residents belong to the church. 

Setting the Stage for a CWPP. Although 

none of the previous fi res burned into the 

town of Taylor, the fact that there were 

so many, relatively nearby, and recent 

spurred a sense of urgency. And the 

collaborative skills already exhibited by 

public and private landowners, as well as 

members of the community, meant that 

the collaboration necessary for creating a 

CWPP was indeed possible. 

Th e Florida Department of Forestry 

initiated the CWPP process and convened 

representatives from federal, state, county, 

 and local government agencies, along 

 with the industrial landowners – all of 

whom were already familiar with each other’s concerns and needs because of their previous 

work together in fi re suppression. In just four meetings, they drew up a CWPP. 

Connecting to the Community. When 

it came time to bring the plan to the 

community, the team turned to the pastor 

of Taylor Church, who served as a trusted 

link between the planners and the local 

community. Th e church hosted a meeting 

at which the team could present the 

CWPP.

Communities in which 

citizens are engaged in 

local issues are primed for 

developing a CWPP. 

Photo credit: V. Sturtevant, Southern Oregon University

Although none of the previous fi res burned 

into the town of Taylor, the fact that there 

were so many, relatively nearby, and 

 recent spurred a sense of urgency.
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 7

Th e fi re chief and members of the local fi re 

department also became key conduits at 

this point. Th eir fi re suppression experience 

meant they already had relationships with 

the agencies represented on the CWPP 

team. And their roots in the community 

gave them insider credibility.

One outcome of the CWPP is a fi re break 

that completely encircles Taylor. Th at 

it crosses an array of public and private 

properties is a testament to the strong 

context from which the Taylor CWPP 

developed.

Wildfi res near the town 

of Taylor, Florida, helped 

residents see that they are 

vulnerable and instilled 

a sense of urgency for 

developing a plan to 

protect their community. 

Photo credit: U.S. Forest Service
8 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

Community Capacity

Identify the community’s capacities, or resources, and employ them in developing a 

CWPP. Find ways to further develop community capacity during the CWPP process.

Just as ecosystems vary, communities vary in the resources they can draw on to develop a 

CWPP. Characteristics such as community norms and values, along with other qualities such 

as a community’s economic diversity, growth trends, and land ownership patterns, aff ect 

its ability to launch a collaborative project like a CWPP. But when a community develops 

a CWPP, it gains not only an action plan, but also more capacity to get things done. Th e 

lasting outcome of a CWPP is not necessarily the plan itself but the capacity for action that 

it builds, the opportunities it creates, the knowledge it advances, and the connections among 

people and organizations it forges.

• Identify leaders, from within the 

community or drawn from outside it, 

who can mobilize others and serve as 

catalysts for action, and recruit them 

for your CWPP process.

 Developing a CWPP relies on highly 

motivated individuals—mobilizers—

who recruit others to participate, lend 

legitimacy to the CWPP, help secure 

funding, and shepherd the process. 

Th ese leaders might include federal, 

state, or local government 

representatives, as well as local 

community residents and activists. A 

diverse core team of such sparkplugs 

can not only motivate others to help 

create the CWPP but also reach out 

across organizational, philosophical, 

and jurisdictional divides to solve 

problems. 

• Tap into resources that help CWPP participants successfully work together because 

an eff ectively functioning collaborative group can overcome obstacles such as 

shortages in fi nancial and physical resources.

 Communities that lack fi nancial or physical resources can overcome these shortages by 

tapping into what they do have – inspired leaders, networks, norms, and values that 

support civic action and collective decisionmaking. 

Photo credit: V. Sturtevant, Southern Oregon University Sometimes others are 

motivated to become 

involved when a neighbor 

takes visible action.
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 9

 Communities with adequate fi nancial and physical capacity may fi nd that they do not 

have the resources they need to launch and sustain a CWPP process. Communities 

without mobilizing leaders and the ability to work together may fi nd their CWPP 

stalled or lacking in community or agency support. 

• Build community capacity and use these new resources to achieve outcomes beyond 

wildfi re preparedness.

 Working on a CWPP helps communities develop a shared understanding of wildfi re 

and wildfi re management. Th ey build their knowledge of local ecological issues, 

including the role of fi re in the area’s ecology, and identify specifi c, local wildfi re 

preparedness challenges.

 Th e CWPP process also strengthens and builds relationships among residents 

and other stakeholders, including government agencies. Th at, in turn, builds the 

community’s capacity for further planning and implementation, not only in wildfi re 

management but in other areas as well. 

 Creating a CWPP cultivates a community’s ability to defi ne common goals and a 

course of action to achieve those goals.

Grizzly Flats—Starting Small, Gaining Momentum

Th e remote subdivision of Grizzly Flats, in one of California’s most fi re prone areas, had 

no plan for protecting itself from wildfi re or increasing preparedness, and little sense of 

community. Th at is, until the hamburger suppers began. A new resident of the development 

of nearly 700 people missed the camaraderie of his old neighborhood and resolved to connect 

with his new neighbors by hosting hamburger suppers. 

At the same time, another recent 

transplant, upon learning from the Forest 

Service of the town’s fi re vulnerability, 

decided to do something about it. He 

became active in the county’s Fire Safe 

Council and learned what communities 

can do to reduce their risk from wildfi re.

Hamburger Supper Learning. Th e two newcomers teamed up to use the hamburger suppers 

as a chance for residents to discuss and learn about wildfi re risk and safety. Th rough their 

eff orts, Grizzly Flats developed a local Fire Safe Council. When a federal grant became 

available for hiring a consultant to develop a CWPP, the council seized the opportunity, with 

help from the county and state. 

Th ese three mobilizers—the two residents 

and consultant—helped Grizzly Flats work 

with a variety of government partners to 

tackle immediate fi re protection needs...
10 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

Th ese three mobilizers—the two residents 

and consultant—helped Grizzly Flats 

work with a variety of government 

partners to tackle immediate fi re 

protection needs, like improving the safety 

of the development’s existing evacuation 

route and adding an alternative route. In 

the process, community members found 

they could work together toward common 

goals. So they set their sights higher—to 

a new community center that could also 

house a fi re truck. 

Expanded Impact. Th e Fire Safe Council 

secured more federal grants to support 

residents’ eff orts to reduce fi re hazards, 

turning their homes into models of wildfi re safety and inspiring neighbors to take similar 

steps. Th ey also aligned their eff orts with Forest Service work on nearby public land so the 

projects would complement and strengthen each other.

Creating a CWPP empowered residents to think big. It also linked Grizzly Flats with other 

local communities that could serve as models of fi re preparedness and with government 

agencies that could provide critical resources.

Neighbors and the community were no longer isolated. 

Developing and 

implementing a CWPP 

relies on highly motivated 

individuals who serve as 

catalysts for action.

Photo credit: V. Sturtevant, Southern Oregon University
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 11

Networks

Use existing social networks and build new ones to facilitate the CWPP process.

Social networks, or the relationships and 

ties between individuals and organizations, 

are central to creating a CWPP. Whether 

strengthening community capacity, 

improving communication, developing 

resources, or coordinating wildfi re 

protection activities, networks help 

communities achieve common goals by 

linking organizations and individuals 

who can support the CWPP. Th ey 

promote trust among the diverse people 

and organizations that are important in 

carrying out CWPP projects. 

Networks can be formal or informal, local or broad based. Local networks, like homeowners 

associations, help bring legitimacy to the CWPP process. Broader networks across the 

region and state, like watershed councils and Fire Safe Councils, help bring in new ideas and 

resources. 

• Involve people in the CWPP 

process who have access to multiple 

social networks and can serve 

as intermediaries between the 

networks.

 Fire department or government 

agency staff members, paid 

consultants, even outside 

organizations often are part of 

multiple and extended networks 

that are valuable in expanding the 

information, ideas, and resources 

of a CWPP. Because they belong to more than one network, they become 

intermediaries, helping the CWPP committee develop contacts with other 

communities, agencies, and jurisdictions. Th ey play strong leadership and bridging 

roles, and many have the time and skills to organize the knowledge of CWPP 

participants and push action toward on-the-ground projects. 

Fire crews are trusted 

and admired members of 

a community. Involving 

them in the CWPP process 

not only builds a level of 

comfort in residents but 

also takes advantage of 

the fi refi ghters’ many and 

extended networks. 

Members of the community 

wildfi re protection planning 

committee use their 

networks to build support 

for the plan and locate 

critical resources.

Photo credit: V. Sturtevant, Southern Oregon University

Photo credit: V. Sturtevant, Southern Oregon University
12 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

• Build or expand social networks during the CWPP process to bring more resources 

(people, technology, and funding) to the process and increase support for CWPP 

implementation and other community activities.

 By drawing on multiple networks to develop the CWPP, team members build support 

for the plan that extends beyond the CWPP committee and agencies implementing 

the plan. Th is broad base of individuals and organizations linked to the CWPP helps 

communicate the plan’s importance and build enthusiasm for it. Th ese same networks 

provide resources and support that help make other community projects possible.

• Be aware that social networks 

and their members have goals for 

wildfi re or resource management 

that could potentially confl ict with 

goals identifi ed in the CWPP and 

keep your eyes on what you want to 

achieve.

 Each individual or group working on 

a CWPP has particular goals for the 

CWPP. Involving members of diverse 

social networks means participants 

could have confl icting goals. Some 

tightly organized networks might not 

want to collaborate on the CWPP, 

especially if they think wildfi re 

preparedness confl icts with their 

primary goals or diverts resources from 

those goals. But key early activities, 

such as identifying the CWPP frame(s)

and strategic goals, can build bridges between diverse networks that help overcome 

such reluctance. (For more on Framing, see page 15.)

 It is not necessary to involve all social networks throughout the CWPP process—a 

network’s relevance or level of participation may change as the process unfolds. For 

instance, a church network might be less involved in selecting wildfi re protection 

projects but become more active as CWPP participants begin an outreach program for 

homeowners.

Photo credit: P. Jakes, U.S. Forest Service Expanded social networks 

provide access to new 

resources and help 

implement a CWPP. In 

Libby, Montana, members 

of a local chapter of the 

Society of American 

Foresters donated their 

time to remove fl ammable 

vegetation in this 

community park, thereby 

reducing wildfi re risk.
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 13

Networks Connect and Protect Josephine County

Sprawling Josephine County, in southwest Oregon, covers more than a million acres. Yet 

fewer than 100,000 people live there, mostly in unincorporated areas. Th e county does not 

have the typical governmental infrastructure that helps in creating a CWPP but has other 

tools instead. Among them are networks, 

which connected the CWPP team to 

diverse and far fl ung stakeholders, and 

brought in new resources. 

Th ree critical existing networks formed 

the foundation for the CWPP’s 

development: fi re chiefs from throughout 

the county; the federal agencies that 

manage much of the land in the county; 

and the county agencies, including 

planning and emergency services. 

Although each of these networks had 

functioned independently and eff ectively 

in responding to wildfi re, they would now 

need to join forces to be able to create a 

countywide plan. 

A Valuable Intermediary. Enter an outside consultant, who had been hired by the county 

planner to facilitate the CWPP process. Her extensive regional and national contacts made 

her an invaluable intermediary, building bridges between existing networks in Josephine 

County—and beyond—to create powerful new linkages. 

She was also able to expand the range of CWPP participants to include groups that have 

historically been underrepresented in fi re planning—the elderly, people with disabilities, and 

other special needs individuals—which helped create new local networks. 

Access to New Resources. Th e consultant’s 

contacts also yielded valuable additional 

resources, such as grant writing skills and 

access to new funding. One of the grants 

she helped secure supported a fuels risk 

assessment that included maps of areas 

with particularly fi re prone vegetation. Th e 

CWPP risk assessment committee that 

carried out the project then created even 

Photo credit: N. Benson Josephine County, Oregon, 

hired an outside consultant 

to help with its CWPP. 

She served as a valuable 

intermediary who brought 

expertise and drew on 

her regional and national 

networks. 

[Th e consultant’s] extensive regional and 

national contacts made her an invaluable 

intermediary, building bridges between 

existing networks in Josephine County—and 

beyond—to create powerful new linkages.
14 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

more connections and networks, reaching out to new contacts at county, state, and federal 

agencies, as well as fi re offi cials.

Not all of the networks brought to the CWPP process were necessarily amicable at fi rst. Th e 

county had a history of confl ict between environmental organizations and land management 

agencies. But, by inviting an environmental education organization into the planning 

process, along with emergency managers who were already known and respected in the 

community, the CWPP team worked to ameliorate tensions. 

In Josephine County, new and existing networks, plus a well-connected intermediary, 

overcame distance and obstacles to protect it from wildfi re.
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 15

Framing

Consider how the CWPP frame will impact the planning process and outcomes. 

Th ose involved with developing a CWPP look at and frame the issue of wildfi re management 

in ways that refl ect their values and concerns about wildfi re. CWPPs have been framed in a 

variety of ways, including a fuels management concern, life safety concern, and ecosystem 

restoration concern. When developing a CWPP, it is critical to be aware of which frame 

or frames are at work and what that means for who is likely to participate in the CWPP 

process and what projects will become priorities. For example, someone that frames wildfi re 

management as a life safety concern will be more interested in a CWPP that frames wildfi re 

management in terms of evacuation and response times than one that frames wildfi re 

management in terms of fuels management at a landscape scale.

One challenge to recruiting community residents to participate in a CWPP is persuading 

them that involvement is in their self interest. Take the time to consider the CWPP’s frame, 

selecting one or more frames that help engage residents by (1) recognizing that people see or 

defi ne issues diff erently and (2) presenting the CWPP in the ways that are compelling. 

• Continually evaluate how the CWPP frame is impacting the process and be open to 

changing how the CWPP frames wildfi re issues.

 Th e initial frame for developing a 

CWPP need not be the only or fi nal 

one. During the planning process, 

participants will learn more about 

fi re ecology, fi re behavior, and 

ways to adapt and live with fi re. 

Th ey will also hear from neighbors 

and colleagues about how those 

individuals view the “fi re problem.” 

New frames might emerge that 

refl ect more diverse views of 

wildfi re management and broader 

understanding of what it means for a 

community to live with wildfi re.

• Consider multiple frames to bring more people to the process and broaden potential 

resources, projects, and outcomes.

 CWPP organizers often need to develop diff erent messages and frames to target 

diff erent segments of the community. Framing wildfi re management in diff erent 

ways brings a more diverse group of people and organizations to the CWPP process, 

Multiple frames bring 

more people to the CWPP 

process. A frame centered 

on safe evacuation 

motivated residents of this 

community to clear along 

roadways. 

Photo credit: D. Williams, U.S. Forest Service
16 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

potentially increasing resources such as funding and available skills. It is important 

to evaluate who will connect with a given frame—to avoid inadvertently excluding 

participants—and how a frame might limit possible CWPP solutions and projects. 

• Engage community residents by 

selecting a CWPP frame of protecting 

lives and property; engage larger 

forest land owners and public land 

managers by selecting a CWPP frame 

of ecosystem restoration or other 

landscape level issue.

 One of the most basic human needs 

is safety. A frame that focuses on 

protecting lives and property will 

readily connect with most community 

residents. On the other hand, a frame 

that focuses on larger landscape issues, 

such as ecosystem restoration, will 

necessarily involve larger landowners 

and public land managers in projects 

that cross ownership boundaries. 

Th ese frames, and others, can be 

complementary and result in CWPP projects that have impact across the landscape.

• Ensure that the CWPP frame refl ects local values to increase CWPP relevance.

 Most community residents hold deep seated values that shape why they live where they 

do and how they view forests and local ecosystems. Th ese values are rooted in family 

history and other experiences, and they help explain preferences for independence, 

privacy, lifestyle, land use, and aesthetics.

 Questionnaires, focus groups, or simple informal interviews of residents help identify 

community values. Community leaders, such as elected offi cials and representatives of 

homeowner associations and local nonprofi ts, can be particularly helpful.

 Taking time to identify the range of values held in the community, not just about 

wildfi re but also about the broader landscape where people live, can be time well spent 

by ensuring that the CWPP is relevant to the community.

Photo credit: V. Sturtevant, Southern Oregon University The most effective CWPP 

frames refl ect values held 

in the community. Group 

activities can help identify 

and build shared values. 
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 17

Windcliff’s Evolving Frames and Growing Impact

Residents of Colorado’s Windcliff subdivision, just southwest of the town of Estes Park in the 

East Portal community, have spectacular views of Rocky Mountain National Park. But they 

have also been particularly vulnerable to wildfi re. In addition to being largely surrounded 

by fl ammable forested land, there is only one way into and out of Windcliff , presenting 

signifi cant challenges for fi refi ghting and evacuation in the event of a wildfi re.

Th e County’s Frame. Th at’s why, when the surrounding county completed a countywide 

wildfi re plan and began identifying communities at high wildfi re risk, Windcliff was an 

obvious candidate. A county-level interagency working group approached the community to 

conduct wildfi re protection planning.

Th e working group’s framing of the issue, while focused on ensuring public safety and 

reducing wildfi re risk, also centered on fi refi ghter safety and expanding options for wildfi re 

suppression. In fact, local fi refi ghters had decided that many properties in Windcliff would 

not receive protection because of the danger posed to fi refi ghting crews. Having only one 

access road to the community meant that, during a wildfi re, fi refi ghters would concentrate 

on evacuating people, because they could not safely send in crews and equipment to protect 

residents’ homes. 

Th e Residents’ Frame. Although initially 

reluctant about wildfi re protection 

planning that might require them to cut 

down trees and degrade their forested 

vistas, residents reconsidered after 

experiencing a signifi cant wildfi re. Th eir 

framing of the wildfi re issue focused on 

protecting lives and property from wildfi re. 

Th at point of view expanded when they 

learned that thinning fi re prone vegetation 

would not only reduce their wildfi re 

risk but also create a more natural forest 

condition. Doing their part to foster the 

natural ecology of a landscape they valued 

was meaningful to residents. So their 

framing expanded to include promoting 

the area’s natural ecology.

 Photo credit: P. Jakes, U.S. Forest Service

A frame of protecting 

lives and property can 

be a good starting point 

for engaging community 

residents. The owners of 

this home have cleared 

brush, used rocks and 

nonfl ammable plantings 

around the foundation of 

their house, and created a 

buffer between the woods 

and their house.
18 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

Th e Growing Impact. As their framing of wildfi re issues expanded and they became more 

engaged in developing an East Portal CWPP, Windcliff residents sought Firewise Community 

designation. Th e planning and projects they undertook to achieve this designation increased 

their competitiveness for grants, like one they received to conduct fi re mitigation work.

Next, the YMCA camp across the valley 

from Windcliff got involved in the East 

Portal CWPP process, meaning the entire 

valley would be better protected from 

wildfi re. 

Th e evolving frames of Windcliff residents 

cascaded even beyond participation in the 

East Portal CWPP to the creation of the 

Estes Valley Forest Issues Forum to cultivate broader forest stewardship dialog with the U.S. 

Forest Service. 

[Residents’] point of view expanded when 

they learned that thinning fi re prone 

vegetation would not only reduce their 

wildfi re risk but also create a more 

natural forest condition.
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 19

Scale

Develop a scale at which you can make 

something happen.

“Scale” is the delineation of boundaries 

across the landscape that defi nes the area 

covered by the CWPP. Scale can be chosen 

for a strategic reason, such as improving 

coordination among fi refi ghting agencies; 

aligning the CWPP with a jurisdiction, 

such as a county; or enhancing ecosystem 

health, where alignment with ecological 

features, such as a watershed, makes the 

most sense. 

Other times, the scale decision is made from the ground up, when neighbors band together 

to work at a level that makes sense to them, such as at the subdivision or development level. 

Th e appropriate scale for a CWPP is the one that enables participants to accomplish their 

goals. 

• Develop a smaller scale CWPP, at 

the neighborhood or community 

level, if your goal is to motivate 

homeowners to reduce hazards on 

their properties.

 Community based plans refl ect local 

values and resources. As a result, 

they are more likely to gain the 

support of community members. 

Working on a smaller scale may 

also produce quicker on-the-ground 

results.

 Examples of a smaller scale include 

a neighborhood, development, or 

the area served by a volunteer fi re 

department district. Many smallscale CWPPs link with county- or 

landscape-level plans, linking their 

on-the-ground projects with more strategic plans. (See “Long-term Success” on 

page 22 for more on linking CWPPs.)

Photo credit: J. Szymoniak, U.S. Forest Service A smaller scale CWPP 

encourages residents to 

take action. 

 Photo credit: P. Jakes, U.S. Forest Service Smaller scale plans inspire 

landowners to remove 

hazards in undeveloped 

areas on their land. 
20 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

• Develop a larger scale plan, such as at the county level, if your goal is to reduce 

wildfi re risk across the landscape.

 Reducing wildfi re risk across a broad area requires coordination by many partners. A 

larger scale plan makes that possible. Such plans can forge valuable new relationships 

and coordination among federal, state, and county fi re management offi ces. Also, 

larger scale plans are often more strategic, prioritizing projects in terms of risk or 

coordinating the reduction of fi re prone vegetation. 

Using a county scale helps CWPP 

participants use a variety of data already 

collected at the county level. It also 

makes it easier to link the CWPP to other 

planning eff orts, such as land use plans or 

hazard mitigation plans that are done at 

the county level.

Although larger scale plans are eff ective 

in addressing problems on a landscape 

level, they may take longer to implement 

because of the greater number of partners 

and issues involved. Th ey may need to be 

linked to smaller scale plans to convert 

their strategies to local action. 

• Consider how framing and scale are linked and make sure they are compatible.

 How CWPP participants frame the wildfi re management problem will infl uence 

the plan’s scale. (For more on “Framing,” see page 15.) If the problem is framed 

as ecosystem restoration, the frame will require a larger scale plan—perhaps at a 

watershed or county level. If it is framed as reducing hazards around homes, the 

frame will call for a smaller scale plan that focuses on individual homeowners within a 

neighborhood. 

Wildfi re Planning in All Shapes, Sizes in Lincoln County

When it comes to CWPPs, one size does not fi t all, as evidenced by Lincoln County in 

northwestern Montana. County commissioners from throughout the state were developing 

CWPPs as part of hazard mitigation planning required by the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency (FEMA). Lincoln County’s CWPP would serve as the wildfi re chapter 

in the Lincoln County Pre-Disaster Mitigation Plan.

Photo credit: P. Jakes, U.S. Forest Service

A larger scale plan, such 

as at the county level, may 

be best if the goal is to 

reduce wildfi re risk across 

the landscape. 
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 21

Larger Scale Strategic Planning. Th is larger scale CWPP is a strategic document that 

assesses the countywide landscape, identifi es areas with high fi re risk, and prioritizes them 

for treatment. While larger scale CWPPs can help allocate resources to the most vulnerable 

communities, they do not provide an on-the-ground course of action for those communities.

Th at’s where smaller scale planning for 

wildfi re protection comes in. A retired 

Forest Service district ranger and a state 

conservation forester, both of whom had 

been keys to developing the county CWPP, 

were champions of the plan and took the CWPP on the road—targeting communities 

identifi ed as high priority in the plan. Th ey customized their approach to each community’s 

unique needs. 

Customized Smaller Scale Eff orts. In Em Kayan Village, a Lincoln County development that 

is surrounded by national forest land, the focus was on becoming a Firewise Community. 

Th e homeowners association was already concerned about wildfi re, so when the county 

CWPP identifi ed Em Kayan as high risk, the association was ready to take action. Becoming 

a Firewise Community linked Em Kayan 

into a large network of other communities 

facing similar challenges, helping the 

development fi gure out its own action 

plan. 

In other high risk communities, such as 

those without homeowners associations 

or other government organizations, the 

approach had to be diff erent. In those 

cases, the CWPP champions dedicated 

themselves to going door-to-door to talk 

to residents about the wildfi re risk and 

protective steps they could take. Th ey 

obtained grants to launch some of the 

wildfi re mitigation eff orts on individual 

properties and inspire further action by 

residents.

Local, customized wildfi re management eff orts nested within the county CWPP, and the 

county CWPP nested within the FEMA plan: a way to help keep residents of Lincoln 

County and their property safe from wildfi re.

 Photo credit: P. Jakes, U.S. Forest Service

A Firewise plan is useful 

for implementing on-theground projects identifi ed 

in larger scale county 

CWPPs. 

When it comes to CWPPs, 

one size does not fi t all ...
22 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

Long-term Success

Help ensure long-term success by quickly showing progress on CWPP goals, linking the 

CWPP to other plans and frameworks, and allowing the CWPP to evolve as conditions 

change. 

Implementing the action plan of a CWPP is a longer term, multiyear eff ort. So sustaining 

interest, participation, resources, and support must be a priority throughout the planning 

process. 

Th e relatively stable group of participants from public fi re and land management agencies 

can help maintain commitment to implementing the CWPP. Continued involvement by 

community members can help ensure that the document represents and addresses changing 

conditions. 

• Incorporate projects into the CWPP that can be 

accomplished quickly to foster homeowner buy-in and 

broaden support for the longer term eff ort.

 Th e importance of planning is in achieving on-theground results. A CWPP should include projects 

that can be implemented quickly to demonstrate the 

importance of the CWPP to community well-being and 

to provide successes that the community can celebrate 

and build on. 

• Nest local CWPPs within broader plans or link them 

with other types of plans to augment resources, broaden 

support, and enhance implementation.

 A CWPP at one scale can be linked to CWPPs at other 

scales to expand the plan’s impact and relevance. CWPPs 

at the county level, which tend to be more strategic 

and less prescriptive, can have local value through 

projects that are identifi ed in neighborhood CWPPs and 

implemented at the local level. Similarly, the importance 

of projects identifi ed in neighborhood CWPPs can 

be magnifi ed if they complement projects that other 

communities are undertaking—thereby contributing to 

broader strategic goals in a county level plan. 

 Working early in the development of a local CWPP to identify other plans that it can 

link to is important for nesting it into larger scale regional and statewide initiatives and 

coordinating groups.

Working together to 

remove fl ammable 

roadside vegetation is a 

doable project that the 

community can celebrate 

and build upon. 

 Photo credit: P. Jakes, U.S. Forest Service
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 23

• Where possible, incorporate the CWPP into a formal 

government structure. 

 Some CWPPs have gained effi ciencies and relevance 

by coordinating with other types of planning eff orts, 

such as county disaster mitigation plans mandated 

by FEMA or Forest Service fi re plans. In some 

communities, CWPPs have been adopted by a local 

government department, making the CWPP goals the 

department’s goals and providing further support for 

longer term sustainability of the CWPP.

• Quickly identify changes aff ecting the CWPP and 

adapt the plan to new conditions as they arise.

 When changes happen—whether social, ecological, 

or otherwise—analyze how they will aff ect 

implementation of the CWPP. Th en take steps to 

minimize the potential negative impacts and build on 

the potential positive impacts. 

 A diverse, representative CWPP “core team” is critical 

for this, because members are well connected to many 

diff erent organizations and social networks within 

and outside the community. Th eir diff erent roles and 

contacts help identify and respond to critical changes.

Long-term Success—Assured at Auburn Lake Trails 

Fire protection planning was no stranger to the residents of Auburn Lake Trails, California, 

when it came time to develop a CWPP. Th e hillside subdivision of roughly 2,800 residents, 

at high risk of wildfi re because of fl ammable vegetation on adjacent public recreation land, 

had already earned Firewise Community designation. It was also a longtime participant in 

Volunteers in Prevention (VIP), a state program that focuses on landowner responsibility for 

reducing fi re risk.

In the subdivision’s VIP program, roughly 50 volunteers visit their neighbors door-to-door 

every year, assessing homes for wildfi re risk and using Firewise principles to recommend steps 

for homeowners to protect themselves. Th ey return later to make sure residents have actually 

taken those steps. 

One community decided 

that it could quickly create 

a fi rebreak to foster local 

awareness in the CWPP. 

When residents saw it, 

they became interested 

in reducing fuels on their 

properties. 

Photo credit: V. Sturtevant, Southern Oregon University
24 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

Linking Plans. Th e state had also hired contractors to write a plan for reducing fi re prone 

vegetation, known as a fuels reduction plan, for Auburn Lake Trails. Th en, when the 

CWPP concept came into being, the community slightly modifi ed the fuels reduction plan, 

incorporated Firewise measures from its own VIP program, and created the Auburn Lake 

Trails CWPP. Th e development of the CWPP strengthened the community’s relationship 

with its public neighbors, who began creating a fi rebreak downslope from Auburn Lake 

Trails.

All the earlier fi re protection work meant 

that the subdivision’s CWPP had a strong 

foundation to build on. Th e Auburn Lake 

Trails Property Owners Board created a 

new Resource Management Department 

within its governing structure. Th e 

department adopted the CWPP as 

its work plan. And, to fund the new 

department’s work, the board sought 

residents’ approval for a fee increase. 

Wildfi re protection is such a priority in the community that the increase was quickly 

approved. 

Quick, visible projects. When the Resource Management Department began implementing 

the CWPP, it focused early on visible community projects, such as clearing roadside brush 

that had been identifi ed in the plan as a 

fi re and traffi c safety hazard. Removing 

the brush was a relatively easy and 

obvious way to demonstrate progress on 

CWPP priorities and gain support for 

future CWPP eff orts among residents. 

Auburn Lake Trails has taken necessary 

steps to ensure longer term success of its 

CWPP; it linked the plan with familiar 

community initiatives and broader fi re 

planning frameworks; it made the plan 

part of a formal government structure; 

and it identifi ed projects in high visibility 

areas that it could quickly accomplish. 

Removing the brush was a relatively easy 

and an obvious way to demonstrate progress 

on CWPP priorities and gain support for 

future CWPP eff orts among residents.

The Auburn Lake Trails 

Property Owners Board 

created a new Resource 

Management Department 

to implement its CWPP. 

Photo credit: P. Jakes, U.S. Forest Service
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 25

Resources

A wealth of resources awaits you as you embark on a CWPP. 

• Start with a useful guide and supplement for preparing and implementing CWPPs: 

Preparing a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan: A Handbook for Wildland-Urban 

Interface Communities, March 2004

http://www.communitiescommittee.org/pdfs/cwpphandbook.pdf

 Community Guide to Preparing and Implementing a Community Wildfi re Protection 

Plan (supplement), August 2008 

 http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/communities/documents/CWPP_Report_

Aug2008.pdf

• Th e Partnership Resource Center of the National Forest Foundation and the U.S. 

Forest Service provides links to many resources, including guides developed by 

Resource Innovations at the University of Oregon. Begin your investigation at: 

 http://www.partnershipresourcecenter.org/cwpp/

• Many states off er online advice. Search the Web for CWPP information for your state. 

If none is available, borrow from another state. See, for example:

 California: http://www.cafi realliance.org/cwpp/

 Colorado: http://csfs.colostate.edu/pages/community-wf-protection-planning.html

 Oklahoma: http://www.forestry.ok.gov/community-wildfi re-preparedness-planning

 Oregon: http://www.oregon.gov/ODF/FIRE/FirePlans.shtml

• Th e Web site of the U.S. Forest Service Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry 

has links to many CWPP resources:

 http://www.na.fs.fed.us/fi re/cwpp/

• Web sites with additional guidance include: 

 Th e Western Forestry Leadership Coalition, which monitors the status of western 

CWPPs:

 http://www.wfl ccenter.org/news_pdf/168_pdf.pdf

 Th e National Association of State Foresters report on communities at risk:

 http://www.stateforesters.org/fi les/201106-NASF-CAR-Briefi ng-Paper.pdf 

 And a site off ering a CWPP evaluation guide:

 http://csfs.colostate.edu/pdfs/eval_9-8-08_web.pdf
26 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan

• Firewise Communities/USA and Fire Safe Councils were identifi ed as examples of 

programs that can support and be integrated with CWPPs. For more information on 

these programs, see:

 Firewise Communities/USA

 http://www.fi rewise.org/Communities/USA-Recognition-Program.aspx

 Fire Safe Council

 http://www.fi resafecouncil.org/

• More information on this research project including methodology (case selection, 

participant selection, and data collection and analysis) and detailed research fi ndings 

are found at the following Web sites:

 Project Web site: http://jfsp.fortlewis.edu/

 Final report submitted to the Joint Fire Science Program: 

http://www.fi rescience.gov/projects/04-S-01/project/04-S-01_fi nal_report.pdf 

 Project publications: 

1. Jakes, P. J.; Burns, S.; Cheng, A.S.; Saeli, E.; Nelson, K.; Brummel, R.; Grayzeck, 

S.; Sturtevant, V.; Williams, D.R. 2007. Critical elements in the development 

and implementation of CWPPs. Proceedings RMRS-P-46CD. Available online at 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p046/rmrs_p046_613_624.pdf 

2. Grayzeck-Souter, S.A.; Nelson, K.C.; Brummel, R.F.; Jakes, P.; Williams, D. 2007. 

Interpreting federal policy at the local level: the wildland-urban interface concept 

in wildfi re protection planning in the eastern United States. 2009. International 

Journal of Wildland Fire. Available online at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/

rmrs_2009_grayzeck_souter_s001.pdf 

3. Brumel, R.F.; Nelson, K.C.; Souter, S.G.; Jakes, P.J.; Williams, D.R. 2010. Social 

learning in a policy-mandated collaboration: community wildfi re protection 

planning in the eastern United States. Journal of Environmental Planning and 

Management. Available online at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2010_

brummel_r001.pdf

4. Jakes, P.J.; Nelson, K.C.; Enzler, S.A.; Burns, S.; Cheng, A.S.; Sturtevant, V.; 

Williams, D.R.; Bujak, A.; Brummel, R.F.; Souter, S.G.; Staychock, E. 2011. 

Community wildfi re protection planning: Is the Healthy Forest Restoration 

Act’s vagueness genius? International Journal of Wildland Fire. Available online at 

http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2011/nrs_2011_jakes_001.pdf 
 Best Management Practices for Creating a Community Wildfi re Protection Plan 27

Acknowledgments

We thank our graduate students who were essential to the research process: Alexander Bujak 

and Emily Staychock in the Department of Forest, Rangeland, and Watershed Stewardship, 

Colorado State University, and Rachel Brummel and Stephanie Grayzeck Souter in the 

Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota.

Th e research team thanks the project’s Research Advisory Committee, which ensured that the 

research project answered important questions and that fi ndings were well grounded.
Jakes, Pamela J.; Esposito, Christine; Burns, Sam; Cheng, Antony S.; Nelson, Kristen C.; 

Sturtevant, Victoria E.; Williams, Daniel E. 2011. Best management practices for creating a 

community wildfi re protection plan. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-89. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 27 p.

A community wildfi re protection plan (CWPP) is a means of bringing local solutions to 

wildland fi re management. In developing and implementing CWPPs, communities assume 

a leadership role in reducing wildfi re risk on federal and nonfederal land. In this publication, 

we identify best management practices for CWPP development and implementation based 

on the experiences of 13 communities in 8 states. Th ese communities represent much of 

the social and ecological diversity found across the U.S. in the Wildland-Urban Interface 

(WUI)—where human development meets forested areas. 

KEY WORDS: Wildland-Urban Interface, wildfi re risk, Firewise communities, 

 risk reduction, wildfi re planning, wildfi re, community wildfi re 

 protection plan

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