Investi<g

in nature

Creating Jobs and Restoring Coastal Habitats
A Sea Change for Restoration

In recent decades, huge strides have been made in public 

awareness about the value of our most important and yet 

critically imperiled coastal habitats. Since the 1970s, salt marshes, 

once negatively perceived as “only” swamps and breeding grounds 

for mosquitoes, are now focal points for bird watching and 

other ecotourism activities. Their role as nurseries for juvenile 

shrimp, crab and fish is well documented. Recent studies noting 

the value of salt marshes as a buffer against storm surges and 

waves reinforce their value for protecting life and property in 

our coastal communities. Accordingly, there are federal, state 

and local laws designed to protect salt marshes, and mitigation 

is usually required to repair damages caused by unavoidable or 

accidental impacts. 

Other habitats such as underwater grasses (seagrass) and 

corals are also increasingly protected from direct impacts 

from activities like channel dredging operations and “scarring” 

from recreational boats as they navigate across shallow areas. 

Indeed, regulatory measures resulting from the Clean Water 

Act and other state and local laws have helped to stem the loss 

of these habitats, but there is a profound need to bring back 

the millions of acres that have been lost so that our coasts 

continue to feed and protect people.

Restoration as a National Priority

With increased public awareness of the importance of coastal 

habitat and the stunning rates of loss, a restoration ethic emerged 

in the 1990s. People in coastal communities began to want more 

than mitigation that simply slowed or stemmed the rate of loss.

In 1996, NOAA created the Community-based Restoration 

Program (CRP), overseen by the NOAA Restoration Center. 

In the ensuing years, the CRP has provided funding and technical 

support for thousands of projects around the United States. 

Through partnerships with organizations like The Nature 

Conservancy, Restore America’s Estuaries, American Rivers 

and others, the NOAA Restoration Center has shown that 

even modest projects can galvanize community support to 

open entire rivers to migrating fish, to clean up polluted waters so 

that bivalves thrive and are safe to consume, and to restore habitats 

that were lost generations before. It is fair to say that through 

these partnerships, restoration of coastal habitat rapidly became a 

priority for many communities. 

Recognizing that coastal habitat restoration is emerging as a 

national priority, Congress passed the Estuary Restoration Act 

in 2000, creating a federal interagency Estuary Habitat 

Restoration Council and an additional new funding stream for 

small-scale habitat restoration (defined as projects costing up 

to $1 million for implementation). The Council leverages 

resources and expertise from different agencies to help 

restoration practitioners – mostly local and state agencies, 

tribes and non-governmental organizations – implement 

projects. These projects are designed to help meet an ambitious 

restoration goal of 1 million acres by 2010.

A Partnership for Restoration

Since 2001, The Nature Conservancy and the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) have been working 

together through a National Partnership to restore a diversity 

of habitats in our nation’s coastal waters. All along the coast of 

the United States, scores of projects involving thousands 

of people have yielded tangible, lasting improvements to 

oyster reefs and clam beds, underwater grasses, salt marshes, 

mangroves and coral reefs. 

The fragile, green edges and intricate tapestry of habitats 

along the coast are what make estuaries and coastal waters so 

productive–providing fish and shellfish that feed us and fuel our 

coastal economy. These habitats also protect our communities 

from storm surges and provide a restful place to enjoy when the 

weather is calm. As more people settle and communities expand 

along the coast, many of these habitats are suffering and the 

habitat loss statistics are shocking. Studies from around the 

world show that approximately:

• 20 percent of coral reefs are degraded

• 30 percent of underwater grasses (seagrasses) are lost

• 50 percent of coastal wetlands are filled, ditched or drained, and

• 85 percent of oyster reefs are dredged away, buried with 

sediment or made unproductive by pollution, diseases and 

changes to river flows. 

In the United States, these statistics also track closely with 

the losses documented and summarized by Restore America’s 

Estuaries in a recent publication “Hope for Habitats: People, 

Partnerships and Projects Making a Difference.”

partnerships

©Ami Vitale
The Nature Conservancy is privileged to be leading eight of the 

50 NOAA Recovery Act projects that are described in greater 

detail in the accompanying documents. Also included is a ninth 

project led by the Penobscot River Restoration Trust, in which 

the Conservancy is an integral partner. As of April 2010, all 

nine projects are progressing through planning, pre-restoration 

monitoring and implementation stages. 

Even with the solid near-term monitoring plans in place, the full 

ecological outcomes will not be evident for years. Nonetheless, 

we can already say with certainty that the projects are providing 

important ecological and logistical lessons pertaining to 

restoration, spurring innovation that helps to achieve economyof-scale savings for restoration, and creating a diversity of jobs in 

numerous coastal communities. 

Toward One Million Acres

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (Recovery Act) 

passed by Congress in 2009 provided NOAA with $167 million 

for mid-scale habitat restoration projects, another step toward 

the 1 million acre restoration mark. In its public solicitation to 

allocate these funds, NOAA received more than 800 proposals 

from organizations across the country totaling more than $3 

billion in requests for project funding. This overwhelming 

response demonstrates that the need and capacity to carry out 

restoration of our coasts and oceans far surpasses NOAA’s 

current annual budget for coastal habitat restoration projects, or 

the one-time funding made available through the Recovery Act. 

Many of the 50 Recovery Act projects that are being implemented 

are dramatic expansions of restoration work that began as modest 

community-based projects through the Conservancy-NOAA 

National Partnership and NOAA’s Community-based Restoration 

Program. Indeed, such pilot-scale projects helped to make the 

Recovery Act projects possible by providing the successful 

blueprint for many habitat restoration projects around the 

nation. These initial pilot projects created community awareness 

that habitats can be restored with innovative thinking and 

collaborative partnerships. These projects also provided the 

scientific underpinning for restoration methods and monitoring 

protocols that will be used to document the ecological outcomes of 

these projects. 

Another exciting facet to the Recovery Act projects is a direct 

focus on the economic benefits of the restoration work itself, 

recognizing the diversity of skills and materials that are required 

to plan and implement such large-scale “green” infrastructure 

projects. The eight Recovery Act projects managed directly by 

the Conservancy will create or maintain more than 400 jobs. In 

addition, these projects may involve the production of Americanmade steel, concrete and other materials, or the construction, 

transport, sales and maintenance of the boats, barges, trucks and 

other equipment needed to carry out the projects. These projects 

are creating future ancillary jobs and benefits by helping to sustain 

fisheries, providing opportunities for ecotourism and protecting 

local economies and properties from damages caused from storm 

surges and flooding. 

Habitat Restoration Priorities

The projects described in this publication fall into five broad 

categories that NOAA developed and used to categorize and 

prioritize projects for Recovery Act funding:

Fish Passage: Alaska, Washington, Maine

Hydrologic and Tidal Reconnection: Alaska, California, 

Washington

Shellfish Restoration: Alabama, Louisiana, Virginia

Coral Recovery: Florida/U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaii

Coastal Resiliency: Alabama, Louisiana, Virginia, Washington

PROJECT GOALS AT-A-GLANCE

Projected jobs created or maintained: 415* 

Projected acres restored or enhanced: 1,118

Projected river miles opened and improved: 80*

Habitats improved: salt marshes, underwater grass beds, 

oyster reefs, coral reefs, rivers and streams that provide 

juvenile and adult salmon habitat.

* Note that the dam removals and fish passage construction in the 

Penobscot River project in Maine will increase these numbers 

substantially once the project is fully implemented. Hundreds of jobs 

will be supported in the effort to improve access to nearly 1,000 miles 

of the Penobscot River, supporting the recovery of Atlantic salmon and 

sustaining many other ecologically and commercially important species.

priorities

Since 2001, the Conservancy and NOAA have 

worked to implement more than 100 restoration 

projects around the country through a National 

Partnership for Community-based Restoration 

and Recovery Act funding.

Shellfish reefs & beds

Anadromous fish habitat

Salt marsh

Sea grasses

Coral

Mangrove

Other

Recovery Act project

Restoration Target

WA

CA

HI

AK

FL USVI

VA

ME

LA

AL
The Future of Restoration: Scaling Up

With a decade of experience leading coastal habitat restoration 

projects at various scales and managing a portfolio of exciting 

Recovery Act projects supported by NOAA, The Nature 

Conservancy has observed that:

•	 Public-private partnerships provide valuable leverage and

motivate communities to set priorities and take action to 

improve coastal habitats.

•	 Projects such as the ones funded through the Recovery Act 

that provide restoration at larger scales are engines of 

innovation and deliver economy-of-scale savings in project 

implementation costs.

•	 Restoring the “natural infrastructure” of our coasts

creates jobs in many sectors. The Conservancy’s eight 

Recovery Act projects alone will create or support more than 

400 jobs including heavy equipment operators, surveyors, 

engineers, welders, biologists and boat operators.

•	 Measuring the ecological outcomes of projects is

extremely important for evaluating and refining restoration 

techniques, adaptively managing restored habitats, and 

understanding the full range of services and economic benefits 

that are returned by restored habitats over time.

•	 There is a growing appetite for healthier coasts and marine 

habitat in the United States, and commitments to support 

more and larger restoration projects will not only help 

to sustain the development of a restoration economy, but 

will provide long-term benefits to communities both near 

and far from the coast.

Just as habitat loss occurred incrementally and at various scales 

over time, meaningful restoration of these critical coastal 

habitats will need to be addressed at different scales and will 

require time. Partnerships that support small to modestscale projects serve as important incubators for project ideas, 

restoration approaches and new monitoring methods. They 

also propel communities toward larger-scale projects like those 

showcased in this publication. 

These Recovery Act projects, in turn, are components of 

larger initiatives designed to revitalize entire coastal regions 

or ecosystems. For example, restoring the vast network of 

marshes and barrier islands that protect the Louisiana and 

Mississippi coast will require a sustained effort involving 

a variety of restoration approaches and projects that span 

political boundaries. Likewise, the Chesapeake Bay and Puget 

Sound are both large ecosystems where habitat restoration 

has been invoked as being necessary to achieve comprehensive 

water quality improvements: restoring riparian habitats, 

shorelines, wetlands and oyster reefs are all steps that can help 

to buffer the nation’s largest estuaries from the overabundance 

of nutrients escaping from their watersheds. Finally, restoring 

the ecology and economic benefits of the Everglades and 

California’s vast Sacramento-San Joaquin delta requires a 

comprehensive approach to restoring and reconnecting vast 

areas of marsh and floodplains and managing the intricate 

balance between water flow and delivery of sediments that 

sustain these wetlands over time. These nine Recovery Act 

projects are excellent reminders that the means to restore 

larger ecosystems exist, and doing so is an excellent way to 

help people and nature prosper.

perseverance ©Bridget Besaw
This document was prepared by The Nature Conservancy’s Recovery 

Act Central Support Team: Amanda Wrona Meadows, Rob 

Brumbaugh, Erica Rychwalski, Jena Carter, Jennifer Greene and Boze 

Hancock. It provides a glimpse at some mid-scale marine habitat 

restoration projects funded through the American Recovery and 

Reinvestment Act through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. In particular, we highlight projects that are either 

being led by or conducted in partnership with The Nature Conservancy 

in nine states and in the U.S. Virgin Islands. These projects touch on 

a variety of habitats – marshes, rivers and streams, seagrass meadows, 

oyster and coral reefs – and would not be possible without the 

involvement of dozens of partner organizations and collaborators. 

More than 400 people will be involved in implementing these projects, 

but we wish to acknowledge in particular a number of Conservancy 

staff who are not only managing this suite of exciting projects, but 

also provided valuable insights and comments that improved this 

document: Jenny Baker, Rob Bosworth, Cindy Brown, James Byrne, 

Kate Dempsey, Jeff DeQuattro, Amy Hoss, Meaghan Johnson, Bo Lusk, 

Caitlin Lustic, Amy Smith-Kyle, Barry Truitt and David Ziemann.

“This project was made possible through support provided by the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce and 

The Nature Conservancy, under Cooperative Agreements NA09NMF4630301, 

NA09NMF4630303, NA09NMF4630304, NA09NMF30332, NA09NMF4630308, 

NA09NMF4630312, NA09NFM4630314 and NA09NMF4630317. The content and 

opinions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the 

position or the policy of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. 

Department of Commerce, and no official endorsement should be inferred.”

For more information, contact marine@tnc.org or visit: 

nature.org/restoration or noaa.gov/recovery

Cover Photos

top left: ©Barry Truit/TNC

top right ©Bridget Besaw

bottom: ©Ami Vitale 

Date: April 2010

©Ami Vitale

The mission of The Nature Conservancy is to preserve

the plants, animals and natural communities that represent 

the diversity of life on Earth by protecting the 

lands and waters they need to survive.

ack<owledgments
Projects

underway

Planning Permitting Partnerships Outreach Restoration Monitoring

Alabama

Alaska

California

Florida/USVI

Hawaii

Louisiana

Maine

Virginia

Washington

= Stage of progress at each site as of April 2010.

Progress on the ground 

and in the water

Work is underway at all of The Nature 

Conservancy’s Recovery Act projects. 

Less than a year after being funded, each 

site is making significant progress toward 

their restoration goals. Pre-restoration 

monitoring is complete at most sites, final 

engineering design and staging of supplies 

is underway, and in-water restoration has 

begun at many sites.

Importantly, plans for post-restoration 

monitoring are in place to enable us to 

document outcomes. Despite differences 

in logistics based on habitat type and 

geography, overall progress indicates that 

the projects are on track to achieve their 

projected outcomes within their 

proposed timelines.

For more information contact: marine@tnc.org 

or visit: nature.org/restoration or noaa.gov/recovery

Photos left to right: ©iStock, ©John DeMello and TNC, ©NOAA
Project Highlights 

•	 Goals: Improve salmon habitat and stocks with a long-term goal 

of restoring fisheries to historic levels to meet the needs of local 

residents and others.

•	 Jobs: This project invests in local economies by creating 

or maintaining 20 jobs and an estimated 10,800 hours of 

employment for surveyors, planners and designers, administrative 

staff, road construction crews, scientists and technicians.

•	 Habitat Restoration: The project will restore direct and safe 

access for salmon and other fish to 460 acres of eelgrass habitat 

and more than 65 miles of important stream and lake habitat. 

•	 Progress: As of April 2010, contracts are in place, permitting is 

complete and designs for the fish-friendly culvert are approved. 

Construction, including casting the culvert, will start in the early 

summer of 2010 with construction and installation of the culvert 

in late summer of 2010.

•	 Measurement: A scientific monitoring plan will measure success 

of this project for fish and other aquatic species. 

•	 Outreach: Project staff have reached out to the local community 

with fact sheets, an open house and signs at the project site 

explaining details about the work to be conducted.

•	 Partners: The Nature Conservancy, Alaska Department of 

Transportation and Public Facilities, Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game, Klawock Watershed Council, City of 

Klawock, Klawock Community Association, Craig Community 

Association, Ducks Unlimited, NOAA Fisheries, U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, USDA Forest Service, Klawock Heenya 

Corporation, Keta Engineering, Klawock Hatchery, and the 

Alaska Trollers Association.

Pictured above: A black bear catches a pink salmon. ©Bridget Besaw 

Alaska

RESTORATION

MONITORING

BENEFITS TO PEOPLE AND NATURE

PEOPLE

Traditional subsistence 

fishing

Sustainable fisheries 

and fishery jobs

Recreational fishing

Eco-tourism

NATURE

Increased essential 

habitat for salmon

Expected increased 

biodiversity 

Improved estuary 

function

Increased salinity will 

favor growth of eelgrass

Southeast Alaska Salmon Habitat Restoration Project

Install fish-friendly culvert

Restore natural flow of water and fish

Restore estuary habitat

Observe culvert use by salmon adults and juveniles

Determine change in salinity

Observe change in eelgrass (location and condition)

Determine change in dependent species over time
Sockeye salmon returning to Klawock Lake have supported settlement 

by the Tlingit and their predecessors since pre-historic times. The site 

also was the location of one of the earliest commercial fishing and fish 

processing businesses in Alaska, with a saltery in 1868 and a cannery in 

1878. Today, the most important subsistence activity for local residents is 

still the salmon fishery at the mouth of the Klawock River, with sockeye 

being traditionally the most valued of the four salmon species that return 

to the river each year to spawn. A 1997 study documented that 69 percent 

of Klawock households use sockeye salmon, with an average of 117 pounds 

per household. Subsistence sockeye harvest by residents of Klawock has 

been relatively steady in recent decades at about 6,000 fish taken annually.

Recently, however, fewer salmon have been returning, with a 

corresponding detrimental effect on commercial, sport, and subsistence 

harvest. Responses to a subsistence fisheries survey in 2001 suggested 

numerous causes for the decline including: commercial interception, 

construction of a hatchery, logging, sport charter fishing, the causeway 

over the estuary, and weather patterns. Continued harvest restrictions 

remain in place to conserve the Klawock salmon population. 

The Klawock Watershed Council has played a key role building 

partnerships to protect and enhance habitat for salmon. A coalition 

of agencies, elected officials, fishermen and conservationists 

convened nearly a decade ago to address the causeway issue and 

opening the causeway to the passage of salmon fulfills a long awaited 

wish of the people of Klawock.

Fishermen net salmon in the coastal waters of Alaska. ©Ami Vitale

A Vision for Project Success

Short-term goals: This project will enable salmon to pass beneath 

a highway that has blocked fish passage since 1964 along a historic 

migration corridor into the Klawock River. Improved habitat 

conditions for both juvenile and adult salmon are expected to occur 

following construction of a fish-friendly 18 foot wide cast concrete 

culvert measuring 100 feet long. Primary project goals are to open 

access to the river, increase salmon survival and improve salmon 

habitat by increasing distribution of eelgrass in the local lagoon. 

Long-term goals: The history, culture and economy of Klawock 

provide important context for this project. Local residents depend 

on salmon and desire that the causeway and highway return to a 

condition that allows fish to pass and salmon stocks to return to 

historic levels. Salmon are the principle traditional subsistence food 

of the Tlingit people and this project seeks to restore salmon stocks 

to support these and other needs. 

People and Salmon: 

A Tightly-Knit Relationship

The village of Klawock on Prince of Wales Island has a population 

of 854 people, approximately 50 percent of whom are Alaska Native. 

Klawock residents adhere strongly to customary and traditional 

values and practices, including subsistence harvest of fish and 

wildlife. Historically, harvest of salmon at Klawock was the mainstay 

of household, community and regional economies. 

The 29,061 acre Klawock River watershed on the west coast of Prince 

of Wales Island contains more than 132 miles of streams that serve as 

important spawning habitat for pink, chum, coho and sockeye salmon, 

as well as steelhead, cutthroat trout and Dolly Varden char. Sockeye 

salmon harvests of more than 30,000 fish were reported from the 

late 1880s through the 1950s. Since 1969, fish counts have exceeded 

20,000 sockeye just once and only reached 10,000 fish in six of the 

past 50 years. Similarly dramatic declines occurred for pink salmon 

and chum salmon in the latter half of the 20th century.

©TNC 

Sockeye salmon, still grey in color having just transitioned 

from sea to freshwater. ©Ami Vitale 
Solving a Restoration Challenge

Klawock village is reached by a narrow piece of land, or isthmus, and 

causeway that crosses the Klawock River estuary. Historically, the 

isthmus was under water at higher tidal stages, frequently enough to 

allow out-migrating fish to access eelgrass habitat north of the causeway, 

and in-migrating fish to move directly up into the Klawock River 

to spawn. Sea water could mix freely with fresh water in the lagoon, 

creating an estuary and habitat that supported fish that sustained local 

people. A highway was constructed over the isthmus in 1964, and the 

elevated roadbed partially blocked hydrologic connectivity between the 

Klawock River lagoon and Klawock Bay and created a barrier to fish. 

One elder, responding to a subsistence fishing survey, remembered the 

fish moving through the area that is now blocked by the land causeway:

“It seems like it was a thoroughfare for the fish. We used to go swimming. Fish would 

swim down there and when the fish were moving up the stream, my Dad didn’t like 

us going down there because then there was seals and killer whales that would come in 

and herd them, feed off of them. My Dad didn’t like us to go there.” 

Ratner et al. (2006) “Local knowledge, customary practices, and harvest of 

Sockeye salmon from the Klawock and Sarkar Rivers”

Some believe the causeway changed the circulation patterns at 

the peak of the high tide and suggest the fish previously had more 

opportunities to avoid predators. Several long-time residents have 

pointed out the remains of a wooden fish trap near the causeway site, 

indicating that fish may have passed through or schooled nearby. 

This project will restore access for fish to Klawock lagoon by 

installing a fish-friendly culvert, 18 feet wide and 100 feet long 

beneath the highway and isthmus, allowing for the improved 

exchange of seawater and freshwater water in the lagoon. In 

particular, this will allow juvenile fish leaving the estuary at a 

vulnerable stage of their life to access 460 acres of eelgrass habitat 

that lies immediately seaward of the causeway. 

The project also will allow adult salmon to enter the Klawock River 

through the causeway and more easily reach more than 65 miles of 

important stream and lake habitat. Improved lagoon habitat will result 

in larger juveniles as they leave the estuary, as well as higher ocean 

survival rates due to their increased size. The project is also expected 

to increase the salinity in the Klawock River lagoon and promote 

the establishment of eelgrass beds, which are officially recognized as 

essential fish habitat for salmon. Expansion of eelgrass beds may also 

benefit other fish, including juvenile rockfish and forage fish.

Fish Passage and Estuary Restoration: 

Benefits for People and Nature 

People: Direct benefits from healthy habitats

• Protecting the health of estuaries and providing safe passage to 

rivers for salmon provide humans with recreation and tourism 

opportunities and jobs, while providing clean water and protecting 

our coastal infrastructure. 

• In particular, restoring habitat for salmon can pay huge dividends: 

The Alaska fishing industry employed approximately 54,760 

people in 2003.

• Sport fishing also provides important benefits to the Alaska 

economy. Salmon are the most sought after fish for sport fishing 

in Alaska. A national survey estimated that U.S. residents spent 

approximately $537 million on fishing trips and equipment in 

Alaska in 2001. 

• Alaska recreational fishing generated 11,064 jobs worth $235 

million in wages and generated an estimated total of $960 million 

in spending. 

• Although subsistence and personal uses accounts for less than four 

percent of the annual salmon harvest in Alaska, salmon is extremely 

important to many families throughout Alaska who depend on fish 

as a source of food and a way of life, especially in rural areas. Salmon 

harvest has deep traditional roots and great cultural value for many 

Alaskans, including rural residents and Alaska Native people.

The isthmus and causeway to Klawock village, today and in the 1930s. (left) 

©Alaska ShoreZone and (right) courtesy of Paul Coffey
Estuaries: Where the rivers meet the sea

• Estuaries offer an ecological bridge for species that move between 

the ocean and fresh water. An estuary’s shallow, protected waters 

provide refuge for a diversity of species and important juvenile 

nursery habitats for many commercially-important marine species.

• Migratory fish travel between fresh and saltwater habitats for their 

growth, reproduction and survival. Such species cannot survive 

when access to spawning grounds is compromised or flow is altered 

in ways that degrade important nursery habitat.

• Species such as eelgrass depend on the correct ratio of salt to 

freshwater to survive. Salinities that are too high or too low can 

cause disease, mortality and loss of vital habitat.

Eelgrass: The habitat provider

• Underwater grasses like eelgrass act as nursery habitat for fish and 

crabs and refuge from larger predators. 

• Eelgrass in Alaskan waters is considered an essential habitat for 

salmon and early life stages of dozens of other commerciallyimportant species of fish found in Southeast Alaska.

• Eelgrass is known to be of great importance during very early 

migration of salmon fry, potentially increasing survival by providing 

protection from predators. Eelgrass may be an important transition 

habitat for salmon fry moving between estuaries and offshore areas, 

providing food, cover and protection from currents. 

Fish Passage: A critical stage of life

• All fish migrate between feeding and spawning areas and make 

other seasonal movements to important habitats. 

• Nationally, thousands of culverts, dikes, water diversions, dams 

and other artificial barriers were constructed to impound or 

redirect water for irrigation, flood control, electricity, water supply 

and transportation. All of these changed the natural features of 

countless waterways, blocking the natural migration of fish to 

historic habitat used for reproduction and growth. 

• An estimated 2.5 million of these barriers still exist across the country, 

many of which no longer serve their original purpose and were 

abandoned years ago.

SALMON BIOLOGY 101

•	 Pacific salmon are anadromous fish that live in the ocean mostly, and spawn in fresh water

•	 The Klawock River system supports pink, chum, coho, and sockeye salmon, as well as steelhead, cutthroat trout, and Dolly Varden char,

which are taken to varying degrees in sport, commercial, and subsistence fisheries. Sockeye, the most desired subsistence species,

decreased in abundance in the mid-20th century and have yet to recover.

•	 Salmon are born in gravel nests at the bottom of stream and river beds as eggs about the size of a pencil eraser. The eggs are usually red

to pink in color and hatch in about two to three months.

•	 Upon hatching, the new salmon will retain the yolk as a nutrient-rich sac attached beneath its body. The larval fish, called alevin, will

remain in the gravel bed for approximately a month until large enough to swim.

•	 Once large enough to swim these fish, called fry, begin their journey to the ocean.

•	 From several months to three years old, or parr stage, salmon will continue to feed and grow until they are old enough to leave the

estuary for the ocean.

•	 When juvenile salmon lose their vertical markings and turn silvery in color they are considered smolt. At this time the young salmon will

transition to saltier waters, allowing them to swim out into the Pacific Ocean to feed and grow into adult salmon, eventually returning to

their natal stream to spawn and die.

For more information, contact: 

Rob Bosworth

The Nature Conservancy

416 Harris St. Suite 301

Juneau, AK 99801

907-586-8621

rbosworth@tnc.org
Project Highlights 

•	 Goals: Restore and enhance shoreline habitat with a long-term 

goal of boosting the economy of coastal Alabama communities hit 

hard by hurricanes, habitat degradation and a struggling economy.

•	 Jobs: This project will create 35 to 40 new jobs in the coastal 

Alabama community, with most of the jobs being in the 

construction and deployment phases of the breakwater process.

•	 Habitat Restoration: The project includes 1.5 miles of 

submerged breakwater, 3 acres of oyster reef, and 30 acres of 

seagrass beds. In total, the living shoreline breakwaters will 

protect approximately 10,000 feet of shoreline. Due to significant 

cost savings in the first eight months of the project, staff has been 

able to extend the size of the reef by 50 percent. 

•	 Progress: As of April 2010, contracts are in place, permitting 

is complete, and designs for the reefs and their placement have 

been approved. Construction of the reefs on land is complete and 

deployment has begun.

•	 Outreach: Project staff has reached out to the community and 

are planning a number of events to promote the project and 

inform area residents about the benefits of oyster reefs and 

coastal restoration.

•	 Measurement: A scientific monitoring plan has been developed 

by local experts to measure both the short and long term success 

of this project and contractors will perform a socio-economic 

analysis of nearby communities. 

•	 Partners: The Nature Conservancy, Dauphin Island Sea Lab, 

University of South Alabama, Alabama Department of Conservation 

and Natural Resources State Lands – Coastal Division, Mobile 

County, Reef Innovations, Coastal Environments, Inc.

Pictured above: Oyster reef. ©Jeff DeQuattro

Alabama

RESTORATION

MONITORING

BENEFITS TO PEOPLE AND NATURE

PEOPLE

Increased water quality

Recreational fishing

Eco-tourism

Shoreline protection

NATURE

Sustainable commercial 

fishing

Increased essential 

habitat for fish

Increased biodiversity

Coastal Alabama Restoration Project

Oyster reefs breakwaters built

Oysters grow on breakwaters and become "living"

Measure growth and success of oyster reefs

Monitor for potential seagrass habitat

Monitor water quality

Monitor species’ use of reefs
Coastal Recovery for 

People and Nature

The years 2004 and 2005 were an unfortunate turning point for the 

coastal communities of the Gulf of Mexico, including Mobile and 

Baldwin counties in Alabama. Hurricanes Ivan and Katrina severely 

degraded estuarine and beach habitat and either destroyed or damaged 

most of the seafood processing plants and fishing boats – significant 

sources of income for coastal Alabamians. The historic fishing 

communities of Bayou La Batre and Coden were devastated, as the 

majority of residents are tied to the fishing and seafood industries.

Habitat degradation, destroyed equipment and loss of personal 

property resulting from the storms were soon followed by skyrocketing gas prices and economic strife, forcing life-long fishers to 

find other lines of work or collect unemployment. Between 2006 

and 2008, federal assistance to these fishers through the Organized 

Seafood Association of Alabama was nearly $3 million. 

Past attempts to protect shorelines from the damaging force 

of storms and heightened wave activity usually involved the 

construction of hardened structures like rock jetties, bulkheads and 

seawalls. But over time, experts have learned that these armored 

structures reflect wave energy back into the bay instead of absorbing 

or damping their impact. In fact, shorelines adjacent to these 

structures become subjected to even greater wave energy causing 

erosion along the barrier with subsequent loss of intertidal habitats. 

Estimates show that more than 30 percent of Mobile Bay’s 

available coastline is armored and suffering from at least 10 to 

20 acres of intertidal habitat loss – a high percentage for this 

area. Oyster reefs, however, are a promising natural alternative to 

hardened structures for the long-term protection and sustainability 

of Mobile Bay’s ecology and tradition as a fishing community.

American Oystercatchers near restoration site in Mobile, AL. ©Jared McKee/DISL

A Vision for Project Success

Short-term goals: To restore and enhance the ecological 

integrity of Alabama’s marine habitat. By creating 1.5 miles of 

submerged breakwater reefs, the project is not only protecting the 

shoreline from damaging storm surges and wave action, but it is 

also enhancing vital habitat for fish and invertebrates – species 

essential to a healthy and sustainable coastal environment. 

Long-term goals: To boost the economy of coastal Alabama 

communities hit hard by hurricanes, habitat degradation and 

a struggling economy. Not only is the project helping to create 

local jobs, but it is promoting healthy fisheries that can sustain 

traditional livelihoods of fishers and those involved in the 

seafood processing industry. 

Coastal Alabama Restoration Project
Solving a Restoration Challenge

The Nature Conservancy, in collaboration with the Alabama 

Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Dauphin 

Island Sea Lab, Mobile County and the University of South 

Alabama, is creating a living shoreline along two stretches of eroding 

shoreline in Mobile Bay and Portersville Bay. Funded through the 

NOAA Recovery Act grant, this project is a vital step to restoring 

both the ecological integrity and economic stability of Bayou La 

Batre and the other fishing communities of coastal Alabama. 

Using three distinctive techniques, the project is creating 3 

acres of vertical oyster reefs and 30 acres of seagrass beds while 

protecting about 10,000 feet of shoreline. Unlike traditional 

methods of vertical bulkheads and other hardened structures, the 

methods used in this project offer a natural approach to shoreline 

protection that enhances critical habitats for many species of fish 

and invertebrates.

As a natural component of the ecological architecture of the coast, 

the reefs will absorb the impact of wave energy from storms and 

boat activity, thereby protecting the shoreline from erosion while 

enhancing habitat for fish, birds and invertebrates. Submerged 

oysters also filter impurities from water, helping to improve water 

quality and enhancing the viability of seagrass meadows and salt 

marshes, essential habitats for juvenile fish and invertebrates. 

The project is designed to provide a long-term sustainable 

solution to restoring coastal habitat that has defined the 

livelihoods and quality of life for generations of coastal 

Alabamians. Thirty-five to 40 new jobs will be created through 

this project, with the majority being in the construction and 

deployment of the breakwater reefs. 

In addition to the restoration work, The Nature Conservancy 

has contracted with the University of North Florida to perform 

a socio-economic analysis of the communities surrounding the 

project area. The goal is to determine how coastal habitats and 

restoration projects impact coastal communities, with a specific 

focus on which aspects of habitat and shoreline restoration (i.e., 

cost, durability, fisheries habitat, aesthetics, etc.) are most valued 

by coastal Alabama residents.

Reef ball fabrication. ©Jeff DeQuattro Installation site. ©Jeff DeQuattro

Shrimping boats. ©Jeff DeQuattro
Shoreline Restoration: 

Benefits for People and Nature 

People: Direct benefits from healthy habitats

Oyster reefs perform a number of ecosystem services including 

filtering impurities from the water, thus improving water quality; 

providing essential habitat, shelter and food for recreational and 

commercial fish and invertebrates; enhancing the viability of 

seagrass meadows and salt marshes; and protecting the shoreline 

from storm surges and wave action.

•	 Marine-related resources such as estuaries, salt marshes, oyster 

reefs and seagrass meadows support a variety of enterprises 

along the Alabama coast ranging from the seafood industry to 

recreational fishing to eco-tourism. 

•	 Recreation and tourism in coastal Alabama have a major 

economic impact. Coastal tourism accounts for approximately 

one-third of the total tourism expenditures in Alabama, and 

the coast is also home to many retirees who are lured by the 

climate, low cost of living and numerous amenities such as 

golfing and fishing. 

•	 Over 2,000 Alabama anglers made fishing trips in 2006 

that contributed more than $600,000 to coastal economies 

supporting over 6,000 jobs.

•	 Alabama’s seafood capital of Bayou La Batre is ranked 19th in 

the nation in value of landings and is the 5th most important 

port in the Gulf of Mexico.

•	 Over 21,000 jobs are supported by commercial fishing including 

harvesters, processors, and distributors in 2006.

•	 The harvest of marine resources (including fish, crabs, shrimp 

and oysters) brought into Alabama ports in 2006 was worth 

more than $49 million.

•	 Thirty-four nature-tourism businesses operate in Baldwin and 

Mobile counties, according to current data. 

Living Shorelines

•	 Previous efforts to protect shorelines in this region have involved the introduction of hardened structures, such as seawalls, rock jetties, or

bulkheads to reflect wave energy. A major concern with using bulkheads and seawalls to protect coastal property is that they can cause

erosion and subsequent loss of intertidal habitats at and adjacent to the hardened structures.

•	 Recently, shoreline protection efforts have shifted towards using “living reefs,” including oyster reefs to protect shorelines as an alternative to

bulkheads and other armoring.

•	 Living shorelines usually involve the planting or restoration of naturally occurring coastal plants or shellfish.

•	 Living shorelines, especially when oyster or other shells are used, appear to have numerous benefits in addition to providing a buffer for

estuarine and coastal shores.

For more information, contact: 

Jeff DeQuattro

The Nature Conservancy

257-A Saint Francis St. 

Mobile, AL 36602 

251-433-1150, ext. 102

jdequattro@tnc.org
Project Highlights 

•	 Goals: Restore degraded salmon habitat with a long-term goal of 

demonstrating agricultural practices that benefit both people and fish.

•	 Jobs: This project will stimulate and benefit the economy at 

both the local and regional level by creating or saving 54 jobs and 

18,741 labor hours of employment for construction labor and 

management, nursery stock providers, landscape laborers, field 

scientists and irrigation specialists.

•	 Habitat Restoration: The project will restore 70 acres of riparian 

corridor by restricting cattle from near-river areas and developing 

solar powered off-stream water sources for livestock. In addition, 

20 acres will be planted with 8,000 native trees, 14 acres will be 

planted with native wetland plants and multiple irrigation system 

changes will be made including 11 new culverts and irrigation 

turnouts installed to support sustainable irrigation practices. 

•	 Progress: As of April 2010, contracts are in place, permitting 

is complete and designs are approved. Construction began with 

riparian restoration in March 2010 with various phases occurring 

throughout the summer and fall.

•	 Measurement: A scientific monitoring plan has been developed 

by the Conservancy and consultants to measure both the short and 

long term success of this project for fish and other species. 

•	 Partners: The Nature Conservancy, California Department of Fish 

and Game, University of California Davis, California Department 

of Water Resources, Shasta Valley Resource Conservation 

District, California Trout, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau 

of Reclamation, California State Resources Agency, Natural 

Resource Conservation Service, Regional Water Quality Control 

Board, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation and the State Water 

Resources Control Board. 

Pictured above: Carson Jeffres, UC Davis Center Staff Research Associate 

conducting research in the Shasta River. ©Bridget Besaw 

California

RESTORATION

MONITORING

BENEFITS TO PEOPLE AND NATURE

PEOPLE

Fish-friendly irrigation 

methods for farming

Increased water quality

Sustainable commercial 

and recreational fishing

NATURE

Increased essential 

habitat for fish

Increased biodiversity 

Big Springs Creek and Shasta River Restoration Project

Changes in irrigation operations

Cattle excluded from creeks and streams

Native species replanted in riparian zones

Water temperatures decrease and flows increase

Increase in salmon populations
Supporting Salmon While 

Managing Lands

The Klamath River once produced the third largest salmon run on 

the Pacific Coast of the continental United States, after the Columbia 

and Sacramento-San Joaquin River Basins. The Shasta River, a small 

meandering stream at the base of Mount Shasta, remains a critical 

salmon producing tributary of the Klamath. 

The Shasta River historically was a river dominated by migrating 

salmon at all months of the year. A conservative estimate as to the 

average number of all species of salmon spawning in the river prior to 

development of the Valley is 50,000 to 100,000 fish per year. 

Today, only about 5,000 Chinook salmon return to spawn in the 

Shasta each year. In 2008, less than 30 federally listed threatened 

coho salmon returned as adults to spawn in the Shasta River and 

Big Springs Creek. These adults constitute less than one percent of 

estimated historic run size. 

Resource experts working in the Klamath River watershed believe 

the Shasta River is crucial to the restoration of the Klamath 

Basin salmon populations. Although water resource development 

has detrimentally affected salmon populations, the cold water 

springs are still largely intact but their condition has declined. 

A Vision for Project Success

Short-term goals: The project will restore 10 miles of critical 

spawning and rearing streams and more than 100 acres of degraded 

salmon stream-side habitat by increasing riparian habitat and 

increasing the survival of spawning and rearing salmon by reducing 

average summer daily water temperatures. 

Long-term goals: Restoring and protecting key places like the Shasta 

River and Big Springs Creek will help restore fish runs and ultimately 

could help revive California’s salmon fishery as an important source 

of wild, locally caught salmon and demonstrate sustainable benefits 

to both humans and nature. The project will also demonstrate 

sustainable benefits to both people and fish by deploying agricultural 

practices at working cattle ranches. 

Morgan Knechtle, a fisheries biologist for California Fish & Game, with Whitney Crombie, fisheries tech for Shasta Valley Resource Conservation District, counting salmon 

along a section of the Shasta River where it was previously heavily grazed prior to The Nature Conservancy’s purchase of Shasta Big Springs Ranch. ©Bridget Besaw 

Big Springs Creek and Shasta River Restoration Project
Salmon returning to spawn in the Shasta River running through The Nature 

Conservancy’s Shasta Big Springs Ranch. ©Bridget Besaw 

When restored, these springs can provide good quality habitat and 

essential flows to the Shasta River. If major restoration actions are 

not taken, the potential to bring back these natural areas and salmon 

populations will significantly diminish and perhaps be lost.

Solving a Restoration Challenge

This restoration is a prime example of how conservation supports 

a healthy and prosperous California. Restoring and protecting key 

places like Shasta River and Big Springs Creek, while managing 

the ranch to benefit farmers and fish, will help restore fish runs 

and ultimately could help revive California’s salmon fishery as an 

important source of wild, locally caught salmon. 

Water diversions, dams, inefficient irrigation practices and other 

conditions (e.g., ocean conditions, overfishing, etc.) have all 

contributed to the degradation and decline of the once productive 

Shasta River and Big Spring Creek. Big Springs Creek water quality 

and habitat is degraded due to cattle in the stream and hot irrigation 

return flows. While stream flows emerge from the ground at about 

54 degrees F, in 2008, stream flows were heated up as high as 77 

degrees F at its mouth of the Shasta River just over two miles 

downstream, creating lethal conditions for rearing salmon. 

Fourteen tailwater hotspots have been identified along Big 

Springs Creek. Tailwaters draining from irrigated fields 

entering Big Springs Creek have been measured at times in 

excess of 90 degrees F. 

This in addition to excessive water diversions and uncontrolled 

grazing near river areas have led to water temperatures that are too 

warm and lethal for fish, degraded creek bank habitat and aquatic 

vegetation and inadequate rearing and spawning habitat. Of 

particular concern is the water temperature and quality during the 

summer months, when juvenile coho salmon need the cold-water 

habitat to survive the warm summer temperatures.

In order to retain intact and high quality riparian habitat critical to 

maintaining salmon habitat, The Nature Conservancy purchased the 

Shasta Big Springs Ranch in March 2009. Adjacent to Conservancy’s 

Nelson Ranch, the combined property totals 6,200 acres including 

more than 10 miles of critical spawning and juvenile salmon rearing 

area where restoration will occur.

This project is anticipated to produce measurable conservation results 

that are tangible and specific. The project proposes to improve 7.8 

miles of critical salmon spawning and rearing habitat along the Shasta 

River and 3.4 miles of Shasta River tributaries-Big Springs Creek by 

fencing cattle out of all waterways and managing the tailwaters that 

drain from irrigated fields. By keeping cows out of the creek, a drop 

in temperature of 13 degrees Fahrenheit was noted in the first year, 

which provides benefits 15 to 20 miles downstream during the hottest 

summer months when the salmon need cooler temperatures the most. 

The fence funded by NOAA will allow this restoration to take place 

in perpetuity. The project will also restore approximately 90 acres of 

riparian zone (vegetated creek banks); activities that are critical for 

providing fish and wildlife habitat as well as maintaining water flows 

and water quality for cold water fish including salmon.

Only a handful of fish are returning to this stretch of river due to years of cattle 

grazing in the creek. ©Bridget Besaw 
Salmon Habitat Restoration: 

Benefits for People and Nature 

People: Direct benefits from healthy habitats

• Beyond contributing to the recovery of the $60 to $100 million 

per year fishing industry in Northern California, the project will 

help stimulate Siskiyou County’s struggling ranching and farming 

community. According to the Siskiyou County 2005 Crop and 

Livestock Report, the industry contributes more than 3,000 jobs 

and $150 million to the regional economy, or about 10 percent of 

total sales by industry.

• Rising unemployment rates in Siskiyou County suggest that 

experienced farm workers need work but cannot find it. The Big 

Springs Restoration project presents an excellent opportunity to 

put skilled workers, irrigation operators, fence builders and heavy 

equipment operators back to work. 

• In California and Oregon, the commercial and recreational salmon 

fishery had an average economic value of $103 million per year 

between 1979 and 2004.

• From 2001 to 2005, average economic impact to local communities 

was $61 million for salmon fisheries: $40 million in the commercial 

fishery and $21 million in the recreational fishery (PFMC news 

release 2008).

Riparian areas: Interface between land and a stream

• Riparian zones and their unique vegetated structure are important 

because of their role in soil conservation, biodiversity, and the 

influence they have on shading of river and creeks which lowers 

water temperatures.

• Unlimited grazing access to the riparian zone and river have led 

to lethal maximum average daily water temperatures, degraded 

riparian habitat and aquatic vegetation and trampled important 

salmon spawning grounds.

• Of particular concern is the water temperature and quality during 

the summer months, when coho need the cold water habitat 

to survive the warm summer temperatures. Vegetation shades 

creeks and waterways and when that vegetation is removed, water 

temperatures rise.

• Shallow water is more easily heated by the sun’s energy. As the river 

channel is degraded by cattle grazing, it becomes wide and shallow, 

moving slower downstream and receiving more sun exposure. 

Salmon Species in the Shasta River

Coho salmon: Coho salmon of Southern Oregon/Northern California are in severe decline: down to six percent of their historic 

abundance. They were listed as federally threatened in 1997 and endangered by the State of California in 2004. Coho fry emerge from the 

gravels in February and March and generally use the stream for rearing for about one year. One of the main concerns regarding the Shasta 

River coho is that the juveniles are not staying in the Shasta to rear during the summer months, as they historically did. Improvements in 

stream conditions during the summer to keep the juveniles in the Shasta as they mature will greatly improve these young fish’s chances of 

survival to return as spawning fish when they are adults.

Fall-run Chinook: Historically spring-run Chinook comprised the majority of the salmon runs of the Shasta River. Today however, the fallrun Chinook is the largest salmon run in the Shasta River and the spring-run Chinook has been extirpated. Run estimates have ranged from 

nearly 82,000 fish in 1931 to a low of 37 fish in 1948. Since 1978, the run has averaged about 5,600 salmon although runs of less than 1,000 

fish were experienced in 1990, 1991 and 1992.

Winter Steelhead: While counts of adult steelhead are lacking for most of the 20th century, they were historically abundant in the river, as 

indicated by an egg-taking station that was present in the 1930s.

For more information, contact: 

Amy Hoss

The Nature Conservancy

701 S. Mt. Shasta Blvd. 

Mt. Shasta, CA 96067

530-926-3199

ahoss@tnc.org
Project Highlights 

•	 Goals: Restore 35 coral reefs in eight locations across two 

ecosystems, which will increase biodiversity and boost local 

tourism businesses.

•	 Jobs: This project will create or directly support nearly 60 

jobs totaling an estimated 118,759 hours of labor.

•	 Habitat Restoration: This project will produce 12,000 colonies 

of threatened staghorn and elkhorn coral within eight shallow 

in-water nurseries and transplanting the new colonies to an 

estimated 35 reef sites in Florida and the U.S. Virgin Islands. 

•	 Progress: Coral nurseries have been constructed and are 

being maintained at eight locations: Broward County, 

Biscayne National Park, Upper Keys, Middle Keys, Lower 

Keys, Dry Tortugas, St. Croix and St. Thomas.

•	 Measurement: Direct measurements and photographs are 

being used to document growth and survival of corals being 

produced in the in-water nurseries, and genetic samples are 

being taken to document and track progress with the different 

strains that are used in the project. 

•	 Partners: The Nature Conservancy, Coral Restoration 

Foundation, Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation 

Commission, Mote Marine Laboratory, University of the 

Virgin Islands, Nova Southeastern University, University of 

Miami, U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Natural Resources, 

U.S. National Park Service and the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration.

Pictured above: Staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) in the Dry Tortugas, Florida. 

©Meaghan Johnson/TNC

Florida/USVI

RESTORATION

MONITORING

BENEFITS TO PEOPLE AND NATURE

PEOPLE

Sustainable fishery jobs

Recreational fishing

Eco-tourism

NATURE

Sustainable fishing

Increased essential 

habitat for fish

Increased biodiversity

Coral Recovery and Restoration Project

Underwater nurseries maintained, developed

and stocked with growing corals

Coral transplanted to help restore existing coral reefs

Monitor nursery operations 

Measure success rate, genetic diversity 

and success of corals at restored reefs
A Safety Net for an Imperiled Species

In recent decades, there have been widespread and catastrophic 

declines in the populations of the important reef building staghorn 

coral, Acropora cervicornis, and elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata. 

These species are the main building blocks of reefs in both the 

Florida Keys and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Their numbers have 

declined dramatically since the late 1970s and in 2006, staghorn 

and elkhorn corals were both listed as threatened under the 

Endangered Species Act. 

To help address this decline, the Conservancy and NOAA initiated a 

staghorn restoration project in 2005 to test approaches for growing 

and transplanting young coral colonies from in-water nurseries to 

degraded reef sites in the Florida Keys. At the center of this project 

was a partnership with a privately-owned live rock farm site within 

the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary that was permitted 

and equipped to produce corals for the aquarium trade. Using these 

“farming” techniques, new coral colonies have been grown since 2000 

and offspring (clones) of parent colonies in the farm were produced 

and later transplanted to selected sites across the Upper Keys. The 

transplanted corals were monitored to evaluate their survival, growth 

rates, and observations made about the functional and structural 

changes to reefs themselves. In 2006, this project was replicated and 

expanded to three more areas within the Florida reef tract (Lower 

Keys, Biscayne National Park and Broward County). 

The expanded project allowed for comparisons across much of the Florida 

Reef Tract, and provided a solid basis for determining areas where largescale restoration efforts would provide the greatest returns. 

A Vision for Project Success

Short-term goals: The project will expand on previous experimentalscale restoration efforts by producing at least 12,000 colonies of 

threatened staghorn and elkhorn coral within eight shallow in-water 

nurseries and transplanting the new colonies to an estimated 35 reef 

sites in Florida and the U.S. Virgin Islands. 

Long-term goals: To increase the natural reproduction of staghorn and 

elkhorn corals and ensure genetic diversity by increasing successful crossfertilization between colonies transplanted close together on the reef sites. 

Florida and the U.S. Virgin Islands Coral Recovery and Restoration Project

Cuttings of coral are glued to cement blocks in water nurseries around the 

Florida Keys. ©Ken Nedimyer 

Mounting coral clippings in the nursery. ©Meaghan Johnson/TNC
The current project builds on the success of these previous projects, 

helping to increase production of propagated corals, rebuild populations 

of this threatened species, restore coral reefs, improve ecosystem services, 

and invest in the infrastructure needed for future restoration activities.

Solving a Restoration Challenge

This current project will dramatically scale up the enhancement of 

staghorn and elkhorn coral through the maintenance and establishment 

of nurseries on reefs in Florida and the U.S. Virgin Islands. New inwater nurseries will be established and maintained within eight distinct 

subregions, with the purpose of propagating the species and creating 

as many new colonies as feasible given limits on resources. Thousands 

of nursery-reared coral colonies will then be transplanted out onto 

reefs that are known to have supported these species in the past, with 

the expectation that these corals will contribute to the further reestablishment of the species over even more reef areas over time.

In addition to the direct restoration of corals, this project will work 

toward determining the genetic strains that are most resilient to various 

environmental stresses and to identify the optimum environmental 

factors which foster the best coral recovery. Additional corals will 

be maintained in the nurseries beyond the end of this project in 

anticipation of ongoing restoration needs beyond the end of this project. 

Our long-term goal is to increase the natural reproduction of 

staghorn and elkhorn corals and ensure genetic diversity by increasing 

successful cross-fertilization between colonies transplanted close 

together on the reef sites. This will help increase the health and 

resilience of both coral species and increase the overall abundance of 

coral larvae within the region. Coral larvae can travel one kilometer 

or more, so the project could potentially have a long-term restoration 

footprint of 2,500 hectares. Genetic information collected as part 

of this project will provide information will result in significant 

ecological gains toward the recovery of imperiled corals.

Coral Restoration: 

Benefits for People and Nature 

People: Direct benefits from healthy habitats

Coral reefs and associated habitats provide critical habitat for fishery 

resources that represent a critical source of food for humans, providing 

as much as $375 billion per year around the world in goods and services. 

Within Florida and the U.S. Virgin Islands the benefits and impacts of 

healthy coral reefs are also clear and compelling: 

• Florida Keys Commercial Fishermen’s Association reported seafood 

and related industries earned upwards of $70 million in 2006.

• During a 12-month period from June 2000 to May 2001, reef related 

expenditures generated $1.3 billion in sales in Miami-Dade County 

and $504 million in Monroe County, Florida. These expenditures 

provided thousands of jobs supporting tourism and fisheries each 

year – more than $1.2 billion in the Florida Keys alone. 

• In Monroe County, the commercial fleet supports approximately 1,200 

families, which is close to five percent of the county’s population. 

• In 2006, Monroe County was ranked the fifth most valuable port 

in the nation with a dockside of approximately $54.4 million, 

excluding retail sales or profits made by wholesalers who marketed 

seafood products.

• Fishers in the U.S. Virgin Islands reported landings of just under 1.2 

million pounds of fish with a direct monetary value of $4.8 million 

in 1999 (Hinds, Unlimited, 2003).

• Many visitors are attracted to the U.S. Virgin Islands because of 

snorkeling, diving and fishing opportunities. Tourism is the primary 

economic driver, accounting for more than 70 percent of the gross 

domestic product (World Resources Institute, 1998). 

• Approximately 32 percent of all employed residents of the U.S. 

Virgin Islands are engaged in retail sales or in service provided by 

recreation, hotels, guest houses, and restaurants.

Acropora palmata on a reef in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. ©Kemit Amon Lewis/TNC

Nurseries in Florida, St. Thomas and St. Croix. ©James Byrne/TNC

•

Approximate location 

of coral recovery nursery
Coral reefs: The habitat provider and the shoreline protector

Coral reefs and associated habitats provide fishery resources that 

represent a critical source of food for people. Coral reefs are among 

the oldest ecosystems on Earth and are the largest living structure on 

the planet. 

• Although coral reefs cover less than one percent of the Earth’s 

surface, they are home to 25 percent of all marine fish species. 

• Corals provide substrate in an otherwise flat world – corals grow 

in 3-D structures that provide habitat for many other species 

including recreational and commercial fish. 

• Coral reefs create nursery habitat for fish and crabs and can 

provide small animals shelter from larger predators. Reefs provide 

attachment points for other colonizing species which can be 

important food sources for fish, shrimp and crabs.

• Coral reefs form natural barriers that protect nearby shorelines 

from the eroding forces of the sea, thereby protecting coastal 

dwellings, agricultural land and beaches. Without the existence of 

coral reefs, parts of Florida would be under water.

Coral Reef Biology 101

•	 Reef-building corals are animals that form a living colony of polyps that secrete limestone skeletons.

•	 Corals can reproduce not only sexually, by releasing sperm and eggs directly in to the water column, but also asexually when fragments

are broken off and can continue to grow into another colony.

•	 Corals share a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae, single-celled organisms that live within corals themselves. Zooxanthellae help

corals grow their calcium carbonate skeletons and give corals most of their color – without them coral tissue is almost white.

•	 Corals are sensitive to water temperatures. The optimal temperature range for staghorn and elkhorn corals is between 77 and 84 degrees

F, although colonies in the Virgin Islands have been known to tolerate warmer temperatures for short periods of time. Both warm and

cold water can cause bleaching and/or mortality to corals.

•	 The first sign of stress, caused by temperature or other factors, is bleaching, in which the coral expels its zooxanthellae. Unless the stress

is reduced the corals will eventually die without their symbiotic zooxanthellae.

•	 How quickly a reef grows depends on conditions like food availability, water temperature and disturbances like storms.

For more information, contact: 

James Byrne

The Nature Conservancy

55 North Johnson Road

Sugarloaf Key, FL 33042

305-745-8402

jbyrne@tnc.org

Aaron Walsh, Conservancy coral technician, working in the U.S. Virgin Islands.

©Kemit Amon Lewis/TNC
Project Highlights 

•	 Goals: Take a major step forward in restoring Maunalua Bay to 

a healthy marine environment by removing approximately 2,200 

tons of invasive algae. Also, build community capacity for coral 

reef protection and stimulate local entrepreneurial investments in 

coastal and marine habitat restoration.

•	 Jobs: This project will create or directly support nearly 75 jobs 

totaling an estimated 100,000 hours of labor. Through increased 

volunteer efforts, the project will provide an estimated 7,000 hours 

of community service. The project will also stimulate local green 

business as organizations strive to convert the algae into marketable 

compost or fertilizer.

•	 Habitat Restoration: The project will reclaim native coral reef and 

seagrass habitat in Maunalua Bay by removing at least 22 acres of 

invasive algae. Native algae will also be replanted in the cleared areas. 

•	 Measurement: A scientific monitoring program will measure both 

the short and long term impacts of this project on water quality, 

native algae, corals, sea grass, and other marine life in the Bay. 

•	 Community Capacity: This project will build community 

capacity for expanded and sustained management of the Bay 

by strengthening and expanding community leadership, public 

awareness and community involvement. The community 

organizations involved in this project hope to share this model of 

natural resource management with other communities in Hawai‘i.

•	 Collaborators: The Nature Conservancy, Ma ̄lama Maunalua, 

University of Hawai‘i, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, 

Polynesian Voyaging Society, Hui Nalu Canoe Club, Ma ̄lama Hawai‘i.

Pictured above: Ulua (Jacks) are a highly prized and desired fish throughout Hawai`i. 

©Kydd Pollack

Hawai‘i 

RESTORATION

MONITORING

BENEFITS TO PEOPLE AND NATURE

PEOPLE

Sustainable 

"blue-green" jobs

Spurs "blue-green" 

businesses

Improved subsistence 

and recreational fishing 

Restored 

recreational use

NATURE

Clean water, healthy bay 

with native corals, algae 

and native fish 

Increased essential 

habitat and native 

biodiversity

Restored ecosystem 

functions

Maunalua Bay Reef Restoration Project

Reefs cleared of alien algae and native algae replanted

Ecosystem services restored

Increase in community capacity and leadership 

for ongoing Bay stewardship

Measure the effect of new stewardship activities

Monitor clearing operations, monitor for re-invasion of 

alien algae, measure return/growth of native species 
Alien Invaders: 

Smothering Native Ecosystems

Maunalua Bay, located in urban Southeast O‘ahu, extends from 

Kawaihoa to Ku ̄pikipiki‘o ̄ (also known as Portlock to Black Point). The 

Bay includes nearly 8 miles of shoreline and 6.5 square miles of ocean 

waters. Just a few generations ago, families living in the area harvested 

meals almost daily from the Bay. 

Today, the once productive reef areas are enjoyed primarily for 

recreational activities such as boating, diving, parasailing, outrigger 

canoe paddling, stand-up paddle boarding, and surfing. Recreational 

fishing provides enjoyment too, but the populations of culturally 

important marine life, such as surgeonfish, parrotfish, goatfish, eels 

and lobster are dramatically lower than they once were. The shallow 

reef flats of the Bay also once housed native algae and seagrass that 

have now become rare. The Maunalua area is home to 60,000 

residents and, despite the poor conditions of the reef, the Bay is still 

frequently used by residents and visitors as well as dolphins, turtles, 

whales and occasionally monk seals. 

Despite their biological, ecological, and cultural importance, Hawai‘i’s 

marine ecosystems continue to be severely degraded by human activity. 

Hawai‘i’s coral reefs and shoreline habitats were once a primary source 

of food for island residents, providing fish, limu (algae), and other 

resources. While some harvesting continues today, the abundance of 

healthy, native marine life in Hawai‘i’s nearshore waters is 75 percent 

less than it was 100 years ago. 

The primary threats responsible for the decline of the reefs in 

Maunalua Bay are overharvesting, land-based pollution, and invasive 

species. The worst of the invasive species is an alien alga called 

Avrainvillea amadelpha (known locally as “leather mudweed”), which 

outgrows, outcompetes, and smothers native algae, coral and seagrass. 

A Vision for Project Success

Short-term goals: Expand small-scale community volunteer efforts to 

a broader and more biologically meaningful level by removing a large 

amount of invasive algae from Maunalua Bay. Employ area residents 

and engage a larger proportion of local businesses and families in 

ocean stewardship. 

Long-term goals: Leverage government funding and support to make 

rapid progress on one of the three major threats to a healthy Bay, while 

bolstering community efforts and building a stronger base of interest, 

knowledge and commitment. 

Leather mudweed thrives in the sediment that has accumulated in Maunalua Bay, but 

can be removed by hand. ©Grady Timmons/TNC

The Maunalua Bay region is home to more than 60,000 residents. ©Ryan Tabata 

Maunalua Bay Reef Restoration Project
Leather mudweed is found in near-shore reefs well as waters 70 

meters deep. In shallow waters, it attracts and traps sediment, forming 

a thick carpet that smothers the native corals and holds sediment in 

place. This degrades the entire reef ecosystem by displacing all other 

native species, and by creating an oxygen-poor environment which 

prevents native marine life from flourishing. 

A. amadelpha was first reported in Hawai‘i by scientists in the early 

1980s. It has since spread along the southern shores of O‘ahu, but 

is most widespread in Maunalua Bay where it is found in very thick 

density in more than 54 acres. 

The good news is that reefs are resilient – if we act in time, we can 

restore them. 

Solving a Restoration Challenge

Community volunteers have removed more than 55 tons of 

invasive algae. This area has remained clear and native species 

have been observed returning to reclaim the restored habitat. 

The area cleared, however, represents only a small fraction of the 

total area currently overgrown with A. amadelpha. This project will 

supplement the small-scale community removal efforts underway 

by removing A. amadelpha from an additional 22 acres of the densest 

areas of infestation within one year. Removing the invasive algae 

by hand is the most efficient and environmentally sensitive way to 

clear areas. By employing local people from the area, this project 

makes both a significant environmental and community impact. 

The visual results of clear water, and the anticipated re-growth of 

native species will motivate community groups to expand efforts 

to address the other threats in the Bay, which include land-based 

pollution and unsustainable fishing practices.

At low tide, dense mats of alien algae in Maunalua Bay are revealed. ©Marion Ano/TNC

Eagle rays, once commonly found in Maunalua Bay, have been seen frequenting 

the cleared areas in Paiko reef flats. ©NOAA
Coral Reef Restoration: 

Benefits for People and Nature 

• Corals are one of the oldest life forms on earth and have existed for 

tens of millions of years. Hawai‘i’s 300,000 acres of nearshore coral 

reefs are home to more than 7,500 forms of marine life, more than a 

quarter of which are found nowhere else on earth. 

• Coral reef ecosystems provide many goods and services to coastal 

populations, such as fisheries and tourism. The reefs contribute more than 

$350 million a year to Hawai‘i’s economy – that’s roughly $1 million a day. 

• Hawai‘i’s reefs are also an integral part of our Islands’ cultural heritage, 

supporting local residents who rely on healthy nearshore fisheries for food, 

income, and recreation. With a primary resident population of 1.2 million 

people and 7 million visitors annually – the majority of whom engage in 

ocean-related activities – Hawai‘i’s reefs are strained beyond capacity.

• Today, many scientists, fishermen, local communities and native 

Hawai‘ians are working together to restore our marine resources 

– through enhanced management, stepped-up enforcement, and a 

new spirit of cooperation that serves the greater good. 

For more information, contact: 

David Ziemann, Project Manager

The Nature Conservancy of Hawai‘i

923 Nu‘uanu Ave., 

Honolulu, HI 96817

808-587-6216

dziemann@tnc.org

Conservancy and Ma ̄lama Maunalua staff are working together to restore 

Maunalua Bay. ©John DeMello and TNC 

The nearly-square area in this photo is a 1-acre plot cleared by community volunteers. ©Kenji Salmoiraghi
Project Highlights 

•	 Goals: Construct oyster reefs to protect and restore shoreline 

habitat with a long-term goal of increasing the awareness and use of 

oyster reefs as a sustainable option for reducing erosion of coastal 

marshes, which help protect communities from storm surge.

•	 Jobs: This project will invest in local and state-wide economies by 

creating or maintaining 57 jobs and 61,982 hours of employment.

•	 Habitat Restoration: This project will restore vulnerable 

shorelines by installing oyster reefs on 3.4 miles of shoreline at 

Grand Isle and St. Bernard Marsh that border approximately 

350 acres of existing marsh. 

•	 Progress: Contracts are in place, permitting is complete, designs for 

the reefs and their placement are approved and construction of the 

reefs is nearly complete, with installation beginning in April 2010.

•	 Measurement: A scientific monitoring plan has been developed 

by Louisiana State University to monitor both the shortand long-term success of this project as measured by reef 

establishment and shoreline changes. 

•	 Outreach: Project staff have reached out to the community and 

are planning the Oyster Reef Rodeo in Grand Isle, a fishing event 

designed to educate and engage the public, as well as working with 

students to grow marsh grass at their school nursery.

•	 Partners: The Nature Conservancy, Coastal Environments Inc., 

Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, NOAA, private 

landowners, town of Grand Isle, Grand Isle Levee District, 

Grand Isle Port Commission, Louisiana Dept. of Wildlife and 

Fisheries, Louisiana Dept. of Natural Resources, St. Bernard 

Parish Government, Jefferson Parish Government and U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers.

Pictured above: Oyster reefs. ©Barry Truit/TNC

Louisiana

RESTORATION

MONITORING

BENEFITS TO PEOPLE AND NATURE

PEOPLE

Water filtration

Shoreline protection

Sustainable fisheries 

and jobs

Recreational fishing

Eco-tourism

NATURE

Increased essential 

habitat for fish and 

shellfish

Increased biodiversity 

Increased water quality

Grand Isle and St. Bernard Marsh Shoreline Protection Project

Bio-engineered oyster reefs installed 

Oysters grow naturally over time and become living reefs

Fish and shellfish species numbers increase 

Marsh replanted

Measure growth and success of oyster reef

Monitor water quality

Monitor species’ use of reef

Monitor shoreline change
Coastal marshes are valuable for their role in storm protection, 

shoreline stabilization, flood attenuation, and hurricane protection 

to the Louisiana coast, protecting billions of dollars of infrastructure 

and the lives of citizen who live on our coast. With the devastation of 

hurricanes Katrina and Rita, scientists, managers, policy makers and 

the public witnessed the direct link between coastal habitats, fishing 

and Louisiana’s economy. Nearly $168 million in seafood revenues and 

an estimated 3,400 fishing fleets were lost (Caffey et al., 2007). 

The eye of Hurricane Katrina passed within miles of both Grand 

Isle and St. Bernard Parish. Consequently, these and surrounding 

communities suffered much of the loss and are still recovering. 

These communities have historically supported a thriving fishing 

economy; however, many people who remain are now trying to find 

employment in other industries, such as construction, welding and 

other skilled labor positions.

Solving a Restoration Challenge

Oyster reefs are common features in coastal Louisiana and 

throughout the Northern Gulf of Mexico and have been heavily 

harvested throughout the last century. The potential for oyster reefs 

to protect against shoreline erosion and therefore protect marshes 

has been recognized for some time. Until now, building reefs to 

protect and restore shorelines, estuaries and their marshes has been 

underutilized as a restoration strategy. 

This project will protect and restore vulnerable shorelines, and 

hence valuable marsh by installing bio-engineered oyster reefs 

along approximately 3.4 miles of shoreline in the Grand Isle area 

and St. Bernard Marsh. Reefblk©, a proven reef design made from 

American steel, will form the basis of the oyster reefs. The reef 

units will be constructed in local welding shops in Grand Isle and 

St. Bernard Parish. 

A Vision for Project Success

Short-term goals: To protect and restore Louisiana’s shoreline and 

historic oyster reefs by creating 3.4 miles of living reefs. To protect 

vulnerable shorelines from wave energy and erosion, enhance water 

quality and fish habitat, and facilitate the natural development of 

marsh. To create jobs in areas that were hit hard by hurricanes and 

help boost the local economies. 

Long-term goals: To collaborate with partners to complete 

additional shoreline protection in coastal Louisiana and greatly 

increase the awareness and use of oyster reefs as a sustainable option 

for shoreline protection. 

Coastal Habitats: 

Essential for People and Nature

The value of Louisiana’s coastal marshes is well established in terms 

of essential habitat for numerous fish, birds, and marine mammals. 

Marshlands provide critical habitat for species that support valuable 

commercial and recreational fishing industries that result in millions 

of dollars in state revenue each year in Louisiana. Approximately 

75 percent of the nation’s commercial fish and shellfish, and 80 

to 90 percent of fish caught for recreation depend on estuaries at 

some stage in their life cycle. Without estuaries and their associated 

wetlands, these fish and shellfish cannot survive. 

While salt marshes are among the most productive habitats in the 

world, in Louisiana they are changing forever. Because of complex 

problems such as shoreline erosion, between 25 and 35 square miles 

of Louisiana’s coast are lost each year, representing 80 percent of the 

total coastal wetland loss in the entire continental United States. The 

ecological and economic repercussions of this land loss are profound.

St. Bernard Marsh site visit. ©John Arnold

Grand Isle and St. Bernard Marsh Shoreline Protection Project
The reefs act as natural coastal buffers by absorbing wave energy, 

reducing erosion and trapping suspended sediment. The shorelines 

that will be protected border approximately 350 acres of existing 

marsh and this treatment will potentially facilitate the creation of an 

additional 35 acres of emergent marsh. Recycled oyster shell will fill 

mesh bags inside the steel frames. These artificial reefs will become 

living reefs as oysters attach to the oyster shell and grow.

The reefs will also provide important habitat – more than 170 

marine species have been documented at oyster reefs in the 

Northern Gulf of Mexico including shrimp, crabs and fish this 

project will help stimulate the local commercial and sport-fishing 

industries. Because oysters remove nitrogen when filtering water to 

feed on plankton, they also help improve water quality.

Oyster Restoration: 

Benefits for People and Nature 

People: Direct benefits from healthy habitats

Healthy coastal marshes and reefs provide people with recreation 

and tourism opportunities and jobs, while providing clean water and 

protecting our coastal infrastructure from damaging storms and sea level 

rise. The natural beauty of coastal wetlands attracts millions of dollars in 

recreation and tourism money to the state and local economies.

• Approximately 180 million people visit the coast for recreational 

purposes each year. Coastal tourism and recreation comprise the 

largest and fastest-growing sector of the U.S. service industry, 

accounting for 85 percent of all tourism-related revenues generated 

by coastal states. 

• Oyster reefs provide habitat for numerous marine species 

including recreational and commercial fishes–Atlantic croaker, 

blue crab, black drum, naked oyster, toadfish, pinfish, red drum, 

sheepshead, skilletfish, southern kingfish, speckled trout, striped 

blenny, stone crab, and white trout.

• The 2008 dockside value of commercial landings of Louisiana’s 

oysters alone was $38.8 million. Finfish and shellfish (shrimp 

and crabs) landings totaled greater than $64 million and $210 

million respectively.

• Recreational fisheries also contribute substantially to the state’s 

economy, generating almost $49.9 million dollars in state and 

local sales tax revenue in 2006. During that same year, anglers 

spent more than $472 million on saltwater recreational fishing 

in Louisiana. This activity supported 7,733 jobs with nearly $229 

million in earnings.

• Louisiana is second only to Alaska in commercial fisheries landings.

• Three of Louisiana’s commercial fishing ports are in the top 

ten landings ports for the United States: Empire-Venice, 

Intracoastal City, and Cameron.

• One of out every 70 jobs in Louisiana can be attributed to 

commercial fisheries (Southwick 2006).

• Louisiana is second only to Florida in recreational harvest among 

states surveyed by NOAA Fisheries’ recreational creel survey. 

According to data collected by NOAA in 2006, 19 percent of 

saltwater recreational fishing trips occurred in Louisiana.

Welding to create the Reefblk© units. ©Richard Greig

Reef components to create reef units. ©Amy Smith Kyle
Oysters: the water filter, the habitat provider and the 

shoreline protector

• Oysters are filter feeders – they filter suspended particles 

(sediments, algae) out of the water column, leading to increased 

water clarity. 

• Increasing water quality can enable more sea grass to grow 

providing more juvenile fish and crab habitat. Healthy oyster reefs 

filtering coastal waters could decreases number of harmful algae 

blooms, and associated fish kills and beach closures.

• Oysters provide substrate in an otherwise flat world – oysters 

grow in 3-D structures that provide habitat for many other 

species including recreational and commercial fish, create 

nursery habitat for fish and crabs and can provide small animals 

shelter from larger predators. 

• Reefs provide attachment points for other colonizing species 

which can be important food sources for fish, shrimp, and crabs.

• Shellfish reefs are natural breakwaters that can stabilize 

shorelines, help to build wetlands, reducing runoff and the 

amount of suspended sediment in the water column, thus 

increasing water quality.

Oyster Biology 101

•	 Oysters, mussels, and clams are bi-valves – their body is compressed and enclosed into a two-valved shell.

•	 While larval clams, mussels, and oysters swim through the water column only adult clams remain truly mobile and can dig through

sand and mud.

•	 Oysters release eggs and sperm into the water column where fertilization occurs.

•	 A “veliger” is a larval stage oyster which can swim in the ocean for days to weeks feeding and drifting until they settle to the bottom

to their permanent habitat.

•	 Adult oysters permanently attach themselves to other hard surfaces, cementing their left shell, preferably to another oyster.

•	 Oysters will grow on a number of surfaces but grow the most successfully on other oysters.

•	 How quickly an oyster reef grows depends on conditions such as food availability, water temperature, salinity, and disturbances

like storms. Conditions are particularly suitable for oyster growth in Louisiana which produces 34 percent of the nation’s oysters.

A healthy or mature oyster reef is one that has many different ages of oysters on it, and is three dimensional in structure with

significant vertical height.

For more information, contact: 

Cindy Brown

The Nature Conservancy

320 Hammond Hwy, Suite 404

Metairie, LA 70005

504-835-9471

cbrown@tnc.org

Grand Isle project site. ©Richard Greig
Project Highlights 

•	 Goals: Dam removal, job creation and scientific monitoring 

with long-term goals of restoring sea-run fisheries and creating 

additional jobs and economic benefits.

•	 Jobs: The vast majority of this investment directly supports 

restoration-related construction activity, including labor for 

on-the-ground restoration-related work. The project will create 

or maintain 188 construction, engineering, scientific, and project 

management jobs (46 annualized) and assist a region facing 

above-average economic challenges worsened by the recent 

economic downturn.

•	 Habitat Restoration: When fully implemented, this project 

will significantly improve access to nearly 1,000 miles of historic 

habitat for fish and remove several barriers as well as restore six 

miles of currently impounded river to its natural state. 

•	 Progress: Pre-removal monitoring underway, permitting in final 

stages to allow for de-construction to begin.

•	 Measurement: The Penobscot Project is an unprecedented 

restoration effort in scale, scope, and approach that requires 

discrete measures to examine outcomes. A group of engaged 

stakeholders have coordinated project-related scientific research 

and monitoring. 

•	 Partners: Members of the Penobscot River Restoration Trust 

are the Penobscot Indian Nation, American Rivers, The Atlantic 

Salmon Federation, Maine Audubon, The Natural Resources 

Council of Maine, Trout Unlimited and The Nature Conservancy. 

The project agreement is also with PPL Corporation and a 

number of federal and state agencies.

Pictured above: Osprey catching alewife as the fish migrate upstream to 

their spawning habitat. ©Linwood Riggs

Maine

RESTORATION

MONITORING

BENEFITS TO PEOPLE AND NATURE

PEOPLE

Sustainable fisheries 

and fishery jobs

Penobscot Nation 

fully exercise treaty 

fishing rights

Recreational fishing

Recreational tourism

Hydro-generation

NATURE

Increased quality and 

availability habitat for fish

Increased abundance 

of fish and wildlife

Increased water quality

Increased resilience of river 

system to climate change

Ecosystem connection

Penobscot River Restoration Project: Great Works Dam Removal 

Dam removal 

Connected habitat for movement of fish and other species 

Essential fish habitat and ecological functions restored

 Free flowing river sections

Assess baseline status of fish communities, habitat, 

water quality, and geological channel features

Monitor biological impacts and water quality during removal

Track recovery of diadromous populations, bank 

revegetation, and changes in fish communities, water 

quality and channel features
A Vision for Project Success

Short-term goals: Dam removal, fish passage, job creation, 

scientific monitoring. 

Long-term goals: Restored sea-run fisheries, ecological benefits and 

ecosystem connections as well as new jobs and economic benefits. 

People and Fish: 

A Tightly-Knit Relationship

This project is poised to rebuild the Penobscot River’s migratory (or 

diadromous) fisheries and to create a sustainable balance between 

native fish and human needs for the river. The project will restore 

lost ecological connections and renew ecological functions to the 

Penobscot River watershed while maintaining hydro-generation. 

For two centuries, dams have diminished the socioeconomic benefits 

the river once provided to people. For the Penobscot Nation, 

migratory fish continue to play important ceremonial and religious 

roles. The river is intertwined with the Tribe’s survival and identity. 

For decades, tribal members have not been able to fully exercise treaty 

fishing rights, as few sea-run fish currently reach their Reservation. 

The Penobscot once supported vast populations of 11 species of 

native diadromous fish including shad and the federally endangered 

Atlantic salmon and shortnose sturgeon. These species all return 

home to spawn in the river where they were born and depend 

on these habitats for the development of their offspring. These 

fish provided food and income for settlers that built historic 

communities along the river, which gave rise to the current riverfront 

towns that exist today.

The Great Works Dam on the Penobscot River in the towns of Old Town and Bradley, Maine. ©Bridget Besaw

Penobscot River Restoration Project: Great Works Dam Removal 

Using drilling equipment, workmen build a 17 step and pool waterway, which will allow 

thousands of alewife to access an adjoining stream for spawning. ©Bridget Besaw
Solving a Restoration Challenge

The Penobscot River’s native diadromous fish populations are 

at or near all time lows. Dams, poor water quality, log drives and 

overfishing have all contributed to the decimation of native fisheries. 

Today, log drives have ended, water quality and harvest management 

are vastly improved. Currently, a series of outdated dams on the 

Penobscot impede and block fish migrations, have eliminated critical 

habitat for fish, and reduce water quality. 

The Penobscot project will restore species in a web of life with a vast 

reach. The Penobscot watershed covers one third of Maine – 8,570 

square miles. It is the largest freshwater input to the Gulf of Maine 

and has an extensive system of forests and wetlands. Restoration 

of Penobscot River Atlantic salmon is considered critical for the 

continued survival of spawning stocks of Atlantic salmon in the 

United States. Restored diadromous fish will benefit Gulf of Maine 

ground fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Diadromous fish provide 

food for a wide variety of fish and wildlife inhabiting the Gulf of 

Maine, including commercial species such as haddock, pollock, and 

cod; recreational fisheries such as striped bass and bluefish; bald eagles; 

and whales. The project also will render meaningful the Penobscot 

Indian Nation’s federally recognized sustenance fishery rights and 

revitalize river-related cultural, spiritual and economic practices. 

This Recovery Act funding is allowing the Trust to finalize the 

engineering and deconstructing of the Great Works Dam, while 

providing monitoring to measure the effects of the dam’s removal on 

habitat and species. Great Works Dam, the second dam on the river, is 

1,353 feet long, up to 19 feet high. It creates a 128 acre impoundment 

that extends upstream 1.7 miles to below the tailrace of the Milford 

Dam. All spillway sections will be removed by mechanical demolition 

and the historic powerhouse building will remain.

Fish Passage Restoration: 

Benefits for People and Nature 

People: Direct benefits from healthy habitats

Commercial Fisheries:

• Restoring diadromous fish will greatly increase the food available 

for struggling commercially valuable fish populations, including 

cod, haddock and pollock. 

• Opportunities for in-river commercial fishing will also increase. 

After the removal of the Fort Halifax dam, the alewife harvest 

on the Sebasticook River in 2009 had a market value of at least 

$79,000 up from near zero.

• In 2005, the Maine Department of Fish and Wildlife issued 

26 permits to net alewives for lobster bait, an industry that 

contributed nearly $300 million to Maine’s economy in 2006.

Recreation, Aesthetics and Tourism

• Revenues from anglers can be a vital part of the local economies 

where they fish. A restored Penobscot will renew angling 

opportunities for species such as striped bass, shad and Atlantic 

salmon as they migrate farther upriver. 

• Tourism, including bird and wildlife watching and fishing will 

increase. According to the Maine Office of Tourism in 2006, 

tourism directly and indirectly generated roughly $1 in $5 of sales 

throughout Maine’s economy and supported 1 in 6 Maine jobs. 

• Paddling-related business opportunities will increase when 

removal “uncovers” seven sets of rapids shown on historic maps, 

renewing opportunities for whitewater and down-river canoeing 

and kayaking, permitting a paddle from Old Town to the sea for 

the first time in two centuries.

Baseline monitoring occurring on Penobscot River ©Bridget Besaw 

Fly fishing in early morning mist on the Penobsot River. ©Bridget Besaw
Fish Passage

• Every person requires access to fresh water to survive. Beyond our 

direct need for drinking water, water is critical to the global food 

supply and in meeting our energy needs. To serve these multiple 

demands, more than 45,000 large dams and an exponentially 

larger number of smaller dams have been constructed on the 

world’s rivers.

• Dams, culverts, and water withdrawal structures alter a river’s 

natural course and block pathways used by migrating fish; reduce 

and rearrange patterns of flowing water that have choreographed 

aquatic life cycles for thousands of years; and change water quality.

• These changes can have significant effects on the social fabric 

and economic well-being of people and communities, particularly 

among those whose livelihoods are closely connected to nature.

• In the United States alone an estimated 2.5 million of these 

barriers still exist, many of which no longer serve their original 

purpose and were abandoned years ago.

• Fish migrate between feeding and spawning areas and make other 

seasonal movements to important habitats. Such species struggle 

when access to spawning grounds is cut off or flow is altered in 

ways that degrade important nursery habitats.

• Increased heating of waters behind dams also reduce habitat 

quantity. Dam removal in select areas can reduce the impact of 

climate change.

MIGRATORY (DIADROMOUS) FISH SPECIES ON THE U.S. EAST COAST 

•	 Migratory (or diadromous) fish migrate between fresh and saltwater habitats for their growth, reproduction, and survival. Anadromous

fish spend the majority of their life in ocean waters and return to rivers to spawn. Catadromous fish do exactly the opposite, as they

spawn in the ocean and return to rivers to grow to adults.

•	 Probably the best known example of an anadromous fish are salmon who live the majority of their life in the ocean and return to

freshwater rivers to breed and spawn. Atlantic salmon return to the same river year after year.

•	 On the east coast of North America, other diadromous fish species include alewife, striped bass, blue back herring, shortnose

sturgeon, and American shad.

•	 Shortnose Sturgeon is a federally endangered species. The current status of shortnose and Atlantic sturgeon in the lower Penobscot

was not well known until recent studies by the University of Maine documented 800 shortnose sturgeon and close to 80 Atlantic

sturgeon in the lower river.

•	 The only catadromous species in the coastal Maine ecosystem is the American eel, which spawns in the Sargasso Sea and returns to

Maine’s rivers as nursery habitat. Anadromous fish, such as the American shad and the blueback herring, travel from the high salinity

waters of the Atlantic Ocean to spawn in the freshwater rivers and streams.

•	 Migratory fish are a “conveyor belt” of nutrients from the ocean to the river and from the river to the ocean. Increases in herring and

alewives would expand the food supply for many species, like cod, in the Gulf of Maine that prey on these smaller fish.

For more information, contact: 

Laura Rose Day

Penobscot River Restoration Trust

P.O. Box 5695

Augusta, ME 04332

207-430-0175

laura@penobscotriver.org
Project Highlights 

•	 Goals: Restoration of oyster reefs and seagrass meadows 

with the reintroduction of native bay scallops.

•	 Jobs: A total of 57 jobs will be maintained or created 

through this project with 59,927 labor hours supporting 

research scientists and students, marine contractors, boat 

and barge operators, seagrass seed curing facility operators, 

divers and watermen.

•	 Habitat Restoration: Twenty-four acres of functional 

oyster reefs will be restored at 12 sites and 100 acres of 

seagrass will be planted in Spider Crab Bay. 

•	 Progress: To date, restoration of 4.29 acres of intertidal 

oyster reefs has been completed utilizing 79,400 bushels 

of shell, resulting in 613 hours of employment. A record 

number of 12.4 million seagrass seeds were collected and 

6.75 million viable seeds were broadcast into 45 one-acre 

plots spread across Spider Crab Bay.

•	 Measurement: Seagrass meadows are monitored for 

success via aerial photography. Areas where scallops are 

released will be monitored to determine survival, growth 

and movement of hatchery raised scallops within restored 

seagrass beds. Restored oyster reefs will be monitored for 

areal extent and size and density of oysters. 

•	 Partners: The Nature Conservancy, Virginia Institute 

of Marine Science, VA Marine Resource Commission, 

Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program.

Pictured above: Blue eyes and white tentacles. ©Scott Marion, VIMS

Virgi>ia

RESTORATION

MONITORING

BENEFITS TO PEOPLE AND NATURE

PEOPLE

Eco-tourism

Improved water quality 

Improved recreational 

and commercial fishing

NATURE

Increased essential 

habitat for fish and 

other species

Increased biodiversity

Seaside Bays Restoration Project

Oyster reefs restored and protected

Seagrass meadows increased

Measure growth and success of oyster 

reefs and seagrass meadows

Monitor water quality

Monitor use of oyster and seagrass habitats by other species 

Measure success of scallop reintroductions
A Vision for Project Success

Short-term goals: To improve and enhance the ecological health 

of Virginia’s seaside bays by restoring oyster reefs and seagrass 

meadows and testing the reintroduction of native bay scallops.

Long-term goals: Once restored seaside bays will provide the long 

term goods and services to people and nature by improving water 

quality, improving recreational and commercial fishing, increasing 

and sustaining benefits to local eco-tourism, increasing essential 

habitat for fish and other species, and increasing biodiversity. 

The Importance of Healthy 

Coastal Habitats 

The ecosystems of the coastal bays on the seaside of the Eastern 

Shore of Virginia are renowned for their local, regional and global 

value to migratory birds and an abundance and diversity of marine 

life. The seaside bays serve as critical nursery areas for numerous 

animals and provide essential habitat for coastal fishes. Native 

oyster reefs and productive seagrass meadows in the seaside bays are 

considered keystones upon which clean water, innumerable plants 

and animals, and a healthy natural system depend. 

The seaside bays, however, have suffered two ecosystem state 

changes in the last century: the loss of eelgrass (Zostera marina) in 

the 1930s due to a wasting disease and concurrent hurricanes, 

and the more recent commercial extinction of the native eastern 

oyster (Crassostrea virginica) in the 1990s due to overharvest and 

disease. The reduction in native oyster populations has resulted in 

the loss of critical ecosystem services such as water filtration, fish 

habitat and biomass provided by the oysters. The loss of seagrass 

has likewise resulted in the loss of critical ecosystem services and 

the provision of food and nursery habitat for numerous avian 

and marine species. Among the most severely impacted species 

relative to human utilization of the ecosystem was the bay scallop 

(Argopecten irradians) which disappeared from the seaside bays after 

the loss of eelgrass in the 1930s.

Healthy reef. ©Sarah Morehouse/TNC

Conservancy sign protecting oyster reefs restoration site. ©Mark Godfrey/TNC

Seaside Bays Restoration Project

Oyster reefs in the process of being restored by The Nature Conservancy and 

partners at the Conservancy’s Virginia Coast Reserve. ©Mark Godfrey/TNC
Solving a Restoration Challenge

This project will restore 24 acres of native oyster reefs at 12 

different sites within the seaside bays of Virginia, plant more 

than 100 acres of seagrass, and begin evaluating methods to reintroduce bay scallops to the restored seagrass meadows. In the 

long term, the restored native oyster reefs and seagrass meadows 

will provide ecosystem services including water filtration, trapping 

sediments, critical nursery habitats for numerous commercial and 

recreationally important species, and the contribution of biomass 

to the overall ecological health of the seaside bays. 

Availability of suitable substrate to build reefs is the major limiting 

factor to ramping up the scale of native oyster restoration in the 

seaside bays of Virginia’s Eastern Shore. Most of the shell for this 

project will come from a federal and state approved dredge site for 

fossil shell in Virginia’s James River. 

The seagrass restoration component will follow a series of distinct 

tasks that have proven to be successful during the last six years. 

Flowering shoots with seeds from healthy wild seagrass meadows 

are harvested and held in curing facilities for approximately 6 

weeks. Seeds are then released in the fall into areas suitable for 

future seagrass meadows.

The restoration partnership is extremely excited at this 

opportunity to reintroduce bay scallops to the seaside bays in 

Virginia more than 75 years after their local extinction. Bay 

scallops for planting in the seaside bays will be produced from 

brood stocks acquired from North Carolina, spawned and grown 

in hatcheries until they are large enough, and then released 

into seagrass meadows. The highest rate of survival occurs for 

the largest scallops, but larger scallops cost more to rear in the 

hatchery. Researchers and hatchery operators are working together 

to determine at what size scallops should be released to ensure 

the highest rate of survival per dollar spent. To date, field surveys 

of planted scallops reveal excellent growth and survival of caged 

scallops in seagrass beds, confirming an effective strategy for 

scallop restoration for the remainder of the project.

The results of this project should benefit local commercial and 

recreational fisheries and the local ecotourism industry. A healthy and 

productive marine ecosystem in the seaside bays also offers the best 

hope of resiliency to the anticipated impacts of future climate change.

Shellfish and Seagrass Restoration: 

Benefits for People and Nature 

People: Direct benefits from healthy habitats

• Critical ecosystem services include water filtration, and the 

provision of habitat for recreational and commercial fishes 

including bluefish, summer flounder, black sea bass, king mackerel, 

Spanish mackerel, cobia, black drum and red drum and numerous 

life stages of coastal shark species including sand tiger, Atlantic 

sharpnose, brown, dusky, and spiny dogfish. 

• These species are of tremendous economic importance to the local 

commercial and recreational fishing communities including charter 

boats fleets and fishing guides.

• Restored oyster reefs and seagrass meadows are also important 

feeding habitat for numerous species of waterfowl, seabirds, and 

shorebirds, including the Atlantic brant, least tern, and American 

oystercatcher. 

• The seaside bays are part of the Seaside Water Trail, a 70-mile long 

series of day-use paddling routes designated and developed as one 

of many ecotourism opportunities.

• In 2009, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife service estimated that bird 

watching contributed more than $36 billion to our nation’s 

economy and that one in every five people in the U.S. bird watch.

• Seagrass meadows provide important nursery habitat for blue 

crabs, a traditional commercial fishery in this region which provides 

seasonal employment for many local watermen. 

• A healthy and productive marine ecosystem in the seaside bays 

offers the best hope of resiliency to the anticipated impacts of 

climate change to the area.

A Conservancy volunteer examines a bay scallop while collecting Eelgrass (seagrass) 

in the shallow coastal waters of Virginia’s Delmarva Peninsula. ©Mark Godfrey/TNC

Measuring oyster recruits. ©Margaret Van Clief/TNC
Shellfish reefs and seagrass meadows: water filterers, habitat 

providers, and shoreline protectors

• Oysters and scallops are filter feeders – they filter suspended 

particles (sediments, algae) out of the water column, leading to 

increased water clarity. Increasing water quality can enable more 

seagrass to grow providing more juvenile fish and crab habitat.

Healthy oyster reefs filtering coastal waters could decrease the 

number of harmful algae blooms. 

• Oysters are ecosystem engineers and provide substrate in an 

otherwise flat world – oysters grow in 3-D structures that 

provide habitat for many other species including recreational and 

commercial fish, create nursery habitat for fish and crabs and can 

provide small animals shelter from larger predators. Reefs provide 

attachment points for other colonizing species which can be 

important food sources for fish, shrimp, and crabs.

• Shellfish reefs are natural breakwaters that can help to buffer 

wetlands, reducing runoff and the amount of suspended 

sediment in the water column, thus increasing water quality.

Oyster Biology 101 

•	 Oysters, mussels, and clams are bi-valves – their body is compressed and enclosed in a two-valved shell.

•	 While larval clams, mussels, and oysters swim through the water column only adult clams remain truly mobile and can dig through sand

and mud.

•	 Oysters release eggs and sperm into the water column where fertilization occurs.

•	 A ‘veliger’ is a larval stage oyster which can swim in the ocean for days to weeks feeding and drifting until they settle to the bottom to

their permanent habitat.

•	 Adult oysters permanently attach themselves to other hard surfaces, cementing their left shell, preferably to another oyster.

For more information, contact: 

Barry Truitt or Bo Lusk

The Nature Conservancy

11332 Brownsville Road

P.O. Box 158

Nassawadox, VA 23413

804-442-3049

btruitt@tnc.org or blusk@tnc.org

Oyster monitoring equipment. ©Sarah Morehouse/TNC
Project Highlights 

•	 Goals: Restore degraded fish habitat while improving flood control 

and flood storage capacity within an agricultural landscape.

•	 Jobs: Working in collaboration with a diverse array of partnerships, 

this project will create 58 new jobs and maintain full or partial 

salary for 13 additional positions with approximately 41,289 labor 

hours for on-the-ground construction and landscaping jobs, skilled 

laborers, engineering, environmental and archaeological support 

during construction, project management and monitoring activities.

•	 Habitat Restoration: This project will restore 60 acres of marsh 

habitat and access to 15 miles of tributary habitat by installing 

new floodgates that increase fish passage and restore tidal flow, 

improving drainage infrastructure, and setting back the levees 

to make room for tidal freshwater marsh habitat and additional 

floodwater storage. 

•	 Progress: The floodgates have been replaced and are operating in 

fish-friendly mode. Project designs have been completed, permit 

applications have been submitted and additional phases of the 

project are currently out to bid with construction phases set to 

begin in July 2010.

•	 Measurement: Pre- and post-project monitoring is planned for 

a total of seven years (funding dependent). Monitoring began in 

January 2009 and is ongoing. 

•	 Partners: The Nature Conservancy, Skagit County Dike District 

No. 3, Skagit County Drainage and Irrigation District No. 17, and 

Skagit County, with funding from National Fish and Wildlife 

Foundation, Salmon Recovery Funding Board, U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife/

Estuary and Salmon Restoration Program, and local support from 

Skagit Watershed Council.

Pictured above: Chinook salmon. ©Zureks

Washington

RESTORATION

MONITORING

BENEFITS TO PEOPLE AND NATURE

PEOPLE

Sustainable commercial 

and recreation fishing

Increased flood storage

Decreased levee 

maintenance, dredging

NATURE

Increased essential 

habitat for salmon

Increased biodiversity

Fisher Slough Marsh Restoration Project

Marsh restoration

Floodgate replacement and reoperation

Relocation of irrigation ditch, levee setback

Monitor floodgate operations, 

hydrological connection and water quality

Increased fish passage and animal use of restored habitat
This same area that is vital to Chinook salmon is also critical to 

the economy of the Skagit River delta. Starting in the 1800s, the 

rich soils of the delta were converted to support a strong local 

agriculture industry. The nation enjoys the agricultural success 

of this region in the form of berries, ornamental bulbs, potatoes, 

vegetable seed and various other crops. This land conversion 

also resulted in a 73 percent loss of historic tidal wetlands and 

waterways affecting the once-abundant populations of Chinook 

salmon and other delta-dependent species. Today, the loss of 

estuarine and tidally influenced (or freshwater tidal) habitat is one 

of the biggest factors limiting Chinook recovery and the balance 

between farming and fisheries has been, at times, contentious.

Solving a Restoration Challenge

Connections between rivers, floodplains and estuaries are important 

in shaping and maintaining estuary habitat. Today those historic 

natural connections between the river, floodplain and estuary are 

almost non-existent. The floodplain in the vicinity of Fisher Slough 

was modified prior to the 1930s with the installation of a floodgate/

levee system designed to claim land for agricultural purposes. 

A Vision for Project Success

Short-term goals: Restore 60 acres of fish habitat by restoring 

tidally influenced marsh and fish passage while increasing flood 

storage capacity within an agricultural landscape. 

Long-term goals: Successful completion of the Fisher Slough project 

is essential to advancing additional landscape-scale infrastructure 

projects that will create jobs to benefit people while restoring habitat 

to benefit nature. This project will build trust and help overcome 

longstanding conflict between conservation and agricultural interests 

by demonstrating that restoration is beneficial to both fish and 

farmers. This project will also leverage funding and partnerships to 

expand restoration while supporting existing community priorities. 

Managing Lands and Water to Benefit 

People and Nature

The Skagit River produces approximately 50 percent of the wild 

Chinook salmon in the Puget Sound. One reason the river is so 

productive is because of the wide array of habitats available to 

salmon. As the Skagit River meets Puget Sound in northwestern 

Washington state, the vast and open Skagit River delta is formed. 

This delta is a complex landscape of tidal and non-tidal wetlands 

that, in turn, supports a diverse array of fish and wildlife species. 

Fisher Slough is a tidally influenced wetland and farmland complex 

within the Skagit River delta and is one of the last estuarine 

habitats available to juvenile Chinook salmon as they travel down 

to Puget Sound. Juvenile Chinook salmon use the delta’s estuary 

habitats to feed and grow before venturing into Puget Sound 

and the Pacific Ocean. Since Chinook salmon rely heavily on 

estuarine habitat for certain portions of their life cycle, the quality 

and quantity of habitat currently limits how many Chinook are 

produced in the Skagit every year.

Soil testing work at The Nature Conservancy’s Fisher Slough project site. ©Bridget Besaw 

Fisher Slough Marsh Restoration Project

New floodgates installed on Fisher Slough in Washington’s Skagit Delta. 

©Jenny Baker/TNC
The historic management and operations of the system has resulted in 

altered sediment delivery from the streams and river and has severely 

muted tidal processes that create and maintain habitat. The result of the 

infrastructure has been fewer acres of estuary habitat, poor accessibility 

for fish, stream routing that causes levee erosion, degraded water quality, 

and a reduction of water storage capacity for these areas during floods. 

This project is a great example of how environmental restoration 

can provide multiple benefits by restoring natural connections 

between the river, floodplain and estuary while preserving the 

surrounding farmlands for productive agriculture management. By 

replacing the floodgates and setting back levees at Fisher Slough, 

this project will restore approximately 60 acres of marsh habitat 

for juvenile Chinook salmon. It will also provide spawning access 

to 15 miles of tributary habitat for other populations such as coho, 

chum and pink salmon, and cutthroat and steelhead trout and 

restore a diverse array of native vegetation. This project will not 

only provide juvenile Chinook and other salmon rearing habitat but 

will enhance floodplain function, natural stream and tidal processes, 

improve water quality and reduced erosion within the project site. 

The project will also benefit local farmers and the community by 

improving flood storage to protect agricultural uses of adjacent 

properties. Additional flood storage provided by this project is 

predicted to contain a five-year flood event, thereby reducing 

damage and costs associated with the most frequent floods affecting 

surrounding private property and farmland.

The project is intended to showcase the feasibility of restoration that 

provides multiple community benefits. The outcomes of this project 

go beyond acres restored. The trust forged between parties that were 

once adversaries in “farms vs. fish” is already moving community 

dialogue and project development beyond conflicts of the past. The 

Fisher Slough project will demonstrate that restoration can achieve 

multiple goals and meet critical community needs such as farmland 

viability, public safety, flood protection and habitat restoration.

Fish Passage and Estuary Restoration: 

Benefits for People and Nature 

People: Direct benefits from healthy habitats

• Flood control and drainage capabilities of agriculture 

infrastructure will be maintained and improved, which will result 

in decreased costs for levee maintenance and repair, improved 

operations and potentially increased farm revenues.

• Setting back levees and re-establishing the floodplain for the 

tributaries will eliminate costs for levee erosion repair and 

channel dredging and result in additional flood storage. This will 

decrease flood-related damages and costs for landowners resulting 

from the most frequent and costly five-year flood events.

• Over the long-term, community benefits will include increased 

fish abundance, decreased flood-damage and drainage maintenance 

costs and increased farm revenues in the local economy. 

• Once achieved, Chinook recovery will ultimately lead to increased 

fisheries opportunities (tribal, recreational and commercial) and 

income generating opportunities for local businesses.

• Skagit County currently has an unemployment rate of more than 

10 percent, making job retention an important aspect of this 

project. Agriculture is an anchor industry in Skagit County and 

the surrounding region. More than 3,300 people are engaged in 

full-time equivalent employment directly in agricultural activities 

and 5,650 people are engaged in employment generated overall by 

the local agriculture industry. 

• Direct economic impact of agriculture in Skagit County exceeds 

$500 million with an additional $100 million generated by farm 

related tourism such as hunting, fishing, wildlife watching and 

agro-tourism. 

• Reconnecting Fisher Slough and existing high-quality habitat in 

the Skagit Delta will also act as a buffer to the predicted effects of 

climate change and sea level rise. 

Fishing for salmon on the upper Skagit River near Mount Vernon Washington. 

The Nature Conservancy has been working to preserve the mighty Skagit River for 

more than 30 years. ©Bridget Besaw

The Fisher Slough project will also benefit local farmers and the community by 

improving flood storage to protect agricultural uses of adjacent properties and 

restoring a diverse array of native vegetation. ©Bridget Besaw
Estuaries: Where the rivers meet the sea

• Where freshwater drainages meet the saltwater of the ocean, 

estuaries offer an ecological bridge. Their shallow, less saline 

waters are sheltered from ocean extremes, allowing for high 

species biodiversity and nursery habitats for many organisms.

• Estuaries and their tidally influenced (or freshwater tidal) 

marshes act as an important transitional habitat for salmon and 

other fish species that pass through the estuary during their 

upstream and downstream migrations. 

• Just upriver from estuaries, healthy functioning floodplains 

provide essential nutrients and a sediment supply for estuaries 

as receding floods carry sediments and nutrients to the estuary. 

Without functioning floodplains, estuaries can themselves become 

negatively changed.

• Migratory (or anadromous) fish travel between fresh and 

saltwater habitats, depending on each type of habitat, ocean, 

estuary, and river for their growth, reproduction and survival. 

When salinities are not in balance and these habitats are changed 

or not existent these fish cannot survive.

• More than half of the marshes in the United States have been 

destroyed by draining, diking, dredging, filling, and similar 

practices. Loss of marshes has declined in recently history due to 

regulation and restoration. 

From 1954 to the 1970s, marsh loss averaged 19,000 hectares 

per year. From the 1970s to the 1980s marsh loss averaged 2,900 

hectares per year. Now we can move beyond stopping the loss to 

actually restoring these vital wetlands.

Fish Passage: A critical stage of life

• All fish migrate between feeding and spawning areas and make 

other seasonal movements to important habitats. 

• Thousands of culverts, flood and tidegates, dikes, water diversions, 

dams, and other artificial barriers have been constructed to 

impound or redirect water for irrigation, flood control, electricity, 

water supply and transportation. All of these have changed the 

natural features of waterways, blocking the natural migration of 

fish to historic habitat used for reproduction and growth. 

• An estimated 2.5 million of these barriers still exist in the 

United States alone, many of which no longer serve their 

original purpose and were abandoned years ago.

Salmon and the Skagit River

•	 U.S. west coast salmon are anadromous fish that live most of their life in the ocean, and breed in fresh water

•	 The Skagit River supports a significant abundance of Pacific salmon. It produces approximately 50 percent of the wild Chinook salmon

for the Puget Sound. Additionally, the Skagit produces the largest pink salmon, chum salmon and bull trout runs in Washington State

and is one of the only rivers in the lower 48 states that supports all eight species of anadromous salmon.

•	 With declines in Chinook populations, fisheries experts determined that restoration of estuarine habitat is one of the highest priorities

for Chinook salmon recovery. Because estuarine habitats are currently limited, the Fisher Slough project is expected to produce

an additional 16,000 Chinook smolts annually. Juvenile Chinook salmon are consistently found in estuarine habitats from February

through August, with the highest use from March through mid-July in the Skagit River delta.

•	 Coho spawning occurs in the upper watershed area of Fisher Slough and adult migrations typically occur during the months of

October through February. Coho salmon fry emerge in March and April, and spend a full year in the watershed before migrating as

smolts to salt water.

•	 Cutthroat trout are known to utilize the Fisher Slough tributaries for spawning and rearing life cycle periods. Adult chum salmon

spawn in tributaries to Fisher Slough, and juvenile chum utilize the slough for rearing. Pink salmon and steelhead trout may pass

through Fisher Slough as they make their way down the Skagit River to Puget Sound.

For more information, contact: 

Jenny Baker

The Nature Conservancy

410 North 4th Street

Mt. Vernon, WA 98273

360-419-7022

jbaker@tnc.org