The Impact of the 

Economic Downturn on 

American Police Agencies
The Impact of the 

Economic Downturn on 

American Police Agencies

A Report of the U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (the COPS Office)

October 2011
Contents

Letter from the Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

About the COPS Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

A New Method of Data Collection is Pertinent to 

Successful Resource Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

The World of Policing Prior to the Great Recession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Law Enforcement Trends Prior to the Economic Downturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

The Great Recession Has Changed the Face of American Policing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Effects on Staffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Layoffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Mandatory Furloughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Staffing Reductions through Attrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Shift in Average Number of Officers per Population Served . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Effects on Delivery of Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Changes in Policies and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Civilianization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Law Enforcement and Private Security Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Using Volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Technology as a Force Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Effects on Organizational Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Studies of Law Enforcement Agency Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

The Importance of Community Policing in Tough Financial Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figures

Figure 1. Full-Time, Part-Time, and Full-Time Equivalent sworn 

officers data from 1986–2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Figure 2. General purpose state and local law enforcement agencies 

indentified by BJS Census . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Figure 3. Full-Time Equivalent sworn officers in state and local general 

purpose agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Figure 4. Full-Time Equivalent sworn officers and civilian 

employees in state and local general purpose agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Figure 5. Average percent increase in operating budget of COPS Hiring Program 

applicants from 2009 to 2011 as compared to the increase in Consumer 

Price Index over that same time period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Figure 6. Comparison of types of positions requested in the COPS 

Hiring Program in 2009 and 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Figure 7. Comparison of agencies reporting furloughs for 40+ hours 

in 2009 and 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Figure 8. Comparison of the percentage of officers subject to furloughs 

in 2009 and 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Figure 9. The average number of officers per 100,000 among CHP 

applicants compared to national average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Figure 10. Data provided by IACP on the number of citizen volunteers 

used by police agencies from 2004 to 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Tables

Table 1. Total number of agencies and rehire positions requested in 

2011 by agency type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Table 2. Total number of agencies and positions in 2011 requesting funds for 

preventative layoff positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Table 3. PERF study respondents indicating impacts of reduced 

budgets on policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Table 4. MCCA study respondents indicating impacts of budget cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Table 5. IACP survey respondents indicating impacts of budget cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Letter from the Director iii

Dear Colleagues,

As law enforcement agencies throughout the nation continue to face challenges brought about by the current 

economic changes, it is increasingly important that law enforcement practitioners and our communities 

work together to ensure the safety of the public. The core mission of the United States Department of Justice 

(USDOJ) is the protection of the American people, and the law enforcement community plays an integral 

role in the advancement of this mission. As a component of the Justice Department, the COPS Office is 

committed to acting as the voice for state and local law enforcement agencies within the federal government. 

We believe that the changes that have been occurring across the country are going to continue to have a 

serious impact on the way American police agencies operate in the years to come.

Central to the philosophy of community policing is the achievement and advancement of public safety by 

building relationships and solving problems on a local, neighborhood level. As police departments across 

the nation face budget cuts, and are therefore limited in resources and staffing levels, community policing 

strategies are essential to maintaining effective public safety services within this changing economy. 

The Department of Justice is determined to help build the framework necessary to enable our law 

enforcement partners to make the most of these limited resources and to promote promising and effective 

public safety efforts. In advancing these goals, the COPS Office recently awarded more than $240 million 

in new grants that supported the hiring and retention of more than 1,000 officers in 238 agencies and 

municipalities across the country. These funding opportunities helped support local departments to increase 

the total number of staff; enhance their relationship with the community; and directly address the public 

safety concerns facing their communities. 

This report also reflects our commitment to assisting local law enforcement agencies thrive in the current 

economy. To date, it is also the first federal analysis that examines the impact the economy has had on the 

law enforcement community. It is our goal to continue to examine these issues so that we may provide 

the best available resources, information, and guidance to the field to assist police in the development of 

sustainable policies and procedures that will help shape the new reality in American policing. 

Sincerely,

Bernard K. Melekian, Director

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 
iv 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

About the COPS Office

The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (the COPS Office) is the 

component of the U.S. Department of Justice responsible for advancing the practice of 

community policing by the nation’s state, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies 

through information and grant resources. The community policing philosophy promotes 

organizational strategies that support the systematic use of partnerships and problemsolving techniques to proactively address the immediate conditions that give rise to 

public safety issues such as crime, social disorder, and fear of crime. In its simplest form, 

community policing is about building relationships and solving problems.

The COPS Office awards grants to state, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies 

to hire and train community policing professionals, acquire and deploy cutting-edge 

crime-fighting technologies, and develop and test innovative policing strategies. The 

COPS Office funding also provides training and technical assistance to community 

members and local government leaders and all levels of law enforcement.

Since 1994, the COPS Office has invested more than $16 billion to add community 

policing officers to the nation’s streets, enhance crime fighting technology, support crime 

prevention initiatives, and provide training and technical assistance to help advance 

community policing. More than 500,000 law enforcement personnel, community 

members, and government leaders have been trained through COPS Office-funded 

training organizations.

The COPS Office has produced more than 1,000 information products—and distributed 

more than 2 million publications—including Problem Oriented Policing Guides, Grant 

Owner’s Manuals, fact sheets, best practices, and curricula. And in 2010, the COPS 

Office participated in 45 law enforcement and public-safety conferences in 25 states 

in order to maximize the exposure and distribution of these knowledge products.

More than 500 of those products, along with other products covering a wide area of 

community policing topics—from school and campus safety to gang violence—are 

currently available, at no cost, through its online Resource Information Center at 

www.cops.usdoj.gov. More than 2 million copies have been downloaded in FY2010 

alone. The easy to navigate and up to date website is also the grant application portal, 

providing access to online application forms.
Acknowledgments 1

Acknowledgments

This report was developed by the Research & Development Division, in the 

Community Policing Advancement Directorate—specifically through the efforts of 

Jessica Mansourian, John Markovic, Deborah Spence, and Mora Fiedler.

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (the COPS Office)

Community Policing Advancement Directorate 

Research & Development Division 
2 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

Introduction

The economic downturn of the past several years has been devastating to local 

economies and, by extension, their local law enforcement agencies. According to a 

report by the National Institute of Justice, the United States is currently experiencing 

the 10th economic decline since World War II (Wiseman 2011). The impact of this 

downturn will result in a change of how law enforcement services are delivered. As 

has been discussed by the COPS Office Director, Bernard Melekian, in a series of 

recent articles published in the Community Policing Dispatch, expectations will not 

be lowered just because an agency now has fewer officers, or because the budget is 

limited. Simply doing less while waiting for local budgets to recover to pre-2008 levels 

is not a viable option. Faced with a dramatic budget contraction, law enforcement 

leaders need to start identifying different ways to deliver police services and, perhaps 

more importantly, articulate what the new public safety models will look like to 

their communities (Melekian 2011a). The effects of the economic downturn on law 

enforcement agencies may be felt for the next 5–10 years, or worse, permanently. The 

permanence of this change will be driven not just by the economy, but by the local 

government officials determining that allocating 30–50 percent of their general fund 

budgets for public safety costs is no longer a fiscal possibility (Melekian 2011b).

While some people see signs that the economy is beginning to recover on the national 

level, most economists agree that local jurisdictions are still in decline and will continue 

to be so, at least in the short term. County and municipal budgets tend to lag behind 

the general economy and continuing foreclosures are slowing the recovery of property 

tax revenues, which are the backbone of local agency funding. Faced with these budget 

realities, the current model for service delivery—which has been with us for the last 

50 years—is already starting to change, and will be forced to continue to change 

dramatically and rapidly in the next 3–5 years. As articulated in the June edition of the 

Community Policing Dispatch, Director Melekian discusses the need for a change in 

delivery of police services from a mid-20th century model to a more forward-looking 

21st century model. He explains:

Police service delivery can be categorized into three tiers. The first tier, 

emergency response, is not going to change. Tier two is non-emergency 

response; where officers respond to calls after the fact, primarily to collect the 

information and statements necessary to produce reports. These calls, while 

an important service, do not require rapid response—the business has already 

been vandalized, the bike already stolen. Tier three deals with quality of life 

issues, such as crime prevention efforts or traffic management duties. They 

help make our communities better places to live, but they are proactive and 

ongoing activities. The second and third tiers of police service delivery have 

always competed for staffing and financial resources, but as local budgets 

constrict, that competition becomes fiercer. The public expects that both tiers 

are addressed, and agencies with shrinking payrolls are faced with finding 

new ways to make sure that can happen (Melekian 2011c).
Introduction 3

Faced with these dramatic budget contractions, law enforcement leaders have begun 

identifying the most cost conscious ways to deliver police services, and developing a 

new model of policing that will ensure that communities continue to receive the quality 

police protection they are entitled to. In a 2011 survey of police chiefs conducted by 

the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), 94 percent of respondents 

agreed that they were seeing “a new reality in American policing developing” (IACP 

2011).

Police agencies are some of the hardest hit by the current economic climate. Curtailing 

revenues nationwide have forced local governments to make cuts in spending across the 

board, which includes public safety operating budgets. While budget cuts threaten the 

jobs of law enforcement officers, the duties and responsibilities to ensure public safety 

remain.

However, to date, there has been no systematic way of measuring the impact the 

economic downturn has had on police agencies across the country. This report intends 

to delve into the existing information, research the ways in which law enforcement 

agencies have been affected, and examine the ways they have responded.

The following surveys, publications, and data sets were used in this report in order to 

analyze how the economic downturn has affected staffing at police agencies, delivery of 

services, and organizational management.

The Recession Continues: An Economic Status Survey of Counties 

In February 2011 the National Association of Counties (NACo) published a report titled, 

The Recession Continues: An Economic Status Survey of Counties, which outlined the 

results of a survey of 500 counties (across population size) as a means to determine 

the impact that the declining economy was having on county budgets, and the ways in 

which these counties were reacting to the challenge of lower revenues. The results of 

the study showed that counties were cutting services and personnel, as well as making 

across-the-board cuts to budgets, in order to address shortfalls. The data are different 

than what was found from previous surveys, where counties indicated they were 

using pay and hiring freezes to deal with the economic downturn. As the shape of the 

economy has gradually worsened, more counties have turned to furloughs and layoffs, 

with 53 percent of counties working with fewer staff in FY2011 than in FY2010 (Byers 

2011).

National Survey of County Elected Officials – Looking for the Light at the End 

of the Tunnel: A National Survey of County Elected Officials on the Economy, 

Budgets, and Politics

In 2011 a survey developed by the Carl Vinson Institute of Government, in partnership 

with NACo, polled a random sample of 508 county officials on issues related to the 

economy, budgets, and politics. Overall, the study found that while many elected 

county officials still rate the national economy as poor, there appears to be a slightly 

more optimistic opinion than what was found in the 2010 study (Clark 2011).
4 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

Policing in the 21st Century: Preliminary Survey Results 

As a part of President Mark A. Marshall’s Policing in the 21st Century Initiative, IACP 

conducted a number of surveys and held roundtable discussions with over 400 law 

enforcement leaders to discuss the impact that the new economy is having on the field.

These efforts were spearheaded by IACP’s Research Division, working in partnership 

with IACP’s Division of State Associations of Chiefs of Police, Division of State and 

Provincial Police, the Indian Country Section, and Mid-Size Cities Section (IACP 2011).

Results of the study provide insight into ways in which national police agencies are 

responding to the effects of the economic climate on their agency operations.

Major Cities Chiefs Association (MCCA) Survey

In 2011 the Major Cities Chiefs Association surveyed 23 major city departments to 

discuss the economic challenges they faced in light of the current economy (MCCA 

2011). The results demonstrate some of the trends that are being experienced in police 

agencies across the nation as a result of reductions to operating budgets.

Is the Economic Downturn Fundamentally Changing How We Police? 

This is the 16th report in the “Critical Issues in Policing Series” that the Police 

Executive Research Forum (PERF) has developed in order to provide timely 

information and guidance on a number of difficult issues that police agencies have faced 

over the years. The report highlights findings from a survey conducted in 2010 of 608 

police agencies focusing on the current economic challenges their departments are 

facing, and what the agencies have done in order to confront such challenges (PERF 

2010).

State of America’s Cities Survey on Jobs and the Economy 

The State of America’s Cities is an annual survey of municipal officials that has 

been conducted for almost 25 years by The National League of Cities (NLC). The 

2010 survey yielded 349 respondents consisting of local officials from various cities 

nationwide. The data from the survey provide insight into the effects of declining fiscal 

and economic conditions on American cities (McFarland 2010).

City Fiscal Conditions in 2010 

The City Fiscal Conditions Survey is a national survey of city financial officers 

throughout the United States. The survey yielded 338 respondents from cities of 

different population sizes, and produced information on the current fiscal state of the 

nation’s cities and the struggles cities face while managing rapidly declining revenues 

(Hoene and Pagano 2010).

Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS)

The Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) is the United States’ 

primary source of criminal justice statistics. Every “3 to 4 years, LEMAS collects data 

from over 3,000 state and local law enforcement agencies, including all those that 

employ 100 or more sworn officers” as well as “a nationally representative sample of 

smaller agencies. Data are obtained on the organization and administration of police 

and sheriffs’ departments, including agency responsibilities, operating expenditures, 

job functions of sworn and civilian employees, officer salaries and special pay, 
Introduction 5

demographic characteristics of officers, weapons and armor policies, education and 

training requirements, computers and information systems, vehicles, special units, and 

community policing activities” (LEMAS 2011).

Census of State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies (CSLLEA)

In conjunction with the LEMAS data discussed above, BJS also conducts a census 

every 4 years of publicly funded law enforcement agencies with one or more full-timeequivalent sworn staff. This master list of law enforcement agencies is compiled from the 

previous CSLLEA census; lists provided by Peace Officer Standards and Training offices 

and other state agencies; and a list of agencies requesting new FBI-ORI identifiers since 

the previous CSLLEA. The latest CSLLEA was conducted in 2008 and included 17,985 

state and local law enforcement agencies employing at least one full-time officer or the 

equivalent in part-time officers. The CSLLEA represents the sampling universe from 

which the LEMAS survey is drawn. Data collected as part of the CSLLEA include number 

of sworn personnel, number of civilian personnel, and agency-type category (CSLLEA 

2011). CSLLEA data are recognized as the most definitive counts of law enforcement 

agency personnel operating with local, state, and tribal funding.

COPS Hiring Program (CHP) – Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 

U.S. Department of Justice

For the last 3 years, the Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing 

Services (the COPS Office) has collected data from its Hiring Program applicants, 

including data on agency operating budgets, officer and civilian layoffs, furloughs, 

hiring freezes, service populations, and authorized and actual sworn force strengths.

With thousands of applicants each year, the data set represents a sizeable sample of all 

the state, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies in this country, although it is not 

a random sample. For the analysis in this report, two subsets of data were used. The 

first subset is all the agencies that submitted a hiring program application in 2011 and 

who are currently staffed with at least 10 full-time officers. The second subset is those 

agencies that applied both in 2009 and 2011, as well as having at least 10 full-time 

officers. The significance of the 10 officer threshold is that while agencies of at least 

that size account for just 51 percent of all law enforcement agencies in this country, 

they employ more than 95 percent of all sworn officers. In addition, those agencies can 

generally be presumed to be full-service departments offering 24/7 patrol and response 

coverage.

Some of the CHP data used in this report will evaluate the total sample of applicants 

regardless of sworn force levels. These samples will be indicated as such.

News Media

Current news articles offer a way to capture the effects of the economic downturn that 

police agencies throughout the country are experiencing and highlight the ways in 

which agencies are mitigating the adverse effects of cuts to operating budgets. Within 

each section of this report, information from numerous media outlets helps to paint 

a more personal picture of how law enforcement agencies are dealing with today’s 

challenges.
6 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

A New Method of Data Collection is Pertinent to Successful Resource Allocation

The lack of an annual and systematic data collection of law enforcement agencies 

nationwide poses serious challenges for the development of aggressive and productive 

problem-solving strategies. In order to successfully develop effective techniques to 

combat challenges resulting from the economic climate, it is important to have an 

accurate understanding of the problems that are facing police agencies as they occur.

While the BJS census (CSLEAA) and survey (LEMAS) provide representative and 

systematic data about U.S. law enforcement agencies and staffing, they were last 

administered prior to the current recession. It is likely that by the time the next cycle 

of BJS data is available much of the economic turbulence that has occurred over the 

past three years will have changed yet again.

The BJS census and surveys of law enforcement agencies are methodologically robust 

and have enormous intrinsic value. However, the cycle by which the census and 

survey data are collected (every 3–4 years), as well the time lag between when the 

data are collected and when they are made publically available are not ideal for the 

types of analysis we believe are necessary for keeping on top of important trends as 

they emerge. The usefulness of these data sources for assessments of economic impact 

would be enhanced if the data were collected more often and made available in a 

shorter time frame. The next census and survey data for law enforcement agencies, to 

be conducted in 2011, will likely reveal a new reality in policing that is fundamentally 

different to what we have seen to date. Moreover, by the time the data is readily 

available (typically several years after collection) the entire state of the American 

economy will have changed and the immediate impacts of the recession on police 

agencies will have already occurred. Given the historic importance of state, local, 

and tribal law enforcement and their impact on the quality of life, the COPS Office 

feels the law enforcement community and the Department of Justice could benefit by 

enhancing these efforts of data collection and release by determining whether annual 

reports would be feasible. Even if the urgency of data collection was not underscored 

by the current economic crisis, a more timely collection and dissemination of data 

would be warranted by the new responsibilities law enforcement agencies have taken 

on in the last decade (i.e., homeland security, cyber crime, and greater cooperation 

necessitated in a more globalized society). Indeed, never has the need been more 

important for immediate and proactive data analysis of this kind. Federal, state, 

and local governments can collaboratively and effectively refocus and realign their 

resources to ensure the successful preservation of public safety, but their efforts will 

be compromised significantly if they lack up-to-date data and metrics on which to base 

their efforts. In summation, we encourage our colleagues at the Department of Justice 

to support ongoing efforts at BJS, as well as consider more frequent and timely censuses 

and surveys of law enforcement agencies.
The World of Policing Prior to the Great Recession 7

The World of Policing Prior to the Great Recession

To properly assess the changes that have occurred among police agencies as a result of 

the economic downturn, it is important to get an idea of what police agencies looked 

like before.

Law Enforcement Trends Prior to the Economic Downturn 

Periodically, BJS conducts two major data collection efforts. One is a census of 

state, local, county, and tribal law enforcement agencies (CSLLEA) and the other 

is a more detailed survey of approximately 3,000 state and local law enforcement 

agencies, including all those that employ 100 or more sworn officers and a nationally 

representative sample of smaller agencies (LEMAS). The most recent data are from 

2008, prior to the current economic downturn (see Figure 1). The data provide an 

overview of the staffing numbers police agencies nationwide have maintained in the 

years prior to the economic downturn

Full-Time, Part-Time, and Full-Time Equivalent Sworn Officers, LEMAS and LE Census, 1986–2008

CSLLEA

1986

LEMAS

1987

LEMAS

1990

CSLLEA

1992

LEMAS

1993

CSLLEA

1996

LEMAS

1997

CSLLEA

2000

LEMAS

2000

LEMAS

2003

CSLLEA

2004

LEMAS

2007

CSLLEA

2008

FT Sworn 496,845 510,422 547,740 562,583 581,216 618,465 648,688 661,979 656,645 683,599 680,182 700,259 704,814

PT Sworn 35,298 25,306 32,978 35,934 39,427 41,953 41,779 37,718 38,511 35,152 40,533 34,132 39,198

1/2 PT Sworn 17,649 12,653 16,489 17,967 19,714 20,977 20,889 18,859 19,256 17,576 20,267 17,066 19,599

FTE Sworn 514,494 523,075 564,229 580,550 600,930 639,441 669,577 680,838 675,901 701,175 700,449 717,325 724,413

Agencies 15,641 14,081 15,148 15,637 15,494 16,715 16,700 15,785 15,798 15,766 15,882 15,636 15,614

Figure 1. Full-Time, Part-Time, and Full-Time Equivalent sworn officers data from 1986–2008

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics

Figure 2 (on page 8) indicates that since 1986 the number of general purpose law 

enforcement agencies (publicly funded law enforcement agencies with the full-time 

equivalent of at least one sworn officer with arrest powers) fluctuated between about 

14,000 and 17,000. (This graph excludes special purpose police agencies that are 

included in the analysis of the BJS census, e.g., the 17,985 total agencies in 2008.)

Note: Most of the fluctuation in agencies is accounted for by smaller agencies that tend 

to come in and out of existence, but some may be reflective of newly formed agencies 

or consolidations. There is no systematic effort to track newly formed or consolidated 

agencies.

The Number of Law Enforcement Officers Was on a 

Steady Upward Climb Through 2008 

As indicated in Figure 3 (on page 8), there was a steady increase in the number of 

full-time equivalent sworn officers employed by general purpose state and local law 

enforcement agencies between 1986 (N= 514,494) and 2008 (N= 724,413). This 

represents a 41 percent increase in sworn personnel over the entire period, although 

the growth was slower from 1997 on.
8 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

Figure

1

– General Purpose State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies Identified by BJS Census

0

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

1986 1987 1990 1992 1993 1996 1997 2000 2000 2003 2004 2007 2008

State and Local General Purpose 

Law Enforcement Agencies, 1986–2008

Thousands of Agencies

Figure 2. General purpose state and local law enforcement agencies identified by BJS Census

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics

1986 1987 1990 1992 1993 1996 1997 2000 2000 2003 2004 2007 2008

Full-Time Equivalent Sworn Ofcers in State & Local

General Purpose Law Enforcement Agencies, 1986–2008

Thousands of S

worn

Ofcers

Figure 2 - Full-Time Equivalent Sworn Officers in State and Local General Purpose Agencies

0

100 

200 

300 

400 

500 

600 

700 

800 

Part-Time

Full Time

Figure 3. Full-Time Equivalent sworn officers in state and local general purpose agencies

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics
The World of Policing Prior to the Great Recession 9

Civilian Personnel Also Increased Steadily Prior to 2008

As Figure 4 indicates (based only on census years), the increase in sworn personnel 

was paralleled with an increase in civilian personnel. The increase in civilian personnel 

between 1986 and 2008 (91 percent) actually outpaced the increase in sworn personnel 

(41 percent). This historic data indicate a general increase in civilianization. In 2008, 

civilians accounted for about one-third (32.5 percent) of full-time employees in general 

purpose law enforcement agencies. In 1986, civilians had accounted for just over onefourth (26.5 percent).

The preceding analysis of BJS data indicates there had been steady increase in law 

enforcement personnel, both sworn and civilian, between 1986 and 2008. No BJS 

census or survey data for law enforcement agencies have been collected since the 

current economic downturn. New data that are scheduled to be collected by BJS 

in 2011 should prove to be revealing. It will likely reveal the first ever decrease in 

national, state, local, and tribal law enforcement personnel since BJS began collecting 

data in 1986. This trend is clearly linked to the economic downturn, but what makes 

it more adverse is that the national population continues to grow and police have to 

take on new responsibilities related to homeland security, cybercrime, and modern 

challenges.

Sworn and Nonsworn Full-Time Employees in State &

Local General Purpose Law Enforcement Agencies, 1986–2008 (Census Years Only)

Thousands of Employees

0

100 

200 

300 

400 

500 

600 

700 

800 

Full-Time

Sworn Ofcers

Full-Time

Civilian

Employees

Figure 3 - Full- Time Equivalent Sworn Officers and Civilian Employees in State and Local General Purpose Agencies

1986 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008

Figure 4. Full-Time Equivalent sworn officers and civilian employees in state and local general purpose agencies

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics
10 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

The Great Recession Has Changed the Face of American Policing

The economic crisis that began in 2008 has changed America in many ways.

Unemployment rates have increased sharply, the stability of the housing market has 

collapsed, consumer spending has slowed, city revenues have lessened, and the federal 

deficit has reached a record level. As the fiscal conditions worsen and costs continue to 

escalate, many have articulated that America must learn how to “do more with less.” 

However, when it comes to public safety, scholars and practitioners have noted that this 

motto is simply not a viable option. Instead, law enforcement agencies must develop 

ways to do things differently, and use the resources that are available in the most 

efficient and effective ways possible.

In the 2010 NLC study of the nation’s city finance officers, data showed the largest 

downturn in revenues and cutbacks in spending in the history of the survey, with 

revenues declining for the fourth year in a row. Further, since city budgets tend to lag 

behind the national economic conditions by anywhere between 18 months to several 

years, the belief is that 2011 will likely result in further revenue declines and cuts in 

spending (Hoene and Pagano 2010).

Similar findings resulted from the 2010 NLC survey of municipal officials, in which 75 

percent reported that the overall economic and fiscal conditions within their cities had 

worsened over the past year. Nearly a quarter of cities (22 percent) indicated that they 

had made cuts to public safety, which were likely to impact activities essential to the 

quality of life and safety of their cities, such as crime prevention and service response 

times (McFarland 2010).

In particular, the economic decline has severely affected law enforcement agencies’ 

operating budgets across the nation. While there is no systematic data collection 

method used to gather information on how law enforcement agencies’ budgets have 

been affected in the past few years, using the data from a number of smaller studies 

provides an idea of the prevalence, scope, and type of budget constraints affecting 

police across America.

The following data reflect local law enforcement agencies’ responses to questions 

related to reductions in their operating budgets.

PERF Study

◾ Over half of the responding agencies (51 percent) reported a decrease in their 

budgets between fiscal years 2009 and 2010, with an average budget cut of 7 percent.

◾ Of the departments that experienced budget cuts in 2010, 59 percent were expecting 

additional cuts in FY2011 (PERF 2010).

IACP Study 

◾ Over 85 percent of agencies reported that they were forced to reduce their budget 

over the last year.
The Great Recession Has Changed the Face of American Policing 11

◾ More than half of the respondents reported that they had to reduce their budgets 

in the prior year by 5 percent or more; a quarter had to reduce their budgets by more 

than 10 percent.

◾ These reductions were on top of the cuts that agencies already had to endure over 

the past several years.

◾ Most did not anticipate the reductions or the seriousness of the problem to end soon.

In fact, 98 percent of respondents stated that they anticipated the economic impact 

on their agency was going to be at least “somewhat” problematic in the upcoming 

year.

◾ Over 40 percent said the coming year presented a serious or severe problem to their 

agency, with over one-third saying that they would have to further reduce their 

budgets by 10 percent or more in the coming year (IACP 2011).

MCCA Study 

◾ Seventy-eight percent of respondents indicated that their department had 

experienced budget cuts, with an average budget reduction of 5.4 percent.

◾ Of those who experienced budget reductions, 97 percent said they had experienced 

flat or reduced budgets over the past 1 to 12 years.

◾ Forty-three percent of respondents stated they had experienced reduced/flat budgets 

within the last 3 years (MCCA 2011).

COPS Hiring Program (CHP)

In analyzing the budget data provided by applicants over the past 3 years (for agencies 

that applied both in 2009 and 2011 with a sworn staff of 10 or more) from 2009 to 

2011, the average change in agency budget was an increase of only 1.75 percent.

Despite this slight increase in average budget, it was found that over one third (35.7 

percent) of 2011 applicants reported a budget drop of greater than 5 percent between 

2009 and 2011. This is based on those 2011 applicants who provided operating budget 

data for both years (N= 2,701). This proportion is consistent with the findings of the 

PERF, IACP, and MCAA studies. During that same period, the Consumer Price Index 

(the generally accepted indicator of inflation) increased 1.09 percent in 2010, and then 

another 3.57 percent in 2011 (see Figure 5 on page 12). The cost of business rarely gets 

cheaper, and the costs of police services have escalated in spite of declining or stagnant 

operating budgets. Salaries and insurance costs—which can make up 90 percent or 

more of a police budget—generally increase as employees earn years of experience, 

making it extremely difficult for agencies to make enough cuts in other areas in order 

to maintain a balanced budget (Wexler 2010). Further, vehicle fuel costs have also 

increased dramatically in recent years, with the national average price of gasoline up 45 

percent from just 5 years ago, with even higher price spikes experienced in the spring 

of 2008 and again earlier this year (Department of Energy 2011). All of these factors 

combine to put added pressure on agency operating budgets.
12 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

These data indicate that among these agencies, operating budgets that were fairly 

stagnant are now losing spending power as they fail to keep up with the rate of inflation.

If operating costs continue to rise, and revenues continue to decline, law enforcement 

agencies will likely remain challenged to provide policing services at the levels that 

citizens are accustomed to receiving.  

Effects on Staffing

As agencies have been pressured to make difficult decisions in light of the current fiscal 

conditions, many are being forced to provide the same services with fewer employees 

than they have in the past.

◾ According to a May 2010 survey conducted by the National League of Cities, 71 

percent of city officials surveyed reported making cuts to personnel in order to deal 

with the fiscal implications of the current economic conditions. This number 

increased to 79 percent of survey respondents by the October report (McFarland 

2010).

◾ A 2011 survey by the National Association of Counties found that counties are 

cutting services and employees, with 53 percent of counties working with fewer staff 

today than in FY2010 (Byers 2011).

Increase in CHP applicant’s

budgets compared to CPI

Percentage Increase

Figure 4

-0.5%

0.0%

0.5%

1.0%

1.5%

2.0%

2.5%

3.0%

3.5%

4.0%

2009 2010 2011

Fiscal Year

Percent change in

operating budget

Consumer Price Index

Figure 5. Average percent increase in operating budget of COPS Hiring Program applicants from 2009 and 2011 

as compared to the increase in Consumer Price Index over that same time period

Source: The COPS Office 
Effects on Staffing 13

◾ Among respondents to the 2010 PERF study, there was a 3 percent decrease in the 

average number of sworn officers between FY2009 and FY2010 (PERF 2010).

Agencies have used a number of techniques to reduce their personnel costs. Layoffs, 

mandatory furloughs, and attrition are often the result of these budget reductions in 

many police agencies.

Layoffs

Currently, the data of officer positions laid off are not collected by any one agency.

However, the Bureau of Justice Statistics is planning to collect the data in their 2011 

LEMAS Survey. Given that the LEMAS Survey uses a stratified random sample,1 the 

study should provide a reliable estimate of layoffs using weighted averages (based on the 

agency size stratification scheme).

So while there is no single database of layoff information, a number of smaller agencies 

have put together estimates regarding the number of police positions terminated as a 

result of budget reductions.

◾ The Fraternal Order of Police can directly document 4,000 layoffs, but estimates 

relying on less direct measurements suggest a more realistic number would be 

between 12,000 and 15,000 sworn officer positions lost.

◾ The International Association of Chiefs of Police estimate the number of law 

enforcement officer positions lost is 10,000.

◾ COPS Hiring Program data for the last 18 months estimate that 5,738 state, local, 

and tribal law enforcement officers have been laid off. The actual number may be as 

high as 10,000 if one extrapolates beyond the applicant pool to the full universe of 

U.S. law enforcement agencies.

1. Stratification is by agency size with all 100-plus sworn departments sampled. 

Police Layoffs 

IN THE NEWS:

PATERSON, NEW JERSEY POLICE DEPARTMENT laid off 125 officers on april 18, 2011. This is a quarter 

of their entire force. In addition, more than 30 lieutenants and sergeants were demoted to patrol.

Patterson experienced a 15 percent spike in violent crime in 2010 over the 2009 level (CBS 

Broadcasting, Inc. 2011; Henry 2011).

FLINT, MICHIGAN – The Flint police force has been hurting since being slammed with layoffs. Flint 

has become one of America’s murder capitals. In 2010, with a population of 102,000, there were 

66 documented murders in Flint. The murder rate is higher than Newark, St. Louis, and New 

Orleans, and even Baghdad’s. Flint has laid off two-thirds of its police force over the last 3 years 

and a typical Saturday night has experienced reduced staffing to only six patrolmen on duty 

(LeDuff 2011).

CAMDEN, NEW JERSEY POLICE DEPARTMENT – In January 2011 the Camden Police force was nearly 

cut in half. One hundred and sixty-three officers were laid off, leaving Camden with only 204 

sworn officers—the department’s lowest number since 1949 (Goldstein 2011).
14 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

◾ Major Cities Chiefs Association found that 52 percent of agencies surveyed had laid 

off sworn officers (McFarland 2010).

◾ According to the PERF survey, 22 percent of respondents indicated they had laid off 

employees as a result of decreasing budgets (PERF 2010).

COPS Hiring Program Data Indicate Number of 

Officers Requested to Refill Positions on the Rise

CHP applicants are eligible to apply for funds in order to a) hire new officers, b) rehire 

officers who had already been laid off as a result of state, local, or tribal budget cuts, and/

or c) rehire officers who are currently scheduled to be laid off on a future date as a result 

of budget cuts. Additionally, agencies were asked to identify which of these categories 

they would intend to use the hiring funds toward, if they were to receive an award.

In FY2009, 2.3 percent of applicants applied for funds to rehire at least one officer who 

had previously been laid off due to budget cuts. These positions made up 1.5 percent 

of the total number of positions requested. In comparison, in FY2011 4.6 percent of 

applicants applied for funds to rehire at least one officer who had previously been laid off 

due to budget cuts, making up 5.3 percent of the total amount of positions requested.

In FY2009, 12 percent of applicants applied for funds to rehire officers who were 

scheduled to be laid off. These requests made up 13 percent of the total amount of 

positions requested. Comparatively, in FY2011, 6 percent of applicants applied for 

funding to rehire officers scheduled for layoffs, making up 7.4 percent of the total 

positions requested.

So while the percentage of agencies requesting CHP funds in order to prevent future 

layoffs has decreased, the percentage of agencies requesting funds to rehire officers who 

have already been laid off has tripled along with the number of ‘rehire positions’ requests 

(from 1.5 percent of the total requests in 2009 to 5.3 percent of the total requests in 

2011) (see Figure 6 on page 15). This indicates that many agencies had to lay off a 

number of officers between 2009 and 2011, and therefore are requesting funds in order 

to reinstate some of their sworn personnel. This is further supported by the data in 

which 6 percent of total applicants in FY2009 stated that they had laid off a percentage 

of their sworn staff, while in FY2011 this number increased to 12 percent of total 

applicants.

Agency Types—Request for Funds to Rehire Laid Off Officers

In 2011, a total of 125 agencies applied for positions to rehire officers. A total of 

478 rehired officer positions were requested. Interestingly, the amount of rehire 

positions requested was fairly even when categorized by agency size (agencies serving 

populations of 100,000 or more were considered “large agencies”). One hundred and 

twelve small agencies applied to rehire a total of 233 officers. The number of positions 

requested within small agencies ranged from 1 to 14, with an average request of 2 

officers per agency. Thirteen large agencies applied to rehire a total of 245 officers. The 

number of positions requested by large agencies ranged from 1 to 50, with an average 

request of 19 officers per agency (see Table 1 on page 15).
Effects on Staffing 15

Table 1. Total number of agencies and rehire positions requested in 2011 by agency type

Agency Type Number of Agencies Number of Rehire Requests 

SMALL:

Tribal 1 1

Regional Police Department 1 3

School/Universities 5 6

Sheriff Departments 21 41

Municipal Agencies 84 182

LARGE:

Sheriff Departments 8 148

Municipal Agencies 5 97

Source: The COPS Office

In 2011, rehiring of layoffs accounted for 14 percent of total requests by municipal 

agencies. By comparison, the rate for Sheriff Departments was 11 percent.

Agency Types—Request for Funds to Prevent Scheduled Layoffs

Also in 2011, a total of 172 agencies applied for at least one position in order to prevent 

a scheduled layoff of a sworn officer (see Table 2 on page 16). A total of 664 positions 

were applied for, totaling $18,207,013 in requests. One hundred and fifty-four small 

agencies applied for 313 preventive layoff positions. The number of positions requested 

ranged from 1 to 6, with an average of 2 positions per agency. Large agencies made up 

the majority of the requests for preventive layoff positions. Seventeen agencies applied 

for 351 positions, ranging from 3 to 50, with an average of 16 positions per agency.

Type of Positions Applied for in FY2009 and FY2011 COPS Hiring Program Solicitation 

Percentage

2009

2011

0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

Percentage of

applicants who

applied to rehire

sworn staff who 

had been laid off

Percentage of

total requested

positions to

rehire sworn staff

who had been

laid off 

Percentage of

applicants who

applied to fund

sworn staff

scheduled for

layoff

Percentage of

total requested

positions to

fund sworn

staff scheduled

for layoff 

Position Type Requested

Figure 6. Comparison of types of positions requested in the COPS Hiring Program in 2009 and 2011 

Source: The COPS Office
16 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

Table 2. Total number of agencies and positions in 2011 requesting funds for preventive layoff positions

Agency Type Number of Agencies Number of Preventative Layoff Requests 

SMALL:

Constable 1 1

County Government 1 1

Tribal 1 1

Schools 5 6

Sheriff Departments 33 64

Municipal Police 113 240

LARGE:

Sheriff Departments 7 78

Municipal Police 10 273

Source: The COPS Office

In 2011, preventive layoff requests accounted for 25 percent of total requests by 

municipal agencies. By comparison the rate for Sheriff Departments was 8 percent.

Mandatory Furloughs

Many agencies are using furloughs as a method of managing labor costs. According to 

the PERF survey, 16 percent of responding agencies indicated they had implemented 

unpaid furloughs (PERF 2010). In the COPS Hiring Application, agencies were asked to 

report the percentage of their sworn positions that have been furloughed for at least 40 

hours in the year of application. In looking at the 1,569 agencies that applied for CHP 

funding in both FY2009 and again in FY2011: 

◾ In 2009 3.4 percent of these agencies reported that at least some of the sworn officers 

were furloughed for 40 hours or more that year.

◾ By 2011 the percentage reporting furloughs had more than doubled to 6.9 percent 

for those same agencies (see Figure 7 on page 17).

For those agencies with furloughs in either year, the percentage of staff subject to the 

furlough also increased dramatically from 2009 to 2011 (see Figure 8 on page 17): 

◾ In 2009 39 percent of the officers in a furlough-affected agency were subject to 

the furlough.

◾ By 2011 57 percent of the officers in a furlough-affected agency were subject to 

the 40+ hour furlough.

Based on the size of our sample, it is possible to estimate that more than 28,000 officers 

nationwide have been furloughed for at least 40 hours this year, which is equivalent to 

more than 500 full-time positions.

Staffing Reductions through Attrition

As agencies are doing all they can to avoid layoffs and furloughs, many are instituting 

hiring freezes in order to balance operational budgets through voluntary departures.
Effects on Staffing 17

◾ In the survey by National League of Cities, the most common reaction regarding 

personnel-related cuts made in 2010 was hiring freezes (74 percent) (McFarland 

2010).

◾ In the 2011 National Association of Counties survey, 41 percent of responding 

counties stated they had instituted hiring freezes as a means of adjusting their 

budgets in light of revenue shortfalls (Byers 2011).

◾ Thirty-six percent of agencies who responded to the PERF survey stated they had 

experienced reduced staffing levels through attrition (PERF 2010).

Furloughs of sworn ofcers for 40 hours

or more in 2009 and 2011

Percentage

Agencies

reporting

furloughs

of sworn

ofcers for

40 hours

or more

Table (fig) 6

0.0%

1.0%

2.0%

3.0%

4.0%

5.0%

6.0%

7.0%

8.0%

2009 2011

Figure 7. Comparison of agencies reporting furloughs for 40+ hours in 2009 and 2011 

Source: The COPS Office

Percentage of ofcers subject to the furlough within

furlough-affected agencies in 2009 and 2011

Percentage

Ofcers

subject

to the

furlough

0.0%

1.0%

2.0%

3.0%

4.0%

5.0%

6.0%

7.0%

8.0%

2009 2011

Figure 8. Comparison of the percentage of officers subject to furloughs in 2009 and 2011

Source: The COPS Office
18 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

◾ According to the 2011 CHP data, 43 percent of total applicants indicated they had 

sworn positions that went unfilled due to budget restraints.

Shift in Average Number of Officers per Population Served

LEMAS reports from 2004 and 2008 show the average officers per population to be 

about 250 per 100,000 (see Figure 9) (LEMAS 2011). This can vary dramatically across 

the country and between types and settings of agencies, but that number did hold 

steady for the 10 years prior to the recession.

In 2009, the CHP applicants had (across all agency sizes) an average of 215 officers 

per 100,000. In 2011, CHP applicants (across all agency sizes) had an average of only 

184 officers per 100,000 (see Figure 9). Again, looking at the sample of applicants who 

applied in both years with more than 10 officers:

◾ In 2009 the sample agencies averaged 189 officers per 100,000

◾ By 2011 that average had dropped to 181 officers per 100,000

While this may not seem like a dramatic difference, statistical analysis revealed it to 

be significant, meaning that it is a greater decline than we would expect to see through 

random chance. In addition, the 1,569 agencies in our sample serve 4.2 million people, 

so the impact of even small decreases can likely be felt by many. However, this result 

could also be due to sample bias—meaning agencies with a lower number of officers per 

thousand are more likely to apply for COPS Office grant funding.

Ofcers applying to CHP in 2009 and 2011 experience

lower police to population ratio’s than the national average Average 

Number of Ofcers per 100,000

2009 2011

Figure 8 (7 in file)

0

50

100

150

200

250 LEMAS est

Avg of all

applicants

Avg of

applicants

who applied 

in 2009 and

2011 

Figure 9. The average number of officers per 100,000 among CHP applicants compared to national average

Sources: Bureau of Justice Statistics and The COPS Office
Effects on Staffing 19

COPS Hiring Program Provides Relief 

to Agencies Suffering from Personnel Reductions

IN THE NEWS:

BURTON, MICHIGAN – The Burton Police Department has used 2010 COPS funding to rehire two 

officers who were laid off as a result of budget cuts. Police Chief John Benthall said the grant 

“will help the Burton Police Department to maintain adequate services in the city of Burton.” 

Budget cuts required the department to lay off two officers while losing three to attrition. In 

rehiring these two officers, Burton is able to “bring our police force back up to a good level,” 

Benthall stated, and they were “ecstatic to get the news” (Acosta 2011).

FEDERAL WAY, WASHINGTON – “I’m planning to utilize this grant to maintain officers I’d otherwise 

have to terminate.” – Police Chief Brian Wilson of Federal Way, Washington, said of the $1.03 

million award the agency received in 2010 (Howard 2010).

EGG HARBOR TOWNSHIP, NEW JERSEY – Five Egg Harbor Township police officers who received layoff 

notices earlier in the year were able to stay on the job after the township was awarded $1.1 

million through the COPS Hiring Program. “This should be a major relief to those young officers 

who went through the layoff ordeal in the past 2 years, serving the township the best they could 

while continuously worrying what will occur in 2011,” Chief Blaze Catania said in a statement.

“I’m very happy for them and what this means to the township and its citizens” (Rose 2010).

TULSA, OKLAHOMA – In January 2010 the Tulsa Police Department was forced to lay off 124 

officers due to budget cuts. According to Tulsa Deputy Police Chief Daryl Webster, “There 

probably hasn’t been a layoff in this department since the Depression.” However, with the help 

of COPS funding, 18 Tulsa police officers who were laid off were re-hired. “You’re talking about 

[reinstating] almost an entire shift of officers in one of our divisions....Certainly, it’s a blessing,” 

Webster said (Loren 2010).

BEATRICE, NEBRASKA – In 2009, the city of Beatrice received COPS funding that allowed them 

to retain one officer who would have otherwise been laid off. Police Chief Bruce Land said 

the grant will significantly impact the community. With a police force of only 22 officers—a 

percentage of only 1.8 officers per 1,000 residents—“To lose even one position would be a great 

loss,” Land said (Masoner 2009).

PEORIA, ILLINOIS – The jobs of 10 Peoria police officers were saved through funds from the COPS 

hiring grant. The news came to the city just days after they had to make the hard decision 

to lay off 13 officers because of budget reductions. “This is good for the officers, this is good 

for the community, and this is good for the (City Council),” said Peoria Police Chief Steven 

Settingsgaard during a 2010 news conference. The department had lost 33 police officers the 

previous year in order to close a $14.5 million budget deficit. Settingsgaard stated; “The thought 

of seeing another significant layoff here at the Police Department has been weighing heavy 

on our minds. The grant could not have come at a better time and it will directly benefit the 

community by keeping more police officers in the streets” (Oldendorf 2010).
20 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

Effects on Delivery of Services

The effects of such staffing reductions are likely to influence the capacity of law 

enforcement agencies to provide the same services, in the same ways, as they have 

in the past. The PERF study revealed that this indeed is the case for many of their 

respondents. Nearly half (47 percent) of the responding agencies surveyed by PERF 

indicated that budget cuts had already caused or will cause changes in the services they 

provide to their communities. Further:

◾ Eight percent of departments surveyed are no longer responding to all motor 

vehicle thefts.

◾ Nine percent of departments are no longer responding to all burglar alarms.

◾ Fourteen percent of departments are no longer responding to all non-injury 

motor vehicle accidents (PERF 2010).

The MCCA survey found that 25 percent of their respondents had experienced service 

reductions as a result of budget cuts. Of those agencies, the following are ways in which 

the agencies compensated for such budget reductions:

◾ Seventeen percent of respondents said that their agency had stopped responding 

to some calls for service.

◾ Forty-three percent stated they had increased the use of telephone reporting, 

along with 30 percent who had increased the use of online reporting.

◾ Twenty-six percent stated there had been a reduction in investigations follow-ups, 

specifically related to property crimes, fugitive tracking, non-felony domestic 

assaults, financial crimes, computer crimes, narcotics, and traffic cases (MCCA 

2011).

Changes in Policies and Procedures

Delivery of services is not the only area of law enforcement that is suffering due to 

budget cuts. Police policies and practices are undergoing a transformation in order 

to adapt to the economic changes. PERF found that two-thirds of their responding 

departments reported that they had reduced or discontinued training programs 

because of their limited budgets. More than half stated that they have cut back or even 

eliminated plans to obtain new technology (PERF 2010). The various ways departments 

responding to the survey have felt the impacts on policies can be seen in Table 3 on 

page 21.
Effects on Delivery of Services 21

Table 3. PERF study respondents indicating impacts of reduced budgets on policies

Percentage of PERF Study respondents indicating impacts of reduced budgets on policies

Reduced out-of-town travel? 72%

Reduced or discontinued training? 68%

Considered increasing fees for police services? 60%

Cut back or eliminated plans to acquire technology? 55%

Discontinued special units (e.g., gang, traffic enforcement)? 38%

Implemented or considered a tax increase to avoid police service cuts? 35%

Discontinued take-home cars? 31%

Source: Police Executive Research Forum

The MCCA survey showed similar responses to questions relating to areas that had 

been cut as a result of budget reductions, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. MCCA study respondents indicating impacts of budget cuts

Respondents of MCCA Study who indicated budget cuts were made in the following areas

Travel 61%

Vehicles 61%

Training 48%

Aviation 48%

Community Policing 39%

Narcotics Enforcement 35%

School Resource Officers 22%

Federal Task Forces 22%

Source: Major Cities Chiefs Association

The IACP Survey further mirrored these trends, as shown in Table 5.

Table 5. IACP survey respondents indicating impacts of budget cuts (IACP 2011).

Yes

Has your agency had to cut back on training? 60%

Has your agency had to cut back on buying or upgrading major equipment, such as 

vehicles in the last year? 64%

Has your agency cut back on buying or upgrading major technology such as In-Car 

Cameras or LPTs in the past year? 58%

Source: International Association of Chiefs of Police
22 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

Civilianization 

Some police agencies have also begun shifting some of the duties typically reserved for 

sworn staff to civilian employees as a means of cost savings. The term civilianization 

generally refers to a law enforcement agency’s hiring of non-sworn personnel in order 

to replace or supplement its current sworn staff (Forst 2000). In utilizing civilians 

to perform duties typically performed by sworn staff, police departments are able to 

save money primarily through lower pay, reduced training requirements, and smaller 

overhead requirements. According to a study by American University Professor Brian 

Forst on The Privatization and Civilization of Policing, estimates from New York City 

indicate the average cost of civilian employees is about one-third to one-half that of a 

sworn officer, even when they are performing the same functions (Forst 2000).

More and more cities across America have begun to make the shift toward 

civilianization under the current budget constraints. In fact, 22 percent of respondents 

in the IACP survey stated their departments had begun shifting sworn responsibilities 

to non-sworn personnel (IACP 2011).

Law Enforcement Service Reductions 

IN THE NEWS:

CAMDEN, NEW JERSEY – “After the layoffs of 163 police officers, Camden is feeling the impact.

Callers to 911 who report things like home burglaries or car break-ins are asked to file a report 

over the phone or at police headquarters; officers rarely respond in person. ‘If it doesn’t need a 

gun and a badge at that location,’ officers are not sent, the city’s police chief, J. Scott Thomson, 

said last week” (Goldstein 2011).

OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA – “Cutbacks...have forced police to tell residents to file their own reports—

either online or in writing—for break-ins and other lesser crimes. ‘If you come home to find 

your house burglarized and you call, we’re not coming,’ said Oakland Police spokeswoman 

Holly Joshi. The city laid off 80 officers from its force of 687 [in July] and the department can’t 

respond to burglary, vandalism, and identity theft” (Johnson 2010a).

PERF – “For the first time, because of the economy, police departments...may have to change 

how they do business,” says Chuck Wexler, executive director of the Police Executive Research 

Forum. “People will see a change in basic delivery of services,” from longer police response 

times to a dramatically reduced police presence in some communities (Johnson 2009).

SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA – “The Sacramento Police Department is dealing with severe budget cuts 

this year, including fewer officers and task forces. A total of 43 officers lost their jobs, and the 

narcotics unit and gang unit was cut all together. The police department also does not respond 

to home burglaries unless they are in progress, and they don’t respond to minor traffic accidents 

unless some type of crime is involved” (Maher 2011).
Effects on Delivery of Services 23

In BJS’s report, Census of State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies, 2008, analysis 

reveals that between 1992 and 2008 the number of sworn full-time personnel in state 

and local law enforcement agencies grew by 34 percent, with the growth among civilian 

personnel (a 54.7 percent increase) outpacing growth among sworn personnel (a 25.9 

percent increase). In 2008, civilian employees accounted for 32.5 percent of full-time 

employees in U.S. law enforcement agencies compared to 28.2 percent in 1992. Based 

on the 2008 BJS survey, sheriff’s departments had a substantially higher proportion of 

civilian employees (48.2 percent) than local police departments (22.5 percent). The 

civilianization trend between 1992 and 2008 was much more pronounced in sheriff’s 

departments relative to local police departments. Between 1992 and 2008, the number 

of civilian employees employed by sheriff’s departments grew by 91 percent (relative to 

34.0 percent growth in sworn employees). In contrast, the growth of civilian employees 

among local police was more modest at 26.7 percent (and only slightly above the 23.1 

percent growth of sworn employees) (CSLLEA 2008).

Law Enforcement and Private Security Collaboration

The combination of increased demands and stagnant or declining local law enforcement 

resources makes it clear that, now more than ever, law enforcement agencies must 

pursue all reasonable avenues for collaboration with private security. Private Security 

is defined in the COPS publication Operation Partnership as, “both the proprietary 

(corporate) security and contract security firms across the full spectrum of security 

services and technology” (Law Enforcement – Private Security Consortium 2009).

Police Civilianization 

IN THE NEWS:

MESA, ARIZONA – The Mesa Police Department has begun using civilians for everything from crime 

scene processing to fraud investigations. They created a team of nine civilian investigators who 

make 30 to 40 percent less than an officer. In 2010, the unit handled about 50 percent of all 

burglary calls (Adams 2011).

OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLAHOMA – In Oklahoma City, civilians working as part-time police ambassadors 

help relieve some of the light duties formally performed by police, such as giving directions or 

working special events. For $9 an hour, these civilians provide a significant cost savings for the 

department. Sergeant Baxter of Oklahoma City PD has said, “They do provide what I believe is a 

vital service. They do help the police departments and officers out on the streets” (Loren 2010).

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA – “In San Francisco, the police department unveiled a test program 

last year [2010] that uses civilian investigators to respond to nonviolent crimes. They interview 

victims and witnesses, write reports, take crime scene photos, and collect fingerprint and DNA 

evidence” (Fenton 2011). “The $1 million pilot program and others like it are being designed 

to allow dwindling numbers of uniform officers to focus on more serious violent crime. San 

Francisco Assistant Chief Thomas Shawyer says the civilians will save up to $40,000 per person 

in training, equipment, and benefit costs required to hire an officer” (Johnson 2010b).
24 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

At the field level, private security has the potential to reduce the cost of public law 

enforcement.

◾ In Las Vegas, Wilmington (DE), Minneapolis, New York, and other cities, law 

enforcement’s ability to view private security closed-circuit television (CCTV) 

cameras has the potential to save taxpayer money that would have otherwise been 

spent to buy this same equipment.

◾ In Durham, North Carolina, and in several counties in Florida, private transit 

security officers are being used on public transit systems (Law Enforcement – Private 

Security Consortium 2009).

Data from the 2011 National Survey of County Elected Officials indicate that 23 percent 

of surveyed officials stated that their county has privatized one or more services once 

supplied by the county government due to economic conditions (McFarland 2010).

Using Volunteers 

Another technique that is being used by law enforcement agencies to help manage 

personnel cutbacks is the use of volunteers whenever possible. In the Department 

of Justice National Institute of Justice report on “Strategic Cutback Management,” 

supplementing staff with volunteers when feasible is highlighted as having significant 

cost saving potential (Wiseman 2011).

Using volunteers to help supplement sworn staff is a possible way for law enforcement 

agencies to continue to enhance the safety of the community, through increasing the 

efficiency of sworn personnel and promoting the partnership of citizens and police 

in a time when police agencies are losing manpower. The North Miami Beach Police 

Department Neighborhood Services and Inspections (NSI) Unit has taken volunteerism 

to a unique level by using police “recruits from local academies to volunteer their time 

to gain experience in the field.” The NSI Community Policing Cadet Program allows 

“these cadets [to] patrol the city for quality of life issues, offering a valuable service—

providing free services to the agency” (Alqadi 2011).

Agencies across the nation have begun to take part in volunteer programs after the 

creation of the USA Freedom Corps (USAFC) by President Bush in 2002, which resulted 

from the September 11, 2001 attacks. The national Volunteers in Police Service (VIPS) 

Program provides access to resources and information for and about law enforcement 

volunteer programs of all kinds and is one of five Citizen Corps partner programs that 

developed as part of the USAFC initiative. The program aims to improve the ability 

of state and local law enforcement to utilize civilian volunteers (Volunteers in Police 

Services 2011a). IACP manages and implements the VIPS Program in partnership with 

the White House Office of the USAFC and the U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of 

Justice Assistance.
Effects on Delivery of Services 25

In 2009, IACP conducted a survey of 115 law enforcement agencies that had registered 

VIPS Programs. The data provide a good overview of law enforcement volunteerism 

from the field’s perspective. Of the 115 respondents, the following responses were 

rated according to perceived importance. The percentages below represent the number 

of respondents who indicated that the described factor was “important” or “very 

important”

◾ Ninety-four percent cited added value to the department

◾ Ninety-two percent cited the ability for officers to respond to more pressing needs

◾ Ninety percent cited it increased their ability to provide additional service

◾ Eighty-five percent cited enhancing citizens understanding of the police (Volunteers 

in Policing Services 2011b) 

IACP has also found a vast increase in the number of volunteers that are being used by 

law enforcement agencies to perform police duties since 2004 (see Figure 10) (Johnson 

2010b).

Furthermore, 43 percent of MCCA survey respondents reported that they increased the 

use of volunteers as a means to compensate for budget reductions (MCCA 2011).

Use of citizen volunteers has

increased over the years Number of Volunteers

Figure 9 (not numbered in file)

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010*

Number

of citizen

volunteers 

performing

police

duties 

Figure 10. Data provided by IACP on the number of citizen volunteers used by police agencies from 2004 to 2010

* Data are through 10/6/2010

Source: International Association of Chiefs of Police
26 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

Technology as a Force Multiplier

Around the country, cash-strapped communities are looking for any way to boost 

efficiency and cut spending. As indicated in several of the current surveys, many law 

enforcement agencies have been forced to reduce or entirely cut their budgets for 

technology (more than half of the PERF study respondents stated they had cut back or 

eliminated plans to acquire technology) (PERF 2010). However, other police agencies 

are shifting their operational models to include the use of technology systems that 

can help agencies to improve outcomes and increase efficiency. Certain technologies 

such as Closed-Circuit Televisions (CCTVs) and Light-Based Intervention Systems 

(LBIS) can act as force multipliers through incident intervention and crime prevention, 

without requiring the immediate presence of an officer (Cordero 2011).

A recent COPS publication, Evaluating the Use of Public Surveillance Cameras for 

Crime Control and Prevention, studied the public surveillance systems in Baltimore, 

MD, Chicago, IL, and Washington, D.C. A cost-benefit analysis was used to analyze the 

cost of the surveillance systems with the savings from victim and criminal justice costs.

One neighborhood in Chicago alone saw a cost savings of $4.30 for every dollar that 

was used for the system. Most law enforcement agencies have to balance the cost of 

implementing, maintaining, and training for a new piece of technology with the savings 

that this technology will bring, and this study provides some interesting examples (La 

Vigne et al. 2011).

Law Enforcement Agency’s Use of Volunteers

IN THE NEWS:

RICHLAND, WASHINGTON – “In Richland a group of nearly 40 volunteers is taking on the smaller 

tasks, lightening the workload so cops can stay focused on more serious threats—all for free....

Richland’s Police Volunteers logged more than 600 hours just last month, providing that sense of 

security to more and more people” (Vedadi 2011).

DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA – “Teams of civilian volunteers help police canvass neighborhoods 

immediately after murders and other violent crimes, to help responding units and put potential 

witnesses at ease. Durham Chief Jose Lopez says other volunteers in city-issued cars patrol 

shopping centers during the busy holiday seasons and conduct property checks for residents 

who are away from home. ‘They are additional eyes and ears for us,’ Lopez says. ‘It effectively 

puts more people on the street’” (Johnson 2010b).

WACO, TEXAS – “Students from Baylor College, Texas State Technical College, and McClennan 

Community College can earn college credit in political science while learning about the law 

enforcement profession first-hand. Citizens on Patrol student volunteers help patrol the Baylor 

campus and direct traffic during special events. The patrol is especially active during Christmas 

break and other school holidays, when fewer ‘eyes and ears’ are typically around to report 

crimes” (USAonWatch n.d.).

LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA – Due to a $100 million cut in budget, LAPD will use volunteers to fill 

the gap. Currently there are 700 unpaid workers in its Reserve Corps—saving the city about $5 

million each year (Hillard 2011).
Effects on Delivery of Services 27

Some agencies have increased the use of a type of geographical technology called the 

Tactical Automatic Vehicle Locator (TAC-AVL) which is used to reduce police response 

times to emergency calls. TAC-AVL provides commanders the locations of patrols cars 

with a real-time map of the city, allowing them to determine whether the vehicles are 

in the right place at the right time (Mayer 2009). Efficient management of resources 

is crucial for agencies with limited manpower. Automated Emergency Dispatch 

Systems (AEDs) are used in some agencies to automate emergency police dispatch by 

electronically locating and dispatching the nearest available patrols (Cordero 2011).

A new trend developing in law enforcement agencies today is the use of social media.

According to a PERF survey, 86 percent of responding agencies used some form of social 

media, including Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, YouTube, and Nixle. Social media provides 

a cost effective avenue for police to communicate directly with their communities, as 

well as receive information and feedback from those that they serve (Johnson 2011).

Police Use of Technology as Force Multiplier

IN THE NEWS:

ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO – Albuquerque police have led the way in utilizing technology and social 

media to make up for the loss of officers and resources due to budget cuts. Their system provides “realtime investigative information to private business groups on interactive websites to help stop theft 

rings, locate violent crime suspects, and track fugitives. Police Chief Raymond Schultz has said that the 

system has helped make up for the loss of about 60 officers over the past 2 1⁄2 years. The Albuquerque 

model is now being replicated in agencies in Georgia, Minnesota, Washington, and California” (Johnson 

2011).

CAMDEN, NEW JERSEY – Camden Police use a combination of GPS, gunshot detectors, and CCTVs to 

identify problem areas and dispatch officers to those places, which is more efficient than waiting 

for calls for service. “Technology can never fully replace an officer,” said Camden Police Chief Scott 

Thomson, whose department of 250 officers has been nearly cut in half since 2006. “We are just trying 

to leverage technology...to appear bigger than we are” (Johnson 2011).

FULTON COUNTY, GEORGIA – “Fulton County has received permission from the Board of Supervisors’ Public 

Safety Committee to accept a one-time state grant of $30,000 for teleconferencing equipment....

The Sheriff’s Department currently spends about 6 hours a day [at the courthouse]; ‘The video 

teleconferencing will help reduce transportation costs’ by allowing computerized court appearances” 

(Anich 2011).

BELMONT COUNTY, OHIO – “A juvenile court in eastern Ohio has found that instituting video court hearings 

has decreased costs and increased the delivery of swift services. Juvenile Court Judge Mark Costine 

who began the program has found that by reducing the number of prisoner transports, the sheriff’s 

office has saved $50,000 year, while the video installation only cost about $7,000. Judge Costine notes; 

‘All the courts have these issues of transportation of prisoners....We have found a way to make the 

hearings go faster and also save money’” (Long 2011).
28 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

The Boca Raton (Florida) Police Department has created a social media project called 

VIPER (Visibility, Intelligence, Partnerships, Education, and Resources), which provides 

the community with a forum to share crime tips, view recent mug shots, receive 

information, or even request emergency services (Madeiros 2011).

Chuck Wexler, the executive director of PERF, has said; “Departments are looking to 

technology as a force multiplier. They are using this technology to better manage fewer 

resources, because just saying ‘We don’t have enough officers’ isn’t cutting it with the 

public” (Johnson 2011).

Another example of how technology has been leveraged by police agencies forced to 

reduce spending, is through the use of video teleconferencing. For judicial proceedings 

that had previously required inmates to appear in court, and therefore required 

an official to transport them, videoconferencing provides some agencies with an 

efficient and resourceful tool to provide services at a reduced cost. Through the use of 

teleconferencing equipment, court proceedings are able to be held via video as lawyers 

discuss their cases in front of the judge, instead of having a constable, sheriff, or police 

officer transport the defendants to court.

A survey conducted by the Administrative Office of Pennsylvania Courts’ (AOPC) 

Office of Judicial Security, on the use of video conferencing as a means of conducting 

preliminary arraignments and other judicial proceedings, found that utilization of this 

technology had a cost savings potential of $21 million annually. Results from the study 

showed that on average, more than 15,700 proceedings are currently being held via 

video conferencing in Pennsylvania, resulting in a cost savings of about $1.7 million 

monthly (AOPC 2011).

Eliminating court transports has the potential to save agencies both monetarily and 

through officer productivity. A typical prisoner transport involves one officer and one 

car for what can take up to an entire day. The AOPC study found on average it costs $73 

to transport a defendant to and from a local facility and an addition $588 to transport 

to and from a state correctional institution (AOPC 2011). The cost savings realized as a 

result of implementing this new method of service delivery have been staggering in some 

places, including annual savings of $30 million in Pennsylvania, $600,000 in Georgia, 

and $50,000 in Ohio from transportation costs alone (Long 2011).

Effects on Organizational Management

With agencies nationwide struggling to uphold their levels of service while losing 

personnel, many have been forced to consolidate efforts with neighboring agencies.

The term consolidation, as used here, describes a number of concepts related to the 

pooling of resources between law enforcement agencies. In 2007, the New Jersey 

State Association of Chiefs of Police published the white paper Police Department 

Regionalization, Consolidation, Merger & Shared Services: Important Considerations 

for Policy Makers, and defined the different types of consolidation efforts as follows:
Effects on Organizational Management 29

Shared Services: Is when two or more agencies combine certain function units, 

such as emergency communications, SWAT, dispatch, or records.

Local Merger/Consolidation: When two separate police agencies form a single 

new unit.

Regionalization: When a number of jurisdictions combine efforts to police 

a geographic area rather than a jurisdictional one. The new entity does 

not contain elements of any existing agency—either the jurisdictions had 

no previously-existing police department, or those that existed have been 

disbanded.

Contract Services: Is when a formal contract to pay for law enforcement 

services is provided by one jurisdiction to one or more other jurisdictions 

(NJSACOP 2007: 2).

State and local law enforcement agencies throughout the country are finding the need 

to develop effective methods and strategies in order to compensate for their dwindling 

resources. In order to keep communities safe in an affordable and cost effective way, 

some police agencies are combining their efforts to optimize productivity and increase 

efficiency (Cordero 2011).

Studies of Law Enforcement Agency Consolidation

◾ In the 2011 National Survey of County Elected Officials, 26 percent of respondents 

said that their county had consolidated services with another county government 

in response to economic conditions. Further, another 31 percent said that their 

county has participated in discussions regarding the consolidation of services 

(McFarland 2010).

◾ One quarter of IACP survey respondents referenced innovative multi-jurisdictional 

arrangements their department was taking to promote cost-effective service delivery, 

including:

– Joint task forces, combinations that include police, sheriffs, state police, 

and constables.

– Service/function-specific resource sharing, including crime scene technicians, 

dispatch, SWAT, Hazmat, laboratories, and training (IACP 2011).

◾ Seventy-seven percent of IACP survey respondents said that their agency has been 

asked to increase its support of other agencies (IACP 2011).

◾ Seventy percent of MCCA survey respondents stated that they had used consolidation 

of functions as a means to compensate for budget reductions (MCCA 2011).

◾ In the 2011 National Association of Counties survey, 38 percent of respondents 

said that they had been approached by other units of the government during FY2010 

about consolidating various activities. Of those approached, 23 percent said they 

have consolidated law enforcement and/or fire protection (Byers 2011).

◾ In the 2011 National Survey of County Elected Officials, 56 percent of respondents 

indicated that their county had cooperated regionally to reduce the cost of services 

(McFarland 2010).
30 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

Regionalization and Consolidation

IN THE NEWS:

MINNEAPOLIS/SAINT PAUL, MINNESOTA – In the Twin Cities of Minneapolis/Saint Paul, the Police Authority 

and the San Anselmo Police Department began taking steps towards consolidation by sharing some 

dispatch services and officers. The proposed plan would save San Anselmo $51,000 immediately, and 

another $113,000 in the future (Dunleavy 2011).

PORTAGE, MICHIGAN – Portage has consolidated the police and fire departments. The city’s police chief has 

taken the role of public safety director, reporting directly to the deputy city manager, and is responsible 

for the overall management of both the fire and police departments (Hall 2011).

NEW JERSEY – Berlin Township, Berlin Borough, and Waterford Township Police Departments in New 

Jersey have developed their own approach to sharing public safety services by combining their police 

detectives in a shared investigative bureau. Further, Berlin’s volunteer fire department is being used to 

staff evening hour shifts in order to save costs (Mast 2011).

CAMDEN COUNTY, NEW JERSEY – Camden County is developing alternate plans for regionalized special 

services, such as a central detective bureau and SWAT (SNJDC 2011).

MARION COUNTY, OREGON – “Marion County Board of County Commissioners (Fire Rescue/Public Safety 

Communications) and the Marion County Sheriff’s Office are initiating efforts to combine their 

dispatch services. County and Sheriff’s Office staff determined that consolidating those efforts would 

create a recurring savings of $370,000 per year” (Bryant 2011).

LANSING, MICHIGAN – “A plan to consolidate Lansing’s north and south police precincts could save the 

city $535,380 in rent, utilities, and janitorial services by the 2015 fiscal year” (VanHulle 2011).

GREENFIELD, CALIFORNIA – The Greenfield City Council approved an agreement to merge its police force 

with the city of Soledad’s. City Manager Brent Slama stated, “‘Given the fiscal realities facing our 

cities, especially the four south Monterey County cities, regionalization is going to be important [in 

the future].’ The Soledad proposal is projected to save Greenfield $158,699 beginning in the 2012–13 

fiscal year. David Cariaga [a representative of both Greenfield Police associations] stated, ‘It’s the best 

solution to keep the men and women in the department working and...it’s creating a savings for the 

city’” (Vijayan 2011).

BROWARD COUNTY, FLORIDA – “Facing an estimated $9 million deficit, mostly for police and fire services, 

Lauderdale Lakes has asked the Sheriff’s Office for help. The solution came in the form of consolidation 

between Lauderdale Lakes and the unincorporated Central Broward district, which will save a 

combined $3.4 million. ‘Many of our cities ought to look to merge with each other and have economies 

of scale and save the taxpayers a lot of money,’ Broward County Commissioner Dale Holness said at a 

June County Commission workshop” (East 2011).

◾ A study conducted by Cumberland County, New Jersey, found that the cities could 

collectively save $4.5 million over 5 years through consolidation (Zager 2011).

◾ Somerville, New Jersey, also conducted a study, which found that regionalizing their 

municipal police services under one county umbrella could save about $18 million 

a year (Cooper 2011).
The Importance of Community Policing in Tough Financial Times 31

The Importance of Community Policing in Tough Financial Times 

Many of the cost saving techniques discussed within this report are directly related 

to community policing efforts. Community policing is a philosophy that promotes 

organizational strategies, which support the systematic use of partnerships and 

problem-solving techniques, to proactively address the immediate conditions that give 

rise to public safety issues such as crime, social disorder, and fear of crime (COPS 

Office 2009a). The three tenets of community policing—community partnerships, 

organizational transformation, and problem solving—are of increased importance when 

facing budget cuts that reduce the number of officers on the streets.

Collaborative partnerships to develop solutions to problems and increase trust in police 

can be seen in many of the solutions police agencies are using in light of the economic 

downturn. Specifically, the use of volunteers, partnerships between the police and 

private agencies, and the use of social media as a means to communicate effectively 

with the community in order to meet their needs, are all examples of how collaborative 

partnerships act as a cost-saving tool.

Organizational transformation exists through the alignment of organizational 

management, structure, personnel, and information systems to support community 

partnerships and proactive problem solving. From its inception, community 

policing’s goal is one of forging strong relationships between law enforcement and 

the communities they serve. It aims to redesign the practice of public safety into a 

collective, collaborative effort (COPS Office 2009a).

The current economic crisis, which has thwarted many police activities, requires 

police agencies to place a greater emphasis on problem-solving techniques. By engaging 

in the proactive and systematic examination of identified problems and developing 

and rigorously evaluating effective responses, they will be able to best use the limited 

resources that are available to them.

Unfortunately, when agencies are forced to make widespread budget cuts, some have 

done so by reducing or eliminating some of their community policing programs. In fact, 

according to the MCCA survey, 39 percent of respondents who have reduced budgets 

stated that those budgets cuts were made to their community policing efforts (MCCA 

2011).

Herein lies one of the major fallacies as it relates to community policing. Community 

policing should not be viewed as a particular program within a department, but rather 

as a department-wide philosophy. Programs are typically initiated as a response to a 

specific problem, in which only a small portion of the organization is involved and once 

the problem has been addressed the program is dissolved (Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux 

1994). Instead, community policing must be understood as a philosophy that promotes 

the systematic use of partnerships and problem-solving techniques to proactively 

address the conditions within a community that are cause for public concerns over 

crime and social disorder issues (Melekian 2011d).
32 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

Community policing is an organizational strategy. It can be used to govern the way 

police services are delivered, recognizing the police officer as an organizer of resources 

in pursuit of public safety rather than someone designated to perform specific tasks 

(Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux 1994).

In an article in The Police Chief, COPS Office Director Melekian articulates the 

importance of the community policing philosophy in the face of the current economic 

climate. He argues that the downturn in the economy has affected the country in ways 

that could not have been predicted even 5 years ago. The enhancement of community 

policing and the myriad of social outreach programs that have been employed by local 

law enforcement were initially brought about in large measure by the combination 

of federal grant dollars and readily available local funding sources. That financial 

foundation is now in serious jeopardy in many local jurisdictions.

Melekian further highlights how some have made the argument that these economic 

challenges may compel us to abandon community policing because we simply cannot 

afford it (Melekian 2011d). However, experience has shown that community policing 

is a more cost-effective way of utilizing available resources than simple traditional 

policing practices, for a number of reasons. Primarily, community participation in 

crime-prevention amplifies the amount of available resources, while community 

partnerships used to address problem solving provides a more efficient distribution 

of combined police and community resources than simply reactive policing program 

models (Brown 1989).
The Importance of Community Policing in Tough Financial Times 33

The Importance of Community Policing in a Recession

IN THE NEWS:

CONCORD, MASSACHUSETTS – Deputy Police Chief Barry Neal has utilized the proactive approach 

of community policing to prevent crime and reduce victimization. “We recognize that we can’t 

solve problems alone, we need to engage the community and work in partnership with them,” 

he said. “It gives us direct daily face-to-face contact between the community and the officers, 

and also gives us the ability to prevent problems from occurring instead of reacting to them” 

(Ball 2009).

ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO – Chief Schultz of Albuquerque is having officers develop partnerships 

with retailers to address shoplifters and boosters. The Police Department has experienced a 

20 percent reduction in their workforce and is developing partnerships with retailers with 

the goal of sharing information in order to link petty crimes together to prosecute larger and 

stronger cases and get repeat offenders off the street. In addition, they are offering rewards to 

housekeepers at hotels to report the accumulation of large amounts of merchandise, which can 

often be found in hotel rooms (Stelter 2011).

KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI – “When we talk in Kansas City about ‘doing something different,’ a 

mention of community policing usually follows. And surely, the thought of police officers 

working hand in hand with neighborhood folks is enticing. But successful, citywide community 

policing would require a culture change for a police department that places more faith in arrest 

statistics than relationships as a crime-fighting tool. [In looking for a new police chief, Kansas 

City] believes a chief who finds a way to make it acceptable, indeed desirable, for officers to 

connect with citizens and help solve problems will be the start of the change that everyone talks 

about” (Shelly 2011).
34 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

Conclusion

In 2008, the entire country was introduced to the largest fiscal crisis since the 

Great Depression. Many who have worked in the field for decades have never seen 

an economic situation that has affected law enforcement like the one our country 

currently faces. As cities and counties across America are experiencing a downturn in 

local revenues, the effects on public safety budgets have been significant. Americans 

are faced with a new economic reality, in which they are challenged to develop new 

and innovative ways to leverage resources and maximize productivity in the face of 

diminishing financial means. Police agencies have not escaped the effects of shrinking 

revenues. In fact, the economic challenges facing many Americans are amplified when it 

comes to public safety.

To compensate for shrinking budgets, many individuals focus on what can be sacrificed 

from their normal lifestyle in order to offset the reduction in available spending. Families 

may forego their annual summer vacation, or choose to only shop in discount stores 

rather than their favorite department stores. However, law enforcement agencies face 

the more difficult and ever important task of maintaining the same quality of service that 

they always have provided despite a severe reduction in available resources. Therefore, 

to successfully deliver the high levels of community protection and emergency 

responsiveness communities depend on, law enforcement agencies must develop new 

and innovative techniques to address the needs of their communities in cost-effective 

and sustainable ways.

The recognition and acceptance of this new economic reality is more important 

than ever in developing strategic management practices to ensure the effective and 

efficient delivery of police services. Never before has the law enforcement community 

experienced such significant cuts to operating budgets and available resources. Rather 

than continuing to provide services through traditional means in hopes that the 

economy will return to pre-recession levels, police nationwide are shifting, adapting, and 

redeveloping the ways in which they do their job—to ensure the highest levels of public 

safety.

In every corner of the United States, state, local, and tribal police departments are being 

forced to lay off officers and civilian staff, or modify their operations as a result of budget 

cuts. Over the last 2 years, many agencies have experienced considerable affects from 

budget constrictions, including mandatory furloughs and hiring freezes, which have 

resulted in significant reductions in staffing levels never experienced before. Indeed, 

American law enforcement is changing, and the effects are likely to last over the next 5 

to 10 years, if not longer.

While the exact nature of how these changes will take place is unclear, the data within 

this report suggest that changes may occur on several fronts. First, there may be greater 

application of “force-multiplier” technologies such as closed-circuit TVs, automated 
Conclusion 35

emergency dispatch systems, video teleconferencing equipment, and social media usage.

Utilization of technologies such as these has the ability to provide law enforcement 

agencies with a way to maximize available information while alleviating the need for an 

immediate response.

Another fundamental alteration that has been seen in delivery of police services as a 

result of the changing economy is the increased application of non-sworn individuals—

both as employees and as volunteers. More and more police agencies have begun to 

shift some of the responsibilities that have traditionally been performed by sworn staff 

to civilian personnel as a means to mitigate payroll costs and maintain staffing levels.

Further, some agencies have even engaged citizen volunteers to help alleviate the strain 

on police work loads. Such approaches can provide sworn staff with more time to focus 

on pressing and time-sensitive issues that can only be successfully managed by a law 

enforcement officer.

Some agencies have had to drastically change their methods for handling nonemergency situations and administrative duties. Many police agencies are no longer 

able to dispatch an officer to every call for service. Instead, more often police managers 

are forced to direct their resources to focus on situations which pose the most threat 

to public safety. For example, some agencies are no longer able send officers to collect 

crime reports for cases that don’t involve suspects, or dispatch patrol officers to every 

non-emergency/non-injury service call. The primary focus on law enforcement is 

protecting the safety of their communities. Therefore, agencies experiencing limited 

resources must adjust their approach to focus in on situations that are an immediate 

threat to public safety.

A more drastic change that is being seen as a result of the economic downturn is 

the increase in the number of agencies combining efforts and resources through 

consolidation, shared services, and regionalization. When agencies are faced with 

maintaining services levels with less and less, collaborating or combining agency’s 

efforts often is the only way to maximize available resources, training, and information.

As this report has shown, the recent economic downturn has placed serious constraints 

on police budgets and severely diminished the availability of resources. As an additional 

step to help compensate for declining resources, many departments have also begun 

collecting and disseminating crime data in real-time via new technology. This has 

allowed for the effective management and strategic deployment of resources to focus 

on specific problems as they develop. With the increased use of technology and 

information-sharing policies being institutionalized throughout many police departments 

nationwide, it has become essential that the collection of national census data relating to 

law enforcement agencies be collected with the same urgency.

It is crucial for policy makers to create proactive, aggressive, and productive problemsolving strategies based on relevant and current data. However, the delay in the current 

methods of data collection and dissemination makes it difficult to present an accurate 
36 

he Impact of the Economic Downturn on American Police Agencies

picture of the state of police agencies as things happen. In turn, a true understanding of 

the challenges confronting law enforcement agencies as seen through comprehensive 

analysis takes time and resources. It will be important for federal partners to collaborate 

on a way to collectively participate in data collection efforts in the future that will 

increase the availability of up-to-date data, and its analysis and dissemination. By 

collecting data more frequently and comprehensively, policy makers and government 

agencies will be able to adjust and realign their strategic goals to provide relevant 

assistance where law enforcement agencies need it most.

Institutionalization of the community policing philosophy is vital to the ability of law 

enforcement agencies to succeed and thrive in the current economic climate. Agencies 

must systematically use partnerships and problem-solving techniques to proactively 

address the problems that their communities are facing. Development and enhancement 

of symbiotic relationships between police and the communities they serve is key to 

ensuring community safety.

It is clear that the challenges facing America as a result of the economic decline that 

began in 2008 have been significant. Law enforcement communities are facing a new 

reality in American policing—one that requires a shift in the methods they use to uphold 

levels of service while dealing with ever shrinking budgets. However, the importance of 

maintaining and expanding community policing practices during this time of economic 

hardship is paramount. Research and feedback from the field indicate that community 

policing is a successful practice in both small and large agencies with significant public 

safety problems. Thankfully, many of the law enforcement agencies in the United States 

already practice community policing, and more are coming to recognize the value of 

community partnerships in this time of limited resources.
References 37

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U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

145 N Street, N.E.

Washington, DC 20530

To obtain details on COPS Office programs, 

call the COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770

Visit COPS Online at www.cops.usdoj.gov

The economic crisis that began in 2008 has changed America in many ways. Unemployment rates have increased sharply, 

the stability of the housing market has collapsed, consumer spending has slowed, and city revenues have lessened. Law 

enforcement agencies are some of the hardest hit by the current economic climate, and they face a new reality in American 

policing—one that requires a shift in the methods they use to uphold levels of service while dealing with ever shrinking 

budgets. The importance of maintaining and expanding community policing practices during this time of economic hardship 

is paramount.

Drawing from reputable surveys, publications, and a variety of data sets, The Impact of the Economic Downturn on American 

Police Agencies outlines the ways in which law enforcement agencies have been affected, and examines the ways some 

have responded.

ISBN: 978-1-935676-45-4

e101113406

October 2011