VETERINARY

IN NATIONAL

Agriculture Handbook No. 255

Agricultural Research Service

U. S. Department of Agriculture
•\ ' ^

VETERINARY

IN NATIONAL

EMERGENCIES

Prepared in cooperation with

United States Department of Defense

United States Department of Healtfi, Education, and Welfare

and the

Council on Veterinary Service

American Veterinary Medical Association

Washington, D.C

Agriculture Handbook No. 255

Agricultural Research Service

United States Department of Agriculture

Issued December 1963

ror sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C, 20402 - Price 25 cents
CONTENTS

Page

General Problem 1

Human Casualty and First-Aid Service 2

Emergency Training 3

Public Health Services 3

Radiological Defense 4

Biological Warfare Defense 4

Chemical Warfare Defense 4

Meat and Poultry Inspection 4

Plan for Animal Care 5

National Government Agencies 5

Department of Defense 5

Department of Agriculture 5

Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 6

State Government Agencies 6

State Departments of Agriculture 6

State and Local Departments of Health 6

Veterinary Associations 6

Practitioners 7

General Practitioners 7

Small-Animal Practitioners 7

Defense Organization Within the Department of Agriculture 7

Appendix A.—Disaster Training Objectives 9

Appendix B.—Disaster and the Veterinarian's Liability, by Dr. H. W.

Hannah, University of Illinois 13

Appendix C.—Radiological Defense for Livestock and Their Food

Products 15

Appendix D.—Biological Warfare Defense 19

Appendix E.—Chemical Warfare Defense 23

III
VETERINARY SERVICES IN NATIONAL EMERGENCIES

Of more than 21,000 doctors of veterinary medicine in the United States, some two-thirds are

engaged in private practice. The remaining onethird are employed in government, education,

research, and commercial activities.

The veterinary profession contributes its skills

and knowledge at the Federal level by serving in

the Department of Agriculture, the Department of

Defense, and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

There are 18 colleges of veterinary medicine in

the United States. Most State universities have a

veterinary science department with a teaching and research staff, and more than half of the

State universities employ Extension Service

veterinarians.

GENERAL PROBLEM

Emergencies and disasters have occurred many

times in the past^—and will continue to occur in

the future. They can be produced bj^ man or by

Nature. They can happen while man is enjoying

a peaceful existence. They always accompany

war.

Many emergencies call for veterinary participation, which might include emergency care and

treatment of humans, some public health services,

epidemiological requirements, sanitary supervision, food inspection, and livestock protection

and treatment.

In addition to providing professional services

during natural disasters, the veterinary profession should be prepared to face the complex problems brought about by the use of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons of modern warfare.

To cope with these weapons would require all the

technical and professional knowledge and ability

that can be made available.

Modem warfare, like disease, is no respecter of

persons, boundaries, or localities. It can strike

anywhere and can affect anyone. Cities, rural

communities, farms, and ranches can be the target,

directly or indirectly, in any future war. Entire

cities might be destroyed. Casualties might be

counted in millions.

Veterinary medicine can contribute materially

in any emergency. The basic responsibility of the

veterinarian is to safeguard man's health by protecting his livestock and animal food products

from loss due to disease or contamination. This

must include disease prevention and control procedures, and protective and remedial measures required to guard against radioactive contamination.

The veterinarian's responsibility includes meat

and food inspection to assure that foods of animal

origin are safe and wholesome. The veterinarian

has a major role on the research team in conducting essential research upon which these protective

programs are based, and in organizing efforts to

carry them out effectively.

In all these activities, the veterinarian is so

trained that he can add significant skills and services in either a peacetime or a wartime emergency.

In any emergency the first instinct of man or

animals is self-preservation or survival^ followed

by recovery or rehabilitation. In case of nuclear

attack, man is concerned with the inmiediate or

direct means of protecting himself from the blast,

heat, and radiation. In case of biological and

chemical warfare, he is concerned with protection

against the effects of the disease agent and the

action of modern war gases. He would also have

to cope with the delayed effects from these

weapons.

In the event of nuclear attack, ih^ first effect

would be the destruction of property and the

human injuries, including the severe traumatic

mutilations resulting from blast and heat. Radiation hazards of fallout would soon follow. In case

of biological warfare, there would be conununicable diseases to check. There might be an increase in all types of disease, both in animals and

in man, resulting from the disruptions of war and

the discontinuance of orderly control services.

1
Also important to our survival would be an adequate and safe food supply readily available.

Civil defense authorities have stated that with

proper preparation the Nation will have a much

better chance to survive the initial emergency

period. If we survive the first period, then we

must face the second period—rehabilitation and

recovery.

To accomplish these, objectives, we must be informed and miderstand the threats from these

special weapons, the problems they produce, methods of protection and treatment, and the means of

minimizing: their effects.

Emergency activities for veterinarians would include : (1) Assistance in human casualty and firstaid service; (2) radiological defense; (3) biological warfare defense; (4) chemical warfare defense; (5) public health services; and (6) food

inspection, including monitoring for radioactive,

bacterial, and chemical contamination, with remedial measures where possible.

It must be emphasized that emergency responsibilities should include the necessary steps to assure

the veterinarian's own survival so that he will be

able to perform the many services he can contribute, in an enlarged degree, during an emergency.

HUMAN CASUALTY AND FIRST-AID SERVICE

The survival problem following a national

emergency would include the care of large numbers of injured persons and larger num'bers of

evacuees whose homes have been destroyed or

whose home areas have been made uninhabitable

by exposure to nuclear radiation. Veterinarians

in urban areas would have an initial responsibility

to help physicians care for human casualties. This

assistance would be especially necessary immediately after an attack in which the number of casualties would overwhelm the available medical personnel. At such time every medically trained person in the area would be needed. Veterinarians,

when requested under local disaster survival plans,

could provide first-aid skills, ñimish medical and

surgical supplies, and assist in many allied professional medical duties.

The casualties resulting from a muítimegaton

attack on this country would put an impossible

strain on the surviving physicians. A high percentage of the hospitals might be destroyed, being

in urban target areas. And lost with these hospitals would be crucial staff—physicians, nurses,

hospital administrators, pharmacists, and other

valuable paramedical persons.

Therefore, the surviving professional people

would have to be utilized to the maximum. Their

peacetime knowledge and skills would be used as

a basis for expansion. Subject to the extent of

regional damage, the remaining physicians would

be optimally utilized as supervisory persons.

Under the direction of surgeons wherever possible,

other physicians, dentists, nurses, veterinarians,

sanitarians, and various health professionals

would undertake expamded fimction^ according to

the American Medical Association's Summary

Report on National Emergency Care. (See

app. A.)

If no physician is immediately availajble, the

higliest qualified paramedical persons present

would assume responsibility. Therefore, considerable orientation and expanded function training

must take place, under proper medical supervision.

It is further presupposed that the so-called Good

Samaritan Law will have been passed by State

legislatures so that professional paramedical people can function under legal safeguards while

performing their disaster roles. (See app. B.)

To minimize the loss of hospital plants and

equipment in such an attack. Civil Defense Emergency Hospital (CDEH) units are being placed in

selected sites throughout the country. These

CDEH units have 200-cot capacity and are

equipped to provide emergency surgico-medical

care for several days. Newer models will have

sufficient supplies to carry on emergency surgery

and medicine for several weeks. A certain number of CDEH's have been designated at training

units. Within these CDEH setups, in expansions

of existing hospitals, and in other substitute facilities, the surviving physicians will be augmented by their paramedical comrades into the

maximum possible medical force.

The value of the diversified and often extensive

supply of drugs and equipment in many modem

veterinary hospitals should not be overlooked.

Also, many of these establishments are outside of

but peripheral to target areas, increasing their

usefulness and survival potential. They should

be considered in any area medical plan.
EMERGENCY TRAINING

All the foregoing emergency care would be possible only through preplanning and—even more

important—^^adequate preattack training. Schools

of veterinary medicine would do well to develop

special training courses in disaster medicine.

Expanded function training should not be confined, however, to schools of veterinary medicine.

Across the entire profession, competencies should

be sharpened, updated, and enlarged to enable

veterinary medicine to become a full-fledged member of the emergency medical team.

Some idea of the services that will be expected

from veterinarians may be outlined as follows :

A. Radiological Defense

1. Nuclear weapons effects

a. Strategic

b. Tactical and ecological

c. Biological (including role in host-agent

disease relationships)

2. Eadiation orientation

a. Types

b. Detection

c. Countermeasures

d. Salvage

(1) Himian

(2) Animals, foods, byproducts

(3) Areas, crops, material, structures

(4) Disposal of radioactive matter

B. Biological Warfare Defense

1. Methods of overt and covert introduction,

limitations and uses.

2. Effects on—

a. Animals

b. Foods

c. Humans

d. Ecology.

3. Epidemiológica! methods (using for course

material the most likely biological warfare

agents and most serious endemic disease

types, including animal, zoonotic, and

human).

4. Recognition of pathogens and rapid identification methods (as in No. 3).

C. Chemical Warfare Defense

1. Types of agents and their limitations.

2. Methods of employment.

3. Effects, both group and area, human,

animal, and food.

4. Recognition and countermeasures.

5. Damage control and decontamination.

6. Salvage, animals and food.

D. Food Inspection

Intelligent evaluation of the immediate and

future needs of the population versus radiological, chemical, biological, and/or other

occurrences that may have affected foods.

(Foods to be defined as ante- and/or postmortem animals, poultry, fish, plants, packaged or stored products or byproducts,

including dairy products, eggs, crops, and

potable or processing water.)

E. Environmental Sanitation

Veterinary participation in insect and rodent

control, water treatment, wastes and sewage

disposal, should be voluntary and limited to

immediate problems connected with parts A

through D.

PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES

Emergency defense plans must include preparations to prevent death from striking the remaining population because of communicable and

noncommunicable diseases, lack of water, radiation exposure, and many public health problems

that would arise from emergency concentrations of

large groups of displaced persons. Emergency

movements and concentrations of displaced persons would pose many public health and sanitary

problems in rural areas where these people may

be placed. The veterinarian, with his medical

background, his knowledge of the health conditions of livestock in the area, and his understanding and knowledge of the requirements for a safe

environment, can provide much needed epidemiological and supervisory service in these areas.

(See app. A, p. 9, item 13.)
RADIOLOGICAL DEFENSE

The veterinarian can be extremely helpful to

farmers and livestock oAraers in regard to radiological defense. He can provide information,

leadership, and guidance in measures to protect

livestock from the effects of radioactive fallout

and to minimize the contamination of animals and

poultry food products.

Where possible, the veterinarians will assist in

determining the methods of handling or disposing

of exposed animals, recommending either: (a)

immediate slaughter for food ; (6) destruction and

sanitary disposal; (c) isolation for further observation; or (d) release as relatively nonaffected

animals. (See app. C for further details.)

The limiting factor for survival after a nuclear

attack may well be man and not the animal. The

use of animals and animal byproducts for food

may reduce the hazard of radioactive contamination below that which must be tolerated if food is

obtained directly from plants. Although total

body irradiation and intestinal doses from absorbed isotopes will be much higher for animals

than for man, their relatively faster maturity and

reproductive cycle will compensate for some of the

ill effects produced by the increased radiation.

BIOLOGICAL WARFARE DEFENSE

Biological warfare (BW) is the intentional use

of disease-producing agents or their toxic products

to cause death, disability, or damage to man,

animals, or crops. The ultimate target is man,

either by causing his sickness or death, or by limiting his food supplies or other essential agricultural

resources.

Biological warfare may find its greatest effectiveness when used for antifood purposes. Contrary to the case in antipersonnel BW, the epiphytotic and epizootic potentials of anticrop and antianimal agents could be exploited by an enemy.

Antifood BW could play a decisive role in any

war not conducted with pushbutton speed.

The various animal diseases that might be effective biological warfare agents against the livestock

and poultry of our country include such domestic

diseases as anthrax, hog cholera, and Newcastle

disease. The majority of potential biological warfare diseases include those now foreign to this continent, such as foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest,

African swine fever, Rift Valley fever, and fowl

plague.

Veterinarians and inspectors of meat and other

animal food products may be the first to see the

initial indication of biological warfare. (See app.

D for additional information.)

CHEMICAL WARFARE DEFENSE

The scope of chemical warfare is broad. It is

directed at groups ra;ther than single individuals.

Chemical warfare agents could be used to produce

casualties, make areas impassable, start fires, and

contaminate food and water. Tlie contamination

of animals, food, and water with 'chemical agents

could be incidental to the attack on a primary

target. (Additional information is contained in

app. E.)

MEAT AND POULTRY INSPECTION

Meat and poultry inspection becomes extremely

important following a disaster. This inspection

activity is an important adjunct to preventive

medicine to help assure the consumer that the meat

and poultry products he eats are safe and wholesome; that they are free of contamination from

potential biological warfare agents, chemical warfare agents, and radioactive fallout. Poultry and

meat inspection serves also as an alerting mechanism in detecting irregular disease patterns in the

food animal population.

The utilization of Federal, State, and municipal

meat and poultry inspection services must be

planned. The veterinary practitioners, both

small-animal and general, may be called upon to

provide the supervisory services required in carrying out this program.
PLAN FOR ANIMAL CARE

Since the veterinarians will be required to help

care for human casualties during the initial stages

of an emergency, programs for the care and handling of animais during this period should be so

organized that they can be conducted by the Animal Kescue League or similar organizations.

All animal protective organizations have offered

their cooperation and the use of their facilities to

local civil defense directors. A close working arrangement among all local groups is imperative,

in the interest of people and animals too. In communities where there are several animal protective

groups, a coordinated plan for joint action should

be developed to avoid duplication of effort.

Experience in England during World War II

revealed that far fewer animal casualties occurred

in air raids than were expected. One of the big

problems seemed to be in caring for stray animals

after a bombing. Because of the risk of starting

epizootics, animals could not be merely rounded

up and housed in temporary centers; therefore,

a number of detention posts were used.

In the early raids on London, many dogs and

cats were made homeless. In a few days, packs of

hungry and starving dogs became dangerous, even

taking possession of evacuated homes. Cats were

intentionally left behind in some areas to keep

down rats and mice. However, most animals were

rounded up after each raid and sent to a detention

post until they were claimed or destroyed.

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

Department of Defense

The Department of the Army and the Department of the Air Force both have veterinary services as an integral part of their medical services.

The veterinary service conducts inspections on all

foods of animal origin purchased by the Armed

Forces to insure that no diseased, unsanitary, or

unsound foods are procured for or issued to troops.

The role of military veterinarians, physicians,

dentists, and other allied health professionals is

determined by the military disaster plan for the

area in which they are stationed. However, reserve personnel of all categories may be utilized

on a voluntary basis until called to military duty.

Department of Agriculture

Executive Order 10998, signed by the President

on February 16,1962, assigns emergency preparedness functions to the Department of Agriculture.

These functions include the following :

The Secretary of Agriculture . . . shaU prepare national emergency plans and develop preparedness programs covering: . . . defense against biological warfare,

chemical warfare, and radiological fallout pertaining to

agricultural activities .... These plans and programs

shall be designed to develop a state of readiness in these

areas with respect to all conditions of national emergency,

including attack upon the United States.

Biological, chemical, and radiological warfare defense

functions. Develop plans for a national program, direct

Federal activities, and furnish technical guidance to State

and local authorities concerning (1) diagnosis and

strengthening of defensive barriers and control or eradication of disease, pests, or chemicals introduced as agents

of biological or chemical warfare against animals, crops,

or products thereof; (2) protective measures, treatment

and handling of livestock, including poultry, . . . any of

which have been exposed to or affected by radiation.

Plans shall be developed for a national program and

direction of Federal activities to assure the safety and

wholesomeness and to minimize losses from biological

and chemical warfare, radiological effects, and other emergency hazards of livestock, meat and meat products, poultry and poultry products in establishments under the

continuous inspection of the U.S. Department of

Agriculture ....

The Department of Agriculture has veterinary

services in both the Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) and the Agricultural Research

Service (ARS).

The Agricultural Marketing Service provides

the veterinary inspection service for poultry and

poultry products in federally inspected plants.

The Agricultural Research Service conducts research relating to: (1) production and utilization

of agricultural products; (2) protection of livestock and crops against diseases and insect pests ;

and (3) countermeasures that would reduce or remove radioactive materials from agricultural

commodities. The veterinary regulatory programs conducted by ARS include: (1) animal inspection and quarantine; (2) animal disease control and eradication; and (3) Federal meat

inspection.

During a national emergency, the facilities of

ARS will be utilized for the protection of crops

and animals against diseases, insect pests, and

radioactive fallout.
Department of Health, Education, and

Welfare

Executive Order 11001, signed by the President on February 16,1962, assigns emergency preparedness functions to the Secretary of Health,

Education, and Welfare.

Various components of the Public Health Service of the Depar'tment of Health, Education, and

Welfare are concerned with disease control.

Among these are the Communicable Disease Center and the Divisions of Environmental Engineering and Food Protection, Air Pollution, Radiological Health, and Occupational Health, of the

Bureau of State Services, and the National Institutes of Health, all of which employ veterinarians.

During a national emergency the veterinarians

of the Department of Health, Edu<ïation, and Welfare can be called upon when problems arise in

their field. Some are particularly well qualified

to make epidemiological investigations of disease

outbreaks; others are trained in detecting and combating biological warfare agents; another group

is well qualified in detecting radioactive fallout;

and others spedalize in preventing milkbome and

foodbome illnesses.

The Commissioner of Food and Drugs has the

authority under this Executive Order delegated

by the Secretary to plan and direct national programs for the maintenance of purity and safety

in the manufacture and distribution of food,

drugs, and biologicals in an emergency. During

a national emergency, Food.and Drug Administration veterinarians will furnish information and

guidance on the safety for emergency use of feeds

and veterinary drugs that may have been exposed

to radiological, chemical, and biological warfare

agents. Assessment of safety may also involve

evaluation of safety and suitability of available

veterinary drugs for human use on an emergency

basis.

STATE GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

State Departments of Agriculture

The State veterinarian or State livestock sanitary official conducts animal disease control programs within his own 'State. He has his own

organization and works in collaboration vrith the

Agricultural Research Service and the veterinary

pr*actitioners of the State. In addition to his own

livestock disease control organization, he can deputize and use veterinary practitioners throughout

his State in animal disease control work. In

some States this office directs the State meat inspection program. In plans for handling a national emergency, the State and local civil defense

organizations should look to the State veterinarian

and his staff for appropriate help.

State and Local Departments of Health

Most State health departments employ public

health veterinarians. The State public health

veterinarian is primarily interested in developing

appropriate methods to protect man again^ those

animal diseases that are transmissible to man.

The normal peacetime cooperation between the

public health veterinarian. State live^ock authorities, and the veterinary associations and veterinary institutions will be extremely useful during

a national emergency. As a member of a State

civil defense health office, the State public health

veterinarian can provide information and guidance on the State civil defense program and Öie

utilization of the vd:erinary practitioner during

an emergency.

Many IcKïal health departments employ veterinarians as meat inspectors, milk and food sanitation specialists, and in the control of the zoonotic

diseases. These veterinarians are also readily

available in case of national disaster.

VETERINARY

The State and local veterinary associations

should contact and work with the appropriate

State and local civil defense organizations, as well

as the State veterinarian, to become aware of the

defense organization and objectives, and the proposed plan for utilizing their services, if this

ASSOCIATIONS

information is available, it should be provided to

members of the associations. The civil defense

organization should look to the veterinary associations for guidance and information on utilizing

veterinary medical capabilities.
PRACTITIONERS

General Practitioners

General practitioners in rural areas are almost

wholly concerned with the prevention and control

of animal diseases, both of an economic and of a

public health interest. The results of such efforts

affect to a great extent the health and welfare of

the Nation.

During a national emergency, peacetime activities of disease prevention and control would continue and would be extended. In case of a possible

biological warfare attack, all available veterinary

personnel would be expected to help cope with the

situation.

Small-Animal Practitioners

During a national emergency and especially

after the bombing of a city, the small-animal practitioners can be helpful and will be expected to

help provide medical aid to the many human

casualties that will result from these attacks.

Medical and nursing help and facilities may be

overwhelmed completely. The small-animal practitioner, with his hospital facilities, can provide

professional skills to help care for such casualties.

After the emergency, small-animal practitioners

may be needed to aid in providing an inspection

service for foods that may have become contaminated during a bombing attack, and for foodprocessing plants that may have been partially destroyed or contaminated. The veterinarians'

professional skill may prevent disease and sickness

caused by the consumption of spoiled, deteriorated,

or contaminated foods. Supervision over preventive measures and sanitary measures necessary in

handling and processing these foods for human

consumption can be provided by veterinarians in

urban areas.

DEFENSE ORGANIZATION WITHIN THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

The Department of Agriculture has a countrywide defense organization directed from Washington by a Special Assistant to the Secretary. The

Special Assistant is advised and assisted by the

USDA National Defense Board, consisting of the

heads of those agencies having major defense

responsibilities.

There are eight defense regions of the Ofiice of

Emergency Planning and the Office of Civil Defense, Department of Defense. Preemergency

Maison activity at the regional OEP-OCD offices

will be conducted by USDA national headquarters.

A USDA State Defense Board has been established in each State. The Chairman is the State

Executive Director of the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service except in Alaska.

His staff consists of representatives from the Department agencies with major defense responsibilities. Veterinary representation from the

Agricultural Eesearch Service is found on each

USDA State Defense Board.

The Department's defense organization extends

into each county through USDA County Defense

Boards. Because the Agricultural Research Service does not usually have personnel regularly assigned to the county level, the information on

protection of livestock is obtained from the USDA

State Defense Boards.

The veterinary practitioner can receive information on the USDA emergency programs from the

Veterinarian-in-Charg-e of the Anima;l Disease

Eradication Division, usually located in the State

Capitol, or from the UDSA Defense Board

Chairman located, in most cases, at the ASCS

State and county offices.

However, it is suggested that the veterinarian

work closely with the local civil defense organization on the local program. Information on the

State civil defense program can be obtained from

the State veterinarian and the veterinarian in the

State health department.
APPENDIX A.—DISASTER TRAINING OBJECTIVES

As proposed by the American Medical Association in "Summary Report on National Emergency

Care," issued in 1959, the disaster training objectives for veterinarians are essentially as follows :

In view of the anticipated disparity between the

number of casualties and the number of available

physicians after a mass attack on the United States,

as well as the number of injuries amena;ble to competently administered self-aid and first-aid treatment, it is imperative that : (a) all physicians and

osteopaths, regardless of their special qualifications, receive training and become proficient in the

practice of disaster medicine ; and (&) dentists and

veterinarians receive training and become proficient in the practice of disaster dentistry and disaster veterinary medicine, respectively, and receive

such additional training in disaster medicine as

will enable them to take effective lifesaving and

first-aid measures and to perform functions that

will assist the medical profession.

The American Medical Association expects that

the professional medical associations of the United

Statfô, including State, county, and city medical

societies, will actively encourage and take the lead

in supporting such approved professional and

technical training programs as may be designed to

insure the medical preparedness of the Nation for

an ^U-out war. It further expects individual physicians to assist, advise, and conduct training sessions when requested ; demonstrate leadership in

the field of disaster medicine ; and insure adequate

and proper instruction of the general public.

It is imperative that additional functions 'be

performed under mass casualty conditions by persons other than physicians, not only to relieve

physicians, but also to insure that the fullest- possible use is made of all available personnel. The

employment of nonmedical health personnel to

perform additional functions, after adequate preparation and training^ is essential and practicable

under mass casualty conditions.

Casualties will receive more adequate care if

p^hysicians can be relieved of those functions which

others can be trained to perform. Mem'bers of the

allied health professions are capable of being

trained to perform in those capacities under general medical supervision.

Functions of Health Personnel, Including

Veterinarians

1. First-aid including, but not limited to, artificial respiration, emergency treatment of open

chest wounds, relief of pain, treatment of shock,

and the preparation of casualties for movement.

2. Control of hemorrhage.

3. Attainment and maintenance of patent airway and intratracheal catheterization, including

tracheotomy.

4. Proper and adequate cleansing and treatment of wounds.

5. Preparation and application of bandages and

splints.

6. Administration of anesthetics under medical

supervision.

7. Assistance in surgical procedures.

8. Insertion of nasogastric tubes including lavage and gavage, as directed.

9. Administration of whole blood and intravenous solutions, as directed.

10. Administration of parenteral medications,

as directed.

11. Catheterization of males and females.

12. Administration of immunizing agents, as

directed.

13. Sanitation including waste disposal ; examination of water sources, methods of water treatment and distribution; milk sources, methods of

sterilization and distribution; and inspection of

foods including detection of radioactive contamination.

Sorting of Casualties

To further reduce the awesome discrepancy between casualty caseload and available medical aid,

the concept of sorting or triage has been borrowed

from the military. In brief, this consists of a

grading system, by means of which incoming casu603-390 a—63-
alties are sorted into three major groups, immediately prior to hospital admittance :

Priority I. Those needing outpatient care.

Priority II. Moderately injured and ill who

can be saved or restored to usefulness by

immediate definitive treatment.

Priority III. Injured and ill whose treatment

can de delayed (a) without undue harm,

and (b) critically injured and ill requiring too great an expenditure of time or

material, and those beyond help.

Thus, by training and functioning in this expanded capacity, the doctor of veterinary medicine

helps to fill the immediate medical needs in his

area. By utilizing the concept of sorting, the.

discrepancy between the number of patients and

of availaJble medical personnel is further reduced.

Treatment Principles

Certain principles apply particularly in the

treatment and management of mass casualties during the emergency phase after an attack.

It is imperative that these principles, in addition

to such others as may be appropriate, form the

basis for—

(a) The early management of mass casualties,

and

(b) Instructional material for training in

mass casualty care.

It is recommended that the following treatment

principles, in addition to such others as may be

appropriate, be promulgated through inclusion in

any national emergency medical plan and training

publications prepared and distributed by the Federal Government in connection with preparations

for a mass attack.

If maximum care is to be provided to the greatest number of mass casualties imder emergency

conditions that are expected to prevail following

an all-out attack, it is imperative that—

1. Treatment procedures in disaster and support areas be simplified and standardized.

2. The control of hemorrhage, the attainment

and maintenance of a patent airway, and the

treatment of shock—the critically essential

lifesaving measures—receive the highest priority at all levels.

3. During the emergency period following a

mass attack on the United States, no treatment

procedure be performed that renders a casualty

less able to care for himself.

4. Treatment procedures be designed to

preserve life over limb and function over

appearance.

5. Casualties requiring only self-aid, first-aid,

or outpatient care be treated as indicated in

disaster or support areas, whereas admission to

hospitals must be reserved for more seriously

ill patients.

6. Psychologically disturbed individuals not

be admitted to hospitals treating the injured.

7. No patient be removed from his litter or

improvised stretcher until he has reached a place

of definitive treatment or removal is otherwise

essential.

8. Similar types of cases be grouped to the

extent practicable to simplify, standardize, and

expedite treatment.

9. Medical laboratory procedures be held to

the absolute minimum.

10. X-ray examinations be held to the absolute minimum.

11. Blood typing of casualties be carried out

before transfusion, and crossmatching also be

carried out, if practicable.

12. Casualties be transferred to convalescent

facilities or discharged and treated on an outpatient status as early as possible.

Narcotics

In the use of narcotics, it is imperative that—

1. Morphine and other narcotics not be issued

to rescue workers, litter bearers, ambulance

drivers, or others of like category for use on

casualties.

2. Morphine and potent opium derivatives be

administered only in medical treatment facilities by qualified personnel.

3. In the treatment of injured personnel,

morphine be used only for the purpose of relieving severe pain. Since major woimds frequently are almost painless, there is no indication that morphine should be administered solely

because of the presence of such wounds.

4. Morphine or other potent narcotics not be

administered to casualties exhibiting signs of

traumatic or hemorrhagic shock.

5. Morphine or other respiratory depressants

not be administered to casualties with head injuries, severe chest injuries, respiratory depression, or distress.

6. The smallest effective doses of morphine be

employed.

10
7. The dosage of morphine, the hour, date,

and route of administration be entered on the

medical records of those casualties who receive it.

Personnel

Following a mass attack on the United States,

it is imperative that—

1. Every ajble-'bodied survivor with knowledge

or skill in a health field be utilized to the full

extent of his knowledge and capabilities in an

appropriate medical or health activity.

2. Medically trained personnel not be utilized

in röscue or other nonmedical operations.

3. The most adequate round-the-clock staffing

possible be provided for medical installations

to enable personnel engaged in the care of the

sick and injured to obtain adequate rest in order

tha/t they may work at top speed, employing

sound medical judgment, over periods of time

as long as weeks or months.

4. Physicians, osteopaths, dentists, and veterinarians, as well as other health x>ersonnel who

require a license to practice in their home States

or territories, practice without a license in any

area which requires their services in the care of

mass casualties.

5. Members of the recognized health and medical professions practicing the healing arts in

the care of mass casualties in the United States

be immune from professional liability suits

brought by such casualties or their relatives.

Carrying Out of Emergency PJans

A, General.—Emergency plans wdll be put into

operation at all levels upon declaration by the

President that a civil defense emergency exists, or

in the event of attack before such declaration.

They may be activated in whole or in part under

less demanding circumstances in a particular area

or areas, upon direction of duly constituted authority in such area or areas.

B, Public,—Immediately after an attack, individuals, familiefe, and groups will aid themselves

and each other until locally organized health

forces start functioning.

0. ZömZ.—Immediately upon attack or declaration of emergency, local governments, which are

the primary sources of effective health services,

will perform their functions with resources on

hand until outside aid from other localities or the

State or Federal government ^becomes available.

D, State,—As promptly as possible following

attack or declaration of emergency, the State will

evaluate the total health situation and assume responsibility for executive emergency health plans

within the State.

E, Federal,—When State resources are insufficient to provide required health services, the Federal Government will augment them as soon as

possible with Federal health resources not required for emergency activities of the Federal

Government. In the event a State government is

unable to act, the Federal Gt>vemment will assume

responsibility to the extent necessary to provide

the best possible health services to the surviving

population in the particular area or areas.

References

AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION.

1959. SUMMARY REPORT ON NATIONAL EMERGENCY

MEDICAL CARE. 39 pp. American Medical

Assoc, 535 North Dearborn St., Chicago 10,

111.

AMERICAN RED CROSS.

1957. FIRST AID TEXTBOOK. 4th edition, revised.

241 pp., illus. Doubleday & Co., Inc., Garden

City, N.Y.

AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION

1960. THE VETERINARIAN'S PLACE IN DISASTER AND

CIVIL DEFENSE EMERGENCIES. Jour. Amer.

Vet. Med. Assoc. 136 (4) : 140.

BOOTHE, H.

1961. THE VETERINARY PRACTIONER AND CIVIL DEFENSE. The Illinois Veterinarian, No. 3

(Summer 1961).

CHURCH, R. B.

1956. THE \^TERINARIAN IN TIME OF DISASTER. Jour.

Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 128: 495.

WHITNEY, J. M.

1961. MOBILIZATION OF THE NATION'S HEALTH RESOURCES. Jour. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 139 :

122.

11
APPENDIX B.—DISASTER AND THE VETERINARIAN'S LIABILITY

By DR. H. W. HANNAH, Professor, A(/ricultural ami Veterinary Law, University of Illinois

Reprinted with permission of the American Veterinary Medical Association

What duty does a veterinarian owe to his clients

when conditions beyond his control make it impossible for him to render his usual service ? The

answer is based upon the same principles of contract, bailment, and negligence that apply in all

such situations, and there is a considerable accumulation of legal doctrine surrounding this subject.

Let us examine the probable application of this

doctrine by posing a number of specific situations.

Destruction or Partial Destruction of an

Animal Hospital

Certainly the veterinarian is not liable for loss of

animals or injury to animals in his custody immediately resulting from a bombing, fire, explosion,

or other cause beyond his control. But if there are

surviving animals, he would then owe the owner

the duty of providing such care and taking such

steps as would be reasonable to préservée the lives

and health of such animals. This duty might be

discharged in a number of ways—placing the

animals in another hospital, finding tempK)rary

quarters, notifying owners and asking them to take

the animals. If X-ray and other equipment essential to the treatment of animals is destroyed,

then there would be no liability for failure to

conduct such treatments until such time as the

veterinarian could, with reasonable alacrity, make

arrangements for their continuation. The veterinarian's legal duty might be altered considerably

by the application of civil defense rules. If, for

example, he is required to look after human patients, his duty to animal-owner clients would be

discharged by leaving the animals with the best

kind of help he is able to find and notifying owners

of the situation. Even the duty to notify would

be altered by the destruction of communication

facilities—telephones, highways, vehicles, the local

press. Countless factual situations can grow out

of disaster, so that it is impossible to rationalize

all of them. For example, what is the duty of the

veterinarian—

to recapture escaped animals ?

with respect to the spread of disease by escaped animals?

to sheep owners whose sheep are killed by

escaped dogs ?

to people who are attacked by escaped

animals?

for damage caused by the negligent acts of the

employees or agents he procures to look

after the animals?

If we were to coin a rule or guide, it might say,

"The veterinarian in charge of an animal hospital

is not liable to animal owners or the public generally in case of disaster, so long as he moves with

reasonable speed to take the next logical step to

protect the interests of both." As we have already

indicated, this next logical step will depend on a

number of variables and cannot very well be predicted in advance. Some of the steps will be covered by civil defense rules, but even these cannot

allow for all contingencies.

Death or Incapacity of the Veterinarian

The veterinarian's death would ordinarily terminate any liability against his estate arising out

of his failure to care for patients. Likewise, he

would be relieved of liability if he were seriously

injured and could not make arrangements for

followup. If he is able to attempt to make arrangements by telephone or through members of

his family or other agents, there would be some

duty on his part, but it might not extend beyond

seriously ill animals for which he knows some arrangements must be attempted. If he has one or

more uninjured partners, then of course the partnership is still liable for "carrying on," and the

immediate responsibility would devolve on his

partners. If he has an animal hospital and animals in his custody, then his employees would be

13
expected to protect the animals unless they are

likewise excused by circumstances beyond their

control.

Destruction of Veterinary Facilities

Since veterinarians are not legally bound to accept cases, the decision to accept no more following

destruction of their ofBces, supplies, and equipment is clearly within their right. But they would

still owe a duty to clients whose animals they were

attending at the time of the disaster. As indicated

under situation 1, their duty will depend on what

they are able to do through reasonable efforts. If

they cannot find a vehicle to use, they would not

be negligent in failing to follow up on a sick animal 10 miles distant from their place of business.

Here, again, the law will have to rely on a "rule

of reason'' and perhaps our statement about

"taking the next logical step" in view of particular circumstances and possibilities is as close as

we can come to answering the question—"What is

the veterinarian's duty to his clients in case of a

disaster?" !

Treatment of Human Patients

It is the obvious intent of both the Federal and

State laws in case of emergency to provide for the

care of patients and casualties by other than the

professional people who would ordinarily care for

them.

Veterinarians, dentists, laboratory technicians,

biologists, anyone with some special knowledge of

physiology or medicine, would be expected to take

over roles in preference to a layman with no

learning or special knowledge of any kind. This,

of course, will raise questions about negligence,

malpractice, degree of skill and care, and other

subjects which in normal times could very well become the basis for lawsuits. Certainly, the presence of such an emergency and the policy of both

State and Federal Governments would go a long

way toward excusing the nonprofessional in the

care of human patients. For want of a better

generalization, perhaps one could say such care is

justified and would not be subject to action of any

kind as long as professional care is not available

for patients and casualties requiring attention, and

the person in attendance is not wanting in the skill

of his calling and is not careless or negligent.

Conceivably, this could be for quite a long period

if the number of casualties is great and all the professional people in medicine are needed to take

care of the most serious cases and to man emergency hospitals and other units.

14
APPENDIX C—RADIOLOGICAL DEFENSE FOR LIVESTOCK AND THEIR FOOD PRODUCTS

Farm animals, like man, are susceptible to radiation damage (table 1). Hazards to livestock

and subsequently to man, who depends upon

livestock as a source of food, are of two types.

One is the external hazard from the gamma-emitting fallout particle, and the second is the internal

hazard resulting from the contaminated food, air,

and water ingested by livestock and man. For

example, animals grazing on contaminated pasture or consuming contaminated feed and water

may ingest some 200 different radioactive isotopes

that are found in fallout particles. Among these

isotopes are cesium 137, which is chemically similar to potassium and would be found in the soft

tissues of the animal; strontium 89 and strontium 90, which are chemically similar to calcium

and concentrate in the bones and are secreted in

the milk of dairy animals; and iodine 131, which

concentrates in the thyroid gland and is secreted

in the milk of dairy animals. These radioactive

isotopes constitute an internal hazard to man, who

consumes the meat and other animal food products,

particularly milk.

Therefore, livestock first must be provided shelter during and after fallout to protect them from

TABLE 1.—Percentage of mortality of unsheltered

animals after 21i,-hour exposure to various radiation doses

[Values from dose rate experiments with constant intermediate radiation exposure]

Mortality

Species

100

Percent

80

Percent

50

Percent

20

Percent0

Exposure dose (roentgen.^y

Cattle.. 650

700

800

1,200

600

600

700

1, 100

650

525

600

900

450

450

450

600

300

Sheep 350

Swine 350

Poultry... 400

^ Exposure dose in area where livestock and building

are located.

the external radiation hazards from gamma rays.

Shelter provided by a bam v^ill give some protection from this hazard. Secondly, a shelter will

help protect feed and water from fallout contamination. The important objective is to try to-prevent the radioactive material (fallout) from

becoming incorporated or mixed with the feed

and water and thus prevent ingestion of harmful

quantities of radioactive material.

Shelter

The value of shelter in preventing death and

sickness among animals is greatest in areas exposed to acute radiation doses about equal to the

average midlethal dose (550 roentgens). At low

radiation intensities, there is little beneficial effect from shelter because no animals would become

sick or die whether sheltered or not. At high intensities of outdoor radiation, however, all animals would die whether sheltered or not.

Table 2 indicates the percentage of mortality

that might be expected among various species of

sheltered and unsheltered animals exposed to different intensities of radiation. This information

should be considered as a general guide of expected

mortality based on current knowledge, and not as

a forecast of exact mortality rates.

The objectives of providing shelter for livestock and poultry are: (1) to protect livestock

from the lethal effects of radiation, thereby conserving an important food resource; and (2) to

protect the feed and water of food-producing animals from radioactive contamination, thereby assisting the production of safe food products for

human consumption. After the first critical 24

to 48 hours or when outdoor work periods can be

scheduled, livestock can be given short periods of

exercise in areas or yards that do not contain contaminated vegetation or water. When it is no

longer practical to keep animals off contaminated

pasture, supplemental feeding with uncontaminated feed should be provided as far as possible.

15
TABLE '2,—Effect of shelter on the mortality rate

of livestock ^

Mortality rate by nature of shelter

BaseKind of livestock 2-story mentand radiation barn type

exposure—un- Tight with barn

sheltered dose wooden loft full with

(number of No barn of hay loft full

roentgens—1 day) shelter (protec- (protec- of hay

tion tion (protecfactor factor tion

of 2) of 5) factor

of 10

or more)

Cattle: Percent Percent Percent Percent

500 30

100

0

30

0

.0

0

1,000 0

3,000 100 100 80 0

Hogs:

500 30

100

0

30

0

0

0

1,000 0

3,000 100 100 50 0

Sheep:

500 38

100

0

38

0

0

0

1,000 0

3,000 100 100 80 0

Poultry:

500 10

64

0

10

0

0

0

1,000 0

3,000 100 100 20 0

1 The reduction of radiation by shelter is described as the

"fallout protection factor." For example, if the fallout

protection factor of any given structure is 2, then the intensity of outside radiation is reduced by one-half. In

fallout areas, one-half or more of the radiation would be

released after the end of the first day.

Food animals ^Yhich have received radiation

doses that may result in sickness or death may

not show any injury within a period of 2 to 10

days after exposure.

Reducing Iodine 131 Contamination of Food

and Dairy Products

On the premise that the radioactivity from iodine 131 largely disappears from materials after

a 60-day period, the dairy farmer can confine lactating animals to the barn before the appearance

of fallout in the area and provide forage and feed

that had been harv^ested before the detonation or

stored for at least 60 days after exposure to fallout. Freshly contaminated forage can be fed to

nonlactating stock. Concentrated mixtures prepared on the farm should be made from grains

harvested before the fallout or that have been

stored for 60 days or longer. Ensilage that has

been stored for at least 2 months could also be a

safe feed for dairy animals.

Confining dairy animals to reasonably dusttight

buildings and providing them with clean, noncontaminated feed and water will aid greatly in minimizing the contamination of the dairy products

from these animals.

Feeding Dairy Cattle

As long as strontium 90 is descending, it will

provide a surface contamination of crops and forage and may provide the principal source of radioactive materials in the feed of farm animals. As

this source of contamination decreases, rations for

dairy cattle can influence the strontium 90 content

of milk. For maximum effect, one should in principle reduce plant calcium to a minimum and increase the mineral calcium to a maximum. For

example, a diet of grass hay, com, and inorganic

calcium would provide less strontium for the animal than would a diet of legumes, such as clover,

lespedeza, or alfalfa, which are good sources of

calcium but which would also contribute a greater

amount of strontium.

Livestock Slaughtering

Food animals exposed to irradiation can be

slaughtered and used for food if this is done

within 2 to 8 days after exposure, or if they have

recovered from the ensuing illness. Because of

lowered resistance, infections may develop 7 to 14

days after exposure and be accompanied by a

severe generalized illness. If this were the case,

the animal would not be a suitable source of food.

There is no evidence, though, that the flesh of

lethally irradiated animals is harmful unless

secondary infections have become established.

There is some concern with the slaughter of contaminated animals, however, aside from the effect

of radiation sickness in the animal. We must be

concerned with the transfer of radioactive material from the hide and intestinal contents to the

meat surface during the dressing operation. And

there is a danger to the person doing the dressing

of skin bums from beta particles if he has prolonged direct contact with the hide or ingesta.

To meet these hazards it would be advisable to

wash animals before slaughter, if possible. This

would be especially recommended with swine because it would be relatively easy to wash them and

would prevent an accumulation of radioactive

16
material in the scalding water. Detergents are

particularly effective in removing radioactive

material. Cattle washing should either be done

thoroughly or not attempted at all because there is

less transfer of contamination from hide to meat

when dressing a dry animal than when dressing a

partially clean wet animal. The washing of

poultry or sheep is ill advised. However, a drying period before slaughter of any wet sheep is

recommended.

Dressing operations should be done with full

awareness that the butcher may develop painful,

slow-healing beta burns if he is not protected from

contaminated hides or ingesta. Rubber gloves,

protective plastic coverings, masking tape, rubber

aprons, and rubber boots would serve to protect

him. Also, keeping these coverings clean as the

work progresses would reduce the hazard.

When dressing animals contaminated with fallout, nothing but the eviscerated carcass, the

cheeks, and the heart should be saved for food

purposes. The remainder, including the hide or

pelt, should be removed to a remote location.

Salvage of Contaminated Food

Food inspection work done soon after an attack

would probably be concerned with salvage of

existing food stocks so that hunger would not

necessarily add to the woes of the Xation. Food

stocks may be damaged by blast, heat, or a number of contaminants, and decisions must be made

as to whether the food is safe to deliver to the pubhe. As a rule. Government food inspection services can make such specialized decisions, but there

is a real possibility that a large attack would

create such widespread disruption of the food industry that the existing force of inspectors would

be too small to meet the problem in all areas. It

is under these circumstances that the veterinary

practitioner could provide additional service to his

community.

The local veterinarian, in such circumstances,

would be expected to examine the damage and release sound foods for distribution. If fallout were

a problem in the area, he would be working with

a man trained in radiological monitoring. The

veterinarian's essential task, however, would be

to determine if deteriorative changes had occurred to the extent that the food otherwise would

be hazardous to consume.

The principle of salvage of contaminated or

damaged food is to segregate the contaminated

from the uncontaminated and to clean up the

former, if possible. Often the radioactivity or

damage will be located only on the surface of a

stockpile, and by careful removal of the surface,

containers may be uncovered which have suffered

no damage or contamination. Such imaffected

product would be released for immediate consumption. In the portion that must be decontaminated before use, trimming of meats, or the dusting or washing of containers with a detergent

solution would remove much of the contamination. When the contaminating material is radioactive fallout, the contents of sealed, undamaged

packages or containers will be free of activity.

Food products located in sealed and undamaged

refrigerators or freezers usually will not be contaminated with radioactive fallout. With the

breakdown of refrigeration, which is very likely in

a damaged area, perishable product may be salvaged. If it has not been possible to use fresh

meat immediately and bacterial damage is not

too great, the food products may be washed or

trimmed and then cooked thoroughly before

eating.

Sterile canned products have a greater salvage

potential than many other types of food have,

are relatively resistant to physical damage, and

can await the lapse of the denial time that must

precede salvage in highly contaminated areas.

Radioactive contamination can be removed from

the surface of cans by a relatively simple washing

process. The danger of nonpotable water or sewer

contamination may be eliminated by washing the

containers, dipping them in a chlorine solution,

and drying. Canned foods must be carefully examined for rust spots; damaged stocks must be

used promptly following washing. However, it

would be well to incubate them first, if this is

feasible. The incubation period is to permit identification and removal of incipient spoilage in

progress due to rust spots that have perforated

the can, seam rupture, etc., not apparent to the

unaided eye. Obviously ruptured cans should be

disposed of without delay. The absence of proper

incubation temperatures may require prolonged

holding if emergency conditions permit. Such

decisions, however, must be based on the demand

for food supplies and the calculated risk involved.

17
Glass containers will be especially subject to

crushing and breakage. Radioactive material or

contamination from polluted water easily lodges

under screwcaps or friction-type lids and is difficult to remove.

It is not expected that many food-processing

plants in attack or fallout areas would have sufficient power or raw material for preserving foods

for some time after an attack. For this reason,

it is vital that methods of preserving food at the

farm or ranch be actively pursued if these products are to provide a source of protein in time of

national disaster.

Countermeasures

Countermeasures against fallout contaminants

include those actions and procedures that would

result in reducing or eliminating the exposure of

the population to the hazards of radioactive materials. These procedures should be directed to

the source of the contamination, to the mechanism

that transmits it, or to the substance in which it

gains access.

Countermeasures would be taken only after responsible authorities had carefully evaluated the

situation and declared a state of emergency. The

decision would not be an easy one. Medical assessment of the probable damage from radiation

would have to be balanced against the cost of the

decontamination measures, the resulting reduction in available food supplies, and the economic

and social dislocations resulting from the action.

Countermeasures could be drastic, or they could

involve changes in generally accepted farming

practices. Some measures could be simply an

improvement over local conditions and procedures.

Some countermeasures could result in reducing the

contaminant by only a small factor, but a combination of several of these measures could provide

the necessary reduction.

Three major areas of research have been conducted by TJSDA toward developing countermeasure procedures that might be used to reduce

radioactive materials in agricultural commodities.

These are: (1) Eemoval of radioactivity in milk;

(2) animal management systems which result in

reduction of radioactive materials in animal food

production ; and (3) soil treatment to reduce radioactive materials in crops.

Other Pertinent Information Available

Technical and semitechnical information of interest to veterinarians has been developed and distributed, such as the following.

[U.S.] AGRIOULTURAL RESEAEOH SERVICE.

1961. USDA RADIOLOGICAL TRAINING MANUAL. U.S.

Dept. Agr., 232 pp., illus. (A technical publication providing useful Information on the

effects of radiation on livestock and the

means of protecting livestock or minimizing radiation hazards. )

1962. pROTEcrriON OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE AGAINST

NUCLEAR ATTACK. U.S. Dept. AgT., AgT.

Handb. 234, 41 pp., illus. (A semitechnical

publication providing information on the

protection of livestock and livestock food

products against radioactive faUout. This

handbook also provides suggested denial

tables relating to iodine 131, strontium 90,

and personnel protection. Mortality exposure tables on livestock also are included,)

1963. USDA RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING HANDBOOK.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handb. 246, 44 pp.,

illus. (A technical publication providing

radiological monitors of the U.S. Department of Agriculture with information, procedures, and guidance in conducting emergency monitoring service.)

1963. DAMAGE TO LIVESTOCK FROM RADIOAOTIVE

FALLOUT IN EVENT OF NUCLEAR WAR. National Academy of Sciences Publication No.

1078, 93 pp. (A technical publication providing information on effects of external

ionizing radiation on farm animals, internal

exposure to gamma and beta rays, effects

from ingestion of fission products, effects

of contact with radioactive materials, and

related subjects.)

Visual aids, including color-sound movies and

filmstrips, together with lectures, are available

for training and information. One of these is:

Film. "Fallout and Agriculture." 23 min., 16 mm.,

sound, color.

Available from : Film Libraries of State agricultural

colleges; American Veterinary Medical Association,

600 South Michigan Ave., Chicago 5, 111.; and Motion

Picture Service, Office of Information, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250.

USDA veterinarians trained in radiological defense also can help in discussing these problems,

as well as protective measures for livestock. Further information can be obtained from the Veterinarian-in-Charge, Animal Disease Eradication

Division, in each State.

18
APPENDIX D.—BIOLOGICAL WARFARE DEFENSE

Biological warfare against the livestock of this

country would most likely include foreign pathogenic organisms. There are well-known diseases

and parasitic infections that an enemy could use

as potential weapons to attack our domestic animals as well as the human population. If our

animals were left unprotected, an enemy using

these weapons could destroy our livestock suflSciently in a few years to significantly reduce these

essential agricultural resources.

In many diseases of animals, the cause and

methods of transmission are well known and the

measures needed for control have been established.

The control and eradication of some diseases are

relatively simple; of others, more difficult.

Some of these diseases are widely spread

throughout the world today. Several have gained

entrance into the United States and Canada in the

past but were quickly stamped out. Some have

never appeared within our country. Our livestock and poultry are susceptible to various exotic

diseases because there is an absence of immunity

either naturally or artificially acquired.

Those diseases capable of affecting both man

and animals (zoonoses) have potential biological

warfare characteristics. This group would include such diseases as anthrax, brucellosis, glan-.

ders, the various encephalitides, influenza, leptospirosis, Q-fever, Russian spring and summer

fever, tularemia, Rocky Moimtain spotted fever,

psittacosis, and plague. For many of these diseases, eradication or control within the animal

population is the only effective method of preventing human infection.

To carry out this responsibility, as in the peacetime programs for animal disease control, the Department looks to the entire veterinary profession

for help and cooperation to assure an effective and

successful program. (See USDA delegated responsibility, Executive Order 10998, p. 5.)

The vast countrywide State-Federal cooperative regulatory programs for the protection of

Hvestock provide the basis for an emergency organization and the knowledge required to help combat these potential threats. This same StateFederal combination, with its continued research

developing new information and eradication procedures, provides important tools to help combat

foreign diseases and pests.

The State veterinarian and the Veterinarian-inCharge of the Animal Disease Eradication Division are jointly responsible for the development

and operation of this emergency program. In

most States this emergency organization is on a

standby basis. (See fig. 1.)

The important part in any program of this kind

is the immediate reporting of any unusual disease

of animals to the practitioner of veterinary medicine, or to the State and Federal officials responsible for the control of animal diseases. The speed

with which these initial outbreaks are determined

may mean the success or failure of control or eradication. The farmer or livestock owner has a responsibility in this protective program. He must

continually conduct good animal husbandry practices and maintain preventive medicine precautions to protect the health of his livestock. He

should report immediately any unusual conditions

in his flocks and herds.

Veterinary Practitioner's Responsibility

The local practitioner, with his experience and

knowledge of the usual diseases and the normal

incidence of disease in his community, will probably be the first person to realize that there is an

unusual increase in the incidence of any disease

or that a new type of disease is present. When

unusual diseases or conditions are detected by the

practitioner, he reports his suspicions to the State

veterinarian immediately. In the case of vesicular

diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease, and

other suspected foreign animal diseases, there are

specially trained diagnosticians of the U.S. Department of Agriculture strategically located

throughout the country who can be called to conduct the necessary investigations to establish the

diagnosis and instigate the necessary quarantines

and eradication or control measures.

19
©

PROPOSED STATE-FEDERAL

EMERGENCY DISEASE ERADICATION ORGANIZATION

Legal

Ad ministrative

Ass't.

ASST

DlltíCTORS

ADVISORY STAFF

ÍMCRCBNCY

OPERATIONS

D/RECTOR I

A DE DIVISION I

STATE

AGfi/CUtTURAl

OFFICIAL

Information

Ass't.

FEDERAI

VETER/NARÍAN

IN CHARGE

STATE

REGUIATORY

OFFICIAL

IIIIIIIIM I I T Illllllllllllllllllll

V£TER/NAR;AN IN CHARGE

EMERGENCY OPERATIONS

IhiiiiiiniiiiiuiMiiiiiiiiiii ■■iiHiiiii ■■■■iiiHiinJII

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Diagnosis

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii

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lllllHllllllllllllllllllll

Appraisals

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIITÏÏITÏÏ

Quarantine

C & D

VBTBRINARIAN IN CHARGE

FIELD UNIT *

OFFICER

IN CHARGE

EMERGENCY GUARD

Supplies &

Vehicles

Inspection &

Diagnosis

Appraisals &

Mark eting

Disposals &

Heavy Equipment

Information

Office r in ch arge

Guard Detail

Ou arontine

C & D

/j. UNDER USDA STATE DEFENSE BOARD DURING A NATIONAL EMERGENCY.

ADDITIONAL FIELD UNITS AS NEEDED

U. S. Department of Agricu/ture August 1962 Agricu/turo/ Research Service

PiGURK 1.—Organizîitiou for carrying out cmergoiioy dis<'ase t'radioatioii program.
Information and Training Programs

The Department of Agriculture has prepared

and distributed information on biological warfare

as it would affect the livestock of this country.

This includes information on specific animal diseases and insect pests that are looked upon as potential biological warfare threats. Short courses

have been conducted throughout the country for

professional and scientific personnel on identification, means of prevention, control and eradication.

Visual aids in the form of color-sound movies

have been developed and are available from the

film libraries of State agricultural colleges, the

American Veterinary Medical Association in Chicago, and the Motion Picture Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.,

20250. They show in detail the means of diagnosis,

identification, effects, and control and eradication

procedures.

References

[U.S.] Agricultural Research Service.

1960. REGULATORY VETERINARY MEDICINE, SPECIAL

REPORT ON STATE AND FEDERAL SERVICES.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handb. 167, 217 pp.

1961. A LEADEai's GUIDE TO AGRICULTURE'S DEFENSE

AGAINST BIOLOGICAL WARIFARB AND OTHER OUTBREAKS. U.S. Dept. Agr., ARS Special Report 22-75, 15 pp.

UNITED STATES LIVESTOCK SANITARY ASSOCIATION.

1954. FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASES—THEIR DIAGNOSIS,

PREVENTION AND CONTROL. [Available from

Secretary-Treasurer, U.S. Livestock Sanitary Assoc., 33 Oak Lane, Trenton 8, N.J.]

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APPENDIX E.—CHEMICAL WARFARE DEFENSE

Plans relating to chemical warfare defense assume that—

(1) Potential enemies have the capability of

waging chemical warfare ;

(2) Chemical warfare agents may be used

against humans to produce death and illness,

impede defensive actions, impair morale, reduce

the will to exist, and minimize production capability either for the conduct of war or for

recovery and rehabilitation; and

(3) Chemical warfare agents may be employed against food, drugs, animals, and crops,

since long-term recuperative ability may be a decisive factor.

Based on the above assumptions, the following

information on chemical warfare as it pertains to

food, feed, and animals is presented.

General

Unprotected food, forage, and grain supplies

might be so contaminated that their consumption

would produce gastrointestinal irritation or systemic poisoning.

Packaged food supplies in storage are not likely

to be seriously contaminated. Canned foods are

safe, but the outer surfaces of the containers

should be washed with soap or a detergent and

water before opening. Large supplies of food

should not be condemned en masse simply because

they have been exposed to the possibility of chemical contamination. They should be handled by

only those persons trained in decontamination

methods and equipped with proper protective

clothing and gas masks.

Personnel handling animals contaminated with

liquid nerve gas or vesicant agents must be protected by gas masks and impermeable protective

aprons and gloves.

Nerve Gas

Nerve gas symptoms in animals are: Difficult

respiration, constricted pupils, and copious serous

nasal discharges. Speed is essential in treatment.

An intramuscular injection of 2 milligrams of

atropine sulfate may reduce casualties by as much

as 50 percent. After the inhalation of nerve gas

vapor, delay of 5 minutes in administration of

atropine sulfate will greatly reduce its effectiveness. The injection may be repeated if the animal goes into convulsions or respiration becomes

more difficult.

Liquid nerve gas on the animal's coat may penetrate to th% skin both as vapor and liquid, and be

absorbed fairly rapidly. Therefore, decontamination of the animal in the first few minutes is essential. The most effective method is to rinse the coat

with a 5-percent solution of sodium carbonate,

followed by water, then give an injection of 2 milligrams of atropine sulfate. If myosis is marked,

atropine sulfate ophthalmic ointment should be

inserted into the eyes until mydriasis is induced

and maintained. Extreme care is required by

those handling such animals or administering

treatment.

Blister Agents

Blister or vesicant agents produce inflamed or

ulcerated areas on the animal's skin but not vesications. Since the coat impedes penetration, effective prophylactic measures may be instituted later

in animals than in man. Decontamination may be

accomplished by vigorous scrubbing of the contaminated area with a 5-percent solution of potassium permanganate. Swabbing with soap and

water, or washing with solvents such as gasoline

or kerosene is not advised because they usually

spread the agent and cause a large shallow lesion.

It must always be remembered that the contaminated coat of an animal can transmit the chemical

agent to any human who comes in contact with it.

Animals should not be permitted to drink from

water holes or pools of water following a chemical

attack or release. Water from deep wells or large

streams and lakes, however, is usually safe.

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References

UNITED STATES ARMY.

1953. DECONTAMINATION. USA Tech. Manual 3-

220, 120 pp., illus. U.S. Army AG Publications Center, 2800 Eastern Blvd., Middle

River, Baltimore 20, Md.

1956. TREATMENT OF CHEMICAL WARFARE CASUALTIES. USA Tech. Manual 8-285, 155 pp.,

illus. U.S. Army AG Publications Center,

2800 Eastern Blvd., Middle River, Baltimore

20, Md.

UNITED STATES ARMY—Continued

1958. CAPABILITIES AND EMPLOYMENT OF TOXIC

CHEMICAL AGENTS. USA Tech. Mauual 3-

200, 82 pp. U.S. Army AG Publications

Center, 2800 Eastern Blvd., Middle River,

Baltimore 20, Md.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND

WELFARE.

1956. crvTL DEFENSE INFORMATION FOR FOOD AND

DRUG OFFICIALS. Food and Drug Administration. 221 pp., illus.

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U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1963 O—693-390