Satellite Image Atlas 

of Glaciers of the World

E U ROPE

United States Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 1386 E
Cover: Landsat false-color image mosaic of Svalbard, 

Norway, a heavily glacierized archipelago situated about 

900 kilometers north of the Norwegian mainland. Mosaic 

compiled by Fjellanger Wideroe A-S. See page E142.
GLACIERS OF EUROPEE-l. GLACIERS OF THE ALPS 

THE AUSTRIAN ALPS 

By HELMUT ROTT 

THE SWISS ALPS 

By KARL E. SCHERLER 

THE FRENCH ALPS 

By LOUIS REYNAUD 

THE ITALIAN ALPS

By ROSSANA SERANDREI BARBERO and GIORGIO ZANON 

E-2. GLACIERS OF THE PYRENEES, SPAIN AND FRANCE

By DAVID SERRAT and JOSEP VENTURA 

E-3. GLACIERS OF NORWAY

By GUNNAR 0STREM and NILS HAAKENSEN 

E-4. GLACIERS OF SWEDEN

By VALTER SCHYTT 

E-5. GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY

By OLAV LIEST0L

E-6. GLACIERS OF JAN MAYEN, NORWAY 

By OLAV ORHEIM

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD 

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, Jr., and JANE G. FERRIGNO

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1386-E

Landsat images, in conjunction with other 

data, have been used to map the extent of 

glaciers, update glacier inventories, 

determine changes in mass balance, and 

produce runoff estimates for hydroelectric 

power production

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1993
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Robert M. Hirsch, Acting Director

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for

descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the

U.S. Government

Technical editing by John M. Watson 

Design and illustrations by Lynn Hulett

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

(Revised for vol. E)

Satellite image atlas of glaciers of the world.

(U.S. Geological Survey professional paper ; 1386)

Two fold. col. maps in pocket in v. B.

Includes bibliographical references.

Contents: B. Antarctica / by Charles Swithinbank ; with sections on The "dry valleys" of Victoria Land, by Trevor J. Chinn,

[and] Landsat images of Antarctica, by Richard S. Williams, Jr., and Jane G. Perrigno E. Glaciers of Europe 

G. Glaciers of the Middle East and Africa. 

Supt. of Docs, no.: I 19.16:1386-8, etc.

1. Glaciers Remote sensing. I. Williams, Richard S. II. Ferrigno, Jane G. III. Series. 

GB2401.72.R42S28 1988 551.3'12 87-600497

For sale by the U.S. Geological Survey, Map Distribution,

Box 25425, MS 306, Federal Center,

Denver, CO 80225
Foreword

On 23 July 1972, the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS 

1 or Landsat 1) was successfully placed in orbit. The success of Landsat 

inaugurated a new era in satisfying mankind's desire to better understand the dynamic world upon which we live. Space-based observations 

have now become an essential means for monitoring global change.

The short- and long-term cumulative effects of processes that cause 

significant changes on the Earth's surface can be documented and studied 

by repetitive Landsat images. Such images provide a permanent historical record of the surface of our planet; they also make possible comparative two-dimensional measurements of change over time. This Professional Paper demonstrates the importance of the application of Landsat 

images to global studies by using them to determine the current 

distribution of glaciers on our planet. As images become available from 

future satellites, the new data will be used to document global changes in 

glacier extent by reference to the image record of the 1970's.

Although many geological processes take centuries or even millenia to 

produce obvious changes on the Earth's surface, other geological phenomena, such as glaciers and volcanoes, cause noticeable changes over 

shorter periods. Some of these phenomena can have a worldwide impact 

and often are interrelated. Explosive volcanic eruptions can produce 

dramatic effects on the global climate. Natural or culturally induced 

processes can cause global climatic cooling or warming. Glaciers respond 

to such warming or cooling periods by decreasing or increasing in size, 

thereby causing sea level to rise or fall.

As our understanding of the interrelationship of global processes 

improves and our ability to assess changes caused by these processes 

develops further, we will learn how to use indicators of global change, 

such as glacier variation, to more wisely manage the use of our finite land 

and water resources. This Professional Paper is an excellent example of 

the way in which we can use technology to provide needed earth-science 

information about our planet. The international collaboration represented 

by this report is also an excellent model for the kind of cooperation that 

scientists will increasingly find necessary in the future in order to solve 

important earth-science problems on a global basis.

Dallas L. Peck

Director,

U.S. Geological Survey

FOREWORD III
Preface

This chapter, consisting of six independently authored subchapters, 

including one subchapter, Glaciers of the Alps, that has four independently authored sections, is the fourth to be released in U.S. Geological 

Survey Professional Paper 1386, Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the 

World, a series of 11 chapters. In each chapter, remotely sensed images, 

primarily from the Landsat 1, 2, and 3 series of spacecraft, are used to 

study the glacierized regions of our planet and monitor glacier changes. 

Landsat images, acquired primarily during the middle to late 1970's, 

were used by an international team of glaciologists and other scientists to 

study various geographic areas or discuss glaciological topics. In each 

geographic area the present areal distribution of glaciers was compared, 

where possible, with historical information about their past extent. The 

atlas provides an accurate regional inventory of the areal extent of glacier 

ice on our planet during the 1970's as part of a growing international 

scientific effort to measure global environmental change on the Earth's 

surface.

The Alps of Austria, Switzerland, France, and Italy have a total area 

covered by glaciers of 542, 1,342, 350, and 608 square kilometers, 

respectively. Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) images have been 

used in this area to map the extent of snow and ice areas, update glacier 

inventories, correlate changes in snowline elevation to glacier mass 

balance, and with digital processing to monitor individual glaciers to 

calibrate snowmelt models used to produce runoff estimates for hydroelectric power production.

The 41 glaciers in the Pyrenees (Spain and France), covering a total 

area of 8.10 square kilometers, have all receded since the mid-19th 

century, although some minor advances took place in the late 1950's. The 

small size of Pyrenean glaciers precludes the use of Landsat MSS images 

for monitoring glacier variations.

Norway has 1,627 glaciers that total 2,595 square kilometers in area; 

these -.glaciers, most commonly ice caps, outlet, cirque, and valley 

glaciers, have been receding since about 1750. Landsat images are used 

to evaluate suspended sediment in lakes and fjords and to monitor the 

transient snowline as a measure of approximate net mass balance.

Sweden has a total area of 314 square kilometers covered by glaciers, 

one of which (Storglaciaren, in Swedish Lapland) is the subject of the 

longest continuous series of mass-balance measurements in the world, 

initiated in 1945-46. Landsat MSS images have only limited application 

because of spatial resolution considerations and the small size of Sweden's 

glaciers.

Svalbard, Norway, an archipelago in the North Atlantic Ocean, has 

more than 2,100 glaciers that cover 36,591 square kilometers, or 59 

percent of the total area of the islands; Landsat images have been used to 

monitor fluctuations in the equilibrium line and glacier termini and to 

revise maps.

Jan Mayen, Norway, has 113 square kilometers, or 30 percent of its 

area, covered by an ice cap and the 20 named outlet glaciers that 

surmount the active Beerenberg stratovolcano. Satellite monitoring of 

fluctuations of outlet glaciers would be useful, but persistent cloud cover 

has limited the acquisition of cloud-free Landsat images.

Richard S. Williams, Jr. 

Jane G. Ferrigno 

Editors

PREFACE
About this Volume

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386, Satellite Image Atlas 

of Glaciers of the World, contains 11 chapters designated by the 

letters A through K. Chapter A is a general chapter containing introductory material and a discussion of the physical characteristics, classification, and global distribution of glaciers. The next nine chapters, B 

through J, are arranged geographically and present glaciological information from Landsat and other sources of data on each of the geographic 

areas. Chapter B covers Antarctica; Chapter C, Greenland; Chapter D, 

Iceland; Chapter E, Continental Europe (except for the European part of 

the former Soviet Union), including the Alps, the Pyrenees, Norway, 

Sweden, Svalbard (Norway), and Jan Mayen (Norway); Chapter F, Asia, 

including the European part of the former Soviet Union, China (P.R.C.), 

India, Nepal, Afghanistan, and Pakistan; Chapter G, Turkey, Iran, and 

Africa; Chapter H, Irian Jaya (Indonesia) and New Zealand; Chapter I, 

South America; and Chapter J, North America. The final chapter, K, is 

a topically oriented chapter that presents related glaciological topics.

The realization that one element of the Earth's cryosphere, its glaciers, 

was amenable to global inventorying and monitoring with Landsat 

images led to the decision, in late 1979, to prepare this Professional 

Paper, in which Landsat 1, 2, and 3 multispectral scanner (MSS) and 

Landsat 2 and 3 return beam vidicon (RBV) images would be used to 

inventory the areal occurrence of glacier ice on our planet within the 

boundaries of the spacecraft's coverage (between about 81° north and 

south latitudes). Through identification and analysis of optimum Landsat 

images of the glacierized areas of the Earth during the first decade of the 

Landsat era, a global benchmark could be established for determining the 

areal extent of glaciers during a relatively narrow time interval (1972 to 

1982). This global "snapshot" of glacier extent could then be used for 

comparative analysis with previously published maps and aerial photographs and with new maps, satellite images, and aerial photographs to 

determine the areal fluctuation of glaciers in response to natural or 

culturally induced changes in the Earth's climate.

To accomplish this objective, the editors selected optimum Landsat 

images of each of the glacierized regions of our planet from the Landsat 

image data base at the EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls, S. Dak., 

although some images were also obtained from the Landsat image 

archives maintained by the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Ottawa, 

Ontario, Canada, and by the European Space Agency in Kiruna, Sweden, 

and Fucino, Italy. Between 1979 and 1981, these optimum images were 

distributed to an international team of more than 50 scientists who 

agreed to author a section of the Professional Paper concerning either a 

geographic area or a glaciological topic. In addition to analyzing images of 

a specific geographic area, each author was also asked to summarize 

up-to-date information about the glaciers within the area and to compare 

their present areal distribution with historical information (for example, 

from published maps, reports, and photographs) about their past extent. 

Completion of this atlas will provide an accurate regional inventory of the 

areal extent of glaciers on our planet during the 1970's.

Richard S. Williams, Jr. 

Jane G. Ferrigno 

Editors

VI ABOUT THIS VOLUME
CONTENTS

Page

Foreword III

Pvofanti ± l cldCc "" V Y

About this volume VI

E-l. Glaciers of the Alps

The Austrian Alps, by Helmut Rott E6 

The Swiss Alps, by Karl E. Scherler E14

The French Alps, by Louis Reynaud E23 

The Italian Alps, by Rossana Serandrei Barbero and

Giorgio Zanon E 37 

E-2. Glaciers of the Pyrenees, Spain and France, by David

Serrat and Josep Ventura E49 

E-3. Glaciers of Norway, by Gunnar 0strem and Nils

E-4. Glaciers of Sweden, by Valter Schytt -Bill

E-5. Glaciers of Svalbard, Norway, by Olav Liest01 -E127

E-6. Glaciers of Jan Mayen, Norway, by Olav Orheim E153

CONTENTS VII

Glaciers of Europe 

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS

THE AUSTRIAN ALPS 

By HELMUT ROTT

THE SWISS ALPS

By KARL E. SCHERLER

THE FRENCH ALPS 

By LOUIS REYNAUD

THE ITALIAN ALPS

By ROSSANA SERANDREI BARBERO and GIORGIO ZANON

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, Jr., and JANE G. FERRIGNO

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1386-E-l

The Alps of Austria, Switzerland, France, 

and Italy have a total area covered by 

glaciers of 542, 1,342, 350, and 608 

square kilometers, respectively
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction El

FIGURE 1. Landsat image mosaic of the Alps at 1:600,000 scale 2 

2. Index map to the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the

glaciers of the Alps 5

TABLE 1. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of glaciers of the Alps 4 

The Austrian Alps, by Helmut Rott 6

Introduction 6

FIGURE 3. Sketch map of the Eastern Alps showing the main glacierized

mountain groups and the drainage basins 7

TABLE 2. Main glacierized mountain groups in the Eastern Alps of Italy

and Austria 7

Climatic conditions 6 

Occurrence of glaciers 7

TABLE 3. The largest glaciers of the Austrian Alps 8

Observations and mapping of glaciers 8 

Historic studies 8 

Modern studies 10

FIGURE 4. Painting of the Dorferkees (Hohe Tauern group) in 1840 near

its maximum extent 9

5. Photograph of the terminus of the Dorferkees on 5 October

1965 from the same point of view as figure 4 9

6. Graph showing mean specific mass balance and mean 'altitude 

of the equilibrium line of Hintereisferner (Otztaler Alpen) 

from the budget years 1952-53 to 1988-89- - 10

OdbClllLC CQ^-oll'ii'o lllld&C-l ITYI QflroT*\r V ______ _^_______ ____ _ __ __________ __ ____ _ _________________________ __ __ _ __ _____ j^ 1 j^1

FIGURE 7. Part of a Landsat 2 MSS image of the Eastern Alps taken on

15 August 1980 (band 6; Path 207, Row 27) f 11

8. Enlargement of part of a Landsat 1 MSS image taken4n

13 August 1972 (1021-09380, band 7; Path 208; Row 27) 12

9. Enlargement at approximately 1:250,000 scale of part of a .

Landsat 5 TM image over the Otztaler Alpen group taken on 

30 September 1985 (bands 1, 2, 3; Path 193, Row 27) 13

The Swiss Alps, by Karl E. Scherler - --- 14

 ~ _ _ ______ _ ______ _______________________ _________________ _ _ _____ __________________ _ ______ j_-£ 1 A.

Introduction ----- 14

FIGURE 10. Map showing glacier distribution in Switzerland 15

TABLE 4. The largest glaciers in Switzerland 15

Observations of glaciers - 14 

Mapping of glaciers = 16 

Satellite imagery 17

FIGURE 11. Landsat 2 MSS false-color composite image of the western part 

of the Swiss Alps on 16 September 1978 (21333-09210; Path 

210, Row 28) - - - - - 18 

12. Landsat 2 MSS image of the eastern part of the Swiss Alps on

4 September 1980 (band 7; Path 209, Row 27) - - - 19

CONTENTS III
13. Enlargement of part of figure 11 showing the Aletschgletscher

and surrounding area E20

14. A Landeskarte der Schweiz sheet at 1:200,000 scale showing

the same region as in figure 13 21

Acknowledgment 22

The French Alps, by Louis Reynaud 23

Abstract 23

Introduction 23

FIGURE 15. Map showing the distribution of glaciers in the French Alps 

compiled from l:25,000-scale Institut Ge'ographique 

National maps 24 

16. Landsat 1 MSS image mosaic of the French Alps showing the 

Mont Blanc, the Grandes Rousses, and the Pelvoux areas 

without clouds 27

TABLE 5. The main groups of glaciers of the French Alps 25 

Satellite images of glaciers of the French Alps 26

FIGURE 17. Enlarged sections of the Landsat image mosaic of the French

9Q ^o

The history of glacier variations in the French Alps 26

FIGURE 18. Graph showing variation in length of four glaciers on the north

side of Mount Blanc from 1870 to 1984 31

Mass-balance measurements in the French Alps 30

FIGURES 19-20. Graphs showing accumulated balance variations versus time for:

19. Glacier de Sarennes 33

20. Glacier de G^broulaz from 1908 to 1950 and a comparison 

of the accumulated variations with the Glacier de 

Sarennes and Aletschgletscher 34

TABLE 6. Mass-balance measurements on glaciers in the French Alps 32

Aerial and terrestrial photogrammetric surveys in

Alpine glaciological studies 35 

References cited 36

The Italian Alps, by Rossana Serandrei Barbero and Giorgio

Zanon - - - - - 37

Introduction 37

FIGURE 21. Sketch map of the main glacierized mountain areas in the

Italian Alps 38

Location and distribution 37

TABLE 7. The largest glaciers in the Italian Alps 39

Italian glaciological research 39

TABLE 8. Examples of large-scale maps of Italian glaciers published 

by the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Comitato 

Glaciologico Italiano, Turin 40

Glacier surveys by satellite remote sensing 41

FIGURE 22. Landsat 2 MSS image (21333-09210, band 6; 16 September 

1978; Path 210, Row 28) showing part of the Monte 

Bianco (A) and the Monte Rosa (B) mountain groups 41 

23. Landsat 1 MSS false-color composite image (1021-09383;

13 August 1972; Path 208, Row 28) showing part of the

central Italian Alps 42

IV CONTENTS
24. Landsat 1 MSS image (band 7; 26 October 1975; Path 207, 

Row 28) showing the eastern Italian Alps between the 

Alpi Venoste and the Alpi Carniche E43

TABLE 9. Total surface area and snow-covered surface area of selected 

glaciers as derived from Landsat MSS images acquired 

on 13 September 1975 (20234-09320; Path 209, Row 28), 

28 August 1978 (21314-09142; Path 209, Row 28), and 

4 September 1980 (Path 209, Row 28) 

FIGURE 25. Digitally processed Landsat 2 MSS image (2 September 1980;

Path 207, Row 27) of part of the eastern Italian Alps 

26. Digitally processed Landsat 3 false-color MSS image

(6 September 1981; Path 207, Row 27) of part of the 

eastern Italian Alps 

27. Digitally processed Landsat 4 image (40389-09272;

9 August 1983; Path 192, Row 27, approximately 

equivalent to Landsats 1-3 Path 207, Row 27) of part of 

the eastern Italian Alps 

References cited 

44

45

46

47

48

CONTENTS
SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

GLACIERS OF EUROPEGLACIERS OF THE ALPS

Introduction

The Alps are a complex system of mountain ranges in south-central 

Europe that extend about 1,000 km in a crescent shape along Italy's 

common border with Yugoslavia, Austria, Switzerland, and France. The 

southern flank of the Alpine chain is subdivided by Italian geographers 

into the Western, Central, and Eastern Alps. Other scientists, especially 

those from the regions along the northern slope of the Alps, subdivide the 

system into the Western and Eastern Alps by an imaginary line following 

the Rhine River from Bodensee (Lake of Constance) to Lake Como.

The Alps have summit elevations that reach a maximum of more than 

4,800 m, as on Mont Blanc. The major glacierized areas are situated along 

the crest of the mountain chain. The largest glaciers are often at the 

highest elevations, especially where comparatively level areas exist 

above the snowline. Numerous smaller glaciers are, however, scattered 

throughout the Alps.

Far fewer glaciers are found on the southern flanks than on the 

northern slopes of the Alps because of seasonal weather patterns and 

greater intensity of solar radiation on the south. Humid, moisture-laden 

winds tend to blow from westerly and northwesterly directions in the 

winter. More southerly winds predominate in the spring and autumn. 

Southward-facing slopes receive greater amounts of solar radiation 

throughout the year. Orographic effects complicate the situation. More 

precipitation falls in the external ranges than in the interior ones because 

rain shadows related to the prevailing seasonal winds are created by the 

presence of these outer mountains. The firnline follows the precipitation 

pattern. The maximum altitude for the firnline is lower in the external, 

more humid massifs and higher in the interior ranges. Therefore, 

maximum precipitation on northern slopes, greatest ablation on southern 

ones, location of mountain range, and elevation and configuration of the 

terrain govern the distribution of glaciers throughout the Alps.

The Alps are composed of numerous principal mountain ranges, many 

subsidiary ranges, and several smaller groups. Several ranges cross 

international boundary lines and are known by different names in the 

bordering countries. The massif called Mont Blanc in France is Monte 

Bianca in Italy, and the chain called Alpi Venoste in Italy becomes 

Otztaler Alpen in Austria. Sometimes the same name is spelled differently in bordering countries. The Alpes Maritimes in France are the Alpi 

Marittime in Italy.

In this subchapter, the glaciers of the Alps are discussed geographically by country. To solve the problem that arises because different 

names describe a single geographic place or feature, an editorial decision 

was made to use the geographic names approved by the United States 

Board on Geographic Names for each country in each of the four divisions 

of the section. The authorities used for reference were the gazetteers 

approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names, as follows:

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS El
Austria, Gazetteer No. 66, 1962; Switzerland, Preliminary Gazetteer, 

1950; France, Gazetteer No. 83, 1964; and Italy and associated areas, 

Gazetteer No. 23, 1956.

Various terms are used for glaciers throughout the Alps. "Gletscher" is 

commonly used in the German-speaking region of the Western Alps. In 

the German-speaking region of the Eastern Alps, "Ferner" and "Kees" 

are used. "Glacier" is used in the French Alps and "ghiacciaio" in the 

western Italian Alps. "Vedret" or "vedretta" is used in the eastern 

Italian Alps.

Glaciological studies have been carried out in the Alps since the 1800's. 

Some areas have been studied intensively, others only moderately. Early 

glaciological studies were conducted with labor- and time-intensive 

fieldwork. Aerial photographic surveys are now commonly used to 

supplement ground studies. Recently, other remote sensing techniques, 

such as satellite imagery, have been explored to see what the data can 

contribute to glaciological studies of the Alps. The four divisions of this 

section of Chapter E describe some of the applications of Landsat 

imagery, although constraints imposed by the spatial resolution of the 

multispectral scanner (MSS) image limit the use of Landsat to the largest 

glaciers in the Alps.

Landsat imagery of the Alps has been acquired since 1972. Although 

the Alps are frequently cloud covered, enough Landsat data had been 

collected by 1982 that the Georg Westermann Company was able to 

produce an almost cloud-free image mosaic of the entire Alps area by 

using portions of 50 images. The images selected were acquired during 

the summer months (June through August), so areas of snow and ice are 

strikingly evident (fig. 1).

Initially, all the Landsat data were acquired and archived by the 

United States. Starting in 1975, the European Space Agency's receiving 

station in Fucino, Italy, also began acquiring and archiving the data. 

Landsat images of the Alps are frequently cloud covered, but some 

optimum imagery has been archived by the United States and is listed in 

table 1. Also listed are the best images archived by the European Space 

Agency that are known to the authors or editors. The coverage of the 

optimum imagery is shown in figure 2.

Figure 1. Landsat image mosaic of the Alps 

at 1:3,300,000 scale. The mosaic was produced by the Georg Westermann Company, 

Braunschweig, Germany. Parts of 50 Landsat images were used.

E2 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E3
TABLE 1. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of glaciers of the Alps

[The Landsat imagery evaluated for this chapter is archived primarily at the EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. It is likely that better imagery of this area is archived by the European 

Space Agency, but, because of the difficulty determining what imagery is available and evaluating it for glaciological purposes, only those images known to the authors or editors have been 

listed. Two optimum Landsat thematic mapper images are included at the end of the table to provide better coverage of the gladerized areas of the Eastern Alps]

Path-Row

206-27

206-28

207-27

207-28

208-27

208-28

209-27

209-27

209-28

209-29

210-27

210-28

210-28

210-29

211-27

211-28

Nominal 

scene 

center 

(lat-long)

047°20'N. 

013°52'E.

045°55'N. 

013°17'E.

047°20'N. 

012°26'E.

045°55'N. 

011°51'E.

047°20'N.

oiroo'E.

045°55'N. 

010°25'E.

047°20'N. 

009°34'E.

047°20'N. 

009°34'E.

045°55'N. 

008°59'E.

044°30'N. 

008°25'E.

047°20'N. 

008°08'E.

045°55'N 007°33'E

045°55'N. 

007°33'E.

044°30'N. 

006°59'E.

047°20'N. 

006°42'E.

045°55'N. 

006°07'E.

Landsat 

identification 

number

2231-09142

2231-09144

2934-08573

^^

1021-09380

1021-09383

1076-09440

2234-09320

2234-09322

___

2217-09374

2955-09143

1078-09553

1078-09555

Date

10 Sep 75

10 Sep 75

13 Aug 77

26 Oct 75

13 Aug 72

13 Aug 72

7 Oct 72

4 Sep 80

13 Sep 75

13 Sep 75

3 Aug 76

27 Aug 75

16 Sep 78

3 Sep 77

9 Oct 72

9 Oct 72

Solar 

elevation 

angle 

(in degrees)

41

42

44

25

50

51

33

41

42

48

46

40

33

34

Code 

(see fig. 2)

3

3

3

9

3

3

3

3

3

3

Cloud 

cover 

(in percent)

20

30

50

10

20

30

0

0

0

0

0

50

0

50

60

60

Remarks

Hohe Tauern and Dachstein 

areas, Austria

Alpi Carniche, Italy, Julian 

Alps, Yugoslavia

Zillertaler Alpen, Hohe Tauern, 

Austria; Alpi Breonie, Aurine, 

Italy; archived by European 

Space Agency, Frascati, Italy

Alpi Dolomitiche, Italy; archived 

by European Space Agency, 

Frascati, Italy

Otztaler, Stubaier Alpen, 

Austria; Alpi Venoste, 

Brenonie, Italy

Rhatische Alpen, Switzerland/ 

Alpi Retiche, Italy

Rhatische Alpen, Switzerland 

and Austria

Rhatische Alpen, Switzerland 

and Austria; archived by 

European Space Agency, 

Frascati, Italy

Switzerland/Italy border from 

Monte Rosa to the Gruppo del 

Bernina

Mont Clapier area in the Alpes 

Maritimes (Alpi Marittime), 

France and Italy

Berner Alpen, Switzerland; 

archived by European Space 

Agency, Frascati, Italy

Berner Alpen, Switzerland

Alpi Pennine, Switzerland and 

Italy; Alpes de Savoie, France 

and Italy; archived by European Space Agency, Frascati, 

Italy

Alpes Cottiennes (Alpi Cozie) 

and Alpes Maritimes (Alpi 

Marittime), France and Italy; 

archived by European Space 

Agency, Frascati, Italy

Berner Alpen, Switzerland

Orographic clouds on the 

Vanoise glaciers and some on

the Mont Blanc glaciers; Alpes 

Grees (Alpi Graie) and Alpes 

de Savoie, France and Italy

E4 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 1. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and S images of glaciers of the Alps Continued

Path-Row

Nominal 

scene 

center

(lat-long)

Landsat

identification

number

Date

Solar 

elevation

angle 

(in degrees)

Code 

(see fig. 2)

Cloud

cover

(in percent)

Remarks

211-29 044°30'N. 1078-09562 9 Oct 72 

005°33'E.

35 Glacierized areas of Grandes 

Rousses and Mont Pelvoux are 

cloud free; Alpes du Dauphine

211-29 044°30'N. 

005°33'E.

2254-09434 3 Oct 75 - A 0 The best image of Mont Pelvoux 

area, France

Optimum Landsat TM images

192-27

193-27

047°27'N. 

012°33'E.

047°27'N.

oiroo'E.

- 7 Sep 85 37 A

- 30 Sep 85 43 £

0

0

Zillertalen Alpen, Hohe Tauern, 

Austria

Otztaler and Stubaier Alpen, 

Austria

10°E

50°N

45°N

100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS

i_____i_____i_____i

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS

Evaluation of image usability for glaciologic, geologic, 

and cartographic applications. Symbols defined as follows:

0 Excellent image (0 to ~s5 percent cloud cover)

9 Good image (>5 to slO percent cloud cover)

(J Fair to poor image (>10 to ^100 percent cloud cover)

O Nominal scene center for a Landsat image outside 

the area of glaciers

O Approximate size of area encompassed by nominal 

Landsat MSS image

Figure 2. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of the Alps. The vertical lines represent nominal 

paths. The rows (horizontal lines) have been established to indicate the latitude at which the imagery has been 

acquired.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E5
The Austrian Alps

By Helmut Rott l

Abstract

An overview is provided on the occurrence of the glaciers in the Eastern Alps of Austria 

and on the climatic conditions in this area. Historical documents on the glaciers have been 

available since the Middle Ages. Special glaciological observations and topographic surveys 

of individual glaciers were initiated as early as 1846. Recent data in an inventory based on 

aerial photographs taken in 1969 show 925 glaciers in the Austrian Alps with a total area of 

542 square kilometers. Present research topics include studies of mass and energy balance, 

relations of glaciers and climate, physical glaciology, a complete inventory of the glaciers, 

and testing of remote sensing methods. The location of the glacier areas is shown on 

Landsat multispectral scanner images; the improved capabilities of the Landsat thematic 

mapper are illustrated with an example from the Otztaler Alpen group.

Introduction

A line from Bodensee (Lake of Constance) along the Rhine River to 

Lake Como is usually taken as the division between the Eastern and the 

Western Alps. The main rivers and the major glacierized mountain 

groups of the Eastern Alps are shown in the sketch map of the region (fig. 

3), and total areas for the glacierized regions are listed in table 2. Runoff 

from the northern region drains to the North Sea through the Rhine 

River. The eastern regions drain to the Black Sea through the Danube 

River from its tributaries, the Inn, Salzach, and Drava Rivers. The major 

glacier areas are distributed along the main east-west ridge of the 

drainage divide, which is composed of resistant igneous and metamorphic 

rocks. Summit elevations reach between 3,500 and 3,798 m in the 

Austrian Alps. The Nb'rdliche Kalkalpen (Northern Calcareous Alps), 

which extend north of the line along the Inn and Salzach Rivers, reach 

summit heights just below 3,000 m and contain only a few small glaciers.

Climatic Conditions

The altitude of the equilibrium line (ELA) varies on East Alpine 

glaciers from about 2,600 to 3,100 m above mean sea level, depending on 

the geographic location and on slope orientation (Gross and others, 1977). 

Regional differences in the ELA are primarily related to the precipitation 

pattern. Orographic effects result in a decrease of precipitation from the 

northern and southern slopes to the inner Alpine zone. In the central part 

of the Otztaler Alpen group, where sheltering is most effective, mean 

annual precipitation at glacier altitudes is about 1,500 mm. In the Hohe 

Tauern and Silvretta groups, which receive the majority of their precipitation from northerly and westerly winds, annual precipitation is about 

50 percent higher, and the ELA is 200 to 300 m lower than in the Otztaler 

Alpen. An important factor influencing the mass balance of the glaciers is 

the synoptic weather situation during the ablation period (Hoinkes, 

1970).

'University of Innsbruck, Institute for Meteorology and Geophysics, Innrain 52, A-6020 Innsbruck, 

Austria.

E6 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
11 12° 13°E

47°N

U S T R I/ A

1 J *" « ' ! ry f AK i -' I

EXPLANATION

Glacierized mountain groups 

First-order drainage boundaries 

National borders

Figure 3. The main glacierized mountain 

groups and the drainage basins of the Eastern Alps. The numbers refer to the mountain 

groups listed in table 2.

TABLE 2. Main glacierized mountain groups in the Eastern 

Alps of Italy and Austria

[ The position of the mountain groups is shown in figure 3]

Number Mountain group

1

2

3. ....

4

5. ....

6.....

7.....

8. ....

9.....

10.....

Bernina-Disgrazia

Silvretta

Otztaler Alpen

Stubaier Alpen

Zillertaler Alpen

Hohe Tauern

Dachstein

Ortles-Cevedale

Adamello-Presanella

Alpi Dolomitiche

Area (km2)

in Italy

42

40 

14 

15 

13

96 

53 

9

in Austria

23 

174 

61 

61 

206 

6

Occurrence of Glaciers

Recent data on all Austrian glaciers are available in an inventory based 

on vertical aerial photographs taken in September and October 1969 

(Patzelt, 1980). The Austrian Alps comprise 925 glaciers with a total area 

of 542 km2; 5 glaciers are larger than 10 km2. Current and historic data 

on the five largest glaciers are summarized in table 3. Twenty-five 

glaciers are larger than 4 km2, but the majority are smaller than 1 km2.

The largest glaciers cover mountain regions that have comparatively 

level areas above the snowline. These low-relief areas in the highlands

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E7
TABLE 3. The largest glaciers of the Austrian Alps

[For 1969: I, area of the main glacier; II, area including tributary glaciers separated since 1850; , no available data]

Area (km2)

Glacier

Pasterzen Kees . . 

Gepatschferner . . .

Obersulzbach .....

Gurgler Ferner . . .

Mittelberg Ferner

Mountain 

group

. . Hohe Tauern 

. . Otztaler

. . Hohe Tauern

. . Otztaler

. . Otztaler

1969

I

19.8 

17.7 

11.6 

11.1 

10.9

1925

t

1850

II

22, 

17, 

12, 

12, 

14,

.8 

.7 

.0 

.9 

.2

25.5 

19.6 

13.6

17.5

28. 

22. 

16. 

16. 

18.

0 

1 

0 

8 

6

Altitude (1969) in 

above mean sea

Maximum

3 

3 

3 

3 

3

,700 

,517 

,570 

,420 

,530

meters 

level

Minimum

2 

2 

2 

2 

2

,070 

,063 

,063 

,270 

,250

are considered to be relic landforms from the Miocene Epoch, which 

ended about 5.3 m.y. ago. The accumulation of ice in these highland areas 

led to the formation of valley glaciers, with extended firn fields and ice 

tongues descending into narrow valleys. The maximum glacier length is 

9.2 km (Pasterzen Kees in the Hohe Tauern). Many of the small glaciers 

are cirque, niche, and slope (ice apron) glaciers. A division of the glacier 

areas according to mountain groups is given in table 2. Several mountain 

groups containing small glaciers are not listed. Among these are the 

German Alps along the border with Austria, the largest glacier of which 

is the Schneeferner (0.4 km2), near the meteorological observatory on the 

Zugspitze.

Observations and Mapping of Glaciers

HISTORIC STUDIES

East Alpine glaciers are mentioned and described in historic documents dating back to the Middle Ages, with an increasing number of 

reports beginning about the year 1600, when a major advance of the 

glaciers occurred. The early documents usually reported observations 

about individual glaciers, such as the Vernagtferner in the Otztaler 

Alpen, the surges of which dammed a lake and caused outburst floods 

(jokulhlaups) in the years around 1600, 1680, 1773, and 1845 (Hoinkes, 

1969). The first comprehensive studies of the East Alpine glaciers 

became possible with the availability of topographic maps produced from 

the second topographic survey of Austria, which also included most of the 

East Alpine glacier regions south of the main drainage divide. Maps at a 

scale of 1:28,800 were published during the period 1807 to 1834. After 

1845, an increasing number of special glaciological observations were 

carried out, including mapping of individual glaciers and ice-velocity 

measurements. Some of the earliest observations are attributed to H. 

and A. Schlagintweit, C. Sonklar, and J. Payer. The first complete 

inventory of the East Alpine glaciers was published by Richter (1888). It 

was based on the original l:25,000-scale maps of the third Austrian 

topographic survey carried out from 1871 to 1873. During the last two 

decades of the 19th century, many glacier investigations were initiated, 

some of which have been continued up to the present. Of special note are 

the first photogrammetric survey carried out of a glacier (Vernagtferner, 

Otztaler Alpen) in 1887 and the drilling operations through Hintereisferner (Otztaler Alpen) in the years between 1899 and 1909.

Historical documents and other published observations reveal similar 

periods of advance and retreat for East and West Alpine glaciers during 

the past 400 years. After a glacier maximum in the early 17th century, 

the glaciers remained in a fairly advanced position, with only small 

variations for the next 250 years. Most East Alpine glaciers reached 

another maximum at 1770 to 1780 and again around 1850. Since that time

E8 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 4. The Dorferkees (Hohe Tauern 

group) in 1840 near its maximum extent. 

Watercolor painting by Thomas Ender, from 

the Erzherzog Johann collection.

Figure 5. The terminus of the Dorferkees on 

5 October 1965 from the same point of view 

as figure 4. The dashed lines mark the glacier's extent in 1850. Photograph by Gernot 

Patzelt.

glaciers receded until about 1965, although the recession has been 

interrupted by small readvances between 1890 and 1920. In the period 

1977 to 1982, between 50 and 70 percent of the approximately 100 

Austrian glaciers, which are observed annually, were advancing; the 

annual average advance amounted only to a few meters. Due to warm 

summers and reduced snowfall on the glaciers, most of the advances 

stopped in the mid-1980's. In 1988, about 80 percent of the Austrian 

glaciers retreated.

Figures 4 and 5 exemplify historical glacier variation. Figure 4 shows 

a painting by Thomas Ender of the Dorferkees (Hohe Tauern) in 1840 

near its maximum extent. The detail shown on the glacier is most 

remarkable. A modern photograph taken on 5 October 1965 (fig. 5) 

shows the glacier from nearly the same position. It documents a 2.5-km

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E9
retreat of the glacier terminus (Patzelt, 1973) when compared with 

Ender's painting. The glacier area has decreased from a maximum of 6.9 

km2 in the 19th century to 4.6 km2 in 1969.

MODERN STUDIES

A complete bibliography of the Austrian glaciers with more than 1,600 

citations has been compiled for the Austrian glacier inventory (Patzelt, 

1980). The inventory of all Austrian glaciers is based on a special aerial 

photographic survey conducted at the end of the ablation period in 1969, 

from which maps at scales of 1:10,000 to 1:15,000 were produced. The 

areas and altitude distributions of existing glaciers were mapped; in 

addition, the areas of the 1850 stage and, where possible, of the 1920 

stage were evaluated from the positions of the moraines. The loss of total 

glacier area within Austria since the 1850 stage amounted to 40 percent, 

with 542 km2 remaining in 1969 (Patzelt and Gross, personal commun.).

Many subjects of glaciological research have been investigated on East 

Alpine glaciers in the last decades. In Austria, glaciological research is 

conducted by a number of institutes, several of which are located at the 

University of Innsbruck. Several institutes in Germany, especially the 

Commission on Glaciology of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences, carry 

out investigations on the German glaciers and on a number of Austrian 

glaciers. The annual mass balance is investigated on several East Alpine 

glaciers. A long, continuous series of observations using the direct 

glaciological method, based on actual field measurements of the glacier, is 

available for Hintereisferner (since 1952-53) and Vernagtferner in the 

Otztaler Alpen. Figure 6 shows the annual specific mass balance of 

Hintereisferner for the budget years 1952-53 to 1988-89 together with 

data on the ELA (Kuhn, 1981; Kuhn and others, 1985). The close 

relationship between ELA and mass balance is of particular interest for 

remote-sensing applications, as was discussed by 0strem (1975). Recent 

investigations are concerned with the development of remote-sensing 

methods for glacier studies. Airborne surveys with multispectral scanners (MSS) and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) have been carried out 

over glaciers in the Otztaler Alpen (Rott and Domik, 1984; Rott and 

others, 1985).

1000

500

0

-500

-1000

2800

3000

3200

Mean specific mass balance

Equilibrium line altitude 

I i i i i I i i i i I i

1955 1960 1965 1970 

YEAR

1975 1980 1985 1990

Figure 6. Mean specific mass balance and 

mean altitude of the equilibrium line of Hintereisferner (Otztaler Alpen) from the budget 

years 1952-53 to 1988-89.

E10 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 7. Part of a Landsat 2 MSS image of the 

Eastern Alps taken on 15 

August 1980 (band 6; Path 

207, Row 27). The numbers refer to the mountain 

groups listed in table 2. 

Landsat image from the 

European Space Agency, 

Frascati, Italy.

Satellite Imagery

Considering the size of the East Alpine glaciers, only high-resolution 

satellite sensors are of use for glaciological investigations. Sensors having 

the resolution of the Landsat MSS can be useful for mapping fastchanging phenomena such as the extent of the snow and ice areas on the 

glaciers (Rott, 1977). Landsat 4 and 5 thematic mapper (TM) and Landsat 

3 return beam vidicon (RBV) images have pixel sizes of about 30 m, or 

nearly 3 times better than the pixel size of Landsat MSS images. Large 

Format Camera (LFC) photographs have a spatial resolution of 10 m or 

better. The new generation of sensors on Earth observation satellites or 

manned spacecraft that have higher surface resolution is useful for 

updating the inventories of the mountain glaciers and for mapping of 

snow and ice areas (Rott and Markl, 1989). Vertical aerial photographs 

are still needed for providing accurate maps of surface topography of the 

glaciers.

The Landsat MSS image in figure 7 shows a section of the Eastern 

Alps, from the Bavarian foothills on the north, to the Nordliche Kalkalpen and the glaciated Central Alps, and to the Alpi Dolomitiche in the 

south. The image includes the Zillertaler Alpen and Hohe Tauern groups.

Chiemsee

Salzburg

Sa|zach

Mnnsbruok

 *; 

ilfc

20

I

40 KILOMETERS

J

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS Ell
Figure 8 provides a view of the Otztaler Alpen and Stubaier Alpen (table 

2). Some scattered convective clouds are visible on both images, but the 

glacier regions are totally cloud free. In both figures only the lower parts 

of the glacier tongues are snow free. They cannot be easily distinguished 

from the surrounding terrain, which has a similar reflectivity in the near 

infrared. Both images clearly show the dendritic drainage network of the 

Alpine valleys that was formed by erosion during the Pleistocene Epoch. 

Figure 9 shows several gkciers of the Otztaler Alpen group in a Landsat 

5 TM image that was acquired on 30 September 1985, at the end of the 

ablation season. The main gkciers in the image are the Gepatschferner 

(17.7 km2), the Vernagtferner (9.3 km2), and the Hintereisferner (9.1 

km2). Because the mass balances of the glaciers were negative during the 

balance year 1 October 1984 to 30 September 1985, the equilibrium line 

was situated above the edge of the firn. The equilibrium line can be 

determined accurately from the TM image, because the firn from 

previous years shows significantly lower reflectivity than snow from the 

1984-85 mass-balance season.

Figure 8. Enlargement of 

part of a Landsat 1 MSS 

image taken on 13 August 

1972 (1021-09380, band 

7; Path 208, Row 27). The 

numbers refer to the mountain groups listed in table 

2. Landsat image from the 

EROS Data Center, U.S. 

Geological Survey, Sioux 

Falls, S. Dak.

E12 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 9. Enlargement at approximately 

1:250,000 scale of part of a Landsat 5 TM 

image over the Otztaler Alpen group taken on 

30 September 1985 (bands 1, 2, 3; Path 193, 

Row 27). The main glaciers are Gepatschfemer, Hintereisfemer, and Vernagtferner. 

Landsat image from the European Space 

Agency, Frascati, Italy.

Gepatschferner (

Selected References

Escher-Vetter, H., 1985, Energy balance calculations from five years' 

meteorological records at Vernagtferner, Otztal Alps: Zeitschrift 

fur Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, v. 21, p. 397-402.

Gross, G., 1987, Der Flachenverlust der Gletscher in Osterreich 

1850-1920-1969 [Areal losses of the glaciers in the Austrian Alps 

1850-1920-1969]: Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, v. 23, no. 2, p. 131-141.

Gross, G., Kerschner, H., and Patzelt, G., 1977, Methodische Untersuchungen tiber die Schneegrenze in alpinen Gletscher-gebieten 

[Systematic research on the snowline in Alpine glacier regions]: 

Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, v. 12, no. 2, 

p. 223-251.

Hoinkes, H., 1969, Surges of the Vernagtferner in the Otztal Alps since 

1599: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 6, no. 4, p. 853-861.

 1970, Methoden und Moglichkeiten von Massenhaus haltsstudien auf Gletschern. Ergebnisse der Messreihe Hintereisferner 

(Otztaler Alpen) 1953-1968 [Techniques and feasibility of mass 

balance studies of glaciers. Results from measuring Hintereisferner (Otztal Alps) 1953-1968]: Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und 

Glazialgeologie, v. 6, no. 1-2, p. 37-90.

Kuhn, M., 1981, Climate and glaciers, in Sea level, ice, and climatic 

change: International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication No. 131, p. 3-20.

Kuhn, M., Markl, G., Kaser, G., Nickus, U., Obleitner, F., and 

Schneider, H., 1985, Fluctuations of climate and mass balance: 

Different responses of two adjacent glaciers: Zeitschrift fur 

Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, v. 21, p. 409-416.

Oerter, H., Reinwarth, O., Rufli, H., 1982, Core drilling through a 

temperate Alpine glacier (Vernagtferner, Otztal Alps) in 1979: 

Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, v. 18, no. 1, 

p. 1-11.

0strem, G., 1975, ERTS data in glaciology An effort to monitor 

glacier mass balance from satellite imagery: Journal of Glaciology, 

v. 15, no. 73, p. 403^15.

Patzelt, G., 1973, Die neuzeitlichen Gletscherschwankungen in der 

Venedigergruppe [Recent glacier variations in the Venedigergruppe] (Hohe Tauern, Ostalpen): Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde 

und Glazialgeologie, v. 9, no. 1-2, p. 5-57.

 1980, The Austrian glacier inventory: Status and first results, 

in World Glacier Inventory: International Association of Hydrological Sciences-Association Internationale des Sciences Hydrologiques Publication No. 126, p. 181-183.

Richter, E., 1888, Die Gletscher der Ostalpen [The glaciers of the 

eastern alps]: Engelhorn, Stuttgart, 306 p.

Rott, H., 1977, Analyse der Schneeflachen auf Gletschern der Tiroler 

Zentral-alpen aus Landsat-Bildern [Analysis of snow areas on 

glaciers of the central alpine Tyrol using Landsat imagery]: 

Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, v. 12, no. 1, 

p. 1-28.

Rott, H., and Domik, G., 1984, The SAR-580 experiment on snow and 

glaciers at the Austrian Test Site. Final report of the European 

SAR-580 Campaign: Ispra, Italy, v. 2 SA/I.04, E2.85.12, 

p. 217-231.

Rott, H., Domik, G., Matzler, C., and Miller, H., 1985, Towards a SAR 

system for snow and land ice applications: Proceedings of Workshop on Thematic Applications of SAR Data, Frascati, Italy, 

September 1985, ESA SP-287, p. 29-39.

Rott, H., and Markl, G., 1989, Improved snow and glacier monitoring 

by the Landsat Thematic Mapper Proceedings of Workshop on 

Landsat Thematic Mapper Applications, Frascati, Italy, December 1987, ESA SP-1102, p. 3-12.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E13
The Swiss Alps

By Karl E. Scherler2 

Abstract

According to a glacier inventory published in 1976, which is based on aerial photography 

of 1973, there are 1,828 glacier units in the Swiss Alps that cover a total area of 1,342 square 

kilometers. The Rhonegletscher, currently the ninth largest in the country, was one of the 

first to be studied in detail. Its surface has been surveyed repeatedly; velocity profiles were 

measured, and the fluctuations of its terminus were mapped and recorded from 1874 to 

1914. Recent research on the glacier has included climatological, hydrological, and massbalance studies. Glaciological research has been conducted on various other glaciers in 

Switzerland concerning glacier hydrology, glacier hazards, fluctuations of glacier termini, 

ice mechanics, ice cores, and mass balance. Good maps are available showing the extent of 

glaciers from the latter decades of the 19th century. More recently, the entire country has 

been mapped at scales of 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 1:200,000, and 1:500,000. The 

l:25,000-scale series very accurately represents the glaciers as well as locates supraglacial 

morainie debris and crevasses. The maps are revised every 6 years by use of aerial 

photogrammetrie methods. The possibility of producing a glacier inventory by combining 

the topographic maps with Landsat digital and visual data is discussed.

Introduction

The Swiss Alpine mountain system, which encompasses two-thirds of 

the country, is divided into northern and southern chains by the deep 

west-southwest-east-northeast-trending tectonic trough occupied by the 

upper courses of the Rhone, Reuss, and Rhine River systems (fig. 10).

Moisture-bearing winds blow mostly from the westerly to northwesterly directions and produce precipitation on the windward northerly 

slopes of the northern chains. In spring and autumn, the situation is often 

reversed, with southerly winds causing heavy precipitation in the southern parts of the mountain chains. The large east-west valleys receive the 

least precipitation, because they are sheltered from both the north and 

the south. This pattern is especially marked in the Rhone River valley 

and its tributaries (Valais canton) and in the Engadine Valley of the Inn 

River.

The largest ice masses occur in the highest chains, the Alpi Pennine, 

Berner Alpen, Alpi Lepontine, and Rhatische Alpen (table 4; fig. 10). 

Numerous smaller glacier units of different types are dispersed throughout the remaining part of the Swiss Alps. According to Muller and others 

(1976a), 1,828 glacier units cover a total area of 1,342 km2 .

The elevations at which glaciers are found closely follow the precipitation pattern (Haeberli, 198Sa). The median elevations of the glaciers in 

the dry Rhone basin are several hundred meters higher than those on the 

north slope or those which are exposed to the influence of the cyclonic 

storms passing south of the Alps (table 4, fig. 10). This difference is 

shown by Muller and others (1976a) and Muller and Scherler (1980).

Observations of Glaciers

Prior to the 18th century, man's attitude toward high mountains was 

one of fear and terror. Glaciers were mentioned in tales, when they

2 Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology, and Glaciology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology 

(ETHZ), CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland.

E14 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OP THE WORLD
TABLE 4. The largest glaciers in Switzerland (from Miiller and others, 1976a)

[Glaciers are shown by number on figure 10]

Number

1.... .........

2.............

3.............

4.............

5.............

6.............

7.............

8.............

9.............

10.............

11.............

12 .............

Glacier name

....... Aletschgletscher

....... Gornergletscher

....... Fieschergletscher

....... Unteraargletscher

....... Ober Aletschgletscher

....... Unterer Grindel-waldgletscher

....... Findelengletscher

....... Corbassiere Glacier

....... Rhonegletscher

....... Vadret da Morteratsch

....... Triftgletscher

....... Zmuttgletscher

Drainage

Rhfine

Rhfine

Rhfine

Aar-Rhine

Rhfine

Aar-Rhine

Rhfine

Rhfine

Rhfine

Inn-Danube

Aar-Rhine

Rhfine

Surface 

area (km2)

86.8

68.9

33.1

28.4

21.7

21.7

19.1

17.4

17.4

17.2

17.1

17.0

Lowest 

elevation (m)

1,520

2,120

1,640

1,900

2,180

1,260

2,320

2,220

2,140

2,100

1,720

2,280

Median 

elevation (m)

3,140

3,220

3,140

2,660

2,920

2,780

3,300

3,200

2,940

3,000

2,900

2,980

7°E

47°N -

50 100 KILOMETERS

Figure 10. Glacier distribution in Switzerland (after Mutter and others, 1976a). 

Numbers refer to table 4; the location of the four glaciers where continuous 

mass-balance studies have been conducted is shown as follows: A, 

Aletschgletscher; B, Griesgletscher; C, LJmmerngletscher; D, Silvrettagletscher.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E15
caused the sudden disappearance of fertile pastures under ice masses as 

a punishment for the sins committed by the mountain people. Ancient 

chronicles also told about ice avalanches and lake outbursts. In 1595, an 

outburst flood from a lake caused by the Gie'tro Glacier, Pennine Alps, 

caused 160 deaths; in 1597, an ice-and-snow avalanche from Hohmatten 

Glacier, Pennine Alps, caused 81 deaths.

Starting with the 18th century, this negative view changed to one of 

romantic enthusiasm, as is shown in poems by Albrecht von Haller and 

Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Then scientists turned their attention to glacial 

phenomena. Names of some of the pioneers in the field of glaciology were 

Scheuchzer, Venetz, Agassiz, and de Saussure.

The Rhonegletcher was one of the first Swiss glaciers to be observed in 

detail. Its surface was surveyed repeatedly, velocity profiles were 

measured, and the fluctuations of its terminus were mapped and 

recorded. This research was carried out continuously from 1874 to 1914 

and published by the Swiss Academy of Sciences (Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, 1916). Since 1880, fluctuations of the termini of 

a representative number of glaciers have been measured annually and 

published in the journal (Jahrbuch) of the Swiss Alpine Club (SAC) from 

1891 to 1924, and in Die Alpen since 1925; Aellen (1985) gives a summary.

A good review of glacier research in Switzerland is given by the Swiss 

National Tourist Office (1981). During the 19th century, the most 

important tasks consisted of dealing with hazards related to glacier 

advances, glacier floods, and ice avalanches (Rothlisberger, 1981) and of 

starting long-term national as well as international glacier monitoring 

(Kasser, 1967, 1973; Miiller, 1977; Haeberli, 1985; Haeberli and Muller, 

1988). In the 20th century, intensive development of hydroelectric power 

schemes in heavily glacierized areas led to strong interaction between 

glaciology and hydraulic engineering. In recent years, concern for the 

quality of the environment has resulted in involvement in various fields of 

pure and applied ice research. Assessing glacier hazards in densely 

populated areas remains a task of vital importance (Haeberli, 1983b; 

Alean, 1985; Haeberli and others, 1989). Core drilling in cold firn and ice 

at 4,450 m above mean sea level on Colle Gnifetti, Monte Rosa, furnishes 

important information on the development of atmospheric composition 

(Oeschger and others, 1978; Haeberli and others, 1988; Wagenbach and 

others, 1988). Subglacial hydraulics and sliding processes at the beds of 

temperate valley glaciers are also intensely studied (Iken and Bindschadler, 1986). Continuous mass-balance measurements are being carried out 

on the Griesgletscher, Limmerngletscher, Plattalvagletscher, and Silvrettagletscher. The mass balance of the Aletschgletscher, the largest 

glacier in the Alps, is estimated by use of a hydrological model.

Glacier inventories were published by Jegerlehner (1902) and by 

Muller and others (1976a). The latter was based on aerial photographs 

taken near the end of the 1973 ablation season (Muller and others, 1976b), 

while the former consisted of measurements done on the l:50,000-scale 

map sheets of the Siegfried Atlas (see following section), showing the 

state of the glaciers during the last two decades of the 19th century. 

Because different data bases were used in these two inventories, it is 

difficult to make comparisons.

Mapping of Glaciers

Topographical surveying of the Swiss Alps was carried out mainly by 

the Federal Topographical Survey Office, with the notable exception of 

the Meyer-Weisz Atlas of Switzerland (1796-1802), consisting of 16 

sheets at an approximate scale of 1:108,000. During the first decades of

E16 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
the 19th century, the whole country was surveyed under the direction of 

General G.-H. Dufour. The survey was done at scales of 1:25,000 and 

1:50,000, the latter for mountain regions. However, the Dufour Atlas was 

published at a scale of 1:100,000 only (1844-65). A revised version of the 

Dufour topographical survey was used as the basis for maps in the 

Siegfried Atlas, which was published in the years following 1870 at the 

larger scales. Therefore, good maps showing the extent of the glaciers in 

the last decades of the 19th century are available. All of these map sheets 

are in color, with contour intervals at 30 m (Grob, 1941). These two 

national atlases showed a remarkable degree of accuracy and were 

regarded as masterpieces of contemporary cartography at their time of 

publication.

As early as 1891, the Swiss Alpine Club requested the preparation of 

a uniform topographic atlas or set of topographic maps of Switzerland. 

The Siegfried Atlas had the serious disadvantage of using two different 

scales. In addition, the map sheets showed too strongly the individual 

mark of the responsible topographer and of the cantonal authorities who 

granted part of the financial support. Both of these factors influenced the 

scope and detail of the individual map sheets. A series of precisionleveling surveys, carried out during the period 1903 to 1925, and a new 

geodetic triangulation survey revealed serious errors both in elevations 

and positions of mapped features.

Therefore, in 1935, the Federal Assembly passed a law that was to 

form the basis of the New Topographical Atlas of Switzerland (Neue 

Landeskarte der Schweiz, now Landeskarte der Schweiz). The Atlas was 

published at scales of 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 1:200,000, and 

1:500,000, under the sole responsibility of the Federal Topographical 

Survey. The last sheet at the scale of 1:25,000 was published in 1979. At 

this scale, the glaciers are represented very accurately. The contour 

interval for high mountain regions is 20 m. Also shown are moraine cover 

and major crevasses. The maps are revised every 6 years by use of aerial 

photogrammetric methods. Therefore, the whole of Switzerland is periodically covered by high-quality vertical aerial photographs. Muller and 

others (1976b) provide a list of aerial photographs for all Swiss glaciers.

The Aletschgletscher was mapped at a scale of 1:10,000 by the Federal 

Topographical Survey and the Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology, and 

Glaciology in 1957. This special topographic map shows the state of the 

Aletschgletcher, including detailed information on glaciological features 

such as crevasses and moraines.

Satellite Imagery

It is by no means easy to find optimum remotely sensed images of 

Swiss glaciers. The same applies to standard vertical aerial photographs. 

Glaciers should be photographed (or imaged) at the end of the ablation 

season, which may be any time between the end of August and the early 

part of October. The optimum time is very dependent on weather 

conditions, which are highly variable in the Swiss Alps. In addition, at 

the end of the ablation season, the solar elevation angle is already rather 

small, so deep shadows are produced on north and northwest slopes as 

Landsat passes over Switzerland during the morning hours. Thus, 

identification of the glaciers on the steep north slope of the Alps is 

difficult (figs. 11 and 12).

H. J. Gilgen, in his discussion in "Inventory of Glaciers" (this volume), 

shows that a preliminary glacier inventory can be prepared of an area on 

the basis of analysis of Landsat digital data recorded on computercompatible tapes. So far, no attempt has been made to assess the glacier

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E17
area of Switzerland from visual analysis of Landsat images. The assessment could be made, however, if the excellent maps that are available 

and enlargements of Landsat MSS images were used. Figures 13 and 14 

show that it is possible to compile a simple glacier inventory on the basis 

of Landsat images and good topographic maps. The topographic base 

maps are important in assessing watershed areas and in estimating 

various altitudes in the regions encompassed by Landsat images.

Figure 11. Landsat2 MSS false-color composite image of the western part of the Swiss 

Alps on 16 September 1978 (21333-09210; 

Path 210, Row 28). The scale is approximately 1:1,000,000. Landsat image from the 

European Space Agency, Frascati, Italy.

E18 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 12. Landsat 2 MSS image of the 

eastern part of the Swiss Alps on 4 September 1980 (band 7; Path 209, Row 27). The 

scale is approximately 1:1,000,000. Landsat 

image from the European Space Agency, 

Frascati, Italy.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E19
Figure 13. Enlargement of part of figure 11 

to a scale of approximately 1:200,000 showing the Aletschgletscher and surrounding

area.

E20 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
,-^/m^&<r *\v^ n -- :^/ .,M fcyfc^s, > *

^^^£r^^^ rfw ""£4-* ***# ?» > «^ 'p^^^*^K^.^fe/&j; wKf > ^-^^-fy \/^rtch,isP-iS^^^5r ^' x^. - L)V *s >

i v^ ' --,v-:jeB««S?-. -"', J 

u[ * 'Vs"''"

V"^ **K*!' 3*"«*r T^S/W^O' C?w^r~r ,s|

^ ^fcP

«A. ^B&^

Figure 14. A Landeskarte der Schweiz 

sheet at 1:200,000 scale showing the same 

region as in figure 13. Reproduced with 

permission of the Swiss Topographical Survey, dated 15 January 1982.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E21
Acknowledgment

The editors thank Dr. Wilfried Haeberli, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, who read the manuscript 

and made valuable contributions.

References Cited

Aellen, M., 1985, Les variations r^centes des glaciers des Alpes Suisses

[Recent variations of glaciers of the Swiss Alps]: Geografia Fisica

e Dinamica Quaternaria, v. 8, no. 2, p. 73-82. 

Alean, J., 1985, Ice avalanches: Some empirical information about their

formation and reach: Journal of Glaciology, v. 31, no. 109,

p. 324-333. 

Grob, R., 1941, Geschichte der Schweizerischen Kartographie [History

of Swiss mapping]: Bern, Kummerly and Frey, 194 p. 

Haeberli, W., 1983a, Permafrost-glacier relationships in the Swiss

Alps Today and in the past: Permafrost, Fourth International

Conference, Fairbanks, Alaska, July 17-22, 1983, Proceedings,

p. 415-420.

 1983b, Frequency and characteristics of glacier floods in the 

Swiss Alps: Annals of Glaciology, v. 4, p. 85-90.

 compiler, 1985, Fluctuations of glaciers 1975-1980, v. 4: Paris, 

International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) and 

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization 

(UNESCO), 265 p., with 13 special topographic maps of glaciers.

Haeberli, W., Alean, J.-C., Muller, P., and Funk, M., 1989, Assessing 

risks from glacier hazards in high mountain regions: Some experiences in the Swiss Alps: Annals of Glaciology, v. 13, p. 96-102.

Haeberli, W., and Muller, P., compilers, 1988, Fluctuations of glaciers 

1980-1985, v. 5: Zurich, IAHS/UNEP/UNESCO, 288 p., with 13 

special topographic maps of glaciers.

Haeberli, W., Schmid, W., and Wagenbach, D., 1988, On the geometry, flow and age of firn and ice at the Colle Gnifetti core drilling 

site (Monte Rosa, Swiss Alps): Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und 

Glazialgeologie, v. 24, no. 1, p. 1-19.

Iken, A., and Bindschadler, R.A., 1986, Combined measurements of 

subglacial water pressure and surface velocity of Findelengletscher, Switzerland: Conclusions about drainage system 

and sliding mechanism: Journal of Glaciology, v. 32, no. 110, 

p. 101-119.

Jegerlehner, J., 1902, Die Schneegrenze in den Gletschergebieten der 

Schweiz [The snowline in the glacier region of Switzerland]: 

Beitrage zur Geophysik, v. 5, no. 3, p. 486-568.

Kasser, P., compiler, 1967, Fluctuations of glaciers 1959-1965, v. 1: 

Paris, International Association of Scientific Hydrology (IASH) 

and United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 52 p., with an additional 23 tables, 7 figures, 

and l:25,000-scale photogrammetric map of Aletschgletscher.

 1973, Fluctuations of glaciers 1965-1970, v. 2: Paris, International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) and United 

Nations, Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization 

(UNESCO), 357 p., with 5 special topographic maps of glaciers.

Muller, F., 1977, Fluctuations of glaciers 1970-75, v. 3: Paris, International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) and United 

Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization 

(UNESCO), 269 p., with 12 special topographic maps of glaciers.

Muller, F., Caflisch, T., and Muller, G., 1976a, Firn and Eis der 

Schweizer Alpen [Firn and ice in the Swiss Alps]: Glacier inventory: Zurich, Geographisches Institut ETH, Publication No. 57, 

174 p.

 1976b, Firn and Eis der Schweizer Alpen [Firn and ice in the 

Swiss Alps]. Photoliste: Zurich, Geographisches Institut ETH, 

Publication No. 57a.

Muller, F., and Scherler, K., 1980, Some comments on the Swiss 

glacier inventory, in World Glacier Inventory Workshop: International Association of Hydrological Sciences-Association Internationale des Sciences Hydrologiques Publication No. 126, 

p. 185-194.

Oeschger, H., Schotterer, U., Stauffer, B., Haeberli, W., and Rothlisberger, H., 1978, First results from Alpine core drilling 

projects: Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, v. 13, 

p. 193-208.

Rothlisberger, H., 1981, Eislawinen und Ausbrilche von Gletscherseen 

[Ice avalanches and outbursts from glacier lakes]: Jahrbuch der 

Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 1978, p. 170-212.

Swiss National Tourist Office, eds., 1981, Switzerland and her glaciers: 

Bern, Kummerly and Frey, 191 p.

Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, 1916, Vermessungen am 

Rhonegletscher 1874-1915 [Measurements on the Rhone Glacier 

1874-19151: Basel, Georg & Co., 190 p.

Wagenbach, D., Munnich, K.O., Schotterer, U., and Oeschger, H., 

1988, The anthropogenic impact on snow chemistry at Colle 

Gnifetti, Swiss Alps: Annals of Glaciology, v. 10, p. 183-187.

E22 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
The French Alps

By Louis Reynaud 3 

Abstract

The glaciers of the French Alps are distributed in four main groups and have a total area 

of 350 square kilometers. The northernmost group, on the Mont Blanc massif, has a glacier 

area of 110 square kilometers, which includes Mer de Glace, which, with an area of 40 

square kilometers, is the largest glacier in the Western Alps. Farther south, the Massif de 

la Vanoise contains 130 glaciers that have a total area of 85 square kilometers. The glaciers 

of the Grandes Rousses massif have a total area of 11 square kilometers. Lastly, the Massif 

du Pelvoux has a total glacier area of 120 square kilometers. Studies of glacier variations 

since 1600 A.D. have shown numerous fluctuations in glacier length. The glaciers on Mont 

Blanc that appear to show similar fluctuations in fact have different individual response 

times. Mass-balance measurements are presently being carried out on nine glaciers. The 

measurements on one of these glaciers, Glacier de Saint Sorlin, have been used to validate 

a linear statistical model for mass-balance variation. The model seems to give good results 

when extended over the entire region of French Alpine glaciers. New methods of 

mass-balance reconstructions by use of a continuity equation are discussed. Current 

satellite data have limited usefulness for glacier studies in the French Alps, with the 

exception of the method correlating changes in the elevation of snowline to changes in 

glacier mass balance.

Introduction

The French part of the Alps constitutes the western face of the chain, 

spanning the region between Lake Geneva and the Mediterranean Sea 

(fig. 15). Glaciers are distributed in four main groups from north to south 

over a distance of approximately 250 km (fig. 16 and table 5).

The summit regions in the French massifs are heavily dissected by 

erosion. At this end of the Alpine mountain chain, changes in elevation 

are large. In a distance of only 8 km from the summit of Mont Blanc to the 

channel of the Arve River there is 3,800 m of relief. Granite needles 

overlook deep-walled cirques, but the mean altitude of the massif is not 

very high. This low mean altitude explains why, although the summits 

are higher than in the central regions of the Alps, the glacier areas are in 

fact much smaller. Except for the extensive area of glaciers around the 

Mont Blanc massif, French glaciers are small or very small in size.

Precipitation in the French Alps is evenly distributed over all months 

of the year. However, there is a great variation with elevation and 

exposure. Chamonix, which is at the foot of Mont Blanc and has an 

elevation of 1,030 m, has 1,020 mm of annual precipitation, and the Col du 

Midi, at 3,500 m, has 3,100 mm, but near the summit, around 4,300 m, the 

annual precipitation is lower and reaches only 1,100 mm (Jouzel and 

others, 1984). At the edge of the Massif du Pelvoux, the valleys at an 

elevation of 1,000 m receive annually only 600 to 700 mm of precipitation. 

The precipitation is mostly due to a flow of maritime air from the west 

(Atlantic Ocean); circulation from the southeast (Mediterranean Sea) is 

less common. However, changes in the tracks of low-pressure disturbances during some years further accentuate the north-south differences 

of the mountain chain.

From Mont Blanc to Mont Pelvoux the snowline on the glaciers is 

between 2,750 m and 2,950 m, depending upon the exposure (2,800 m on

3 Laboratory of Glaciology, Rue Moliere, Domaine Universitaire, B.P. 96, 38402 St.-Martin d'Heres 

Cedex, France.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E23
Qulrlies 

GrandSablat

Sarennes

From Institut Geographique National 

1:25,000-scale map series

I I I I I

25 KILOMETERS

Figure 15. Distribution of glaciers in the 

French Alps compiled from 1:25,000- 

scale Institut Geographique National 

maps (various dates). Glaciers in the 

Alpes Cottiennes and Maritimes are not 

included. Elevations are in meters.

E24 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 5. The main groups of glaciers of the French Alps

A i TL, -t Glacier area Alps Massif 2) Remarks

Savoie........................ Mont Blanc 110 Includes Mer de

Glace, largest glacier in the Western 

Alps.

Grees......................... Vanoise 85 Source of the Arc

and Isere Rivers.

Dauphin^..................... Grandes Rousses 11 Includes Glacier de

Sarennes and Glacier, de Saint-Sorlin. 

Pelvoux 120 Les Ecrins area.

Cottiennes and Maritimes ...................... 4 Southern Alps, location of approximately 30 very 

small glaciers. 

Total..................................... 330

the northerly exposed Mer de Glace and 2,950 m on the Glacier Blanc, 

which faces south). Mont Blanc (4,807 m) is the only massif that has a 

large, relatively continuous area of glaciers. Mont Blanc accounts for 110 

km2 out of a total glacier area of 350 km2 in the French Alps, and it 

includes the largest glacier in the Western Alps, the Mer de Glace, which 

has an area of 40 km2 .

To the south of the Mont Blanc massif is the Massif de la Vanoise; its 

highest elevation is Point de la Grande Casse, at 3,861 m. The massif 

contains about 130 glaciers that have a total glacierized area of 85 km2.

The glaciers of the Grandes Rousses massif have a total area of 11 km2 . 

This massif includes Glacier de Sarennes and Glacier de Saint-Sorlin, 

which were mapped in detail in 1904.

Lastly, the Massif du Pelvoux, with its highest elevation, Barre des 

Ecrins, at 4,102 m, is the most southerly glacial massif in the Alps 

(approximately 45° N. lat) and the second largest glacierized area in 

France at 120 km2 . To the south of the Massif du Pelvoux, the mean 

elevation of the chain declines sharply. Only about 30 small glaciers exist 

here, and their combined area is 4 km2 .

Previous work on glacier inventories of France document the substantial reduction in size of the French glaciers. Mougin (1925) published 

figures for the surface area of alpine glaciers at the end of the last century 

(1895) based on l:80,000-scale maps and ground surveys. The areas given 

were 359 km2 for the Savoie region and 159 km2 for Dauphine and 

Provence, or a total of 518 km2 for the French Alps. Vivian (1975) 

conducted a systematic inventory between 1967 and 1971 of 919 glaciers 

of the Western Alps covering a total area of 568 km2 , of which 395 km2 

were in the French Alps. The inventory was conducted by use of 

completely revised cartography at 1:20,000 and 1:25,000 scale, fieldwork, 

and aerial photographic coverage from the Institut Geographique National's Phototheque. 4 An inventory has also been completed for the Temporary Technical Secretariat for the World Glacier Inventory (now part of 

the World Glacier Monitoring Service) by use of aerial photography and 

systematic field investigations.

4 Institut G6ographique National (IGN) Phototheque is located at 2 Avenue Pasteur, 94160 Saint 

Mand6, France.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E25
Satellite Images of Glaciers of the French Alps

Only three Landsat images are required to cover the entire French 

Alps (see table 1, fig. 2). The Path 211, Row 28 nominal scene covers 

Mont Blanc and the Massif de la Vanoise; the Path 211, Row 29 nominal 

scene includes the Alpes du Dauphine (Grande Rousses massif and Massif 

du Pelvoux); and the Path 209, Row 29 nominal scene encompasses the 

Alpes Maritimes.

The images of the French Alps noted in table 1 were taken in 

September or October with the Sun at an angle of 35° in elevation and 

150° in azimuth, which roughly corresponds to about 0945 hours Universal, or Greenwich Mean Time. These circumstances allow for a good 

image of glaciers that are oriented to the south or southeast, but many 

glaciers that are to the north are hidden by shadows cast from the 

mountains (for example, Les Bossons in the Mont Blanc massif and 

Glacier Noir in the Massif du Pelvoux). Other glaciers are only partly 

visible, concealed by the very distinctive shadows of the nearest summits 

to the southeast.

Figures 16 and 17 illustrate the main groups of French glaciers shown 

on figure 15. Figure 17 shows enlarged sections from the two Landsat 1 

multispectral scanner (MSS) images mosaicked in figure 16. The Mont 

Blanc, Grandes Rousses, and Pelvoux areas are practically cloud free, 

but most of the Vanoise glaciers are hidden by orographic clouds (figs. 16, 

17). A light snowfall whitens the summits near the Italian border, to the 

east. The presence of snow or clouds makes it difficult to determine the 

areal extent of glaciers in the Alps.

Until 1983, no glaciological investigations had been done on the French 

Alps by use of satellite data. That is probably because of the recent 

availability of these data and the fact that the typical kind of information 

provided by such image data does not compare very well with conventional measuring methods that have been developed for these generally 

small, scattered glaciers and, therefore, does not meet the specific aims 

of the average glaciologist. In order for one to understand the potential 

future contribution of the satellite imagery to the glaciology of these 

areas, a brief historical description of glacier fluctuations and a survey of 

the objectives and methods of Alpine glaciology are needed.

The History of Glacier Variations in the French Alps

Through previous studies by Mougin (1934), Lliboutry (1964, 1965), 

and Le Roy Ladurie (1967), variations in the length of Alpine glaciers 

have been determined, beginning in about the year 1600. Earlier evidence is rare, but occasional documentation of previous glacier extent can 

be found in old books on geographic description and travel (Bourrit, 

1787). Some local traditions mention a major glacier recession in the past 

(Vallot, 1900). The Chamonix glaciers on Mont Blanc reached one 

maximum position in about 1610, another about 1644, and the last and 

largest about 1664. The last of these was the greatest known advance in 

recorded history. After a major retreat there were other maxima in 

about 1720 and 1776, but the period of largest growth started about 1810 

and reached its peak around 1818 to 1822. This peak was followed by a 

period of great shrinkage (for example, the Mer de Glace retreated 1,500 

m), which continued until 1880. Recent information on fluctuations is 

given by Reynaud (1984).

To the casual observer, the fluctuations of the Mont Blanc glaciers may 

appear to be exactly synchronous, but annual measurements show that 

these fluctuations are not. Regular topographic surveys to measure the

Figure 16. Landsat 1 MSS image 

mosaic of the French Alps showing the 

Mont Blanc (A), the Grandes Rousses (C), 

and the Pelvoux (D) areas without clouds; 

the Vanoise area (B) is obscured by orographic clouds. Landsat images 1078- 

09555, band 7; 9 October 1972; Path 211, 

Row 28 and 1078-09562, band 7; 9 October 1972; Path 211, Row 229. The scale 

is approximately 1:1,000,000. Landsat 

images from the EROS Data Center, U.S. 

Geological Survey, Sioux Falls, S. Dak.

E26 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E27
Figure 17. Enlarged sections of the Landsat image mosaic of the French Alps (figure 

16). The Mont Blanc area (A) and Vanoise 

area (B) are from Landsat image 1078- 

09555. The Grandes Rousses area (C) and 

Pelvoux area (D) are from Landsat image 

1078-09562. On B, the glacier areas are 

shown in green to avoid confusion with 

cloudcover.

E28 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E29
advance of the Alpine glaciers were begun in the late 19th century. 

Annual measurements for slightly more than a century are now available 

for four large glaciers on the northern face of Mont Blanc (fig. 18). Three 

of these glaciers, Les Bossons, Glacier d'Argentiere, and Mer de Glace, 

are in France, and one is in Switzerland, Trient Glacier. The four glaciers 

show similar fluctuations in length, with advances in 1890,1920, and 1970 

that alternate with recessions, including the period from 1940 to 1950, 

when there was a major retreat affecting all the glaciers in the Alps. 

Upon closer examination, these variations are not as close together as 

they first appear, because a time delay occurs between maxima on 

different glaciers. The starting dates of advance of the terminus during 

the three periods of expansion provide a more precise reference that can 

be plotted as shown in the lower part of figure 18. For each period, each 

of the glaciers has its own distinctive response time; Les Bossons reacts 

first, then Glacier d'Argentiere and the Trient Glacier 4 to 7 years later, 

and the Mer de Glace is last, 11 to 15 years later.

Les Bossons is the only one whose terminus variation reflects small 

fluctuations which do not appear on longer glaciers (for example, the 

advances of Les Bossons in 1940) but which were also apparent on smaller 

glaciers in the French Alps. The length variations of the four Mont Blanc 

glaciers cannot therefore be taken to fully represent the fluctuation of the 

French Alpine glaciers, because the individual response time differs for 

each glacier. Nevertheless, the other glaciers do generally follow the 

fluctuations of Les Bossons, and even those of Glacier Blanc, the most 

southerly glacier studied in France.

What causes these fluctuations in glacier length? If the rate of 

nourishment is the cause, it is necessary to establish this regime for each 

glacier and learn how it operates over a complete massif.

Mass-Balance Measurements in the French Alps

At present, mass-balance measurements are being taken on nine 

glaciers in the French Alps (table 6). The only one of these glaciers for 

which direct measurements are being taken is Glacier de Sarennes on the 

Grandes Rousses massif, where mass-balance measurements were begun 

in 1948. This is the longest available series of mass-balance records in the 

Alps (those for the Aletschgletscher in Switzerland go back to 1923, but 

an indirect method is used, the hydrological method) and the second 

longest in all of Europe after the Swedish Storglaciaren records, which 

were started in 1946 (see fig. 1 of "Glaciers of Sweden").

Glacier de Sarennes is a small cirque glacier that has an area of 0.87 

km2 that faces due south between 2,180 m and 3,300 m in altitude. It has 

been surveyed and photographed yearly since 1949 by the Centre d'Etude 

du Machinisme Agricole du G6nie Rural des Eaux et Forets (CEMAGREF)5 in Grenoble (Valla, 1984), with accumulation and ablation 

recorded at five fixed points during every glaciological year (October to 

October) by the Ahlmann method.

At the northern end of the same massif (Grande Rousses) is Glacier de 

Saint-Sorlin, which has an area of 3 km2. It faces north and extends from 

2,650 m to 3,664 m, the altitude of the highest point of the massif. 

Mass-balance measurements conducted at 32 different points in the 

ablation zone since 1956 have been used to validate a linear statistical 

model (Lliboutry, 1974):

6 CEMAGREF is the French National Office of Waters and Forests. Photographic library established 

in 1975. The address is Domaine Universitaire, B.P. 76, 38402 St. Martin d'Heres Cedex, France.

Figure 18. Variation in length of four 

glaciers on the north side of Mont Blanc 

from 1870 to 1984. The lower portion of 

the figure plots the starting dates of 

advance of termini during three periods of 

expansion.

E30 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
800 -

600 -

- 800

- 600

- 400

-200

-400

I______i

Front Variations

 Vallot(1900)

 Eaux & Forets, Centre Technique du

Genie Rural des Eaux & Forets 

A Eclaireurs de France

 Laboratoire de Glaciologie 

n Institut Geographique Mational

 Societe Helvetique des Sciences 

Natu relies

j_____i_____i_____i

\ 1970

\,

-200

-400

\ r \ i i i i i i i

X1875,1876 1911

Q 35/36 years 

1881,1885

 < 30/34 years

7.5 

years \1887

35 years

4 years, '

11.5 years

I______I______I______I

1954,1955 Bossons

 Argentiere 

A Trierrt

1970

Mer de Glace

15 years

i

1870 80 90 1900 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

YEARS

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E31
TABLE 6. Mass-balance measurements on glaciers in the French Alps

Alps

Savoie ......

Grees .......

Dauphine . . . 

Dauphine . . .

Massif

. . Mont Blanc

. . Vanoise

. . Grandes Rousses 

. . Pelvoux

Glacier

Glacier d'Argentiere

Mer de Glace 

Les Bossons 

Glacier de Gebroulaz

Glacier de Saint-Sorlin 

Glacier de Sarennes 

Glacier Blanc 

Glacier Noir 

Glacier d'Arsine

Period of observation

1975-86

1967-74, 1978-86 

1975-76 

1907-50, 1978-86

1956-86 

1948-86 

1978-86 

1983-86 

1969-70, 1985-86

where

bjt is the mass balance measured at point j in year t, 

ttj is a geographical parameter independent of the year, 

B( is a parameter linked to the year only, and not to the measurement 

point, and

Ejt is a centered random residue (20 cm of water for 16 years and 32 

stakes).

This model has been extended to the whole glacier by Vallon and Leiva 

(1982) and tested on Glacier de Sarennes by using the 32 years of 

measurements, from 1949 to 1980 (Reynaud, 1983).

This linear statistical model of mass-balance variation has several 

advantages. First, it allows optimal processing of all the available data, in 

particular when series of measurements are incomplete (because stakes 

are missing or mass balance has not been measured for several consecutive years). Next, with this model, the annual mass-balance measurements can be limited to a few accessible ablation zones, without steep 

slopes, crevasses, or risk of avalanche, on which a dense network of 

stakes can be established and monitored yearly. This approach not only 

makes it easier to monitor a larger number of glaciers that are widely 

separate geographically (for example, Glacier de Gebroulaz in the Massif 

de la Vanoise and Glacier Blanc in the Massif du Pelvoux) but also enables 

mass-balance changes to be measured on large glaciers such as Glacier 

d'Argentiere, Mer de Glace, and Les Bossons, which do not lend 

themselves very readily to conventional methods.

Lastly, the liner model has made it possible to obtain better objective 

knowledge of mass-balance variation in space and time on a glacier (Meier 

and Tangborn, 1965; Reynaud and others, 1986) and has made possible 

some studies of this variation near the equilibrium line (Hoinkes, 1970; 

0strem, 1975). However, the relation obtained for mass balance versus 

altitude near the equilibrium line is only very roughly linear. The poor 

concordance is generally blamed on the altitude measurement, which is 

difficult to obtain. In fact, it must be acknowledged that the mass 

balance, too, is subject to much greater error than is usually admitted; 

the deviation from the linear model is 20 g/cm2 averaged over 16 years for 

32 stakes on the Glacier de Saint-Sorlin and 7 g/cm2 averaged over 31 

years for 5 stakes on the Glacier de Sarennes. These deviations should be 

attributed much more to the nature of the glacier surface than simply to 

measurement error. In other words, there is inevitable noise in this type 

of measurement, and our failure to recognize it still prevents us from 

determining the full significance of the fluctuations of glacier mass 

balances.

The comparison of mass balances of various alpine glaciers has shown 

that the linear-balance variation model, extended to a whole region, gives 

a good account of the balance fluctuations that were measured on 10

E32 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 19. Accumulated balance variations 

(BJ versus time for Glacier de Sarennes. 

Ground measurements from Valla (1984); 

reconstruction of 1882 through 1948 from 

Martin (1978).

glaciers spread along the 500 km of the chain (Reynaud, 1980, 1983; 

Letreguilly, 1984).

The homogeneity of the balance fluctuations over a large area explains 

why the length variations seem to be caused by the same major factors in 

the nourishment. To enlarge the mass-balance series of Glacier de 

Sarennes, Martin (1978) did a reconstruction in which he used winter 

precipitations and summer temperatures from Lyon, 100 km from the 

glacier. This model of the balance fluctuations, which takes into account 

77 percent of the variance for the survey period, gives a reconstruction of 

accumulated balance variations (Et) since 1882 (fig. 19).

All the factors that are responsible for the advance around 1890 and 

1920 can be found from this analysis, as well as the reason for the large 

recession beginning in 1940. The value of Bt during the period of 1940 to 

1950 is generally 1 m of water less than the mean for the last century. In 

addition, during the last three decades, one can see some readvances 

around 1950 for the shorter glaciers and 1970 for the larger, although the 

accumulated balance variation only shows a steady state. This apparent 

balance is probably because of the reduced extent of the glaciers, for 

which a balance around the mean constitutes in fact an excess of 

nourishment. Therefore, the recent readvance of most of the alpine 

glaciers is caused by a return to conditions common from before 1940. In 

other words, the glacier is trying to regain the ground lost during the 

decade 1940 to 1950. Moreover, the less favorable weather pattern since 

1977 should produce much larger advances in the near future.

Several additional long series of accumulated balance variations are 

needed to obtain a good understanding of glacier fluctuation and the 

climatic significance. Where ground observations in the past are lacking, 

one has to be satisfied with reconstructions such as those of the Glacier de 

Sarennes. Nevertheless, such reconstructions must be based on and 

confirmed by as many data as possible. Such work has been done on a 

section of the Glacier de Gebroulaz for the period between 1908 and 1950. 

The area selected is bounded by two cross profiles, where the velocities, 

levels, and thicknesses are known. Mass balances of this sector were 

computed by using the continuity equation (Reynaud and others, 1983, 

1986). The values obtained in such a manner were compared to the 

Glacier de Sarennes reconstruction and to the hydrological values from 

the Aletschgletscher (fig. 20). These various series show a similar main

10

I.

o

-2

Glacier de Sarennes 

Grandes Rousses area, France

 Measurements, Valla, 1984 

o Reconstruction, Martin, 1978

J_____L

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

YEAR

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E33
EXPLANATION 

Glacier de Gebroulaz 

Glacier de Sarennes 

Aletschgletscher

Figure 20. Balance variations (E,) versus 

time for Glacier de Gebroulaz from 1908 to 

1950 and a comparison of the accumulated 

variations with the Glacier de Sarennes and 

Aletschgletscher (from Reynaud and others, 

1986). Reproduced by courtesy of the International Glaciological Society from Journal of 

Glaciology, v. 32, no. 112, p. 452.

2 -

1

0

<b(>=-1.71 m of water 

Or, = 1.04 m of water

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

YEAR

trend as well as accumulated balance variations of the same magnitude. 

This new way of computing mass balances gives us a means of producing 

a long series for several glaciers that have been surveyed repetitively on 

different cross profiles in the past, including a method of testing the 

accuracy of the reconstruction. In addition, it is a simpler alternative for 

mass-balance studies, because it only needs a survey of a sector of the 

glacier, when the bed topography is known.

The primary goal of glaciologists involved in glacier fluctuations is the 

establishment of an extended time series for many different glaciers in 

different geographic settings. The usual survey methods, such as direct 

ground measurements, require expensive equipment and are time consuming and labor intensive. For these reasons, there is great interest in 

the information that may be derived by indirect glaciological methods, 

such as aerial or satellite photogrammetry, and the kind of physical 

parameters that can be measured.

E34 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Aerial and Terrestrial Photogrammetric Surveys in Alpine 

Glaciological Studies

Aerial or terrestrial photogrammetry has been increasingly important 

during the past 30 years. As a result, a large set of aerial photographs is 

available for the Alpine glaciers. From these surveys, much glaciological 

information was derived and special analyses were done (Lliboutry and 

Reynaud, 1981; Vallon and Leiva, 1982). Aerial photogrammetry is very 

attractive, because it makes possible an instantaneous record of the 

shape of large surfaces. These data can be stored easily and retrieved for 

additional processing. Several national glacier services have changed 

their surveying methods following the recommendations of the first 

glacier mapping congress in Ottawa in 1965. Unfortunately, this method 

is very expensive, and, except for determination of area, the accuracy of 

conventional ground measurements is difficult to match. For example, it 

is well known that mass balances cannot be determined yearly by aerial 

photogrammetric methods but have to be spaced out in time, if we are to 

obtain relatively good precision on volumetric changes. In addition, 

successive annual aerial photogrammetric surveys do not give accurate 

surface velocities. Therefore, if the same financial support for glaciological studies were to be spent only on aerial surveys, there would result 

not only an information loss but also a hiatus in the extended time series 

of annual observation of glacier altitude, velocity, and mass-balance 

variation.

The same is true for satellite images, and, despite their real importance 

for regions not well mapped glaciologically, the images will not give any 

better information than aerial photogrammetry. One exception is where 

application of the linear variation of balance is used to relate the changes 

in elevation of the snowline to corresponding changes in glacier mass 

balance (0strem, 1975). In this case the regional coverage by satellite 

images could be a significant advantage by allowing spatio-temporal 

distribution studies of mass balance over wide areas. In the French Alps, 

however, all but a few glaciers have such a small altitude range that they 

are entirely within the ablation zone or the accumulation zone, depending 

on the year.

In conclusion, regions like the French Alps are ill-suited to surveying 

by satellite sensors, because the glacierized areas are too fragmented and 

scattered (except in the Mont Blanc massif) and because they have been 

well studied by detailed ground and aerial methods (in situ measurement 

and regular aerial photography). However, satellite data may yet become 

useful for studying these types of glaciers as the quality of data recording 

and processing improves. In any event, such areas in the Alps are good 

testing areas for satellite glaciological surveys, because the results of 

indirect methods can be compared with data from the actual terrain.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E35
References Cited

Bourrit, M.T., 1787, Nouvelle description des Alpes [A new description 

of the Alps]: Geneva, Chez Barde, Manget & Comp., 3 v., 838 p. 

Hoinkes, H., 1970, Methodenund Moglichkeiten von Massenhaushatstudien auf Gletschern [Techniques and feasibility of massbalance studies of glaciers]: Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und 

Glazialgeologie, v. 6, no. 1-2, p. 37-90.

Jouzel, J., and others, 1984, Chronologic d'un carottage de 20 m au col 

du Dome (Massif du Mt. Blanc) [Chronology of a core sample in the 

Col du Dome (Mt. Blanc area)]: La Houille Blanche, no. 6/7, 

p. 491-497.

Le Roy Ladurie, E., 1967, Histoire du climat depuis 1'an Mil [History 

of the climate since the year 1000]: Paris, Flammarion, 381 p.

Letreguilly, A., 1984, Bilans de masse des Glaciers Alpins: Methodes 

de mesures et repartition spatio-temporelle [Glacial mass balance 

of the Alpine glaciers: Methodology and spatio-temporal distribution]: unpublished Third Cycle thesis, University of Grenoble, 

September 1984.

Lliboutry, L., 1964, Traite de glaciologie [Treatise on glaciology], v. 1: 

Paris, Masson et Cie, 427 p.

 1965, Trait6 de glaciologie [Treatise on glaciology], v. 2: Paris, 

Masson et Cie, 611 p. 

-1974, Multivariate statistical analysis of glacier annual balances: Journal of Glaciology, v. 13, no. 69, p. 371-392.

Lliboutry, L., and Reynaud, L., 1981, Global dynamics of a temperate 

valley glacier, Mer de Glace, and past velocities deduced from 

Forbes' bands: Journal of Glaciology, v. 27, no. 96, p. 207-226.

Martin, S., 1978, Analyse et reconstitution de la s6rie de bilans annuels 

du glacier de Sarennes, sa relation avec les fluctuations du niveau 

de trois glaciers du massif du Mont-Blanc (Bossons, Argentiere, 

Mer de Glace) [Analysis and reconstitution of the Sarennes Glacier 

annual mass balances, their relation to the altitude variations of 

three glaciers of the Mont Blanc massif (Bossons, Argentiere, Mer 

de Glace)]: Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, 

v. 13, no. 1-2, p. 127-153.

Meier, M.F., and Tangborn, W.V., 1965, Net budget and flow of South 

Cascade Glacier, Washington: Journal of Glaciology, v. 5, no. 41, 

p. 547-566.

Mougin, P., 1925, Etudes glaciologiques, tome 5 [Glaciological studies, 

v. 5]: Paris, Direction des Eaux et du G6nie Rural, Imprimerie 

Nationale.

 1934, Etudes glaciologiques, tome 7 [Glaciological studies, v. 7]: 

Paris, Direction des Eaux et du Genie Rural, Imprimerie 

Nationale.

0strem, G., 1975, ERTS data in glaciology-An effort to monitor 

glacier mass balance from satellite imagery: Journal of Glaciology, 

v. 15, no. 73, p. 403-415.

Reynaud, L., 1980, Can the linear balance model be extended to the 

whole Alps?, in World Glacier Inventory: International Association of Hydrological Sciences-Association International des Sciences Hydrologiques (IAHS-AISH) Publication No. 126, 

p. 273-284.

 1983, Recent fluctuations of Alpine glaciers and their meteorological causes: 1880-1980, in Street-Perrot, A., Beran, M., and 

Ratcliffe, R., eds., Variations in the global water budget: 

Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Company, p. 197-205. 

-1984, Mesures des fluctuations glaciaires dans les Alpes

Francaises: Collecte des donnees et resultats [Measurements of 

glacial fluctuations in the French Alps: Collection of data and 

results]: La Houille Blanche, no. 6/7, p. 519-525.

Reynaud, L., Vallon, M., Carle, C., 1983, Analyse et synthese des 

mesures glaciologiques effectuges sur le glacier de G6broulaz, 

massif de la Vanoise [Analysis and synthesis of glaciological 

measurements made on the G6broulaz Glacier, Vanoise massif]: 

Travaux scientifiques du Pare National de la Vanoise, v. 13, 

p. 9-29.

Reynaud, L., Vallon, M., and Letreguilly, A., 1986, Mass balance 

measurements: Problems and two new methods of determining 

variations: Journal of Glaciology, v. 32, no. 112, p. 446-454.

Valla, F., 1984, Bilan du Glacier de Sarennes: 1948-1983 [Glacial mass 

balance of Sarennes Glacier: 1948-1983]: La Houille Blanche, 

no. 6/7, p. 526-528.

Vallon, M., and Leiva, J.-C., 1982, Bilans de masse et fluctuations 

recentes du Glacier de Saint-Sorlin, Alpes Francaises [Mass balance and recent fluctuations of Saint-Sorlin Glacier, French Alps]: 

Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, v. 17, no. 1-2, 

p. 143-167.

Vallot, J., 1900, Annales de 1'Observatoire m6t6orologique du MontBlanc, IV [Annals of the meteorological observatory of MontBlanc, IV]: Paris, Steinheil.

Vivian, R., 1975, Les glaciers des Alpes Occidentales [The glaciers of 

the Western Alps]: Grenoble, Allier, 513 p.

E36 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
The Italian Alps

By Rossana Serandrei Barbero 6 and Giorgio Zanon 7 

Abstract

Research carried out by Italian glaciologists in support of the World Glacier Inventory 

project identified approximately 1,400 glaciers in the mountain groups of the Italian Alps. 

The total surface area of all glaciers, glacierets, and permanent snow fields in Italy with an 

area S:5 hectares ( 0.05 square kilometers) is 608 square kilometers. An earlier inventory 

of Italian glaciers, which was published in four volumes by the Comitato Glaciologico 

Italiano of the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche showed a total glacier area of about 540 

square kilometers, but this earlier inventory did not include glacierets and snow fields. 

Italian glaciers are primarily of the mountain type, especially the cirque variety, but 

alpine-type valley glaciers are frequent, and Scandinavian-type ice fields are also present. 

Scientific research on the glaciers of Italy began during the first quarter of the 20th century 

and included four efforts to accurately document the number and areal distribution of 

Italian glaciers. The most comprehensive was the work completed for the World Glacier 

Inventory project. The use of Landsat images to delineate glaciers and monitor their 

fluctuations in the Italian Alps has been limited because of the spatial resolution of the 

Landsat multispectral scanner sensor and the shadowing of glaciers in the high-relief Alps 

caused by the solar azimuth and elevation of the Landsat orbit. Nevertheless, digital image 

processing and enhancement techniques have been successful in the development of an 

operational tool for monitoring individual glaciers and variation in snow cover. This 

development is important for calibration of snowmelt models needed for runoff estimates in 

the production of hydroelectric power in small basins.

Introduction

The southern flank of the Alpine chain is generally subdivided by 

Italian geographers into the Western, Central, and Eastern Alps. Other 

scientists, especially those from regions encompassing the northern part 

of the Alps, only subdivide them into the Western and Eastern Alps. 

However, because of the arcuate east to west orientation of the Alps (fig. 

21), this subdivision does not affect the distinctive features of its glaciers. 

It is the location of glaciers within or peripheral to the Alpine chain that 

is essential because of the strong relationship of glacier size and position 

to the source and propagation of masses of humid maritime air.

The maximum altitude of the firnline is, as a result, lower on the more 

external and humid massifs such as the Alpi Dolomitiche (Dolomites) and, 

to an even greater extent, the Alpi Carniche and Alpi Giulie, where it 

reaches its lowest altitudes in the Italian part of the Alpine chain. The 

firnline definitely rises in the more interior, drier mountain groups such 

as the Alpi Venoste, where the internal location is often accompanied by 

deep longitudinal valleys, frequent katabatic winds (fohn), and a 

continental-type precipitation regime, characterized by a winter 

minimum.

Location and Distribution

For the obvious reasons of general exposure and orography, the 

southern flank of the Alps has far fewer glaciers than the northern flank. 

The Monte Bianco and Bernina massifs and the Alpi Pennine and Alpi

6 National Research Council (CNR), Institute for the Study of the Dynamics of Large Masses, S. Polo 

1364, 30125 Venice, Italy.

7 Department of Geography, University of Padua, Via del Santo 26, 35100 Padua, Italy.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E37
AUSTRIA

,SW<IT;2ERLA Nit)

1 Gran Paradise

2 Monte Bianco

3 Monte Rosa

4 Badile-Disgrazia, 

Gruppo del Bernina

5 Adamello-Presanella

6 Ortles- Cevedale

7 Alpi Venoste

8 Alpi Breonie

Venoste demonstrate this point. However, several mountains and ranges 

show important concentrations of glaciers, such as the Ortles-Cevedale, 

in the Alpi Retiche, which, according to the "Catasto dei Ghiacciai 

Italiani" of the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (1959; 1961a,b; 1962), 

includes 113 glaciers that have a total surface area of 105 km2, and the 

Adamello-Presanella area, again in the Alpi Retiche, which has 89 

glaciers covering 53 km2.

The range of morphological types of the Italian glaciers is great, 

although mountain glaciers (especially cirque glaciers) predominate. 

Numerous alpine-type valley glaciers also are present, and they include 

some of the largest glaciers in the country. However, rather unusual 

types may be found, such as the Scandinavian-type ice field, which is 

found in the central part of the Gruppo del Adamello. The ice field is an 

almost flat plateau (Pian di Neve) from which outlet glaciers extend. On 

Monte Bianco, the great Ghiacciaio del Miage (Miage Glacier) has no real 

accumulation basin; rather, it is fed to a great extent by avalanches 

(Zanon 1980, 1985). Its tongue, about 10 km long, shows remarkable 

similarities to the avalanche glaciers of central Asia. Table 7 lists the 

largest glaciers in Italy.

Porro (1925) was the first scientist to make a systematic identification 

of the Italian glaciers. Two years later Porro and Labus (1927) prepared 

a l:500,000-scale compilation that listed 774 glaciers. As a result of the 

International Geophysical Year research, the Consiglio Nazionale delle 

Ricerche (1959; 1961a,b; 1962) published a four-volume inventory of the 

glaciers of Italy ("Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italiani"). The inventory identified, plotted on l:25,000-scale maps, and described 838 glaciers then 

existing in Italy and 190 others that had disappeared during the previous 

50 years. Glacier distribution by region was as follows: Piedmont (and 

Valle d'Aosta), 322; Lombardy, 185; Tre Venezie, 330. Of these totals,

E38 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Figure 21. The main glacierized mountain 

areas in the Italian Alps.
534 glaciers belonged to the Po basin, 255 to the Adige basin, and 48 to 

other basins. It should be noted that the isolated Ghiacciaio di Calderone, 

not included in the above categories, the southernmost glacier in Europe, 

lies in the Apennines (Gran Sasso d'ltalia) of central Italy(fig. 21).

Between 1980 and 1986, Italian collaboration on the World Glacier 

Inventory project was concluded with the identification of 1,397 glaciers 

distributed as follows: Piedmont (and Valle d'Aosta), 531; Lombardy, 

305; and Tre Venezie, 560. The total surface area of these glaciers is 608 

km2 . The large difference in the number of glaciers between the two 

inventories is almost exclusively because the new World Glacier Inventory requires a listing of all permanent snow fields and glacierets in Italy 

having areas greater than 5 ha. Most of these small snow fields and 

glacierets were not included in the old "Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italiani." A 

revision and updating of the "Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italiani" is expected 

during the next few years, and the new data collected for the World 

Glacier Inventory project will be used.

TABLE 7. The largest glaciers in the Italian Alps (unpublished data from the World

Glacier Inventory)

[See figure 21 for locations of mountain groups]

Glacier

Forni. .........

Miage .........

Mandrone .....

Lys ...........

Rutor .........

Malavalle..... .

Brenva ........

Mountain or range

.... Ortles-Cevedale

.... Monte Bianco

.... Adamello-Presanella

.... Monte Rosa

.... Testa del Rutor

.... Breonie

.... Monte Bianco

Area Maximum Elevation of termini 

(km2) length (km) (m above mean sea level)

13.20 

13.02 

12.38 

11.80 

9.54 

9.42 

8.06

5.50 

10.35 

5.38 

5.60 

4.80 

4.40 

7.64

2,350 

1,720 

2,450 

2,350 

2,504 

2,460 

1,415

Italian Glaciological Research

Glaciology is a relatively recent science in Italy (Nangeroni, 1964). It 

was only at the beginning of this century that it found its scientific niche. 

Glaciology was mainly directed at an evaluation of glacial water reserves, 

with a view to their possible use for production of hydroelectric energy. 

The founding in 1914 of the Comitato Glaciologico Italiano (CGI) (still in 

existence with a head office in Turin) provided general coordination and 

great stimulus to glaciological research, which was aimed not only at 

descriptive geography but also at the gathering of information from 

geophysical, hydrological, geomorphological, and topographic viewpoints. A comprehensive bibliography of the Italian glaciers is included in 

the first volume of "Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italiani" (Consiglio Nazionale 

delle Ricerche, 1959).

Ever since its founding, one of the main activities of the CGI has been 

the monitoring of glacier variation by means of systematic field observations on representative glaciers. This activity began on a regular basis 

around 1925 and coincided with a renewed though moderate advance of 

the Italian glaciers after the end of the so-called "Little Ice Age" that had 

affected the Alpine region for more than 300 years. A very long retreat 

phase began a few years later and lasted uninterruptedly until the 1960's. 

Further advance then began for the Italian glaciers, too, and has recently 

become more pronounced.

Italian glacier variations were published in the "Bollettino del Comitato Glaciologico Italiano" until 1977; after 1977 publication continued in

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E39
"Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria" (published in Turin by the 

CGI). On an international scale, data on Italian glaciers appeared in the 

various Reports of the Commission on Snow and Ice, International 

Association of Hydrological Sciences-International Union of Geodesy and 

Geophysics (IAHS-IUGG). Variations from 1959 to 1965 were edited by 

P. Kasser (1967) in the first of a series of volumes sponsored by the 

International Association of Hydrological Sciences and the United 

Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 

entitled "Fluctuations of Glaciers," a continuation of the earlier international Reports of the Commission on Snow and Ice. Since 1967, with the 

creation of the Permanent Service on the Fluctuations of Glaciers (now 

the World Glacier Monitoring Service), Italian glacier variations have 

been reported in "Fluctuations of Glaciers" 1965-70 (Kasser, 1973); 

1970-75 (Mailer, 1977); 1975-80 (Haeberli, 1985); and 1980-85 (Haeberli 

and Miiller, 1988). These publications also include the results of surveys 

on the mass balance of the Ghiacciaio di Marmolada (Alpi Dolomitiche) for 

1964-65 and 1965-66, and of the Ghiacciaio di Careser (Ortles-Cevedale) 

from 1966-67 to 1984-85.

The Italian glaciers are shown on the official maps of the Istituto 

Geografico Militare (IGMI) at 1:25,000, 1:100,000, and, more recently, 

1:50,000 scales, which are derived from the l:25,000-scale maps. The 

cartography at the 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales, done from aerial photogrammetric surveys carried out during the early 1960's, is of good 

quality, but the mapping does not yet cover the entire region of the 

Italian Alps. During the past few years, technical regional maps also have 

been published at scales of 1:10,000 and 1:5,000; both map scales were 

produced from aerial photogrammetric surveys. However, they are still 

not used extensively, and glacier margins are sometimes not well defined 

because of less than optimum conditions at the time the flights were 

carried out. For some glaciers of particular research interest, special 

very large-scale terrestrial and aerial photogrammetric surveys were 

carried out over a period of many years. Examples of products from these 

surveys are the glacier maps of the Ghiacciai di Lys, Forni, Miage, 

Belvedere (Gruppo del Monte Rosa), and Pian di Neve, and the series of 

surveys carried out on the Ghiacciai di Careser and Marmolada (table 8).

TABLE 8. Examples of large-scale maps of Italian glaciers published 

by the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Comitato Glaciologico 

Italiano, Turin

Glacier name Map scale Year published

Lys ......................

Forni ....................

Miage. ...................

Belvedere. ...............

Pian di Neve. ............

Marmolada. ..............

Marmolada. ..............

Careser..................

Careser..................

Careser.. ................

Careser. .................

.......... 1:10,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:8,333

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

1925

1953

1957

1957

1959

1951

1966

1933

1967

1970

1980

E40 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
534 glaciers belonged to the Po basin, 255 to the Adige basin, and 48 to 

other basins. It should be noted that the isolated Ghiacciaio di Calderone, 

not included in the above categories, the southernmost glacier in Europe, 

lies in the Apennines (Gran Sasso d'ltalia) of central Italy(fig. 21).

Between 1980 and 1986, Italian collaboration on the World Glacier 

Inventory project was concluded with the identification of 1,397 glaciers 

distributed as follows: Piedmont (and Valle d'Aosta), 531; Lombardy, 

305; and Tre Venezie, 560. The total surface area of these glaciers is 608 

km2. The large difference in the number of glaciers between the two 

inventories is almost exclusively because the new World Glacier Inventory requires a listing of all permanent snow fields and glacierets in Italy 

having areas greater than 5 ha. Most of these small snow fields and 

glacierets were not included in the old "Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italian!." A 

revision and updating of the "Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italiani" is expected 

during the next few years, and the new data collected for the World 

Glacier Inventory project will be used.

TABLE 7. The largest glaciers in the Italian Alps (unpublished data from the World

Glacier Inventory)

[See figure 21 for locations of mountain groups]

Glacier

Forni. .........

Miage .........

Mandrone

Lys ...........

Rutor .........

Malavalle......

Brenva ........

Mountain or range

.... Ortles-Cevedale

.... Monte Bianco

.... Adamello-Presanella

.... Monte Rosa

.... Testa del Rutor

.... Breonie

.... Monte Bianco

Area Maximum Elevation of termini 

(km2) length (km) (m above mean sea level)

13.20 

13.02 

12.38 

11.80 

9.54 

9.42 

8.06

5.50 

10.35 

5.38 

5.60 

4.80 

4.40 

7.64

2,350 

1,720 

2,450 

2,350 

2,504 

2,460 

1,415

Italian Glaciological Research

Glaciology is a relatively recent science in Italy (Nangeroni, 1964). It 

was only at the beginning of this century that it found its scientific niche. 

Glaciology was mainly directed at an evaluation of glacial water reserves, 

with a view to their possible use for production of hydroelectric energy. 

The founding in 1914 of the Comitato Glaciologico Italiano (CGI) (still in 

existence with a head office in Turin) provided general coordination and 

great stimulus to glaciological research, which was aimed not only at 

descriptive geography but also at the gathering of information from 

geophysical, hydrological, geomorphological, and topographic viewpoints. A comprehensive bibliography of the Italian glaciers is included in 

the first volume of "Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italiani" (Consiglio Nazionale 

delle Ricerche, 1959). .

Ever since its founding, one of the main activities of the CGI has been 

the monitoring of glacier variation by means of systematic field observations on representative glaciers. This activity began on a regular basis 

around 1925 and coincided with a renewed though moderate advance of 

the Italian glaciers after the end of the so-called "Little Ice Age" that had 

affected the Alpine region for more than 300 years. A very long retreat 

phase began a few years later and lasted uninterruptedly until the 1960's. 

Further advance then began for the Italian glaciers, too, and has recently 

become more pronounced.

Italian glacier variations were published in the "Bollettino del Comitato Glaciologico Italiano" until 1977; after 1977 publication continued in

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E39
"Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria" (published in Turin by the 

CGI). On an international scale, data on Italian glaciers appeared in the 

various Reports of the Commission on Snow and Ice, International 

Association of Hydrological Sciences-International Union of Geodesy and 

Geophysics (IAHS-IUGG). Variations from 1959 to 1965 were edited by 

P. Kasser (1967) in the first of a series of volumes sponsored by the 

International Association of Hydrological Sciences and the United 

Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 

entitled "Fluctuations of Glaciers," a continuation of the earlier international Reports of the Commission on Snow and Ice. Since 1967, with the 

creation of the Permanent Service on the Fluctuations of Glaciers (now 

the World Glacier Monitoring Service), Italian glacier variations have 

been reported in "Fluctuations of Glaciers" 1965-70 (Kasser, 1973); 

1970-75 (Miiller, 1977); 1975-80 (Haeberli, 1985); and 1980-85 (Haeberli 

and Miiller, 1988). These publications also include the results of surveys 

on the mass balance of the Ghiacciaio di Marmolada (Alpi Dolomitiche) for 

1964-65 and 1965-66, and of the Ghiacciaio di Careser (Ortles-Cevedale) 

from 1966-67 to 1984-85.

The Italian glaciers are shown on the official maps of the Istituto 

Geografico Militare (IGMI) at 1:25,000, 1:100,000, and, more recently, 

1:50,000 scales, which are derived from the l:25,000-scale maps. The 

cartography at the 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales, done from aerial photogrammetric surveys carried out during the early 1960's, is of good 

quality, but the mapping does not yet cover the entire region of the 

Italian Alps. During the past few years, technical regional maps also have 

been published at scales of 1:10,000 and 1:5,000; both map scales were 

produced from aerial photogrammetric surveys. However, they are still 

not used extensively, and glacier margins are sometimes not well defined 

because of less than optimum conditions at the time the flights were 

carried out. For some glaciers of particular research interest, special 

very large-scale terrestrial and aerial photogrammetric surveys were 

carried out over a period of many years. Examples of products from these 

surveys are the glacier maps of the Ghiacciai di Lys, Forni, Miage, 

Belvedere (Gruppo del Monte Rosa), and Pian di Neve, and the series of 

surveys carried out on the Ghiacciai di Careser and Marmolada (table 8).

TABLE 8. Examples of large-scale maps of Italian glaciers published 

by the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Comitato Glaciologico 

Italiano, Turin

Glacier name Map scale Year published

Lys ......................

Forni ....................

Miage....................

Belvedere. ...............

Pian di Neve. ............

Marmolada. ..............

Marmolada. ..............

Careser. .................

Careser..................

Careser ..................

Careser........ ..........

.......... 1:10,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:8,333

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

.......... 1:5,000

1925

1953

1957

1957

1959

1951

1966

1933

1967

1970

1980

E40 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Glacier Surveys by Satellite Remote Sensing

Figure 22. Landsat 2 MSS image (21333- 

09210, band 6; 16 September 1978; Path 

210, Row 28) showing part of the Monte 

Bianco (A) and the Monte Rosa (B) mountain 

groups. Landsat image courtesy of the Swiss 

Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich. The 

scale is approximately 1:1,000,000.

Table 1 and figure 2 list the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the 

Alps and show their area of coverage. To cover the entire Italian section 

of the Alps, eight Landsat MSS images are required. Several images that 

show a part of the Alps are discussed in this section. A Landsat 2 MSS 

image (fig. 22) (21333-09210, band 6; 16 September 1978; Path 210, Row 

28) shows part of the Western Alps, including, among the principal 

Italian mountain groups, Monte Bianco (A) and Monte Rosa (B). A 

Landsat 1 MSS false-color composite image (1021-09383; 13 August 

1972; Path 208, Row 28) shows part of the Central Alps, the Alpi Retiche. 

The Badile-Disgrazia (A), Ortles-Cevedale (B), and Adamello-Presanella 

(C) areas are indicated (fig. 23). Observations by satellite remote sensing 

were carried out on the first group (Delia Ventura and others, 1982, 

1983). Mass-balance studies were completed on the second group (Zanon, 

1982). A Landsat 1 MSS image (band 7; 26 October 1975; Path 207, Row 

28) shows the Eastern Alps between the Alpi Venoste and the Alpi 

Carniche (fig. 24). In each of the illustrations, some of the glacier

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E41
E8IB-00I

Figure 23. Landsat 1 MSS false-color composite image (1021-09383; 13 August 1972; 

Path 208, Row 28) showing part of the 

central Italian Alps. The Badile-Disgrazia 

(A), Ortles-Cevedale (B), and AdamelloPresanella (C) mountain groups are shown. 

Landsat image from the EROS Data Center, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 

The scale is approximately 1:1,000,000.

E42 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 24. Landsat 1 MSS image (band 7; 

26 October 1975; Path 207, Row 28) showing the eastern Italian Alps between the Alpi 

Venoste and the Alpi Carniche. Landsat 

image from the European Space Agency, 

Frascati, Italy. The scale is approximately 

1:1,000,000.

features are partially obscured by clouds, snow cover, or shadows, but 

many of the glacier features can be seen clearly.

The high frequency and areal extent of coverage of the Alps by 

Landsat images, which have been acquired of the region since 1972, 

suggested that, despite the many factors (for example, clouds and snow 

cover) that decrease the number of usable images, repeated measurements of significant glaciological parameters could be made if coupled 

with traditional field measurements made in the Italian Alps at a few of 

the glaciers. At the end of the summer the total area of a glacier could be 

measured; the data would be useful for subsequent areal comparisons and 

for evaluating the extent of annual surface variations. Measurement of 

the area of residual snow cover on the glacier at the end of the melt 

season, could, with the total area of the glacier, produce an estimated 

Accumulation Area Ratio (AAR) computation.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E43
Although visible and near-infrared satellite image data had been used 

frequently to carry out glaciological studies of large glaciers at high 

latitudes, and it was established that AAR could be computed from 

Landsat MSS images on a glacier with an area less than 10 km2 

(Salomonson, 1983), the question arose as to whether satellite remote 

sensing was applicable to glacier dimensions in the Italian Alps, where 

glacier areas less than 1 km2 are common. Therefore, simple representative models were examined to see if the spatial resolution of Landsat 

MSS images of the Alps was sufficient to trace the dynamics of the Italian 

Alpine glaciers. Calculation of the variations in surface area of selected 

glaciers could then be correlated with fluctuations of their termini 

(Rabagliati and Serandrei Barbero, 1979). In spite of the small size of the 

glaciers, calculations of variation in surface area were, in the majority of 

the cases, able to be determined with the Landsat spatial resolution.

Following a systematic approach (Delia Ventura and others, 1981), 

Delia Ventura and others (1983) performed the first extensive glacier 

survey on Monte Disgrazia. The glaciers investigated, whose surface 

areas ranged between 0.2 and 2.5 km2 (Consiglio Nazionale delle 

Ricerche, 1961b), lie in different orientations around Monte Disgrazia, 

about 100 km north-northeast of Milan, within the drainage system of the 

Adda, a tributary of the Po.

Landsat MSS images acquired on 13 September 1975 (20234-09320; 

Path 209, Row 28), 28 August 1978 (21314-09142; Path 209, Row 28), and 

4 September 1980 (Path 209, Row 28) were digitally processed through 

four steps: preprocessing, classification of glacier surfaces, classification 

of morphological features, and registration. An analysis of the four 

Landsat MSS bands showed, in accordance with the observations made 

on the Ghiacciaio di Marmolada in the Alpi Dolomitiche by Pagliari and 

Zandonella (1982), that MSS band 5 contains the best information about 

the areal extent of glaciers and that MSS band 7 is optimum for 

delineating morphological characteristics of the glacier surface (glacier 

ice, snow, shadowed areas, rocky outcrops, crevasses).

The areal extent of several glaciers, which was obtained through 

digital image analysis of Landsat MSS images, is shown in table 9. The 

digital image analysis showed good agreement with traditional field 

measurements, but the research carried out by Delia Ventura and others 

(1982) determined that the shadow effect caused by the time of the 

Landsat passage over the Alps at about 0930 hours Greenwich Mean 

Time caused uncertainty in the identification and analysis of Alpine 

glaciers that are oriented to the north and northwest. The shadow effect 

results from the solar azimuth and angle above the horizon in late 

summer, about 136° and 50°, respectively.

TABLE 9. Total surface area and snow-covered surface area of selected glaciers as derived from Landsat MSS images acquired on 13 September 

1975 (20234-09320; Path 209, Row 28), 28 August 1978 (213U-09U2; Path 209, Row 28), and 4 September 1980 (Path 209, Row 28)

[From Delia Ventura and others, 1983]

Glacier 

number1

408.......

409 .......

410 .......

411.......

416 ......

417

419 .......

Glacier name

. . . Predarossa

. . . Corna Rossa

. . . Cassandra Occidentale

. . . Cassandra Orientale

. . . Ventina

. . . Canalone della Vergine

. . . Disgrazia

Total surface area (km2) Variation in area

1975

1.081 

.046 

.293 

.492 

1.854 

.470 

2.438

1978

0.985 

.051 

.313 

.616 

1.940 

.515 

2.732

1980

1.052 

.036 

.368 

.641 

2.024 

.566 

2.890

Total

1975-80

-0.029 

-.010 

+ .075 

+.149 

+ .170 

+ .096 

+ .452

+ .903

Snow-covered surface area (km2) Variation in area

1975

0.772 

.036 

.233 

.444 

1.384 

.243 

1.562

1978

0.857 

.046 

.288 

.563 

1.267 

.263 

1.380

1980

0.881 

.026 

.313 

.588 

1.097 

.268 

1.431

Total

1975-80

+0.109 

-.010 

+.080 

+ .144 

-.287 

+ .025 

-.313

-.070

1 Number assigned to each glacier in the "Catasto del Ghiacciai Italian!" (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 1959; 1961a,b; 1962). 

E44 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
The second area analyzed included the Valle Aurina glaciers (Alpi 

Noriche); they were specially selected to be representative of glaciers 

oriented to the northwest on Landsat MSS images. They have areas that 

range from 0.06 to 1.69 km2 (Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano, 1983) and 

lie within the drainage system of the Isarco, a tributary of the Adige. The 

problem with their delineation on Landsat images was confronted during 

fieldwork in 1979, 1981, and 1983 (Delia Ventura and others, 1987a). 

Radiance measurements made on the ground at the time of the Landsat 

satellite overpasses gave indications that led to using MSS band 6 

combined with MSS band 5 to differentiate glaciers situated on shadowed 

slopes from the surrounding land.

Figure 25 is a digitally processed Landsat image that makes three 

classifications: other, doubtful, and ice/snow. Glaciers can be delineated 

in this Landsat MSS image (2 September 1980; Path 207, Row 27) as the 

first step in an interpretation procedure that uses the product of MSS 

bands 5 and 6. Figure 26 shows how the four separate MSS bands are 

unable, on the shaded slope, to clearly distinguish glacier ice from the 

surrounding area. Two other Landsat MSS images were also digitally 

processed (6 September 1981; Path 207, Row 27; 40389-09272; and 9 

August 1983; Landsat 4 Path 192, Row 27, approximately equivalent to 

Landsats 1-3 Path 207, Row 27).

Figure 25. Digitally processed Landsat 2 

MSS image (2 September 1980; Path 207, 

Row 27) of part of the eastern Italian Alps. 

The Landsat image makes three classifications: other, doubtful, and ice/snow. This 

classifying represents the first step in the 

interpretation procedure developed to calculate glacier areas. The glaciers are labeled 

with their catalog reference numbers. The 

watershed line is superimposed from cartographic data. Image processing courtesy of 

the Istituto di Fisica Cosmica e Tecnologie 

Relative-CNR, Milan.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E45
Figure 27 shows the final classification map, in which the snow-covered 

glacier areas are identified from the digitally processed Landsat MSS 

image of 9 August 1983 and additional synthesis of MSS bands 5, 6, and 

7. The complete analysis gave the areas of the glaciers at the end of the 

summer of 1980, 1981, and 1983, the variations in area between 1980 and 

1983, and the AAR (Delia Ventura and others, 1987b).

In both of the regions investigated, it was possible to duplicate with the 

Landsat images the measurements made at glacier termini. This capability to perceive, within a given area, fluctuations in all of the existing 

glaciers, even those with movements opposite to those observed on the 

main glaciers, permits a more accurate assessment of glacier variations in 

a region. An analysis of problems related to the areal dimension and 

exposure of glaciers being studied permitted the development of a 

method to automatically delineate Alpine glaciers on Landsat images, in 

the absence of a digital model. Glacier areas are calculated by evaluating 

the intensity values on Landsat images combined with validity of 

observational conditions related to exposure, slope, and surface homogeFigure 26. Digitally processed Landsat 3 

false-color MSS image (6 September 1981; 

Path 207, Row 27) of part of the eastern 

Italian Alps. False colors are used in each of 

the four MSS bands. The glaciers investigated are in the Valle Aurina area. The white 

areas on the right-hand part of the images 

correspond to the Austrian glaciers exposed 

to the south and to the southeast. Image 

processing courtesy of the Istituto di Fisica 

Cosmica e Tecnologie Relative-CNR, Milan.

E46 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 27. Digitally processed Landsat 4 

image (40389-09272; 9 August 1983; Path 

192, Row 27, approximately equivalent to 

Landsats 1-3 Path 207, Row 27) of part of 

the eastern Italian Alps. This final classification map delineates snow-free and snowcovered glacier areas. Image processing 

courtesy of the Istituto di Fisica Cosmica e 

Tecnologie Relative-CNR, Milan.

neity (Delia Ventura and others, 1987b). An observational accuracy value 

is assigned to each glacier by comparing the area recorded in existing 

glacier catalogs with the area calculated from the digitally processed 

image (MSS band 5 x MSS band 6). The low-cost methodology permits 

the calculation of the areas of glaciers and snow-covered regions at 

different years and thereby makes it possible to estimate the long-term 

trend of the glacierization of a region.

As an operational tool, this technique of monitoring individual glaciers 

and snow-covered regions in separate Alpine areas was evaluated for 

recognition of the extent of snow cover in the upper Piave basin (eastern 

Italian Alps). These data would be useful in improving models of 

snow-cover change (Rossi and others, 1986). Landsat images for Path 

207, Row 28, which were acquired between August 1983 and July 1984, 

during both the snow accumulation and snow ablation seasons, were 

used. The results show that this technique makes possible the calibration 

of a snowmelt model that can be used to estimate the amount of runoff for 

the production of hydroelectric power in small basins.

GLACIERS OF THE ALPS E47
References Cited

Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 1959, Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italiani, 

Anno Geofisico 1957-1958 [Inventory of Italian glaciers, geophysical year 1957-1958]: Turin, Comitato Glaciologico Italiano, v. 1, 

171 p.

 1961a, Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italiani, Anno Geofisico 1957-1958 

[Inventory of Italian glaciers, geophysical year 1957-1958]: Torino, 

Comitato Glaciologico Italiano, v. 2, 324 p.

 1961b, Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italiani, Anno Geofisico 1957-1958 

[Inventory of Italian glaciers, geophysical year 1957-1958]: Torino, 

Comitato Glaciologico Italiano, v. 3, 389 p.

 1962, Catasto dei Ghiacciai Italiani, Anno Geofisico 1957-1958 

[Inventory of Italian glaciers, geophysical year 1957-1958]: Torino, 

Comitato Glaciologico Italiano, v. 4, 309 p. 

-Delia Ventura, A., Mussio, P., Rabagliati, R., Rampini, A.,

Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization 

(UNESCO), v. 1, 52 p., with an additional 23 tables, 7 figures, and 

l:25,000-scale photogrammetric map of Aletsch-gletscher. 

-1973, Fluctuations of glaciers 1965-1970: Paris, International

and Serandrei Barbero, R., 1981, Determination of the spectral 

signatures of a glacier, in Guyot, G., and Verbrugghe, M., eds., 

Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Spectral Signatures of Objects in Remote Sensing: Avignon, Institut National de 

la Recherche Agronomique, v. 5, p. 477-485.

Delia Ventura, A., Rabagliati, R., Rampini, A., and Serandrei Barbero, R., 1982, Remote sensing observation of glaciers toward 

their monitoring, in Papers Approved for Presentation at the 

Sixteenth Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment: Ann 

Arbor, Mich., Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, v. 2, 

p. 723-733.

Delia Ventura, A., Rampini, A., Rabagliati, R., and Serandrei Barbero, R., 1983, Glacier monitoring by satellite: II Nuovo Cimento, 

Serie 1, v. 6C, p. 211-222.

Delia Ventura, A., Rabagliati, R,, Rampini, A., and Serandrei Barbero, R., 1987a, L'evoluzione recente del glacialismo in Valle 

Aurina (Alpi Pusteresi) nelle immagini Landsat MSS [Recent 

glacial evolution in Valle Aurina (Pusteresi Alps) by Landsat MSS 

images]: Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria, v. 9, no. 1 

(1986), p. 39-48.

Delia Ventura, A., Rampini, A., Rabagliati, R., and Serandrei Barbero, R., 1987b, Development of a satellite remote sensing technique for the study of Alpine glaciers: International Journal of 

Remote Sensing, v. 8, no. 2, p. 203-215.

Haeberli, W., compiler, 1985, Fluctuations of glaciers 1975-1980: Paris, 

International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) and 

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization 

(UNESCO), v. 4, 265 p., with 13 special topographic maps of 

glaciers.

Haeberli, W., and Miiller, P., compilers, 1988, Fluctuations of glaciers 

1980-85: Zurich, Switzerland, International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS), United Nations Environment Programme 

(UNEP), and United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural 

Organization (UNESCO), v. 5, 288 p., with 13 special topographic 

maps of glaciers.

Kasser, P., 1967, Fluctuations of glaciers 1959-1965: Paris, International Association of Scientific Hydrology (IAHS) and United

Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) and United Nations 

Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 

v. 2, 357 p., with 5 special topographic maps of glaciers.

Miiller, F., 1977, Fluctuations of glaciers 1970-1975: Paris, International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) and United 

Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization 

(UNESCO), v. 3, 269 p., with 12 special topographic maps of 

glaciers.

Nangeroni, G., 1964, Ghiacciai, nevi e fenomeni periglaciali [Glaciers, 

snow and periglacial phenomena], in Un Sessantennio di Ricerca 

Geografica Italiana: Memorie della Societa Geografica Italiana, v. 

26, 

p. 83-102.

Pagliari, M., and Zandonella, A., 1982, Bacino della Marmolada 

Analisi multitemporale della copertura nevosa usando immagini 

Landsat [Marmolada basin A multitemporal analysis of the snow 

cover by Landsat images]: Gargnano, Atti 4° Convegno Societa 

Italiana Telerilevamento.

Porro, C., 1925, Elenco dei Ghiacciai Italiani [List of Italian Glaciers]: 

Parma, Ufficio Idrografico del Po, 61 p.

Porro, C., and Labus, P., 1927, Atlante dei Ghiacciai Italiani [Atlas of 

Italian Glaciers]: Firenze, Istituto Geografico Militare.

Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano, 1983, Catasto dei ghiacciai della 

Provincia di Bolzano [Glacier inventory of the Province of 

Bolzano): Ufficio Idrografico di Bolzano.

Rabagliati, R., and Serandrei Barbero, R., 1979, Possibilita di impiego 

del remote sensing da satellite per il controllo annuale dei ghiacciai 

[The possible use of satellite remote sensing in the yearly control 

of glaciers]: Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria, v. 2, no. 1, 

p. 35^0.

Rossi, G., Tomasino, M., Della Ventura, A., Rampini, A., Serandrei 

Barbero, R., and Rabagliati, R., 1986, Landsat registrations for a 

snowmelt model of the Piave River basin, in Modelling snowmeltinduced processes, Proceedings of the Budapest Symposium, July 

1986: International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication No. 155, p. 215-229.

Salomonson, V.V., 1983, Water resources assessment, snow and ice 

mapping and monitoring, in Manual of remote sensing: American 

Society of Photogrammetry, v. 2, p. 15-22.

Zanon, G., 1980, Ghiacciai, neve e valanghe [Glaciers, snow and 

avalanches], in Associazione dei Geografi Italiani, La Ricerca 

Geografica in Italia 1960-1980, ASK edizioni: Varese, p. 699-702.

 1982, Recent glaciological research in the Ortles-Cevedale 

region (Italian Alps): Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria, 

v. 5, no. 1, p. 75-81.

 1985, Glaciology, in Gruppo Nazionale CNR Geografia Fisica e 

Geomorfologia, [Italian research on physical geography and geomorphology (addendum)]: Bologna, Tecnoprint, p. 3-6.

E48 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Glaciers of Europe 

GLACIERS OF THE PYRENEES, 

SPAIN AND FRANCE

By DAVID SERRAT and JOSEP VENTURA

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, Jr., and JANE G. FERRIGNO

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1386-E-2

The 41 glaciers in the Pyrenees, covering 

a total area of 8.10 square kilometers, 

have all receded since the mid-1800's 

although some minor advances 

took place in the late 1950's

CONTENTS

Page 

 »« __. ___________________ ___. _______ _ IT. _§>ji.j JQj

Introduction 49 

Distribution of glaciers 50

FIGURE 1. Index map to the glaciers of the Pyrenees 50

2. Aspect diagram showing the polarized distribution of the

orientation of the glaciers of the Pyrenees 52

3. A graph of the maximum altitude of the snowline at the end of

the melt season on selected peaks in the Pyrenees 52

TABLE 1. Distribution and dimensions of glaciers of the Pyrenees as

of 1984 51

Glacier studies 53

Glacier fluctuations 54

Available data for glacier studies 55

|yj.3,pS - -_- --. JJQ

Aerial photographs 55 

Satellite imagery 55

TABLE 2. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of glaciers of the

Pyrenees 56

FIGURE 4. Index map to the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the

glaciers of the Pyrenees 56

5. Section of annotated 1:500,000-scale enlargement of Landsat 2 

false-color composite image 2185-10022, Path 214, Row 30, 

acquired 26 July 1975 57

6. Sketch map of Maladeta massif and its glaciers in 1979 58

7. Vertical aerial photograph of Glaciar de la Maladeta 59

8. Vertical aerial photographs of the Maladeta massif taken

5 September 1988 - -- - ----- 60

References cited 61

CONTENTS III

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

GLACIERS OF EUROPE -

GLACIERS OF THE PYRENEES, SPAIN AND FRANCE

By DAVID SERRAT1 and JOSEP VENTURA2

Abstract

The glaciers of the Pyrenees, a range of Alpine mountains that extends along the border 

between Spain and France, are found in a 100-kilometer-long section in the central part of 

the range. According to the latest figures, compiled in 1984 for the Temporary Technical 

Secretariat for World Glacier Inventory (now the World Glacier Monitoring Service) and 

updated with 1988 aerial photographs, there are currently 41 glaciers in the Pyrenees with 

a total area of approximately 8.10 square kilometers. Thirteen peaks, all having elevations 

greater than 3,000 meters above mean sea level, support these 41 glaciers, generally on 

slopes that have a northern, northeastern, or eastern orientation. The current area of the 

Pyrenees calculated to be glacier covered is based on measurements made in the field or 

from vertical aerial photographs. Most published maps do not accurately differentiate 

between true glaciers and snowfields or snow patches. The glaciers are all small, with the 

largest, Glaciar de Aneto, only 1.32 square kilometers. Half of the glaciers are 0.1 square 

kilometer or less in size. The maximum altitude of the snowline at the end of the summer 

melt season generally rises from west to east, with a range of 2,600 to 2,850 meters in the 

west and 2,750 to 3,100 meters in the east. During the Pleistocene, the Pyrenees were a 

local center of glaciation. During the middle 1800's, glaciers in the Pyrenees were larger and 

more numerous than at present. Virtually all of the glaciers have been in a state of recession 

since the mid-1800's. Although some glaciers reached an equilibrium in the early 1950's, a 

few actually exhibited minor advances beginning in the late 1950's. Cloud-free Landsat 

multispectral scanner images of the glacier areas are available, but the imagery has limited 

usefulness for glacier studies because of the small size of the Pyrenean glaciers and because 

the snow cover makes it difficult to distinguish the margin of glaciers. Data from sensors 

having greater spectral or spatial resolution should contribute greatly to glacier studies and 

monitoring in the Pyrenees in the near future.

Introduction

The Pyrenees are an Alpine mountain range stretching across the 

isthmus that lies between the Iberian Peninsula and the rest of the 

European continent. The mountains are oriented in an east-west direction and lie between 42° and 43° N. lat. They extend almost 400 km from 

2° W. long, near the Bay of Biscay on the Atlantic Ocean side to 3° E. 

long, near the Mediterranean Sea and are divided into two nearly equal 

parts by the Greenwich meridian. The glaciers are found in a 100-km-long 

section in the central part of the range between about 0°30' W. and 0°50' 

E. lat.

The elevations of the highest mountain peaks are about 3,000 m above 

mean sea level, with a maximum elevation of 3,404 m on Pico de Aneto 

(Maladeta massif). All glacierized peaks are higher than 3,000 m, 

although some peaks that reach this height do not have glaciers. The 

peaks that have glaciers are as follows (from west to east): Balai'tous,

'Department of Geomorphology and Tectonics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain. 

zCartographic Institute of Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.

GLACIERS OF THE PYRENEES, SPAIN AND FRANCE E49
Picos del Infierno, Vignemale, Gavarnie, Monte Perdido, La Munia, Pic 

Long, Batoua, Gourgs Blancs, Posets, Espingo, Cirque de Lys, and 

Maladeta. The mean elevations of the glaciers range from 2,432 to 3,169 

m, with an average of 2,817 m.

Distribution of Glaciers

According to the latest figures, compiled in 1984 for the Temporary 

Technical Secretariat for World Glacier Inventory (now part of the World 

Glacier Monitoring Service in Zurich, Switzerland) and updated with 1988 

aerial photographs, there are currently 41 glaciers in the Pyrenees 

covering a total area of approximately 8.10 km2. The glaciers are all 

small, with the largest, Glaciar de Aneto, only 1.32 km2. The smallest is 

Glaciar de Batoua with an area of 0.03 km2. Half of the glaciers are 0.1 

km2 or less in size. Figure 1 shows the location of the glaciers; table 1 

gives statistics for each glacier. The glaciers are primarily cirque glaciers 

or small strip glaciers on ledges and terraces. They are remnants of

Figure 1. Glaciers of the Pyrenees. The 

altitude of the area is indicated by color. The 

areas less than 800 m are shown in yellow. 

Each darker shade indicates an increase in 

height of 400 m. The dark brown areas at the 

summit of the Pyrenees range from 2,400 to 

3,500 m in altitude. The numbers on the map 

correlate to the glaciers listed in table 1.

0° Greenwich

ku>ty^>Wt#;

Base from International Map of 

the World 1:1.000,000 

Madrid. Sheet NK 29 & 30.1965: 

Barcelona. Sheet NK 31.1962

E50 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE I. Distribution and dimensions of glaciers of the Pyrenees as of 1984

[In the following names of the Pyrenean glaciers, G. is an abbreviation for glacier, except where preceded by a single asterisk, in which case it stands for glaciar. Gs. indicates glaciers. (Total

number is shown in parentheses.) Accum. = accumulation; Ablat. = ablation]

Number Name

1

?,

3

4

5 ..

fi

7

8

9

in ,.

11

12 , 13

14

Ifi

Ifi ,

17

18 , 19...

20

?^

22,,

23

?4

25

2fi,,

27

28...

99

30

31

32... 

33

34... 

35

36..,

37... 

38... 

39... 

40... 

41... 

42...

. .G. de Pabat

. .*G. del Infierno

. .G. du Petit

Vignemale

. .G. du Montferrat

. .Gs. des Gabietous (3)

. .G. du Taillon

. .G. de la Breche

. .G. de la Cascade

. .Gs. W du Marbore (2)

. .Gs. de Pafllfc (2)

. .G. d'Astazou

. .*G. de Monte

Perdido 

. .*G. del Cilindro

. . .*G. de MarborfS

. .*G. de la Munia 

. .*G. de Robifiera

. .G. du Lac Tourrat

. .G. de Pays Bache

. .*G. de Batoua

. . .G. de Gourgs Blancs

. .*G. de la Paul

,'..*G. dePosets

. . .*Gs. Sheil dera

Baquo (2)1 

. . .*Gs. du Portillon

d'Oo (3)

, . .G. W des Crabioules

, . .G. E des Crabioules

. . .G. E du Maupas 

, . .G. du Bourn

. . .G. des Graoues

, . .*G. de la Maladeta 

, . .*G. de Aneto 

. .*G. de Coronas 

. .*G. de Barrancs 

. . .*G. de Tempestades 

, . .*G. de Salenques3

Massif

Balaitous

Picos del 

Infierno

Vignemale

Gavarnie

Monte 

Perdido

La Munia

Pic Long

Batoua

Gourgs Blancs

Posets

Espingo

Basin

Gave de Pau

Gallego 

(Ebro)

Gave de Pau

Gave de Pau

Cinca (Ebro)

Gave de Pau 

Cinca (Ebro)

Gave de Pau 

Garonne

Garonne

Garonne

Cinca (Ebro) 

Esera (Ebro)

Garonne

Cirque de Lys Garonne

Maladeta Esera (Ebro)2

2

2 

2

Ribagorgana 

(Ebro)

UTM 

coordinates

30 TYN 222468 

30 TYN 220474

30 TYN 246405 

30 TYN 243407

30 TYN 338404 

30 TYN 343403

30 TYN 342393 

30 TYN 347389

30 TYN 414317 

30 TYN 425315 

30 TYN 438309 

31 TBH 548311 

31 TBH 551317 

31 TBH 560328 

31 TBH 570325

31 TBH 572298

31 TBH 565305 

31 TBH 561312

31 TBH 651336 

31 TBH 656321

31 TBH 629433 

31 TBH 634429

31 TBH 816327

31 TBH 921303 

31 TBH 937311

31 TBH 894260 

31 TBH 901265 

31 TBH 903260

31 TBH 948303 

31 TBH 959302

31 TBH 977313 

31 TBH 983310 

31 TBH 989310 

31 TBH 994308 

31 TCH 002307 

31 TCH 010305

31 TCH 066250 

31 TCH 075236 

31 TCH 074229 

31 TCH 083230 

31 TCH 089223 

31 TCH 089219

 . ... Mean Area Orientation

(km2) (Accum. and Width 

ablat. areas) (m)

0.28 

.10

.06 

.09

.18 

.12

.70 

.06

.26 

.26 

.123 

.056 

.116 

.15 

.085

.48

.05 .07-

.062 

.05

.07 

.154

.03

.062 

.27

.23 

.08 

.13

.39 

.164

.088 

.087 

.051 

.055 

.14 

.09

.60 

1.32 

.13 

.28 

.34 

.05

E

N

N 

N

N 

N

E 

E

N 

NE 

N 

W 

NW 

N 

N

NE

NE 

NE

NW

N

N 

E

NW

N 

N

NW 

NE 

E

NE 

N

N 

NE 

N 

NE 

N 

N

N 

NE 

W NW4 

NE 

E

225 

340

200 

300

240 

300

380 

180

640 

320 

410 

105 

300 

400 

280

1,200

300 

500

250 

300

260 

380

110

290 

625

300 

400 

300

1,040 

316

300 

240 

175 

430 

440 

375

900 

1,600 

200 

400 

700 

250

Length 

(m)

1,050 

300

400 

400

500 

400

1,500 

200

400 

750 

300 

300 

270 

300 

240

400

100 

100

250 

200

240 

450

180

200 

410

700 

200 

400

340 

230

200 

250 

170 

120 

250 

250

700 

800 

600 

700 

400 

250

Max 

length - 

(m) j

1,125 

450

500 

500

1,010 

610

1,880 

450

800 

940 

400 

380 

430 

610 

450

700

200 

200

290 

300

300 

590

280

250 

500

800 

300 

500

660 

725

350 

400 

300 

175 

375 

375

900 

1,200 

700 

900 

500 

320

Elevation 

(meters above mean sea level)

i, . n, ,» . Massif Maximum Mean Minimum , top

3,010 

2,850

2,960 

2,940

3,152 

2,920

3,195 

2,970

2,935 

2,900 

2,860 

3,030 

2,940 

2,964 

2,670

3,180

2,905 

2,900

2,850 

2,805

2,960 

3,080

2,500

2,750 

3,000

3,052 

3,076 

3,180

3,040 

2,950

2,860 

2,810 

3,020 

2,960 

2,900 

2,840

3,240 

3,330 

3,250 

3,290 

3,050 

3,100

2,700 2,500 

2,740 2,610

2,820 2,720 

2,800 2,700

2,490 2,340 

2,660 2,490

3,050 2,630 

2,780 2,680

2,650 2,380 

2,710 2,570 

2,660 2,580 

2,780 2,680 

2,760 2,530 

2,520 2,410 

2,500 2,400

2,980 2,690

2,820 2,740 

2,830 2,760

2,775 2,710 

2,720 2,660

2,860 2,740 

2,980 2,860

2,432 2,365

2,700 2,650 

2,890 2,780

2,917 2,782 

3,016 2,850 

3,105 2,995

2,910 2,780 

2,766 2,583

2,755 2,650 

2,720 2,630 

2,900 2,780 

2,910 2,860 

2,800 2,700 

2,740 2,640

3,100 2,780 

3,080 2,780 

3,169 2,958 

3,110 2,900 

2,902 2,705 

2,980 2,960

3,144 

2,996

3,061 

3,061

3,298 

3,154

3,298 

3,219

3,144 

3,144 

3,006 

3,248 

3,248 

3,071 

3,071

3,355

3,337 

3,248

3,133 

3,003

3,192 

3,192

3,034

2,967 

3,128

3,375 

3,375 

3,375

3,103 

3,222

3,116 

3,116 

3,109 

3,109 

3,006 

2,942

3,308 

3,404 

3,404 

3,404 

3,310 

3,240

1 In French, Gs. Seil de la Baque.

2 Draining to Garonne Basin by karstic conduction.

3 Additional work in 1988 led to the reclasaification of Glacier de Pouchergues (#24) as a snowpatch and of a snowpatch in the Maladeta Massif as a glacier (Glaciar 

de Salenques, #42).

4 Ablation area is oriented northeast.

cirque and valley glaciers that were often connected on several levels by 

ice falls and avalanches. Recession has caused the larger glaciers to 

shrink and separate into smaller individual ice masses.

The glaciers are most often found on the northeastern, northern, and 

eastern slopes of the mountain range (fig. 2). The preferential northnortheast orientation is caused by the combined effects of precipitation 

pattern, prevailing winds, and solar radiation. Considerable precipitation

GLACIERS OF THE PYRENEES, SPAIN AND FRANCE E51
on the northern and western slopes of the Pyrenees results from the 

oceanic climate. The southern slopes, influenced by a Mediterranean 

climate, are drier (Taillefer, 1968). The prevailing winds are westerly, 

and solar radiation is most intense from the south. As a result, the 

northern and eastern slopes receive maximum deposition of snow and 

maximum protection from the ablative effects of the wind and sun.

The maximum altitude of the snowline at the end of the melt season in 

the Pyrenees generally rises from west to east (fig. 3). Current research 

seems to indicate that the range of this seasonal snowline in the west is 

from 2,600 to 2,850 m and 2,750 to 3,100 m in the east. It is important to 

note that in the two instances where the seasonal snowline drops sharply, 

on Glacier d'Astazou and Glaciar de Batoua, the glaciers are maintained 

and fed by avalanche activity, an important source of nourishment for 

many of the glaciers in the Pyrenees. These seasonal snowline figures are 

not very different from those published by Hollermann (1968) of 2,900 m 

in the west and 3,100 m in the east, which might indicate a stablization of 

the glaciers since his work.

2.691 km?

N

3.412 km2 

NE

0.438 km2 

NW

0.186 km2 

W

SE

Total area = 8.101 km2

Figure 2. The polarized distribution of the 

orientation of the glaciers of the Pyrenees. 

The distribution is weighted by area in 

square kilometers.

3400, 

3200 -

3000 

2800 

2600 -

2400 

2200 

2000

Maximum 

elevation

Glacier

Minimum 

elevation

Figure 3. A graph of the maximum altitude of the snowline at the end of the melt 

season on selected peaks in the Pyrenees. This seasonal snowline generally rises 

from west to east. In the two instances where this seasonal snowline drops 

sharply, Glacier d'Astazou and Glaciar de Batoua, the glaciers are fed by 

avalanche activity.

E52 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Glacier Studies

In the past, glaciological work in the Pyrenees has been limited in 

scope. The relative remoteness of the region made travel and research 

difficult, and because of the small size of the glaciers there was little 

interest from an economic standpoint.

The first isolated observations on glaciers were made by Johann von 

Charpentier during his stay in the Pyrenees area from 1808 to 1812 

(Charpentier, 1823). He described some of the more prominent glaciers 

on the peaks of Maladeta, Crabioules, Monte Perdido, Vignemale, and 

Neouvielle. The first scientific studies were carried out in the Maladeta 

massif by Collomb, Michelier, and Eugene Trutat (1875, 1894), Director 

of the Natural History Museum in Toulouse, France.

Work carried out by Franz Schrader from 1869 to 1883 in mapping the 

Pyrenees at a scale of 1:100,000 constituted the first attempt to evaluate 

the areal extent of its glaciers (Schrader, 1895). These earlier studies 

were continued by Prince Roland Bonaparte (1891) and Ludovic Gaurier 

(1921), who carried out periodic observations on Pyrenean glaciers during 

the period 1904 to 1931. Gaurier was President of the Commission de 

Glaciologie des Pyrenees and contributed to the journal "Etudes glaciologiques," published by the French Ministry of Agriculture until 1934. 

Some other interesting studies from this period were those carried out by 

Eydoux and Maury (1907) on the Pic Long glaciers, and by Plande (1939).

From 1945 to 1963, French scientists directed by the engineers 

Chimits, Chabrol, and Sannac (Chabrol and others, 1953) studied the 

Ossoue, Taillon, and Sheil dera Baquo (Seil de la Baque) glaciers for 

hydroelectric potential. The mountaineer Raymond d'Espouy and the 

Geographical Institute of Toulouse have collaborated on the project since 

1951. Work carried out by Barrere (1953) and Durand (1961) on glaciers 

of the western Pyrenean massifs (Balaitous, Vignemale, and Picos del 

Infierno), including two glaciers (Neouvielle, Cambales) which no longer 

exist; Brunet (1955) on Sheil dera Baquo (Seil de la Baque) glaciers; 

Galibert (1956), Mounier (1962), and Bellan (1963) on the glaciers of the 

Luchonnais area (a region that encompasses the previously cited massifs); and Taillefer (1968) on the extent of Pleistocene glaciation also fell 

within this period.

Up to now, Spanish studies on glaciers have been limited. During the 

past 60 years, however, work has been carried out by Faura (1923) on 

Glaciar de Aneto and Glaciar de la Maladeta (where a displacement of up 

to 35 m per year was calculated for the Glaciar de Aneto); by Vidal-Boix 

(1933) and Gomez de Llarena (1936) on Glaciar de Monte Perdido; by 

Vedruna (1956) and, recently, by Nicolas-Martinez (1981) on the geomorphology of Tucarroya Cirque on the Monte Perdido massif.

Surveys on the distribution and extent of glaciers have been done by 

van Summern and Morrison (1958) and Mercer (1975) of the American 

Geographical Society and by Hollermann (1968). More recently, work has 

been carried out by Soutade (1982) on the Luchonnais glaciers.

The most recent data included in this paper have been collected as part 

of the Technical Secretariat for the World Glacier Inventory project. 

Information was collected during successive years of fieldwork, beginning in 1979, by geologists and geographers of the Alpine Geomorphological Group of the University of Barcelona (Josepa Bru, Joan Marti, 

Carme Muntaner, Joan M. Vilaplana, and the authors) with the help of 

others interested in Alpine research (Equip de Geomorfologia Alpina, 

1980).

GLACIERS OF THE PYRENEES, SPAIN AND FRANCE E53
Glacier Fluctuations

During the Pleistocene, the Pyrenees were a local center of glaciation 

(Penck, 1884). During historic times, the glaciers reached their recent 

maximum during the middle of the last century. Glacier de Pays Bache 

reached the crest of its end moraine in 1856 (Eydoux and Maury, 1907); 

Glacier des Oulettes on Vignemale massif reached its moraine in 1857 

(Hollermann, 1968), but all the glaciers have receded almost continuously 

since that time. According to Hollermann (1968), the largest glaciers had 

lost 40 percent of their volume since the 19th-century maximum.

According to Barrere (1953) and Taillefer (1981), recent glacier fluctuations can be grouped in different periods:

1. In the middle of the last century ("Little Ice Age") glaciers reached 

their end moraines.

2. From 1850 to 1905, glaciers retreated noticeably.

3. From 1905 to 1912, glaciers advanced slightly, and new moraines were 

formed (Glacier des Oulettes).

4. From 1912 to about 1950, glaciers generally retreated as the climate 

became both warmer and drier. During this period, several glaciers 

vanished (Isabe and Arremoulit, for example); others were divided 

into small remnants (Sheil dera Baquo, or Seil de la Baque); the rest 

were reduced both in areal extent and volume.

5. Since 1951, an increase in precipitation has resulted in glacier stabilization. During the work carried out on Pyrenean glaciers for the 

World Glacier Inventory, glacier stabilization, with minor advances 

(Glaciar de La Paul and Glaciar de Tempestades formed push 

moraines), was recorded during the period from 1957 to 1979.

Up to now, data on glacier extent in the Pyrenees have been questionable and exaggerated. Confusion is mainly caused by two factors:

1. The ambiguity of early data. Many authors cite approximate data of 

glacier extent from the latter part of the 1800's that are very different 

from data for the present-day extent.

2. The small size of many glaciers makes it difficult to differentiate 

between glaciers and snowfields on aerial photographs unless field 

work has been done. The problem is complicated by the fact that many 

of these snowfields are remnants of old glaciers (19th century) that 

were in recession from 1912 to 1950. Confusion is evident when some 

of these snowfields exhibit end moraines that formed during the last 

century. French and Spanish maps, even modern ones, do not clearly 

differentiate between glaciers and snowfields. From the middle of the 

1800's to the present time, many historic glaciers have completely 

vanished from several massifs (for example, Gran Bachimala, Cambales, Punta Zarre, Bardamina, and Bessiberri). Frondellas and 

Brecha de Latour glaciers in the southern slopes of the Bala'itous 

massif turned into snowfields, and Llosas and Salenques glaciers in 

the Maladeta massif became snowfields between 1948 and 1957.

The first data on glacier extent in the Pyrenees were provided by 

Franz Schrader (1895), who calculated the area at 40 km2 . According to 

Taillefer (1981), Ludovic Gaurier calculated an area of 21 km2 for the 

French Pyrenean glaciers in 1934, and the Direction des Eaux et Forets 

(French Department of Waters and Forests) calculated an extent of 8 km2 

for the French Pyrenean glaciers in 1950. Other compilations provided 

rather different data. Thorarinsson (1940) gave 40 km2 as the total area 

of the Pyrenean glaciers. He based his total on the work of Hess (1933) 

who, in turn, referred to the observations by Eydoux and Maury (1907). 

Van Summern and Morrison's (1958) survey of glaciers produced an

E54 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
estimate of 30 km2 for the total area of glaciers. Mercer (1975) gave a total 

area of 15 km2 for 70 glaciers. The figures determined for the present 

study are listed in table 1. Forty-one Pyrenean glaciers have a total area 

of about 8.10 km2 .

Available Data for Glacier Studies

Maps

Only a limited number of maps are available for glacier studies because 

often no differentiation between snow patches, snowfields, and true 

glaciers has been shown on the maps. The most useful are the 1:25,000- 

scale series of topographic maps published by the Institut Geographique 

National of Paris.

Aerial Photographs

Some vertical aerial photographs are available from a flight in 1957 

along the southern slope of the mountains. The flight was unique because 

nearly optimal conditions allowed photographs of such quality that true 

glaciers can be distinguished from snow patches (see fig. 7). Aerial 

photographs acquired during a 1988 flight have been used to determine 

more accurately the glacierized area of the Pyrenees and reclassify two 

snow and ice areas on the Gourgs Blancs and Maladeta massifs (table 1; 

fig. 8).

Satellite Imagery

Satellite imagery has only limited usefulness for glacier studies in the 

Pyrenees at the present time. Cloud-free Landsat multispectral scanner 

(MSS) images of the glacier areas are available (see table 2 and fig. 4). 

However, the glaciers are so small that, on a standard l:l,000,000-scale 

Landsat print, the largest glacier, Glaciar de Aneto, is only 1.32 mm2 , 

and almost half the glaciers are less than one-tenth that size. Photographic enlargements, color composites, and digital enhancement techniques make it easier to see some of the glaciological features, but these 

techniques also have limitations, one of the greatest being snow cover, 

which makes it difficult to distinguish the margins of the glaciers. 

Landsat MSS image 2185-10022, acquired on 26 July 1975 (Path 214, Row 

30), is virtually cloud free and is the best image in the U.S. archive at the 

EROS Data Center that covers all the glaciers of the Pyrenees. A section 

of the color composite image is shown at 1:500,000 scale in figure 5. On 

this image it is possible to discern Glacier d'Ossoue (#7) on the Vignemale 

massif and to locate the rest of the glacier massifs, but, because of the 

snow cover, it is difficult to delineate other individual glaciers. This 

problem is especially noticeable on the Maladeta massif, which is the 

location of the highest peak in the Pyrenees, Pico de Aneto (3,404 m) and 

the first and third largest glaciers in the area, Glaciar de Aneto" (1.32 km2) 

(#38) and Glaciar de la Maladeta (0.60 km2) (#37). A sketch map of the 

area (fig. 6) and aerial photographs of the Maladeta massif (figs. 7, 8) give 

details of the shape and location of the glaciers. Unfortunately, it is 

possible to determine only the general location of the glaciers on the 

Landsat image. The glacier boundaries are lost because of the limits of 

the spatial resolution and the snow cover.

GLACIERS OF THE PYRENEES, SPAIN AND FRANCE E55
TABLE 2. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of the Pyrenees

[In the "Code" column, a filled-in circle indicates an excellent image]

Path-Row

214-30

214-30

215-30

Nominal scene 

center 

Oat-long)

043°05'N.

000°42'E.

043°05'N. 

000°42'E.

043°05'N. 

000°44'W.

Landsat 

identification 

number

1027-10135

2185-10022

1028-10193

Date

19 Aug 75

26 Jul 75

20 Aug 72

Solar 

elevation angle Code 

(in degrees)

52 0

55 A

51 0

Cloud 

cover 

(in percent)

0

0

0

Remarks

Covers all glacier areas

Covers all glacier areas; snow 

cover slightly greater than 

above

Covers glaciers of Balai'tous, 

Picos del Infierno, Vignemale, 

Gavarnie, Monte Perdido, La 

Miinia, and Pic Long

5°W

100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS

Evaluation of image usability for glaciologic, geologic, 

and cartographic applications. Symbols defined as follows:

9 Excellent image (0 to <5 percent cloud cover)

O Nominal scene center for a Landsat image outside 

the area of glaciers

Approximate size of area encompassed by 

nominal Landsat MSS image

Figure 4. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 

images of the glaciers of the Pyrenees. The 

vertical lines represent nominal paths. The 

rows (horizontal lines) have been established to indicate the latitude at which the 

imagery has been acquired.

E56 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Landsat imagery can sometimes be used to indicate the former extent 

of glaciers by showing the location of abandoned moraines or by showing 

traces of glacial erosion such as cirques, aretes, or glaciated valleys. A 

good example of this can be seen on figure 5. The Valle de Ordesa extends 

10 km south and then west from the Gavarnie massif and has the typical 

appearance and shape of a valley erosionally modified by a glacier, 

although no glaciers can be seen today on the southern slope of the 

massif.

In some areas it is possible to use Landsat imagery to (1) delineate 

glacier distribution, (2) map glacier outlines, (3) monitor glacier fluctuations, (4) distinguish transient snowlines, and (5) even inferentially 

determine changes in mass balance. However, the size of the glaciers in 

the Pyrenees makes this difficult, given the current satellite capability. 

Data from sensors having greater spectral and (or) spatial resolution are 

now becoming available, including data from the Landsat thematic 

mapper, the Large Format Camera, and the French Satellite Pour 

1'Observation de la Terre (SPOT). Such new data will be able to 

contribute to glacier studies and monitoring in the Pyrenees and in other 

mountainous regions of the world, where the spatial resolution of the 

Landsat MSS sensor is not adequate.

Figure 5. Section of annotated 1:500,000-scale enlargement of Landsat 2 

false-color composite image 2185-10022, Path 214, Row 30, acquired 26 July 

1975. The image covers the entire glacier area of the Pyrenees. Numbers 

correlated to glaciers listed in table 1.

GLACIERS OF THE PYRENEES, SPAIN AND FRANCE E57
Figure 6. Maladeta massif and its glaciers 

in 1979. Former glaciers that are now 

reduced to snowfields are shown by dashed 

blue lines (northwest of Glaciar de Maladeta 

and south of Glaciar de Tempestades).

E58 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
**. V

Figure 7. Vertical aerial photograph of Glaciar de la Maladeta. Photograph taken 26 

August 1957 by the U.S. Air Force.

GLACIERS OF THE PYRENEES, SPAIN AND FRANCE E59
Figure 8. Vertical aerial photographs 

of the Maladeta massif taken 5 September 1988 by the Institut Cartografic 

de Catalunya. These photographs and 

others taken close to the time of maximum snowmelt have been used to 

determine more accurately the glacierized area of the Pyrenees. Compare 

with figures 6 and 7. The scale is 

approximately 1:22,000.

E60 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIEES OF THE WOELD
References Cited

Barrere, P., 1953, Equilibre glaciaire actuel et Quaternaire dans 

1'Ouest des Pyrenees Centrales [Present and Quaternary glacier 

equilibrium in the west-central Pyrenees]: Revue Geographique 

des Pyrenees et du Sud-Ouest, v. 24, no. 2, p. 116-134.

Bellan, A., 1963, Quelques observations sur 1'evolution des glaciers de 

la region Luchonnaise dans les Pyrenees Centrales [Some observations on the evolution of glaciers in the Luchon region of the 

central Pyrenees]: Grenoble, Societe Hydrotechnique de France, 

Comptes Rendus, Section de Glaciologie, 10 p.

Bonaparte, R., 1891, Les variations periodiques des glaciers frangais 

[Periodic variations of the French glaciers]: Paris, Annuaire de 

Club Alpin Frangais, v. 17, p. 425-447.

Brunet, R., 1955, La regression des glaciers au Celh de la Baque 

(Pyrenees Garonnaises) [Glacier recession in the Celh de la Baque 

(Garonnais Pyrenees)]: Revue Geographique des Pyrenees et du 

Sud-Ouest, v. 26, no. 1, p. 70-71.

Chabrol and others, 1953, Travaux de glaciologie effectue's en 1952 sur 

les glaciers des Pyrenees Centrales [Glaciological studies in 1952 of 

the glaciers of the central Pyrenees]: Grenoble, Societe Hydrotechnique de France, Comptes Rendus, Section de Glaciologie, 

113 p.

Charpentier, J. von, 1823, Essai sur la constitution g6ognostique des 

Pyrenees [Essay on the geologic framework of the Pyrenees]: 

Paris, F.G. Levrault, 633 p.

Durand, M.-C., 1961, L'influence des glaciers sur les cours d'eau 

Pyreneens (Bassins du Gave de Pau et de la Neste d'Aure) [The 

influence of glaciers on Pyrenees stream basins (Basins of Gave de 

Pau and Neste d'Aure)]: Revue Geographique des Pyrenees et du 

Sud-Ouest, v. 32, no. 4, p. 289-318.

Equip de Geomorfologia Alpina, 1980, Catalogo de los glaciares de la 

Peninsula Iberica [Catalog of the glaciers of the Iberian Peninsula]: 

Notes de Geografia Ffsica, no. 3, p. 35-55.

Eydoux, D., and Maury, L., 1907, Les glaciers orientaux du Pic Long 

(Pyrenees centrales) [Eastern glaciers of Pic Long (central 

Pyrenees)]: La Geographic (Bulletin de la Societe de Geographic, 

Paris), v. 16, no. 1, p. 1-18.

Faura, M., 1923, Aveng de les geleres d'Aneto i Maladeta [Advance of 

Aneto and Maladeta glaciers]: Butlleti del Ciencia e Culture, no. 

347, p. 343-346.

Galibert, G., 1956, Le relief de haute montagne dans les massifs de 

Luchon et des Monts Maudits [The topography of the high mountains in the Luchonnais massif and Monts Maudits]: Revue Geographique des Pyrenees et du Sud-Ouest, v. 27, p. 41-73.

Gaurier, L., 1921, Etudes glaciaires dans les Pyrenees frangaises et 

espagnolles de 1900 a 1909 [Glaciological studies in the French and 

Spanish Pyrenees from 1900 to 1909]: Pau, Garet-Haristoy, 363 p.

G6mez de Llarena, J., 1936, Algunos datos sobre el glaciar actual del 

Monte Perdido (Pirineos) [Some facts about the present glacier of 

Monte Perdido (Pyrenees)]: Boletin de la Real Sociedad Espanola 

de Historia Natural, v. 36, p. 327-343.

Hess, H., 1933, Das Eis der Erde [The glaciers of the world]: 

Handbuch der Geophysik, v. 7, no. 1, p. 1-121.

Hollermann, P., 1968, Die rezenten Gletscher der Pyrenaen [The 

recent glaciers of the Pyrenees]: Geographica Helvetica, v. 23, no. 

4, p. 157-168.

Mercer, J.H., 1975, Glaciers of the Pyrenees, in Field, W.O., ed., 

Mountain glaciers of the northern hemisphere: Hanover, N.H., 

U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 

p. 141-155.

Mounier, J., 1962, La tournee glaciologique 1961 dans les Pyrenees 

frangaises et espanoles [Glaciological tour in 1961 in the French 

and Spanish Pyrenees]: Revue Geographique des Pyrenees et du 

Sud-Ouest, v. 33, no. 1, p. 113-120.

Nicolas-Martinez, P.M., 1981, Morfologia del Circo de Tucarroya 

(Macizo del Monte Perdido, Pirineo Aragones) [Morphology of the 

Circo de Tucarroya (Massif of Monte Perdido, Aragon Pyrenees)]: 

Cuadernos de Investigaci6n Geografica, v. 7, no. 1-2, p. 51-80.

Penck, A., 1884, Die Eiszeit in den Pyrenaen [The ice age in the 

Pyrenees]: Mitteilungen des Vereins fur Erdkunde zu Leipzig, 

v. 23, p. 163-231.

Plande, R., 1939, Neiges et glaces d'aujourd'hui dans les Pyrenees 

[Snow and ice in the Pyrenees today]: Revue Geographique des 

Pyrenees et du Sud-Ouest, v. 10, p. 85-106.

Schrader, F., 1895, Sur l'6tendue des glaciers des Pyrenees (On the 

extent of the glaciers of the Pyrenees): Paris, Annuaire de Club 

Alpin Frangais, v. 21, p. 403^423. (Reprinted as The Pyrenees, 

Edition Privat-Didier, Toulouse, 1936, v. 2, p. 201-221).

Soutade, G., 1982, La haute montagne pyreneenne dans le massif du 

Luchonnais [The high mountain Pyrenees in the Luchonnais massif]: Recherches Geographiques a Strasbourg, v. 16-17, (Hommages a R. Raynal), p. 143-145.

Taillefer, P., 1968, Extent of Pleistocene glaciation in the Pyrenees, in 

Wright, H.E., Jr., and Osburn, W.H., eds., Arctic and Alpine 

environments: International Association for Quaternary Research, 

v. 10, Indiana University Press, p. 255-266.

 1981, Glaciers des Pyrenees, reponse a quelques questions

[Glaciers of the Pyrenees, response to some questions]: Revue

Pyreneenne, 6 Serie, v. 15, p. 11-14. 

Thorarinsson, S., 1940, Present glacier shrinkage, and eustatic changes

of sea-level: Geografiska Annaler, v. 22, no. 3-4, p. 131-159. 

Trutat, E., 1875, Les glaciers de la Maladeta et le Pic de Posets [The

glaciers of Maladeta and Pic de Posets]: Paris, Annuaire de Club

Alpin Frangais, 440 p.

 1894, Les Pyrenees; les montagnes, les glaciers, les eaux 

minerales, les phenomenes de Patmosphere, la flore, la faune et 

1'homme [The Pyrenees, the mountains, the glaciers, the mineral 

waters, the phenomena of the atmosphere, the flora, the fauna, 

and the inhabitants]: Paris, J.-B. Bailliere et fils, 371 p.

van Summern, J., and Morrison, C.C., 1958, Glaciers of the Pyrenees, 

in Geographical study of mountain glaciation in the northern 

hemisphere: New York, American Geographical Society, p. 

5.3.1-5.3.10.

Vedruna, J.M., 1956, Caracteristicas de los glaciares del Macizo de la 

Maladeta [Characteristics of the glaciers of the Maladeta massif]: 

Iberica, v. 24, no. 334, p. 109-117.

Vidal-Boix, C., 1933, Notas sobre la glaciologia pirenaica [Facts about 

the Pyrenean glaciology]: Boletin de la Real Sociedad Espanola de 

Historia Natural, v. 33, p. 273-285.

GLACIERS OF THE PYRENEES, SPAIN AND FRANCE E61

Glaciers of Europe 

GLACIERS OF NORWAY

By GUNNAR 0STREM and NILS HAAKENSEN

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, Jr., and JANE G. FERRIGNO

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1386-E-3

Norway has 1,627 glaciers that total 2,595 

square kilometers in area; these glaciers, 

most commonly ice caps, outlet, cirque, 

and valley glaciers, have been receding 

since about 1750

CONTENTS

Abstract E63

Introduction 63

FIGURE 1. Index map showing areas covered by the three regional maps

of Norwegian glaciers 65 

2. A, Index map of glaciers in southern Norway; B, Index map

of glaciers in the southern section of northern Scandinavia 

(Norway and Sweden); C, Index map of glaciers in the 

northern section of northern Scandinavia (Norway and 

Sweden) 66

TABLE 1. The size and location of the 34 largest glaciers in Norway 64

Occurrence of glaciers 67 

Historical review 70

FIGURE 3. Oblique aerial photograph of Nigardsbreen and its valley,

named Mjalverdalen, taken in 1951 by Olav Liest01 71

TABLE 2. Variation of the terminus of Nigardsbreen outlet glacier during

the period 1710-1991 72

Modern glaciological investigations 73

FIGURE 4. Graph of glacier terminus observations at Bondhusbreen 73

5. Map showing the retreat of Nigardsbreen 74

6. Mass-balance diagram for the glacier Storbreen in Jotunheimen 

during the period 1949-89, combined with a line for the 

5-year running mean 74

Mapping of glaciers 75

FIGURE 7. The oldest existing glacier map in Norway, published by J.D. 

Forbes in 1853, showing the glaciers in central 

Jotunheimen, southern Norway 75

8. The first glacier map of the Folgefonni ice cap and its

surroundings, drawn by S.A. Sexe in 1864 76

9. Nigardsbreen, mapped in 1937 by terrestrial photogrammetry

by the German professor W. Pillewizer (1950) 77

10. A, Sketch of the Memuru glaciers in Jotunheimen, showing 

differences in glacier area and outline as depicted on an 

old map surveyed in 1849 and on a modern topographic 

map surveyed in 1938; B, Part of the Norwegian Series 

M 711, l:50,000-scale topographic map (Sheet 1418 IIIJostedalen) of Nigardsbreen outlet glacier from 

Jostedalsbreen prepared from 1966 aerial photographs 77

11. A modern glacier map of Trollbergdalsbreen, northern Norway,

compiled from aerial photographs 80

12. Index map to location of modern large-scale glacier maps of

Norway published during the period 1952-88 81

TABLE 3. Glacier maps published in Norway during the period 1952-88 - 80 

Historic and modern photographs and satellite images 82

FIGURE 13. Two of the earliest pictures of Norwegian glaciers: A, An

artistic portrayal of Bondhusbreen, an outlet glacier from 

the Folgefonni ice cap, which was painted by Niels 

Hertzberg in 1801; B, Nigardsbreen shown in great detail 

in an 1822 painting by the well-known Norwegian artist 

Johannes Flintoe 82

14. A, Nigardsbreen in 1851 from an illustration by J.D. Forbes

(1853); B, Nigardsbreen in 1864 from a photograph by the 

pharmacist/photographer Selmer 83

15. One of the oldest known photographs of Nigardsbreen, taken

by J.B. Rekstad in 1899 84

16. Engabreen, an outlet glacier from the northwestern part of 

the Svartisen ice cap, photographed in 1883 by Charles 

Rabot 85

CONTENTS III
Page

FIGURE 17. Photograph of Engabreen in 1974 E85

18. One of the first known vertical aerial photographs of a

Norwegian glacier, showing the snout of Nigardsbreen

and its associated terminal moraine system 86

19. Vertical aerial photograph of the terminus of Nigardsbreen

taken in August 1974 87

20. Nigardsbreen, in July 1959, photographed from nearly the

same position as that illustrated by Forbes (fig. 14A) and 

photographed by Rekstad (fig. 15) 88

21. Nigardsbreen, photographed in 1980 from nearly the same

position as shown in figures 13B, 14, 15, and 20 88

22. Two photographs showing the retreat of Mjplkevoldsbreen

(western side of the Jostedalsbreen ice cap) between 1933

23. Landsat MSS false-color composite image of Seilandsj0kulen, 

the northernmost glacier in Norway, taken on 29 July 

1972 (1006-09481, MSS band 5 with a red filter, MSS 

band 6 with a blue filter, and MSS band 7 with a green 

filter; Path 211, Row 10)- - - - - 90

24. Vertical aerial photograph of the small Seilandsj0kulen ice cap,

the northernmost glacier in Norway 91

25. A "map" of Seilandsjpkulen ice cap produced as a computergenerated dotprint from Landsat MSS band 7 digital data 

(1006-09481; 29 July 1972; Path 211, Row 10) - 91

26. NOAA image of southern Norway taken on 1 June 1982 92

27. NOAA image of southern Norway taken on 30 July 1982 92

28. A section of a Landsat MSS false-color composite image (2565- 

10004; MSS band 4 with a blue filter, MSS band 5 with a 

green filter, and MSS band 7 with a red filter; 9 August 

1976; Path 216, Row 17) showing the Jostedalsbreen ice 

cap, the largest continuous ice mass in continental 

Europe 93

29. A section of Landsat MSS image 22059-10083 (11 September 

1980; Path 216, Row 18) showing the Hardangervidda 

mountain plateau in central southern Norway 94

Glaciological phenomena 95

FIGURE 30. Diagram showing the clear linear relation between the

elevation of the equilibrium line at the end of the ablation 

season and the specific net balance of a glacier 95

31. Landsat special MSS false-color composite image of the

Jostedalsbreen ice cap (2583-10001; MSS band 4 in blue, 

MSS band 7 in yellow; 27 August 1976; Path 216,

KOW 1 i ) « ~ - r »7O

32. Map of areas of exposed ice as of 27 August 1976 that were

determined on 24 outlet glaciers in the Jostedalsbreen area 

from the Landsat MSS image (2583-10001; 27 August 1976; 

Path 216, Row 17) - - 97

33. Part of a special false-color composite Landsat MSS image of 

the Jotunheimen area (2583-10001; MSS band 4 in blue, 

MSS band 7 in yellow; 27 August 1976; Path 216, Row 17), 

covering approximately 45 x 55 km 98

34. Map of the Jotunheimen high-mountain area in the central part

of southern Norway 99

35. A Landsat MSS special false-color composite image (2187-

10082; 28 July 1975; Path 216, Row 17) of the high-altitude 

areas of the central part of southern Norway 100

36. A digital printout (dotprint) from Landsat MSS image 1336-

10260; band 4; 24 June 1973; Path 217, Row 17 101

37. Map showing the specific discharge in the area around the

Hardangerjpkulen ice cap 101

TABLE 4. Results of height determinations of the transient snowline level 

on 27 August 1976 from a Landsat image of the area of the 

Jostedalsbreen ice cap 97 

5. Results of height determinations of the transient snowline level 

on 27 August 1976 from a Landsat image of the 

Jotunheimen area, central southern Norway 100

IV CONTENTS
Glaciers on Landsat images i E102

FIGURE 38. Landsat MSS image (2186-10005; band 7; 27 July 1975;

Path 215, Row 13) showing glaciers in the southern part

of northern Norway 102

39. Map of the Svartisen-Blamannsisen area in northern Norway 

showing the second, fourth, and fifth largest glaciers in 

Norway 103

40. Index map to the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the

glaciers of Norway- 104

TABLE 6. A list of the most useful Landsat images of the glaciers of

Norway as of the end of 1980 105 

7. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of

Norway 106

Acknowledgments 108 

References cited 109

CONTENTS

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

GLACIERS OF EUROPEGLACIERS OF NORWAY

By GUNNAR 0STREM 1 and NILS HAAKENSEN1

Abstract

Detailed glacier inventories made in 1969, 1973, and, finally, in 1988 for a modern glacier 

atlas of Scandinavia list 1,627 glaciers in Norway that have a total area of 2,595 square 

kilometers. Glaciers occur principally as ice caps, outlet glaciers, cirque glaciers, and small 

valley glaciers. The largest ice cap, Jostedalsbreen, covers 487 square kilometers and is the 

largest continuous ice mass in continental Europe. Since the "Little Ice Age" (culminating 

in about 1750 in Norway), when glaciers reached their greatest extent in historic time, the 

glaciers have retreated almost continuously, and advances have been relatively small. 

Minor glacier advances occurred during the first part of this century, but a major glacier 

recession started about 1930. Systematic measurements of glaciers in Norway began in the 

late 19th century, although the earliest recorded observation of termini fluctuation was 

made in 1742. The longest series of mass-balance observations are those of Storbreen, 

begun in 1949. Mass-balance measurements are carried out for other selected glaciers for 

hydropower purposes. High quality aerial photographs are available for almost all glacierized areas in Norway, and 31 modern glacier maps have been published at 1:10,000 to 

1:50,000 scales. Landsat images have limited value in Norway for most gl'aciological studies, 

but the satellite data have been used to qualitatively evaluate suspended sediment in lakes 

and fjords and to monitor the transient snowline as an indication of the approximate net 

mass balance.

Introduction

Norway is a relatively small country, 323,000 km2 , but the total area 

covered by glaciers is proportionally higher than for most other countries 

in Europe. According to glacier inventories made during 1969 and 1988 in 

southern Norway and during 1973 in northern Norway, about 2,595 km2 

of the land is covered by glaciers (0strem and Ziegler, 1969; 0strem and 

others, 1973, 1988). In the compilation of these inventories, which were 

made in accordance with criteria recommended by UNESCO (1970), all 

glacier masses were divided according to a system based on hydrological 

factors. This system was chosen because the information obtained would 

be used mainly for hydrological purposes. It was also decided that 

glaciers that drain into different rivers should be subdivided into separate "glacier units," each unit draining into one river. The total number 

of such glacier units amounts to 2,113, whereas the number of "glaciers," 

continuous masses of ice regarded as one glacier body, amounts to 1,627.

The largest ice cap in Norway, the Jostedalsbreen, covers 487 km2 and 

is the largest continuous ice mass in continental Europe. Only Iceland and 

Spitzbergen (Svalbard) have larger glaciers. For the hydrological reasons 

discussed above, Jostedalsbreen was divided into 61 individual glacier 

units. On the other hand, the smaller Norwegian glaciers are, in general, 

not subdivided, because most valley glaciers and cirque glaciers drain 

into only one river. Table 1 lists the size and location of the 34 largest 

glaciers of Norway.

'Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Administration, P.O. Box 5091, Majorstuen, N-0301, 

Oslo 3, Norway.

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E63
TABLE 1. The size and location of the 34 largest glaciers in Norway (from 0strem and

others, 1988)

Glacier name

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

Jostedalsbreen. ..................

Vestre Svartisen ................

S0ndre Folgefonni ...............

0stre Svartisen. .................

Blamannsisen ....................

Hardangerj0kulen ...............

Myklebustbreen (Sn0nipbreen) . .

Okstindbreen ....................

0ksfjordj0kulen. .................

Harbardsbreen ..................

Salajekna ........................

Sp0rteggbreen. ..................

Nordre Folgefonni ...............

Giccefiakka. ......................

Frostisen ........................

Sekke/Sikilbreen. ................

Tindefjellbreen ..................

Simlebreen ......................

Tystigbreen .....................

Holabreen .......................

Grovabreen ......................

Alfotbreen .......................

Fresvikbreen ....................

Seilandsj0kulen ..................

Strupbreen/Koppangsbreen .....

Sm0rstabbreen ..................

Gjegnalundsbreen ...............

Hellstugu/Vestre Memurubre. . . .

Unnamed glacier in Beiardalen . .

Storsteinsfjellbreen ..............

S0ndre Jostefonn ................

Midtre Folgefonni ...............

Langfjordj0kulen ................

Veobreen ........................

Area

(km2)

. 487

. 221

. 168

. 148

. 87

. 73

. 50

. 46

. 41

. 36

. 33

. 28

. 26

. 25

. 25

. 24

. 22

. 21

. 21

. 20

. 20

. 17

. 15

. 14

. 14

. 14

. 13

. 12

. 12

. 12

. 11

. 11

. 10

9

Height in meters

maximum

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

2

,000

,580

,660

,550

,560

,850

,830

,740

,170

,950

,680

,750

,640

,500

,710

,930

,850

,320

,900

,020

,640

,380

,660

940

,400

,070

,590

,200

,560

,850

,620

,570

,020

,300

minimum

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

350

20

490

208

810

,050

890

750

330

,250

830

,270

990

870

840

,330

940

780

,220

,320

,090

890

,270

480

320

,390

900

,470

760

930

960

,100

360

,530

Location

East

long

7°00'

14°00'

6°20'

1410' 16°00'

7°20'

6°40'

14°10'

22°00'

7°40'

16°20'

7°30'

6°30'

16°50'

17°10'

7°40'

710'

14°30'

7°20'

7°50'

6°30'

5°40'

6°50'

23°20'

2010' 8°05'

5°50'

8°30'

14°20'

18°00'

6°35'

6°30'

21°40'

8°30'

North

lat

61°40'

66°40'

60°00'

66°40'

67°20'

60°30'

61°40'

66°00'

7010' 61°40'

6710' 61°40'

6010' 68°00'

6810' 61°50'

61°50'

66°50'

62°00'

61°50'

61°30'

61°40'

61°00'

70°20'

69°40'

61°35'

61°50'

61°30'

66°40'

68°40'

61°25'

6010'

7010' 61°35'

More detailed information about the length of glaciers, their orientation, the date of aerial photography, and similar information can be found 

in the two glacier atlases of Norway ((0strem and Ziegler, 1969, revised 

edition by 0strem and others, 1988; 0strem and others, 1973). The 

glacier atlases also contain considerable geomorphological information, 

such as surface characteristics, morainal features, proglacial lakes, and 

other data related to each glacier unit listed.

The distribution of glaciers in Norway is shown on figures 1 and 2. 

These glacier index maps show that a concentration of glaciers exists in 

southwestern Norway and also in certain parts of northern Norway. 

Because glaciers seem to "attract more precipitation" than glacier-free 

areas in the mountainous parts of Norway, the glacierized areas have 

gained increased interest from waterpower engineers. During the last 

several decades, several hydroelectric powerplants have been considered 

for construction near the glacier-capped mountains because of the quantity of water available at high altitudes and the relatively short distances 

to sea level. In connection with this, mass-balance investigations have 

been undertaken at a number of selected glaciers, and special, highly 

detailed maps have been prepared for several glaciers in Norway during 

the last two decades (see table 3). Because glaciers have, in the past, 

been regarded as a remote and relatively uninteresting aspect of the 

landscape, very little information has been recorded on their behavior.

E64 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OP GLACIERS OP THE WORLD
Figure 1. The areas covered by the three 

regional maps of Norwegian glaciers. Numbers correlate with the three maps in figure 2.

i . i i " i

, 0

Only in a few cases, for example, Nigardsbreen and Engabreen, have 

accurate measurements been made of their variations prior to the end of 

the last century (0yen, 1898).

Aerial photographs have been available during the last few decades, 

and detailed measurements of glacier mass balance were begun in 1948 

when Dr. Olav Liest01 initiated systematic glaciologic investigations at 

Storbreen in Jotunheimen, southern Norway. His series of observations 

on Storbreen is the second longest of its kind in the world. Observations 

of variations in the position of termini of glaciers in Norway have been 

made on various occasions dating from about 1740 (see the section 

entitled "Historical Review").

Satellite images represent a new tool for glaciologists. In Norway, 

however, where good maps and aerial photographs exist and where 

glaciers are relatively small and accessible for detailed observations, 

Landsat images are of limited value for most types of glaciological 

studies. Due to the fact, however, that the elevation of the transient 

snowline (TSL) can be determined easily from Landsat images when 

compared with topographic maps of an area, and because there is a 

relation between this elevation at the end of the summer and the mass 

balance of the glacier, it seems possible that satellite images in the future 

may become a valuable tool for glacier-hydrologic studies. A high TSL 

indicates a negative mass balance, whereas the TSL will be situated at a 

lower altitude in years of positive mass balance. Thus, it is hoped that the 

high costs associated with fieldwork for the determination of selected 

glaciers' mass balance can be reduced, provided that optimum satellite

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E65
6»

,_, , ;A ^

E66 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 2A. The glaciers in southern Norway (from 0strem and Ziegler, 1969). Map 

location shown by number 1 on figure 1. 

Base from Norges Vassdrags- og Elektrisitetsvesen, 1:500,000, Glacier Map of 

Southern Norway, 1969.

images can be acquired at the end of the summer ablation season. 

However, cloud cover presents a serious problem that may be solved in 

the future, if cloud-penetrating sensors (such as radar images) can 

produce images that have sufficient detail.

In the text that follows, the occurrence, observational history, modern 

investigations, mapping, photographing and imaging, glaciological phenomena, and Landsat images of Norway's glaciers will be discussed. In 

Norway, glaciers occur principally as ice caps, outlet glaciers from these 

ice caps, cirque glaciers, and small valley glaciers. In the Norwegian 

language, several words are used to describe the term "glacier." Perhaps 

the oldest word still in use is "j0kul" (ice cap). The most common word 

used for glacier in modern Norwegian is "bre." "Fonn" and "is" are also 

used, although more commonly on the island of Svalbard (see "Modern 

Glaciological Investigations") than in Norway. "Botn" is used in reference 

to a cirque glacier, and "skakje" is used locally in the Hardanger area in 

reference to three outlet glaciers of Hardangerj0kulen. In a few places 

"skavl" (snow drift) is used for small glaciers. Most geographic names of 

Norway's glaciers are compounds, as in Jostedalsbreen. Jostedals-bre-en 

is composed of a descriptive location name, followed by the word for 

glacier and the definite article in Norwegian, or literally, Joste Valleyglacier-the. Another example is Storbreen or, literally, large-glacierthe. In northern Norway, several ice caps carry Lappish names, such as 

Salajekna and Giccecakka (see table 1). The Lappish word for glacier is 

variously spelled as jekna, jiek'ki, jietna, and so on.

Occurrence of Glaciers

The glaciers in Norway are concentrated in two areas: (1) the highmountain area in the central and western part of southern Norway that 

has the dominating ice caps Jostedalsbreen, Hardangerj0kulen, and 

Folgefonni, and the numerous valley and cirque glaciers in the Jotunheimen mountain area and (2) northern Norway, where most of the 

glaciers are concentrated in Nordland County the narrowest part of 

Norway approximately between 66° N. and 68° N. latitude. However, 

a number of valley glaciers and small ice caps are also distributed farther 

north, particularly on the Lyngen peninsula, east of Troms0. The 

northernmost glacier in continental Europe is found on the island Seiland, 

70°25' N. latitude (see the Landsat image and the aerial photograph of 

Seilandsj0kulen in figures 23 and 24, respectively).

The largest glaciers in Norway are ice caps. Valley glaciers are of 

reasonable length normally not longer than a few times their width. The 

smallest are cirque glaciers, with an almost circular outline.

Very early descriptions of permanent ice and snow do exist (for 

example, the work by P.C. Friis in 1632), but no area measurements 

were made. The oldest known Norwegian glacier map, published in 1853 

of the Jotunheimen area, is discussed in the section "Mapping of Glaciers."

Inventories of the glaciers in Norway have been made at various 

intervals. The first really complete inventory was made by Olav Liest01 

in 1958, however. His inventory was first printed as a small booklet but 

was later included in the comprehensive publication "Glaciers and Snowfields in Norway" (Liest01, 1962a). According to Liest0Ps inventory, the 

total number of glaciers and snow fields in Norway amounted to 

approximately 1,750 and covered a total area of about 3,900 km2 . This 

figure is considerably higher than the figure given in the modern glacier 

atlases (1,627 glaciers covering 2,595 km2), but this discrepancy is mainly 

due to the fact that Liest01's inventory included both glaciers and snowGLACIERS OF NORWAY E67
15°

66'

Figure 2B. The glaciers in the southern section of northern Scandinavia (Norway and Sweden) (from 0strem and 

others, 1973). Map location shown by number 2 on figure 1. Base from Norges Vassdrags- og Elektrisitetsvesen og 

Stockholms Universitet, 1:500,000, Glacier Map of Northern Scandinavia, Southern Sheet, 1972.

E68 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
69°

I 7

A.-* ;f^^r--^Ls v \ Gi^f

L- -^ *-y JV^r'x- ^-. ^

Figure 2C. The glaciers in the northern section of northern Scandinavia (Norway and Sweden) (from 0strem and 

others, 1973). Map location shown by number 3 on figure 1. Base from Norges Vassdrags- og Elektrisitetsvesen og 

Stockholms Universitet, 1:500,000, Glacier Map of Northern Scandinavia, Northern Sheet, 1972.

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E69
fields. The topographic maps that Liest01 used as source materials did not 

distinguish cartographically between true glaciers and snow fields.

Another inventory, which was less detailed, was made by 0strem 

(1963). He prepared an index map at a scale of 1:1,800,000 showing all 

glaciers in Scandinavia. An improved version of the southern part of this 

map was made in 1963, when a glacier map of southern Norway was 

issued at a scale of 1:500,000 and printed in three colors (Liest01 and 

0strem, 1963). Detailed glacier inventories were prepared of southern 

Norway in the late 1960's (0strem and Ziegler, 1969) and of northern 

Norway and Sweden in the early 1970's (0strem and others, 1973). A 

second glacier inventory for southern Norway was completed in the late 

1980's (0strem and others, 1988).

A concept related to the existence of glaciers is the so-called glaciation 

level. This term is defined as the critical mountain height above which 

glaciers can form. A mountain that is higher than the glaciation level will 

normally carry one or more glaciers, provided the topography is suitable 

for glacier formation. Mountains lower than the critical level will not 

collect sufficient snow to form a glacier, or complete disappearance of the 

snow during the summer makes glacier formation impossible.

On the western coast of southern Norway, this critical level is about 

1,200 m, so that mountains higher than this level normally carry glaciers. 

In the eastern part of Jotunheimen, the glaciation level is about 2,200 m; 

consequently, all glaciers there are situated at much higher elevations 

than those near the coast. Similar conditions prevail in northern Norway, 

where glaciers form at considerably lower elevations in the coastal 

districts than in the more continental inland part of the Scandinavian 

peninsula. For further details please refer to 0strem (1964, p. 333-335; 

1966, p. 128).

Another concept, the equilibrium line, is directly related to the mass 

balance of glaciers. It divides the glaciers in two parts: the accumulation 

area and the ablation area. Strictly speaking this is a theoretical and 

invisible line across the glacier, the exact determination of which is a 

complicated procedure. It is situated higher up on the glaciers during 

years of negative mass balance and lower during years of positive mass 

balance. For most temperate glaciers, however, the equilibrium line 

coincides quite well with the TSL at the end of the melt season, and this 

line is fully visible on the glacier because it forms the transition between 

remaining snow and uncovered (bare) glacier ice. Its position can be 

determined on satellite images, and certain conclusions can be drawn 

about the "health" of the glacier (see the section entitled "Glaciological 

Phenomena").

Historical Review

During historic time there have been several periods of glacier advance 

and retreat. However, very little has been written about these events in 

Norway, mainly because glaciers were relatively far from populated 

areas and generally of little interest to people. However, some documentation exists concerning the last large glacier advance, called "The Little 

Ice Age," which culminated about 1750 in Norway. As a result of several 

years of climatic deterioration, most glaciers advanced considerably, and, 

in many cases, the outermost moraine at any glacier today was deposited 

during this large advance. The first known direct measurement of a 

glacier terminus in relation to a fixed point was made in 1742 at 

Tverrabreen in the Jostedalen area (Hoel and Norvik, 1962, p. 9).

The first written documentation of glacier measurements made in 

Norway was of the outlet glacier Nigardsbreen, which drains southeastE70 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
ward from the Jostedalsbreen ice cap. This glacier advanced so far that it 

reached cultivated land and even destroyed houses. Farmers who lost 

their fertile land wrote to the king, Fredrik V, and asked for tax 

exemption because they had lost their grazing fields. The local judge and 

the minister were sent to the area to inspect the damage. The minister, 

Matthias Foss, wrote a "Short description from Justedalen 1750," which 

was published somewhat later (Foss, 1803). He wrote:

In the year 1742, in the middle of August, his Majesty's representative and 

the judge went to observe the areas which had been destroyed by the 

glacier. A measurement was made from the glacier to the nearest house, and 

this distance was then 200 feet. On the same day next year, 1743, the glacier 

had not only moved forward these 200 feet, but it also increased in width and 

had pushed away the houses and tumbled them around. The ice had also 

plowed up large amounts of soil and gravel and large rocks and crushed these 

rocks into small pieces which are still visible. The owner of the farm had to 

leave his house in a great hurry to try to find another place to stay. His farm, 

named Nigard, was destroyed together with all its fertile land, and the 

glacier had also approached other areas during the following years. The farm 

Bjerkehougen lost cultivated land so that only the houses were left, and it is 

not possible to live there any more. However, we have noted that the ice has 

retreated since 1748 but only very slowly. In addition to the destroyed 

arable land the glacier is also harmful because it produces cold winds so that 

rime on the ground is not unusual during the summer.

Since this disastrous advance, the glacier has retreated almost continuously, interrupted only by relatively small advances. From 1748 until 

the present time, the retreat amounts to about 5 km (table 2). The effect 

from the small advances can be seen easily on the photograph (fig. 3). The 

series of small morainal ridges has been dated and described in detail by 

Faegri (1933) and by Andersen and Sollid (1971). A map showing the 

various moraines and the time of their formation has been constructed on 

the basis of all available information.

As a curiosity, it should be mentioned that glacier ice has been a 

commercial product in Norway for some time. From the beginning of the

Figure 3. Oblique aerial photograph of 

Nigardsbreen and its valley, named Mj0lverdalen, taken in 1951 by Olav LJestel. The 

terminal moraines from the 1750 advance are 

in the lower left of the picture. The distance 

between the 1750 moraine and the present 

position of the glacier terminus is about 5 km.

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E71
TABLE 2. Variation of the terminus of Nigardsbreen outlet glacier

during the period 1710-1991 (based upon data in 0strem and others,

1976, and additional information)

Year

1710-35

1735-42

1742-43

1743^8

1748-1818

1818-23

1823-15

1845-73

1873-99

1899-1903

1903-07

1907-08

1908-09

1909-10

1910-11

1911-12

1912-13

1913-14

1914-15

1915-16

1916-17

1917-18

1918-19

1919-20

1920-21

1921-22

1922-23

1923-24

1924-25

1925-26

1926-27

1927-28

1928-29

1929-30

1930-31

1931-32

1932-33

1933-34

1934-35

1935-36

1936-37

1937-38

1938-39

1939-40

Variation 

(in meters)

+2.8001

0

+1001

+501

-540

-701

-SO1

-710

-595

-73

+8

-10

+ 18

-31

+5

-40

-11

-13

-25

-20

-19

-16

-21

-14

-16

+7

-23

-13

+ 10

+ 16

-16

+ 12

+20

+6

-9

-15

-15

-45

-25

+5

-17

-21

-50

-28

Year

1940-41

1941^2

1942^3

1943-44

1944^5

1945-46

1946-47

1947-48

1948-49

1949-50

1950-51

1951-52

1952-53

1953-54

1954-55

1955-56

1956-57

1957-58

1958-59

1959-60

1960-61

1961-62

1962-63

1963-64

1964-72

1972-73

1973-74

1974-75

1975-76

1976-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

1981-82

1982-83

1983-84

1984-85

1985-86

1986-87

1987-88

1988-89

1989-90

1990-91

Variation 

(in meters)

-41

-19

-38

-10

-43

-35

-113

-145

-92

-47

-56

-87

-60

-41

-72

-53

-34

-49

-66

-87

-55

-30

-65

-65

-515

-65

-46

-16

-1

-14

+3

+ 1

-11

+4

-6

-2

-4

-7

+ 11

-18

+ 1

+7

+ 10

1 Approximative values only.

last century it is reported that quantities of ice were carried from the 

Bondhusbreen outlet glacier (from the Folgefonni ice cap) down to the 

small community of Sunndal for sale to fishermen who used it for 

preservation of their fish. The first known ice export dates from 1822, 

when a ship carried glacier ice to Scotland. Later, in 1863, a small road 

was built up the valley to facilitate ice transport. Similarly, ice was taken 

for the same reason from a small regenerated glacier in J0kulfjord, near 

the 0ksfjordj0kulen ice cap in northern Norway. Here, during recent 

years, ice was blasted off the cone-shaped glacier that reaches sea level. 

However, this activity ceased in 1949 when a refrigeration plant was built 

in the area.

E72 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 4. Glacier terminus observations at 

Bondhusbreen. Distances given are in 

meters, measured horizontally from the 1875 

terminal moraine (modified from the text 

accompanying the 1979 map of Bondhusbreen noted on table 3).

Modern Glaciological Investigations

More systematic measurements of glaciers in Norway started about 

100 years ago, when some scientists began to establish survey points in 

front of selected glaciers for annual position measurements of each 

terminus. This kind of systematic measurement was first made by the 

geologist P.A. 0yen, who published his figures in annual reports (0yen, 

1898, 1907, 1915), and by J.B. Eekstad (1905), who also photographed 

many glaciers. His historic glass negatives contain a wealth of information from 1890 to about 1910. C. de Seue, a Norwegian Army officer and 

meteorologist, took several photographs of the Jostedalsbreen and Svartisen ice caps in 1868 (de Seue, 1870). The famous French geographer 

Charles Rabot took many photographs in Scandinavia during the 1880's. 

Several of his photographs provide considerable information about the 

position of selected glacier termini at that time. Later, Professor Werner 

Werenskiold began a long series of glacier-termini measurements in the 

Jotunheimen mountains. Many of his research students did their fieldwork in glaciology under his guidance. His interest in glaciology is 

recorded in several scientific papers, and he also reviewed the history of 

glaciological research in Norway (Hoel and Werenskiold, 1962, p. 14-18) 

in a work that contains a listing of many old sources. An extensive 

bibliography is also given in Hoel and Norvik (1962).

We know that minor glacier advances have occurred during the first 

part of this century (Liest01, 1962b), but a period of major glacier retreat 

started about 1930 (fig. 4). One of the best studied glaciers in modern 

time is the Nigardsbreen outlet glacier, where several scientists, both

600

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE IN METERS FROM 1875 MORAINE 

500 400 300 200 100

 1902-

 1910

-1920

-1930

(1875)

^1940

h-1950

1-1960

 1980

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E73
Norwegian and foreign, have carried out various types of glaciological 

studies. Detailed mass-balance investigations were started there in 1962. 

A map showing the retreat of Nigardsbreen since the 1750's is shown on 

figure 5, and the results of termini measurements are plotted in table 2. 

The longest mass-balance-observation series made in Norway concerns 

Storbreen, a valley glacier in the Jotunheimen mountain massif where 

measurements have been made since 1949 (fig. 6).For five other glaciers 

in Norway there are observations covering a time span of almost 30 years 

or longer (Haakensen, 1982, p. 49). At least some of these observations 

will continue in the future because of the need to gather hydrological data 

for various waterpower developments in Norway.

Continuous mass-balance investigations have also been carried out at 

intervals of 5 to 6 years for other selected glaciers in Norway (Roland and 

Haakensen, 1985; 0strem and others, 1991; Haakensen and Elveh0y, 

1992). These studies have also been done mainly for hydrologic purposes.

Figure 5. Map of the retreat of Nigardsbreen. The information is based upon 

various datings of existing moraine ridges (oldest stages) and direct observations 

made in recent years. The dotted lines represent location of moraine ridges. The 

dashed lines represent 1937 glacier terminus and contours. The solid black lines 

represent 1951 glacier terminus and contours. The green lines represent 1974 

glacier terminus and contours. The contours on the surrounding landscape are 

shown in gray (from 0strem and others, 1976). Since 1974, the retreat of the 

terminus of Nigardsbreen has been only 42 m. For more details, see Andersen 

and Sollid (1971). (See also table 2.)

SUMMER BALANCE D NET BALANCE WINTER BALANCE

III 1

1

 "j H e*

\ \ ^

i r

i >

i i( i \ i

i < ,' i ,

i , ', i i ^

"-i I1

1 M

i

i y

H 

1 

 P

V --. 1 1 >

1 <

1 X

II

1 <

\

1 1 J

1 /

\ <(

1 >

1 (

1 \ '

1 \

r ' ^

i i \

\ (

\ V

1 1 N

1 1

1

1

-250 -200 -150 -100 -50

11111

| |1989

I.-- ,

< I

-v 1985

<' I

A I

I

^ I

| 1980

I

I

> I

«-. I

x . 1975

l\ I

H ; i

i

'' i !

I 1970

s1 1

N - 1 1 > 7 1

1 ' I 1965

I ' I

I

I

!

I 1960

I

I I

I

1955

I

i

| 1950

I I

| MEAN 1949-1989

50 100 150 200 250 i i i i i

WATER EQUIVALENT. IN CENTIMETERS

E74 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Figure 6. Mass-balance diagram for the 

glacier Storbreen in Jotunheimen during 

the period 1949-89, combined with a line 

for the 5-year running mean. The total 

mass loss in 41 years amounts to 10.5 m of 

water equivalent. For comparison, the 

5-year running mean for Nigardsbreen is 

also indicated (dashed line). The average 

net balance for Nigardsbreen is about 0.6 

m higher than that for Storbreen.
Mapping of Glaciers

Figure 7. The oldest existing glacier map in No real glacier maps were made in Norway until the British Professor

Norway, published by J.D. Forbes in 1853, J.D. Forbes produced a map (fig. 7) of some of the most important

showing the glaciers in centralJotunheimen, glaciers in Jotunheimen during his visit to Norway in 1851 (Forbes,

southern Norway. 1853)_ Another early glacier map was produced by Professor S. A. Sexe at

1 ' q, ^*»*i ^^-rt^Jfc1 V* ^». ' »-=i * f u»lf> ti*. V -^'.^M

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E75
the University of Oslo. He studied the ice cap Folgefonni and produced a 

color map (fig. 8) (Sexe, 1864). In the 1920's, the famous Swedish 

Professor H.W:son Ahlmann started a glaciological research program on 

Styggedalsbreen in western Jotunheimen. Professor Ahlmann produced 

two glacier maps (Ahlmann, 1922) that were printed in color at a scale of 

1:20,000. The Norwegian professors Adolf Hoel and Werner Werenskiold 

produced a glacier map (1:10,000) of Tverrabreen in Jotunheimen by 

terrestrial photogrammetry in 1927 (Hoel and Werenskiold, 1962). Some 

German scientific expeditions were also active in the production of glacier 

maps during the 1930's. An example is Wolfgang Pillewizer's map 

(Pillewizer, 1950) of the lower part of Nigardsbreen from 1937 (fig. 9).

Topographic maps also contain some glacier information, but the oldest 

maps (called Amtskart and at a scale of 1:250,000) produced in the last

K A K

Figure 8. The first glacier map of the Folgefonni ice cap and its surroundings, drawn by 

S.A. Sexe in 1864.

E76 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Contour interval 30 meters on glacier, 

60 meters elsewhere

5 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Glacier outline according

to map from 1849 

Glacier-covered areas according

to modern maps

Figure 10A. The Memuru glaciers in Jotunheimen, showing differences in glacier area 

and outline as depicted on an old map surveyed in 1849 (Amtskart, scale 1:250,000) 

and on a modern topographic map surveyed 

in 1938 (scale 1:100,000; from Ostrem, 

1960). Compare with figure 7.

Figure 9. Nigardsbreen, mapped in 1937 by terrestrial photogrammetry by the 

German professor W. Pillewizer (1950).

century were not very reliable concerning the existence or size of glaciers 

(fig. 10A). Modern topographic maps are much better (fig. WB), but the 

relatively small scale often limits the value of the information for 

glaciological studies. Furthermore, in some cases, permanent snow fields 

are interpreted as glaciers and marked as such on the maps.

Modern glacier maps are defined as maps produced according to 

standards established during the First International Symposium on 

Glacier Mapping held in Ottawa, Canada, in 1965. Such maps have been 

prepared for selected glaciers in connection with studies by the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Administration (NVE) for planning of 

future hydroelectric power developments (fig. 11) and by the Norwegian 

Polar Research Institute for scientific purposes. Some glacier maps have 

also been produced for other reasons, such as special research projects. A 

list of all published glacier maps is given in table 3, and an index map 

showing the location of each map is shown in figure 12.

Figure 10B. Part of the Norwegian 

Series M 711,1:50,000-scale topographic 

map (Sheet 1418 Ill-Jostedalen) of 

Nigardsbreen outlet glacier from Jostedalsbreen prepared from 1966 aerial photographs. Map published in 1973 by the 

Norwegian Geographical Survey (NGO).

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E77
E78 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
GLACIERS OF NORWAY E79
H°25'EAST GREENWICH

Figure 11. A modem glacier map of Trollbergdalsbreen, northern Norway, 

compiled from aerial photographs taken on 25 August 1968. The original map 

was printed in 1970 in four colors at a scale of 1:10,000 with 10-m contour 

intervals, in accordance with guidelines proposed by the First International 

Symposium on Glacier Mapping, which was held in Ottawa, 1965.

TABLE 3. Glacier maps published in Norway during the period 1952-88 (see also fig. 12)

[NPI, Norwegian Polar Research Institute; NVEf Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Administration; SU, University of Stockholm]

Map name

Storbreen. .......................

0sterdalsisen ....................

Tverrabreen .....................

Hellstugubreen ..................

Blaisen ved Sildvikvann .........

Part of Folgefonni ...............

Storsteinsfjell. ...................

Nigardsbreen ....................

Hellstugubreen ..................

Tunsbergdalsbreen ..............

Cainhavarrebreen. ...............

Erdalsbreen-Vesledalsbreen .....

Grasubreen ......................

Austre Memurubre ..............

Vestre Memurubre ..............

Alfotbreen .......................

Scale

..... 1:10,000

..... 1:20,000

..... 1:10,000

..... 1:10,000

..... 1:10,000

..... 1:10,000

..... 1:10,000

..... 1:20,000

..... 1:10,000

..... 1:20,000

..... 1:10,000

..... 1,20,000

..... 1:10,000

..... 1:10,000

..... 1:10,000

..... 1:10,000

Year of aerial 

photography

1951

1954

1927

1941

1960

1959

1960

1955,1964

1962

1955,1964

1960

1966

1968

1966

1966

1968

Year of 

issue

1952

1956

1962

1962

1963

1964

1964

1965

1965

1966

1967

1967

1968

1968

1968

1969

Issued

by

NPI

NPI

NPI

NPI

NVE

NVE

NVE

NVE

NVE

NVE

NVE

NVE

NVE

NVE

NVE

NVE

Colors

Three

One

Three

Three

One

Three

Four

Three

Three

Four

Two

Four

Four

Four

Four

Four

Remarks

Manuscript; only lower part.

Manuscript.

E80 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 3. Glacier maps published in Norway during the period 1952-88 (see also fig. 12) Continued

[NPI, Norwegian Polar Research Institute; NVE, Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Administration; SU, University of Stockholmj

Map name

Hellstugubreen ...............

Engabreen. ....................

Trollbergdalsbreen. ............

Storbreen. ....................

H0gtuvbreen .................

Nigardsbreen ..................

Bondhusbreen .................

Hellstugubreen ................

Riukojietna1 ...................

Salajekna (Sulitjelma)1 . ........

Midtre Folgefonni .............

Grasubreen ....................

Strupbreen ....................

Sylglaciaren2. ..................

Nigardsbreen ..................

Scale

........ 1:10,000

........ 1:20,000

........ 1:10,000

........ 1:10,000

........ 1:10,000

........ 1:20,000

........ 1:10,000

........ 1:10,000

........ 1:10,000

........ 1:50,000

1:20,000 

........ 1:20,000

1:10,000 

........ 1:10,000

........ 1:20,000

1:10,000 

........ 1:10,000

........ 1:20,000

Year of aerial 

photography

1968

1968

1968

1968

1972

1966,1974

1959,1979

1980

1960,1978

1950,1957-58

1971,1980-82 

1959

1981 

1984

1952,1978

1985 

1958,1966,

1971,1975, 

1982 

1984

Year of 

issue

1QCQ

1970

1970

1971

1973

1975

1979

1980

1983

1983

1984 

1985

1985

1985 

1988

Issued 

by

NPI

NVE

NVE

NPI

NVE

NVE

NVE

NVE and NPI

NVE and SU

NVE and SU

NVE and SU 

NVE and SU

NVE and SU

NVE and SU

NVE

Colors Remarks

One Manuscript.

Four

Four

Four

Four

Four

Five

Four

Three Two maps.

Four Four maps.

Four Two maps. 

Four

Four Three maps.

Four Five maps. 

Four

1 The glacier is partly located in Sweden.

2 The glacier is located in Sweden.

6° 18' 24° 30°

64'

60C

EXPLANATION

Norwegian glacier maps

issued 1952-88 

Glacier mapped more than once

Bondhusbreen 

Part of Folgefonni 

Midtre Folgefonni 

Alfotbreen

5 Tunsbergdalsbreen

6 Nigardsbreen

7 Erdalsbreen/Vesledalsbreen

8 Storbreen

9 Vestre Memurubre

10 Austre Memurubre 

.( 11 Hellstugubreen

12 Tverrabreen

13 Grasubreen

14 Hogtuvbreen

15 Engabreen

16 Trollbergdalsbreen

17 0sterdalsisen

18 Salajekna

19 Riukojetna

20 Cainhavarre

21 Storsteinsfjellbreen

22 Blaisen

23 Strupbreen

24 Sylglaciaren

\

Figure 12. Location of modem large-scale 

glacier maps of Norway published during the 

period 1952-88. Because some glaciers 

have been mapped more than once (red 

squares), one number may represent more 

than one glacier map.

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E81
Historic and Modern Photographs and 

Satellite Images

Because of the distance from most glaciers to inhabited areas in 

Norway, there is a lack of historic pictures depicting glacier termini. 

However, some Norwegian paintings from the last century do exist, but 

they were not intended to show ice and snow; glaciers were included by 

chance only if the artist happened to have them within the field of view. 

In most cases the glaciers portrayed are so distant that the painting has 

very little value from a glaciological point of view.

The first "artistic" representation of glaciers in Norway was probably 

made by the Norwegian minister Niels Hertzberg, who portrayed the 

outlet glacier Bondhusbreen in August 1801 (fig. ISA). Another early 

glacier picture was made by the painter Johannes Flintoe; his product 

shows Nigardsbreen in 1822 in great detail almost as good as that of a 

photograph (fig. 13£). Later, Professor J.D. Forbes from Edinburgh, 

who visited Norway in 1851, made a good drawing of Nigardsbreen that 

was printed in color (Forbes, 1853; fig. 14A). A photograph of

Figure 13A. An artistic portrayal 

of Bondhusbreen, an outlet glacier 

from the Folgefonni ice cap, 

painted by Niels Hertzberg in 

1801. This is the earliest known 

picture of a Norwegian glacier.

E82 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 13B. Nigardsbreen shown in great 

detail in an 1822 painting by the well-known 

Norwegian artist Johannes Flintoe.

Figure 14A. Nigardsbreen in 1851 from an 

illustration by J.D. Forbes (1853).

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E83
Figure 14B. Nigardsbreen in 1864 from 

a photograph by the pharmacist/photographer Selmer that was published in Illustreret Nyhedsblad. The original photograph was copied in a woodcut by H.P. 

Hansen in Leipzig so that it could be 

printed in the newspaper.

Figure 15. One of the oldest known photographs of Nigardsbreen, taken by J.B. 

Rekstad in 1899. The glacier front had 

then retreated more than 1 km since J.D. 

Forbes made his drawing in 1851. (See 

fig. 14A.)

E84 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 16. Engabreen, an outlet glacier 

from the northwestern pan of the Svartisen 

ice cap, photographed in 1883 by Charles 

Rabot. Compare with figure 17 (below), a 

photograph of the same area 91 years later 

that demonstrates about 2 km retreat.

Figure 17. Engabreen in 1974. The glacier 

has retreated about 2 km since 1883 (compare with fig. 16), and most of the recession 

has occurred since 1930. Photograph by Nils 

Haakensen.

Nigardsbreen by Selmer was made into a woodcut and published in 

Illustreret Nyhedsblod in 1864 (fig. 145). Some of these artworks are so 

detailed that they can be used for calculations of the glacier volume at 

that time, but some are too "artistic" to be used in this context. The 

Norwegian scientist J.B. Rekstad, geologist and photographer, took 

numerous pictures of various glacier termini from the same viewpoint in 

different years (fig. 15). Also, the French geographer Charles Rabot took 

several photographs during the period 1880-90 of various geographical 

subjects, particularly in northern Norway, including some glaciers, and 

his pictures are of high quality (fig. 16). Engabreen has retreated 2 km 

between Rabot's photographs in 1883 and recent studies in 1974 (fig. 17).

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E85
A professional photographer, Mr. Rnud Rnudsen from Bergen, traveled 

extensively in Norway, particularly in western Norway during the years 

1860-1900. He took numerous beautiful photographs, mainly to prepare 

postcards, but among them are a lot of good glacier photographs. Some of 

these can be dated. Most of his 20,000-25,000 glass negatives and some of 

his postcards were taken over by the University Library in Bergen and 

are now accessible to researchers.

The first commercial aerial photographs showing a Norwegian glacier 

were taken in 1937 and show part of the Folgefonni ice cap (Wider0e's 

Contract No. 14), but the negatives have been lost. A German scientific 

expedition arranged for vertical aerial photographs of selected glaciers in 

southern Norway in the 1930's, and an example is shown in figure 18. 

Unfortunately, in this case also, the negatives have been lost. Since

Figure 18.-One of the first known vertical 

aerial photographs of a Norwegian glacier, 

showing the snout of Nigardsbreen and its 

associated terminal moraine system. The 

photograph was taken in 1938 by the Norwegian Surveying Company Wideroe under 

contract from a German scientific expedition. 

The scale is approximately 1:37,000.

E86 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 19. Vertical aerial photograph of the 

terminus of Nigardsbreen taken in August 

1974 (Fiellanger-Wider0e No. 4409-A3). The 

length of the lake is about 1.9 km, and the 

scale is approximately 1:18,000. In 1938 (see 

fig. 18), the snout was located just at the 

lower end of the lake.

World War II a great number of vertical aerial photographs have been 

taken, particularly for production of the new l:50,000-scale topographic 

map series of Norway.

Aerial photographs, taken from various altitudes, are now available of 

almost every glacier in Norway. Repeated aerial photographic surveys 

make possible comparisons of volume changes of glaciers during intervals 

of several years. A modern vertical aerial photograph is shown in figure 

19 and can be compared with the old German aerial photograph (fig. 18). 

Another interesting comparison can be made between terrestrial photographs of Nigaardsbreen that were taken in 1959 and 1981. They show

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E87
continuous retreat (figs. 20 and 21). Similarly, the outlet glacier 

Mj01kevoldsbreen, on the western side of the Jostedalsbreen ice cap, has 

receded most dramatically (fig. 22), in one of the most rapid retreats seen 

in Norway over such a short period of time.

It is quite obvious that similar comparisons will be possible through the 

use of satellite images taken at intervals of several years. Thus, an 

archive of images showing glaciers on a global scale will be most valuable 

in the future.

As a historical note, it should be mentioned that one of the very first 

images produced by Landsat 1 in 1972 (on the sixth day of its operation

Figure 20. Nigardsbreen, in July 1959, photographed from nearly the same position as 

that illustrated by Forbes (see fig. 14A) and 

photographed by Rekstad (see fig. 15). Photograph by Olav Liestel, Norsk Polarinstitutt.

Figure 21. Nigardsbreen, photographed in 

1980 from nearly the same position as in 

figures 13B, 14, 15, and 20. Photograph by 

Nils Haakensen.

E88 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 22. Two photographs showing the 

retreat of Mjolkevoldsbreen (western side of 

the Jostedalsbreen ice cap) between 1933 

(top) and 1939 (bottom) (from Fasgri, 1940).

since its launch on 22 July 1972) was of the northernmost glacier in 

continental Europe, Seilandsj0kulen. The transient snowline could be 

seen easily on the image. This almost "historical image" (fig. 23) is 

compared with a vertical aerial photograph taken 2 years earlier (fig. 24), 

where a similar, but not identical, snowline can be seen. From the 

Landsat digital (computer-compatible tape, or CCT) data a dotprint 

"map" of this glacier was also made (fig. 25).

Investigations have been made to evaluate usefulness for hydrological 

purposes of image data from meteorological satellites (0strem and 

others, 1979). It is obvious that the resolution in images from the 

television and infrared observation satellite (TIROS) or the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellites, about 1.1 

km, cannot give the same glaciological information as Landsat data, but 

the location of glaciers, their approximate size, and so on can be obtained 

from analysis of such images (figs. 26 and 27).

A much better tool in glaciological research is, of course, the Landsat 

image taken under cloud-free conditions. For many purposes the MSS

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E89
Figure 23. Landsat MSS false-color composite image of Seilandsj0kulen, the northernmost glacier in Norway, taken on 29 July 

1972 (1006-09481, MSS band 5 with a red 

filter, MSS band 6 with a blue filter, and MSS 

band 7 with a green filter; Path 211, Row 10). 

Snow is white and bare ice is red. Sedimentladen water appears red, whereas clear 

water is black. The bedrock is blue. This is 

the first Landsat 1 image acquired over Norwegian territory. The image covers an area of 

approximately 25 km x 50 km.

E90 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
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Figure 24. Vertical aerial photograph of the 

small Seilandsjekulen ice cap, the northernmost glacier in Norway (Fjellanger-Wider0e 

No. 3615, August 1970). The scale is approximately 1:45,000.

Figure 25. A "map" of Seilandsj0kulen ice 

cap produced as a computer-generated dotprint from Landsat MSS band 7 digital data 

(1006-09481; 29 July 1972; Path 211, Row 

10). The white areas represent residual snow 

from the past winter; the gray areas (in general marked by -, 1, A, or 6) represent bare 

glacier ice, whereas darker areas and overprinted characters indicate bedrock or water. 

Each character represents one pixel (about 

60 x 80 m). The scale is approximately 

1:50,000, From 0strem (1975); reproduced 

from the Journal of Glaciology, v. 15, no. 73, 

p. 403-415, by courtesy of the International 

Glaciological Society.

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E91
Figure 26. NOAA image of southern Norway taken on 1 June 1982. The high-altitude 

areas (about 1,000 m above mean sea level) 

are still snow covered. Scale approximately 

1:10,000,000. NOAA image received and 

processed by the Norwegian Telemetry Station in Tromso.

Figure 27. NOAA image of southern Norway taken on 30 July 1982. The snow has 

disappeared, and the glaciers appear as 

white areas. The large white dot in the southwest is a cloud. In the northeast some cumulus clouds are visible. Scale approximately 

1:8,000,000. NOAA image received and 

processed by the Norwegian Telemetry Station in Tromso.

E92 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 28. A section of a Landsat MSS 

false-color composite image (2565-10004; 

MSS band 4 with a blue filter, MSS band 5 

with a green filter, and MSS band 7 with a 

red filter; 9 August 1976; Path 216, Row 17) 

showing the Jostedalsbreen ice cap, the 

largest continuous ice mass in continental 

Europe. The section covers approximately 90 

x 85 km.

false-color composite images may be even more useful. The EROS Data 

Center (EDC) standard MSS false-color composite (MSS band 4 through 

a blue filter, MSS band 5 through a green filter, and MSS band 7 through 

a red filter) distributed by EDC will normally show bare glacier ice in 

blue and the rest of the glacier in white (fig. 28). It is, however, possible 

to change the color filters or vary the intensity of the colors in order to 

emphasize glaciological features, such as sediment in glacier streams and 

lakes. A good example is the image of Hardangervidda shown in figure 

29, where sediment in lakes can be seen easily. A decreasing amount of 

suspended sediment is apparent at increasing distance from the terminus 

of the glacier. It may be possible, in the future, to calibrate satellite 

images so that the sediment concentration in lakes could be calculated 

from satellite data. So far, this task has proven difficult; a qualitative 

determination is possible, but reliable qiuintitative calculations are still 

impossible.

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E93

Glaciological Phenomena

Figure 29.-A section of Landsat MSS 

image 22059-10083 (11 September 

1980; Path 216, Row 18) showing the 

Hardangervidda mountain plateau in the 

central part of southern Norway. Note the 

ice caps of Folgefonni in the west and 

Hardangerj0kulen in the north. The northern part of the latter ice cap drains eastward, and the sediment is clearly visible 

(light bluish color) in the lakes in the upper 

right part of the image. The sediment 

content decreases with increasing distance from the glacier. Approximate scale 

1:42,000. Special MSS false-color composite processing by Fjellanger-Wideroe, 

Oslo, with MSS band 4 in blue, MSS band 

5 in green, and MSS band 7 in red.

Figure 30.-The clear linear relation between 

the elevation of the equilibrium line at the end 

of the ablation season and the specific net 

balance of a glacier. This example is from 

Nigardsbreen, where mass-balance studies 

have been performed continuously since 

1962. The plotted points show the relations 

for each year from 1962 to 1989. Similar 

diagrams have been made for several other 

glaciers. From 0strem, 1975; reproduced 

from the Journal of Glaciology, v. 15, no. 73, 

p. 403-415, by courtesy of the International 

Glaciological Society.

The transient snowline (TSL) on a glacier is defined as the transition 

line between exposed (bare) glacier ice and snow or firn. This line is 

situated somewhere on the lower part of the glacier at the beginning of 

the melt season when last winter's snow disappears and the bare glacier 

ice is gradually exposed. It moves to higher altitudes throughout the melt 

season and reaches its highest position at the end of the summer. If this 

highest position, given in meters above sea level, is plotted against the 

net mass balance, given in meters of water equivalent, this relation is 

expressed by a straight line (see Liest01, 1967, p. 46; 0strem, 1975; and 

figure 30). Each single dot in this diagram is a result of 1 year's field and 

office work. For Nigardsbreen this means an annual cost in the order of 

several thousand dollars.

After this diagram has been established for a particular glacier, 

however, it becomes possible to determine the approximate net mass 

balance directly from the height of the TSL at the end of the summer, 

provided its position (and elevation) can be identified. By an appropriate, 

very simple color coding of Landsat images it may be easy to distinguish 

exposed glacier ice from the snow-covered areas on glaciers (fig. 31). If 

the Landsat image is compared with a topographic map, the height of the 

TSL can be determined, as has been done in figure 32 for Jostedalsbreen 

and environs. At Jostedalsbreen the height of the TSL was between 

1,160 m and 1,360 m above sea level on 27 August 1976 (table 4). It 

increases eastward as can be seen on Sp0rteggbreen and Holabreen. 

Within a limited area the height of the TSL does not vary very much. The 

steepest glaciers, however, show a tendency for a higher TSL level.

Similarly, for the cirque and valley glaciers in Jptunheimen (figs. 33 

and 34) the TSL on 27 August 1976 could be determined for 15 glaciers 

(table 5). Also, the TSL in the Jotunheimen area shows a consistent 

increase in altitude toward the east, the more continental part of 

Norway.

1900

noo

-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 

WATER EQUIVALENT, IN CENTIMETERS

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E95
Figure 31. Landsat special MSS false-color 

composite image of the Jostedalsbreen ice 

cap (2583-10001; MSS band 4 in blue, MSS 

band 7 in yellow; 27 August 1976; Path 216, 

Row 17). The transient snowline is clearly 

visible on many outlet glaciers as the border 

between white snow-covered areas and bluish areas representing exposed or bare glacier ice. Black areas are lakes, fjords, or 

shadows in narrow valleys. (The image covers the same area as shown on the map in 

fig. 32, or approximately 60 x 75 km.)

E96 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 32. Areas of exposed ice as of 27 

August 1976 that were determined on 24 

outlet glaciers in the Jostedalsbreen area 

from the Landsat MSS image (2583-10001; 

27 August 1976; Path 216, Row 17). (Compare also with fig. 31.) The contour interval is 

200 m, heights in 100's of meters. The altitude of the transient snowline, as determined 

from topographic maps, was between 1,160 

and 1,360 m above sea level at Jostedalsbreen (average 1,242 m) but a little 

higher farther east. Abbreviations and individual transient snowline altitudes are shown 

in table 4.

TABLE 4. Results of height determinations of the 

transient snowline (TSL) level on 27 Augwt 1976 

from a Landsat image of the area of the Jostedalsbreen ice cap (compare with figs. SI and 32)

62-N

Abbreviation

A............

Ad...........

B............

Be...........

Br.. .........

Bu.. .........

B0...........

E.. ..........

F... .........

Ha...........

Ho...........

K.. ..........

KJ. ..........

L.. ..........

Lo ...........

N.... ........

S. ...........

Sp.. .........

St............

Su.. .........

T. ...........

Tu.. .........

V.. ..........

Ve.... .......

Glacier name

. Austerdalsbreen

. Austdalsbreen

, . Briksdalsbreen

. Bergsetbreen

. Brenndalsbreen

. B0yumsbreen

. B0dalsbreen

. Erdalsbreen

. Fabergst01sbreen

. Haugabreen

. Holabreen

. Krunebreen

. Kjenndalsbreen

. Langedalsbreen

. Lodalsbreen

. Nigardsbreen

. Stegholtbreen

. Sp0rteggbreen

. Strupebreen

. Supphellebreen

. Tuftebreen

. Tunsbergdalsbreen

. Veslebreen

. Vesledalsbreen

Height

of TSL

(meters)

1,200

1,280

1,300

1,200

1,250

1,300

1,360

1,220

1,200

1,200

1,580

1,300

1,240

1,200

1,160

1,220

1,240

1,400

1,240

1,220

1,300

1,240

1,250

1,200

61°30'N

7°E 7°30'E

^ \

EXPLANATION

Exposed glacier ice as of 

August 27,1976

10 KILOMETERS

Consequently, if good satellite images are available at the end of the 

melt season and the above-mentioned relation has already been established, it is obvious that great savings could be made in the cost of glacier 

mass-balance work. However, several constraints remain. Many glaciers 

are located in areas of frequent bad weather or heavy cloud cover, and it 

might be difficult to accurately define the end of the melt season. 

Furthermore, this method gives the net balance only; data on the two 

most important factors that determine it, the winter accumulation and 

the summer ablation, cannot be obtained so easily. For an operational use 

of this method it is necessary to obtain images that are not obscured by 

clouds and that give good temporal coverage during a period near the end 

of the melt season.

Glaciers, in the course of their movement, produce copious amounts of 

sediment (fine-grained, about 50 percent; coarse material, about 50 

percent), that is carried away by melt water. Large rocks, gravel, and 

some finer material carried within the ice will be deposited in the front as 

terminal moraines. Suspended sediment, sometimes called glacier rock 

flour, gives the characteristic milky color to glacier rivers and lakes 

downstream. One example of this was shown in figure 29 in the previous 

section. Another example is shown in figure 35, where the suspended

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E97
Figure 33. Part of a special false-color 

composite Landsat MSS image of the 

Jotunheimen area (2583-10001; MSS 

band 4 in blue, MSS band 7 in yellow; 27 

August 1976; Path 216, Row 17), covering approximately 45 x 55 km, the same 

area as the map shown in fig. 34. White 

regions represent snow-covered areas 

(mainly on glaciers), and light-blue areas 

represent exposed ice. The height of the 

transient snowline can be defined at 15 

glaciers by comparison with a topographic map, and it has been determined to lie between 1,690 and 2,130 m 

above sea level, with a mean value of 

1,853 m above sea level. The height of 

the transient snowline increases eastward (that is, with increasing continentality) (compare with table 5).

sediment has been discharged into an arm of the Sognefjord. Even a very 

weak concentration of suspended sediment in various lakes is here visible 

on the special color-coded Landsat image. A digital printout from MSS 

band 4 shows the plume of sediment in the Gaupnefjord (fig. 36).

During recent years, waterpower engineers have requested that 

special investigations be directed at suspended sediment transport in 

glacier streams. Small rock particles cause increased wear in turbines, so 

data on the amount and characteristics of suspended sediment are of 

great interest. These investigations require, however, continuous fieldwork, because water samples must be taken several times daily to give 

data for a reliable calculation. We have seen that Landsat images clearly 

indicate those lakes and fjords where suspended sediment is present, and 

the data can also indicate variations in sediment concentration, although 

the calibration problem is still unsolved. At present the repetition time 

and weather constraints limit the usefulness of satellite data in this 

application.

E98 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 34.-Map of the Jotunheimen 

high-mountain area in the central part of 

southern Norway. The highest summits 

reach about 2,400 m above sea level, 

and the area includes many cirque glaciers and small valley glaciers (from 

0strem and Ziegler, 1969). Compare 

with figure 33, a Landsat image of the 

same area. The transient snowlines were 

determined for 15 of the glaciers in this 

area. They are listed in table 5.

8°30'E

EXPLANATION 

A Summit

61°30'N

APPROXIMATE SCALE 

10 20 30 KILOMETERS

J

The special map shown in figure 37 demonstrates the economic 

importance of glaciers in waterpower-producing catchments. The map 

shows the specific water yield near a small ice cap (Hardangerj0kulen) in 

southwestern Norway; it also indicates an increasing quantity of water 

yield near the glacier. The water yield from a glacierized basin determines, of course, the production at a power station. Such basins are 

therefore very attractive for hydroelectric power developments. The 

map shows a very water-rich area, an area also shown on figure 29 in the 

previous section. The data on water discharge were taken from hydrological sources; satellite images cannot give such information as yet, but 

data collection platforms (DCP's) equipped with stream-gaging sensors 

have been used to transmit stream discharge measurements from field 

sites to a hydrological service. Polar-orbiting or geostationary weather 

satellites are used to relay the information.

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E99
TABLE 5. Results of height determinations of the transient snowhne (TSL) level on 27 August 

1976 from a Landsat image of the Jotunheimen area, central southern Norway (compare with

figs. SS and Sit)

[Height of transient snowline on 27 August 1976 increased more than 300 m toward continental areas (D) in the Jotunheimen area 

(fig. 34). Heights were taken from topographic maps)

Glacier group (fig. 34)

D. Glittertind .............

Glacier name

Bgverbreen 

Storbreen 

Veslebreen

South Illabre 

Tverrabreen 

North Illabre 

Svellnosbreen 

Styggebreen 

Storgjuvbreen

Hellstugubreen 

West Memurubre 

Veobreen 

Blabreen

West Grotbre 

Grasubreen

He,ght of TSL (meters.

3 1,720+22

1,740 

1,730 

1,690 

6 1,835+47

1,800 

1,770 

1,870 

1,800 

1,870 

1,900 

4 1,855+23

1,860 

1,830 

1,890 

1,840 

2 2,100+30

2,070 

2,130

Figure 35. A Landsat MSS special 

false-color composite image (2187- 

10082; 28 July 1975; Path 216, Row 17) 

of the high-altitude areas of the central 

part of southern Norway (MSS band 4 in 

red, MSS band 5 in green, and MSS 

band 7 in blue). The Jostedalsbreen ice 

cap is situated in the left-central part of 

the image. Glacier sediment in lakes and 

fjords appears a very distinct red. 

Exposed ice appears yellow.

E100 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 36. A digital printout (dotprint) from 

Landsat MSS image 1336-10260; band 4; 

24 June 1973; Path 217, Row 17. The coast ^j^ *;; 

is indicated by a heavy line. The Jostedal 

River, which drains the eastern part of the 

Jostedalsbreen ice cap, carries a large sediment load into the Gaupnefjord (center). H 

Sediment-laden water is indicated by light 

areas, whereas dark areas represent clear 

water. The white areas are clouds. Each 

character represents one pixel (about 60 x 

80 m). The scale is approximately 1:66,000 

(from 0strem, 1976).

« ! **t«»«tt**«Vt

AAAAA AAA * 

Aft A Aft fcftl.*. AAA ft*A t d.1,

AM* M AM AA* A AA A 4 Af

i- -*

Figure 37. Specific discharge in the area 

around the Hardangerjokulen ice cap. This 

map clearly shows that the water yield from 

the glacierized areas is large and is increasing toward the glacier. Contours are in liters 

per second per square kilometer. One liter 

per second per square kilometer corresponds to 66 acre-feet per square mile.

7°E

60°30'N

0 10

L_ _ J_ J

KILOMETERS

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E101
Glaciers on Landsat Images

Good coverage with high-quality aerial photographs is available for 

nearly all glacierized areas in Norway. A detailed inventory of all ice 

masses in Norway has been made, and the results have been published in 

two glacier atlases (0strem and Haakensen, 1980). These atlases, containing data for all glaciers on the Scandinavian peninsula, were produced 

before detailed satellite images were commonly available. Both aerial 

photographs and topographic maps formed the source of information for 

this inventory. For inventory purposes, no presently available satellite 

data can replace the excellent vertical aerial photography available in 

Norway. Some types of glaciological phenomena, however, can be better 

obtained from satellite imagery. These phenomena have been discussed 

earlier in this section.

Figure 38. Landsat MSS image (2186- 

10005; band 7; 27 July 1975; Path 215, 

Row 13) showing glaciers in the southern part of northern Norway. Svartisen is 

situated in the lower part and Blamannsisen and the Sulitjelma glaciers (near the 

Swedish border) in the upper part. The 

image covers approximately 120 x 750 

km. (See map of area in figure 39.)

E102 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
To demonstrate the potential of using Landsat imagery for glacier 

inventories, an enlarged part of a Landsat image showing valley glaciers 

and cirque glaciers in the Jotunheimen area (fig. 33) can be compared 

with the field observations and a map taken from the glacier atlas that is 

based upon aerial photographs (fig. 34). Another example is demonstrated in figure 38 for glaciers in northern Norway. The true glacier 

distribution is shown on the map, figure 39. It is clear that even relatively 

small glaciers are easily determined on images of good quality; their 

outline can be drawn and transferred to a map. This method is certainly 

valuable in areas where other sources of information are lacking.

For all Norwegian glacier areas, a survey was made to find the most 

useful Landsat images for glaciological work. The result is shown on the 

map of the Path/Row positions (fig. 40) and in table 6. Table 7 provides 

information on the availability of optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images for 

all nominal scene centers of glacierized areas of Norway. Percent cloud 

cover refers only to glacierized part of image.

Figure 39. Map of the SvartisenBlamannsisen area in northern Norway 

showing the second, fourth, and fifth 

largest glaciers in Norway (from 0strem 

and others, 1973). (See Landsat image 

of area in figure 38.)

14°E

67°N

15'E

T"

>

EXPLANATION 

. Water divide

|^§D '---«» , .jTrolilLgidalsbr

j~r+ *-Jr . L, ~3

-.- . ^v'^""^. ''V^

/ ^'- - j!

/ «C \ Q

\ - >

-r J ' t^

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GLACIERS OF NORWAY E103
15°W 70°N 10°E 20°E 30°E

10°W

65"N

60°N

O

100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS

Evaluation of image usability for glaciologic, geologic, 

and cartographic applications. Symbols defined as follows:

£ Excellent image (0 to £5 percent cloud cover)

^ Good image (>5 to £10 percent cloud cover)

O Fair to poor image (>10 to £100 percent cloud cover)

C 9o Usable Landsat 3 return beam vidicon (RBV) scenes

A, B, C, D refer to usable RBV subscenes 

O Nominal scene center for a Landsat image outside 

the area of glaciers

Approximate size of area encompassed by 

nominal Landsat MSS image

Figure 40.-Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Norway. The 

vertical lines represent nominal paths. The rows (horizontal lines) have been 

established to indicate the latitude at which the imagery has been acquired.

E104 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 6. A list of the most useful Landsat images of the glaciers of Norway as of the end of 1980

Path-Row

211-10

211-11

213-12

214-12

216-13

216-14

215-17

215-18

216-16

216-17

216-18

217-16

217-17

217-18

218-16

Date

29 Jul 72

29 Jul 72

8 Jul 73

25 Jul 73

9 Jul 75

27 Jul 75

28 May 75

9 Jul 75

6 Mar 73

17 Jun 74

15 Feb 75

9 Jul 75

15 Feb 75

9 Jul 75

23 Jun 73

18 Jun 74

9 Aug 76

27 Aug 76

18 May 73

18 Jun 74

22 Jun 75

10 Jul 75

28 Jul 75

9 Aug 76

27 Aug 76

22 Jun 75

28 Jul 75

9 Aug 76

27 Aug 76

11 Aug 80

5 Jul 76

24 Jun 73

5 Jul 76

27 Sep 72

24 Jun 73

5 Jul 76

25 Jun 73

Landsat 

identification 

number

1006-09481

1006-09484

1350-10005

1367-09545

2168-10012

2186-10005

2492-09552

2168-10014

1226-10151

1694-10071

2024-10031

2168-10030

2024-10034

2168-10032

1335-10195

1695-10123

2565-10002

2583-09595

1299-10204

1695-10125

2151-10085

2169-10084

2187-10082

2565-10004

2583-10001

2151-10091

2187-10084

2565-10011

2583-10004

22059-10083

2530-10070

1336-10260

2530-10073

1066-10255

1336-10263

2530-10075

1337-10312

Cloud cover , Remarks (in percent)

10

0

10

50

20

5

10

10

20

25

0 Completely snow covered

10

0 Excellent; completely snow covered

0

10

10

10

0

0

30

20

20

0 Excellent; good snowline; sediment in lakes and fjords

10

0 Excellent

20

20

10

10

0 Excellent

0

0 Excellent; sediment in lakes and fjords visible

0

10

0 Excellent

5

0

1 Cloud cover given only for glacierized parts of image.

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E105
TABLE 7. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Norway

Path-Row

211-10

211-11

212-10

212-11

212-12

213-10

213-11

213-12

213-13

213-14

214-10

214-11

214-12

214-12

214-13

214-13

214-14

215-10

215-11

215-11

215-12

215-12

Nominal 

scene 

center 

Oat-long)

070°35'N. 

025°20'E.

069°17'N. 

023°18'E.

070°35'N. 

023°54'E.

069°17'N. 

021°52'E.

067°59'N. 

020°03'E.

070°35'N. 

022°28'E.

069°17'N. 

020°26'E.

067°59'N. 

018°37'E.

066°40'N. 

016°59'E.

065°20'N. 

015°30'E.

070°35'N. 

021°02'E.

069°17'N. 

019°00'E.

067°59'N. 

OlTll'E.

067°59'N.

066°40'N. 

015°33'E.

066°40'N. 

015°33'E.

065°20'N. 

014°04'E.

070°35'N. 

019°36'E.

069°17'N. 

017°34'E.

069°17'N. 

017°34'E.

067°59'N. 

015°45'E.

067°59'N. 

015°45'E.

Landsat 

identification 

number

1006-09481

1006-09484

22019-09420

22019-09422

1367-09545

22020-09474

22434-09442

1350-10005

20940-09255

1422-10003

31612-09573

22075-09541

22075-09543

31612-09582

22075-09550

31612-09585

20941-09320

21302-09404

21302-09410

30893-09500 

A,B,C,D

30893-09503 

A,B,C,D

31613-10041

Date

29 Jul 72

29 Jul 72

02 Aug 80

02 Aug 80

25 Jul 73

03 Aug 80

21 Sep 81

08 Jul 73

19 Aug 77

18 Sep 73

03 Aug 82

27 Sep 80

27 Sep 70

03 Aug 82

27 Sep 80

03 Aug 82

20 Aug 77

16 Aug 78

16 Aug 78

14 Aug 80

14 Aug 80

04 Aug 82

Solar 

elevation ,-. , 

angle Code 

(in degrees)

38 ^

39 f

36 £

37 (J

40 3

36 £

20 £

43 ^

25 ^

36 ^

18 £

19 3

38 £

20 3

39 A

32 f

32 £

34 Ap^B

35 AQB

38 £

Cloud 

cover 

(in percent)

10

0

0

30

50

0

0

10

0

10

10

0

20

0

30

0

0

0

0

10- 

50

10-

70

5

Remarks

Seilandsj0kulen, 

0ksfjordj0kulen, east part of 

Langfjordj0kulen; image used 

for figure 23

Archived by ESA1

Strupbreen, Jiekkevarri; 

archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Blaisen, Storsteinsfjellbreen, 

Frostisen

Archived by ESA; not physically examined

B0rgefjell

Partial scene includes all glacier 

areas; archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Partial scene; archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Partial scene, does not include 

western glacier area; archived 

by ESA

Archived by ESA; not physically examined

Archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Landsat 3 RBV images

Landsat 3 RBV images

Partial scene, includes all glacier areas; archived by ESA

E106 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 1. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Norway Continued

[See fig. 40 for explanation of symbols used in "Code" column]

Path-Row

215-13

215-14

215-16

215-17

215-18

216-11

216-11

216-12

216-12

216-13

216-16

216-17

216-18

217-16

217-17

217-18

218-16

218-17

Nominal 

scene 

center 

(lat-long)

066°40'N. 

014°06'E.

065°20'N. 

012°38'E.

062°38'N. 

010°03'E.

061°16'N. 

008°56'E.

059°54'N. 

007°52'E.

069°17'N. 

016°08'E.

069°17'N. 

016°08'E.

067°59'N. 

014°19'E.

067°59'N. 

014°19'E.

066°40'N. 

012°40'E.

062°38'N. 

008°37'E..

061°16'N. 

007°30'E.

059°54'N. 

006°27'E.

062°38'N. 

007°11'E.

061°16'N. 

006°04'E.

059°54'N. 

005°01'E.

062°38'N. 

005°45'E.

061°16'N. 

004°38'E.

Landsat 

identification 

number

2186-10005

2186-10012

21626-09554

2168-10030

2168-10032

21321-09474

30894-09554 

A,B,C,D

21321-09481

30894-09561 

A,B,C,D

31614-10102

2583-09595

2565-10004

22059-10083

2530-10070

2530-10073

21682-10091

21305-10003

21305-10010

Date

27 Jul 75

27 Jul 75

06 Jul 79

09 Jul 75

09 Jul 75

04 Sep 78

15 Aug 80

04 Sep 78

15 Aug 80

05 Aug 82

27 Aug 76

09 Aug 76

11 Sep 80

05 Jul 76

05 Jul 76

31 Aug 79

19 Aug 78

19 Aug 78

Solar

elevation _ 

, Code angle

(in degrees)

41 0

42 A

47 (J

48 ^

49 ^

26 £

33 A /-> B 

cLJ D

27 £

34 A B

cLJ D

38 £

34 £

41 ^

31 A

47 A

48 £

35 £

Cloud 

cover 

(in percent)

5

0

30

10

10

0

0- 

50

0

10- 

50

0

0

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

Remarks

Blamannsisen, Svartisen; image 

used for figure 38

Okstindbreen

Archived by ESA

Jotunheimen

Folgefonni, Hardangerj0kulen

Archived by ESA

Landsat 3 RBV images

Archived by ESA

Landsat 3 RBV images

Partial scene, includes all glacier areas; archived by ESA

Adelsbre

Jostedalsbreen, Jotunheimen; 

image used for figure 28

Folgefonni, Hardangerj0kulen; 

image used for figure 29; 

archived by ESA

Adelsbre

Jostedalsbreen

Folgefonni; archived by ESA

Archived by ESA; not physically examined

Alfotbreen; archived by ESA; 

not physically examined

1 ESA is the European Space Agency, which archives Landsat imagery in Fucino, Italy, and Kiruna, Sweden.

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E107
Acknowledgments

The authors are indebted to the U.S. Geological Survey, particularly 

Dr. Richard S. Williams, Jr., and Jane G. Ferrigno, who sent us a great 

number of Landsat images. Furthermore, the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Administration provided resources for the work in 

several ways. Its chief hydrologist, Dr. Jakob Otnes, supplied ample 

historic material; Mr. Bard Braskerud drafted many of the illustrations; 

Mrs. Evy Vollmo, Mrs. Rigmor Haugunn, and Miss Eva Klausen typed 

the manuscript. The photographer, Mr. Henrik Svedahl, carried out the 

tedious task of recording parts of Landsat images from the screen of a 

color-additive viewer and also assisted in making enlargements. Dr. Olav 

Liest01, a glaciologist at the Norwegian Polar Research Institute, read 

the manuscript and made valuable comments.

The authors express their sincere thanks to all those who have 

contributed in one way or another to assist us in preparing "Glaciers of 

Norway."

E108 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
References Cited

Ahlmann, H.W:son, 1922, Glaciers in Jotunheimen and their physiography: Geografiska Annaler, v. 4, no. 1, p. 1-57.

Andersen, J.L., and Sollid, J.L., 1971, Glacial chronology and glacier 

geomorphology in the marginal zones of the glaciers Midtdalsbreen 

and Nigardsbreen, south Norway: Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift, 

v. 25, no. 1, p. 1-38.

de Seue, C., 1870, Le neve de Justedal et ses glaciers (Publie par S.A. 

Sexe) [The firn of Justedal and its glaciers (Published by S.A. 

Sexe)]: University Programme, Christiania, 55 p.

Faegri, K., 1933, Uber die Langenvariation einiger Gletscher des 

Jostedalsbre und die dadurch bedingten Pflanzensukzessionen 

[The fluctuation of some outlet glaciers of Jostedalsbre and the 

resulting plant succession]: Bergens Museums Arbok 1933, no. 2, 

p. 1-255.

 1940, Forandringer ved norske breer 1937-39 [Changes of 

Norwegian glaciers]: Bergens Museums Arbok 1939-40, Naturvitenskapelig rekke, no. 3, 9 p.

Forbes, J.D., 1853, Justedalen-Fillefield, in Norway and its glaciers 

visited in 1851; followed by journals of excursions in the high Alps 

of Dauphine, Berne, and Savoy: Edinburgh, A. & C. Black 

(Publishers) Ltd., Chap. 7, 349 p.

Foss, M., 1803, Justedalens kortelige Beskrivelse [Short description of 

the Jostedalen valley]: Magazin for Danmarks og Norges 

topografiske, oeconomiske og statistiske Beskrivelse, v. 2, p. 1^2.

Friis, P.O., 1632, Om Quindhaerrit oc Fuglesand [On the parish 

Kvinnherad and Folgefonni], in Storm, Gustav, ed., Norriges 

Bescrifuelse: Samlede Skrifter, v. 83, 493 p.

Haakensen, N., 1982, Glasiologiske unders0kelser i Norge 1980 [Glaciological investigations in Norway]: Hydrologisk avdeling, 

Norges vassdrags- og elektrisitetsvesen, Oslo, Report No. 1-82, 

87 p. [In Norwegian with a summary in English.]

Haakensen, N., and Elveh0y H., 1992, Massebalansemalinger pa 

norske breer 1990 [Mass-balance measurements on Norwegian 

glaciers, 1990]: NVE-Publikasjon no. XX fra Hydrologisk avdeling, Norges vassdrags- og energiverk (In Norwegian with a 

summary in English).

Hoel, A., and Norvik, J., 1962, Glaciological bibliography of Norway: 

Norsk Polarinstitutt, Skrifter No. 126, 242 p.

Hoel, A., and Werenskiold, W., 1962, Glaciers and snowfields in 

Norway: Norsk Polarinstitutt, Skrifter No. 114, 291 p.

Illuatreret Nyhedsblod, 1864, Nigaardsbraeen i Justedalen [Woodcut]: 

13th year, no. 10 (6 March 1864), p. 51.

Liest01, 0., 1962a, List of the area and numbers of glaciers, in Hoel, 

A., and Werenskiold, W., eds., Glaciers and snowfields in Norway: 

Norsk Polarinstitutt, Skrifter No. 114, p. 35-54.

 1962b, Glacier fluctuations, in Hoel, A., and Werenskiold, W., 

eds., Glaciers and snowfields in Norway: Norsk Polarinstitutt, 

Skrifter No. 114, p. 57-79. 

-1967, Storbreen Glacier in Jotunheimen, Norway: Norsk

 1975, ERTS data in glaciology-An effort to monitor glacier 

mass balance from satellite imagery: Journal of Glaciology, v. 15, 

no. 73, p. 403-415. 

-1976, Fjernanalyse [Remote sensing]: Naturen, v. 100, no. 5-6,

Polarinstitutt, Skrifter No. 141, 63 p.

Liest01, 0., and 0strem, G., 1963, Brekart over S0r-Norge [Glacier 

map of southern Norway]: l:500,000-scale map mostly compiled 

from aerial photographs from the year 1955, Norges vassdrags- og 

elektrisitetsvesen, Oslo [In Norwegian and English].

0strem, G., 1960, Breer og morener i Jotunheimen: Norsk Geografisk 

Tidsskrift, no. 17, p. 210-243.

 1963, Oversikt over breer i Skandinavia. [Glaciers in Scandinavia]: l:l,800,000-scale map, Hydrologisk avdeling, Norges vassdrags- og elektrisitetsvesen, Oslo [In Norwegian and English].

 1964, Ice-cored moraines in Scandinavia: Geografiska Annaler, 

v. 46, no. 3, p. 282-337.

 1966, The height of the glaciation limit in southern British 

Columbia and Alberta: Geografiska Annaler, Series A, v. 48, no. 3, 

p. 126-138.

p. 329-338.

0strem, G., Andersen, T., 0degaard, H., and del Llano, R., 1979, 

Snow and ice mapping: Norwegian examples for run-off prediction, 

in Use of data from meteorological satellites, Proceedings of a 

Technical Conference, Lannion, September 1979, European Space 

Agency Special Publication 143, p. 177-181.

0strem, G., Dale Selvig, K., and Tandberg, K., 1988, Atlas over breer 

i S0r-Norge [Atlas of glaciers in south Norway] (revised ed.): 

Meddelelse No. 61 fra Hydrologisk avdeling, Norges Vassdragsog Energiverk, Oslo, 248 p. [in Norwegian and English].

0strem, G., and Haakensen, N., 1980, The Scandinavian glacier 

inventory-Two glacier atlases, in Proceedings of the Workshop on 

the World Glacier Inventory (Riederalp, Switzerland; September 

1978): International Association of Hydrological SciencesAssociation Internationale des Sciences Hydrologiques Publication 

No. 126, p. 161-171.

0strem, G., Haakensen, N., Kj011moen, B., Laumann, T., and Wold, 

B., 1991, Massebalansemalinger pa norske breer 1988 og 1989 

[Mass-balance measurements on Norwegian glaciers, 1988 and 

1989]: NVE-Publikasjon no. 11 fra Hydrologisk avdeling, Norges 

vassdrags- og energiverk, 78 p. (In Norwegian with a summary in 

English).

0strem, G., Haakensen, N., and Melander, 0., 1973, Atlas over breer 

i Nord-Skandinavia [Atlas of glaciers in northern Scandinavia]: 

Meddelelse No. 22 fra Hydrologisk avdeling, Norges vassdrags- og 

elektrisitetsvesen, 315 p. [In Norwegian and English].

0strem, G., Liest01, 0., and Wold, B., 1976, Glaciological Investigations at Nigardsbreen, Norway: Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift, v. 

30, p. 187-209.

0strem, G., and Ziegler, T., 1969, Atlas over breer i S0r-Norge [Atlas 

of glaciers in southern Norway]: Meddelelse No. 20 fra Hydrologisk avdeling, Norges vassdrags- og Elektrisitetsvesen, Oslo, 207 

p. [In Norwegian and English].

0yen, P.A., 1898, Norvege Les variations periodique des glaciers. 3e 

rapport. [Norway The periodic variations of its glaciers, Report 

3]: Archives Sciences et Physique Naturelle, Tome 6, Geneve, 

p. 40-41.

 1907, Klima und Gletscherschwankungen in Norwegen [Climate and glacier variations in Norway]: Zeitschrift fur 

Gletscherkunde, v. 1, no. 1, p. 46-61. 

-1915, Norvege Les variations periodique des glaciers. 19"

rapport. [Norway The periodic variations of its glaciers, Report 

19]: Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde, v. 9, p. 53-55.

Pillewizer, W., 1950, Bewegungsstudien an Gletschern des Jostedalsbre in Sud-Norwegian [Studies of the movement on glaciers of 

Jostedalsbreen in southern Norway]: Erdkunde, v. 4, no. 3/4, 

p. 201-206.

Rekstad, J.B., 1905, Fra Jostedalsbreen [From Jostedalsbreen]: Bergens Museums Aarbog 1904, Naturvidenskabelig rekke No. 1, 95

PRoland, E., and Haakensen, N., 1985, Glasiologiske unders0kelser i 

Norge 1982 [Glaciological investigations in Norway 1982]: Hydrologisk avdeling, Norges vassdrags- og elektrisitetsvesen: Oslo, 

Report No. 1-85, 102 p. [In Norwegian with a summary in 

English].

Sexe, S.A., 1864, Om Sneebraeen Folgefond [About the Folgefonni ice 

cap]: University Programme, Christiania, 36 p.

UNESCO, 1970, Combined heat, ice and water balance at selected 

glacier basins: Technical Papers in Hydrology, no. 5, 20 p.

GLACIERS OF NORWAY E109

Glaciers of Europe 

GLACIERS OF SWEDEN

By VALTER SCHYTT

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, Jr., and JANE G. FERRIGNO

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1386-E-4

Sweden has a total area of 314 square 

kilometers covered by glaciers, one of 

which (Storglacidren, in Swedish Lapland) 

is subject of the longest continuous series 

of mass-balance measurements in the 

world, initiated in 1945-46

CONTENTS

Abstract 

IntroductionOccurrence of glaciers - 

Observation of glaciers -

Page

 -Bill

 - 111

 - 111

 - 112

FIGURE 1. Index map of Sweden showing the location of the 20 largest

glaciers listed in table 2 

2. Graph of winter, summer, and net mass-balance measurements 

of Storglaciaren, Kebnekaise, Lapland, Sweden, for the 

period 1945^6 through 1983-84 -

3. Terrestrial photographs of the terminus of Storglaciaren taken 

52 years apart 

113

114

115

TABLE 1. 

2.

Glacier inventories of Sweden 

Areas of the largest glaciers in Sweden 

. ....._ 112

____ H3

Mapping of glaciers -- - - 

Aerial photography - 

Satellite imagery 

FIGURE 4. A, Map of the lower part of Storglaciaren showing the results 

of radio-echosounding; B, Isometric diagram of the 

subglacial bedrock topography of Storglaciaren and 

Isfallsglaciaren derived from radio-echosounding data -

5. A portion of the map of the Tarfala Valley area and part of 

the Kebnekaise massif area, Sweden, compiled by 

stereophotogrammetric methods from the 14 September 

1969 vertical aerial photographs 

6. Index map to the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the 

glaciers of Sweden 

7. Annotated l:500,000-scale enlargement of a Landsat image 

(1350-10005; band 7; 8 July 1973; Path 213, Row 12) of 

the Storglaciaren and other glaciers in the Kebnekaise 

massif area 

8. Vertical aerial photograph of the Kebnekaise massif and its

glaciers on 29 August 1972 

9. Part of a vertical aerial photograph of the central part of the 

Kebnekaise massif on 29 July 1980, with Storglaciaren 

in the lower part of the photograph 

10. Vertical aerial photograph of the terminus of Storglaciaren

on 22 August 1968 

TABLE 3. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of

Sweden 

114

117

117

116

118

120

122

123

123

123

121

Conclusions 124

Acknowledgments 124

References cited 125

CONTENTS III

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

GLACIERS OF EUROPE - 

GLACIERS OF SWEDEN

By VALTER SCHYTT 1 2

Abstract

The most recent glacier inventory lists a total glacier area for Sweden of 314 square 

kilometers. The first glaciological observations were made in 1807, but no further studies 

were carried out until the end of the century. The modern center for the study of Swedish 

glaciers is the Tarfala Glaciological Station in Kebnekaise, Lapland. At Storglaciaren, in 

Kebnekaise, winter, summer, and net mass-balance measurements were begun in 1945-46, 

the longest continuous mass-balance series in the world. The first map of the Swedish 

glaciers was published in 1910, but it was not until good-quality topographic maps and aerial 

photographs were available in the 1960's that it was possible to produce an accurate map of 

the shape and extent of Swedish glaciers. This map was published in 1973 as part of the 

"Atlas of Glaciers in Northern Scandinavia." It includes maps at scales of 1:1,500,000, 

1:600,000, 1:500,000, and 1:250,000. However, a few of the Swedish glaciers, for example 

Karsajb'keln and Storglaciaren, had been mapped previously at larger scales. Satellite 

imagery has a very limited application for glaciological studies in Sweden because most of 

Sweden's glaciers are too small for the spatial resolution of the Landsat MSS sensors. 

Repetitive aerial photographic coverage is available.

Introduction

Occurrence of Glaciers

The total number of glaciers in Sweden has varied from one climatic 

epoch to another and from one glacier inventory to the next. Many 

glaciers are so small that a climatic warming, like the one experienced in 

the period between 1910 and 1940, could markedly reduce the area and 

volume of active glaciers to tiny patches of ice. All modern glacier 

inventories of Sweden have been based on aerial photographs, and it is 

often very difficult to distinguish between a small glacier and a large 

snow field, especially if the photographs happen to have been taken 

during a cold summer, when there is much residual snowpack.

However, the more recent inventories should be better than previous 

ones, because more photographic material has become available and all 

deviations from previous glacier maps have been assessed carefully. The 

results of three complete glacier inventories (Schytt, 1959; Vilborg, 1962; 

and 0strem and others, 1973) are summarized in table 1.

It was found during these inventories that the quality of the topographic maps, the scale of the aerial photographs, and the availability of 

several years of photographic coverage were the most important factors 

in achieving an acceptable final result. Table 2 provides information on 

the areas of the 20 largest glaciers in Sweden. Their locations are shown 

on figure 1.

1 Stockholm University, Department of Physical Geography, S-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.

2 Deceased on 30 March 1985.

GLACIERS OF SWEDEN Elll
TABLE 1. Glacier inventories of Sweden

Number 

Glaciologist Source of data of

glaciers

Schytt (1959)............... One set of l:65,000-scale aerial pho- 237 310

tographs acquired in 1958 and 

l:200,000-scale topographic maps 

compiled from plane-table surveys in 

the late 1800's (ca. 1890).

Vilborg (1962).............. Modification of Schytt's 1959 map, 287 329

aerial photographs acquired during 

the years 1959-61, and extensive 

field observations.

0strem and others (1973)... 1959 and 1963 aerial photographs and 294 314

the new l:100,000-scale topographic 

map series compiled from aerial stereophotogrammetric methods.

Observation of Glaciers

The Swedish high mountains are situated in a much more continental 

type of climate than most of the Norwegian mountains. Therefore, only a 

few massifs reach above the present-day glaciation level, and, when they 

do, the areas are too small to support any really large glaciers. There are 

nearly 30 glaciers in Norway, for example, that are larger than Sweden's 

largest glacier, Stourrajekna. Norway's largest glacier, Jostedalsbreen 

(487 km2), covers 50 percent more area than all the Swedish glaciers 

combined. Furthermore, the Swedish glaciers are all situated far from 

populated areas and did not attract people's attention until the 1800's.

Although the first scientific glaciological observations were made by 

Goran Wahlenberg in 1807 (Wahlenberg, 1808), no further studies were 

carried out until the end of the century, when Fredrik Svenonius, Jonas 

Westman, Axel Hamberg, Axel Gavelin, and Fredrik Enquist became 

interested in them. Together they published "Die Gletscher Schwedens 

im Jahre 1908" ["The Swedish Glaciers in the Year 1908"] for the 

International Geological Congress, which was held in Stockholm in 1910 

(Svenonius and others, 1910). Their publication is of great value, because 

it describes several glaciers before the great glacier retreat that started 

in about 1915.

Another important contribution to historical study of Swedish glaciers 

was Fredrik Enquist's terrestrial photogrammetric mapping of the 

Kebnekaise glaciers in 1910. For this purpose he took a set of excellentquality terrestrial photographs on 18- by 24-cm glass plates; these 

photographs show all glaciers and glacier termini in August 1910. Axel 

Hamberg began a comprehensive study of glaciers in the Sarek Mountains, especially of the glacier Mikkajekna (Mikkajokeln), in 1895 (Hamberg, 1896), but the longest and most continuous study of the variation in 

termini of a glacier is that of the glacier Karsajokeln (fig. 1), which lies 

farther north (Ahlmann, 1929; Schytt, 1963).

The modern center for the study of Swedish glaciers is the Tarfala 

Glaciological Station in Kebnekaise, Lapland (see fig. 5). The station is 

situated 70 km west of Kiruna, 30 km from the end of the road, at 1,130 

m elevation, about 400 m above the tree line. Two glaciers in the Tarfala 

Valley were surveyed in 1897 and several times between 1908 and 1920. 

In the spring of 1946, this author began a series of mass-balance studies 

of Storglaciaren that are still going on (Schytt, 1981; Grudd and Jannson,

E112 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 2. Areas of the largest glaciers in Sweden 

(Information from 0strem and others, 1973)

Number 

(see fig. 1) Glacier name Area (km2)

Figure 1. Index map of Sweden showing 

the location of the 20 largest glaciers listed in 

table 2.

19'

Karsajokeln

o 

12

Kebnekaise

68°

1.......... Stourrajekna

2.......... Almaijekna

3.......... Salajekna

4.......... Partejekna

5.......... Jakatjkaskajekna

6.......... Suottasjekna

7.......... Mikkajekna

8.......... A. Alkatj-jekna

9.......... A. Ruotesjekna

10.......... Riukojietna

11.......... Buchtglaciaren

12.......... Rabots Glaciar

13.......... W. Sarekglaciaren

14.......... S. Akkajekna

15.......... Marmaglaciaren

16.......... Vartasjekna

17.......... Ruopsokjekna

18.......... Svenonius Glaciar

19.......... Vuoinesjekna

20.......... Storglaciaren

12.75

12.15

11.10

11.10

9.96

8.11

7.62

6.56

5.41

4.99

4.65

4.22

4.00

3.94

3.93

3.64

3.63

3.50

3.35

3.06

20°

GLACIERS OF SWEDEN E113
1986; Naturgeografiska Institutionen, 1987-90). Storglaciaren is one of 

only a very few glaciers in the world in which all three balance terms are 

known winter balance, summer balance, and net balance, for each year, 

starting in 1945-46 (fig. 2). Several other studies have been or are being 

carried out on Storglaciaren: movement, debris content and transport, 

glacier drainage, crystallography, ice temperatures, and thickness, for 

example (figs. 3 and 4).

To ensure that Storglaciaren is reasonably representative of the 

glaciers in Lapland, 20 other glacier termini are also surveyed quite 

regularly, from Karsajokeln in the north (at 68°22'N. lat) to Salajekna in 

the south (at 67°08'N. lat). Glacier recession was still taking place in 1981 

at all Swedish glaciers, although at a slower rate than was the case during 

the 1940's and 1950's.

Mapping of Glaciers

In "Die Gletscher Schwedens im Jahre 1908," Axel Hamberg published 

a map of the Swedish glaciers (Svenonius and others, 1910), but it was the 

areal distribution rather than the characteristics of the individual glaciers 

that was of prime importance to him. At that time it was next to 

impossible to make a good glacier map, because the National Land 

Survey maps of the Lappish mountains were all compiled around 1890 

and were published at a scale of 1:200,000. There were no railroads at the 

time, and hardly any roads led to the mountains, so it is remarkable that 

the cartographers managed to make a map that had all major features in 

the right place. It is not surprising that many glaciers were not shown 

and that many snow fields were mapped as glaciers. Anyone who knows 

what the field conditions were like in the 1880's and 1890's can appreciate 

the difficulties in preparing an accurate topographic map.

The next attempt to map the glaciers was made by Fredrik Enquist in 

1918 when he made a study of the height of the glaciation level (Enquist,

3r

tn

cc n Hi u

-1

-2

-3 -

EXPLANATION 

Winter balance 

Summer balance 

Net balance

Figure 2. Winter, summer, and net massbalance measurements of Storglaciaren, 

Kebnekaise, Lapland, Sweden, for the 

period 1945-46 through 1983-84. Summer 

balance and net balance both show a periodic variation of 12 years. Solid lines indicate 

a moving 3-year average for winter balance 

(top), net balance (middle), and summer 

balance (bottom). The net balance figures 

indicate glacier recession has been taking 

place since 1945, but the rate in recent years 

is slower than in the 1940's and 1950's 

(modified from fig. 2 in Schytt, 1981, p. 220).

Uj

1945/46 1949/50 1954/55 1959/60 1964/65 

YEAR

1969/70 1974/75 1979/80

E114 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 3. Terrestrial photographs of the terminus of Storglaciaren taken 52 years apart. 

These two photographs of Storglaciaren 

were taken from the same vantage point, but 

52 years separate them in time. When the 

upper photograph (A) was taken in August 

1910 by Fredrik Enquist, the glacier reached 

all the way down into the valley, and one part 

extended all the way up the other side. The 

summer 1962 photograph (B) by Valter 

Schytt shows a markedly thinned glacier that 

ends high up on the mountainside a long way 

from its "days of glory," as shown by the 

huge terminal and lateral moraines (from 

Schytt, 1963).

1918). However, his map shows all glacierized mountainous areas in 

Sweden but not the individual glaciers themselves.

The poor-quality topographic maps available made good glacier inventories more or less impossible. A few glaciers were mapped quite well 

during the early half of the century (Karsajokeln in 1925 and 1943; 

Storglaciaren in 1910, 1922, and 1949), but the topographic maps could 

not be adjusted to accept this detailed information.

In 1958, however, the entire mountainous part of western Sweden was 

photographed at a scale of 1:65,000 by the Swedish Air Force at the 

request of the National Land Survey. These aerial photographs were 

used for the preparation of the first modern glacier inventory of Sweden 

by this author. Schytt's map in Geografiska Annaler (Schytt, 1959) was 

the first detailed compilation. However, his map, as well as Vilborg's 

improved version in 1962, was based on the older topographic map sheets 

and could not possibly attain a very high degree of accuracy.

A great step forward was taken in 1973, when the "Atlas over breer i 

Nord-Skandinavia" ["Atlas of Glaciers in Northern Scandinavia"] was 

published by 0strem and others (1973). Melander, who was responsible 

for the Swedish part of this comprehensive inventory, used a completely 

new set of l:100,000-scale photogrammetric maps of very good quality, 

with most of the glaciers already well portrayed. The photographic 

coverage was also far better, both in terms of higher quality and larger

GLACIERS OF SWEDEN E115
scale, than that which was available to the author in the late 1950's. 

Schytt's map (1959) was published at a scale of 1:600,000, and the glacier 

atlas contains maps with scales of 1:1,500,000, 1:600,000, 1:500,000, and 

1:250,000. The glacier atlas and the ordinary topographic maps together 

give a very good record of the shape and extent of Swedish glaciers 

during the 1960's.

Besides the small-scale maps of the regional glacier inventory, a few of 

the Swedish glaciers have also been mapped at larger scales for scientific 

purposes. Karsajbkeln, for example, was mapped by Hans Ahlmann in 

1926 (Ahlmann, 1929); by this author, based on 1943 aerial photographs 

(Wallen, 1948); and by the Durham University Exploration Society in 

1961 (Schytt, 1963). Storglaciaren was mapped by terrestrial photogrammetry from photographs acquired in 1910 (fig. 3A) and 1949, by aerial 

photogrammetry from photographs acquired in 1959, 1969 (fig. 5), 

and 1980, and by radio-echosounding methods in 1979 (Bjb'rnsson, 1981) 

(fig- 4).

18°35'E

Ice-surface and sub-ice elevation contours. 

Results of radio-echosoundings. 

Surveyed and processed by Science 

Institute, University of Iceland.

METERS

B

Figure 4. A, Map of the lower part of Storglaciaren showing the results of radioechosounding. Ice-surface and subglacialbedrock elevation contours plotted at 10-m 

intervals. B, Isometric diagram of the subglacial bedrock topography of Storglaciaren 

(left) and Isfallsglaciaren (right) derived from 

radio-echosounding data. The dashed line 

shows the present margin of the two glaciers 

(from figs. 3 and 4 in Bjornsson, 1981, 

p. 227).

7 KILOMETER

E116 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TARFALA RESEARCH STATION, SWEDEN

The Tarfala Research Station in the Kebnekaise area of Sweden is 

the principal field research facility for long-term observations of 

Swedish glaciers. The station is situated about 150 km north of 

the Arctic Circle at lat 67° 54' N., long 18° 34' E. (60 km west of 

Kiruna, or 30 km by foot-trail from the village of Nikkalaukta) and 

provides ready access to the surrounding glacierized region. The 

mass balance of Storglaciaren, for example, has been measured 

every year since 1946, the longest continuous series for any of the 

Earth's glaciers. At any one time, a number of large and small 

field-based research projects in various scientific specialties are 

underway at the station; these are carried out by established 

scientists and students from many different countries. The Tarfala Research Station can accommodate about 35 people at one 

time and is operated by the Department of Physical Geography at 

the University of Stockholm. (Information derived from a brochure on the "Tarfala Research Station" provided to the editors 

by Per Holmlund.)

Aerial Photography

Much has already been mentioned above about the aerial photographic 

coverage of Swedish glaciers. The earliest aerial photographs used in 

glaciological research were made to satisfy military mapping requirements during World War II. They were exposed on 18-cm roll film (with 

a frame of 18 cm by 18 cm) with a 10-cm lens from 3,000 m elevation. 

Because they were acquired in 1943, they have great historical value, 

particularly for the studies of Karsajb'keln. In 1958, the Swedish Air 

Force photographed all Swedish mountains by vertical aerial photography at a scale of 1:65,000.

Since 1960, the aerial photographic archives of Sweden's glaciers have 

expanded rapidly. Aerial photographs at a scale of 1:30,000 are now 

available for nearly all the glaciers, and many special aerial surveys of 

selected glaciers have also been made. Most aerial photographs are 

black-and-white, but several glaciers have now been photographed with 

false color-infrared film. Special photographic missions can be flown by 

National Land Survey aircraft at reasonable cost, so the availability of 

aerial photographs for special studies is no longer much of a problem.

Satellite Imagery

The Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) images of Sweden's glaciers 

(figs. 6 and 7 and table 3) cannot compete with the aerial photographs, 

because most of Sweden's glaciers are too small for the pixel resolution 

(79 m) of the MSS. To prepare new glacier inventories by using Landsat 

MSS images is not practical because of the low spatial resolution and lack 

of information content when compared with large-scale vertical aerial 

photographs (compare fig. 7 with figs. 8, 9, and 10). The same is true for 

studies of accumulation, ablation, drainage, morainic features, and so on. 

No glaciologic or glacial geologic features cover an area large enough to 

be properly imaged in the Landsat images.

GLACIERS OF SWEDEN E117
TARFALA

14 sept. 1969

 Glaciar

Ytmoran

. Sprickor 

Brunn

Glacier 

Surface moraine

Crevasses 

Moulin

32

\ Snolega "Perennial" snow field

t

;" Moranrygg Moraine ridoe

:/:': Fluted moraine Fluted moraine surface

Enstaka stc-rre Individual large boulders 

block

Glaciologisk Glaciologicw reference 

fixpunkt point

> Triangelpunkt Triangulation point

Enquists Erquist photo t910 

fotopunkter

Kebnepakteg I a c i a r e n

B/or//ngs 

g I a c i a r

>vlkiindumkr«»tiyivuiihltOf Rpnaning Rikt»«llrr>Rnnal»rTv*rl( 1973-05-15 M443

E118 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Photogrammetric construction:

Rikets allmanna kartverk (RAK)

Air photographs:

RAK 291 69,843,01. 01-04

14 Sept. 1969

Editor: Valter Schytt

" -,--" - - iji \ v\ ^ ' t

Figure 5. A portion of the map of the Tarfala 

Valley area and part of the Kebnekaise massif area, Sweden, compiled by stereophotogrammetric methods from the 14 September 

1969 vertical aerial photographs (Schytt, 

1973). Storglaci&ren is the largest (3.06 km2) 

of the glaciers originally mapped at a scale of 

1:10,000.

GLACIERS OF SWEDEN E119
15°W 70°N 10°E 20°E 30°E

10°W

65°N

60°N

100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS

i_____I_____i_____i

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS

Evaluation of image usability for glaciologic, geologic, 

and cartographic applications. Symbols defined as follows:

9 Excellent image (0 to £5 percent cloud cover)

9 Good image (>5 to £10 percent cloud cover)

(J Fair to poor image (>10 to £100 percent cloud cover)

C 0D Usable Landsat 3 return beam vidicon (RBV) scenes 

A, B, C, D refer to usable RBV subscenes

O Nominal scene center for a Landsat image outside 

the area of glaciers

Approximate size of aree encompassed by nominal 

Landsat MSS image

Figure 6.-Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Sweden. The 

vertical lines represent nominal paths. The rows (horizontal lines) have been 

established to indicate the latitude at which the imagery has been acquired.

E120 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 3. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Sweden

[See fig. 6 for explanation of symbols used in the "Code" column]

Path-Row

212-12

212-13

213-12

213-13

213-14

213-16

214-12

214-12

214-13

214-13

214-14

214-16

215-12

215-12

215-13

215-14

Nominal scene 

center 

(lat-long)

067°59'N. 

020°03'E.

066°40'N. 

018°25'E.

067°59'N. 

018°37'E.

066°40'N. 

016°59'E.

065°20'N. 

015°30'E.

062°38'N. 

012°56'E.

067°59'N. 

Oini'E.

067°59'N.

066°40'N. 

015°33'E.

066°40'N. 

015°33'E.

065°20'N. 

014°04'E.

062°38'N. 

011°30'E.

067°59'N. 

015°45'E.

067°59'N. 

015°45'E.

066°40'N. 

014°06'E.

065°20'N. 

012°38'E.

Landsat 

identification 

number

1367-09545

12081-09023

1350-10005

20940-09255

1422-10003

1422-10012

22075-09543

31612-09582

21301-09361

31612-09585

20941-09320

12047-09181

30893-09503- 

ABCD

31613-10041

2186-10005

2186-10012

Date

25 Jul 73

19 Sep 76

08 Jul 73

19 Aug 77

18 Sep 73

18 Sep 73

27 Sep 80

03 Aug 82

15 Aug 78

03 Aug 82

20 Aug 77

16 Aug 76

14 Aug 80

04 Aug 82

27 Jul 75

27 Jul 75

Solar 

elevation , 

angle Code 

(in degrees)

40 3

43 ^

25 ^

28 £

19 3

38 £

35 3

39 £

35 to >D

38 £

41 f

42 A

Cloud 

cover 

(in percent)

50

0

10

0

10

0

20

0

20

0

0

0

10-70

0

0

0

Remarks

Sarek; archived by ESA1 ; not 

physically examined

Kebnekaise, Storglaciaren, 

Karsajokeln; image used for 

figure 6

Archived by ESA; not 

physically examined

Sylarne

Archived by ESA

Partial scene (75%) includes 

eastern glacier areas; 

archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Partial scene (75%) includes 

eastern glacier areas; 

archived by ESA

Archived by ESA; not 

physically examined

Archived by ESA; not 

physically examined

Landsat 3 RBV

Partial scene, includes all 

glacier areas; archived by

ESA

Salajekna

1 ESA is the abbreviation for the European Space Agency.

GLACIERS OF SWEDEN E121
10

|_

APPROXIMATE SCALE

10 20

____I______I

30 KILOMETERS

I

Figure 7. Annotated 1:500,000-scale enlargement of a Landsat image (1350-10005; 

band 7; 8 July 1973; Path 213, Row 12) of the 

Storglaciaren and other glaciers in the Kebnekaise massif area. The area of figure 8 is 

outlined. Four of the 20 largest glaciers of 

Sweden listed in table 2 and located in figure 

1 are in the Kebnekaise area.

E122 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 8. Vertical aerial photograph of the 

Kebnekaise massif and its glaciers on 29 

August 1972. The survey aircraft flew at an 

altitude of 6,000 m above sea level. The 

camera focal length was 4.4 cm. The approximate scale of the photograph at Storglaciaren is 1:150,000. The area of figure 9 is 

outlined; see also figure 7. Photograph no. 

92-256-11-15, courtesy of the Swedish Air 

Force.

Figure 9. Part of a vertical aerial photograph of the central part of the 

Kebnekaise massif on 29 July 1980, with Storglaciaren in the lower part of the 

photograph. The area of figure 10 is outlined. Approximate scale is 1:40,000. See 

also figures 7, 8, and 10 for the comparison in glaciological information available 

with the larger scale aerial photographs and the satellite image. Photograph No. 

80-537-11-04 (SV 298) courtesy of the Swedish National Land Survey (Lantmateriverket).

Figure 10. Vertical aerial photograph of the 

terminus of Storglaciaren on 22 August 1968. 

Approximate scale is 1:8,000. Photograph 

No. OY8-764-6-2, courtesy of the Swedish 

Air Force.

GLACIERS OF SWEDEN E123
Conclusions

The need for a good glacier map of Sweden was satisfied when the 

"Atlas of Glaciers in Northern Scandinavia" was published (0strem and 

others, 1973). Besides containing a suite of glacier maps at scales of 

1:1,500,000, 1:600,000, 1:500,000, and 1:250,000, this atlas also contains a 

wealth of information on each glacier, such as length, area, elevation, 

morainal features, glacier lakes, and glacier orientation. Over the Earth's 

large ice sheets, satellite images can do what no aerial photographic 

survey can do. In Arctic regions or remote mountains, satellite images 

can also be extremely valuable in the study of ice fields and ice caps. For 

small glaciers, especially those readily accessible to glaciologists in highly 

developed countries, Landsat MSS images have only limited value mainly 

due to spatial resolution limitations. Also, small glaciers in developed 

countries are often photographed at regular intervals during the course 

of regional aerial photogrammetric or thematic mapping surveys. Stereopairs of large-scale vertical aerial photographs are the best source 

material for the study of these smaller glaciers. Even in the future, when 

higher resolution (l:50,000-scale, 8-m spatial resolution) stereopairs of 

satellite photographs become available (for example, Large Format 

Camera photographs), it seems likely that larger scale vertical aerial 

photographs of the smaller glaciers will still be more useful than satellite 

photographs.

Acknowledgments

The editors thank Dr. Gunnar 0strem, Norges Vassdrags- og Energiverk, and Dr. Wibjb'rn Karle"n, Stockholms Universitet, who reviewed 

the manuscript after the author's death and updated information in the 

text.

E124 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
References Cited

Ahlmann, H.W:son, 1929, Karsajokeln. Karta i skalan 1:20,000 jamte 

vagledning for besokande [Karsajokeln. A map at l:20,000-scale 

including a guide for visiting the area]: Svenska TuristfSreningen 

Publication No. 451, p. 1-4.

Bjb'rnsson, H., 1981, Radio-echosounding maps of Storglaciaren, 

Isfallsglaciaren and Rabots Glaciar, northern Sweden: Geografiska 

Annaler, v. 63A, no. 3-4, p. 225-231.

Enquist, F., 1918, Die glaziale Entwicklungsgeschichte Nordwestskandinaviens [The glacial history of northwestern Scandinavia]: Sveriges geologiska undersb'kning, Series C, no. 285, Arsbok 12, no. 2, 

p. 1-143.

Grudd, H., and Jansson, P., 1986, The 1984/85 mass balance of 

Storglaciaren, Kebnekaise, Swedish Lapland: University of Stockholm, Department of Physical Geography, 13 p.

Hamberg, A., 1896, Berattelse om en resa i Sarekfjallen [Report of a 

trip to the Sarek Highlands]: Svenska Turistfdreningens arsbok 

1896, p. 152-192.

Naturgeografiska Institutionen, 1987, Arsrapport fran Tarfala forskningsstation 1986, Jansson, P., ed.: Stockholm, University of 

Stockholm, 95 p.

 1988, Arsrapport 1987: Tarfala research station, Rosqvist, G., 

ed.: Stockholm, University of Stockholm, 103 p.

 1989, Arsrapport 1988: Tarfala research station, Stroeven, A., 

ed.: Stockholm, University of Stockholm, 85 p. 

-1990, Arsrapport 1989: Tarfala research station, Stroeven, A.,

and Eriksson, M., eds.: Stockholm, University of Stockholm, 76 p.

0strem, G., Haakensen, N., and Melander, 0., 1973, Atlas over breer 

i Nord-Skandinavia [Atlas of glaciers in northern Scandinavia]: 

Meddelelse nr. 22 fra Hydrologisk avdeling, Norges vassdrags-og 

elektrisitetsvesen; also published as Meddelande nr. 46 fran 

Naturgeografiska Institutionen, Stockholms Universitet, 315 p. 

[In Norwegian, Swedish, and English].

Schytt, V., 1959, The glaciers of the Kebnekajse-massif: Geografiska 

Annaler, v. 41, no. 4, p. 213-227.

 1963, Glaciarernas liv [The life of glaciers]: Svenska Turistfdreningens Arsskrift 1963, p. 144-158.

 ed., 1973, Tarfala. 14 Sept. 1969: (Special l:10,000-scale map of 

glaciers in the central part of the Kebnekaise massif, Lapland, 

Sweden): Stockholm, AB Kartografiska Instituted

 1981, The net mass balance of Storglaciaren, Kebnekaise, 

Sweden, related to the height of the equilibrium line and to the 

height of the 500 mb surface: Geografiska Annaler, v. 63A, no. 3-4, 

p. 219-223.

Svenonius, F., Westman, J., Hamberg, A., Gavelin, A., and Enquist, 

F., 1910, Die Gletscher Schwedens im Jahre 1908 [The Swedish 

glaciers in the year 1908]: Stockholm, Kungl. boktryckeriet, P.A. 

Norstedt och sb'ner. Sveriges geologiska undersokning, Series Ca 

(Avhandlingar och uppsatser i kvarto och folio), no. 5, in 6 parts, 

212 p. (I. Studien iiber den Karso und die Kebnegletscher nebst 

Notizen iiber andere Gletscher im Jukksajarvigebirge [Studies of 

the Karsa and Kebne glaciers with notes about other glaciers in the 

Jukkasjarvi Mountains], by Fredrik Svenonius; II. Beobachtungen 

iiber die Sulitalmagletscher im Sommer 1908 [Observations of the 

Sulitalma glaciers in the summer of 1908], by Jonas Westman; III. 

Die Gletscher des Sarekgebirges und ihre Untersuchung. Eine 

kurze Ubersicht [Investigation of the glaciers of the Sarek Mountains. A short review], by Axel Hamberg; IV. Uber die Gletscher 

des Norra StorfjSllet und des AmmarfjSllet [The glaciers of 

northern Storfjallet and Ammarfjallet], by Axel Gavelin; V. Uber 

die jetzigen und ehemaligen lokalen Gletscher in den Gebirgen von 

Jamtland und Harjedalen [The present and former glacier locations in the mountains of JSmtland and Harjedalen], by Fredrik 

Enquist; VI. Kurze Ubersicht der Gletscher Schwedens [A short 

review of the Swedish glaciers], by Axel Hamberg.)

Vilborg, L., 1962, The recent glaciation in Sweden: Geografiska 

Annaler, v. 44, no. 3-4, p. 405-406.

Wahlenberg, G., 1808, Berattelse om matningar och observationer f8r 

att bestSmma lappska fjSllens hbjd och temperatur vid 67 graders 

polhojd, fdrrattade ar 1807 [Report on the measurements and 

observations to determine the height of the Lappish Mountains 

and the temperature near 67° latitude, carried out in 1807]: 

Stockholm, 58 p.

Wallgn, C.C., 1948, Glacial-meteorological investigations on the Karsa 

Glacier in Swedish Lappland 1942-1948: Geografiska Annaler, 

v. 30, no. 3-4, p. 453-672.

GLACIERS OF SWEDEN E125

Glaciers of Europe 

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY

By OLAV LIEST0L

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, Jr., and JANE G. FfeRRIGNO

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1386-E^5

Svalbard, Norway, an archipelago in 

the North Atlantic Ocean, has more than 

2,100 glaciers that cover 36,591 square 

kilometers, or 59 percent of the total area 

of the islands; Landsat images have been 

used to monitor fluctuations in the 

equilibrium line and glacier termini and 

to revise maps

CONTENTS

Page

Abstract E127

Introduction 127

FIGURE 1. Index map showing the location of Svalbard, the islands that 

make up the archipelago, the areas covered by glaciers, 

and the glaciers mentioned in the text 128

TABLE 1. Area encompassed by glaciers on each of the islands in the

Svalbard archipelago 129

Previous glacier investigations 127

FIGURE 2. Index to photogrammetric satellite image and map coverage 

of glaciers of Svalbard and location of mass-balance 

measurements made by Norwegian and Soviet 

glaciologists 130

3. Color terrestrial photograph of the grounded front of the 

Kongsvegen glacier at the head of Kongsfjorden, 

Spitsbergen, in August 1974 131

4. Radio-echosounding cross section (A-A') through the 

southeastern part of the Austfonna ice cap, 

Nordaustlandet 131

TABLE 2. Specific mass balance, annual equilibrium line altitude, and 

accumulation area ratio for Austre Br0ggerbreen and 

Midtre Lovenbreen, 1967-90 129

3. Mass-balance measurements of five glaciers in Svalbard made 

by the Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of 

Sciences during the period 1966-67 to 1979-80 131

Plimatp V_j LlllldLC- - ~ __ . _ __________________ __ _ _________ 139 J.O J

The equilibrium line 132

FIGURE 5. Map of Svalbard showing isolines of the height of the

equilibrium line 133

Glacier fluctuations 133

FIGURE 6. Landsat image (24 August 1979; band 7; Path 235, Row 3) of 

the central part of Spitsbergen showing the grounded 

front of the surging glacier Negribreen in the right 

CGHtGr~~~~"*~~" ' ~ '« - _______ ______________ .1.0^4

7. Oblique aerial photograph of the grounded front of

Freemanbreen on the southern coast of Barents0ya in 

August 1956 showing the heavily crevassed section of the 

lower part of the glacier during a surge 135

8. Oblique aerial photograph of Penckbreen on the south side of

Van Keulenfjorden, Spitsbergen, in August 1936 136

TABLE 4. Glaciers of Svalbard that have been observed to surge in the 

last century 

Glacier types 

FIGURE 9. Oblique aerial photograph of glaciers on the east coast of

Spitsbergen in August 1936 

10. Oblique aerial photograph of the typical glacierized landscape 

of northwestern Spitsbergen in August 1936 

11. Vertical profile along the center line of Hessbreen, southern 

Spitsbergen, surveyed during 4 different years: 1898, 

1952, 1970, and 1974 .

12. Cross-sectional view of the Foxfonna glacier, central

Spitsbergen 

137

138

138

139

140

140

CONTENTS III
Areas of principal glaciers of Svalbard

TABLE 5. 

6.

Areas of the largest ice caps and ice fields in Svalbard 

Areas of the largest outlet glaciers and ice streams in

 E141

 141

 141

Use of Landsat images - 141

FIGURE 13. Sketch map showing the islands in the eastern part of

Svalbard for which new maps have been published that

used Landsat images to correct older, inaccurate maps 141

14. Landsat MSS false-color composite digital image mosaic of

Svalbard giving clotid-free coverage of the glaciers 142

15. Landsat MSS false-color composite image (2543-11162; 18 July 

1976; Path 230, Row 4) of the southern and central part 

of Spitsbergen and the western part of Edge0ya showing 

the transient snowline on the glaciers 143

16. Landsat MSS image (30161-12143; 13 August 1978; Path 238, 

Row 1) of Nordaustlandet showing supraglacial lakes 

on Austfonna and outlet glaciers and ice divides on 

Austfonna and Vestfonna 

17.

18.

Landsat MSS image (2534-12074; 9 July 1976; Path 239, 

Row 3) of Prins Karls Forland, Svalbard, showing 

sediment-laden ineltwater discharging into coastal

- 144

 145

Index map to the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the

glaciers of Svalbard, Norway 150

TABLE 7. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of glaciers of Svalbard, 

Norway 

Acknowledgments 

References cited 

- 146

... 144

- 151

IV CONTENTS
SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

GLACIERS OF EUROPEGLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY 

By OLAV LIEST0L1

Abstract

Svalbard, Norway, an archipelago in the North Atlantic Ocean (74° to 81° N. lat), has a 

total area of 62,248 square kilometers, mostly contained in the four main islands, 

Spitsbergen, Nordaustlandet, Edgeeya, and Barentsgya. More than 2,100 glaciers cover 

36,591 square kilometers, or about 59 percent of the total area. All types of glaciers are 

represented in Svalbard, but the most numerous are the valley and cirque glaciers, 

especially on Spitsbergen; large ice caps are common on Nordaustlandet, Edgegya, and 

Barentsgya. Glaciological investigations began in the late 19th century and became 

numerous in the 20th century. They include ice-core studies and research in meteorology, 

mass balance, glacier flow, glacial erosion, and radio echosounding. Mass-balance measurements in Svalbard show a continuous negative mass balance since 1966-67; the net balance 

has probably been negative since the end of the last century. The height of the equilibrium 

line, a good indicator of climatic conditions in Svalbard, is about 150 meters above mean sea 

level in the southeastern part of the archipelago and greater than 800 meters above mean 

sea level in the central parts. Many of the glaciers in Svalbard are known to surge (86 since 

the end of the 19th century), and the frequent surging makes it difficult to use fluctuations 

of glaciers as climatic indicators. Landsat images have been used successfully to trace 

equilibrium-line variations, monitor glacier variation and surging events, delineate glacier 

basins on the basis of ice divides on ice caps, and revise maps for areas in which aerial 

photographs are not available.

Introduction

Svalbard is a part of Norway that includes the islands between lat 74° 

N. to 81° N. and long 10° E. to 35° E. (fig. 1). The main area consists of 

Spitsbergen, by far the largest island at 39,000 km2 , followed by 

Nordaustlandet with 14,600 km2 , Edge0ya at 5,000 km2, Barents0ya with 

1,300 km2 , and a number of smaller islands. The total area of the islands 

is 62,248 km2 , and, of this total, about 59 percent is covered by more than 

2,100 glaciers (table 1). Most of the information provided in this subchapter is also included in the "Glacier Atlas of Svalbard and Jan Mayen" that 

was compiled by the Norwegian Polar Research Institute (Hagen and 

others, in press).

Previous Glacier Investigations

Nowhere in the Arctic can ships sail so far north as along the west coast 

of Spitsbergen. Therefore, numerous expeditions reached and visited the 

land during the past 300 years. As early as the 17th century, Dutch and 

English whalers made maps of the islands that contained information of 

glaciological interest. Swedish scientists were active in the study of 

Svalbard glaciers during the 19th century with glacial geology investigations and preparation of maps (Nathorst and others, 1909). A few glacier 

surges also were observed, and Hamberg (1932) described the phenomenon long before the concept was generally known among glaciologists.

1 Norwegian Polar Research Institute, P.O. Box 158, 1330 Oslo Lufthavn, Norway.

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E127
12° 15° 18°

80°

79'

78°

77°

76°

75°

21° ~T 24° 27° 30° 33°

V

SjuByane

Tusenpyane

EXPLANATION

1 Amundsenisen

2 Arnesenbreen

3 Br0ggerbreen

4 Etonbreen

5 Finsterwalderbreen

6 Foxfonna

7 Freemanbreen

8 Hessbreen

9 Hinlopenbreen

10 Hochstetterbreen

11 Kong Johans Breen

12 Kongsvegan

13 Kronebreen

14 Leighbreen

15 Lovenbreen

16 Monacobreen

17 Nathorstbreen

18 Penckbreen

19 Recherchebreen

20 Sefstr0mbreen

21 Stonebreen

Hopen

100 KILOMETERS "

Bjornoya

Figure 1. The location of Svalbard, the islands that make up the archipelago, the areas 

covered by glaciers, and the glaciers mentioned in the text. Base map courtesy of Norsk 

Polarinstitutt, Oslo. The glaciers are indicated in white. (See fig. 4 for cross section.)

E128 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE l. Area encompassed by glaciers on each of the islands in the Svalbard archipelago

Island

Spitsbergen. .............

Nordaustlandet ..........

Edge0ya .................

Barents0ya ..............

Kvit0ya..................

Prins Karls Forland . . . . .

Kongs0ya ................

Svensk0ya ...............

Bj0rn0ya. ................

Hopen ...................

Total ................

Area 

(km2)

38,612

15,193

5,230

1,321

710

622

195

140

178

47

62,248

Glacier 

area (km2)

21,767

11,309

2,130

575

705

83.4

13.7

8.0

0

0

36,591

Glacier cover 

(percent)

56.4

74.7

40.7

43.5

99.3

13.4

7.0

5.7

0

0

58.8

Number of 

glaciers

1,598

210

110

126

1

33

30

20

0

0

2,128

In the 20th century, numerous expeditions from different countries 

have done glaciological research as the main objective or as part of a 

broader scientific program (Ahlmann, 1933). One of the best known is the 

Norwegian-Swedish expedition to Isachsenfonna in 1934 led by Ahlmann 

and Sverdrup. The research papers published by this expedition remain 

as classic works in glacial meteorology (Sverdrup, 1935). German scientists carried out a program of mapping and glaciological studies in 

Spitsbergen in 1938 (Pillewizer, 1939).

In 1950, the Norwegian Polar Research Institute (Norsk Polarinstitutt) started systematic mass-balance studies on Svalbard glaciers, first 

on Finsterwalderbreen, a glacier on the south side of Van Keulenfjorden, 

and later on two glaciers in the Kongsfjorden area. The results have been 

published annually in the Norsk Polarinstitutt Arbok. Elverh0i and 

others (1980) also carried out glacial erosion and related studies in the

TABLE 2. Specific mass balance fbw) winter; bs, summer; bn, net) in meters per year water 

equivalent, annual equilibrium line altitude (ELA) given in meters, and accumulation 

area ratio (AAR) in percent for Austre Br0ggerbreen (6.1 krr?) and Midtre Lovenbreen 

(5.5 km2), 1967-90 (Hagen and Liest0l, 1990)

[Both glaciers are at lat 79° N. and long 12° E. in Svalbard; indicates measurements are not available]

Balance 

year

1966-67....

1967-68 ....

1968-69 ....

1969-70....

1970-71 ....

1971-72 ....

1972-73 ....

1973-74 ....

1974-75 ....

1975-76 ....

1976-77....

1977-78 ....

1978-79

1979-80....

1980-81 ....

1981-82 ....

1982-83 ....

1983-84 ....

1984-85 ....

1985-86 ....

1986-87....

1987-88 ....

1988-89....

1989-90....

1967-90 ....

Austre Br0ggerbreen

bw

77

57

40

37

65

95

74

75

78

72

76

75

77

75

46

64

70

69

93

98

82

61

56

75

71

bs

142

67

133

91

123

126

82

167

109

117

87

131

148

127

101

68

97

142

148

130

60

113

101

141

115

bn

-65

-10

-93

-54

-58

-31

-8

-92

-31

-45

-11

-56

-71

-52

-55

-4

-27

-73

-55

-32

22

-52

-45

-66

-44

ELA

295

650

490

400

360

270

550

340

410

320

410

550

430

450

280

345

500

450

380

200

440

440

500

417

AAR

' 

54

0

7

23

32

60

2

35

20

45

20

2

17

14

56

34

6

14

25

83

15

15

8

19

bw

48

41

36

70

98

82

70

83

75

80

81

' 80

83

51

66

75

74

98

6

82

56

63

87

74

Midre Lovenbreen

bs

51

125

89

116

120

84

159

104

110

84

129

146

126

97

64

92

142

146

127

58

105

87

138

110

bn

-3

-84

-53

-46

-22

 2

-89

-21

-35

-4

-48

-66

-43

-46

2

-17

-68

-48

-21

24

-49

-24

-51

-36

ELA

295

650

500

385

350

310

550

340

420

300

420

480

415

435

290

330

440

445

370

225

425

375

450

400

AAR

54

0

6

37

46

58

2

48

29

60

29

9

30

23

62

52

21

20

42

77

27

41

19

33

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E129
10° 15° 20° Figure 2. Photogrammetric and satellite 

image map coverage of glaciers of Svalbard 

and location of mass-balance measurements 

made by Norwegian (table 2) and Soviet 

(table 3) glaciologists.

EXPLANATION

Photogrammetric maps (1:100,000 scale) 

as of 1 January 1991

Published maps available 

Preliminary maps available 

Preliminary place-name maps available

Satellite image map available 

Norwegian mass-balance measurements 

USSR mass-balance measurements

inner part of the Kongsfjorden area. In 1957 and 1958, a team of Swedish 

scientists conducted glaciological studies on Nordaustlandet (Schytt, 

1964). In 1966, Soviet glaciologists also worked in Spitsbergen (Markin, 

1969). They started systematic yearly mass-balance measurements on 

five glaciers in central Spitsbergen. Their results are published in 

Gus'kov (1983). Figure 2 shows the location of mass-balance measurements and the map or photo coverage of the areas. The results of the 

Norwegian measurements are shown in table 2, and Soviet results in 

table 3. The detailed Polish work on mass balance and flow measurements 

should be mentioned also (Baranowski, 1977). One of the most extensive 

and detailed works on glacier flow ever made was carried out by German 

Democratic Republic (DDK) scientists in 1962-65 in the Kongsfjorden 

area. The fast-flowing Kongsvegen glacier stream (fig. 3) was the main 

objective of the research, and photogrammetric methods were used. The 

flow was of a block-movement type with maximum velocity up to 4 

iti/h" 1 (meters per hour) (Voight, 1967; Pillewizer and others, 1967, and 

Voigt, 1979). Core drilling has been carried out on different glaciers by 

Soviet glaciologists in recent years. The deepest hole (586 m) was drilled 

through Amundsenisen. A review of the Soviet research on the glaciation 

of Spitsbergen was published by Troitskiy and others (1975).

Radio-echosounding surveys were also started by Soviet scientists, but 

later, in 1980 and 1983, scientists from the Norwegian Polar Research

Figure 4. Radio-echosounding cross 

section (A-A') through the southeastern 

part of the Austfonna ice cap, Nordaustlandet (see fig. 1 for location of survey 

traverse line).

E130 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 3. Mass-balance measurements of five glaciers in Svalbard made by the Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences during

the period 1966-67 to 1979-80

[Measurements are given in centimeters of water equivalent; indicates measurements are not available]

Year

V0ringbreen Bogerbreen Longyearbreen Bertilbreen Daudbreen

Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average

total total mass total total mass total total mass total total mass total total mass

accumulation ablation balance accumulation ablation balance accumulation ablation balance accumulation ablation balance accumulation ablation balance

1966-67. . . 

1973-74. . . 

1974-75. . . 

1975-76. . .

1976-77. . .

1977-78. . .

1978-79. . .

1979-SO. . .

87 

64 

73 

44

62

50

54

55

107 

180 

99 

161

75

166

143

105

-20 

-116 

-26 

-117

-13

-116

-89

-50

57

62

34

61

48

57

88

115

168

113

0 

-20

-26

-81

-107

-65

57

45

48

50

99

118

171

119

-42

-73

-123

-69

34

48

44

50

31

106

107

144

135

123

-29

-72

-59

-100

-85

-73

72

69

54

67

135

112

124

-66

-58

-57

Figure 3. Color terrestrial photograph of the grounded front of the Kongsvegen 

glacier at the head of Kongsfjorden, Spitsbergen, in August 1974. Photograph by 

Olav LJestBl, Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo.

i i i i i i i i i i i

40 60 80 100 KILOMETERS

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E131
Institute (NP) and Scott Polar Research Institute (SPRI) sounded more 

than 100 glaciers, including a detailed survey of Austfonna, the largest 

ice cap in Svalbard (fig. 4) (Dowdeswell and others, 1984; Drewry and 

Liest01, 1985).

Climate

The mean temperature during the winter is remarkably high, considering Svalbard's northern position. The immediate reason for the favorable temperature is the frequent transport of milder air from lower 

latitudes, usually in connection with the passage of low-pressure frontal 

systems over or near the Svalbard area. The North Atlantic Current 

transports warmer Atlantic water to the west coast of Spitsbergen. This 

current also influences the climate and keeps the sea free from ice even 

during the winter. Great temperature fluctuations are characteristic of 

Svalbard and are primarily caused by the alternate passage of warm and 

cold fronts: first a milder air mass from the south, followed by an Arctic 

air mass invading the islands from northerly or easterly directions. 

Temperatures above the freezing point occur even in midwinter. When 

accumulation is measured on the glaciers in the spring, traces of these 

mild periods are found as ice layers in snow pits. On the other hand, snow 

may fall at any time during the summer months.

On the west coast of Spitsbergen, the mean temperature in July is 

about 5 °C, but temperatures outside the range of 1 to 10 °C are not very 

common. In the same area, the mean temperature for February-March, 

normally the coldest part of the year, is usually between -8 and -16 °C, 

although the temperature is somewhat lower toward the east and north. 

In the inner fjord areas, the climate is slightly more continental, with 

temperatures 2 to 4 °C lower during wintertime and a couple of degrees 

higher in the summer.

The amount of precipitation is small, normally not more than 400 mm 

per year on the west coast of Spitsbergen and even less in the inner parts 

of the fjords. The greatest amount of precipitation, more than 1,000 mm, 

is found over glacier and mountain slopes freely exposed to winds in the 

southeastern part of Spitsbergen (Hisdal, 1985).

The Equilibrium Line

The height of the equilibrium line, the boundary between areas of 

acumulation and areas of ablation, is a good indicator of climatic conditions throughout Svalbard. Figure 5, which shows the height of the 

equilibrium line in Svalbard, is based on a combination of data derived 

from satellite images, aerial photographs, maps, and mass-balance observations. As a very rough assumption, we can say that glacier mass 

balance is determined by winter precipitation and summer temperature. 

The temperature, and thereby the ablation, varies less than the precipitation (accumulation) from one region to another. The equilibrium line 

altitude shown on figure 5 more or less reflects, therefore, the precipitation pattern. By looking at this map, one can see that precipitation is 

primarily caused by moisture-laden southeasterly winds. On Nordaustlandet, Edge0ya, and Spitsbergen, the equilibrium line is much lower on 

the southeastern side than on the northwestern side. On Spitsbergen, the 

equilibrium line is less than 200 m above sea level on the east side of 

S0rkapplandet, whereas its height in the inner part of Wijdefjorden is 

more than 800 m above sea level.

E132 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 5. lsolines of the height of the 

equilibrium line (the boundary between 

areas of accumulation and areas of ablation) in Svalbard. Compiled by Olav LJestol 

and Erik Roland, Norwegian Polar 

Research Institute. 80°

15° 27°

78C

CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 METERS

Supplementary contours 50 meters,

except on Nordaustlandet, where the

100-meter contours are approximate

Datum is mean sea level

100 KILOMETERS

I

Glacier Fluctuations

As previously discussed, some information on glacier extent is available from rather early observations by sailors. In the 17th and 18th 

centuries, Dutch and English whalers plotted glacier fronts, or 

"ysbergs," on their maps. Though the maps are often quite poor, they do 

provide some evidence that the glacier fronts were then situated in about 

the same position as they are today. There are, however, some interesting exceptions. For example, on Dutch maps dating from about 1620, a 

valley and a river are indicated at the head of Recherchefjord on the west 

coast of Spitsbergen. The river even had a name: "Sardammer rivier." 

Today the large Recherchebreen fills the entire valley and the inner part 

of the fjord. Scientists on the Recherche Expedition in 1838 also 

commented on this fact. According to their quite accurate map, the 

glacier then covered the entire fjord, and their drawings showed an 

extremely crevassed glacier. This was, in fact, the first account of a 

surging glacier, a relatively common phenomenon in Svalbard and a 

characteristic of many of its glaciers (figs. 6-9). Table 4 lists 86 of 

Svalbard's glaciers that have been observed to surge in the last century. 

It is obvious that many more have surged but have not been observed.

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E133
%i *,< ' ',^>;\\^ *

N2 *V * ' > \ i x *- -vv\ \y* . ***" I-**

The frequent surging makes it difficult to use glaciers as climatic 

indicators. The surging glaciers have their own fluctuation pattern, 

which depends primarily on their size, variations in mass balance, and 

dynamics of flow. Quick, violent advance followed by long periods of 

retreat, at intervals of perhaps 20 to 100 years, is a normal pattern of 

behavior. The only way to register shorter term variations in glacier 

volume, therefore, is to do mass-balance measurements.

The largest glacier surge observed was that of Brasvellbreen, an outlet 

glacier from Austfonna on Nordaustlandet. The glacier advanced about 

10 km along about a 30-km-wide front within less than a year (Schytt, 1969).

Negribreen, at the head of Storfjorden (fig. 6), advanced about 12 km 

within a year's time (1935-36), which gives a minimum velocity of 

approximately 30 m per day. Taking into account that the surge most 

probably was of a much shorter duration, the velocity may have reached 

as much as 100 m per day at its maximum (Liest01, 1969).

Figure 6.-Landsat image (24 August 1979; 

band 7; Path 235, Row 3) of the central part 

of Spitsbergen showing the grounded front 

of the surging glacier Negribreen in the right 

center. The image was acquired on 24 

August 1979 by the Swedish Landsat receiving station at Kiruna. Negribreen advanced 

about 12 km between 1935 and 1936 and 

has now retreated about the same distance. 

Note the difference in area covered by glacier ice between the eastern coastal and 

central parts of this part of Spitsbergen.

E134 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 7.-Oblique aerial photograph of the 

grounded front of Freemanbreen on the 

southern coast of Barentsoya in August 1956 

showing the heavily crevassed section of the 

lower part of the glacier during a surge. 

Approximate width of the glacier at its narrowest (before it fans out) is 2.5 km. Photograph No. S561393 from Norsk Polarinstitutt, 

Oslo.

Until the first Landsat images became available, the monitoring of 

surge events within the entire archipelago was impossible. The slow 

advance of glaciers known from studies of areas with temperate glaciers 

is almost unknown in Svalbard. »

If terrestrial photographs used in the topographic survey at the 

beginning of this century are compared with more recent terrestrial and 

aerial photographs, it becomes obvious that most of the glaciers in 

Spitsbergen have decreased considerably during this period. Some of the 

smaller cirque glaciers have lost more than half their volume.

The mass-balance measurements on Br0ggerbreen and Lovenbreen in 

the Kongsfjorden area show a continuous negative mass balance since 

investigations were begun in 1966 (Hagen and Liest01, 1990) (table 2). 

The net mass balance has probably been negative in the majority of the 

years since the end of the last century (Lefauconnier and Hagen, 1990). 

Because the summer temperature during the same period has remained 

relatively constant, the cause of the decrease in glacier volume is most 

likely a result of lower annual precipitation; that is to say, below what is 

needed to keep the present volume constant (Steffensen, 1969).

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E135
Figure 8. Oblique aerial photograph of 

Penckbreen on the south side of Van Keulenfjorden, Spitsbergen, in August 1936. The 

glacier has advanced into and folded marine 

sediments during a surge. A small cirque 

glacier and one of many glacier-dammed 

lakes common in Spitsbergen, Ny- Marjelen, 

is visible just to the right of the center of the 

photograph. Approximate width of the glacier is 3 km. Photograph No. S36 3207 from 

Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo.

E136 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 4 Glaciers of Svalbard that have been observed to surge in the last century

[Identification number according to UNESCO's World Glacier Monitoring Service; c, circa; b, between]

East-central Spitsbergen

1 11 01 Pedasjenkobreen. .....................

1 11 02 Ganskijbreen .........................

1 11 03 Sonklarbreen .........................

1 11 05 Negribreen ...........................

1 12 01 Hayesbreen. ..........................

1 12 04 Usherbreen. ..........................

1 12 04 Ulvebreen ............................

1 13 07 Elfenbeinbreen ....................... 

1 13 08 Skruisbreen. ..........................

1 13 09 Sveigbreen ...........................

1 14 06 Inglefieldbreen .......................

1 14 07 Arnesenbreen. ........................

1 14 12 Thomsonbreen ........................

1 15 02 Strongbreen ..........................

1 15 05 Jemelianovbreen ......................

1 15 06 Anna Margrethebreen ................ 

1 15 09 Davisbreen ...........................

Southern Spitsbergen

1 21 02 Markhambreen .......................

1 21 03 Staupbreen ...........................

1 21 04 Hambergbreen. .......................

1 22 02 Vasilievbreen (tributary) .............

1 24 04 KSrberbreen. . ........................

Bellsund

1 31 11 Scottbreen. ...........................

1 31 16 Recherchebreen ......................

1 32 01 Hessbreen ............................

1 32 02 Finsterwalderbreen. ..................

1 32 07 Siegerbreen. ..........................

1 32 26 Martinbreen ..........................

1 32 27 Charpentierbreen. ....................

1 34 10 Bakaninbreen. ........................

1 35 05 Hyllingebreen ........................

1 35 12 Skutbreen ............................

1 35 13 Upper Storknausen E. ................

1 35 14 Upper Slottsm0ya SW. ...............

1 36 13 Marthabreen. .........................

1 36 15 Lunckebreen. .........................

1 36 18 Arebreen .............................

1 37 08 Fridtjovbreen. ........................

Isfjorden

1 42 11 Scott Turnerbreen ....................

1 42 17 Dr0nbreen ............................

1 42 16 Moysalbreen (part of G10ttfjellbreen) .

1 43 12 Vendombreen. ........................

1 43 18 Marmorbreen .........................

1 44 02 Von Postbreen. .......................

1 44 02 Bogebreen (part of Von Postbreen) . . .

Year(s)

of surge

b 1925-35

b 1925-35

c 1910

1935-36

1901

1978-85

b 1896-1900

1903 

1920

1960

1952

b 1925-35

b 1950-60

b 1870-76

1971

1970 

c 1960

b 1930-36

c 1960

c 1890 and 

c 1960

c 1961

1938

c 1880

1838 and 1945

1974

c 1900

1940

b 1898-1936

c 1890

,. 1985-90

1970-80

1930

1960

1960

c 1925

c 1930

1985

1861

c 1930

1900

c 1925

c 1934

1965-70

1870

1980

Isfjorden Continued

1 44 03 Tunabreen ............................

1 45 22 Skansdalsbreen (part of Frostisen). . . .

1 46 17 Fyrisbreen. ...........................

1 46 22 Upper Brenna NW.. ..................

1 47 16 Sefstro'mbreen ........................

1 48 05 Wahlenbergbreen. ....................

1 49 02 Nansenbreen .........................

Northwestern Spitsbergen

1 53 13 Osbornebreen. ........................

1 55 04 E. Br0ggerbreen .....................

1 55 06 Midre Lovenbreen ....................

1 55 10 Kongsvegen ..........................

1 55 11 Kronebreen. ..........................

1 55 15 Blomstrandbreen .....................

Woodfjorden/Wijdefjorden

1 64 11 Elnabreen ............................

1 64 17 Abrahamsenbreen ....................

1 64 26 Upper Svelgfjellet S. .................

1 69 10 Longstaffbreen (part of Asgardsfonna)

Northeastern Spitsbergen

1 72 14 Unnamed part of Odinj0kulen. ........

1 73 05 Kosterbreen ..........................

1 73 10 Hinlopenbreen ........................

1 74 02 N. Karpinskifjellet. .. A ...............

1 74 06 Hochstetterbreen .....................

Nordaustlandet

2 11 08 Part of Austfonna. ....................

2 11 10 Brasvellbreen. ........................

2 21 01 Clasebreen (part of Glitnbreen) .......

2 21 02 Palanderbreen ........................

2 22 03 Etonbreen ............................

2 22 06 Bodleybreen ..........................

2 32 03 S0re Franklinbreen ...................

2 42 01 Rijpbreen. ............................

Eastern islands

3 11 01 Kvitkapa SW. ........................

3 12 27 Kvitisen E. ...........................

3 13 06 Bergfonna SE. ........................

3 13 12 Marsj0rreen ..........................

3 13 18 Stonebreen ...........................

3 13 19 Kong Johans Bre .....................

3 13 22 Pettersenbreen .......................

3 21 01 Freemanbreen ........................

3 21 02 Duckwitzbreen. .......................

3 22 07 Reymondbreen .......................

3 22 08 Hubnerbreen .........................

Year(s)

of surge

1930 and 1970

c 1930

1960

c 1937

1896

1908

1947

1987

c 1890

c 1890

1948

1869

1960

c 1930

1978

1969

1960

b 1965-70

c 1930

1969-72

b 1970-80

b 1895-1900

b 1850-73

1937-38

1938

1969-70

1938

1973-80

1956

1938

c 1965

1936

1930

b 1936-71

b 1936-71

b 1925-30

c 1925

1956-56

1918

1956

b 1930-36

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E137
Glacier Types

If classified morphologically, all types of glaciers are represented in 

Svalbard, although the most common are valley and cirque glaciers. It 

has been difficult to classify the complex glacier system because of the 

intricate network of ice that covers the large inland areas of Spitsbergen, 

however (figs. 6, 9, and 10). Tyrrell (1922) used the term "reticular 

glaciers" and Ahlmann (1948) proposed "transection glaciers" for parts of 

the glaciated areas. Some typical piedmont glaciers are also found along 

the west coast, with especially fine examples resting on the strandflat of 

Prince Karls Forland. Ice caps are common on the relatively flat islands 

on the eastern half of the archipelago: Edge0ya, Barents0ya and Nordaustlandet (see fig. 16). Ice shelves, such as are common in Antarctica, 

do not exist, because all glacier fronts terminating in the sea are 

grounded (figs. 3 and 7). Cirque glaciers are most common in the high

Figure 9. Oblique aerial photograph of glaciers on the east coast of Spitsbergen in 

August 1936. The long, crevassed glacier in 

the center of the photograph, Arnesenbreen, 

is surging. Photograph No. S36 1766 from 

Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo.

E138 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
t-^fc,-'

'^ttu^^^

r-t.^ ,^\. i^^^ ^^(^ *j^^^^^^^

^^

^^ta^k. V-\. . . SS^i

«fk-. ~ «*X^ ~.£&s£ *^ ""-"&* &

**

*

Figure 10. Oblique aerial photograph of the 

typical glacierized landscape of northwestem Spitsbergen in August 1936. To the left of 

center is the stagnant valley glacier, Sefstr0mbreen, which last surged in 1896. Since 

that time, however, it has been undergoing 

steady retreat. Supraglacial lakes are evident 

on the surfce of the glacier. Photograph No. 

S36 628 from Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo.

mountain (alpine) ranges along the west coast, but even the flat mountains of sedimentary-rock origin in the central part of Spitsbergen have, 

to a large extent, been eroded by cirque glaciers.

If classified geophysically, the majority of Svalbard's glaciers belong to 

the subpolar type; that is, the accumulation area is at the pressuremelting point, and the ablation zone is below the freezing point and partly 

frozen to the ground. When this type of glacier surges, the lateral parts 

of the glacier remain frozen to the valley walls (fig. 11). Many of the small 

cirque and valley glaciers could be classified as polar glaciers, because the 

entire ice mass is below 0 °C in winter (fig. 12). In summer, however, 

melting takes place on the surface of all the glaciers even at the highest 

elevations. Subpolar glaciers can be distinguished from polar ones by 

large accumulations of ice (icings) in front of their termini, which are 

produced by the drainage of subglacial water throughout the entire 

winter season.

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E139
500

SEA 

LEVEL

Figure 11. Vertical profile along the center line of Hessbreen, southern Spitsbergen, surveyed during 4 different years: 1898, 1952, 1970, and 1974. The 

glacier had been decreasing in the lower part and increasing in the upper part 

until 1974, when a surge occurred. In the transverse profile in the inset diagram, 

the lateral parts of the glacier are shown to have frozen to the valley walls, while 

the main body of the glacier surged (LJest0l, 1976).

APPROXIMATE DISTANCE 2 KILOMETERS

300

Figure 12. Cross-sectional view of the Foxfonna glacier, central Spitsbergen. 

Temperature measurements in boreholes are negative from the surface to the bed 

of the glacier. During the summer, melting occurs over all the surface of the 

glacier. The bottom profile is drawn from a radio-echosounding survey of ice 

thickness (Uest0l, 1974).

E140 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Areas of Principal Glaciers of Svalbard

Table 1 provides information on the area of glaciers on each of the 

islands in the Svalbard archipelago. Kvit0ya has a single glacier, the 

Kvit0yj0kulen ice cap, which covers 99.3 percent of the island (Bamber 

and Dowdeswell, 1990). Svensk0ya has 20 glaciers, which cover only 5.7 

percent of the area. Spitsbergen has 1,598 glaciers, which cover 56.4 

percent of its area. The two small, low-lying islands of Bj0rn0ya and 

Hopen have no glaciers.

Table 5 provides information on the area of the 9 largest ice caps and 

ice fields in Svalbard; table 6 gives the same information about Svalbard's 

10 largest outlet glaciers and ice streams.

Use of Landsat Images

TABLE 5. Areas of the largest ice caps and ice 

fields in Svalbard

Name Area (km2)

Austfonna .........................

Ice field in Olav V Land...........

Vestfonna..........................

Asgardfonna.......................

Edge0yj0kulen.....................

Holtedahlfonna and Isachsenfonna. 

Kvit0yj0kulen......................

Barentsj0kulen ....................

Balderfonna........................

8,413

-3,000 

2,505 

1,645 

1,300

-900 

705 

571 

543

TABLE 6. Areas of the largest outlet glaciers and 

ice streams in Svalbard

Name Area (km2)

Hinlopenbreen....

Negribreen.......

Brasvellbreen.....

Etonbreen........

Leighbreen.......

Stonebreen.......

Kronebreen.......

Hochstetterbreen. 

Nathorstbreen....

Monacobreen .....

1,248

1,182

1,160

1,070

925

700

693

581

489

408

Figure 13. Islands in the eastern part of 

Svalbard for which new maps have been 

published that used Landsat images to correct older, inaccurate maps. Most of the 

corrected coastlines are represented by 

grounded glacier fronts. The changes are 

not, however, the result of glacier fluctuations but rather the result of the poor quality 

of the older maps.

Vertical aerial photographs are available for the entire archipelago 

except the eastern part of Nordaustlandet and Kvit0ya. The older maps 

were very inaccurate in this part of Svalbard, and Landsat images were 

used to improve the maps. Figure 13 shows coastline changes in these 

areas. New maps prepared from Landsat images, such as the 1:1,000,000- 

scale Norsk Polarinstitutt map of Svalbard (1983), added 500 km2 to the

21° 24° 27° 30°

80°

79'

78C

33° r~

NORDAUSTLANDET

KVIT0Y,

Stor0ya

Kong Karls Land

EXPLANATION

 Old map

- Satellite-corrected map

100 KILOMETERS

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E141
area of Nordaustlandet (Dowdeswell and Cooper, 1986). The area of 

Kvit0ya, an island that is almost totally ice covered, was more than 

doubled, and its geometric configuration totally altered from a cigarshaped to a more egg-shaped island. In the early 1980's, Fjellanger 

Wider0e A-S of Oslo produced a digital mosaic of Svalbard by using 

Landsat imagery. The mosaic is shown in figure 14, and the imagery used 

is listed in table 7.

Satellite imagery makes it possible to carry out simultaneous observations over large areas. It is, therefore, a useful tool in tracing the 

variation of the transient snowline in different localities (Dowdeswell and 

Drewry, 1989) (fig. 15). With the large amount of superimposed ice, the 

equilibrium line is not identical with the snowline but lies farther down 

the glacier. With some experience it is, however, possible even on the

Figure 14. Landsat MSS false-color composite digital image mosaic of Svalbard giving cloud-free coverage of the glaciers. 

Mosaic was produced by Fjellanger Wideree 

A-S, Norway, and is reproduced here with 

permission. Images used to produce the 

mosaic are included in table 7.

E142 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure f5.-Landsat MSS false-color composite image (2543-11162; 18 July 1976; 

Path 230, Row 4) of the southern and central 

part of Spitsbergen and the western part of 

Edgeoya showing the transient snowline on 

the glaciers.

satellite imagery to locate the border between the old glacier ice and the 

superimposed ice. As noted earlier, Landsat images are used to monitor 

glacier variations and especially to detect and to monitor any surging 

events (Dowdeswell, 1986; Dowdeswell and others, 1991). Landsat 

images can also be used to delineate glacier basins and ice divides on ice 

caps (fig. 16) (Dowdeswell, 1984; Dowdeswell and Drewry, 1985). The 

imagery is useful for qualitatively evaluating or monitoring sedimentladen meltwater discharged into coastal waters (Dowdeswell and Drewry, 1989; Pfirman and Solheim, 1989) (fig. 17). An important aspect of 

several of these studies of Svalbard ice masses is the integration of 

evidence from the analysis of Landsat digital and photographic imagery

EB19-BB1 INB78-3B IE020-00 E02I-00I N078-00I

INB77-B0 IE3I6-00 E0I7-00I

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E143
with other glaciological datasets in order to investigate the dynamics of 

these ice masses (Dowdeswell and Drewry, 1989; Dowdeswell and Collin, 

1990).

Figure 18 is an index map showing the nominal scene centers and 

evaluation of the optimum Landsat images of Svalbard. Table 7 provides 

more-detailed information on each of the optimum Landsat images.

Figure 16.-Landsat MSS image (30161- 

12143; 13 August 1978; Path 238, Row 1) of 

Nordaustlandet showing supraglacial lakes 

on Austfonna and outlet glaciers and ice 

divides on Austfonna and Vestfonna. This 

image was used to delineate outlet-glacier 

basins and ice divides on these two ice caps.

Acknowledgments

The editors thank Dr. Gunnar 0strem, Norges Vassdrags-og Energiverk, Dr. Jon Ove Hagen, Norsk Polarinstitutt, and Dr. Julian A. 

Dowdeswell, Scott Polar Research Institute, who reviewed the manuscript and made valuable contributions.

E144 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 17.-Landsat MSS image (2534- 

12074; 9 July 1976; Path 239, Row 3) of Prins 

Karls Forland, Svalbard, showing sedimentladen meltwater discharging into coastal 

waters. The sediment can be seen as lighter 

blue patterns in the water on the false-color 

composite. It can be seen more clearly on the 

black-and-white print of MSS band 4 data.

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E145
TABLE 1. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers ofSvalbard, Norway

[See fig. 18 for explanation of symbols used in the "Code" column]

Path-Row

223^1

224-3

224^1

224-5

225-3

225^1

225-4

225-5

226-3

226-4

226-5

227-3

227^1

227-5

228-1

228-2

228-3

228-4

228-5

229-1

229-2

229-3

Nominal 

scene 

center 

(lat-long)

77°33'N. 28°01'E.

78°29'N. 31°58'E.

77°33'N. 26°35'E.

76°31'N. 21°58'E.

78°29'N. 30°32'E.

77°33'N. 25°09'E.

77°33'N. 25°09'E.

76°31'N. 20°32'E.

78°29'N. 29°05'E.

77°33'N. 23°43'E.

76°31'N. 19°05'E.

78°29'N. 27°39'E.

77°33'N. 22°17'E.

76°31'N. 17°39'E.

80°01'N. 39°39'E.

79°19'N. 32°28'E.

78°29'N. 26°13'E.

77°33'N. 20°51'E.

76°31'N. 16°13'E.

80°01'N. 38°12'E.

79°19'N. 31°02'E.

78°29'N. 24°47'E.

Landsat 

identification 

number

22066-10425

22013-10474

21257-10274

2501-10432

30849-10461

2502-10484

30849-10464

22068-10545

22015-10591

22015-10594

21637-10543

22016-11050

22016-11052

21278-10461

30151-11170

2541-11040

22017-11105

22017-11111

22017-11114

30152-11224

2201-11220

22018-11163

Date

18 Sep 80

27 Jul 80

02 Jul 78

06 Jun 76

01 Jul 80

07 Jun 76

01 Jul 80

20 Sep 80

29 Jul 80

29 Jul 80

17 Jul 79

30 Jul 80

30 Jul 80

23 Jul 78

03 Aug 78

16 Jul 76

31 Jul 80

31 Jul 80

31 Jul 80

04 Aug 78

11 Aug 75

01 Aug 80

Solar 

elevation 

angle 

(in degrees)

13

30

35

36

34

35

35

14

29

30

34

29

30

33

26

31

29

30

31

26

25

28

Code

3

3

+

3

3

+

3

J

3

3

J

J

3

3

3

Cloud 

cover 

(in percent)

70

20

0

10

0

30

40

0

10

0

0

20

10

0

20

60

10

10

20

0

70

30

Remarks

Archived by ESA1

Good image of Kongs0ya; 

archived by ESA

Edge0ya-Kong Johans Breen; 

archived by ESA

Cloud free, but several line 

drops over islands; archived 

by ESA

Several line drops; used to produce digital mosaic shown in 

figure 14; archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

by ESA

Southern tip of Spitsbergen; 

archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

by ESA

Good image of Svensk0ya; 

archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Good image of eastern part 

Kvit0ya

Kvit0ya

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

by ESA

E146 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 7. Optimum Landsat 1, Z, and S images of the glaciers of Svalbard, Norway Continued

Path-Row

229-4

229-5

230-1

230-1

230-2

230-2

230-3

230-4

230-5

231-1

231-2

231-3

231-4

231-5

232-1

232-2

232-3

232-4

233-1

233-2

233-3

233-4

Nominal 

scene 

center 

flat-long)

77°33'N. 19°24'E.

76°31'N. 14°47'E.

80°01'N. 36°46'E.

80°01'N. 36°46'E.

7919'N. 29°36'E.

79°19'N. 29°36'E.

78°29'N. 23°21'E.

77°33'N. 17°58'E.

76°31'N. 13°21'E.

80°01'N. 35°20'E.

79°19'N. 28°10'E.

78°29'N. 21°55'E.

77°33'N. 16°32'E.

76°31'N. 11°55'E.

80°01'N. 33°54'E.

79°19'N. 26°44'E.

78°29'N. 20°29'E.

77°33'N. 15°06'E.

80°01'N. 32°28'E.

79°19'N. 25°18'E.

78°29'N. 19°03'E.

77°33'N. 13°40'E.

Landsat 

identification 

number

22018-11170

22018-11172

30152-11224

21641-11155

2543-11153

22055-11221

2543-11155

2543-11162

2543-11164

30154-11341

22020-11274

2077-11344

2472-11235

2472-11242

22021-11325

2456-11352

2473-11293

2528-11324

2528-11330

2528-11333

2474-11352

Date

01 Aug 80

01 Aug 80

04 Aug 78

21 Jul 79

18 Jul 76

07 Sep 80

18 Jul 76

18 Jul 76

18 Jul 76

01 Jul 78

03 Aug 80

09 Apr 75

08 May 76

08 May 76

04 Aug 80

22 Apr 76

09 May 76

03 Jul 76

03 Jul 76

03 Jul 76

10 May 76

Solar 

elevation 

angle 

(in degrees)

30

31

25

29

31

15

32

33

34

31

27

18

29

30

25

23

29

31

33

34

29

Code

^

3

3

3

^

^

3

3

3

^

3

3

(3

3

3

3

3

3

3

Cloud 

cover 

(in percent)

10

30

0

60

5

20

10

10

20

0

30

70

10

40

30

50

25

25

50

60

30

Remarks

Archived by ESA

Archived by ESA

Partial image (90%); archived by 

ESA

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

by ESA

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

by ESA

Good image of northern 

Edge0ya, Barents0ya, and 

Negribreen on Spitsbergen

Good image of Spitsbergen from 

Billefjorden to Hornsund

Very good image of Kvit0ya; 

subglacial drainage divides 

visible

Archived by ESA

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E147
TABLE 7. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers ofSvalbard, Norway Continued

Path-Row

234-1

234-2

234-2

234-3

234-3

234-3

234-4

235-1

235-2

235-3

235-1

236-1

236-2

236-3

236-1

237-1

237-2

237-3

238-1

238-1

238-1

Nominal 

scene 

center 

(lat-long)

80°01'N. 31°02'E.

79°19'N. 23°52'E.

79°19'N. 23°52'E.

78°29'N. 17°37'E.

78°29'N. 17°37'E.

78°29'N. 17°37'E.

77°33'N. 12°14'E.

80°01'N. 29°36'E.

79°19'N. 22°26'E.

78°29'N.

77°33'N. 10°48'E.

80°01'N. 28°10'E.

79°19'N. 21°00'E.

78°29'N. 14°45'E.

77°33'N. 09°22'E.

80°01'N. 26°44'E.

79°19'N. 19°34'E.

78°29'N. 13°19'E.

80°01'N. 25°18'E.

80°01'N. 25°18'E.

80°01'N. 25°18'E.

Landsat 

identification 

number

30049-11502

2529-11385

22383-11413

1245-11583

22041-11453

22383-11415

21645-11400

30122-11564

2530-11443

2476-11462

2476-11464

22007-11554

2549-11494

2549-11501

22008-12013

2496-11565

2496-11572

30161-12143

21667-12015

30736-12032

Date

23 Apr 78

04 Jul 76

01 Aug 81

25 Mar 73

24 Aug 80

01 Aug 81

25 Jul 79

05 Jul 78

05 Jul 76

12 May 76

12 May 76

21 Jul 80

24 Jul 76

24 Jul 76

22 Jul 80

01 Jun 76

01 Jun 76

13 Aug 78

16 Aug 79

10 Mar 80

Solar

elevation .-, , 

, Code angle

(in degrees)

21 £

32 ( *

27 (*

12 £

21 ( *

28 ^

31 ("J

31 ("J

32 (*

29 ^

30 (*

29 (J

29 (J

31 ("J

®

28 (J

32 (*

33 ^

23 ("J

22 ("J

5 A

Cloud 

cover 

(in percent)

0

30

20

5

50

10

20

50

15

10

20

40

30

70

20

40

10

15

20

0

Remarks

Very good image of Kvit0ya; 

subglacial drainage divides 

visible

Prominent ablation features, 

Nordaustlandet

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

byESA

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

byESA

Archived by ESA

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

byESA

Prominent ablation features, 

Nordaustlandet

Archived by ESA

Good image of northeastern 

Spitsbergen

Archived by ESA

Northeastern Spitsbergen

Northwestern Spitsbergen and 

Prins Karls Forland

Prominent ablation features, 

subglacial drainage divides, 

Nordaustlandet

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

byESA

Subglacial drainage divides, 

Nordaustlandet; some line 

drops; archived by ESA

£148 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
TABLE 7. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers ofSvalbard, Norway Continued

Path-Row

238-2

238-3

238-3

238-3

239-1

239-2

239-3

240-1

240-2

240-3

241-1

241-2

241-3

242-1

242-1

242-2

243-1

243-2

244-1

244-2

245-1

Nominal 

scene 

center 

(lat-long)

79°19'N. 18°08'E.

78°29'N. 11°53'E.

78°29'N. 11°53'E.

78°29'N. 11°53'E.

80°01'N. 23°52'E.

79°19'N. 16°42'E.

78°29'N. 10°27'E.

80°01'N. 22°26'E.

79°19'N. 15°16'E.

78°29'N. 09°01'E.

80°01'N. 21°00'E.

79°19'N. 13°50'E.

78°29'N. 07°35'E.

80°01'N. 19°34'E.

80°01'N. 19°34'E.

79°19'N. 12°24'E.

80°01'N. 18°08'E.

79°19'N. 10°57'E.

80°01'N. 16°42'E.

79°19'N. 09°31'E.

80°01'N. 15°16'E.

Landsat 

identification 

number

21631-12020

2462-12094

30160-12094

21631-12022

30036-12190

2534-12072

2534-12074

2541-12463

2535-12130

2535-12133

30164-12314

2500-12194

2500-12201

2542-12521

21257-12093

2466-12320

30040-12420

2467-12374

2486-12423

30868-12335

30150-12543

Date

11 Jul 79

28 Apr 76

12 Aug 78

11 Jul 79

10 Apr 78

09 Jul 76

09 Jul 76

16 Jul 76

10 Jul 76

10 Jul 76

16 Aug 78

05 Jun 76

05 Jun 76

17 Jul 76

02 Jul 78

02 May 76

14 Apr 78

03 May 76

22 May 76

20 Jul 80

02 Aug 78

Solar 

elevation 

angle 

(in degrees)

32

25

25

33

16

32

33

29

32

33

22

32

33

29

31

25

18

25

29

30

26

Code

3

3

9

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

9

3

3

Cloud 

cover 

(in percent)

0

20

30

0

10

20

0

20

30

0

15

40

15

40

5

5

10

0

0

40

35

Remarks

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

byESA

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; archived 

byESA

Partial image (90%); archived 

byESA

Good image of northern 

Spitsbergen

Good image of western 

Spitsbergen-Prins Karl 

Forland

Good image of northwestern 

Spitsbergen

Prominent ablation features; 

subglacial drainage divides, 

Nordaustlandet

Northern Nordaustlandet

Used to produce digital mosaic 

shown in figure 14; partial 

image (75%); archived by 

ESA

Archived by ESA

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E149
f!8 TABLE 7. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and S images of the glaciers of Svalbard, Norway Continued

Path-Row

245-2

246-1

246-2

247-1

248-1

249-1

250-1

Nominal 

scene 

center 

(lat-long)

79°19'N. 08°05'E.

80°01'N. 13°49'E.

79°19'N. 06°39'E.

80°01'N. 12°23'E.

80°01'N. 10°57'E.

80°01'N. 09°31'E.

80°01'N. 08°05'E.

Landsat 

identification 

number

2486-12430

30025-12590

2470-12545

2489-12594

30027-13103

2473-13113

2474-13172

Date

22 May 76

03 Mar 78

06 May 76

25 May 76

01 Apr 78

09 May 76

10 May 76

Solar 

elevation ^

(in degrees)

30 3

12 ^

26 f

29 3

13 ^

26 0

26 A

Cloud 

cover Remarks 

(in percent)

15

10

5

25

10

0

0

1 Data archived by the Swedish Space Corporation in Kiruna, Sweden, in cooperation with the European Space Agency.

80°N 30°W 10°W 0° 30°E 80°N

75°N

100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS 

I_____i_____i_____|

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS

Evaluation of image usability for glaciologic, geologic, 

and cartographic applications. Symbols defined as follows:

O Nominal scene center for a Landsat image outside 

the area of glaciers

 Excellent image (0 to =s5 percent cloud cover)

9 Good image (>5 to =slO percent cloud cover)

fl Fair to poor image (>10 to ==100 percent cloud cover) / 1 , . . , .. ^T II APProxlrnate Slze °f area encompessed by

(3 Unusable image (100 percent cloud cover) /__/ nominal Landsat MSS image

Figure 18. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Svalbard, 

Norway. The vertical lines represent nominal paths. The rows (horizontal lines) 

have been established to indicate the latitude at which the imagery has been 

acquired.

E150 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
References Cited

Ahlmann, H. W:son, 1933, Scientific results of the Swedish-Norwegian 

Arctic Expedition in the summer of 1931, Part VIII. Glaciology: 

Geografiska Annaler, v. 15, no. 4, p. 261-295.

 1948, Glaciological research on the North Atlantic coasts: Royal 

Geographical Society Research Series no. 1, 83 p.

Bamber, J.L., and Dowdeswell, J.A., 1990, Remote sensing studies of 

Kvit0yjokulen: An ice cap on Kvit0ya, north-east Svalbard: Journal of Glaciology, v. 36, no. 122, p. 75-81.

Baranowski, S., 1977, The subpolar glaciers of Spitsbergen seen 

against the climate of this region: Wroclaw Universytet, Acta 

Universitatis Wratislaviensis, no. 410, 94 p.

Dowdeswell, J.A., 1984, Remote sensing studies of Svalbard glaciers: 

Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge, 250 p.

 1986, Remote sensing of ice cap outlet glacier fluctuations on

Nordaustlandet, Svalbard: Polar Research, v. 4, p. 25-32. 

Dowdeswell, J.A., and Collin, R.L., 1990, Fast-flowing outlet glaciers

on Svalbard ice caps: Geology, v. 18, no. 8, p. 778-781. 

Dowdeswell, J.A., and Cooper, A.P.R., 1986, Digital mapping in polar

regions from Landsat photographic products: A case study: Annals

of Glaciology, v. 8, p. 47-50. 

Dowdeswell, J.A., and Drewry, D.J., 1985, Place names on the

Nordaustlandet ice caps, Svalbard: Polar Record, v. 22, no. 140,

p. 519-539.

 1989, The dynamics of Austfonna, Nordaustlandet, Svalbard: 

Surface velocities, mass balance and subglacial meltwater: Annals 

of Glaciology, v. 12, p. 37-45.

Dowdeswell, J.A., Drewry, D.J., Liest01, 0., and Orheim, 0., 1984, 

Airborne radio echosounding of subpolar glaciers in Spitsbergen: 

Norsk Polarinstitutt Skrifter No. 182, p. 1-41.

Dowdeswell, J.A., Hamilton, G.S., and Hagen, J.O., 1991, The duration of the active phase on surge-type glaciers: Contrasts between 

Svalbard and other regions: Journal of Glaciology, v. 37, no. 127, p. 

388-400.

Drewry, D.J., and Liest01, 0., 1985, Glaciological investigations of 

surging ice caps in Nordaustlandet, Svalbard, 1983: Polar Record, 

v. 22, no. 139, p. 357-378.

Elverh0i, A., Liest01, 0., and Nagy, J., 1980, Glacial erosion, sedimentation, and microfauna in the inner part of the Kongsfjorden, 

Spitsbergen: Norsk Polarinstitutt Skrifter No. 172, p. 33-61.

Gus'kov, A.S., 1983, Vodno-ledovyi balans lednikov Shpitsbergena v 

1979/80 balansovom godu [Water ice balance of Spitsbergen glaciers in the 1979-80 balance year!: Akademiya nauk SSSR; Institut 

Geografii, Materialy Glyatsiologicheskikh Issledovaniy, Khronika 

Obsuzhdeniya, no. 46, p. 136-142.

Hagen, J.O., and Liest01, 0., 1990, Long term glacier mass balance 

investigations in Svalbard 1950-88: Annals of Glaciology, v. 14, no. 

102-106.

Hagen, J.O., Liest01, 0., Roland, E., and J0rgensen, T., in press, 

Glacier atlas of Svalbard and Jan Mayen: Norsk Polarinstitutt, 

Meddeleser.

Hamberg, A., 1932, Struktur und Bewegungs-forgange im 

Gletschereis nebst Beitrage zur Morphologi der arktischen 

Gletscher [Structure and mechanics of glacier ice including a 

section on the morphology of arctic glaciers]: Naturwissenschaftliche untersuchungen des Sarekgebirges in Schwedisch-Lappland 

v. 1, no. 3, Gletscherkunde, p. 69-124.

Hisdal, V., 1985, Geography of Svalbard: Norsk Polarinstitutt, Polarhandbok no. 2, p. 1-80.

Lefauconnier, B., and Hagen, J.O., 1990, Glaciers and climate in 

Svalbard. Statistical analysis and reconstruction of the Br0gger

Glacier mass balance for the last 77 years: Annals of Glaciology, v.

14, p. 148-152. 

Liestpl, 0., 1969, Glacier surges in West Spitsbergen: Canadian

Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 6, no. 4, p. 895-897. 

 1974, Glaciological work in 1972: Norsk Polarinstitutt Arbok

1972, p. 125-135. 

-1976, Glaciological work in 1974: Norsk Polarinstitutt Arbok

1974, p. 183-194.

Markin, V.A., 1969, Issledovaniya teplovogo balansa lednikorykh 

pokrovov Shpitsbergena v periody ablyatsii 1965 i 1966 gg. [The 

investigations of the heat balance of Spitsbergen ice covers during 

the ablation periods of 1965 and 1966]: Akademiya nauk SSSR, 

Institut Geografii, Materialy Glyatsiologicheskikh Issledovaniy, 

Khronika Obsuzhdeniya, no. 15, p. 124-132.

Nathorst, A.G., Anderson, G., DeGeer, G., and Hulth, J.M., 1909, The 

historical sketch of Swedish exploration in Spitsbergen 1758-1908: 

Ymer, v. 29, p. 4-22.

Norsk Polarinstitutt, 1983, Svalbard: Oslo, l:l,000,000-scale map.

Pfirman, S.L., and Solheim, A., 1989, Subglacial meltwater discharge 

in the open-marine tidewater glacier environment: Observations 

from Nordaustlandet, Svalbard archipelago: Marine Geology, v. 

86, no. 4, p. 265-281.

Pillewizer, W., 1939, Die Kartographischen und Gletscherkundlichen 

Ergebnisse der Deutschen Spitzbergenexpedition 1938 [The cartographic and glaciological results of the German Spitsbergen 

Expedition 1938]: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 

Erganzungsheft no. 238, p. 36-38.

Pillewizer, W., and others, 1967, Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse 

der Deutschen Spitzbergenexpedition 1964-65 [The scientific 

results of the German Spitsbergen Expedition 1964-65]: Geodatische und Geophyisikalische Veroffentlichungen, v. Ill, no. 9, p. 

1-138.

Schytt, V., 1964, Scientific results of the Swedish glaciological expedition to Nordaustlandet, Spitsbergen, 1957 and 1958: Geografiska 

Annaler, v. 46, no. 3, p. 243-281.

 1969, Some comments on glacier surges in eastern Svalbard: 

Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 6, no. 4 (pt. 2), p. 867-873.

Steffensen, E., 1969, The climate and its recent variations at the 

Norwegian Arctic stations: Meteorologiske Annaler, v. 5, no. 8, 

349 p.

Sverdrup, H.U., 1935, Scientific results of the Norwegian-Swedish 

Spitsbergen Expedition in 1934. Part III: Geografiska Annaler, v. 

17, no. 1-2, p. 53-88.

Troitskiy, L.S., Zinger, E.M., Koryakin, V.S., Markin, V.A., and 

Mikhalyev, V.I., 1975, Glaciation of the Spitsbergen (Svalbard): 

Moscow, The Publishing House Nauka, 276 p. (In Russian.)

Tyrrell, G.W., 1922, The glaciers of Spitsbergen: The Transactions of 

the Geological Society of Glascow, v. XVII, pt. 1, p. 1^9.

Voigt, U., 1967, Ergebnisse photogrammetrischen Messungen auf 

dem mittleren Lovengletscher in den Jahren 1962 und 1964/65, in 

Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse der deutschen Spitzbergenexpedition 1964-65 [Results of the photogrammetric measuring of 

the average speed of the Loven Glacier in 1962 and 1964/65, in The 

scientific results of the German Spitsbergen expedition in 1964/65]: 

Geodatische und Geophysikalische Veroffentlichungen, v. Ill, no. 

9, p. 101-109.

 1979, Zur Blockbewegung der Gletscher [Block movement of 

glaciers]: Geodatische und Geophysikalische Veroffentlichungen, 

v. Ill, no. 44, p. 1-128.

GLACIERS OF SVALBARD, NORWAY E151

Glaciers of Europe 

GLACIERS OF JAN MAYEN, NORWAY

By OLAV ORHEIM

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, Jr., and JANE G. FERRIGNO

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1386-E-6

Jan Mayen, Norway, has 113 square 

kilometers, or 30 percent of its area, 

covered by an ice cap and the 20 named 

outlet glaciers that surmount the active 

Beerenberg stratovolcano

CONTENTS

Abstract E153

Introduction 153

FIGURE 1. Index map of Jan Mayen 154

2. Oblique aerial photograph of Jan Mayen viewed from the

southwest on 23 August 1949 154

3. Map showing craters, effusive lava flows, tephra deposits, and 

tephra fallout pattern associated with recent volcanic 

activity on Beerenberg 155

4. Photograph on 7 April 1985 of steam billowing from the new 

vent that formed on the upper part of Weyprechtbreen 

on the northern part of the summit crater of Beerenberg 

Volcano 156

5. Map of the glaciers on Nord-Jan, with locations of moraine 

stages, dead (stagnant)-ice remnants, and supraglacial 

material 156

Glacier distribution and mass-balance conditions 157

FIGURES 6-8. Oblique aerial photographs of:

6. S0rbreen on Nord-Jan viewed from the southeast on 23

August 1949 158

7. S0rbreen viewed from above 600 m in elevation on 24

August 1973 158

8. Beerenberg viewed from the northwest on 23 August

1949 159

TABLE 1. Size, elevation, and orientation of the glaciers on Jan Mayen,

Norway 157

Historical variations in positions of glacier termini 159

FIGURE 9. Sketch map of the frontal position of S0rbreen on different

dates - - 160

10. Length profiles of S0rbreen along section A-A'-A" of

figure 9 160

Comparison of glacier fluctuations with meteorological data 161 

Use of satellite imagery in glacier monitoring 161

FIGURE 11. Landsat 1 image (1084-12061; 15 October 1972) of Jan Mayen,

Norway, the best Landsat image acquired of the island- 163 

12. Index map to the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the

glaciers of Jan Mayen, Norway 163

TABLE 2. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Jan

Mayen, Norway 162

Acknowledgment 162 

References cited 164

CONTENTS III

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

GLACIERS OF EUROPEGLACIERS OF JAN MAYEN, NORWAY

By OLAV ORHEIM1

Abstract

Jan Mayen, Norway, the northernmost island on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has 113 square 

kilometers covered by glaciers, about 30 percent of its total area. The northern part of the 

island is the active Beerenberg stratovolcano (2,277 meters high), which is surmounted by 

an ice cap from which 20 outlet glaciers emanate. S0rbreen is the largest (15 square 

kilometers) and the best studied of these outlet glaciers. The maximum postglacial 

expansion of the outlet glaciers occurred at the end of the "Little Ice Age" (around the year 

1850), and an oscillating retreat has taken place since that time. A marked advance around 

1910 and again in 1960 was separated by a recession that ended about 1950. The 1960 

advance was caused by reduced summer temperatures and ablation. The earliest recorded 

observations of S0breen were in 1632, but the first modern topographic map was not 

published until 1959. This map was compiled photogrammetrically from aerial photographs 

taken in 1949 and 1955. The glaciers on Jan Mayen are especially sensitive to change in 

climate. Satellite monitoring of the variations of glacier positions on this isolated island has 

the potential to be a valuable tool but has been limited because the cloud cover is persistent.

Introduction

Jan Mayen, Norway, is the most northerly island on the Mid-Atlantic 

Ridge. It extends from 70°50' to 71°10' N. lat and from 7°55' to 9°05' W. 

long (fig. 1). The island covers an area of 373 km2 and has very different 

landscapes on the north (Nord-Jan) and south (Syd-Jan): Nord-Jan is 

dominated by the volcano Beerenberg, 2,277 m in elevation; narrow 

Syd-Jan, stretching southwest, has a maximum elevation of 769 m on 

Rudolftoppen (figs. 1 and 2). Jan Mayen lies in the boundary between the 

cold East Greenland Current and the warmer north flowing Atlantic 

currents in the Norwegian Sea. The island is surrounded by pack ice 

during winter and spring, although the ice retreats west of the island 

during the summer (Vinje, 1976). Meteorological observations, begun in 

1922, show that the island has a cool oceanic climate, is generally cloud 

covered, has a mean (1951-80) annual temperature near sea level of -1.2 

°C and a mean (1963-80) yearly precipitation at the present meteorological station on Syd-Jan southwest of S0rlaguna of 685 mm (Steffensen, 

1982). Barr (1991) recently reviewed its history.

The island consists of basaltic rocks of relatively young age (Fitch and 

others, 1965; Imsland, 1978, 1980). Glacial geologic studies by Hisdal 

(oral commun., 1985) show that the island has been covered by glaciers 

during several phases of the Weichselian (Wisconsinan). The most recent 

episode probably terminated before 9,000 yr ago. Considerable volcanic 

activity has taken place subsequently, and nearly 20 percent of the area 

is covered by postglacial lavas (Noe-Nygaard, 1974; Imsland, 1978; 

Hisdal, oral commun., 1985). The most recent effusive eruptions

1 Norwegian Polar Research Institute, P.O. Box 158, 1330 Oslo Lufthavn, Norway.

GLACIERS OF JAN MAYEN, NORWAY E153
0° 40° Figure 1. Index map of Jan Mayen. 

The wide, northeastern end of the 

island is called Nord-Jan; the narrow 

southeastern end is called Syd-Jan. 

"New land" refers to the land created 

by effusive volcanic activity from Beerenberg in 1970. Elevations are shown 

in meters (from Siggerud, 1972).

9°W

Figure 2. Jan Mayen viewed from the 

southwest on 23 August 1949. The 

southernmost part (foreground) is 

obscured by clouds. The Beerenberg 

Volcano can be seen in the background. Oblique aerial photograph No. 

JM49 0865 from Norsk Polarinstitutt, 

Oslo.

E154 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
occurred in September 1970 (Siggerud, 1972; Sylvester and others, 1974; 

Sylvester, 1976), and on 6-9 January 1985 (Smithsonian Institution, 1984, 

1985) on the northeastern side of Beerenberg (Imsland, 1985). According 

to Sylvester (1976), the September 1970 lava flows created about 4 km2 

of new land on the northeastern part of the island (figs. 1 and 3). Lava 

flows also entered the sea during the January 1985 activity (fig. 3), and a 

steam vent formed on the northern edge of the summit crater and 

produced a collapse cauldron in the upper part of Weyprechtbreen (figs. 

4 and 5) (Smithsonian Institution, 1985).

Nord-Jan's glaciers, some extending to sea level, have a combined area 

of 113 km2, about 30 percent of the island's area. Several of the glaciers 

have a very uneven surface topography. The marginal regions are often 

covered by supraglacial material; large parts of the ablation area are 

covered on some of the glaciers. There are no glaciers on Syd-Jan. Here 

the highest mountain (Rudolftoppen) reaches 769 m elevation, or 1,508 m 

less than the summit of Beerenberg (Haakon VII Topp).

There have been two postglacial periods of glacier expansion at Jan 

Mayen (Anda and others, 1985). The first period may have taken place 

around 2,500 yr ago. The glaciers had their maximum extent during the 

second period, around the year 1850, toward the end of the so-called 

"Little Ice Age." They have subsequently shown an oscillating retreat, 

with marked expansion around 1910, and with a minimum extent around 

1950. Many glaciers advanced again about 1960, and the advance of 

S0rbreen probably culminated about 1965.

Anda and others (1985) concluded that the advances of the glaciers 

around 1960 were caused by reduced summer temperatures and ablation 

and not by increased precipitation, as reported by Lamb and others 

(1962), Fitch and others (1962), and Sheard (1965).

8°W

Figure 3. Craters (solid black areas), 

effusive lava flows (lined, 1970; and 

shaded, 1985), tephra deposits (stippled, 

1985), and tephra fallout pattern (parabola) associated with recent volcanic activity on Beerenberg. Note line of craters 

across eastern margin of Kronprinsesse 

Marthas Bre. Contours are in meters. Map 70° 

modified from Imsland (1985).

GLACIERS OF JAN MAYEN, NORWAY E155
\

Glacier boundary 

Supraglacial material

Subrecent moraine/ 

maximum extent 

Older moraine

Dead ice remnant

Approximate position of collapse 

cauldron that formed in early 

January, 1985

4 KILOMETERS

Figure 4. Steam billowing from the new 

vent (collapse cauldron) that formed on the 

upper part of Weyprechtbreen on the northern part of the summit crater of Beerenberg 

Volcano on 7 April 1985, Photograph from 

Norsk Polarinstitutt, courtesy of LJndsay 

McClelland (Smithsonian Institution, 1985),

 4 Figure 5. The glaciers on Nord-Jan showing locations of moraine stages, dead 

(stagnant)-ice remnants, and supraglacial 

material.

E156 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Glacier Distribution and Mass-balance 

Conditions

The ice cap on Beerenberg Volcano can be divided into 20 individual 

outlet glaciers. These are shown in figure 5, and their individual areas, 

lengths, and elevations are listed in table 1. The glaciers are steep, 

typically covering elevation intervals of about 2,000 m over lengths of 5 

to 7 km. Table 1 also shows that the elevation of the equilibrium line 

varies from 600 to 950 m, from the northwest-facing to the south-facing 

glaciers, probably caused mainly by variations in winter accumulation 

(Anda and others, 1985). This precipitation comes mostly from the 

orographic influence of north-northwesterly winds (Steffensen, 1982), 

giving the heaviest accumulation on the windward side of Jan Mayen.

S0rbreen (fig. 6), the largest glacier, has an area of 15 km2 and is by far 

the best studied glacier on the island. Mass-balance measurements are 

available for the lower half of S0rbreen, up to 1,100 m (Orheim, 1976; 

Anda, 1984). It seems likely that the upper part of the glacier has no true 

summer season and that practically all precipitation here is in solid form. 

Over the lower part of the glacier, however, the temperature fluctuations 

may cause large variations in the percentage of precipitation that falls in 

frozen form. The studies at S0rbreen show that the winter balance is 

around 1 to 2 m water equivalent but that there are large local variations 

caused by wind drift and uneven surface topography (fig. 7). Convection 

and condensation account for most of the heat transfer to the surface in 

the ablation season, and there appears to be a good correlation between 

summer temperature at sea level and the ablation of the glacier. This 

correlation is, however, complicated by the temperature distribution 

over the glaciers of Jan Mayen, with frequent temperature inversions in 

the lower altitudes. Dibben (1965) showed that surface ablation is highest

TABLE 1. Size, elevation, and orientation of the glaciers on Jan Mayen, Norway

[Eql, equilibrium line, defined as the boundary between the accumulation area (positive net mass balance) and the ablation area (negative net mass balance)]

Glacier name

S0rbreen. .......................................

Southwest part of Kronprins Olavs Bre. ........

Kerckhoffbreen .................................

Charcotbreen ...................................

Vestisen ........................................

Jorisbreen ......................................

Hamarbreen ....................................

Weyprechtbreen ................................

Gjuvbreen ......................................

Kjerulfbreen ....................................

Svend Foynbreen ...............................

Kronprinsesse Marthas Bre. ....................

Dufferinbreen. ..................................

Frielebreen .....................................

Pi-ins Haralds Bre ..............................

Griegbreen .....................................

Willebreen ......................................

Petersenbreen ..................................

Fotherbybreen. .................................

Wardbreen .....................................

(km2)

..... 15.00

..... 11.40

..... 9.00

. . . . . 5.55

. . . . . 2.30

..... 3.30

..... 2.25

..... 8.90

..... 2.80

..... 5.80

..... 2.60

..... 9.40

..... 1.55

..... 2.80

..... 3.50

..... 4.95

..... 5.50

..... 5.35

..... 9.00

..... 3.25

(km)

8.7

7.4

7.3

6.9

3.4

6.0

4.7

6.8

5.3

6.4

4.6

4.7

3.7

5.0

5.3

5.1

5.9

5.5

7.2

5.7

Maximum

2,200

2,240

2,200

2,240

1,500

2,260

1,580

2,080

2,100

2,140

1,400

1,320

1,500

1,660

2,200

2,160

2,160

1,620

2,140

2,200

Elevation

Median

940

860

860

880

860

980

720

800

660

900

800

710

920

780

980

830

900

820

820

1,010

(m)

Minimum

80

440

280

40

540

20

10

0

0

0

0

420

400

0

0

10

0

230

300

550

Eql

950

900

850

800

800

750

700

650

600

650

700

750

800

750

750

800

850

900

900

950

Orientation

s.

sw.

w.

w.

w.

NW.

NW.

NW.

NW.

N.

N.

NE.

E.

E.

E.

E.

E.

SE.

SE.

S.

GLACIERS OP JAN MAYEN, NORWAY E157
?**

Figure 6. S0rbreen on Nord-Jan 

viewed from the southeast on 23 

August 1949. The summit of the Beerenberg Volcano (2,277 m) is visible on 

the right. Oblique aerial photograph 

No. JM49 0777 from Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo.

 < Figure 7. S0rbreen viewed from 

above 600 m in elevation on 24 

August 1973. Note the uneven 

topography. The summit of the Beerenberg Volcano is in the background. Oblique aerial photograph 

by Olav Orheim, Norsk Polarinstitutt, 

Oslo.

during frontal activity (passage of warm fronts associated with lowpressure systems). Measurements by Orheim (1976) and Anda (1984) 

show that ablation increases with elevation over the lower parts of 

S0rbreen, because long-lasting advection fog reduces both incoming 

radiation and temperatures over the lowest section. This phenomenon is 

probably less important on the northwest glaciers. Calving is an important ablation mechanism for some of the glaciers around the northern 

sector of Nord-Jan (fig. 8).

E158 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Figure 8. Beerenberg viewed from the 

northwest on 23 August 1949. Weyprechtbreen, the outlet glacier that emanates from a 

breach in the summit crater, has the largest 

calving front of all the Jan Mayen glaciers. 

Oblique aerial photograph No. JM49 0811 

from Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo.

Historical Variations in Positions of Glacier 

Termini

The variations of glaciers on Jan Mayen can best be established from 

S0rbreen, which has been visited frequently. Maps and descriptions from 

1632 (Blaeu, 1662) and from 1817-18 (Scoresby, 1820) indicate that the 

glacier did not reach the sea during these periods. However, these 

descriptions cannot be considered wholly reliable.

S0rbreen was near its maximum "Little Ice Age" extent during 1861 

(Vogt, 1863). A detailed sketch shows the glacier reaching the sea; the 

glacier surface is depicted as nearly level with high lateral moraines. A 

second sketch shows that Sigurdbreen and Smithbreen also were near 

their maximum subrecent extents. S0rbreen also terminated in the sea in 

1878 (Mohn, 1878, 1882), but the elevation of the glacier surface cannot be 

estimated from this source.

GLACIERS OF JAN MAYEN, NORWAY E159
A map of the island and a description of several glaciers were made by 

the Austrian expedition in 1882-83 (Bobrik von Boldva, 1886). The front 

of S0rbreen had retreated from the sea, and 80 m from the sea the glacier 

surface disappeared under morainal material. The glacier surface was 30 

m below the uppermost level (150 m) of the lateral moraines.

Flint (1948) described S0rbreen from a brief visit in 1937. The front 

was then about 600 m from the sea. The following year Jennings (1939, 

1948) stated that the glacier front was 960 m from the sea. Comparison of 

the sketch maps made by Flint and Jennings suggests that the latter 

misinterpreted the boundary of moraine-covered ice as the glacier front. 

Norsk Polarinstitutt prepared a topographic map of Jan Mayen in 1959, 

based on aerial photographs taken during 1949 and 1955. The glaciers 

were mapped photogrammetrically from the 1949 aerial photographs. 

S0rbreen was, at this time, 1,200 m from the sea, which is the greatest 

recorded retreat of the glacier. Many other glaciers also had their 

greatest retreats at this time.

University of London expeditions made extensive studies of S0rbreen 

in 1959 and 1961 (Fitch and others, 1962; Kinsman and Sheard, 1963). The 

glacier advanced 100 m between 1949 and 1959, and the glacier advanced 

an additional 124 m during the following 2 years. They also observed that 

several other glaciers had advanced since 1949.

Aerial photographs acquired in 1975 by the Norsk Polarinstitutt 

showed that S0rbreen had advanced farther since 1961. The front part of 

the glacier now seemed to be stagnant, and the glacier front had probably 

been in the same position for several years. This situation persisted until 

1978. The marked advance around 1960 probably culminated by 1965.

Anda and others (1985) constructed a lichenometric growth curve for 

Jan Mayen and used this to obtain additional ages for the moraines of 

S0rbreen and neighboring glaciers.

The results of these observations are shown in figures 9 and 10. It is 

clear that S0rbreen is sensitive to climatic change, and the observations 

suggest the variations of S0rbreen will be representative of the other 

south- and east-facing glaciers around Nord-Jan. However, more data 

are needed to give more confidence to this conclusion.

400 r

1000 1500 A' 2000 2500/4"

METERS

Figure 10. Length profiles of Sorbreen along section A-A'-A" (see fig. 9) at 

various times. Vertical exaggeration 3 times. The shaded area represents the 

subglacial land surface.

^

\

Stage I

Older than 1500 A.D. 

I .. I

Coast

METERS

Figure 9. The frontal position of Sorbreen 

on different dates. The solid lines indicate 

culmination of advances, dashed lines an 

intermediate position during an advance, 

and dotted lines an intermediate position 

during retreat. The arrows indicate whether 

the glacier is advancing or retreating. Section A-A'-A" is shown in figure 10.

E160 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD
Comparison of Glacier Fluctuations with 

Meteorological Data

A meteorological station has been operated continuously on Jan Mayen 

since 1922, with the exception of short periods during World War II. The 

station has, however, been relocated several times. Parallel temperature 

measurements show that a continuous temperature curve can be constructed, whereas this cannot be done for the precipitation (Steffensen, 

1982).

Lamb and others (1962), Fitch and others (1962), and Sheard (1965) 

claim that the glacier advances around 1960 were caused by increased 

precipitation from 1947 through the 1950's. Anda and others (1985) show 

that this period coincides with the period when the station was located on 

the western side of the island, where precipitation is highest. Thus, the 

recorded precipitation values during this period would not necessarily 

represent higher values on a continuous curve. Lamb and others (1962) 

also suggest that low temperatures in the 1940's may have contributed to 

the glacier expansion, and they refer to low mean annual temperatures. 

However, the records show that the summer temperatures, and thus the 

ablation, were not especially low at this time. Anda and others (1985) 

show that the summer temperatures were very high during the 1930's, 

which may have caused the glacier retreat from the period 1910-20 to 

about 1950. The marked reduction in summer temperatures from around 

1940 to the mid-1960's is the most probable cause for the glacier 

expansion around 1960.

Use of Satellite Imagery in Glacier 

Monitoring

Jan Mayen is characterized by a very persistent cloud cover. On the 

average, only 4.4 days during the entire year are completely clear, and 

only 0.2 clear day occurs per month from June to September. More than 

20 days are completely cloud covered during each of the summer months, 

and autumn shows the highest cloud-cover percentage during the year 

(Steffensen, 1982). Thus, it is difficult to obtain cloud-free satellite 

images of the island. When satellite images of the glaciers are most 

desired, at time of maximum ablation, the likelihood of obtaining them is 

the lowest.

Indeed, few glaciologically usable Landsat images have yet been 

obtained of Jan Mayen (table 2). The best available in the U.S. archive, 

1084-12061, was acquired on 15 October 1972, but even this shows clouds 

over most of the island (figs. 11 and 12). The lack of recent Landsat 

imagery is especially unfortunate, because the glaciers on Jan Mayen are 

especially sensitive to climatic change, as is demonstrated by the 

numerous frontal variations of S0rbreen. It would therefore be particularly valuable to monitor glacier frontal variations by satellite imagery. 

This technique would be exceptionally useful here on this isolated island. 

It is also the only practical way to clarify whether all the glaciers of 

different aspects respond in parallel, because it is difficult to gain access 

to several of the glaciers.

Even with the recognition of the difficulties posed by the high cloud 

cover, it is still recommended that efforts be made to obtain satellite

GLACIERS OF JAN MAYEN, NORWAY E161
TABLE 2. Optimum Landsat l t 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Jan Mayen, Norway

[See figure 12 for explanation of symbols used in the "Code" column]

Path-Row

233-10

234-10

235-09

235-10

236-09

236-10

Nominal 

scene 

center 

(lat-long)

70°35'N. 06°13'W.

70°35'N. 07°39'W.

71°50'N. 06°48'W.

70°35'N, 09°05'W.

71°50'N. 08°14'W.

70°35'N. 10°31'W.

Landsat 

identification 

number

No usable data

22077-11483

22060-11535

1084-12061

No usable data

22403-11561

Date

29 Sep 80

12 Sep 80

15 Oct 72

21 Aug 81

Solar 

elevation , 

angle Code 

(in degrees)

3

16 (J

21 (J

10 (J

3

30 (*

Cloud 

cover 

(in percent)

20

20

60

10

Remarks

Archived by ESA.

Covers north end of island; 

archived by ESA1 .

Only image available from 

EDC2.

Covers south end of island; 

archived by ESA.

1 ESA archive located at Kiruna, Sweden.

2 U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center (EDC) archive located at Sioux Falls, S. Dak.

imagery of Jan Mayen. Imagery with good resolution (25 m or better) 

obtained in late summer or autumn at regular intervals (every few years) 

would satisfy the monitoring requirements. Data of this kind would, with 

the field data now available, allow sophisticated studies of the relationship between glacier fluctuations and the observed climatic variations. It 

would be particularly interesting to investigate models showing how 

these glaciers respond to changes in mass balance. Short glaciers 

covering large elevation intervals likely will respond much more quickly 

to changes in summer temperatures and net ablation than to changes in 

precipitation (Anda and others, 1985). The reason is that the temperature 

variations influence mostly the lower reaches of the glaciers, whereas 

precipitation variations probably are most important around the central 

and upper half of the glaciers. Thus, such a model could be tested by 

monitoring glacier variations on Nord-Jan and combining this information 

with analysis of the regularly obtained meteorological data.

Acknowledgment

The editors thank Dr. Gunnar 0strem, Nores Vassdrags-og Energiverk, who read the manuscript and made helpful comments.

E162 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OP THE WORLD
Figure 11.-Landsat 1 image (1084-12061; 

15 October 1972) of Jan Mayen, Norway, the 

best Landsat image acquired (in the U.S. 

archive) of the island. Clouds obscure most 

of the coastline of both Nord-Jan and SydJan, making the image unusable for determining positions of the termini of any of the 20 

outlet glaciers emanating from the ice cap on 

Beerenberg Volcano, Nord-Jan.

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS

Evaluation of image usability for glaciologic, geologic, 

and cartographic applications. Symbols defined as follows:

(J Fair to poor image (> 10 to <100 percent cloud cover) 

(3 Unusable image (100 percent cloud cover)

O Nominal scene center for a Landsat image outside 

the area of glaciers

Approximate size of area encompassed by 

nominal Landsat MSS image

70°N

Figure 12.- Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Jan Mayen, 

Norway. (See also table 2.) The vertical lines represent nominal paths. The rows 

(horizontal lines) have been established to indicate the latitude at which the 

imagery has been acquired.

GLACIERS OF JAN MAYEN, NORWAY E163
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E164 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD