K-12 EDUCATION

School-Based Physical 

Education and Sports 

Programs

Report to Congressional Requesters

February 2012

GAO-12-350

United States Government Accountability Office

GAO
United States Government Accountability Office

Highlights of GAO-12-350, a report to 

congressional requesters

February 2012

K-12 EDUCATION

School-Based Physical Education and Sports 

Programs

Why GAO Did This Study

Physical activity is a crucial part of

preventing or reducing childhood 

obesity, and may also yield important 

academic and social benefits.

However, many children do not attain 

the level of daily physical activity 

recommended by the Centers for 

Disease Control and Prevention 

(CDC). Schools are uniquely 

positioned to provide students 

opportunities to increase physical 

activity through physical education 

(PE) classes and involvement in sports 

teams. In view of the federal 

government’s role in promoting the 

health and welfare of children, the 

Congress is currently considering a 

number of proposals aimed in part at 

increasing the physical activity of

youth. To assist the Congress as it 

considers options for increasing 

physical activity among students, GAO 

was asked to review (1) the status of 

opportunities for elementary and 

secondary school students to 

participate in school-based physical 

education or sports activities; and (2) 

what challenges schools face in 

providing physical education and 

sports opportunities. To conduct this 

study, GAO reviewed federal survey 

data; interviewed state, district, and 

school officials in selected states, as 

well as federal officials and others with 

relevant expertise; reviewed relevant 

federal laws and regulations; and 

reviewed studies on the benefits of 

physical education and sports for 

students.

GAO makes no recommendations in 

this report. The Departments of 

Education and Health and Human 

Services provided technical comments, 

which were incorporated as 

appropriate. 

What GAO Found

While the most recent national data show instruction time for PE decreased from 

2000 to 2006, officials GAO interviewed stated that school sports opportunities 

have generally increased in recent years. Specifically, the percentage of schools 

that offered PE at least 3 days a week decreased from 2000 to 2006, but the 

percentage of schools that required students in each grade to take some PE 

increased during the same period. For example, the estimated percentage of 

schools that required PE in ninth grade increased from 13 percent in 2000 to 55 

percent in 2006. Moreover, states, districts, and schools appear to have 

increased emphasis on the quality of PE programs, such as helping students 

develop lifelong fitness skills, according to national data and GAO interviews. 

Data on high school students show that participation in PE varies by grade level 

but not by gender or across racial groups. In addition, most state, district, and 

school officials GAO interviewed said opportunities to participate in 

interscholastic sports have increased, particularly for girls, and that many schools 

have responded to increased demand by adding new sports teams over the last 

few years.

Estimated Percentage of Schools Offering PE in All Grades at Least 3 Days a Week

Schools GAO visited cited several challenges to providing PE and sports 

opportunities but have found ways to alleviate some of the challenges associated 

with sports. In particular, school officials said that budget cuts and inadequate 

facilities have affected their ability to provide PE opportunities. For example, 

officials from one school district GAO visited reported reducing PE instruction 

time because of limited funding for instructors. Other schools, such as one where 

the gym doubled as the cafeteria, lack dedicated space to use for PE. In addition, 

school officials reported challenges in providing sports opportunities, as issues 

related to transportation, facilities, and staffing have been compounded by 

budgetary constraints. For example, officials from some schools said funding to 

transport students to outside facilities for practices or games was limited. Other 

school officials cited difficulty in attracting quality coaches because of low pay 

and the large amount of time involved. Even so, some schools have mitigated 

some challenges related to sports by relying heavily on outside funding sources 

such as booster clubs and gate receipts and leveraging community facilities.

Additionally, some schools charge student fees for sports activities, which may 

be a barrier for lower-income students. However, many schools waive such fees. 

View GAO-12-350. For more information, 

contact Linda Calbom at (206) 287-4809 or 

calboml@gao.gov. 
Page i GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

Letter 1 

Background 4

While PE Instruction Time Has Decreased, Officials Said School 

Sports Opportunities Have Generally Increased 7

Schools Cited Resource Challenges to Providing PE and Sports 

Opportunities but Have Mitigated Some of Them 14

Concluding Observations 18

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 18

Appendix I Estimated Percentage of All Middle and High Schools That Offered 

Interscholastic Sports in 2006, by School Level 20

Appendix II GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 21

Figures

Figure 1: Estimated Percentage of Schools Offering PE Daily or at 

Least 3 Days per Week, in 2000 and 2006 8

Figure 2: Estimated Percentage of Schools That Required Some PE, 

by Grade and Year 9

Figure 3: Estimated Percentage of High School Students Who 

Attend PE Daily or at Least Once Per Week, by Grade 

Level 11

Contents
Page ii GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

Abbreviations

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

HHS Department of Health and Human Services 

NASPE National Association for Sports and Physical Education

PE physical education

SHPPS School Health Policies and Practices Survey 

YRBS Youth Risk Behavior Survey

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Page 1 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

United States Government Accountability Office

Washington, DC 20548

February 29, 2012

The Honorable Tom Harkin

Chairman

Committee on Health, Education, Labor, 

 and Pensions

United States Senate

The Honorable Mike McIntyre

House of Representatives

In the past 30 years, the rate of childhood obesity has increased 

considerably, almost tripling for children aged 6 to 11 years. Along with 

this increase, the rate of childhood health problems commonly associated 

with obesity, such as hypertension and type II diabetes, has also risen, 

leading some policy makers to rank childhood obesity as a critical health 

threat. In a 2005 report, we highlighted expert views that increasing 

physical activity is the most important strategy in any program aimed at 

preventing or reducing childhood obesity.1

Schools are uniquely positioned to be an access point for students to 

engage in physical activity through physical education classes and sports 

teams. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

(CDC), quality physical education can serve as the cornerstone of a 

comprehensive school-based physical activity program because it 

provides a unique opportunity for students to obtain the knowledge and 

In addition to its positive health 

benefits, research on physical activity among children also suggests a 

strong correlation between children’s fitness and their academic 

performance, as measured by grades in core subjects and scores on 

standardized tests. Moreover, some experts contend that physical activity 

provides both personal and social benefits, including the development of 

leadership skills and increased self-esteem. The Department of Health 

and Human Services’ (HHS) Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans 

state that children aged 6 to 17 years should get at least 60 minutes of 

physical activity each day, but the agency acknowledges that most 

children do not attain this recommended level.

 

1

GAO, Childhood Obesity: Most Experts Identified Physical Activity and the Use of Best 

Practices as Key to Successful Programs, GAO-06-127R (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 7, 

2005).

 
 

Page 2 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

skills needed to establish and maintain physically active lifestyles 

throughout childhood and adolescence and into adulthood. Toward that 

end, CDC promotes the National Association for Sports and Physical 

Education’s (NASPE) guidelines for physical education, which 

recommend that schools provide 150 minutes per week of physical 

education instruction to elementary school students and 225 minutes per 

week to middle and high school students. Other school-based physical 

activities, such as interscholastic and intramural sports, should 

complement rather than take the place of physical education by providing 

opportunities to practice and apply the skills taught during physical 

education, according to CDC.2

In view of the federal government’s role in promoting the health and 

welfare of children, the Congress is currently considering a number of 

proposals aimed in part at increasing physical activity of youth.3

In conducting this work, we reviewed data from two CDC national data 

sets, the 2000 and 2006 School Health Policies and Practices Survey 

(SHPPS) and the 2005 and 2009 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), 

which address opportunities for students to participate in school-based 

physical education and sports activities.

To assist 

the Congress as it considers options for increasing physical activity for 

students, we reviewed: (1) the status of opportunities for elementary and 

secondary school students to participate in school-based physical 

education or sports activities; and (2) what challenges schools face in 

providing physical education and sports opportunities.

4

 

2

In interscholastic sports, teams from different schools compete against one another. In 

intramural sports, students from a single school compete against each other.

SHPPS collects survey 

information on school health programs and practices from state, district, 

and school officials, and YRBS surveys students in grades 9 through 12 

on health-risk behaviors. We reviewed existing documentation related to 

SHPPS and YRBS data and determined that they are sufficiently reliable 

for the purposes of this report. All SHPPS estimates used in this report 

have margins of error at the 95 percent confidence level of plus or minus 

7 percentage points or less, unless otherwise noted. All percentage 

3

See, for example, H.R. 422, H.R. 1057, H.R. 1531, H.R. 2816, S. 174, S. 392, S. 576, 

and S. 919.

4 Because the most recent SHPPS data are from 2006, they do not reflect any changes 

that may have occurred as a result of the recession that began in December 2007.
 

Page 3 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

estimates from YRBS used in this report have margins of error at the 95 

percent confidence level of plus or minus 4.3 percentage points or less, 

unless otherwise noted. We also interviewed officials at the Department 

of Education, the Department of Health and Human Services, state 

educational agencies, state high school athletic associations, school 

districts, and schools about opportunities for and barriers to participation 

in physical education and sports. To obtain a more in-depth 

understanding of issues related to school-based sports and physical 

education, we conducted site visits to California, Illinois, New York, and 

North Carolina. We selected these states based on geographic 

dispersion, childhood obesity rate, and variation in state requirements for 

physical education programs. Within each state, we selected a 

nongeneralizable sample of districts and schools based on location (rural, 

urban, and suburban), school level (elementary, middle, and high), and 

the percentage of students eligible for free or reduced price lunch.5

We conducted our work from March 2011 to February 2012 in 

accordance with all sections of GAO’s Quality Assurance Framework that 

are relevant to our objectives. The framework requires that we plan and 

perform the engagement to meet our stated objectives and to discuss any 

limitations in our work. We believe that the information and data obtained, 

and the analysis conducted, provide a reasonable basis for any findings 

and conclusions in this product.

We 

also considered any known innovative practices in selecting schools.

Based on our sample selection, we interviewed officials from four state 

educational agencies, four state high school athletic associations, seven 

districts, and 13 schools. In addition, we interviewed others with relevant 

expertise, including researchers and representatives of professional trade 

associations to gain additional perspectives on these issues. We also 

reviewed relevant federal laws and regulations, as well as studies on the 

benefits of sports and physical education for students.

 

5

Data on the percent of students eligible for free or reduced price lunch come from the 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of 

Data (CCD), "Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey", 2009-10.
 

Page 4 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

According to CDC, approximately 12.5 million children aged 2 to 19 years 

are obese.6 The prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents 

has nearly tripled since 1980. Childhood obesity can cause a number of 

harmful effects on health, including high blood pressure and cholesterol, 

breathing problems and asthma, and increased risk of type II diabetes. 

This rise in obesity-related health conditions also introduces added 

economic costs. The annual direct costs of childhood obesity in the 

United States are estimated at about $14.3 billion.7 Moreover, because 

studies suggest that obese children are likely to become overweight or 

obese adults—particularly if they are obese during adolescence—the 

increase in the number of obese children may also contribute to additional 

health care expenditures when they become adults. One study estimated 

the medical costs of obesity to be as high as $147 billion per year in 

2008.8 Nearly half of all medical spending related to adult obesity is 

financed by the public sector, through Medicaid and Medicare.

Research indicates that increased physical activity in general, and 

physical education (PE) and sports participation in particular, yields a 

number of important benefits for elementary and secondary students, 

including:

• Health benefits—Research has shown that regular physical activity for 

youth can benefit them in a number of ways, including helping build 

and maintain healthy bones, muscles, and joints; helping control 

weight and reduce fat; and preventing or delaying the development of 

 

6

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), CDC, National Center for 

Health Statistics. For children and adolescents aged 2 to 19 years, obesity is defined as a 

body mass index (BMI) at or above the 95th percentile for children of the same age and 

sex.

7

R. Hammond and R. Levine, “The Economic Impact of Obesity in the United States,” 

Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity: Targets and Therapy (August 2010): 285-

295. According to CDC, direct medical costs include preventive, diagnostic, and treatment 

services related to obesity. Indirect costs relate to morbidity and mortality costs, such as 

the value of income lost from decreased productivity or premature death.

8

E.A. Finkelstein, J.G. Trogdon, J.W. Cohen, and W. Dietz, “Annual Medical Spending 

Attributable to Obesity: Payer- and Service-Specific Estimates.” Health Affairs 2009; 28(5): 

w822-w831.

Background 

Prevalence and 

Consequences of Obesity 

among U.S. Children

Benefits of Participating in 

Physical Education and 

Sports 
 

Page 5 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

high blood pressure. One study concluded that expanding PE 

programs in schools may be an effective intervention for combating 

obesity in the early years, especially among girls.9

• Academic benefits—A growing body of evidence indicates a 

relationship between PE and sports and academic attainment and 

attendance. A 2010 CDC report that examined 50 existing studies 

found positive associations between academic performance and both 

PE and school-based sports.10 Specifically, it concluded there is 

substantial evidence that physical activity can help improve academic 

achievement, including grades and standardized test scores. Further, 

it suggested physical activity can affect cognitive skills, attitudes, and 

academic behavior, including enhanced concentration, attention, and 

improved classroom behavior, and concluded that increasing or 

maintaining time dedicated to physical education might help academic 

performance.

• Personal and social benefits—A number of studies provide some 

support for the premise that physical activity, and sports in particular, 

can positively affect aspects of personal development among young 

people, such as self-esteem, goal-setting, and leadership.11 However, 

evidence indicates that the quality of coaching is a key factor in 

maximizing positive effects.

The federal government supports efforts to increase the amount of time 

children spend being physically active, including within the school context. 

For example:

• CDC funds 22 states and 1 tribal government to help schools develop 

a systematic approach to school health, including physical education, 

through its promotion of a coordinated school health strategy. It also 

 

9

A. Datar, and R. Sturm, “Physical Education in Elementary School and Body Mass Index: 

Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,” American Journal of Public 

Health, vol. 94, no. 9 (September 2004): 1501-1506.

10Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human 

Services, The Association between School Based Physical Activity, Including Physical 

Education, and Academic Performance (Atlanta, Ga.: 2010).

11For example, see D. Gould and S. Carson, “Personal Development through Sport,” in

Hebestreit, H., & Bar-Or, O. (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Sports Medicine - The Young 

Athlete, (p. 287-301) (Oxford: Blackwell Science, 2008).

Federal, State, and Local 

Roles 
 

Page 6 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

publishes the Physical Education Curriculum Analysis Tool, which is 

designed to help school districts develop or enhance physical 

education curricula.

• The Department of Education administers the Carol M. White Physical 

Education Program, which awards grants to districts and communitybased organizations to initiate or enhance physical education 

programs. In fiscal year 2011, the program had a budget of nearly $79 

million, and funded 76 new awards and 152 continuation awards.

• The President’s Council on Fitness, Sports and Nutrition includes the 

President’s Challenge program, which assists schools in assessing 

student fitness levels, motivating and awarding student physical 

activity participation, and awarding model school PE programs.

• In 2010, the President launched the White House Task Force on 

Childhood Obesity, in conjunction with the First Lady’s Let’s Move!

initiative aimed at increasing physical activity.

• The Department of Agriculture runs the HealthierUS School 

Challenge, an initiative to recognize schools that have created 

healthier school environments through the promotion of nutrition and 

physical activity.

At the state and district levels, various parties may be involved in 

providing students with opportunities in PE or sports. For example, many 

states have requirements regarding schools’ provision of PE, according to 

CDC. However, policies may vary by state or district, such as the required 

grades in which PE should be offered, the number of minutes students 

should be in class, or the specific content and curriculum areas that 

should be taught. For extracurricular athletics, the National Federation of 

State High School Associations provides leadership for the administration 

of most high school interscholastic sports—the main form of 

extracurricular athletic competition in schools, which includes varsity and 

junior varsity level teams. In turn, each state has its own state high school 

athletic association that is a voluntary member of the federation.
 

Page 7 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

The amount of PE instruction time that schools offer to students generally 

decreased from 2000 to 2006, according to SHPPS data, and relatively 

few schools offered students the opportunity to participate in daily PE or 

its instructional equivalent, as recommended by NASPE (see fig. 1).12

National data show that a higher percentage of middle schools offered 

daily PE than did elementary or high schools. Schools we visited differed 

widely in the amount of PE instruction time offered to their students. For 

example, only 3 out of 13 schools we visited offered daily PE or its 

instructional equivalent. These 3 schools had longer school days, which 

officials said made it easier to fit PE into the daily schedule. Among the 4 

elementary schools we visited, 1 provided all students a daily 60-minute 

PE class, while another provided students just one 30-minute PE class 

per week.13

 

12Daily physical education was defined as physical education that occurred for 36 weeks 

(i.e., a typical school year) per school year for 150 minutes per week in elementary 

schools and for 225 minutes per week in middle and high schools.

13According to the 2006 SHPPS, most elementary schools provided regularly scheduled 

recess as another opportunity to offer physical activity to their students. 

While PE Instruction 

Time Has Decreased, 

Officials Said School 

Sports Opportunities 

Have Generally 

Increased 

PE Instruction Time Has 

Decreased, but Schools 

Increasingly Require Some 

PE in Each Grade

Opportunities
 

Page 8 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

Figure 1: Estimated Percentage of Schools Offering PE Daily or at Least 3 Days per Week, in 2000 and 2006 14

At the same time, the estimated percentage of schools that required 

students to take some PE increased at each grade level from 2000 to 

2006, particularly for grades at the middle and high school levels, 

according to SHPPS data (see fig. 2). For example, the estimated 

percentage of schools that required ninth grade students to take PE 

increased from 13 percent in 2000 to 55 percent in 2006.

 

14SHPPS estimates used in this report have margins of error at the 95 percent confidence 

level of plus or minus 7 percentage points or less, unless otherwise noted. 
 

Page 9 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

Figure 2: Estimated Percentage of Schools That Required Some PE, by Grade and Year

Although the amount of PE instruction time has decreased, emphasis on 

the quality of PE programs appears to have increased, according to 

SHPPS data and comments from officials we interviewed. The 

percentage of states that required or encouraged districts or schools to 

follow NASPE-based PE standards—such as competency in motor skills 

and promotion of responsible personal and social behavior—increased 

Program Standards and 

Content
 

Page 10 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

from 59 percent in 2000 to 76 percent in 2006.15 In 2006, an estimated 65 

percent of schools adopted such standards.16

National data on high school students show that participation in PE varied 

considerably by grade level but has not varied significantly across gender 

or racial groups. According to 2009 YRBS data, the estimated percentage 

of high school students who reported attending at least one PE class per 

week decreased with each successive grade level, from 72 percent in 9th 

grade to 44 percent in 12th grade (see fig. 3).

District and school officials 

with whom we spoke said PE curricula now focus less on traditional 

sports in favor of helping students develop lifelong skills. For instance, 

three schools we visited offered outdoor adventure-based activities that 

helped students develop problem solving and teamwork skills. At one 

middle school we visited, PE staff members taught students how to 

measure their body mass index and other indicators of fitness. In addition, 

some school and district officials we interviewed said offering students 

options may increase student participation in PE. For example, officials at 

one high school we visited said that each semester students could select 

two to three different sports or fitness activities from a range of options—

such as flag football, tennis, or soccer—to fulfill their PE requirement. 

School officials noted that students were more engaged in PE because 

the options were designed to motivate students across a range of athletic 

abilities and interests. Moreover, several school officials we interviewed 

said they design their PE curriculum to encourage students to move as 

much as possible during PE class.

17

 

15State educational agencies in all 50 states and the District of Columbia were included in 

the 2006 SHPPS study.

Officials we interviewed in 

one state said most students do not participate in PE in 11th or 12th 

grade because they usually complete the state’s 2-year high school PE 

requirement in 9th and 10th grades. High school boys and girls reported 

participating in PE at about the same rate, as did students in different 

racial groups, according to YRBS. Officials at all schools we visited said 

they do not generally have difficulty getting students to participate in the 

PE opportunities that are offered. At two middle schools we visited, 

16We did not include comparison data because data estimates from 2000 were reported 

differently than data estimates from 2006. 

17These YRBS estimates have a margin of error at the 95 percent confidence level of plus 

or minus 9.6 percentage points or less.

Participation
 

Page 11 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

officials told us the PE curriculum is designed to engage as many 

students as possible.

Figure 3: Estimated Percentage of High School Students Who Attend PE Daily or at Least Once Per Week, by Grade Level

As previously stated, national data show that many schools have PE 

requirements. However, some schools allow exemptions for a range of 

reasons. According to 2006 SHPPS data, state, district, and school 

policies most commonly allowed student exemptions due to long-term 

physical or medical disability. Our previous work has shown that students 

with disabilities generally attend PE class about the same amount of time 

as students without disabilities.18 In addition, according to 2006 SHPPS 

data, most states required schools to implement measures to meet the 

PE needs of students with long-term disabilities.19

 

18GAO, Students with Disabilities: More Information and Guidance Could Improve 

Opportunities in Physical Education and Athletics, 

Officials from most

schools and districts we interviewed said that exemptions from PE 

requirements are rare, and schools generally offer students with longGAO-10-519 (Washington, D.C.: June 

23, 2010).

19Under the implementing regulations for both the Individuals with Disabilities Education 

Act and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, schools are required to provide 

students with disabilities equal opportunity for participation in extracurricular activities, 

which often include athletics. See 34 C.F.R. § 300.107 and 34 C.F.R. § 104.37, 

respectively.
 

Page 12 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

term disabilities the opportunity to participate in adapted PE or general 

PE classes.20

School sports programs offer another opportunity for students to engage 

in school-based physical activity. According to 2006 SHPPS data, an 

estimated 77 percent of middle schools and 91 percent of high schools 

offered students opportunities to participate in interscholastic sports 

programs such as basketball, soccer, or softball (see app. I).21

 

20Some schools accommodate students with more severe motor development delays by 

providing specialized or “adapted” PE instruction, using various approaches. 

Most 

national, state, district, and school officials we interviewed said that 

opportunities to participate in school sports have generally increased, in 

part because many schools have added new interscholastic sports teams 

over the last few years. For example, several schools we visited have 

added lacrosse and badminton programs as student interest in these 

sports has increased. Furthermore, officials from each of the four states 

we visited said they had added new sports programs to their statewide 

interscholastic competition schedules in response to increased demand. 

In particular, many officials we interviewed said opportunities for girls to 

participate in school sports have increased over time, due primarily to the 

addition of new interscholastic sports teams for girls. For example, one 

state official we interviewed noted that while only 49 high schools in the 

state offered girls’ soccer in 1986, about 300 high schools offered it in 

2010. In addition to interscholastic sports, SHPPS data show that an 

estimated 50 percent of elementary schools, 49 percent of middle 

schools, and 45 percent of high schools offered intramural or physical 

activity clubs in 2006. However, several officials said that such programs, 

which are relatively small compared to interscholastic programs, have 

decreased in middle and high schools. Moreover, only a few schools we 

visited offered intramural programs.

21State and district officials we spoke with said that most elementary schools do not offer 

interscholastic sports programs. Only one district we interviewed offered interscholastic 

programs at its elementary schools.

Most Officials Reported 

Increased Opportunities to 

Participate in School 

Sports 

Opportunities
 

Page 13 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

No-cut policies—in which schools do not limit the number of students who 

can participate on a sports team—have also contributed to increased 

opportunities for students to participate in school sports programs, 

according to many officials we interviewed. For example, in one district 

we visited, the middle school interscholastic teams adopted no-cut 

policies, which officials said provided interested students ample 

opportunities to participate in sports programs and gain exposure to new 

sports. Similarly, an official at another high school we visited said the 

school offers at least one no-cut interscholastic team per season so that 

students who want to participate in school sports always have at least 

one option.

National data show that high school students’ participation in at least one 

school or community sports team remained about the same from 2005 to 

2009.22 Over one-half of high school students reported participating in at 

least one school or community sports team in 2009, according to YRBS 

data.23 Several middle school and high school officials we interviewed 

reported similar student participation rates.24 The overall number of 

students who participate in school sports programs has generally 

increased over the years, according to most officials we interviewed. High 

school boys reported a higher rate of participation in school or community 

sports teams than high school girls in both 2005 and 2009, according to 

YRBS data. However, according to the officials we interviewed, the 

number of female athletes has increased over the years, in part due to 

the addition of new sports programs for girls. While participation did not 

vary significantly overall by race for white, black, and Hispanic high 

school students, white high school girls were more likely to report that 

they participate in at least one sports team than their black or Hispanic 

counterparts.25

 

22The YRBS survey instructed students to include any teams run by their school or 

community groups in their response about participation on a sports team.

23Percentage estimates from YRBS used in this report have margins of error at the 95 

percent confidence level of plus or minus 4.3 percentage points or less, unless otherwise 

noted.

24Elementary school students do not generally participate in school sports programs 

because most schools at that level do not offer such programs, according to state and 

district officials we interviewed.

25Race/ethnicity data reporting by YRBS include estimates for white, black, and Hispanic 

students.

Participation
 

Page 14 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

Most officials we spoke with cited budget cuts and inadequate facilities as 

major challenges for schools to provide physical education opportunities 

for students. Specifically, officials from several of the districts and schools 

we visited said budget cuts have affected their ability to hire PE teachers, 

maintain appropriate class sizes, and purchase sufficient equipment. In 

one district we visited, officials told us that many PE teachers have been 

laid off, and some schools in the district have been forced to share a parttime PE instructor. As a result, elementary school PE instruction in the 

district has been reduced to as little as 30 minutes every 2-3 weeks, and 

a district official told us most elementary and middle schools in the district 

are not meeting state requirements for PE instruction. At two elementary 

schools we visited, PE instructors expressed a desire to conduct PE 

instruction on a daily basis, but cited limited funding as a barrier. Some 

schools have also seen increased class sizes as a result of budget cuts. 

In some cases, budget cuts have affected the availability and quality of 

equipment as well. A PE teacher at one school has stopped including 

several sports, such as golf, in her PE classes because the supply of 

equipment no longer matches the class size. In the context of limited 

funding, some state, district, and school officials expressed the belief that 

the greater emphasis on assessments for reading and math, as required 

under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001,26

 

26The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, as amended by the No Child 

Left Behind Act of 2001. Pub. L. No. 107-110 (2002).

has shifted priorities away 

from PE. In one district we visited, an official said this focus on academic 

assessments had led his district to reduce the amount of PE it offers 

students.

Schools Cited 

Resource Challenges 

to Providing PE and 

Sports Opportunities 

but Have Mitigated 

Some of Them

Officials Said PE 

Opportunities Have Been 

Affected by Budget Cuts 

and Inadequate Facilities
 

Page 15 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

Officials at 9 of the 13 schools we visited told us that a lack of adequate 

facilities is also a major challenge in providing physical education. For 

example, because some schools do not have adequate indoor space, 

they may conduct several PE classes in the gymnasium simultaneously, 

or use alternative space for their activities. According to SHPPS data, an 

estimated 54.9 percent of elementary schools, 37.8 percent of middle 

schools, and 25.3 percent of high schools used a cafeteria, auditorium, or 

other multipurpose room for indoor physical education in 2006. During our 

site visits, we observed several PE classes sharing space and saw 

multipurpose facilities being used as gymnasiums. For example, at one 

school we visited, the gymnasium also served as the cafeteria. The time it 

takes to prepare for, serve, and clean up from lunch limits the school’s 

ability to schedule PE classes.

Several school officials told us they have worked hard to stretch the 

limited funding they receive for PE instruction. Some schools partially rely 

on federal grant money to help maintain and augment PE opportunities. 

For example, two school districts we visited were able to purchase 

equipment, such as fitness center equipment and kick balls, for their PE 

programs as a result of Carol M. White grants from the Department of 

Education.

Although sports opportunities have generally increased, most officials we 

spoke with cited budget constraints as a key challenge to providing 

opportunities. In particular, budget cuts have affected transportation and 

facilities. Some schools have also struggled to find coaches for their 

school sports teams.

Because interscholastic sports games may involve travel and some 

teams practice off-site, schools often need to provide transportation for 

athletes. Many school and district officials we spoke with stated that, 

because of budget constraints, they had a difficult time providing 

transportation to facilitate student participation in after-school sports 

activities. According to SHPPS data, an estimated 29 percent of the 

schools that offered interscholastic sports in 2006 also provided 

transportation home for participating students, up from 21 percent in 

2000. For schools that offered intramural activities, an estimated 31 

percent of middle schools and 28 percent of high schools provided 

transportation home for students. Some school officials told us that 

transportation costs, including costs associated with maintenance and 

fuel, are a large part of their school’s athletic budget. To help reduce 

Schools Also Face Budget 

and Other Challenges in 

Providing Sports 

Opportunities but Have 

Partially Mitigated Them

Transportation
 

Page 16 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

transportation costs, some schools charge students a fee for 

transportation, enlisting parents to provide carpools, or sharing buses with 

other athletic teams to transport students to and from athletic events.

Several school officials we spoke with stated that budget cuts and space 

constraints have affected their ability to provide adequate facilities and 

equipment for sports opportunities. Some smaller schools do not have 

access to baseball or football fields or other facilities for team sports. In 

addition, some schools use off-site locations for practices and events due 

to the lack of space or adequate facilities. Furthermore, some schools, 

particularly schools in densely populated communities, lack the necessary 

space to expand their facilities. Moreover, officials at one school we 

visited said they were prohibited from building new athletic fields or 

expanding because of land use restrictions. To mitigate some of these 

challenges, several schools we visited have developed partnerships with 

local businesses, colleges, nonprofits, or community recreational centers 

to use their facilities for various sports programs. For example, several 

schools have agreements to use community athletic fields and other 

facilities for baseball, football, soccer, and swimming programs. In 

addition to space constraints, some school officials cited aging or 

insufficient equipment as a challenge to providing sports opportunities.

For example, an official from one school told us the school had to 

implement a selection policy for the football program, in which some 

students were cut from the team, because demand exceeded the number 

of uniforms and helmets available for players. School officials also cited 

the upkeep and maintenance of fields as a challenge given budget 

constraints.

Some state, district, and other officials cited finding quality coaches as a 

challenge to providing sports opportunities. Specifically, some officials 

told us that fewer faculty members have been coaching sports teams in 

recent years. Officials attribute this decline to the low pay and increased 

time commitments that are often required to coach a sport. In one state 

we visited, an official said over 60 percent of the coaches in the state 

were considered “walk-on coaches” who were not otherwise a part of the 

school community. Some officials said that non-faculty coaches may be 

less accessible to students. In addition, some schools may have a difficult 

time finding coaches for specific sports. For example, one school official 

reported difficulty finding cheerleading coaches given the specialized 

training needed to coach a cheerleading squad.

Schools have mitigated some of the budgetary challenges related to 

providing sports opportunities by relying heavily on outside funding 

Facilities and Equipment

Coaches

Mitigating Funding Challenges
 

Page 17 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

sources or charging fees for certain sports activities. Some school 

officials we interviewed said their athletics funding depended primarily on 

community support or the tax base of their district, both of which fluctuate 

with the economy. For example, one district we visited had strong 

community support and a high economic tax base. During our site visit, 

we observed that schools in this district had numerous and high-quality 

facilities and one official mentioned that even the district’s middle schools 

had swimming pools. The official added that the tax base has remained 

steady, and the district has not experienced some of the challenges that 

other school districts face in providing PE and sports opportunities for its 

students. However, other schools we visited reported relying heavily on 

booster clubs, gate receipts, private donations, and fundraising to fund 

their local sports programs. For example, one school official told us that 

the school relies heavily on ticket sales from sporting events that may 

total as much as $60,000 a year to maintain and fund its sports programs.

Also, some schools with very strong community support benefit from 

community fundraising efforts.

In addition, some school districts have implemented “pay-to-play” 

arrangements, in which students are charged a fee to participate in 

school sports activities. Specifically, according to SHPPS data, the 

percentage of schools that require students to pay an activity fee to 

participate in interscholastic sports was an estimated 33 percent in 2006, 

which did not differ significantly from the 2000 estimate of 29 percent.27

 

27SHPPS asked schools whether students must pay an activity fee to participate in sports

but did not define what such a fee might include.

In 

addition, the percentage of schools with intramural activities or physical 

activity clubs that required students to pay a fee for these activities 

increased from an estimated 23 percent in 2000 to 35 percent in 2006. 

However, in two states we visited, officials told us that pay-to-play 

arrangements are prohibited in their states. Some officials expressed 

concern that pay-to-play arrangements may negatively impact student 

participation by serving as a barrier to lower-income students. However, 

according to 2006 SHPPS data, an estimated 86 percent of schools that 

charge a fee to participate in sports activities waived the fee for students 

who could not afford to pay.
 

Page 18 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

The federal government has an interest in seeing that school-aged 

children benefit from the positive effects regular physical activity can have 

on health and overall well-being. As the primary social institution where 

children learn and spend their time, schools can play a pivotal role in 

increasing students’ physical activity, in part through offering PE classes 

and opportunities to participate in sports programs. Although it appears 

schools increasingly acknowledge the benefits of PE by requiring 

students to take classes, they have reduced the amount of time spent on 

PE instruction. Opportunities to play school sports, however, appear to be 

on the rise. While such a trend is encouraging, school-based sports 

should augment, rather than replace, the experiences and skills acquired 

in PE, which reaches beyond student athletes to the general student 

population. A number of challenges inhibit further expansion of schoolbased PE and sports. At a time when states and districts are operating 

under severe fiscal constraints, acquiring resources to provide additional 

opportunities is difficult. Although some districts and schools have 

developed approaches to partially offset the challenges associated with 

providing sports opportunities, challenges associated with providing PE 

remain unresolved. Identifying practical ways to increase students’ 

physical activity may be difficult, but the need to address childhood 

obesity—and the opportunity to shore up such efforts in the school 

context—serves as a compelling starting point for addressing obesityrelated health issues and their associated costs.

We provided a draft of the report to the Departments of Education and 

Health and Human Services for review and comment. Both agencies 

provided technical comments, which we incorporated as appropriate.

As arranged with your offices, unless you publicly announce its contents 

earlier, we plan no further distribution of this report until 30 days from its 

issue date. At that time, we will send copies of this report to relevant 

congressional committees, the Secretary of Education, the Secretary of 

Health and Human Services, and other interested parties. In addition, the 

report is available at no charge on the GAO website at 

http://www.gao.gov. 

Concluding 

Observations 

Agency Comments 

and Our Evaluation 
 

Page 19 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact 

me at (206) 287-4809 or calboml@gao.gov. Contact points for our Offices 

of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last 

page of this report. GAO staff who made key contributions to this report 

are listed in appendix II.

Linda Calbom

Director, Education, Workforce, and

 Income Security Issues
Appendix I: Estimated Percentage of All Middle 

and High Schools That Offered Interscholastic 

Sports in 2006, by School Level

Page 20 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

Interscholastic Sport

% of All Middle 

Schools

% of All High 

Schools

Badminton 4.2 7.2

Baseball 35.7 79.6

Basketball 76.4 90.9

Bowling 3.0 17.2

Cheerleading or competitive spirits 50.9 77.3

Cross-country 38.9 68.4

Downhill or cross-country skiing 3.2 5.9

Fast pitch or slow pitch softball 45.2 77.9

Field hockey 7.1 10.2

Football 53.0 71.0

Golf 22.1 68.4

Gymnastics 5.2 10.1

Ice hockey 2.4 14.3

Lacrosse 3.7 12.8

Riflery 2.1 3.8

Soccer 32.3 60.3

Swimming or diving 6.9 37.8

Tennis 12.6 53.0

Track and field 52.1 73.2

Volleyball 57.3 71.4

Water polo 0.5 2.6

Weight lifting 9.9 23.8

Wrestling 28.7 49.6

Source: SHPPS, 2006.

Note: All SHPPS estimates used in this report have margins of error at the 95 percent confidence 

level of plus or minus 7 percentage points or less, unless otherwise noted.

Appendix I: Estimated Percentage of All Middle 

and High Schools That Offered Interscholastic 

Sports in 2006, by School Level
Appendix II: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments

Page 21 GAO-12-350 K-12 Education

Linda Calbom (206) 287-4809 or calboml@gao.gov

Debra Prescott (Assistant Director) and Rebecca Woiwode (Analyst-inCharge) managed this assignment. Vernette Shaw and Michelle Wong 

made significant contributions in all facets of the work. In addition, Dana 

Hopings helped with site visits; Jean McSween and Dae Park provided 

methodological support; Alex Galuten provided legal assistance; David 

Chrisinger provided writing assistance; and James Bennett provided 

graphics for the report.

Appendix II: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

GAO contact

Staff 

Acknowledgments 

(131072)
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